Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark (Biblical Studies Library)

Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark Rikki E. Watts Baker Academic A Division of Baker Book Hous...

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Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark

Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark

Rikki E. Watts

Baker Academic A Division of Baker Book House Co Grand Rapids, Michigan 49516

© 1 9 9 7 b y J. C. B . M o h r ( P a u l Siebeck) Reprinted October 2000 by Baker Academic a division of Baker Book H o u s e C o m p a n y P.O. B o x 6 2 8 7 , G r a n d R a p i d s , M I 4 9 5 1 6 - 6 2 8 7 with permission of the copyright holder T h i s b o o k first a p p e a r e d in 1 9 9 7 a s Isaiah's New Exodus and Mark, v o l u m e 8 8 in W i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m N e u e n T e s t a m e n t , 2 d series, p u b l i s h e d b y J . C . B . M o h r ( P a u l S i e b e c k ) , P.O. B o x 2 0 4 0 , D - 7 2 0 1 0 T u b i n g e n , G e r m a n y . P r i n t e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a All r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . N o p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , s t o r e d in a r e t r i e v a l s y s t e m , or transmitted in a n y form o r b y any m e a n s — f o r example, electronic, photocopy, r e c o r d i n g — w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e publisher. T h e o n l y e x c e p t i o n is b r i e f q u o t a t i o n s in printed reviews.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Watts, RikkiE. Isaiah's n e w E x o d u s in M a r k / Rikki E . Watts.—[Rev., u p d a t e d ed.]. p.

a n . — (Biblical s t u d i e s l i b r a r y )

Includes bibliographical references a n d indexes. ISBN 0-8010-2251-7 (paper) 1. Bible. N . T . M a r k — C r i t i c i s m , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , e t c . 2 . Bible. N . T . M a r k . — R e l a t i o n t o t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t . 3 . Bible. O . T . — R e l a t i o n t o M a r k . 4 . Bible. O.T. I s a i a h — R e l a t i o n t o M a r k . 5 . Bible. N . T . M a r k — R e l a t i o n t o I s a i a h . 6 . Bible. O . T — Q u o t a t i o n s in t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t . I. Title. II. S e r i e s . BS2585.2.W36

2000

,

226.3 06—dc21

00-057924

F o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a c a d e m i c b o o k s , r e s o u r c e s for C h r i s t i a n l e a d e r s , a n d all n e w r e l e a s e s a v a i l a b l e f r o m B a k e r B o o k H o u s e , v i s i t o u r w e b site: http: / / www.bakerbooks.com

Preface

This b o o k is a revised version o f a doctoral thesis, outlined in papers read to the S N T S special study group o n ' T h e U s e o f the O T in the N T ' ( U K ) and to the C a m b r i d g e N e w T e s t a m e n t S e m i n a r in Easter T e r m 1 9 8 9 , and submitted for the d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f Philosophy w h i l e at J e s u s C o l l e g e C a m b r i d g e in 1990. T h e revision consists primarily o f s o m e updating and, in taking a d v a n t a g e o f the r e m o v a l o f the w o r d limit, s o m e structural r e a r r a n g e m e n t , extra detailing and reformulating o f selected a r g u m e n tation, and the addition o f two n e w chapters. T h e u p d a t i n g e n a b l e d m e to interact with articles, m o n o g r a p h s , and commentaries—notably

R. H. G u n d r y ' s

published since the original submission. The Way of the Lord

massive

work

on

Mark—

O n e m o n o g r a p h in particular—

by Joel Marcus of Glasgow University (1992)—has

two chapters that gratifyingly offer independent support to elements o f the thesis as originally proposed.

T h e structural rearrangements a m o u n t e d to

laying out the material m o r e in keeping with the literary structure o f M a r k as I u n d e r s t a n d it.

T h i s entailed b r e a k i n g up and m o v i n g s o m e o f the

o r i g i n a l t h e s i s c h a p t e r s into different

sequences.

Some

arguments,

primarily those related to J e s u s and the Isaianic 'servant' materials, h a v e b e e n rearranged and supported with further detail.

Finally, the two n e w

chapters cover materials not able to b e treated in the original submission: C h a p t e r 2 , 'History as Hermeneutic: the Role o f I deol ogy in C o m m u n i t y Self-Understanding' w h i c h originally occupied three brief p a r a g r a p h s in the t h e s i s ' C o n c l u s i o n , a n d C h a p t e r 9, ' I s a i a h ' s P r o m i s e a n d M a l a c h i ' s Threat: Part 2: Arrival in J e r u s a l e m ' , w h ic h deals with the third and final section of M a r k (i.e. chs. 1 1 - 1 6 ) . I would

a l s o l i k e gratefully

to a c k n o w l e d g e all t h o s e w h o

have

contributed to attaining what at the outset seemed an impossible goal. It is easy to forget, in hindsight, what a quantum leap it is from merely longish e s s a y s , to a (hopefully) substantial b o o k .

M y d e b t to m a n y is great.

vi

Preface

W i t h o u t t h e s u b s t a n t i a l financial a s s i s t a n c e o f a F e l l o w s h i p from

the

C h u r c h o f t h e P i o n e e r s (and D r . R o b e r t C o o l e y , P r e s i d e n t o f G o r d o n Conwell

Theological Seminary, who

encouraged

me

to a p p l y ) ,

an

exceedingly munificent Tyndale H o u s e Research G r a n t over several years, an A m e r i c a n Friends o f C a m b r i d g e S c h o l a r s h i p , several allocations from J e s u s C o l l e g e B a n e F u n d , g e n e r o u s help from the P C C o f St. B a r n a b a s , C a m b r i d g e , a n d o u r m a n y friends in the U n i t e d S t a t e s , in

particular

H a r o l d and W e n d y J a c o b i , and in Australia, including our c o m m u n i t y at Truth and Liberation C o n c e r n (Melbourne, Australia), A n d y and D a p h n e C a l l o w , and the R e v . R o s s and J e n n i G r e e n , this thesis c o u l d not h a v e been completed.

The Bible College of Victoria and Regent College,

V a n c o u v e r , k i n d l y a l l o w e d m e to e x t e n d a visit to the latter so as to include several w e e k s at Tyndale House, C a m b r i d g e , in order to finish the last half of the final chapter during Michaelmas term, 1995. I a m e s p e c i a l l y grateful

to m y s u p e r v i s o r ,

Rev. Dr.

Christopher

R o w l a n d , n o w the D e a n I r e l a n d ' s P r o f e s s o r o f H o l y S c r i p t u r e in the University o f Oxford, for his ready availability, thoughtful criticisms, and gracious g o o d h u m o u r . A n excellent supervisor, h e allowed just the right b a l a n c e b e t w e e n r o o m to p u r s u e w h a t e v e r interests m i g h t arise and the n e e d to k e e p the p r o j e c t w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e t i m e f r a m e .

The Lady

M a r g a r e t ' s P r o f e s s o r o f D i v i n i t y in the U n i v e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d g e , D r . M o r n a H o o k e r , also kindly supervised m e for o n e term, and h e r m a n y pertinent o b s e r v a t i o n s and clarity o f w r i t i n g h a v e h e l p e d m e greatly. Professor H o o k e r , correctly in m y view, alerted scholarship to the m a n y e a s y a s s u m p t i o n s m a d e about J e s u s ' relationship to the so-called Servant of Isaiah.

H e r w o r k h e r e w a s s e m i n a l a n d a l t h o u g h I w i l l o n several

occasions b e g to differ it is only with the greatest respect. Drs. Bill L a n e , H. G . M . W i l l i a m s o n , D o n C a r s o n , R e v . R . T . F r a n c e (who introduced m e to M a r k and in w h o s e class this thesis b e g a n ) , and the m e m b e r s o f t h e C a m b r i d g e N e w T e s t a m e n t S e m i n a r and o f t h e S N T S special s t u d y g r o u p o n ' T h e U s e o f the O T in the N T ' ( U K ) h a v e all contributed

t h r o u g h their k i n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t , thoughtful

comments,

and gracious criticisms. T h a n k s are also due to m y Professors at GordonC o n w e l l Theological Seminary, Drs. D o u g l a s Stuart, G a r y Pratico, Christy W i l s o n , T. D a v i d G o r d o n , and particularly D r s . M e r e d i t h K l i n e , G o r d o n Hugenberger, and epecially G r e g Beale for their inspiration and instruction

vii

Preface

on the use o f the O T in the N T . Very special thanks are due to Dr. G o r d o n D . F e e a n d h i s wife M a u d i n e .

G o r d o n h a s p r o v e n a d e a r friend

and

h o n o u r e d m e n t o r , w h o i n t r o d u c e d m e to N T studies, in p a r t i c u l a r t h e practice o f e x e g e s i s , and w h o s e integration o f a passion for Christ a n d a sharp mind h a v e profoundly shaped b y life. I w i s h also to t h a n k m y former fellow students at C a m b r i d g e and the courteous secretarial and library staff at T y n d a l e House—a truly wonderful e s t a b l i s h m e n t — f o r their i n n u m e r a b l e k i n d n e s s e s a n d a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g m y time there, especially Dr. Steven Meyer, Dr. Peter H e a d , R e v . Dr. J o h n Kleinig, Dr. Paul W a g n e r , R e v . Dr. Michael T h o m p s o n , Dr. B r e n t K i n m a n , R e v . Dr. M a r k D e v e r , D r . S t e v e n Smith, R e v . Dr. M a r k L a b b e r t o n , R e v . D a v i d D e b o y s — w h o w a s an exceptionally helpful librarian—and last b u t not least the W a r d e n , R e v . Dr. Bruce Winter. O n m y return to Australia M r s . R o s D e v e n i s h a n d M r s . K a t h y C a d d i e , the librarians at the B i b l e C o l l e g e o f V i c t o r i a , w e r e e v e r helpful in facilitating inter-library l o a n s d u r i n g the a n t i p o d e a n s u m m e r s o f 1993-5, w h e n m u c h o f this r e v i s i o n took place. R e v . D r . C o l i n K r u s e helped w i t h s o m e o f the proof-reading. K e n W a d e , a student assistant at B.C.V., kindly undertook the exceedingly o n e r o u s and thankless task o f compiling the indices w h i c h h e c o n t i n u e d e v e n after graduation.

M y B C V teaching assistants, W e s t a n J o h n s o n , a n d

Ian W r a g g h a v e b o t h b e e n o f considerable help. Scot Becker, m y teaching assistant at R e g e n t h a s also laboured hard and long in the final correlation and checking o f the indices. N o n e o f the a b o v e , o f course, are in any w a y responsible for errors o r deficiencies w h i c h m a y h a v e r e m a i n e d .

A s this b o o k w a s s u b m i t t e d in

camera-ready c o p y , I h a v e d o n e m y best to detect a n d eradicate errors— v o l u n t e e r p r o o f r e a d e r s h a v e h e l p e d in places—but I find proofing m y o w n work m o s t difficult. Consequently, I sincerely apologise to readers in advance for a n y mistakes that h a v e slipped through. I a m delighted to e x p r e s s m y appreciation to Prof. D r . M a r t i n H e n g e l and Prof. D r . Otfried Hofius for accepting this b o o k for publication in the W U N T 2 series. M y genuine thanks, too, to the publisher and the editors for their c o n s i d e r a b l e p a t i e n c e o v e r the six years that h a v e elapsed s i n c e the offer o f publication w a s first made. M y induction into the ' b u s y n e s s ' o f a teaching post, the introduction of a new degree program by

the

Australian C o l l e g e o f T h e o l o g y , and then the recent m o v e o f o u r family to

viii

Preface

R e g e n t C o l l e g e , V a n c o u v e r , m e a n t that the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e text for publication h a s been considerably delayed. Finally, I wi sh to dedicate this b o o k to m y parents. Pastor and Mrs. E . S. Watts, b o t h n o w with the Lord, w h o trained m e in the w a y that I should go, to m y parents-in-law, Ian and Pauline Noble, w h o provided encourage m e n t and m u c h s u p p o r t , and e s p e c i a l l y to m y l o v e l y wife and

true

c o m p a n i o n , C a t h e r i n e , and our special children, S t e v e n and Rebecca, for their unfailing confidence and loving support over the years.

Summer Regent

1997 College,

Rikk E . Watts Vancouver

Table of Contents

Preface

v

Table of Contents

ix

Abbreviations

xv

Introduction

1

I.

Outline

5

II.

L i m i t a t i o n s and A s s u m p t i o n s

7

Chapter

1. Scholarship

on

the

OT

in Mark

9

I.

Introduction

9

II.

Survey

9

IE.

Chapter

a)

A.

M. Farrer

b)

P. C a r r i n g t o n

c)

O.

Piper

11

d)

E. C. Hobbs

12

e)

S. S c h u l z

13

f)

J. B o w m a n

15 16

g)

A.

Suhl

h)

H.

Anderson

17

i)

W . M. Swartley

19

j)

H.

C. Kee

20

k)

M. D. G o u l d e r

22

1)

W . S. V o r s t e r

23

m)

J. D . M . D e r r e t t

24 24

n)

M. D. H o o k e r

o)

W.

p)

R. S c h n e c k

Roth

25 26

Analysis

2.

History

27

as Hermeneutic:

Understanding I.

9 10

Introduction

Ideology

and Community

Self29 29

Table

X

II.

of

Contents

T h e Social F u n c t i o n o f I d e o l o g y

34

a)

Ideology: A Provisional Definition

34

b)

W e b e r : Social Relation a n d Social Interaction

36

c)

Ellul: T h e F o u n d i n g M o m e n t a n d t h e M e d i a t o r i a l R o l e o f I d e o l o g y

37

d)

T h e M e d i a of Ideology: Icon a n d Symbol

40

HI.

I d e o l o g y a n d Crisis

45

IV.

M a r k : O T and Ideology—History as Hermeneutic

47

3.

53

Chapter

Mark's

Introductory

I.

Introduction

n.

Mark's Opening

m.

The Citation

IV.

53 Sentence

55 57

a)

An

b)

T h e Function of M a r k l:2f

Early Gloss?

57 58

OT Sources a)

V.

Citation

61

Texts

61

OT Contexts a)

b)

63

E x o d u s 23:20

63

(i)

66

E x o d u s 23:20 a n d the H i s t o r y of T r a d i t i o n

M a l a c h i 3:1

67

(i)

Malachi and Exodus

71

(ii)

Malachi and Isaiah

73

(iii)

E x o d u s or Isaiah?

74

( i v ) M a l a c h i 3:1 a n d t h e H i s t o r y o f T r a d i t i o n c)

VI.

76

(i)

The Consolation: A n n o u n c e m e n t of the N E Deliverance

79

(ii)

Isaiah 4 0 : 3 a n d the H i s t o r y of Tradition

T h e Origin and Function of the Citation

I.

82

85

a)

T h e Origin of the Citation

85

b)

T h e F u n c t i o n of the Citation

86

c)

The Isaiah Ascription

88

VII. C o n c l u s i o n

Chapter

74

Isaiah 40:3

4.

The Markan

90

Prologue

91

Introduction

91

n.

E x t e n t o f the P r o l o g u e

91

HI.

Isaianic Materials in M a r k ' s P r o l o g u e

96

a)

T h e Gospel a n d the K i n g d o m of G o d

96

(i)

M a r k 1 : 1 , 1 5 : 'Apxf| T O 0 c u a y y c A i o u

. . . KTjpuaaaiv T O c v i a y v ^ o v

(ii)

M a r k 1:15: ...ryyyiKCV TI fiaoikeia T O 0 0 € O O

96 99

Table

b)

xi

The Baptism

102 1

(i)

M a r k 1:10: . . . €i6€i> a x i ^ o j i e v o u s

(ii)

M a r k 1:11: 2 d € i 6 \A6g jiov 6 aycwwos, (a)

c)

of Contents

Z u € i 6 mog

roxtg ovpavoxsg

102

kv o o \

107

jiou

109

(b)

... 6

(c)

. . . c v a o l €u6oKT)aa

OtyfltTFTITOS'

112

114

Other (i)

118

M a r k 1:13:

. . . flv \1€TOL

TCJV

118

G^piuv

IV.

Isaianic N e w E x o d u s T h e m e s in t h e Prologue

119

V.

Conclusion

120

Chapter

5. The Significance

of the Prologue

for Mark's

Literary

Structure I. II.

m.

Chapter

123

Assessment

124

a)

T h e 'Way':

b)

Galilee a n d Jerusalem

8:22/27 - 10:45/11:1

124 132

Mark's Isaianic N E

6. Jesus Mark

I.

123

T h e Markan Structure

as Yahweh-Warrior

134

and Israel's

NE Healer

in

1:16 - 8:21/26

137

Introduction

137

II.

T h e Distribution of Miracles

139

HI.

J e s u s a n d t h e Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r

140

a)

T h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in Isaiah

140

b)

Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r I m a g e r y in M a r k

144

(i)

The Beelzebul Controversy—Jesus, Demons, a n d the Yahweh-Warrior

(ii)

(iii)

c)

T h e 'Strong M a n ' Saying

(b)

T h e Literary Function of the Controvesy

152

(c)

Summary

156

Isaiah's Nations a n d Mark's D e m o n s

146

157

(a)

The Gerasene Demoniac—Demons, Tombs, and Pigs

157

(b)

Military Imagery

159

(c)

The Calming of the Storm

160

(d)

The Ultimate Oppressors

163

(e)

J e w o r Gentile?

164

Mark's Literary Scheme

166

(iv) Eiiayyc'Xiov a n d the Warrior

167

Summary

168

I V . J e s u s a n d t h e Isaianic Healings a)

144

(a)

T h e H e a l i n g o f Israel in Isaiah's N E

169 170

xii

Table

V.

VI.

Chapter

of

Contents

b)

J e s u s a n d the Healing of Israel

172

c)

Summary

177

Jesus and the Isaianic N E Provision for Israel

177

a)

T h e P r o v i s i o n for I s r a e l in I s a i a h ' s N E

177

b)

I N E Feedings

178

in M a r k

Conclusion

7.

Isaiah's

179

Promise

... and Malachi's

Threat: Part 1:

Judical

Blinding

183

I.

Introduction

183

H.

Isaiah 6:9f a n d M a r k 4:12

184

a)

T h e M a r k a n Setting: T e n s i o n B e t w e e n J e s u s a n d Israel's L e a d e r s h i p

184

b)

Textual Matters

186

c)

Theivo

d)

I s a i a h 6 in C o n t e x t

e)

Clause

(i)

Rebellion as the P r e c u r s o r to Isaiah 6

188

(ii)

I s a i a h 6: I r o n i c J u d g e m e n t o n I d o l a t r o u s W i s d o m

190

(iii)

J u d g e m e n t Effected: T h e E n c o u n t e r w i t h A h a z

IV.

Chapter I.

193

(iv) Summary

194

M a r k ' s Beelzebul Controversy a n d the Parables C h a p t e r

194

(i)

Isaiah a n d the Beelzebul C o n t r o v e r s y

194

(ii)

Israel's L e a d e r s a n d Blinding J u d g e m e n t

197

(iii)

The C r o w d s , Outsiders, a n d Insiders

199

(iv) The

HI.

187 188

Disciples

f)

The

g)

Conclusion

205

'Parable Theory'

206 209

Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7:6f

210

a)

T h e M a r k a n Setting: Tension O v e r P u r i t y

210

b)

Textual Matters

213

c)

I s a i a h 2 9 in C o n t e x t

213

d)

I s a i a h 2 9 in M a r k 7

216

e)

Conclusion

218

Conclusion

8.

218

The Way of Yahweh's

NE:

Mark

8:21/26

- 10:45/11:1

The Disciples' Incomprehension

221 221

a)

Introduction

b)

Themes

c)

M a r k 8:14-21 a n d M a r k 4:1-34: the Feedings as Parables

226

d)

T h e Parable-Feedings a n d Jesus' Identity

228

e)

Jesus' Identity, Peter's Confession, a n d the ' W a y '

236

and Emphases

221 223

Table of Contents

II.

Blindness and Understanding: M a r k ' s ' W a y ' Section Introduction

239

b)

Isaiah a n d the N E ' W a y ' as the ' W a y ' of Y a h w e h ' s W i s d o m

240

(i)

Idolatry, Blindness, a n d the Rejection of Y a h w e h ' s W i s d o m

240

(ii)

R e s t o r a t i o n of Sight: Being T a u g h t by Y a h w e h

241

(iii) L e a d i n g t h e B l i n d in t h e I N E

243

(iv) Conclusion

247

T h e ' W a y ' in M a r k

247

(i)

'Blindness' and the Disciples

248

(ii)

Healing of Sight a n d the W a y of the C r o s s

250

d)

Jesus a n d the Isaianic 'Servant'-Teacher

252

e)

Conclusion

256

Jesus: Suffering 'Servant' and S o n of David?

257

a)

Introduction

257

b)

J e s u s a n d I s a i a h ' s 'Suffering S e r v a n t ' : t h e I N E a n d M a r k 1 0 : 4 5

258

(i)

O T S e t t i n g o f J e s u s ' Suffering: M a r k 9 : 1 2

259

(ii)

O T S e t t i n g o f J e s u s ' Suffering: t h e P a s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n s

c)

IV.

239

a)

c)

IE.

xiii

265

(iii) T h e P a s s i o n P r e d i c t i o n s a n d M a r k 1 0 : 4 5

269

( i v ) M a r k 10:45 and Isaiah 53

270

(v)

284

Concluding Considerations

Jesus and the Son of David

287

Conclusion

290

Excursus: Misplaced Miracles?

Chapter

9.

Isaiah's

Promise

... and Malachi's

291

Threat: Part 2: Arrival

Jerusalem

in 295

I.

Introduction

295

U.

The 'Triumphal' Entry

296

in.

a)

The INE Expectation of Yahweh's Return

b)

Jesus' Entry into J e r u s a l e m

J e s u s and the T e m p l e

296 304

310

a)

Introduction

b)

The Fig-Tree and Temple

310 311

c)

Jesus a n d the Temple Incident

318

(i)

Introduction

318

(ii)

The INE and the Temple

319

(iii) T h e I N E a n d t h e N a t i o n s

319

( i v ) Jesus, Isaiah 56:7, and the T e m p l e

322

(v)

Jesus, J e r e m i a h 7:11, and the T e m p l e

325

d)

Which Mountain? T h e Meaning of the Mountain-Moving Saying

332

e)

The Question About Jesus' Authority

338

f)

T h e Parable of the Vineyard and the Wicked Tenants

339

(i)

The Isaiah Context

340

(ii)

T h e P a r a b l e in M a r k

342

xiv

Table of

g)

IV.

V.

Chapter

Conclusion

348

The W o r d s of Institution: J e s u s ' Death and Isaiah's Servant? ... 349 a)

Introduction

349

b)

M a r k 14:24: T h e C u p Saying

351

c)

O t h e r Possible Allusions to Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3

362

d)

Conclusion

T h e Short E n d i n g of M a r k a)

VI.

Contents

' F o r they w e r e afraid

Conclusion

10.

Conclusions

365

365 365

367

369

I.

Observations

369

II.

Assessment

374

III.

IV.

a)

Introduction

374

b)

T h e A r g u m e n t from the Philosophy of Science

375

c)

T h e A r g u m e n t from Social Science

377

d)

Mark's Audience and OT Awareness

379

Conclusions

381

a)

In R e s p o n s e t o t h e S u r v e y o f R e c e n t S c h o l a r s h i p

381

b)

In R e l a t i o n t o t h e T h e s i s P r o p e r

382

Implications and Suggestions for Further Research

387

Bibliography

389

I n d e x of P a s s a g e s

435

I n d e x of M o d e r n A u t h o r s

459

Index of Subjects

470

Abbreviations

Abbreviations of p r i m a r y G r e e k and J e w i s h sources follow L o e b and JBL convention—in respect o f the Q u m r a n writings, I have elected to stay with the older abbreviations since they m a y help the reader m o r e than a merely numerical designation—and those o f series and journal titles as laid out in JBL, NT A, and OTA.

T h e s e will not b e repeated here. Standard reference

w o r k s are c i t e d e i t h e r b y a u t h o r , for e x a m p l e , S c h u r e r , 2 . 2 3 1 , o r b y abbreviated author(s), for e x a m p l e , B D B , 123. References to multi-volume editions are indicated b y v o l u m e and page number, separated b y a period, for example, 1.115. In the case o f works such as TDNT, articles are cited b y author, v o l u m e , and p a g e n u m b e r , for e x a m p l e , J e r e m i a s , TDNT, These standard works

5.701ff.

are n o t i t e m i s e d in t h e s e l e c t b i b l i o g r a p h y .

Footnotes in articles and b o o k s are signified b y page n u m b e r followed b y n. or nn., for e x a m p l e , 101n35. Footnotes within this b o o k are referred to as fn. or fnn., for e x a m p l e , fn. 104 w h e n within the s a m e Chapter, and p. 3 4 , fn. 8, w h e n not. In the interests o f space, bibliographic entries in the footnotes are cited b y author, o n e significant w o r d from the title, a n d p a g e n u m b e r , for e x a m p l e , H a h n , Titles,

345n42. Exceptions are the major c o m m e n t a r i e s o n

Isaiah and M a r k , a n d the w o r k s listed b e l o w , w h i c h are referred to b y author only, for e x a m p l e , W e s t e r m a n n , 2 0 3 (meaning his c o m m e n t a r y o n Isaiah), and M a r c u s , 5 7 (see the w o r k referred to b e l o w ) . Occasionally in order to avoid confusion a key-word title is given, for e x a m p l e , G u n d r y , Mark,

3 4 1 , w h i c h refers to the c o m m e n t a r y .

In the case of c o m m e n t a r i e s

p a g e n u m b e r s are c o m m o n l y given only if considered necessary, otherwise the reference is to the discussion under the passage being considered. Ambrozic, A. M M ,,

Boucher, M M ,,

The The Hidden Kingdom: A Redaction-Critical Study of the References to the Kingdom of God in Mark's Gospel C B Q M S 2 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : C a t h o l i c Biblical A s s o c i a t i o n of A m e r i c a , 1 9 7 2 ) . The The Mysterious Parable C B Q M S 6 ( W a s h i n g t o n : Catholic Biblical Commission, 1977).

xvi

Abbreviations

B u r k i l l , T. A . ,

Mysterious

Revelation.

An

Examination

of the Philosophy

of St.

Mark's

Dewey, J.,

Gospel ( I t h a c a : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 3 ) . Markan Public Debate S B L D S 4 8 ( C a l i f o r n i a : S c h o l a r s P r e s s , 1 9 7 7 ) .

Grimm, W.,

Die

J u e l , D.,

Bern: Peter L a n g , 1 9 8 1 ) . Messiah and Temple: The Trial

Verkundigung

Jesu

und

Deuterojesaja

ANTI 1 (Frankfurt a m Main,

2

Kelber, W . H., Kertelge, K., K i n g s b u r y , J. D., v a n der Loos, H., Marcus, J.,

M a r t i n , R. P . ,

of Jesus

in the Gospel

of Mark

S B L D S 31

(Missoula: Scholars Press, 1977). The Kingdom in Mark ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 7 4 ) . Die Wunder Jesu im Markusevangelium: Line redaktionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung S A N T 2 3 (Munich: Kosel, 1970). The Christology of Mark's Gospel ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : F o r t r e s s , 1 9 8 3 ) . The Miracles of Jesus N o v T S u p p 9 ( L e i d e n : E . J . Brill, 1 9 6 8 ) . The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis in the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville, Kentucky: W e s t m i n s t e r / J o h n Knox, 1992).

Marxsen, W.,

Mark: Mark

Mauser, U.,

t r a n s J . B o y c e et al ( N e w Y o r k / N a s h v i l l e : A b i n g d o n , 1 9 6 9 ) . Christ in the Wilderness: The Wilderness Theme in the Second and

Evangelist and Theologian ( G r a n d R a p i d s : Z o n d e r v a n , 1 9 7 2 ) . the Evangelist: Studies on the Redaction History of the Gospel

Its Basis

in the Biblical

Tradition

Gospel

S B T 3 9 ( N a p e r v i l l e , 111.: A l e c

R. A l l e n s o n , 1 9 6 3 ) . Pryke, E. J.,

Redactional

Quesnell, Q.,

University, 1978). The Mind of St. Mark: Interpretation and Method through the Exegesis of Mark 6.52 A n B i b 3 8 ( R o m e : P o n t i f i c a l Biblical I n s t i t u t e , 1 9 6 9 ) .

Richardson, A., Raisanen. H.,

Style

in

the

Markan

Gospel

SNTSMS

33

(Cambridge:

The Miracle Stories of the Gospels ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 5 9 ) . The 'Messianic Secret' in Mark's Gospel trans. C. Tuckett,

SNTW

(Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1990). Robinson, J. M . , The Problem of History in Mark S B T 2 1 ( L o n d o n : S C M , 1 9 5 7 ) . Schneck, R., Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark, I-VIII B D S 1 ( V a l l e j o , C A : B I B A L , 1 9 9 4 ) . S t o n e h o u s e , N . B . , The Witness of Matthew and Mark to Christ (Philadelphia: Presbyterian Guardian, 1944). Funktion der alttestamentlichen

Suhl, A.,

Die

Trocme,

Markusevangelium (Guttersloh: G e r d M o h n , 1965). The Formation of the Gospel According to Mark t r a n s . P .

Zitate

und

Anspielungen

W e e d e n , T. J . ,

(London: SPCK, 1975). Mark—Traditions in Conflict

(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1971).

im

Gaughan

Introduction In his 1978 survey o f M a r k a n scholarship, H. C. Kee observed: T h e history of recent research o n the G o s p e l of M a r k c a n b e seen as the r e c o r d of a n a t t e m p t to d i s c e r n the a i m of the evangelist a n d so to d i s c o v e r the p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h g i v e s c o h e r e n c e t o all t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e S e c o n d G o s p e l .

1

A decade later W . R. Telford noted that 'further investigation n e e d s to b e conducted into its (i.e. the G o s p e l ' s ) place in the theological history o f early Christianity'.

2

M . A . Tolbert's subsequent remark that 'no consistent inter 3

pretation o f the G o s p e l in all its parts has yet been e l i c i t e d ' suggests that K e e ' s observation still a p p l i e s .

4

This b o o k continues the line o f inquiry.

M a r k a n studies, recently reaching flood-like proportions and s h o w i n g little sign o f abating, h a v e variously located M a r k ' s m a i n concerns in his 5

portrayal o f eschatological conflict, use o f the miracle traditions, standing o f the K i n g d o m o f G o d , instructing his c o m m u n i t y ,

9

7

6

under

8

treatment of the d i s c i p l e s , interest in

concept o f d i s c i p l e s h i p ,

10

Christology,

m o r e recently, in a straightforward apology for the C r o s s .

12

11

and

Given Mark's

considerable interest in the O T , attempts h a v e b e e n m a d e to postulate a M a r k a n p r o g r a m either reflecting events in Israel's h i s t o r y , the E x o d u s , 1

14

or b a s e d o n l e c t i o n a r i e s

15

and c a l e n d a r s .

13

in particular

16

'Recent', 3 5 3 . 'Introduction', 22. Sowing, x i .

2

3

4

S e e t h e s u r v e y s in H u r t a d o , ' G o s p e l ' ; P o k o m y , ' M a r k u s e v a n g e l i u m ' ; L a n e , ' P r e s e n t ' , a n d t h e c o m m e n t s of G u n d r y , 1022ff. 5

Robinson. K e r t e l g e ; K o c h , Bedeutung;

6

7

8

9

1

0

1 1

1

2

1

3

1

4

1

5

1

6

Schenke,

Wundererzahlungen.

A m b r o z i c ; K e l b e r ; cf. M a r c u s , Mystery. W e e d e n ; S c h m a h l , Zwdlf. R e p l o h , Lehrer; S c h w e i z e r , ' L e i s t u n g ' ; B e a v i s , Best, Following.

Audience.

Perrin, 'Christology'; Kingsbury. Gundry. D e r r e t t , Making; R o t h , Hebrew; also here Miller a n d Miller, E . g . F a r r e r , Study; H o b b s , ' E x o d u s ' ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' . G o u l d e r , Calendar. Carrington, Primitive.

Midrash.

2

Introduction

V a r i o u s studies h a v e e x a m i n e d the G o s p e l from the s t a n d p o i n t s o f narrative c r i t i c i s m ,

17

rhetorical c r i t i c i s m ,

18

and reader r e s p o n s e ,

19

while

others s o u g h t the k e y to M a r k ' s literary structure in ancient d r a m a t i c , biographical, sociological,

2 1

24

rhetorical,

22

and r e a d i n g 25

socio-political, Marxist,

23

26

conventions.

20

Still others offer

and structuralist a n a l y s e s .

27

In

spite o f this plethora o f approaches—or p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f it—agreement as to that ' p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h g i v e s c o h e r e n c e ' to M a r k ' s t h e o l o g i c a l e m p h a s e s a n d literary structure has continued to elude scholars. W h i l e this hiatus m a y indicate that n o overarching unity exists, m a n y of

these

studies

have

highlighted

Mark's

theological and

literary

sophistication—although this should not b e overstated as has s o m e t i m e s b e e n the c a s e .

2 8

It s e e m s generally agreed that the Gospel is neither merely

'a passion narrative with an e x t e n d e d introduction' (Kahler) n o r s i m p l y strung together 'like pearls on a string' (Schmidt). Consequently, to deny the existence o f an overarching s c h e m a m a y well b e premature. T h i s a t t e m p t to i n v e s t i g a t e M a r k ' s o r g a n i s a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s b u i l d s u p o n s e v e r a l lines o f earlier e n d e a v o u r .

First, it a s s u m e s that the final

form o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l is the best guide to w h a t it w a s that the author w i s h e d to c o m m u n i c a t e .

29

It would s e e m that it is not merely M a r k ' s o w n

material o r his adaptations o f his sources, but also w h a t h e h a s taken up

1

7

1

8

1

9

2

0

2

1

2

2

W i l l i a m s , Gospel, Dewey. F o w l e r , Loaves,

R h o a d s - M i t c h i e , Story;

a n d Reader;

B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated;

K e r m o d e , Genesis;

Best,

Gospel.

Tannehill, 'Disciples'.

Standaert.

T a l b e r t , Gospel; C a n c i k , ' G a t t u n g ' ; H a d a s a n d S m i t h , Heroes. R o b b i n s , Teacher; T o l b e r t , Sowing. Beavis, Audience. K e e , Community; N e y r e y , ' P u r i t y ' ; W a t s o n , 'Social'; M a c k , Myth. M y e r s , Binding; W a e t j e n , Reordering. Belo, Reading. V i a , Ethics; M a l b o n , Narrative. A s n o t e d b y e.g. M e a g h e r , Clumsy, a n d R a i s a n e n , 16ff. N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e o f t h e w e a k n e s s e s o f R a i s a n e n ' s o t h e r w i s e s a g e c r i t i c i s m s is h i s f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e 'occasional' d i m e n s i o n of M a r k ' s G o s p e l a n d therefore the possibility that M a r k m a y h a v e a s s u m e d s o m e k n o w l e d g e o n t h e p a r t o f h i s r e a d e r s . S o e.g. R a i s a n e n ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e e p i s o d e o f J e s u s ' t e m p t a t i o n is ' s t r a n g e l y i n c o n c l u s i v e ' ( 1 6 n 6 4 ) , tells u s m o r e a b o u t h o w t h e t e x t s t r i k e s R a i s a n e n t h a n it d o e s a b o u t h o w it m i g h t h a v e a p p e a r e d t o M a r k ' s i n t e n d e d a u d i e n c e . T h i s is all t h e m o r e likely if M a r k ' s g o s p e l is n o t a t h e o l o g i c a l s u p e r - n o v a b u t i n s t e a d r e p r e s e n t s t r a d i t i o n s w i t h w h i c h his ' c o m m u n i t y ' w a s a l r e a d y w e l l a c q u a i n t e d . 2

3

2

4

2

5

2

6

2

7

2

8

2

9

See L a n e ' s c o m m e n t s , 'Present', o n the recent c o m m e n t a r i e s of P e s c h a n d Schmithals; G u n d r y , 18ff; cf. G u t t g e m a n n s , Candid.

3

Introduction

unaltered, b o t h in t e r m s o f individual p e r i c o p a e and their order, that together provide a reliable indication of his concerns. I a m also persuaded b y those w h o have urged that the O T is founda tional to M a r k ' s t h o u g h t conviction

that 31

Weltanschauung,

the

world. NT

3 0

and

O n e also n o t e s h e r e C. H. D o d d ' s OT

authors

share

the

same

and that o f Francis Foulkes, w h o saw the basis of this

continuity to b e in the belief that 'as God had acted in the past h e would act in the f u t u r e ' .

32

T w o o t h e r factors c o n t r i b u t e d to the genesis o f this b o o k .

A s an

Australian student studying in the United States I w a s fascinated b y m y lecturers' occasional references to 'four-score and seven years a g o ' and the uniformly ' k n o w i n g ' response o f m y A m e r i c a n fellow-students.

Only on

learning that the p h r a s e w a s the first line o f A b r a h a m L i n c o l n ' s famous Gettysburg address did its significance b e c a m e apparent.

B y evoking the

F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s ' ideology these few w o r d s functioned as a h e r m e n e u tical indicator, pointing not so m u c h to the text o f Lincoln's address per se (as in D o d d ' s 'text p l o t ' ) , b u t to the larger interpretation o f A m e r i c a n history w h i c h L i n c o l n ' s s p e e c h a s s u m e d and w i t h w h i c h it interacted. This

raised

the

possibility, given

Dodd's

shared-Weltanschauung

hypothesis, that M a r k ' s use o f O T citations might also function in a similar manner.

K e e ' s recognition that O T citations appear at crucial junctures in

M a r k only served to strengthen this c o n j e c t u r e .

33

T h e second contributing item, complementing and supporting the first, w a s the w o r k of J a c q u e s Ellul and Paul Ricoeur, both of w h o m stress the formative

influence

understanding.

34

of a

group's

founding

moment

on

its

self-

This is especially so in times of uncertainty or internal

conflict. T h e s e theories are significant on two counts. First, Israel's founding m o m e n t was the Exodus. Not only did it shape the national identity and character but the prophets of the Babylonian exile 3

0

In a d d i t i o n t o t h o s e e x a m i n e d in C h a p t e r 1: F i t z m y e r , ' J u d a i c ' ; B e st, Story, 140ff; a n d n o w M a r c u s , Way; cf. K l i n e , ' O r i g i n s ' . O n t h e c i t a t i o n a l c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d , including the u n i q u e implications for the O T a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e literature, the d e g r e e of freedom to v a r y w o r d i n g , a n d the constraints u p o n s a m e , see the excellent w o r k of Stanley, Language. 3 1

According, 1 3 3 . S e e M a r s h a l l ' s s u r v e y o f r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n , ' A s s e s s m e n t ' . Acts, 9 . K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' . F o l l o w i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s in its o r i g i n a l f o r m J o e l M a r c u s , Way, h a s a l s o a r g u e d s t r o n g l y a l o n g t h e s e lines. R e s p e c t i v e l y , ' m ^ d i a t e u r ' , a n d ' F u n c t i o n ' a n d 'Science'; s e e C h a p t e r 2 . 3

2

3

3

3

4

4

Introduction

u s e d it as t h e p a r a d i g m for the deliverance they a n n o u n c e d .

35

It is not

surprising that s e v e r a l e m e r g e n t g r o u p s w i t h i n J u d a i s m , i n c l u d i n g the m o v e m e n t k n o w n a c c o r d i n g to Acts as 'the W a y ' , should also describe themselves in these t e r m s .

36

Second, the tensions b e t w e e n the ' W a y ' and the larger J e w i s h c o m m u nity, with the o n e claiming over against the other to b e the legitimate heir of the n o r m s and prophetic traditions o f the past, only m a k e it m o r e likely that the former's bona fides

should b e couched in such historic terms.

There is, h o w e v e r , the danger o f anachronism.

EUul and R i c o e u f w e r e

discussing m o d e r n societies. Nevertheless, the basic m o d e l — t h e role o f the founding m o m e n t in times o f conflict—appears appropriate; at least on a surface reading of the N T materials.

G i v e n t h e difficulty o f

reconstructing the mental world of ancient societies, authors, and readers, the applicability o f the model m a y finally h a v e to b e j u d g e d in terms o f its ability to m a k e m o r e and better sense o f the M a r k a n d a t a .

37

T h e s e factors form the b a s i s u p o n w h i c h the original contribution o f this b o o k is argued.

N a m e l y , as his o p e n i n g editorial citation indicates,

Mark's fundamental

h e r m e n e u t i c for interpreting and p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s

derives from two sources: A ) a positive s c h e m a w h e r e b y J e s u s ' identity and ministry is p r e s e n t e d in terms o f I s a ia h ' s N e w E x o d u s (hereafter N E ) ;

3 8

and B ) a negative s c h e m a b y w h ic h J e s u s ' rejection b y the nation's leaders a n d his a c t i o n in t h e T e m p l e is cast in t e r m s o f the p r o p h e t M a l a c h i ' s warning; a w a r n i n g w h i c h itself c o n c e r n e d the delay o f t h e Isaianic N E (hereafter I N E ) . T h i s dual perspective o f salvation and j u d g e m e n t — b o t h within the context o f the I N E — s e e m s to provide the fundamental literary and theological structure of Mark's Gospel.

T h i s is n o t to d e n y

the

presence o f other concerns (e.g. discipleship, M a r k 13) or O T themes (e.g. S o n o f M a n C h r i s t o l o g y ) , b u t instead suggests only that they presented within the larger literary and theological s c h e m e proposed herein.

3

5

3

6

3

7

3

8

S e e e.g. t h e s u r v e y in F i s h b a n e , Biblical,

3 5 6 - 6 8 , a n d earlier, ' M o t i f .

F o r f u r t h e r c o m m e n t e.g. H o r s l e y , ' F i g u r e s ' , 2 7 7 - 2 8 5 . S o a l s o T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 0 - 1 3 . O n a p r o d i g i o u s a t t e m p t t o a r t i c u l a t e a g e n e r a l i s e d first c e n t u r y J e w i s h w o r l d v i e w , s e e n o w W r i g h t , People. O t h e r s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s a n d in v a r y i n g g u i s e s s u c h a m o t i f , e.g. S w a r t l e y , B e s t , L a n e , b u t h a v e n o t s o u g h t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s in a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m a n n e r c o n c e n t r a t i n g p r i m a r i l y o n M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e a n d hi s ' w a y ' s e c t i o n . S u b s e q u e n t t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f this t h e s i s a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h a l o n g t h e s e lines h a s b e e n a r g u e d s t r o n g l y b y M a r c u s , Way.

5

Outline

I. Outline C h a p t e r 1 s u r v e y s m o d e r n scholarship concentrating primarily o n the O T and M a r k ' s literary s t r u c t u r e o r his overall attitude to the O T .

Other

relevant w o r k s are discussed at appropriate junctures later in the book. Chapter 2 concerns the social function o f ideology—namely its s c h e m a tisation o f historical m e m o r y as the foundation o f c o m m u n i t y identity— as a theoretical basis for w h a t the rest of the b o o k argues exegetically. T h e postulated constructs o f social theory on the o n e h a n d , and t h e practical results of exegesis on the other, can stand alone and s o confirm e a c h other. C h a p t e r 3 a r g u e s that in line w i t h ancient literary c o n v e n t i o n , M a r k 1:1-3, M a r k ' s o n l y editorial O T citation and opening sentence, c o n v e y s the conceptual framework for his story. Isaiah 40:3 presages the inauguration of t h e l o n g - a w a i t e d I N E w h i l e the M a l a c h i 3 : 1 / E x o d u s 23:20 conflation o m i n o u s l y highlights the threat inherent in Y a h w e h ' s N E c o m i n g . C h a p t e r 4 submits that the I N E also explains the p r o l o g u e ' s integration of O T motifs. J o h n is M a l a c h i ' s Elijah w h o prepares the w a y for Y a h w e h ' s long-delayed I N E c o m i n g . c u a y y c X i o v connotes the Isaianic conception o f G o d ' s in-breaking reign, signalled b y the rent h e a v e n s and the descent o f the Spirit (Isa 6 3 ) . T h e v o i c e declares J e s u s to b e true 'servant'-Israel (son of G o d , Isa 4 2 ) w h o will deliver ' b l i n d ' Israel, the Davidic M e s s i a h (also son of G o d , Ps 2 ) , and perhaps the 'unique' Son o f G o d (Gn 2 2 ) . C h a p t e r 5 c o n t e n d s that M a r k ' s three-fold structure c o m p r i s i n g J e s u s ' powerful ministry in Galilee a n d b e y o n d , his leading his ' b l i n d ' disciples along the ' W a y ' , a n d arrival in J e r u s a l e m e c h o e s the I N E s c h e m a w h e r e Y a h w e h as W a r r i o r a n d H e a l e r delivers his p e o p l e from b o n d a g e , leads the 'blind' along the N E w a y o f deliverance, and arrives at Jerusalem. C h a p t e r 6 p r o p o s e s that M a r k ' s a s y m m e t r i c distribution o f miracles is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .

J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s ( M a r k ' s first

miracle) are linked to the Isaianic Yahweh-Warrior (3:22-30; Isa 4 9 ) and his healings (blind, d e a f / d u m b , and lame,) and feedings are inaugural signs o f the N E (Isa 3 5 ; 2 9 ) . T h e s e c t i o n ' s final healing m i r a c l e (7:31ff; 8:22ff is transitional) s u m m a r i s e s the p e o p l e ' s a m a z e d response, ' H e h a s d o n e all things well!'.

A t the s a m e t i m e several o f J e s u s ' actions i m p l y that his

sonship goes b e y o n d earlier categories: he is also the S o n o f G o d .

6

Introduction

C h a p t e r 7 argues that J e s u s ' outright rejection b y J e r u s a l e m ' s leaders at t h e c r u c i a l B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y ( M k 3 ) e c h o e s I s r a e l ' s first E x o d u s rebellion against Y a h w e h ' s Spirit (Isa 63) and results in the division and j u d g e m e n t o f Israel, n o w effected through the parables (Isa 6 in M k 4 ) . T h e only other confrontation b e t w e e n leaders 'from J e r u s a l e m ' a n d J e s u s prior to his arrival in J e r u s a l e m ( M k 7) is presented in similar terms (Isa 2 9 ) . C h a p t e r 8 discusses the ' W a y ' section w h i c h is framed b y the G o s p e l ' s only 'sight' miracles.

P i c k i n g up o n M a r k ' s interest in the d i s c i p l e s '

i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ( ' b l i n d n e s s ' a n d ' d e a f n e s s ' ) , it is a r g u e d that J e s u s ' leading his ' b l i n d ' disciples in the ' W a y ' echoes w i s e Y a h w e h ' s leading the ' b l i n d ' a l o n g the ' u n k n o w n ' N E w a y (Isa 42:16).

T h e passion predictions

i n d i c a t e that, in Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , the I N E is to b e effected b y the suffering a n d death o f true messianic 'servant' Israel ( M k 10:45; Isa 5 3 ) . T h e t w o t h e m e s — J e s u s as the o n e w h o fulfils the I N E b u t w h o is rejected b y Israel's leaders—intersect in M a r k ' s account o f the e v e n t s o f J e s u s ' arrival and death in Jerusalem. C h a p t e r 9 a r g u e s that, although J e s u s ' ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y ' is c o n s o n a n t w i t h Y a h w e h ' s arrival, his cursing o f the fig tree and T e m p l e cleansing reflect the threat i m p l i e d in t h e o p e n i n g M a l a c h i citation a n d M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J o h n as Elijah.

At the s a m e t i m e , J e s u s ' rejection a n d

death e c h o e s the career of the enigmatic Isaianic 'suffering servant'. C h a p t e r 10 d r a w s o n the P h i l o s o p h y o f S c i e n c e , a p p l y i n g the theory selection criteria o f consilience, simplicity, and a n a l o g y to a r g u e that an I N E h y p o t h e s i s is the best explanation o f the p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e d .

The

concept o f ' i d e o l o g y ' is reviewed to offer an explanation as to h o w the idea of presenting J e s u s in these terms could h a v e arisen.

II. Limitations and Assumptions 1. ' M a r k ' is used to refer to the b o o k ' s author, but implies nothing as to his identity. 2. W i t h o u t d e n y i n g the i m p o r t a n c e o f o t h e r influences, in k e e p i n g w i t h M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation a n d the i m p o r t a n c e o f the I N E for J e w i s h e x p e c t a t i o n , this b o o k c o n c e n t r a t e s o n M a r k ' s u s e o f I s a i a h . influences are discussed only as they relate to this central concern.

Other

Limitations

and

7

Assumptions

3. T h e N T m a k e s little use o f n o n - O T texts. W h i l e p e r h a p s due to the u n i q u e authority granted the O T , it m a y b e that m a n y apocalyptic a n d pseudepigraphical texts w e r e not widely k n o w n or accepted. There is also the p r o b l e m o f d a t i n g : to w h a t e x t e n t do later texts (e.g. r a b b i n i c a l materials, T a r g u m s ) reflect earlier traditions?

( A n d again h o w

widely

k n o w n and accepted w e r e they?) B y w a y o f contrast. S y n a g o g u e worship and T e m p l e i n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d h a v e m a d e the O T far m o r e

familiar.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i l e reference is frequently m a d e to a r a n g e o f ancient literature, it s e e m s w i s e initially to grant priority to O T materials. 4. A n a c h r o n i s t i c l a n g u a g e such as ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a h ' is a v o i d e d s i n c e M a r k is hardly likely to h a v e thought in these terms.

Similarly, titles like

Servant S o n g s and Suffering Servant are prefaced b y 'so-called' or written in lower case and placed in inverted c o m m a s .

This is not to e x c l u d e the

possibility that s o m e sort o f integrated reading of these Isaianic texts, with a coalescing o f the figure(s) described therein, might h a v e b e e n u n d e r w a y in the first century; only that it is not assumed. 5. ' M e s s i a h ' , ' m e s s i a n i c ' , a n d related e x p r e s s i o n s d o n o t i m p l y the existence o f a m o n o l i t h i c expectation within J u d a i s m (even if, as I think, in an understandable reaction to past simplifications ' m e s s i a n i c ' diversity is s o m e t i m e s o v e r p l a y e d ) .

39

It is equally important to recognise that this

d o e s not m e a n that M a r k (or his a u d i e n c e ) shared a similarly conception.

diffused

Indeed, the opposite s e e m s m o r e likely in that the focussing

of these ideas in the person of Jesus w o u l d have exercised a consolidating effect on w h a t might h a v e been, in other contexts, less consciously related concepts.

In this respect, w h i l e recourse is often m a d e to the w a y s in

w h i c h various O T texts and expressions appear to h a v e b e e n understood within c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s J e w i s h traditions, it must b e b o r n e in m i n d that

3

9

S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' a n d Messiah; N e u s n e r , Judaisms; H o r s l e y a n d H a n s o n , Bandits; a n d W r i g h t , People, 170-81, 307-20. Here as always caution should be exercised. T h u s e.g. o n e i m p l i c a t i o n o f V a n d e r K a m , ' E n o c h ' , a n d K e e , ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' , is t h a t d i f f e r e n t titles d o n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y different figures. Likewise, the scarcity of references to a D a v i d i c m e s s i a h o r his links w i t h t h e ' k i n g d o m o f G o d ' m a y n o m o r e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e w e r e n o t c e n t r a l i d e a s t h a n a s i m i l a r d e a r t h o f r e f e r e n c e s t o c o v e n a n t i n d i c a t e t h a t this w a s n o t a n i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t ( o n t h e l a t t e r , W r i g h t , People, 2 6 0 f f , c i t i n g S a n d e r s , Paul, 4 2 0 f ) - G i v e n s u c h t e x t s a s J e r 23:5ff; 30:9f; 3 3 : 1 4 - 2 6 ; E z e k 3 4 : 2 0 - 3 1 ; 3 7 : 1 5 - 2 8 ; e t c . ( a n d 2 S a m 7 is after all a c o v e n a n t ) , it s e e m s m o r e l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s w e r e l a r g e l y a s s u m e d — n o t e t h e u n a f f e c t e d w a y in w h i c h J e s u s ' D a v i d i c m e s s i a h s h i p is m e n t i o n e d — w i t h e x c e p t i o n s b e i n g j u s t t h a t ; cf. H o r b u r y , 'Messianic'.

8

Introduction

this b o o k d e a l s w i t h their setting in M a r k ' s G o s p e l , a G o s p e l w h i c h not o n l y apparently post-dates the Pauline literature b u t also p r e s u p p o s e s an e m e r g e n t Christian perspective w h i c h m a y well h a v e integrated not only these concepts but also 'other motifs and passages o f the O T not previously regarded as " m e s s i a n i c " ' .

40

6. Methodologically, an allusion is considered m o r e likely w h e n :

41

A ) linguistic parallels and conceptual congruence are marked; B ) either the linguistic or conceptual parallels or b o t h tend t o w a r d s being u n i q u e to the proposed O T source passage; C ) t h e m e s e v o k e d b y the allusion not o n l y c o h e r e w i t h b u t also clarify the m e a n i n g of the M a r k a n passage u n d e r consideration; D ) the explanatory function o f the allusion displays a high degree of c o n g r u e n c e with broader M a r k a n t h e m e s (this assumes a certain degree of thematic c o h e r e n c e in M a r k ' s presentation o f Jesus); E ) there is a similar application o f the O T source passage elsewhere. This last criterion is not as w e i g h t y as the others listed.

A l t h o u g h it

m a y lend support to a similar use in M a r k , neither the a b s e n c e of such nor e v e n the presence of a different application e l s e w h e r e can b e taken to establish the negative. M a r k m u s t b e allowed the creative possibility of s e e i n g things in a n e w light.

T o this extent, the M a r k a n c o n t e x t

m u s t a l w a y s b e given hermeneutical priority. 7. T o m a x i m i s e agreement o n the data , if not its interpretation, I have b y and large restricted myself to those texts w h i c h a substantial proportion o f M a r k a n c o m m e n t a t o r s hold to reflect a specifically Isaianic i n f l u e n c e .

42

8. In k e e p i n g w i t h m y beliefs a n d w i t h o u t p r e j u d i c e o r p o l e m i c a l intent, B C and A D are used for dates, and the designations O l d Testament and N e w T e s t a m e n t for the major divisions o f the Christian Bible. 9. Finally, in k e e p i n g with first century J e w i s h and Christian practice, the deity is referred to in the generic masculine. 4

0

4

1

4

2

D u n n , 'Messianic', 3 6 6 , a l t h o u g h his 'not p r e v i o u s l y r e g a r d e d ' o u g h t t o be qualified b y 'in t e r m s o f t h e e v i d e n c e w e n o w h a v e a v a i l a b l e ' . S e e a l s o C h a r l e s w o r t h ' s s t a t e m e n t , 'Messianology', 1 0 , that b y at least ten y e a r s after the crucifixion 'Christ' b e c a m e for Christians Jesus' proper n a m e which m a y be taken to imply s o m e degree of consolidation as t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e t e r m ; cf. H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' a n d ' P a u l ' . T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l m a t t e r is n o t o r i o u s l y v o l u m i o u s , b u t s e e t h e n u a n c e d d i s c u s s i o n in T h o m p s o n , Clothed, 2 8 - 3 6 , t o w h o s e w o r k I a m i n d e b t e d , a n d a l s o e.g. H a y s , Echoes, a n d S t a n l e y , Language. I n c l u d i n g those w h e r e Isaianic c i t a t i o n s / a l l u s i o n s a r e c o m b i n e d w i t h o t h e r sources, e.g. M a i 3:1 a n d E x 2 3 : 2 0 in l:2f; J e r 7:11 in 11:17.

Chapter 1: Scholarship on the OT in Mark

I. Introduction This chapter s u r v e y s seriatim rather than in narrative form o n l y t h o s e w o r k s w h i c h either p r o p o s e a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g O T influence o n M a r k ' s l i t e r a r y / t h e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o r d i s c u s s , as their m a i n focus, M a r k ' s overall attitude to the O T . Specialised studies such as those b y U. Mauser, on the w i l d e r n e s s , L . H a r t m a n n , on M a r k 1 3 , H.-J. Steichele, o n the suffering S o n o f G o d motif, a n d m o r e recently J o e l M a r c u s , o n M a r k a n Christology, are not included here, being discussed along with other secondary literature if and w h e n appropriate in the b o d y of the book.

II. Survey a) A. M. Farrer, (1954)

A Study

in Mark

(1951),

and, St. Matthew

and St.

Mark

A. M . Farrer's m o n o g r a p h s are a m o n g the earliest in recent gospel studies to deal e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h the O T ' s influence on M a r k . G i v e n M a r k ' s frequent puns, Farrer feels that a sophisticated literary approach is justified and thus argues for a two-fold unifying literary-theological pattern. First, M a r k 'like all Christians sees o u r salvation t h r o u g h J e s u s as a spiritual e x o d u s and a conquest o f the promised l a n d ' (pp. 5 5 f ) . S e c o n d , M a r k developed this motif using a triple cycle o f 'twelve-plus-one' callings (the twelve disciples plus Levi), healings, and loaves (the five and s e v e n l o a v e s plus the e u c h a r i s t ) to indicate J e s u s ' institution o f N e w Israel (pp. 69f). 'Thirteen' disciples is not problematic because, on the one hand, Israel w a s really c o m p o s e d o f thirteen tribes, E p h r a i m a n d M a n a s s e h replacing J o s e p h , and since, on the other, Levi had n o tribal allotment and so is not i n c l u d e d . M a r k ' s a w a r e n e s s o f this c o m p l e x i t y is e v i d e n t in Levi's individual treatment and absence from the list o f twelve. a

2

1

2

T h i s a n d o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s refer t o Study A d d e d in his s e c o n d s t u d y ,

Matthew.

unless otherwise indicated.

10

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

J e s u s ' miracles provide further support. T h e legion e x o r c i s m is set b y the sea a n d J e s u s is accused o f being an agent o f B e e l z e b u b , a play ^ 3 T , corresponding to Zebulun (cf. G e n 49:13), and Jairus is reminiscent o f Jair the f a m o u s M a n a s s e h i t e j u d g e (pp. 324ff). O f the thirteen healings, one involves a gentile w h i c h points to s o m e t h i n g greater for t h e m (pp. 305f). T h e healings o f the paralytic and o f the shrivelled limb before a critical l e a d e r s h i p c o r r e s p o n d to M o s e s ' m i r a c l e s o f the ' c r a w l i n g ' staff and leprosied h a n d w h e n confronted w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s ' u n b e l i e f (Ex 4:4ff). J e s u s ' retreat to the sea (3:7ff) and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c s w i n e (5:1-20) c o n f o r m to Israel's e s c a p e and the destruction o f Pharaoh (pp. 76ff). T h e Transfiguration is a n e w Sinai and the e n s u i n g teaching 'across J o r d a n ' prior to entering Jericho ( M k 9 , 1 0 ) marks the beginning of a n e w conquest (pp. 110-3). A l t h o u g h noting s o m e helpful parallels, particularly with the E x o d u s , Farrer's intriguing theory is unconvincing. It is unclear w h y the callings and healings should b e determinative—little in M a r k suggests such—and h e overlooks the 'fourteenth' loaf in the boat (8:14). Aside from the identi fication o f healings with individual tribes, Farrer's structural patterning often s e e m s contrived and inconsistent—frequent lapses are attributed to M a r k ' s c r e a t i v e f r e e d o m — w h i l e in r e t r o s p e c t his d i v i s i o n s cut a c r o s s M a r k a n structural units, for example, one cycle breaks the series o f conflict stories (2:12) and another the n o w widely-recognised ' W a y ' section (10:32). b) P. Carrington, The Primitive to Mark (1961)

Christian

Calendar

(1952),

and,

According

Appearing about the s a m e time as Farrer's work, P. Carrington's proposal, elaborated in his later commentary, belongs to that stream o f Anglo-Saxon scholarship w h i c h w a s particularly concerned w i t h the influence o f early Christian liturgy. Carrington argues that M a r k ' s gospel w a s originally a distillation o f lectionary readings in keeping with the J e w i s h calendar and later a d a p t e d to the R o m a n Julian year. T h e hermeneutical k e y is found in the Passover and Pentecost allusions in the feedings of the five and four thousands which, w h e n recognised, enable the rest o f M a r k to b e assigned to calendrical and h e n c e liturgical schedules (although M a r k 13 has to do double-duty and the passion narrative does not quite conform). The chapter divisions of Vaticanus provide external verification, w h i l e internal s u p p o r t is found in M a r k ' s ' m a jo r triads', especially the three M a r k a n m o u n t a i n s . T h e s e divide the Galilean G o s p e l ( M a r k 1-10) into four s e c t i o n s w h i c h the agricultural p a t t e r n o f the s e e d parables 3

4

3

Primitive,

4

Ibid.,

94ff.

xiii.

Piper,

'Unchanging

11

Promises'

relates to the r h y t h m and i m a g e r y o f seed-time (the seed parables) a n d harvest (the Transfiguration), symbolising the growth o f spiritual under standing. This goes b a c k to J e s u s ' o w n utilisation o f these festivals as occa sions for his preaching, for e x a m p l e , the nuptial s y m b o l i s m o f M a r k 2:1822 which w o u l d b e interpreted, via the T a m m u z myth, as being connected with the restoration o f the T e m p l e . Indeed 'it m i g h t well b e that J e s u s would ... possibly play the part o f the bridegroom' in local celebrations. 5

T h e c r o w d ' s ordering in the feeding (read at Passover) recalls the Sinai host (Ex 19:21) and the ' s h e e p without a s h e p h e r d ' recalls M o s e s ' d e a t h (Nu 27:16f, pp. 12f). T h e feeding o f the four thousand occurs at Pentecost because the presence o f the c r o w d s with J e s u s reminded M a r k o f the first giving of the L a w on the first Pentecost (Ex 19:11; p. 163). M a r k 8:13-21, a key passage in view o f M a r k ' s concern with spiritual insight, is a midrash on Psalm 7 8 , which describes Y a h w e h ' s guidance of, and provision for, his rebellious p e o p l e d u r i n g the E x o d u s . M o s e s ' offer to die for Israel is reflected in 8:31 ff w h i l e his ascent o f Sinai is seen in the Transfiguration (Ex 19:9; pp. 192-6). T h e s e and other echoes demonstrate that 'the story o f the gospel in Galilee, from the parables to the Transfiguration, is a n e w Exodus saga with a n e w Shepherd gathering a n e w people for G o d ' (p. 170). A l t h o u g h stimulating, C a r r i n g t o n ' s lectionary h y p o t h e s i s h a s g a i n e d little a c c e p t a n c e . A p a r t from the lack o f e x t e r n a l e v i d e n c e for t h e derivation o f Christian lectionaries from the J e w i s h calendar (cf. C o l 2:16), there is n o n e that the G o s p e l s functioned as proposed, or that, apart from the passion narrative, the chapter divisions o f V a t i c a n u s w e r e related to liturgical u s e . O n internal grounds, the important m o u n t a i n 'triad' h a s in fact n o s e c o n d m o u n t a i n — i t is ' i m p o r t e d ' from J o h n 6:3—while t h e frequent 'ironing out' o f offending verses w h e n they do not fit the theory tells against the proposal's plausibility. 6

c) O. Piper, 'Unchanging Promises: Exodus in the New Testament' (1957) O t t o P i p e r ' s m o r e g e n e r a l article again suggests the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e E x o d u s event—from deliverance to conquest—noting its significance for the O T (especially H o s e a and Isaiah) and the N T (p. 3 ) . T h e cons pi cuous place of the wilderness in M a r k (1:4, 12, 13, 3 5 , 45) and its association with the kerygma is to b e explained b y the use o f the ' E x o d u s as the model for the original Gospel story' (p. 17). Malachi 3:1 and E x o d u s 23:20 together present the Baptist as the ' a n g e l ' w h o goes before the chosen people in the desert while J e s u s ' baptism is at 5

According, 67ff, h e r e a f t e r ' p p . ' . S e e t h e c r i t i q u e s in D a v i e s , ' R e f l e c t i o n s ' ; M o r r i s , ' L e c t i o n a r i e s ' , Jewish, T a l b e r t , What?, 14f . 6

2 3 - 6 , 29f;

12

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Mark

o n c e the e s c a p e through the R e d Sea and the pre-conquest crossing o f the J o r d a n (p. 1 8 ) . T h e perplexing crisscrossing o f Galilee and J e s u s ' journeys into Phoenicia and Caesarea Philippi ( M k 7-8) e c h o Israel's wanderings and 'the fact that of all J e s u s ' visits to Jerusalem only the last o n e is mentioned in Mark, a n d that it is described as the entry o f a conqueror', s h o w s that it is regarded as the goal of this N e w Exodus migration. Jesus is the s e c o n d M o s e s , 'not primarily as L a w g i v e r h o w e v e r , b u t as the leader o f his p e o p l e to the promised g o a l ' (p. 18). M a r k 10:45 reflects M o s e s ' offer in E x o d u s 32:32, and the w o r d s o f the Institution, 'chosen for their close r e s e m b l a n c e with E x o d . 2 4 : 8 ' , present the n e w c o v e n a n t in an E x o d u s setting (p. 1 9 ) . P i p e r w i s e l y r e c o g n i s e s that n o t e v e r y t h i n g in M a r k ' s gospel can b e explained on the basis of Exodus. Instead, it provides the typological framework within w h i c h the material w a s arranged (p. 19). Piper h a s surely noted a n u m b e r o f interesting parallels, although not all w o u l d a c c e p t h i s identifications. H o w e v e r , s i n c e s o m u c h o f the G o s p e l ' s material and present order is unaccounted for, o n e w o n d e r s if he w o u l d b e m o r e justified in speaking o f several E x o d u s c a m e o s instead of a n o v e r a r c h i n g framework. d)

E. C. Hobbs,

'The Gospel of Mark and the Exodus'

(1958)

In a relatively u n k n o w n P h . D . thesis from the U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , E . C. H o b b s takes up Farrer's spiritual E x o d u s m o d e l and posits an even m o r e systematic E x o d u s influence o n the progression o f M a r k ' s narrative (pp.67f). T h e e s c a p e t h r o u g h the R e d Sea is e c h o e d in M a r k 3:6-19 w h e r e the leaders' hostility t o w a r d J e s u s , J e s u s ' m o v e m e n t toward the sea and the m o u n t a i n , a n d h i s m i r a c u l o u s s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d r e s p e c t i v e l y to the h a r d n e s s o f P h a r a o h ' s heart, M o s e s ' w i t h d r a w a l across the sea and the c o v e n a n t at Sinai, and the signs w h i c h M o s e s performs. In the larger section o f 4:35 - 5:20, the storm and the disciples' fear during the night, the opposition e n c o u n t e r e d on the other side, the d r o w n i n g o f the pigs, and the ' d r e a d ' that falls on the n e i g h b o u r i n g c o u n t r y s i d e e c h o the fearful n i g h t a t t e n d i n g t h e e x o d u s c r o s s i n g , P h a r a o h ' s r e s i s t a n c e to I s r a e l ' s deliverance, the d r o w n i n g o f P h a r a o h and his armies, a n d the fear that descends o n the lands of E d o m and M o a b . Israel's w i l d e r n e s s j o u r n e y also p r o v i d e s the m o d e l for the e x t e n d e d midrash in M a r k chapters 5-8 where, for e x a m p l e , the two healings o f the d a u g h t e r s o f Israel (5:21-43), the rejection o f J e s u s at Nazareth, and the sending o u t o f the twelve disciples (6:1-29) correspond to the healing o f M a r a h ' s bitter w a t e r s (Ex 15:22-26) and the t w e l v e springs and s e v e n t y p a l m s at E l i m (15:27; pp. 40-2). T h e two feedings replicate the provision

Schuh,

'Markus

und das Alte

13

Testament'

of m a n n a , a n d the objections o f the Pharisees (8:11-13) parallel M i r i a m and A a r o n ' s opposition (Nu 12:1-15). N u m e r o u s parallels exist b e t w e e n Sinai and the transfiguration—the six d a y s , the three associates, the building o f the tabernacles, G o d s p e a k i n g from the c l o u d , the shining, and the failure o f the disciples as the golden calf incident—while M a r k 10:1 - 11:11 is a second giving o f the law, again 'across J o r d a n ' , before arrival in Jericho (pp. 45-8). Finally, J e s u s ' passing through 'the waters o f death' fulfils his creation of the n e w Israel (p. 6 8 ) . H o b b s takes up b u t modifies Farrer's 'twelve-plus-one' s c h e m e w h e r e the call o f L e v i is proleptic o f the Gentiles and thus parallels the G e n t i l e healing (pp. 5ff). M a r k ' s point in structuring his threefold 'twelve-pluso n e ' s y m b o l i s m around these parallels is to indicate that just a s Israel w a s called from b o n d a g e , saved t h r o u g h the sea from the threat o f death and destruction, a n d sustained in her hunger, so too the church is called from b o n d a g e , is healed through b a p t i s m which cleanses and raises from death, and is fed o n the eucharist (p. 5 5 ) . A n u m b e r o f H o b b s ' s u g g e s t i o n s are p e r s u a s i v e , for e x a m p l e , t h o s e linking the Transfiguration with Sinai. But, as h e prudently recognises, a n u m b e r o f other E x o d u s connections are marginal, for e x a m p l e , M a r k 5-6, and s o m e p e r h a p s incidental, s o M a r k 8:11-13. In t e r m s o f his general thesis, h o w e v e r , to t h e extent H o b b s follows Farrer the s a m e criticisms apply. In t e r m s o f his o w n contribution, the three-fold interpretation o f the c h u r c h ' s E x o d u s is tenuous—not least c o n s i d e r i n g M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t l a c k o f i n t e r e s t in a s s o c i a t i n g h e a l i n g s w i t h b a p t i s m . A particular weakness o f H o b b s (and Farrer before him) is his failure in varying degrees to integrate M a r k ' s c l e a r e r O T citations and allusions w i t h the overall E x o d u s s c h e m a o f their proposals. e) S. Schulz, 'Markus und das Alte Testament' (1961) Influenced p e r h a p s b y m o r e continental interests, S. S c h u l z locates h i s discussion o f M a r k ' s u s e o f the O T within the milieu o f e m e r g i n g Gentile Christianity. Presupposing a distinction b e t w e e n the pre-Pauline Hellenistic fcwn'os-kerygma a n d the diverse Palestinian J e s u s - t r a d i t i o n s , Schulz s a w M a r k as the first attempt to c o m b i n e the two (p. 1 8 5 ) . T h e 7

7

S c h u l z ' i n i t i a l d i s t i n c t i o n , a p p a r e n t l y f o l l o w i n g H e i t m u l l e r , ' P r o b l e m ' , is q u e s t i o n a b l e , n o t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e t e r m i n o l o g y is v a g u e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e a c o n v i n c i n g h i s t o r i c a l reconstruction of the origins of a pre-Pauline Hellenistic Christianity h a s yet to be p r o p o s e d . H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' , 27ff, a r g u e s t h a t t h e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o G r e e k o f l a r g e p a r t s o f the synoptic tradition 'did n o t begin in Antioch, E p h e s u s o r R o m e but at a v e r y early s t a g e in P a l e s t i n e itself' a n d w a s t h e w o r k o f t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g J e w s in J e r u s a l e m in o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t p r o c l a i m J e s u s ' s a y i n g s a n d a c t i v i t y t o v i s i t i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e D i a s p o r a , cf. W e n h a m , Redating. T h i s t e n d s t o u n d e r m i n e S c h u l z ' a s s e r t i o n , 1 8 4 , t h a t ' P a u l u s h a t in d e r

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influence o f the former can b e discerned in M a r k ' s use o f the Son o f G o d title, in the 'sogenannte Messiasgeheimnis', in the discussions o f Pharisaic piety and M o s a i c Torah, and in M a r k ' s e m p h a s i s on the passion—Schulz a p p r o v i n g l y cites K a h l e r ' s aphoristic s u m m a r y — w h i c h reflects the prePauline Hellenistic k e r y g m a ' s concern with J e s u s ' death (pp. 187f). A n y interest M a r k s h o w s in the historical J e s u s and the unity o f his preaching and deeds is primarily an attempt to actualise Philippians 2:8, 'being found in fashion as a m a n ' which resulted in the creation of the Gospel as a n e w genre (pp. 186f). Consequently, M a r k u s k o m m t a l s o n i c h t evolutiv

v o n einzelnen alttestamentlichen Schriftstellen zu

s e i n e r T h e o l o g i e , s o n d e r n u m g e k e h r t : allein v o m K y r i o s - K e r y g m a u n d u b e r h a u p t d e r kerygmatischen Tradition des Heidenchristentums b e k o m m t er die palastinischen J e s u s t r a d i t i o n e n u n d d a m i t d a s A l t e T e s t a m e n t in d e n B l i c k p u n k t ( p . 1 8 8 ) .

M a r k ' s v i e w o f the O T is, therefore, s o m e w h a t ambivalent. F r o m the s t a n d - p o i n t o f G e n t i l e C h r i s t i a n i t y , the M a r k a n J e s u s rejects I s r a e l ' s Heilsgeschichte ( M k 12:1-12), the L a w having no positive function as it did for Paul w h e r e Christ is its telos. T h e O T T o r a h and Pharisaic M i s h n a h stand in o p p o s i t i o n to the W i l l o f G o d as revealed in the o b e d i e n c e o f Christ (pp. 193ff). O n the contrary, this obedience is a matter of doing good and saving life ( M k 3:4), even on the Sabbath, even to the extent of saving G e n t i l e s , a n d i n d e e d e v e n to the p o i n t o f death. A t this j u n c t u r e , however, M a r k is willing freely to draw on the whole of the O T for justifi cation (cf. 3:4ff; 10:lff; l l : 1 5 f f and 12:28ff). M a r k ' s use of the O T , therefore, derives p r i m a r i l y from its capacity to justify his presentation o f J e s u s , viewed through the lens o f his kerygmatic tradition: D i e b e s o n d e r e t h e o l o g i s c h e L e i s t u n g d e s M a r k u s b e r u h t n u n a b e r d a r i n , dafi e r d i e s e s IITTTIKOOS' j i e x p i 0 a v « T o u a l s G e h o r s a m g e g e n i i b e r d e m i m A l t e n T e s t a m e n t m a n i f e s t g e w o r d e n e n , ursprunglichen Gotteswillen interpretiert hat (p. 196).

W h i l e it s e e m s incontrovertible that s o m e o f M a r k ' s c o n c e r n s w o u l d have found special relevance in Gentile Christianity, as they w o u l d in any c o m m u n i t y facing the question of the relationship o f J e w s and Gentiles, it hardly follows that Philippians 2:8 provides the hermeneutical rubric for Mark. In addition, although the M a r k a n J e s u s is clearly c o n c e r n e d with the L a w , S c h u l z ' stress o n the G o s p e l as an attempt to reinterpret it v o n ihm u b e r n o m m e n e n k e r y g m a t i s c h e n Tradition des H e i d e n c h r i s t e n t u m s keinerlei Jesusuberlieferung - mit A u s n a h m e wenigen Spruchgutes im paranetischen Z u s a m m e n h a n g u r g e m e i n d l i c h e n C h a r a k t e r s i i b e r n o m m e n ' in t h a t t h e P a l e s t i n i a n J e s u s t r a d i t i o n s m a y in f a c t b e t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of, a n d n o t a ' b e z i e h u n g s l o s p a r a l l e l ' t o , t h e s o - c a l l e d p r e Pauline Hellenistic fcyrios-kerygma. Further, the a s s u m p t i o n of Hellenistic syncretism as t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e title Kyrios is q u e s t i o n a b l e (cf. H e n g e l ' s d e t a i l e d a r g u m e n t ' C h r i s t o l o g y ', 33ff).

Bowman,

Mark

and

New

Christian

Haggadah

15

a p p e a r s r e d u c t i o n i s t i c , and his e m p h a s i s o n the ' k y r i o s - k e r y g m a ' al s o seems at o d d s with M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s ' pre-exaltation career. Ultimately, the c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s o f S c h u l z ' theory is undermined b y his terms o f reference and his presuppositions c o n c e r n i n g the origin o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l . W h i l e h e correctly n o t e s the role o f the O T in J e s u s ' conflict w i t h the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h i p , h e fails to c o n s i d e r s e r i o u s l y t h e significance of, for e x a m p l e , M a r k ' s citation in l:2f, the O T i m a g e s in the prologue, or even the vineyard parable. In the case o f the latter, it is the J e w i s h l e a d e r s ' o v e r s i g h t o f G o d ' s p e o p l e that is r e v o k e d , n o t I s r a e l ' s Heilsgeschichte. f) J. Bowman, The Gospel of Mark and the New Christian Haggadah (1965) S e e k i n g to u n c o v e r ' h o w and w h y the G o s p e l as a literary form c a m e a b o u t ' (p. 3 1 1 ) , J o h n B o w m a n ' s m o n o g r a p h returns to a liturgical focus. Noting that the E x o d u s w a s the J e w i s h paradigm for deliverance and that the Passover m e a l b e c a m e the focal m e m o r i a l meal for Christians (p. 9 1 ) , B o w m a n suggests that just as the J e w i s h m e a l w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y an e x p l a n a t o r y haggadah, so too the annual Christian equivalent w a s accompanied b y M a r k as its haggadah—the Passover being the o n e festival which clearly stands out in the Gospel (p. 158). Such a u s a g e explains w h y not only individual incidents in J e s u s ' life but the w h o l e G o s p e l itself is a midrash o n selected O T passages (p. xii). Thus J e s u s ' divine election, his being driven into the wilderness, and his forty day temptation is a midrash on M o s e s ' call. T h e call of the first four disciples, the a m a z e m e n t o f the crowds, and the opposition to Jesus, reflect the E x o d u s tradition o f the response of the elders, the initial belief o f the people, Pharaoh's response, and the slaves' anger with M o s e s (Ex 4:29ff; cf. 5:21ff; pp. 108-15). M a r k ' s characteristic references to hardening (3:5; 6:52; 8:17; 10:5) are a deliberate point o f contact with the Exodus—but ironically here of the r e d e e m e r ' s o w n people (pp. 121, 136, 180)—and the Transfigu ration and the feedings reflect Sinai and the wilderness provision (pp. 157). W h e r e a s the signs a n d w o n d e r s o f the first M o s e s b r o u g h t p l a g u e s , t h e miracles o f the second removes them (pp. 159, 176). T h e relative lack o f 'testimonies' in M a r k as c o m p a r e d to M a t t h e w is not b e c a u s e M a r k w a s written for Gentiles, after all they w o u l d not h a v e h a d the n e c e s s a r y O T b a c k g r o u n d . Instead, Mark presupposes the testimonia either b e c a u s e his G o s p e l represents a stage w h e n the blatant scaffolding o f 'that it might b e fulfilled' is largely dismantled, or because its early J e w i s h hearers w e r e so w e l l versed in the fulfilment s c h e m a that they did not need them pointed out (pp. 19f).

16

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A l t h o u g h several o f B o w m a n ' s observations are helpful, others are less so. F o r e x a m p l e , seeing in the healing o f the leper a haggadah o n the healing o f M o s e s ' leprous h a n d , and in the cure o f the issue o f b l o o d a 'direct c o u n t e r ' to M o s e s ' plague o f b l o o d on E g y p t (pp. 1 1 3 , 147) s e e m s rather too clever. G r a n t e d that there are occasions w h e n J e s u s could b e understood in M o s a i c terms (e.g. the feedings and transfiguration), it is not clear that all, or e v e n most, o f J e s u s ' actions are so cast. T h e fundamental w e a k n e s s o f B o w m a n ' s independent proposal, h o w e v e r , is that h e does not establish any constitutive literary criteria for a Passover haggadah, nor does he explain w h y , for example, there are n o M a r k a n equivalents o f the questions and answers. Last but not least, w e have no evidence that M a r k was ever used in a yearly celebration of a Christian Passover. g) A. Suhl,

Die Funktion

der alttestamentlichen

Zitate

und

Anspielungen

im Markusevangelium (1965) Published in the s a m e year as B o w m a n ' s work, A. S u h l ' s v o l u m e m a r k s a major shift in e m p h a s i s . Reflecting a redaction-critical a p p r o a c h , it is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y with M a r k ' s m o r e explicit u s e o f the O T a n d still remains the only m o d e r n m o n o g r a p h to do s o at length. Suhl proposes that M a r k ' s O T citations are not a matter o f '»Weissagung und Erfullung«, sondern um Auslegung des Jesusgeschehens mit Hilfe des AT: I n d e m m a n das N e u e in den »Farben« des Alten erzahlte' (p. 4 7 ) . M a r k merely w a n t s to s h o w t h a t J e s u s ' h i s t o r y u n f o l d s KCLTA Tag ypatya'g, as 'schriftgemafi' not ' B e w e i s ' (pp. 157ff)—the e m e r g e n c e o f the p r o m i s e and fulfilment s c h e m a arising only with the delay o f the parousia. 8

S u h l ' s thesis, stolidly following the view o f his doctoral supervisor W . Marxsen, labours under two presuppositions. First, in v i e w o f the i m m i n e n c e o f the parousia, M a r k has abandoned all sense o f history and has n o r o o m for Heilsgeschichte b e c a u s e all h a s b e e n o v e r t a k e n b y the apocalyptic present. Second, M a r k ' s gospel is ' A n r e d e ' not 'Bericht' (pp. 925). Vital for S u h l ' s argument here is Paul's use of Kara Tag ypafydg in 1 Corinthians 15:3f. H e contends that Paul does not have salvation history in m i n d — K a r a Tag ypatydg is Schriftgemaflheit not Schriftbeweis (pp. 34ff)—and therefore, since it is a Gentile gospel, neither does Mark. Apart from the weaknesses of M a r x s e n ' s existentialist thesis, questions are rightly raised w h e n S u h l ' s easy acceptance o f it leads h i m to dismiss what might otherwise b e seen as the plain meaning of a text. Contra Suhl, M a r k 14:49 does appear to address fulfilment (see also 7:6 and 14:21) and

8

A s ' q u a l i f i z i e r t e S p r a c h e ' , 1 6 9 , cf. 6 9 ; a s m a t e r i a l for t h e p r e s e n t p r e a c h i n g , 1 4 ; a s illustration, 137.

Anderson,

'OT in Mark's

Gospel'

17

his argument that the plural, ypafyai, reflects the Pauline plural, ypafyds, and thereby disallows any fulfilment motif, is hardly convincing. Surd's treatment then does little to allay the suspicion that his presuppositions are s k e w i n g his e x e g e s i s . Furthermore, it is not clear that ' A n r e d e ' and ' B e r i c h t ' are m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e (cf. 1 C o r 15:lff) and the t y p o l o g i c a l character o f Paul's c o m m e n t s elsewhere (1 Cor 10:1-11; 2 Cor 3:7-12; R o m 4; 5:12-21; a n d 9-11), despite S u h l ' s denials, suggests that Paul does h a v e Heilsgeschichte in m i n d . 9

M a t t h e w and L u k e m a y well have a m o r e p r onounced u s e o f the O T , b u t it is m i s t a k e n to j u d g e M a r k ' s ' i n t r o d u c t o r y f o r m u l a ' b y t h e i r s . Granted, too, that not e v e r y O T citation or allusion in M a r k necessarily invokes the Schriftbeweis s c h e m a , it is nevertheless difficult to i m a g i n e that a p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e l i k e Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , w h i c h h e l d c o n s i d e r a b l e significance for Israel's future (see Chapter 3 ) , w o u l d not h a v e implied a fulfilment motif. I n d e e d , w h y should M a r k bother at all to present his account o f J e s u s as c o n f o r m i n g to the O T in only the 'broadest s e n s e ' ? W h e n viewed against an implicit prophetic b a c k g r o u n d , it is difficult to accept that Suhl has produced sufficient evidence to establish his case. h) H. Anderson 'The Old Testament in Mark's Gospel' (1972) Partly in r e s p o n s e to S u h l , H. A n d e r s o n sets out to ' e x a m i n e the m a i n features of M a r k ' s use o f the Old Testament and to inquire to w h a t extent, if any, this b e a r s u p o n his aim and intention in his overall portrayal o f Jesus Christ' (p. 218). Recognising that M a t t h e w and L u k e subscribe to a promise-fulfilment formula, A n d e r s o n n o t e s that there are few fulfilment p h r a s e s in M a r k (1:15 and 14:49). H o w e v e r , given that b e g i n n i n g s and e n d i n g s p r o v i d e important clues to design and intent, it is significant that, although M a r k ' s c o n c l u s i o n c o n t a i n s ' n o e x p r e s s allusion to S c r i p t u r e p r o p h e c y ' , h i s introduction contains the only occasion w h e n M a r k himself appeals to the O T (p. 281). G r a n t e d the questions surrounding M a r k l : l f f are c o m p l e x , the unity of verses 1-13 suggests that Mark's linking o f J o h n and Jesus with the O T cannot easily b e dismissed (pace Suhl; pp. 2 8 3 - 5 ) . Instead, these verses are constitutive o f M a r k ' s overall interest in the O T , but, and herein lies A n d e r s o n ' s thesis, M a r k ' s point is that the work o f J o h n and Jesus are in conformity, not with 'the letter o f the Old Testament and its fulfilment', but with a m o r e general expression of the divine will (p. 286). A l t h o u g h the c o m b i n a t i o n o f Isaiah 56:7 and J e r e m i a h 7:11 in M a r k 11:17, the use o f 6e\ in M a r k 8:31, and Psalm 118:22f in M a r k 12:1-11 are

9

S e e G r a s s e r ' s r e v i e w in TLZ 9 1 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 6 6 7 - 9 .

18

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

10

' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ' , that is, h a v e an element o f futurity (pp. 287, 2 9 3 ) , they are not s e e k i n g to p r o v e anything b y m a t c h i n g a specific Scripture to an event. M a r k w i s h e s only to demonstrate J e s u s ' conformity to that 'set of Old T e s t a m e n t ideas concerning the persecution o f G o d ' s true servants ... by his impenitent p e o p l e . . . ' (p. 2 9 9 ) ' . . . under which the Christ goes forward through suffering and death to eventual vindication and victory' (p. 2 9 7 ) . All this is in keeping with M a r k ' s prominent 'detainment' motif—as in the m e s s i a n i c secret, parable theory, and c o m m a n d s to silence. J u s t as J e s u s ' final vindication is 'held in s u s p e n s i o n ' so that the framework o f suffering and passion must first b e encountered, so too M a r k ' s avoidance of the p a s t fulfilment o f the O T in J e s u s ' life enables h i m to focus his c o m m u n i t y ' s a t t e n t i o n o n its future in the light of t h e d e l a y o f the parousia. L i k e w i s e , the teaching o f M a r k ' s J e s u s actually supersedes and transcends Scripture rather than m a k i n g 'the Scripture point to himself as its fulfilment'—a fact w h i c h tells against D o d d ' s suggestion that it w a s Jesus himself w h o w a s behind the N T ' s creative use of the O T (p. 304). It is also 'detainment', not a Gentile audience unfamiliar with the O T , nor a J e w i s h o n e s o well-verged that it n e e d e d n o help in recognising fulfilment, nor yet b e c a u s e the Gospel represents a stage w h e n fulfilment formulae scaffolding had been dismantled, which explains Mark's ' c o m p a r a t i v e n e g l e c t o f t e s t i m o n i e s ' (p. 3 0 5 ; pace B o w m a n ) . C o m p a r e d then to M a t t h e w and L u k e , M a r k stands 'at a rudimentary stage o f the Christian c o m m u n i t y ' s apologetic e n d e a v o u r s to d e m o n s t r a t e from the Old Testament the relations between J e s u s and that which is the messianic vocation' (p. 306). A l t h o u g h rightly critical o f Suhl, A n d e r s o n ' s proposal is also o p e n to question. His 'detainment' motif hypothesis, namely that M a r k is 'acutely c o n s c i o u s o f h a v i n g s o m e t h i n g n e w to s a y ' w h i c h i n v o l v e s the 'as yet undisclosed secret o f w h o J e s u s really i s ' (p. 305), seems unlikely. Aside from w h e t h e r M a r k is confronting the delay in the parousia, h o w realistic is the a s s u m p t i o n that n o - o n e in M a r k ' s original audience w o u l d h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f w h o J e s u s 'really i s ' , particularly given the p r o l o g u e ? Further, if A n d e r s o n is correct, one would expect to see considerable use o f testimonies after the passion narrative, but this is not the case. N o r need 'detainment' b e the only explanation o f what Anderson perceives as J e s u s ' r e t i c e n c e in a p p l y i n g S c r i p t u r e to h i m s e l f — a s s u m i n g o f c o u r s e that 1 0

Following Fitzmyer's 'eschatological' and 'modernising' categorisation of O T usages in Q u m r a n a n d t h e N T , ' U s e ' , 3 1 6 , w h e r e t h e f o r m e r c a t e g o r y e x p r e s s e s s o m e t h i n g t h a t is yet to be a c c o m p l i s h e d , while the latter involves not only the taking o v e r of a n a n a l o g o u s s i t u a t i o n in t h e O T a n d r e - a p p l y i n g it t o a n e w s i t u a t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e s e n s e o f c o m p l e t e n e s s o r fulfilment.

Swartley,

'Study'

and

19

'Function'

Anderson's perception is correct and not simply a failure to appreciate the highly allusive fashion in w h ic h M a r k ' s J e s u s uses the O T (e.g. Chapter 6 below). M o r e problematic, h o w e v e r , is his distinction b e t w e e n fulfilment and a 'general e x p r e s s i o n o f the divine w i l l ' . T h i s s o u n d s rather like S u h l ' s Farbe, and the s a m e criticisms apply. A n d e r s o n ' s categorisation o f M a r k as representing a rudimentary stage reveals the fundamental issue: the c o m m o n failing o f using M a t t h e w as a yardstick for Mark. M u c h to b e preferred is an attempt to appreciate the O T texts as they were most likely understood a m o n g M a r k ' s contemporaries, and w h e n this is done, given the thorough-going J e w i s h character o f the J e s u s story, it is difficult to escape the impression that, for example, l : 2 f would h a v e had s o m e kind o f fulfilment c o n n o t a t i o n . i) W. M. Swartley,

'A Study of Markan

Structure'

(1973);

cf 'The

Structural

Function of the Term 'Way' (Hodos) in Mark's Gospel' (1980) Reflecting a shift b a c k from redactional to m o r e literary concerns, W . M . Swartley's little-known Princeton Ph.D. dissertation is a full-scale attempt to understand M a r k entirely in terms of an E x o d u s paradigm. Observing that, although Farrer, Hobbs, Piper, and others had recognised a distinctive M a r k a n use o f the O T , little had b e e n d o n e to relate these insights to the Gospel's literary structure, Swartley sets out to rectify the situation. M a r k ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y c i t a t i o n is p r o g r a m m a t i c for the t h e m e s o f c o v e n a n t . T e m p l e , a n d cultic p u r i t y ( M a l / E x ) , a n d ' w a y ' a n d ' d e s e r t ' (Isaiah). T h e s e are variously picked up in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, in the T e m p l e cleansing, a n d M a r k ' s transitional locations such as ' b y the s e a ' (1:16-20), ' o n the m o u n t a i n ' (3:13-35), and 'in the w i l d e r n e s s ' (6:7-31). D e r i v i n g from e v e n t s a n d p l a c e s w h i c h s t r u c t u r e d I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s m e m o r i e s , t h e s e motifs l i k e w i s e p r o v i d e the G o s p e l ' s six-fold literary framework. That s o m e of t h e m are not immediately o b v i o u s c o m p l e ments the secretive nature of M a r k ' s material (cf. 4:34 and 13:14). 1 1

T h e 'sea' motif (1:16; 3:7) delineates 1:21 - 3:6 as the place o f deliverance for the n e w Israel (pp. 103-8). O p e n i n g with 'the mountain', 3:13 - 6:6 re flects the Sinai event with its election of a n e w c o m m u n i t y (3:13-19, 31-35) and G o d ' s self-disclosure (via parables and miracles, 4:1 - 5:43), while the Nazareth rejection e c h o e s the golden calf incident (6:1-6; pp. 109-12). T h e 'wilderness' theme characterises 6 : 7 - 8 : 2 1 ( 2 6 ) with G o d ' s provision (6:30-44 and 8:1-10), guidance and testing (cf. the disciples' incomprehension, 6:52), and the p e o p l e ' s rebellion (cf. the Pharisees rejection o f Jesus, 8:1 If). T h e p o s i t i v e G e n t i l e r e s p o n s e (7:24-37) e c h o e s those w i l d e r n e s s traditions 1 1

' S t u d y ' , 36ff, h e r e a f t e r ' p p . ' ; 1:14 - 3 : 6 / / 3 : 1 3 - 6 : 6 a / / 6 : 7 - 8 : 2 1 / / 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 5 2 ; 1 1 : 1 -

13:37; 14:1 - 1 5 : 4 7 ; w i t h 1 6 : 1 - 8 a s e p i l o g u e .

20

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

w h i c h h a d c o n n o t a t i o n s o f h o p e (pp. 86ff), a n d t h e ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ' s presentation o f J e s u s ' teaching on messiahship and discipleship reflects O T ethical and eschatological features (particularly Deutero-Isaianic, pp. 68-80). Finally, the ' T e m p l e ' t h e m e (covering two panels, 11:1 - 1 6 : 8 ) represents M a r k ' s u s e o f the T e m p l e ' s fate to s y m b o l i s e the failure o f the J e w i s h m i s s i o n (e.g. 11:12-25) and the success of the G e n t i l e o n e (e.g. 12:1-12, pp. 92-101). T h e e m p h a s i s on 4'pTjuoc; and 686$ in M a r k l : 2 f speak of the isolated wilderness and so highlight the secrecy c o m p o n e n t (e.g. 6:31-35) which characterises the nature of J e s u s ' self-disclosure on the ' W a y ' . S w a r t l e y d e v e l o p s this last idea in a later e s s a y , a r g u i n g that the interleaving o f typological exodus- and entrance- motifs ( M k 9 is a n e w Sinai) w i t h discipleship themes reveals that M a r k ' s ' W a y ' is ' T h e W a y of D i s c i p l e s h i p (Suffering and C r o s s ) that L e a d s to the ( P r o m i s e d L a n d ) Kingdom of G o d ' . M a r k , finally, is a m i s s i o n a r y d o c u m e n t w i t h an apologetic for the eclipse of Judaism expressed in the w a n i n g o f Jerusalem and the increased prominence of Galilee (p. 226). 1 2

S w a r t l e y ' s attempt, first, to take seriously the f o r m a t i v e n a t u r e o f Israel's founding event, and second, to integrate possible e c h o e s within one overarching literary structure, is to b e applauded. It cannot, however, b e d e e m e d a success. Although the analyses o f the ' W a y ' and ' T e m p l e ' p a n e l s h a v e m u c h to c o m m e n d t h e m , o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n s fail to convince: the m o s t significant sea story occurs not in the ' s e a ' section but in the ' m o u n t a i n ' section, and M a r k 9 reflects m o r e Sinai influence than the brief reference in 3:13ff. T h e treatment of M a r k a n motifs is sometimes inconsistent: the Pharisees' hostility in 8:1 I f reflects the wilderness rebel lion w h i l e their opposition in 2:1 - 3:6 is cast in other t e r m s . S w a r t l e y ' s h y p o t h e s i s rests o n the integration o f earlier t r a n s i t i o n a l s w i t h later panels, b u t c a n these brief and relatively obscure transitional c o m m e n t s bear the load placed on them, Mark's 'secrecy m o t i f notwithstanding? It is difficult to avoid the feeling that Swartley's structure is b e i n g read into rather than out o f the text. Finally, apart from one or two exceptions (for example, l:2f; 11:17), Swartley makes little attempt to correlate M a r k ' s use of O T citations or m o r e explicit allusions with his overall structure. j) H. C. Kee, 'The Function of Scriptural Quotations and Allusions in Mark 11-16' (1975) In this article j u s t prior to his monograph on M a r k , H. C. K e e seeks 'to d e t e r m i n e w h i c h o f the Scriptures are M a r k ' s favorites (sic) and then to discover h o w h e h a s interpreted and adapted Scripture in the service of

1

2

' S t r u c t u r a l ' , 8 2 . S w a r t l e y h a s r e c e n t l y r e s t a t e d hi s p o s i t i o n in

Scripture.

Kee,

'Function

of Scriptural

Allusions'

21

his o w n theological and literary a i m s ' (p. 166). Although not covering the w h o l e of the g o s p e l — K e e deals primarily with the last third o f the b o o k but other sections are briefly mentioned—his focus on M a r k ' s use o f the OT, and the fact that it is here that Mark most frequently appeals to the O T , merits its inclusion in this survey. N o t i n g at least 5 7 q u o t a t i o n s and 160 a l l u s i o n s to S c r i p t u r e , K e e criticises S u h l ' s arbitrary decision to limit his investigation to explicit and e x t e n d e d quotations as i n a d e q u a t e 'for tracing the fuller h e r m e n e u t i c a l picture'. H e then o b s e r v e s that M a r k not only 'clearly prefers prophetic and eschatologically interpreted passages o f Scripture' but e m p l o y s these quotations at the most crucial points in his developing a r g u m e n t (p. 1 7 3 ) . Similarly striking is his 'synthesis' technique where, in close analogy with for instance the Florilegium, t w o a p p a r e n t l y u n c o n n e c t e d O T texts are brought together in order to m a k e a n e w claim (so M a i 3:1 with possibly Ex 23:20 and Isa 40:3 in l:2f; the v o i c e in 1:11; Z e c h 9:9 and 10:10 with Ps 118:25-26 in M k 11:1-11; pp. 175ff). T h u s , fulfilment is not merely an apologetic device, nor is the appeal to Scripture merely to embellish or 'to g i v e specific c o n t e n t to a s i m p l e k e r y g m a t i c f o r m u l a ' (p. 1 7 9 ) . T h e Scriptures are instead M a r k ' s 'indispensable presupposition', a 'necessary link with the biblical tradition that M a r k sees redefined and c o m p r e h e n d e d through J e s u s ' (ibid). M a r k ' s ' H e g e l - l i k e ' synthesis centres on three re-definitions. His re definition o f the covenant people invokes Isaiah and Zechariah, o f the law almost exclusively appeals to Torah, and o f the h o p e o f r e d e m p t i o n uses Daniel w h e n dealing w i t h the nature o f the path to victory (that is, the necessity of suffering as a path to vindication), and both Isaiah and Daniel w h e n re-defining t h e e n e m y . C h r i s t o l o g i c a l l y , D a n i e l i n f l u e n c e s the p i c t u r e o f J e s u s as the p r o p h e t w h o unfolds the h i d d e n m e a n i n g o f Scripture w h e r e a s Isaiah modifies the traditional nationalistic treatment o f the S o n o f D a v i d w h o b e c o m e s an eschatological agent t h r o u g h w h o m light c o m e s to the blind. A s with Q u m r a n , there is n o conflict b e t w e e n the c o n c e r n for law (rules o f a d m i s s i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e o f fellowship) and for eschatology (pp. 177f). In keeping with his interest in apocalyptic, K e e places considerable, but not exclusive, store on Daniel. But in view of the use of the blinding texts from the classical prophets (cf. Isa 6 in M k 4 ; Isa 29 in M k 7 and J e r 5 : 2 1 / Isa 6:9 in M k 8:18), K e e ' s distinction b e t w e e n them and Daniel on the basis o f hidden meaning seems unwarranted. Likewise, Kee's concentration on D a n i e l in d e a l i n g w i t h the suffering m o t i f is not in k e e p i n g w i t h the e v i d e n c e . O n his o w n analysis o f M a r k 14-15, citations, allusions, and

22

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

influences from the so-called Servant S o n g s considerably o u t w e i g h those from D a n i e l ( p p . 1 7 0 f f ) . If, in addition, M a r k 1-10 is regarded as the context for chapters 11-16, then the allusions to Isaiah 42:1 in M a r k 1:11 (which K e e recognises) and 53:3 in 9:12 along with at least the influence of 53:10-12 in 10:45 further strengthen the case for s o m e Isaianic c o m p o n e n t (cf. Isa 40:3 in M k l:2f). These criticisms aside, however, K e e ' s observations o n M a r k ' s ' s y n t h e t i c ' m e t h o d , his preference for eschatological texts, and his p l a c e m e n t o f appeals to the O T at crucial junctures in his narrative, serve to highlight the importance of the O T for Mark. 13

k) M . D. Goulder, The Evangelist's Calendar (1978) In yet a n o t h e r British revival o f the liturgical a p p r o a c h , M . D . G o u l d e r r e v a m p s the lectionary theory arguing that M a r k is to b e understood on the b a s i s o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e O T l e c t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d h a v e accompanied the reading of the Gospel. A s i d e from t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e a s s u m p t i o n s i n h e r e n t in s u c h a task, wh i ch it should b e noted G o u l d e r undertakes in painstaking fashion, the connections o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n the reconstructed readings and M a r k vary greatly. It s e e m s strange that Isaiah 3 4 f is proposed as the O T lection for M a r k 1:1-20, a selection which in any case runs right over a major M a r k a n division, w h e n M a r k h i m s e l f s p e a k s o f Isaiah 4 0 (p. 2 4 6 ) . It b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y difficult to feel any certainty w h e n , in d e a l i n g w i t h other readings, G o u l d e r h a s to refer to O T lections past or future in o r d e r to explicate the significance o f the passage (pp. 249f). Other connections seem tenuous. F o r e x a m p l e , G o u l d e r outlines a series o f 'fulfilments' o f ElijahElisha themes in M a r k 5:35 - 8:1-10 based on the lections from 3 K i n g d o m s l:7-4:42ff. N a b o t h is a t y p e o f J o h n the B a p t i s t and a p o s t a s y is the thematic link b e t w e e n J e s u s at Nazareth and Elijah on C a r m e l . Nazareth, where J e s u s could d o no mighty work and is rejected, reflects Elijah's great miracle w h i c h c a u s e s the c r o w d ' s confessional response. G i v e n the notunlimited range o f O T themes and the fact that the N T h a s its roots in the O l d , o n e w o n d e r s if m a n y o f G o u l d e r ' s points o f contact are m o r e c o incidental than intentional. In terms o f literary structure, a n u m b e r o f Goulder's divisions run right across recognised Markan intercalations: 3 : 2 1 / 2 2 - 3 0 / 3 1 - 3 5 ; 5 : 2 1 - 4 / 2 5 -

1 3

F o r D a n i e l , c i t a t i o n s : D n 7 : 1 3 in M k 1 4 : 6 2 ; allusions: D n 1 2 : 1 0 ( L X X ) in M k 1 4 : 3 8 . F o r I s a i a h , c i t a t i o n s : 5 0 : 6 in M k 1 4 : 6 5 ( i g n o r i n g 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 5 : 2 8 ) ; a n d a l l u s i o n s : p o s s i b l y 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 4 : 2 1 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 5 in 1 4 : 5 8 ; p o s s i b l y I s a 5 3 : 7 in 1 4 : 6 0 ; I s a 5 3 : 6 ( L X X ) in 1 5 : 1 5 ; I s a 5 0 : 2 f in 1 5 : 3 3 ; Isa 5 3 : 9 in 1 5 : 4 3 a n d 4 6 . K e e ' s ' l o w e s t ' c a t e g o r y , 'influences', h a s D n 7 : 2 1 , 2 5 in 1 4 : 2 1 ; 1 0 : 1 6 - 1 9 in 14:34ff; a n d 7 : 2 5 in 1 4 : 3 5 ; w h i l e I s a 5 3 : 3 - 5 is s e e n in 1 4 : 6 5 . W e i g h t i n g this, for the sake of a r g u m e n t 3-2-1, gives Daniel '10' c o m p a r e d to the so-called Songs's '18'.

Vorster,

'Function

of OT in

23

Mark'

3 4 / 3 5 - 4 3 ; 6 : 7 - 1 3 / 1 4 - 2 9 / 3 0 ; and 1 1 : 1 2 - 1 4 / 1 5 - 1 9 / 2 0 - 3 5 . It is hard to believe that this is M a r k ' s intention. G o u l d e r p r o v i d e s i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s o n the O T b a c k g r o u n d o f different events. H o w e v e r , in terms o f his overall hypothesis, perhaps the m o s t telling aspect is the c o n s i d e r a b l e u n c e r t a i n t y a n d fluidity o f the weekly readings which, w h e n c o m b i n e d with the concerns a b o v e , tends to call the w h o l e rather inflexible construction into q u e s t i o n .

14

I) W. S. Vorster, 'The Function of the Old Testament in Mark' (1981) W . S. V o r s t e r ' s article reflects the trend a w a y from Redaktions-geschichte to narrative analysis. His contention is that M a r k uses the O T as a 'literary' m e a n s to put across his narrative point o f view. R e m i n i s c e n t o f S u h l , V o r s t e r ' s M a r k is l i k e w i s e not interested in promise-fulfilment nor w i t h t h e O T c o n t e x t (for e x a m p l e , l : 2 f ) , b u t i n s t e a d w a n t s to e s t a b l i s h 'perspectives through w h ic h the reader is presented with this story' (p. 6 2 ) . A l t h o u g h M a r k e s c h e w s using the O T within the promise-fulfilment s c h e m a , h i s G o s p e l is s t r u c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g to p r e d i c t i o n - f u l f i l m e n t techniques. M a r k 14:27f c o n t a i n s c o m b i n e d p r e d i c t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , v e r s e 2 7 from Z e c h a r i a h 13:7 a n d v e r s e 2 8 from J e s u s himself, w h i c h respectively find fulfilment in 14:49 and 16:7f. T h e significant point is that ' t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s form p a r t o f the M a r k a n n a r r a t i v e o f J e s u s and are fulfilled in that narrative' (p. 70). For Vorster, this ' e m b e d d e d n e s s ' in the narrative is further b o r n e out b y Pryke's observation that M a r k s o m e t i m e s suspends his quotation in the m i d d l e o f a s e n t e n c e , so that 'they sound as if they are the w o r d s o f the narrator or narrated figure although they stand in p a r e n t h e s i s ' (ibid.). Similarly, M a r k l : 2 f d o e s not present J o h n ' s history as fulfilment but simply as part o f the story o f Jesus. T h e fact that the great majority o f O T quotations are o n the lips o f J e s u s is taken b y Vorster as further support for his narrative theory. 1 5

16

W h i l e it is true that M a r k ' s avoids M a t t h e a n fulfilment interjections, this h a r d l y d e m o n s t r a t e s that M a r k is u n i n t e r e s t e d in fulfilment: t h e criticisms applied to S u h l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f O T p r o p h e t i c literature also pertain here. G r a n t e d too M a r k ' s general confinement o f O T quotations a n d their ' f u l f i l m e n t s ' to t h e n a r r a t i v e , this o n l y tells u s a b o u t h i s n a r r a t i v e s t y l e ; it d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w t h a t h e is t h e r e b y disinterested in O T Heilsgeschichte. Vorster's attempt to reconcile M a r k ' s

1

4

1

5

1

6

Cf. his a d m i s s i o n in Midrash, 227n2. E . g . l : 2 f a s p r e d i c t i o n , cf. l : 4 f f a s f u l f i l m e n t ; s o 1:7 a n d l:9ff; c i t i n g P e t e r s e n , Literary, 49ff. 1:1-4; 7 : 6 - 8 ; 1 0 : 5 - 8 ; 1 4 : 2 7 f ; P r y k e , Redactional, 37.

24

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

lack of fulfilment formula vis-a-vis Matthew, with his apparent p r e d i c t i o n / f u l f i l m e n t structure is, therefore, ultimately unconvincing. m) J. D. M . Derrett, The Making of Mark (1985) J. D. M . Derrett's c o m m e n t a r y constitutes another reading o f M a r k through the grid o f the first 'trek' o f Israel from Egypt to C a n a a n . Involving an e x o d u s , a n invasion, and a triumph, J e s u s is presented as a second and greater M o s e s / J o s h u a . T h i s G o s p e l ' o f s e r m o n o u t l i n e s ' is to b e interpreted on the basis of precise passage b y passage parallels to sections of the H e x a t e u c h — n a m e l y the first half o f E x o d u s , parts o f N u m b e r s , and nearly all o f Joshua—although 1 S a m u e l , Lamentations, Canticles, Daniel, Isaiah 5 3 , and P s a l m 22 influence later chapters. T h e c o m p l e x citation at t h e o u t s e t ( M k l : 2 f ) — M a r k ' s o n l y explicit editorial u s e o f t h e O T — m e r e l y serves to inform us that h e intends to d r a w from all three sections o f the J e w i s h Scripture. O n the other h a n d , the s i n g l e w o r d d T r c ' x e i in t h e G e t h s e m a n e a c c o u n t recalls Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t in D e u t e r o n o m y 1:6 and 2:3 that the first trek is about to end. Likewise, passing over the question of the possible significance o f the clear-cut O T quotation in the parables section, Derrett proceeds instead into a highly speculative haggadah on the m a n n a traditions. A s this Chapter has suggested, the idea that M a r k ' s gospel o w e s a great deal to Israel's history appears to have a solid basis. But Derrett's quixotic j o u r n e y p r o c e e d s along s u c h subtle p a t h s that it b e c o m e s increasingly difficult to follow h i m , not least because his eclectic method and ingenious use o f material a p p e a r to lack any consistent controls. T o o m u c h is built o n the s c a n t i e s t allusion a n d insufficient attention g i v e n to c l e a r O T parallels for Derrett's undoubtedly innovative reading to carry conviction. n) M. D. Hooker,

'Mark'

(1988)

A l t h o u g h at first sight M a r k a p p e a r s to m a k e little u s e o f t h e O T , M . D . H o o k e r r e c o g n i s e s that this is largely b e c a u s e o f his distinctive approach. Not only is the opening quotation significant, 'his story is good n e w s precisely b e c a u s e it is the fulfilment o f Scripture', but ' J e s u s ' w o r d s a n d a c t i v i t i e s c o n s t a n t l y e c h o O T s c e n e s a n d l a n g u a g e , until w h a t is "written" o f the S o n o f M a n (9:12; 10:21) is finally fulfilled' (p. 220). D u e to space limitations. H o o k e r ' s article focuses on M a r k ' s use o f the Pentateuch, and thereby his v i e w of the law. In the conflict o v e r the P h a r i s e e s ' and s c r i b e s ' traditions, M a r k 7:1-23 s h o w s that while J e s u s upholds the L a w (vv. 1-13; cf. N u 30:2; Dt 23:21-23) his authority is e v e n greater than that o f the L a w (vv. 14-23). T h e s a m e is b o r n e o u t in e x a m i n a t i o n s o f 12:18ff a n d 2 8 - 3 4 (p. 2 2 4 ) , and s e v e r a l P e n t a t e u c h a l allusions (2:1-10; 2:23 - 3:6; cf. 1:44). T h r e e other allusions

Roth,

Hebrew

Gospel

25

recalling incidents in M o s e s ' life serve likewise to demonstrate that J e s u s is either M o s e s ' successor (6:34, cf. N u 27:17) or his superior (9:2-13; cf. E x 24:15f; Dt 18:15), w h i l e 9:38-40 (cf. N u 11:26-29) s h o w s J e s u s acting as did Moses. M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' r e l a t i o n s h i p to the L a w is therefore s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s , and results at least o n c e in J e s u s a b r o g a t i n g o n e aspect of the L a w (10:10ff; cf. also 7:19). Since such challenges o c c u r in private, they reflect the fact that 'neither J e s u s nor the earliest generation of Christians regarded the teaching of M o s e s abrogated ... but interpretation ... led inevitably to the point o f rupture—a point w h i c h had not yet b e e n reached w h e n M a r k w r o t e ' (p. 228). H o o k e r ' s observation that M a r k ' s J e s u s is faithful to the L a w and yet above it, judges b y the L a w and yet decisively re-evaluates it w h e n his o w n acts are called into question, is well put, and accurately reflects the tensions in a c o m m u n i t y c o m i n g to terms with past and present. On a smaller point, h o w e v e r , it is n o t entirely o b v i o u s that J e s u s ' abrogations are s o p r i v a t e as to b e left for a later g e n e r a t i o n to resolve, s i n c e the p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s a n d their c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n s c a n h a r d l y b e r e c o n c i l e d w i t h M o s e s (7:14f and 10:5ff). B e this as it m a y , the ' t e n s i o n ' inherent in the response o f M a r k ' s J e s u s to the L a w is not dissimilar to K e e ' s account o f M a r k ' s larger s c h e m e o f 'redefinition'. B o t h p h e n o m e n a suggest that an i m p o r t a n t M a r k a n c o n c e r n is the question o f h o w past traditions a n d expectations a r e to b e reconciled with w h a t M a r k is c o n v i n c e d is their present fulfilment. o) W. Roth Hebrew Gospel: Cracking the Code of Mark (1988). Inspired b y several M a r k a n features, n a m e l y , the expectation that 'Elijah must c o m e first' ( M k 9:11-13), M a r k ' s introduction (Ex 23:20 and Mai 3:1), and his portrayal o f the Baptist, W . R o t h ' s suggestion is that the G o s p e l ' s 'conceptual-narrative p a r a d i g m ' follows 1 K i n g s 17 to 2 Kings 13 such that J e s u s ' Elisha plays successor to J o h n ' s Elijah as they re-establish the L o r d ' s reign. Accordingly, the Gospel is c o m p o s e d o f four a c t s — C o m m i s s i o n i n g of the K i n g d o m ' s Bringer (1:1-13), his Authentication ( 1 : 1 4 - 7 : 3 7 ) , Confrontation with Apostasy (8:1 - 1 5 : 3 9 ) , and Vindication (15:40 - 1 6 : 8 ) . E v i d e n c e is found in J e s u s ' sixteen m i r a c l e s u p to 7:37 ( e q u a l l i n g Elisha's miracles, cf. ' a l l ' in 2 K g s 8 : 4 / M k 7:37), and parallel feedings, M k 6:32ff/2 Kgs 4:42f, and resuscitations, M k 5:21ff/2 K g s 4:18ff). Just as Elisha extends Elijah's miracles b y eight, so too J e s u s e x t e n d s E l i s h a ' s (but n o t J o h n ' s ? ) b y e i g h t (after 7:37 a n d including the r e n d i n g o f t h e T e m p l e curtain). A s Elisha traversed the land after the departure of his 'master', so also Jesus after J o h n ' s egress. Further, J e s u s ' preaching of the ' g o o d n e w s '

26

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

e c h o e s the four l e p e r s ' a n n o u n c e m e n t in 2 K i n g s 7:9, a n d ' r e p e n t and b e l i e v e ' r e p r e s e n t s ' t h e invitation to accept the scriptural p a r a d i g m o f divine intervention that the gospel p r e s e n t s ' (p. 1 1 , p r e s u m a b l y 1-2 K g s ) . The seed parable's ' o n e hundred fold' recalls 2 Kings 1:9-12 (two fifties) and 18:13, and thus the three ' p o o r ' soils e c h o the responses o f Jezebel, A h a b , and J e h o r a m . Peter's threefold denial before the cock c r o w s twice reflects Elijah's threefold refusal to leave Elisha and his two-fold e n d o w m e n t with, his master's spirit. If this s e e m s esoteric it is only because it is inherent in M a r k ' s parabolic enterprise w h i c h is 'pointedly a j o u r n e y o f discovery b y speaking the secret o f the kingdom—without ever unveiling it' (p. 19). Roth is correct in interpreting J e s u s ' miracles within the O T prophetic tradition rather than H e l l e n i s m , but e v e n so, m o s t o f his parallels s e e m either forced, co-incidental (does J u d a s ' kiss really echo the kissing o f Baal in 1 K g s 19:18?), or due to the broad intertextuality o f biblical themes (cf. pp. 92ff). H i s p a r a d i g m fails to take seriously M a r k ' s o n e clear editorial citation—Malachi's Elijah does not precede a n e w Elisha—and his outline cuts across otherwise clear indications o f literary structure (e.g. the ' W a y ' section) or thematic markers (Jesus' only two confrontations w i t h leaders from J e r u s a l e m — b o t h i m p o r t a n t a n d b o t h o u t s i d e J e r u s a l e m — o c c u r before R o t h ' s 'Confrontation' section). 7

p) R. Schneck, Isaiah in the Gospel of Mark, I-VIII (1994)A R. S c h n e c k ' s thesis g r o w s out o f the contrasting claims o f M . A . B e a v i s (Isaiah is M a r k ' s favourite book) and A . C. Sundberg (Daniel is p r i m a r y ) , finding in favour o f Beavis. Noting allusions to Isaiah in e v e r y chapter o f M a r k , S c h n e c k also finds extensive parallels b e t w e e n the t h e m e s o f the original Isaianic context and the M a r k a n setting. This indicates that M a r k uses O T t e x t s s u c h that their o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t s inform h i s n a r r a t i v e (pp. 2 4 5 f ) . T h e s a m e applies to c o m b i n e d citations. M a r k does this not only b e c a u s e Jesus fulfils O T hopes (pace Suhl; p . 249) but also because h e is following J e s u s ' o w n use o f Scripture (with Dodd; p. 251). O v e r a r c h i n g O T m o d e l s for M a r k are rejected, h o w e v e r , since ' w e can hardly e x p e c t to discover that any N T author w o u l d e v e r u s e the Isaian 18

1 9

2 0

1

7

A r e v i s i o n o f h i s 1 9 9 2 t h e s i s , S c h n e c k ' s w o r k c a m e t o m y a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g t h e final stages of the p r e p a r a t i o n of this book. C o n s e q u e n t l y , I h a v e b e e n u n a b l e to interact e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h S c h n e c k in t h e b o d y o f m y e a r l y C h a p t e r s , a l t h o u g h c o m m e n t m a y b e f o u n d in t h e f o o t n o t e s . 1 8

R e s p e c t i v e l y , Literary, 1 1 0 , a n d T e s t i m o n i e s ' , 2 7 4 , c i t e d o n p . 1. I s a i a h in p a r e n t h e s e s : M a r k 1:1a ( 4 0 : 9 ) , 2 - 3 ( 4 0 : 3 ) , 1 0 ( 6 3 : 1 9 a ) , 1 1 ( 4 2 : 1 ) ; 2 : 7 ( 4 3 : 2 5 26), 1 6 - 2 0 (58:2-7), 2 0 (58:8); 3:27 (49:24-25); 4:12 (6:9-10), 2 4 (Tg. 27:8); 5:1-20 (65:1-7); 6:344 4 (55:1-3), 3 9 - 4 0 (25:6), 5 2 (6:9-10); 7:6-7 (29:13), 3 2 (35:5); 8:17b (6:9-10), a n d 2 5 (42:6-7). W i t h M a r c u s b u t pace J u e l , Messianic. 1 9

2

0

Analysis

27

c o r p u s as a m o d e l or p a r a d i g m ... in c o m p o s i n g a n e w w r i t i n g ' (p. 3) because 'the prophetic material is quite diverse and the different pericopae do not appear to b e organically constructed' (ibid). It is not clear, however, that a m o d e l or p a r a d i g m m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e ' l i t e r a r y ' — I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 m a k e s considerable use o f the E x o d u s 'event'. Given, too, the prologue's function in a n t i q u i t y , that M a r k ' s is replete with imagery from Isaiah 4 0 66 (pp. 40ff, 60ff) surely implies something about his overall agenda. W h i l e not e v e r y identification is equally convincing (for e x a m p l e , Isa 53:2-7 in 2:16-17 and 53:8 in 2:20), Schneck marshals considerable support for his case—at least for M a r k 1-8. This limitation is problematic since Schneck cites K e e ' s study on M a r k 11-16 but fails to mention K e e ' s support for a p r i m a r i l y D a n i e l l i c i n f l u e n c e ; i n d e e d , t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e is n o t discussed. Nevertheless, S c h n e c k ' s work is w e l c o m e since at the least h e s h o w s not only that Isaiah is o f considerable importance for M a r k , but also provides good evidence to suggest that M a r k was aware o f the O T context. 21

III. Analysis N u m e r o u s studies o n M a r k ' s u s e o f the O T have e x a m i n e d his technique (Suhl, K e e , Vorster, S c h n e c k ) , his view o f the L a w (Schulz, H o o k e r ) , the i m p a c t o f O T Heilsgeschichte (Farrer, P i p e r , H o b b s , S w a r t l e y , D e r r e t t , Roth), the influence o f J e w i s h / C h r i s t i a n religious observance (Carrington, B o w m a n , G o u l d e r ) , and his attitude to fulfilment (Suhl, Ander s on, K e e , Vorster, Schneck). Several features emerge. In terms o f technique, M a r k tends to conflate O T references and to place them at critical points in his argument (Kee). H e not only avoids editorial interjections, b u t h a s the great majority o f O T quotations in the m o u t h o f Jesus. L o n g e r quotations are not infrequently suspended in mid-sentence (Vorster). M a r k al s o prefers certain c a t e g o r i e s o f texts for particular concerns: the Torah w h e n h e re-defines the L a w (Kee, H o o k e r ) , Isaiah and Zechariah with regard to the re-definition o f G o d ' s n e w people, and Daniel and Isaiah w h e n re-defining redemption (Kee). M a r k ' s v i e w o f J e s u s ' relationship to t h e O T L a w is n o t o f major concern in this b o o k , except to note that M a r k ' s Jesus judges his critics b y its standards, and yet decisively re-evaluates it in the light o f his o w n p e r s o n a n d m i s s i o n ( H o o k e r ) . It m a y n o t surprise us then if M a r k ' s understanding o f the O T reflects a similar approach.

2

1

See C h a p t e r 2, 54f.

28

Scholarship

on OT in

Mark

A n u m b e r of scholars observed the influence o f Israel's Heilsgeschichte on Mark, n o t a b l y the E x o d u s , suggesting that h e intends to present the message and person o f Jesus in such terms. In a n u m b e r o f cases there is g o o d e v i d e n c e that this is so. H o w e v e r , the scholars reviewed have b e e n m o r e successful in d e m o n s t r a t i n g this influence o n individual sections than o n t h e t h e o l o g y and literary structure o f the G o s p e l as a w h o l e . Further, there has often been little effort to integrate M a r k ' s explicit uses of O T texts w i t h t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s p r o p o s e d ( S w a r t l e y is a partexception). On balance, no suggestion along these lines has been satisfactory, lectionary and n e w haggadah hypotheses even less so. In v i e w o f b o t h the teleological aspect o f the p r o p h e t s and M a r k ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e interest in t h e m (especially Isaiah) it is likely that h e has fulfilment in m i n d (Kee, H o o k e r , Schneck; pace Suhl, A n d e r s o n , Vorster). A r g u m e n t s to the contrary tend either to j u d g e M a r k in terms o f M a t t h e w or appear to suffer from a predisposed point o f view. It s e e m s M a r k , at least in the case o f Isaiah, uses O T texts to allude to their original contexts with the a i m of illuminating his o w n narrative (Schneck). Given the sometimes overly complex, contrived, a n d / o r selective nature o f the analyses surveyed, D. E . N i n e h a m ' s early scepticism as to the existence o f any 'single and entirely coherent masterplan' for M a r k might appear justified. S i m i l a r reservations are e x p r e s s e d b y M a r t i n w h o approvingly cites J . M . Robinson's critique of such approaches in that their 'argument is not built upon w h a t M a r k clearly and repeatedly has to say, b u t u p o n inferences as to the basis o f the M a r c a n order, a subject u p o n which M a r k is s i l e n t ' . R o b i n s o n has put his finger on an important matter: does M a r k really remain silent as to his order? It is generally agreed that certain sections o f the G o s p e l betray c o n s c i o u s structuring, for e x a m p l e , the ' W a y ' section. But if here, w h y not elsewhere? A n d w h y , for instance, d o nearly all the miracles o c c u r o n l y in the first eight chapters? T h e difficulty with the scepticism expressed b y N i n e h a m and others is that it is based o n negative e v i d e n c e . A critique o f the m o d e l s offered to date d o e s n o t p r o v i d e grounds for denying the possibility that M a r k m a y h a v e had an outline in mind. All that can b e said is that these models do not adequately describe the data. Is there a w a y forward? This b o o k suggests that there is. A n d it is to b e found in t e r m s o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t and ideology's role in maintaining social cohesion. 22

23

2

2

2

3

Mark, 2 9 ; c i t i n g C a d b u r y , Making, 8 0 , w h o a s s e r t s t h a t t h e r e 'is s c a r c e l y a n y thorough-going theological theory that permeates the whole narrative'. Evangelist, 9 1 ; a n d History, 1 2 .

Chapter 2: History as Hermeneutic: Ideology and Community Self-Understanding Inherent

in ideology's

energies

of a group's

schema

by which

that various interpretative elements

the group

texts

framework.

is the mediation

moment.

defines

and motifs

schema, of that

social function founding

This provides

and understands

become

associated

their use in a given

schema

and

Mark's

thereby

literary

provides

of the ideals an

itself.

To the

with elements

of

context

to

serves

an implicit

use of OT texts may function

and

interpretative

this

extent this invoke

hermeneutical way.

I. Introduction In his ground-breaking b o o k o n J e s u s ' parables, K e n n e t h Bailey stresses the i m p o r t a n c e o f c o m m o n tacit k n o w l e d g e in the interaction b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d his a u d i e n c e . Englishman

relates

B y w a y o f illustration, h e e x p l a i n s t h a t w h e n the

tale

of King Arthur

and

Camelot

to

an his

c o u n t r y m e n , e v e r y o n e k n o w s exactly h o w the characters are e x p e c t e d to act. For example, knights obey the king, carry out daring quests, and rescue damsels in distress.

L i k e w i s e , castles, dark forests, and so on, are n e v e r

explained b u t are s i m p l y a s s u m e d as familiar images. This p o o l of shared expectations a n d s t o c k figures constitutes the ' g r a n d p i a n o ' u p o n w h i c h the English story teller deftly plays. I m a g i n e t h e n a n E n g l i s h m a n t e l l i n g t h e s a m e s t o r y a b o u t Sir L a n c e l o t t o A l a s k a n E s k i m o s . O b v i o u s l y t h e m u s i c o f t h e " g r a n d p i a n o " will n o t b e h e a r d b e c a u s e t h e p i a n o is in t h e m i n d s o f t h e E n g l i s h l i s t e n e r s w h o s h a r e a c o m m o n c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r y w i t h t h e s t o r y teller. I n t h e c a s e o f t h e p a r a b l e s o f J e s u s , we are the Eskimos.*

Bailey's thesis is that in order to appreciate fully the point o f J e s u s ' parables w e too m u s t enter into their world of shared expectations w h e r e e v e r y o n e k n o w s h o w a rich m a n o u g h t to b e h a v e , h o w the S a m a r i t a n s are b e n e a t h contempt, and h o w seasonal pressures w e i g h heavily u p o n a day labourer seeking w o r k in an agrarian society. Only then will w e b e in a position to identify those 'points o f reference'—usually stereotypical characters and situations—which 1

Through,

xiv.

aroused

in

the

original

hearers

the

particular

30

History

as

Hermeneutic

e x p e c t a t i o n s , g e n e r a t e d a n d c o n d i t i o n e d b y the daily interplay o f social roles a n d m o r e s , u p o n w h i c h the point of the story turns.

It is these

u n s t a t e d b u t u n i v e r s a l l y k n o w n e x p e c t a t i o n s . Bailey a r g u e s , that

the

parables p r e s u p p o s e and against which they are told such that their 'main p o i n t s , c l i m a x e s , b i t s o f h u m o r (sic), a n d i r o n y are all h e i g h t e n e d b y " v a r i a t i o n s o n a t h e m e , " that is, b y c h a n g i n g , r e i n f o r c i n g , rejecting, intensifying, etc., the k n o w n pattern of attitude and b e h a v i o u r . '

2

T h e a i m o f this C h a p t e r is to s u g g e s t that a s i m i l a r a p p r o a c h m a y explain aspects o f M a r k ' s use o f O T texts and images.

P e r h a p s they too

function as k e y s o n a larger ' g r a n d p i a n o ' so that M a r k ' s ' m a i n points, climaxes ... and i r o n y ' are also ' h e i g h t e n e d ... b y c h a n g i n g , reinforcing, rejecting, intensifying, etc., the k n o w n p a t t e r n ' not, h o w e v e r , o f social 'attitude and behaviour', but of a similarly assumed pattern of O T interpretation and e x p e c t a t i o n .

3

As briefly stated in the 'Introduction', it w a s while studying at a North A m e r i c a n S e m i n a r y that I e x p e r i e n c e d h o w this m i g h t w o r k .

During a

lecture o n e o f m y A m e r i c a n professors underlined his point with a brief statement w h i c h included the phrase 'four score and seven years a g o ' . T h e class responded to this as one, whereas I failed to see the relevance o f this additional and archaically phrased comment.

O v e r m o r n i n g coffee, I

asked w h a t had h a p p e n e d eighty-seven years ago, and w a s m e t with blank puzzlement.

T h i s surprised m e . Further discussion w a s just as unhelpful

until the p h r a s e w a s retranslated b a c k into the original.

Immediately a

2

Ibid. S e e a l s o B a x a n d a l l , Painting, w h e r e h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e 1 5 t h C . I t a l i a n p a i n t e r s p r e s u p p o s e d their c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ' sensitivity to the influence of significant social trends such as the m o r a l i s m of religious preaching, the p a g e a n t r y of social dancing, the s h r e w d n e s s o f c o m m e r c i a l g a u g i n g , a n d t h e r e n e w a l o f i n t e r e s t in t h e g r a n d e u r o f L a t i n o r a t o r y t h a t w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i r t i m e . T h u s B a x a n d a l l s e e s in G i o v a n n i B e l l i n n i ' s w o r k a n example of the 'interaction b e t w e e n the painting and the visualising activity of the public m i n d — a p u b l i c m i n d w i t h d i f f e r e n t f u r n i t u r e a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s f r o m o u r s ' , 4 8 . It is this ' p u b l i c m i n d ' t h a t p r o v i d e d t h e t r u e m e d i u m f o r t h e p a i n t e r , i.e. t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e a u d i e n c e t o s e e m e a n i n g in h i s w o r k . O n t h e c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n l i t e r a t u r e a n d a r t in this respect see Ricoeur, 'Function'. 3

In its c o n c e r n w i t h t h e w a y in w h i c h t e x t s a n d i m a g e s f u n c t i o n e d in i n v o k i n g e l e m e n t s o f a g e n e r a l i s e d first c e n t u r y J e w i s h w o r l d - v i e w , t h i s s t u d y c o m p l e m e n t s b o t h B u r r i d g e ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e G o s p e l s , What?, a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e G r a e c o - R o m a n g e n r e , p i o i , a n d t h e w o r k of o t h e r s w h o a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e r e a d e r s ' ( h e a r e r s ' ) e d u c a t i o n a n d l i t e r a r y k n o w l e d g e , cf. e . g . B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated; B e a v i s , Audience; a n d T o l b e r t , Sowing. For a more c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c w o r l d - v i e w in q u e s t i o n a l s o f r o m w i t h i n a n a r r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , s e e n o w W r i g h t , People.

31

Introduction

chorus o f recognition informed m e that this w a s the first line o f A b r a h a m Lincoln's Gettysburg address. S p e a k i n g at the dedication o f the national c e m e t e r y h o n o u r i n g the site of arguably the greatest battle in the A m e r i c a n Civil W a r , Lincoln, in this t i m e of great crisis, r e m i n d e d his hearers o f the ideals u p o n w h i c h the nation w a s founded.

It w a s fidelity to these ideals, Lincoln suggested, that

not only justified the N o r t h ' s c o m m i t m e n t to its present c o u r s e o f action, a n d thereby sanctified the deaths o f these thousands o f her m e n , but also s u m m o n e d h e r to e v e n greater efforts.

O n l y in so doing c o u l d the North

lay true claim to the heritage o f W a s h i n g t o n , Jefferson, and others.

Here

then, in spite o f e m p l o y i n g a m e r e ten sentences scribbled o u t during the train ride to the site, L i n c o l n m a n a g e d in a m o s t e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a y to e n c o m p a s s the s w e e p o f A m e r i c a n self-understanding and to capture the n a t i o n ' s s e n s e o f destiny.

T h i s , I d i s c o v e r e d , w a s w h a t 'four score a n d

seven . . . ' really m e a n t in that lecture room setting. Several points s h o u l d b e n o t e d . the first line o f a f a m o u s address.

O b v i o u s l y the part-citation refers to But it clearly d o e s m u c h m o r e .

The

phrase is a pointer not merely to the text o f Lincoln's speech b u t instead to the ' h i s t o r y ' w h i c h that s p e e c h b o t h a s s u m e s and interprets.

A n d this

'history' is not m e r e l y the i m m e d i a t e event o f Gettysburg or e v e n the Civil W a r , but instead the setting o f these events within the broader c o m p a s s o f U.S. 'history' as a w h o l e .

Furthermore, this broader setting is predicated

on those founding e v e n t s to w h i c h Lincoln himself alludes. E v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , this ' h i s t o r y ' is not the ' o b j e c t i v e ' , detailed, e v e n q u i e s c e n t v e r s i o n o f t h e a c a d e m i c elite, b u t r a t h e r a p o p u l a r i s t , highly processed and digested, yet pungent and persuasive 'history', cast in terms of the p a r a m e t e r s set b y the F o u n d i n g Fathers m y t h o l o g y .

4

That is,

although the text is a part-citation, its primary function is to allude to a n d therefore to i n v o k e , a p o w e r f u l h e r m e n e u t i c a l f r a m e w o r k

originating

w i t h the F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s , n a m e l y , the i d e o l o g i c a l l y s h a p e d recounting o f the ' e s s e n c e ' o f U . S . history.

popular

In this s e n s e the part-citation

functions very m u c h like the 'point o f reference' in a parable.

4

T h r o u g h o u t t h i s C h a p t e r ' m y t h ' is u s e d n o t t o i m p l y falsity o r d e c e p t i o n , b u t r a t h e r t h a t w h i c h in a t t e m p t i n g t o d r a w o u t a s fully a s p o s s i b l e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a n e v e n t t e n d s t o w a r d the heroic a n d poetic.

32

History

as

Hermeneutic

T h e procedure is almost unconscious. Again, as in the case of Bailey's account o f the parables, it seemingly requires n o great mental effort on the part o f informed listeners to m a k e the n e c e s s a r y c o n n e c t i o n — i t s i m p l y strikes t h e right c h o r d on the h e a r e r ' s m e n t a l ' g r a n d p i a n o ' .

T h e point

b e i n g , h o w e v e r , that the w h o l e p r o c e s s p r e s u p p o s e s a tutored a u d i e n c e whom

it is s i m p l y a s s u m e d

will m a k e the right

c o n n e c t i o n s ; the

untutored (such as this Australian) occupying the place TOU 16IOJTOU. O n l y t h e barest m i n i m u m o f ' t e x t ' w a s s u p p l i e d .

T h e extent o f the

a l l u s i o n / c i t a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d primarily b y the n e e d to e n s u r e that the correct c o n n e c t i o n is m a d e — w i t h p e r h a p s s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n for g o o d style. S i n c e in this case it is a part-citation, style is already fixed, b u t the archaic character o f the expression naturally aids identification. In spite of its apparently fragmentary form, these few w o r d s are perfectly adequate to the task. This particular instance serves to illustrate the w a y in w h i c h the true significance of a brief and e v e n fragmentary citation m a y g o far b e y o n d w h a t m i g h t otherwise appear to b e the case.

A l t h o u g h to the untutored

the c i t a t i o n m i g h t s e e m o f little i m p o r t a n c e , the fact r e m a i n s that to trained h e a r e r s it h a s considerable allusive p o w e r and t h e r e b y serves to i n v o k e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework. T h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l o g y m a y h e l p to e x p l a i n the m e c h a n i c s o f the process.

S u p p o s e a g i v e n h i s t o r y is r e p r e s e n t e d b y a j o u r n e y t a k e n

t h r o u g h a n e x p a n s e o f land.

T h e r e are c e r t a i n features: hills, v a l l e y s ,

grassy plains, u n u s u a l bluffs, small trees, large forests, rivers, m o u n t a i n s , deserts, a n d so on, w h i c h represent c o n c r e t e e v e n t s . A t t e m p t i n g to c o m p r e h e n d this history corresponds to m a p p i n g the j o u r n e y , a n d j u s t as all m a p s h a v e to b e selective as to which features are to b e included, s o too a given history must

also m a k e j u d g e m e n t s

as t o w h i c h e v e n t s

are

significant (crossing a lake) a n d w h i c h are not (stepping o v e r a p u d d l e ) . C o m p l e t i n g the a n a l o g y , i m a g i n e a grid s y s t e m o v e r l a y e d o n t h e m a p w h i c h e n a b l e s easy reference to its various parts, and allow that this grid system represents various texts describing or interacting with those events. N o w neither the m a p n o r the grid system are real in the sense that the events t h e y ' m a p ' are real.

T h e grid reference ('four score and s e v e n ' ) is

simply a shorthand w a y o f using the grid system (here including L i n c o l n ' s address) to refer to the m a p (the schematised version o f significant events)

33

Introduction

that is designed to m a k e sense o f the j o u r n e y through the landscape (the c o u r s e o f the m y r i a d events t h e m s e l v e s ) .

T h e point here is that neither

the citations / a l l u s i o n s n o r the texts they point to exist alone.

T h e y find

their m e a n i n g w i t h i n the larger interpretation o f that o n - g o i n g history w h i ch the texts themselves presuppose and with w hi ch they interact. Returning to M a r k , I suggest that his 'grand p i a n o ' is a schematised interpretive ' m a p ' o f Israel's ' h i s t o r y ' a n d that his O T part-citations or a l l u s i o n s m a y function as ' g r i d r e f e r e n c e s ' to that m a p w h i c h g i v e s expression and order to Israel's interpretation of h e r history, n a m e l y the O T . In other words, it m a y well b e that M a r k uses s o m e of his O T texts in m u c h the s a m e w a y as L i n c o l n or m y Professor used their 'points o f reference'; that is, to indicate to his h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s w h a t particular aspect of their c o m m o n tacit u n d e r s t a n d i n g

h e h a s in m i n d .

This, of course,

raises the s a m e problem Bailey refers to: h o w are w e , as ' E s k i m o s ' listening to M a r k ' s ' C a m e l o t ' , to u n c o v e r the n a t u r e and c o n t e n t o f this tacit knowledge? H o w might it b e structured, and what is its basis? T h e first question will b e addressed throughout the following several Chapters as w e s e e k to ascertain the significance o f particular O T texts within Israel's larger historical self-understanding.

T h e s e c o n d question

occupies the remainder o f this Chapter, which is an attempt to lay out in a 5

s u m m a r y m a n n e r h o w social t h e o r y m a y go s o m e w a y toward providing a theoretical e x p l a n a t i o n o f this p r o c e s s . Function

of Ideology)

6

T h e first section (The

Social

outlines the w a y in which, according to J a c q u e s Ellul

and Paul R i c o e u r , i d e o l o g y facilitates social cohesion. particularly through

i d e o l o g y ' s revivification

T h i s is effected

o f the g r o u p ' s

founding

m o m e n t such that it b e c o m e s A ) the shared and almost unconscious basis of t h e g r o u p ' s self-definition a n d B ) its i n t e r p r e t a t i v e understanding

the w o r l d .

7

framework

for

In order to do this, h o w e v e r , the g r o u p ' s

ideology m u s t b e inculcated from birth. This requires that it b e accessible 5

F o r sage warnings on the dangers of positivism, reductionism, relativism, and deter m i n i s m i n h e r e n t i n t h e u n c r i t i c a l u s e o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e m o d e l s , s e e H e r i o n ' s r e m a r k s in 'Reconstruction'. D o d d ' s d i s c u s s i o n . According, r e f e r s t o t h e s h a r e d Weltanschauung of O T and N T authors but does not g o b e y o n d a surface probing of the matter; see below. T o s p e a k b l a n d l y o f a c o m m u n i t y ' s ' i d e o l o g y ' , a s if it w e r e o n e h o m o g e n o u s a n d indivisible w h o l e , clearly d o e s n o t d o justice to the m o r e c o m p l e x , v a r i e g a t e d , a n d a m o r p h o u s n a t u r e o f t h e r e a l i t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f this e x e r c i s e it s e e m s justifiable t o t r e a t a s a u n i t t h o s e m a j o r c o n s t r u c t s a b o u t w h i c h t h e g r o u p w o u l d b e in b r o a d agreement. 6

7

34

History

to all m e m b e r s o f the group. schematised icon

as

Consequently, ideology's re-telling m u s t b e

into digestible ' s l o g a n s ' .

and t h e symbol

Hermeneutic

T h e m e d i a o f this s c h e m a are the

w h i c h , b y m e a n s o f iconic

augmentation,

s e r v e as

shorthand references to ideology's larger interpretive framework. T h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n (Ideology

and Crisis)

examines what

transpires

w h e n a c o m m u n i t y ' s present experience contradicts the future projected b y its i d e o l o g y .

G i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e link w i t h the

founding m o m e n t , and therefore the c o m m u n i t y ' s heritage, o n e approach is to re-present

the prevailing ideology w h e r e b y p r e v i o u s l y u n c o n n e c t e d

' i c o n s ' are j u x t a p o s e d so as to explain the unexpected present.

However,

the n e w w a y s o f seeing reality engendered b y these juxtapositions m a y b e rejected b y m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y if they e x c e e d its doxic

threshold.

T h i s m a y lead to a debate o v e r w h o are the heirs o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s traditions w h i c h is then carried out in terms of fidelity to the m o r e s o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t .

T h e C h a p t e r concludes w i t h an outline

of h o w this model might explain aspects o f M a r k ' s use of the O T .

II. The Social Function of Ideology a) Ideology:

A Provisional

Definition

T h e issues involved in the continuing debate s u r r o u n d i n g the definition of 'ideology' 8

8

a n d its relationship to ' m y t h ' a n d ' u t o p i a n t h o u g h t '

are

T h e t e r m , g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n c o i n e d b y D e s t u t t d e T r a c y in 1 7 9 6 t o r e f e r to a science of ideas that w o u l d allow the reconstruction of society on a rational basis, w a s s o o n u s e d p e j o r a t i v e l y t o d e s c r i b e ' a n a i v e l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t , n o t a b l e for its a b s t r a c t n e a t n e s s b u t lacking a genuine understanding of the c o m p l e x givens of h u m a n nature a n d of historical r e a l i t y ' , B l u h m , Ideologies, 2 , b e f o r e b e i n g d e n o u n c e d b y M a r x a s a d e s t r u c t i v e f a l s e h o o d . S o m e r e l e v a n t a r e a s o f d e b a t e i n c l u d e : A ) is i d e o l o g y i n h e r e n t l y n e g a t i v e a s m o s t a s s u m e o r is t h e r e a p o s i t i v e o r a t l e a s t n e u t r a l r o l e a s p e r e.g. G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; E l l u l , ' m £ d i a t e u r ' ; R i c o e u r , ' S c i e n c e ' ? B ) d o e s it p r o p e r l y b e s e t o n l y t h o s e c l a s s e s w i s h i n g t o l e g i t i m a t e t h e i r d o m i n a t i o n o f o t h e r s , e.g, E n g e l s , Anti-Duhring; A r e n d t , Origins; o r d o e s it h a v e w i d e r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a n y s y s t e m o f a c t i o n o r i e n t e d b e l i e f s , e . g . S e l i g e r , Ideology, o r is it i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m all h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s e.g. M a n n h e i m , Ideology; G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; M a n n i n g i n O ' S u l l i v a n , Structure, i x ? C ) is t h e c o n c e p t a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o p o s t E n l i g h t e n m e n t s o c i e t i e s , e.g. H a b e r m a s , Towards, 99; M u l l i n s , ' I d e o l o g y ' ; o r t o p r e - m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g a n c i e n t I s r a e l ) a s w e l l , e.g. M e s z a r o s , Philosophy, xi; to s o m e extent G e e r t z , ' C u l t u r a l ' ; a n d n o t e t h e a m b i g u i t y in B o u d o n , Analysis, 11, 3 3 , 201; J . Thompson, Surveys; K . T h o m p s o n ( e d . ) . Beliefs, 2 4 ; M a c l n t y r e , Against, 5ff; C o o l e , ' P h e n o m e n o l o g y ' , 1 3 6 f ? I n t e r e s t i n g l y , f e w biblical s c h o l a r s w h o u s e t h e t e r m s e e m a w a r e o f t h e s e a s p e c t s o f t h e d e b a t e . It h a s a l s o b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t d u e t o t h e s e a n d o t h e r d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e s u b s t a n t i v e ' i d e o l o g y ' b e a b a n d o n e d a n d its c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t — n a m e l y t h e d i s t o r t i n g o r

35

Introduction

complex, and as yet apparently u n r e s o l v e d .

9

d e g r e e o f uncertainty into the discussion.

H o w e v e r , while n o t ignoring

Naturally, this introduces a

the importance of accurate definitions, our particular concern is with the dynamics

involved

in

ideology's

shaping

of

community

self-

u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; particularly as it is described b y Ellul and Ricoeur.

But

before proceeding t w o preliminary c o m m e n t s ought to m a d e . First, the term ' i d e o l o g y ' has acquired negative connotations, due not only to its characterisation b y Karl Marx as 'false consciousness' but also in m o r e m o d e r n times to the A m e r i c a n positivist s c h o o l o f social t h e o r y where

it h a s

maintenance presumed

come

to

be

associated

with

of totalitarian regimes.

here.

That

ideology

No

the

establishment

such

is often

and

value judgement

used

to l e g i t i m a t e

is

unjust

d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f p o w e r — u s u a l l y to the d e g r e e that it is l i n k e d

with

authority—is indisputable, but w h e t h e r this is essential or inherent in the unifying role o f ideology is another m a t t e r .

10

Second, it is well to offer at least a provisional definition o f 'ideology'. Norman Gottwald

in his materialist

reconstruction

of

pre-monarchical

Israel defines ideology as the: consensual

religious

correlated served,

to in

other a

interpretations

of over

which

the

social

energize other

structurally within

(sic)

social

relations the

embedded

the

comprehensive

distinctive

and

against

were

phenomena

m o r e o r less

a n d a l s o to define polemically

ideas social

larger

social

m a n n e r , to and

Israelite

in

provide

historical social

and

system,

system

functionally and

explanations

experience

which or

of

Israel

oppositionally

or

systems}*

legitimating function to w h i c h ideas a n d m y t h s a r e p u t — b e retained b y m e a n s of the adjective 'ideological', see H a n n i n e n a n d Paldan, Rethinking. 9

O n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n m y t h , Utopia, a n d i d e o l o g y , s e e e s p e c i a l l y H a l p e r n , 'Myth', and Mullins, 'Ideology'. H o w e v e r , the fact that m o d e r n ideologies sometimes e m p l o y m y t h s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d i c h o t o m y often p o s i t e d b e t w e e n m o d e r n h i s t o r i c a l t i m e a n d p r e - m o d e r n m y t h i c a l t i m e is p r o b l e m a t i c . F o r a h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n r e l i g i o n a n d i d e o l o g y , s e e G r i m e s , 'Ideology'. 1

0

On the relationship between ideology and authority, and the latter's catalytic influence o n the e m e r g e n c e of the dissimulating a n d distorting potential of the former, see t h e d i s c u s s i o n in R i c o e u r , 'Science', 2 2 8 . 1 1

Tribes, 6 6 ; G o t t w a l d ' s italics. A l t h o u g h h a v i n g n o ' p r i n c i p l e d o b j e c t i o n s ' t o t e r m s like ' r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ' o r ' t h e o l o g y ' w h i c h a r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d in d e s c r i b i n g I s r a e l ' s c o n s t i t u t i v e c o n c e p t s a n d a t t i t u d e s , G o t t w a l d p r e f e r s t h e t e r m ' i d e o l o g y ' in t h a t it t a k e s a c c o u n t of the relationship b e t w e e n religion a n d social structures. This choice, h o w e v e r , s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s p r e s u p p o s i n g e i t h e r a n y a s s e s s m e n t a s t o t h e t r u t h o r falsity o f religious ideas or 'any particular view about the genetic or causal relationship between the r e l i g i o u s i d e a s a n d t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s o f I s r a e l ' , 6 6 . In s p i t e o f t h e l a t t e r d i s c l a i m e r it b e c o m e s increasingly e v i d e n t that G o t t w a l d ' s application of his m o d e l s leaves h i m in a p o s i t i o n w h e r e I s r a e l ' s e a r l y r e l i g i o n is in f a c t a r e s u l t o f t h e ' e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l

36

History

as

Hermeneutic

C o u c h e d in s o m e w h a t less technical t e r m i n o l o g y , b u t t h e r e b y p e r h a p s m o r e convenient, J a m e s Luther A d a m s regards ideology as: . . . t h a t c o m p o s i t e m y t h b y w h i c h a s o c i e t y o r g r o u p identifies itself, n o t o n l y f o r itself b u t also for o t h e r societies a n d g r o u p s . A n ideology posits the g r o u p ' s g o a l s a n d the j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e g o a l s in t e r m s o f w h i c h t h e g r o u p d e a l s w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s a n d w i t h c o n f l i c t s w i t h i n t h e g r o u p ; it d e f i n e s a n d i n t e r p r e t s t h e s i t u a t i o n ; . . . it m a k e s possible g r o u p action. A n ideology articulates a m y t h of origin a n d a m y t h of mission

n o t m e r e l y in a

g e n e r a l w a y . . . b u t a l s o in r e l a t i o n t o t h e s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h t h e g r o u p finds i t s e l f .

1 2

T h e implications o f the various details will b e discussed as this C h a p t e r progresses.

B u t , in the m e a n t i m e , w e can p e r h a p s e x p r e s s the salient

c o m p o n e n t s o f these definitions in a m o r e w o r k a b l e , although obviously p r o v i s i o n a l , definition w h e r e ' i d e o l o g y ' is that framework

by which

and projects b) Weber:

itself Social

a group

not only

over against Relation

other

and Social

all-pervasive

understands

itself

interpretive

but also

justifies

13

groups.

Interaction

Ricoeur b e g i n s his discussion of the social function o f ideology with M a x W e b e r ' s analysis o f social d y n a m i c s and its dual concepts o f social action and social r e l a t i o n .

14

Social action occurs w h e n individual agents perceive

their b e h a v i o u r as m e a n i n g f u l behaviour

toward

the

and when they mutually

behaviour

of

others.

The

orient

their

concepts

of

'meaningfulness' and ' m u t u a l orientation' imply the existence o f a larger social framework.

Here

Weber introduces

'social relation'

which

e m p h a s i s e s those stable and predictable m e a n i n g systems w h i c h provide the c o m m o n context within w h i c h social action o c c u r s .

15

It is precisely at

the n e x u s o f social action and social relation that the p h e n o m e n o n o f i d e o l o g y a p p e a r s , in that i d e o l o g y is i n t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h

the

establishment and maintenance of stable and predictable m e a n i n g systems w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s are integral to the fundamental

n e e d o f a g r o u p to

explain itself, 'to give an i m a g e o f itself to itself, to represent and realise

i n t e r e s t s ' o f t h e t r i b a l c o n f e d e r a c y w h i c h it t h e n s e r v e s t o l e g i t i m a t e . S e e t h e c r i t i q u e in H e r i o n , ' R e c o n s t r u c t i o n ' , 1 5 ; a l s o G o t t w a l d , Tribes, 642-49, w h e r e his functionalist r e c o n s t r u c t i o n g r o u n d s Y a h w i s m in t h e s o c i a l e g a l i t a r i a n i s m o f p r e - m o n a r c h i c a l I s r a e l i t e society. 1 2

1

3

'Faith',

466.

C f . B a l l a n d D a g g e r , Ideals, 1 - 3 , w h o s u g g e s t it is a g e n e r a l l y s y s t e m a t i c s e t o f i d e a s which serves to explain, evaluate, orient, a n d motivate. 'Science', 222f. S e e W e b e r , Theory, 1 1 2 - 2 3 . 1

4

1

5

Ellul:

itself'.

16

Founding

Moment

and Mediatorial

37

Role

In the sense that ideology is a function of the need o f a group to

p r o v i d e a rationale for its e x i s t e n c e , it is a 'natural ingredient o f social life'.

17

c) Ellul:

The Founding

Moment

and the Mediatorial

Role

of

Ideology

At this point R i c o e u r , relying h e a v i l y on Ellul, d r a w s attention to the formative influence o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t u p o n its selfperception—its ' i m a g e o f itself to i t s e l f .

N o t only true o f m o r e m o d e r n

e x a m p l e s , as in the c a s e o f the A m e r i c a n F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s m e n t i o n e d above, the s a m e can clearly b e seen with regard to Israel where, as is widely recognised, h e r E x o d u s m e m o r y h a s not o n l y i m p o s e d its categories o n other e v e n t s , for i n s t a n c e , c o n q u e s t and S e c o n d E x o d u s , b u t h a s also profoundly shaped her social and legal s t r u c t u r e s .

18

Thp w a y in w h i c h this past influence is effected in the p r e s e n t is t h r o u g h the a c t i o n o f i d e o l o g y w h i c h s e r v e s to b r i d g e the h i s t o r i c a l distance b e t w e e n the inaugural event and present social c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

19

and thereby to foster social cohesion. (Indeed, it is doubtful if any such c o m m u n i t y c o u l d c o n t i n u e to exist if this indirect c o n n e c t i o n with its inaugural

2 0

p a s t w e r e b r o k e n . ) T h i s is d o n e , first, b y c o n v e y i n g the

convictions o f the founding fathers such that they b e c o m e t h o s e o f the c o m m u n i t y a n d , s e c o n d , b y p r o p a g a t i n g the e n e r g i e s o f the m o m e n t b e y o n d their first 'effervescence' into the f u t u r e .

founding

21

T h e most striking e x a m p l e o f this 'domestication b y m e m o r y ' is found in the ritual r e - e n a c t m e n t s , or revivifications, o f the founding

moment.

H e r e the c o m m u n i t y ' s history is retold, the values, energies, and ideals e n s h r i n e d in its founding m o m e n t i n c u l c a t e d , and the c o m m u n i t y re constituted t h r o u g h succeeding generations. exemplary. enactments.

1

6

1

7

1

8

2 2

Israel's Passover haggadah

is

T h i s inculcation is not, h o w e v e r , restricted to ritual reS i n c e life b e g i n s n o t as isolated individuals b u t w i t h i n a

'Science', 2 2 5 .

B o u d o n , Analysis, 1 1 . S e e e.g. F i s h b a n e , Interpretation, 3 5 8 - 3 7 9 ; L o e w e n s t a m m , Evolution, espec. 23-68; D a u b e , Pattern; a n d D o r o n , ' M o t i f . V a n S e t e r s , Search, a r g u e s t h a t t h e b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s , in line w i t h o t h e r e a r l y G r e e k h i s t o r i a n s , w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g t h e i r readers with a sense of identity. 1

9

2

0

2

1

2

2

' m e d i a t e u r ' , c i t e d in R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 5 f . Ibid. Ibid. See especially, Harris, Exodus.

38

History

as

Hermeneutic

social m a t r i x , ideological c o n s c i o u s n e s s is also formed, less overtly but p e r h a p s m o r e pervasively, at the level o f e v e r y d a y life.

H e r e the social

m e a n i n g s o f s h a r e d p r a c t i c e s are signified a n d a s s i m i l a t e d at a preconscious level and as contingent activities begin to resonate they result in t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n h i s t o r i c a l Gestalt, ideology.

23

an e x i s t e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n o f

S o , for example, those social mores and legal structures which

David D a u b e noted had b e e n profoundly shaped b y the E x o d u s , b y their very structuring o f Israelite society, reflect back and confirm at an everyday existential level the values o f that e v e n t .

24

This leads to the further observation that just as motives in individual agents s e r v e n o t o n l y to justify but also to m o t i v a t e , s o t o o in societal terms ' i d e o l o g y is a l w a y s m o r e than a reflection o n the past', it is also 25

'justification

and project'.

T h a t is, i d e o l o g y ' s account o f the

founding

m o m e n t furnishes categories n o t o n l y for e x p l a i n i n g a n d justifying the present b u t also for conceiving the future—which is not u n e x p e c t e d since 26

the m i n d tends to a p p r e h e n d the n e w in terms o f the o l d — a n d

herein

lies its d y n a m i s m and power. It is, therefore, not a dead thing o f the past, b u t e n l i v e n s the present and activates t o w a r d the future.

T h i s is w h a t

A d a m s refers to w h e n h e defines ideology as positing a g r o u p ' s goals and its justification o f those goals, linking an articulation o f a m y t h o f origin with the g r o u p ' s mission. Likewise Gottwald w h e n h e speaks o f ideology serving n o t only 'to provide explanations ... o f distinctive social relations' but also 'to energize (sic) the Israelite social system' (cited above). T h u s , L i n c o l n ' s a p p e a l to the F o u n d i n g F a t h e r s n o t o n l y justifies Gettysburg in the present but also undergirds and structures his vision o f the future.

Israel's prophets too, in addressing an Israel presently in exile,

c o u c h Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e o f a future d e l i v e r a n c e in the l a n g u a g e imagery

of

the

nation's

Exodus/Conquest. 2

2 7

founding

moment,

namely,

the

and first

T h e s a m e d e p e n d e n c e u p o n t h e i m a g e s o f the

3

M e r l e a u - P o n t y in C o o l e , T h e n o m e n o l o g y ' , 1 3 6 - 7 . W h a t M e r l e a u - P o n t y is d e s c r i b i n g h e r e is t h e p e d a g o g i c a l r e s u l t o f i d e o l o g y b e i n g ' s t r u c t u r a l l y e m b e d d e d ' ( a s p e r G o t t w a l d , see above). Cf. Geertz, 'Cultural'. Pattern; passim; cf. D o r o n , ' M o t i f . R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . R i c o e u r , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 2 5 . Cf. H e i d e g g e r ' s n o t i o n o f t h e t e m p o r a l p r o j e c t i o n o f Dasein w h e r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g is t i e d t o t h e ability t o p r o j e c t p o s s i b i l i t i e s , t h e s h a p e o f w h i c h a r e predicated u p o n the constructs of m e m o r y . 2

4

2

5

2

6

2

7

F o u l k e s , Acts, in p a r t i c u l a r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r this p h e n o m e n o n l a y in Israel's belief in t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t s — i f h e h a d d o n e s o o n c e h e w o u l d a c t t h u s

Ellul:

Founding

Moment

and Mediatorial

Role

39

founding m o m e n t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in several ' p r o p h e t i c ' m o v e m e n t s in the N T era, w h e r e , for instance, T h e u d a s p r o m i s e s that the J o r d a n will b e divided once more, another prophet

announces the repetition of the

miracle of J e r i c h o u p o n the walls o f J e r u s a l e m , and the w e a v e r J o n a t h a n foretells miracles in the w i l d e r n e s s .

28

Likewise, various rabbinic traditions

regarded the E x o d u s as the m o d e l for the deliverance o f the last d a y s ,

2 9

with an e x p e c t a t i o n in s o m e circles that the M e s s i a h w o u l d b e revealed d u r i n g the P a s s o v e r .

30

N u m e r o u s studies o n the N T literature similarly

indicate that E x o d u s traditions are significant.

31

It is in t e r m s o f this e x p l a n a t o r y and^ justificatory c a p a c i t y that t w o closely related c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i d e o l o g y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t .

First, the

c o n v i c t i o n s a n d e n e r g i e s o f the founding m o m e n t b e c o m e the ' o v e r a l l ' interpretative s c h e m a for the g r o u p not o n l y for internal interaction b u t also for its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s t o r y , a n d i n d e e d the w h o l e

world.

3 2

S e c o n d , this interpretative s c h e m a is at the e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l level o f the Greek

6OK€IV

or F r e u d ' s 'rationalisation' in that ideology's 'transformative

p o w e r can b e preserved only on condition that the ideas w h i c h it c o n v e y s become opinions'.

3 3

F o r ideology to b e unifying and socially cohesive it

m u s t not o n l y p r o v i d e an overall interpretative s c h e m a b u t this s c h e m a m u s t also b e c o m e the atmosphere in which the group as a w h o l e lives and thinks.

I d e o l o g y , therefore, is not propositional but presuppositional a n d

n o t j u s t for s o m e b u t for the w h o l e g r o u p .

It is, b y its v e r y n a t u r e ,

a g a i n . If s o , t h e n t h i s b e l i e f a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i d e o l o g y ' s c a t e g o r i e s w o u l d t e n d t o reinforce one another. 2

8

2

9

3

0

3

1

3

2

3

3

R e s p e c t i v e l y : J o s e p h u s : Ant. 2 0 . 9 7 - 9 ; 2 0 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 a n d B.J. 2 . 2 6 1 - 3 ; Ant. 2 0 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 ; cf. M a u s e r , 56ff; T h e i s s e n , Sociology, 6 0 ; B a r n e t t , ' P r o p h e t s ' ; H e n g e l , Zealots; Mendels, ' M e s s i a n i s m ' ; N e u s n e r , Judaisms; H o r s l e y a n d H a n s o n , Bandits; a n d W r i g h t , People, 1 7 0 81, 307-20. C f . D a v i e s , Sermon, 2 5 - 9 3 , 1 1 1 - 2 1 ; K i t t e l , TDNT, 2.657ff; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4.856-64, a n d t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n i n B o k s e r , ' M e s s i a n i s m ' . B e n - S i r a , in h i s o n e e x t e n d e d p r a y e r f o r d e l i v e r a n c e , p r a y s f o r a r e p e t i t i o n o f ' s i g n s a n d w o n d e r s ' in a final r e d e m p t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d o n E x o d u s c a t e g o r i e s . Sir 3 3 : 6 L X X ; cf. t h e berakoth o f t h e Tefillah ( 7 , . 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 4 , 1 6 ) . In a n a l o g y t o the E x o d u s , the e n d - t i m e glory w o u l d be r e v e a l e d o n the 1 4 / 1 5 t h of N i s a n (Mekhilta o n E x 1 2 : 4 2 , R . J o s h u a b . H a n a n i a h , c . 9 0 ; cf. Tg. Yerus. I E x 2 1 : 4 2 ; Tg. Yerus. II E x 1 5 : 1 8 cf. 1 2 : 4 2 ) , a n d l a t e r , Ex. Rab. 1 8 . 1 2 o n 12:24: ' L e t this s i g n b e in o u r h a n d s : o n t h e d a y w h e n I w r o u g h t s a l v a t i o n f o r y o u , o n t h a t v e r y n i g h t k n o w t h a t I w i l l r e d e e m y o u ' ; cf. Ex. Rab. 5 1 : 1 o n E x 1 2 : 2 ; J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 0 7 ; B l a c k , Aramaic, 1 7 3 . E . g . N i x o n , Exodus; T e e p l e , Mosaic; C h a v a s s e , ' J e s u s ' ; G o p p e l t , Typos, 67ff; B r u c e , Development, 3 2 - 3 9 ; D o d d , According, 74-88; M a n e k , 'Exodus'; Piper, 'Origin'; 'Unchanging'; Smith, 'Typology'; Swartley, Scripture. R i c o e u r , ' S c i e n c e ' , 2 2 6 . G o t t w a l d a n d A d a m s n o t e this e x p l a n a t o r y d i m e n s i o n . Ibid.

40

History

as

Hermeneutic

uncritical about its o w n existence, b e i n g thought from 3

through. *

instead o f thought

Ideology is not so m u c h what the group understands about the

world, as it is the lens through which the world is understood.

This is the

sort o f thing that Wolfhart P a n n e n b e r g describes w h e n h e says that the historical events o f a given people ... ... h a v e n o m e a n i n g a p a r t f r o m t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s in w h i c h m e n live. T h e e v e n t s o f h i s t o r y s p e a k t h e i r o w n l a n g u a g e , t h e l a n g u a g e o f facts; h o w e v e r , this l a n g u a g e is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e o n l y in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n s a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s in w h i c h t h e g i v e n e v e n t s o c c u r .

3 5

T h e presuppositional and ineluctable character o f ideology c a n clearly b e s e e n in that n e i t h e r L i n c o l n n o r I s r a e l ' s p r o p h e t s b e t r a y a n y whatsoever

to e s t a b l i s h t h e n o r m a t i v e

founding m o m e n t s .

character of their

This m u c h is s i m p l y a s s u m e d .

urgency

respective

It is the stuff and

substance o f w h o they are. Again there is little question that the E x o d u s functioned in this w a y for Israel in the first century. d) The Media

of Ideology:

Icon and

Symbol

A corollary here is that ideology cannot then b e a matter of c o m p l e x e s of difficult a n d / o r detailed facts such as might suit a scholarly recital.

If

ideology's 'overall' interpretative schema is to b e c o m e the opinion not just of s o m e b u t o f all then such intricacies must b e pared d o w n and moulded into a form sufficiently neat and m a n a g e a b l e to b e c o m p r e h e n d e d b y the group at large; a process which necessarily involves idealisation if ideology is to m a i n t a i n its justificatory and m o t i v a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . account

of

schematic'.

3 6

the

founding

moment

is

therefore

Ideology's

'simplifying

and

Further, given that ideology at this level is concerned with

revivifying the founding

m o m e n t a n d thus transforming

an historical

singularity into the typical and cyclical, it is not surprising that its account o f the f o u n d i n g

m o m e n t often t a k e s o n m y t h i c qualities s i n c e m y t h

stresses the latter over against the f o r m e r .

3

4

3

5

3

6

3

7

Ibid.,

37

227.

T h i s e l t o n , Horizons, 8 0 , c i t i n g P a n n e n b e r g , History, 152-3. R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . L a s h , ' I d e o l o g y ' , h a s p o i n t e d o u t h o w all r e c o u n t i n g s o f h i s t o r y t h a t s e e k t o d i s c e r n m e a n i n g r e q u i r e t h e u s e o f a n a l o g y a n d m e t a p h o r s i n c e t h e y a r e all n o t o n l y f r o m finite p o i n t s o f v i e w b u t a l s o c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f l a n g u a g e . O n t h e m y t h i c q u a l i t y of f o u n d i n g m o m e n t s , s e e M u l l i n s , ' C o n c e p t ' , 5 0 5 . T h e m y t h i c b o t h e x p r e s s e s a n d is a p p r o p r i a t e d b y t h e c o n s e n s u a l s i d e o f i d e o l o g y w h i c h is itself c o n c e r n e d w i t h u n i f y i n g ' a r o u n d ' r a t h e r t h a n ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' , i.e. w i t h t h e g r o u p ' s i n t e r n a l s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x t e r n a l , cf. H a l p e r n , ' M y t h ' , 1 3 7 .

Media

Since

ideology

of Ideology:

constitutes

Icon and

the

41

Symbol

group's

'overall'

interpretative

framework, its s c h e m a t i s i n g tendency inevitably impresses its categories on the c o m m u n i t y ' s understanding o f its subsequent history w h i c h itself is also simplified and s c h e m a t i s e d .

Israel's v i e w of h e r history, at least as

recorded in its S c r i p t u r e s , s e e m s then to b e structured a r o u n d s e v e r a l major

events

or

periods:

Creation,

Patriarchs,

Exodus-Conquest,

M o n a r c h y , Exile, Return, with the culmination to b e found in s o m e sort o f expectation o f a greater r e s t o r a t i o n .

38

Interestingly, in nearly e v e r y case

these events are related to key personalities, for example, A d a m , A b r a h a m , M o s e s - J o s h u a , D a v i d - S o l o m o n , various p r o p h e t s , and a p p a r e n t l y

some

sort o f messianic figure. Furthermore, these events themselves tend to b e described in w a y s w h i c h b r i n g out their c o n t i n u i t y w i t h the c o n c e r n s , themes, and trajectories o f the founding

moment.

39

It is precisely at this point that the operation o f s y m b o l s and i m a g e s c o m e s into play.

Since ideology simplifies and schematises a n d therefore

is 'readily e x p r e s s e d in m a x i m s , in slogans, in lapidary f o r m u l a s '

40

it is

especially suited to the iconic and the symbolic. Because icons and symbols are n o t m e r e s h a d o w s

or c o p i e s o f reality b u t a r e c r e a t i v e i m a g e s

representing w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g the world, they h a v e inherent in t h e m 'the p o w e r to c o n d e n s e , spell out, and develop reality'; a c o n c e p t w h i c h D a g o g n e t t e r m s iconic

41

augmentation.

It is particularly this ability to

a b b r e v i a t e that e n a b l e s t h e m to function

as c o m p a c t a n d

powerful

conveyors o f extensive w e b s o f m e a n i n g and, w h e n used in combi nat i on, to b e c o m e p o w e r f u l ideology's o p i n i o n s .

means of conveying and

invoking matrices of

42

C o n s e q u e n t l y , the s y m b o l i c revivifications o f the past e a r l y b e c o m e ritualised

and

stereotyped,

characterised by convention

have and

their

8

3

9

vocabulary, 43

idealisation —once again

Passover celebration is a case in point.

3

own

and

are

Israel's

Reinforced from youth, the icon

S e e e.g. D a n i e l s , Hosea, w h o a r g u e s t h a t H o s e a u n d e r s t o o d t h e h i s t o r y o f I s r a e l in terms of four m a i n periods: Patriarchal, Exodus-Covenant-Wilderness, Canaanisation, a n d Renewal. In t h e c u l t i c r e c i t a l o f I s r a e l ' s o r i g i n s e v e n A b r a h a m ' s c a l l is s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e l a r g e r E x o d u s m o t i f , Dt. 26:5ff. R i c o e u r , ibid., 2 2 6 . 4

0

4

1

4

2

4

3

C i t e d in R i c o e u r , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 3 6 . Cf. R i c o e u r ' s d i s c u s s i o n in ' F u n c t i o n ' . R i c o e u r , ibid.

42

History

as

Hermeneutic

and the s y m b o l of, for e x a m p l e , the Passover m e a l enable w h o l e tableaux of i d e o l o g y ' s interpretative s c h e m a to b e i n v o k e d .

Furthermore,

iconic or s y m b o l i c function is not limited to i m a g e s or objects. P a s s o v e r haggadah

this

A s the

d e m o n s t r a t e s , texts also function in this w a y .

My

Professor's use o f 'four score and seven' indicates that it w a s not merely an allusion to a famous speech, but that it had b e c o m e , due to its associations, a 'textual' icon within an ideological s c h e m a .

M o r e g e r m a n e p e r h a p s to

the argument of this b o o k is that a similar case can b e m a d e for Isaiah 40:3 in intertestamental and later J u d a i s m .

44

G i v e n this close connection b e t w e e n the schematic and the iconic and symbolic, it is not surprising that ideology's account o f subsequent events is couched in terms o f those icons and symbols integral to its revivification of the founding m o m e n t .

4 5

T h u s the warrior m o t i f associated w i t h the

first E x o d u s b e c o m e s a prominent e l e m e n t in later d e l i v e r a n c e s .

46

There

is also a reflexive dimension present. Not only do the symbols and images of the founding m o m e n t project forward into the accounts o f subsequent history, exercising a concomitant shaping of the portrayal o f those events, but their very use in that later history instils their use in earlier accounts w i t h a d d i t i o n a l significance, t h e r e b y e x e r c i s i n g a c u m u l a t i v e effect on their s i g n i f i c a t i o n o v e r t i m e .

4 7

S o , for instance, the w a r r i o r m o t i f n o

longer s p e a k s o f o n l y the E x o d u s m o m e n t b u t also entails associations from its applications in later scenarios. In this sense i c o n and s y m b o l are to ideology w h a t the stereotypical figure a n d situation are to the social b a c k g r o u n d o f the parables.

They

function as pointers to those larger frames o f reference within w h i c h they operate and, b y invoking particular aspects o f those frames, they signify what particular hermeneutical templates their present settings presuppose. This it s e e m s is precisely h o w the phrase 'four score and seven years a g o ' functions.

B y w a y o f its s y m b o l i c c h a r a c t e r it i n v o k e s that

larger

ideologically shaped hermeneutical framework. 4

4

4

5

4

6

S e e e.g. S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' ; a n d C h a p t e r 3 , infra. This m a y well explain not only the p h e n o m e n o n noted by Gunkel, Schbpfung, w h e r e i n t h e f u t u r e is i n d e e d s h a p e d b y t h e p a s t , b u t a l s o t h e b a s i s o f t h o s e s i m i l a r i t i e s o n w h i c h t h e w h o l e e n t e r p r i s e o f t y p o l o g y is b a s e d . S e e C r o s s , Canaanite,

9 1 - 1 1 1 ; a n d e.g. 1 Q M 1 2 : 1 0 - 1 4 ; 1 9 : 2 - 8 ; W i s 5 : 1 6 - 2 3 ; S i r 3 5 : 2 2 -

36:17. 4

7

S e e C a s t o r i a d i s , Imaginary, 120ff, f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s a n d influences w h i c h earlier traditions of s y m b o l s i m p o s e o n later usage.

Media

O n e final c o m m e n t .

of Ideology:

Icon and

43

Symbol

T h a t i d e o l o g y is s c h e m a t i c implies that it also

tends t o w a r d the hierarchical.

W h i l e certain events are m o r e significant

t h a n others a n d so s e r v e to p r o v i d e the framework within w h i c h t h o s e o t h e r s are u n d e r s t o o d , e a c h o f these l a r g e r e l e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s

may

e n c o m p a s s a series o f events. S o , Israel's retelling o f its inaugural event— the E x o d u s / C o n q u e s t — i n c l u d e s reference to a schematised pattern of ideas and motifs, for e x a m p l e , the dividing and crossing o f the sea, deliverance as the c o m p l e m e n t o f the destruction of P h a r a o h ' s armies, the presence o f Y a h w e h represented b y the cloud and the storm theophany at Sinai, desert w a n d e r i n g and miraculous provision, the giving of the L a w , covenant, the o c c u p a t i o n o f the l a n d , and t h e like, all o f w h i c h stand t o g e t h e r in a conceptual cluster as the predicate of the overarching subject: the founding event. Similarly, the N e w E x o d u s o f Isaiah reflects the s c h e m a originating in the first E x o d u s , in that it too e n v i s a g e s several c o m p o n e n t s — n a m e l y deliverance, journey,

and

arrival

in J e r u s a l e m — a n d

these

too

are

delineated further with their attendant motifs of, for e x a m p l e , Y a h w e h as warrior and shepherd ( I s a 4 0 : 1 0 f ) 4

8

4 8

A l t h o u g h the p a r a d i g m a t i c influence of the E x o d u s on Isa 4 0 - 5 5 h a s been widely a g r e e d t o b y s c h o l a r s ( s e e C h a p t e r 3 ) , s o m e h a v e t e n d e d t o m i n i m i s e its r o l e . S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 1 8 5 - 1 9 0 , w h o s e e s 4 9 : 2 0 f (sic, p r o b a b l y 4 8 : 2 0 f ) ; 5 2 : l l f ; a n d 5 5 : 1 2 f a s l a t e r a d d i t i o n s , d e n i e s t h a t t h e N E p r o v i d e s a m a j o r t h e m e . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f this b o o k t h e s e t e x t s a r e t o b e i n c l u d e d . H e r r m a n n ' s a s s e r t i o n , Heilserwartungen, 297ff, that t h e E x o d u s tradition has 'nur noch eine relative Bedeutung' a n d functions instead as r e m i n i s c e n c e fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i c o n i c q u a l i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e e v o c a t i v e p o w e r o f t h e s e i m a g e s within the context of Israel's ideological self-conception. Kiesow, Exodustexte, d e n i e s a n y c o n s i s t e n t p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e u s e o f E x o d u s i m a g e r y , b u t fails t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e W a r r i o r a n d j o u r n e y - t o - s h r i n e m o t i f s a r e i n t e g r a l t o t h e e a r l i e s t a c c o u n t s (cf. E x 1 5 , P s 7 8 ) , w h i l e S i m o n - Y o f r e ' s a r g u m e n t , ' E x o d o ' , 5 3 0 - 5 3 , t h a t e.g. 4 8 : 2 0 - 1 a n d 5 1 : 9 - 1 1 d e r i v e f r o m Ps 7 8 does not give d u e weight to the E x o d u s traditions behind that psalm. H a a g , 'Weg', 3 9 , a r g u e s t h a t b e h i n d 'Die K o m b i n a t i o n d e r b e i d e n B e g r i f f e ... « W i i s t e » .. u n d ... « S t e p p e » ' lies t h e H o s e a n i c s y m b o l i s m o f j u d g e m e n t t o w h i c h t h e E d e n i c ' r e d e m p t i o n ' m a t e r i a l s a r e c o n t r a s t e d . H o w e v e r , in t e r m s o f t h e l i t e r a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n h e r e , ' w a y ' a n d ' h i g h w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d in Isa 3 5 a s E x o d u s j o u r n e y i m a g e r y (albeit w i t h w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s ) . R e c e n t l y B a r s t a d , Way, a p p e a r s t o d e n y t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s w a s s e e n a s a N E m o d e l l e d o n t h e flight f r o m E g y p t . A l t h o u g h h e a l l o w s s o m e influence of the earlier tradition h e sees the l a n g u a g e as m e t a p h o r i c a l w i t h the i m a g e r y deriving from a w i d e r a n g e of motifs, n o t just the E x o d u s , a n d asserts that 'passages dealing w i t h t h e w i l d e r n e s s a n d d e s e r t ... s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s p o e t i c a l a l l u s i o n s t o Y a h w e h ' s e n c r o a c h m e n t u p o n the c o u r s e of history', 20. Granted that Barstad s h o w s h o w various N E m o t i f s c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s o r i g i n a t i n g e l s e w h e r e , h e fails to d o j u s t i c e t o t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c n a t u r e o f t h e E x o d u s a s t h e m o d e l par excellence o f Y a h w e h ' s ' e n c r o a c h m e n t u p o n the c o u r s e of h i s t o r y ' o n Israel's behalf. F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of social theory, in t e n d i n g t o t r e a t all m o t i f s in a m o n o c h r o m a t i c m a n n e r , B a r s t a d , like H e r r m a n n , h a s failed t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e p r i m a c y o f f o u n d i n g m o m e n t i d e o l o g y a n d its i n f l u e n c e o n t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l f r a m e w o r k of Israelite readers.

44

History

as

Hermeneutic

It naturally follows that ideology's icons and symbols, to the extent that they s e r v e to i n v o k e e l e m e n t s within its s c h e m a , will l i k e w i s e a s s u m e a s i m i l a r q u a s i - h i e r a r c h i c a l structure c o n s i s t i n g o f central a n d elements.

4 9

peripheral

Consequently, in ideology's schematic account o f the E x o d u s ,

v a r i o u s c o n s t i t u t i v e e l e m e n t s s u c h as the i n a u g u r a l

Passover

meal,

w a n d e r i n g in the desert, provision, guidance, protection, and s o on, can b e invoked through various icons or s y m b o l s such as the paschal l a m b , 'forty years', m a n n a , and fiery cloud respectively. T h e salient point here is that it is this quasi-hierarchical relationship of i d e o l o g y ' s iconic a n d s y m b o l i c shorthand that facilitates identification o f precise areas of ideology's m a p . Certain icons or s y m b o l s , either singly or in combination, indicate w h i c h general event within the overall s c h e m a is in view, w h i l e others, o n c e the general event has b e e n identified, serve to focus attention m o r e precisely on a particular aspect o f that event.

This

process o f d e m a r c a t i o n is particularly important in that s y m b o l s , d u e to their a b b r e v i a t e d nature, tend to imprecision the m o r e o v e r a r c h i n g they become.

F o r e x a m p l e , in the Australian e x p e r i e n c e the t e r m ' A N Z A C

(Australia and N e w Zealand A r m y C o r p s ) is s o m e t h i n g o f an icon which e v o k e s i m a g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Australian i n v o l v e m e n t in W o r l d W a r I. H o w e v e r , the r a n g e o f associated motifs is so extensive and diverse (for example,

bronzed

young

men,

bravery,

naivete, camaraderie,

A u s t r a l i a n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Britain, etc.) that the t e r m often further definition to indicate just what aspect is in view.

the

requires

However, when

c o m b i n e d with a n o t h e r iconic term, n a m e l y , ' G a l l i p o l i ' (the s c e n e o f a costly b u t unsuccessful battle d u r i n g that p e r i o d ) then particular senti m e n t s s u c h as the futility o f war, inept leadership, national identity, and the like, tend to c o m e to the fore. E v e n so, the use o f l a n g u a g e like 'such a s ' a n d ' t e n d t o ' i n d i c a t e s that m o r e p r e c i s e articulation m a y w e l l b e necessary,

depending

on

what

the

speaker

or

author

wishes

to

communicate. By w a y o f s u m m a r y : in this section I have suggested that a group's selfperception and its u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the world is decisively shaped b y its ideology w h i c h mediates the values and energies o f the founding m o m e n t to the present.

4

9

Integral to the p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g are appeals to

C a s t o r i a d i s , Imaginary,

127.

Ideology

and

45

Crisis

various c o m p o n e n t s o f i d e o l o g y ' s schematic representation o f the g r o u p ' s history. T h e s e are invoked in the minds o f informed hearers or readers b y m e a n s of i c o n s a n d s y m b o l s w h o s e quasi-hierarchical n a t u r e facilitates s o m e degree o f precision as to which particular aspect o f ideology's s c h e m a is being considered.

III. Ideology and Crisis Ideology continues to b e mobilising only in so far as it continues to justify, for the generative p o w e r o f ideology resides in its ability to d e m o n s t r a t e that the g r o u p w h o assents to it, is right to b e w h a t it i s .

5 0

It is w h e n the

'realities actually experienced b y the group ... (are) unassimilable through the principal s c h e m a ' , w h e n 'novelty seriously threatens the possibility for t h e g r o u p to r e c o g n i s e ... i t s e l f , that n e w

interpretations

formulations o f the r e g n a n t i d e o l o g y b e c o m e i m p e r a t i v e .

51

or

even

A t this point

ideology is n o longer quiescent b u t its opinions, forced b y events from the s h a d o w s into the foreground o f m o r e c o n s c i o u s thought, m u s t in s o m e w a y b e defended if they are to continue as 'opinions'. A g r o u p ' s response to this crisis m a y v a r y d e p e n d i n g on the d e g r e e o f t e n s i o n o r s o c i a l 'strain',

52

a n d o n w h e t h e r or not i d e o l o g y ' s interpretative f r a m e w o r k is

able adequately to a c c o m m o d a t e the n e w circumstances. Either there is a d e n i a l o f t h e p r e s e n t a n d an affirmation o f t h e p a s t , o r t h e r e is a repudiation o f the past along with its interpretative ideology.

Mediating

b e t w e e n these t w o e x t r e m e s is the attempt to re-configure or reinterpret the ideological s c h e m a in order to demonstrate that the g r o u p ' s ideology can account for the p r e s e n t .

53

T h i s approach is obviously preferable if it is

desirable to maintain continuity with the founding event.

5

0

5

1

5

2

5

3

Ricoeur, 'Science', 2 2 5 . Ibid., 227; h e n c e t h e i n n e r a n t i n o m y o f i d e o l o g y a s ' t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e r e a l a n d yet the obturation of the possible'. S e e G e e r t z ' d i s c u s s i o n , ' C u l t u r a l ' , 218ff. T h i s is s o m e w h a t a k i n t o F i s h b a n e ' s d i s c u s s i o n . Interpretation, 443-503, of the m a n t a l o g i c a l e x e g e s i s o f p r o p h e t i c t e x t s t h a t o t h e r w i s e a p p e a r t o b e u n f u l f i l l e d a n d is r e f l e c t e d in Q u m r a n pesher t e c h n i q u e . S e e a l s o R o w l a n d , Open, 1 4 5 f , w h o i n d e s c r i b i n g a p o c a l y p t i c ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in a n d i n d e b t e d n e s s t o I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r i c a l selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g p o i n t s o u t h o w apocalyptic, a p p e a l s t o divine revelation in o r d e r to e x p l a i n events o t h e r w i s e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Israelite traditions.

46

History

as

Hermeneutic

S i n c e t h e m e d i a o f i d e o l o g y are the icon and s y m b o l , o n e w a y o f accomplishing component

this

is b y

icons and

redefining

and

reinterpreting

symbols or by bringing

together

ideology's previously

unrelated s y m b o l s or icons so that n e w w a y s o f seeing are o p e n e d up in o r d e r to e x p l a i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y u n e x p l a i n a b l e p r e s e n t .

54

R i c o e u r , in

discussing the nature o f metaphor, speaks of the 'increase in reality' which occurs w h e n two previously remote semantic fields are b r o u g h t together, engendering a semantic clash and shattering a prior c a t e g o r i s a t i o n . is precisely w h a t transpires in J e s u s ' parables.

55

This

U s i n g k n o w n 'points of

reference' to e v o k e particular social expectations, he then creates a reality which contradicts t h e m or calls them into question, forcing his hearers to reassess their perspective. T h e perfect e x a m p l e here is the so-called ' G o o d S a m a r i t a n ' — a clash o f previously remote semantic fields to b e sure.

Or,

on a n o t h e r tack, o n e m a y h a v e as subject a Davidic c o n c e p t o f M e s s i a h w h i c h h a s certain ideological predicates s u c h as p o w e r , glory, military success, and so on. But w h e n this subject is predicated with 'suffering' and ' l o w l y s e r v i c e ' — a n d these t w o also h a v e a p l a c e in I s r a e l ' s ideological s c h e m a — t h e n the sort o f clash R i c o e u r describes occurs, again w i t h the possibility o f o p e n i n g up n e w w a y s o f seeing. This, it s e e m s , is precisely what Paul is doing in 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 w h e n he draws attention to the bizarre notion o f a 'crucified Messiah'. G i v e n the s o r t s o f e x a m p l e s j u s t n o t e d , this n a t u r a l l y r a i s e s the possibility o f alienating m e m b e r s o f the group since it necessarily requires a realignment o f older patterns o f thinking which they for various reasons m a y not b e w i l l i n g to accept. i m p r o b a b l e or u n p e r s u a s i v e .

T h e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e m a y a p p e a r either In R i c o e u r ' s w o r d s , b a s e d o n the G r e e k

6 o K € t v a s n o t e d a b o v e , it will e x c e e d those m e m b e r s ' doxic

56

threshold

O n c e this happens, debate m a y well follow as to w h o are the true heirs of the c o m m u n i t y ' s traditions, w h i c h is then carried out in terms o f fidelity to the i d e a l s a n d e n e r g i e s o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t .

So

J e r o b o a m sets up his golden calves and declares, ' T h e s e are the g o d s w h o brought y o u out o f Egypt', and Lincoln appeals to the Founding Fathers. If 5

4

5

5

5

6

T h i s is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p r o c e s s R i c o e u r d e s c r i b e s in h i s t r e a t m e n t o f m e t a p h o r , 'Function', 130. R i c o e u r , ibid., 1 3 0 f . B a s e d on his earlier discussion of the epistemological level at w h i c h ideology operates, see section (c), p a g e 37, above.

Mark:

OT and

47

Ideology

a major issue in the N T is the question of w h o is the true Israel, then it is not surprising that N T writers should appeal to Israel's founding m o m e n t to m a k e their case. In c o n c l u d i n g these t w o sections it m u s t b e stressed that, although I h a v e tried to adduce appropriate examples, the preceding discussion o f the social function o f ideology is essentially theoretical. It is not reality, b u t rather an attempt to formulate a tool that c a n help in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a reality which undoubtedly is far m o r e c o m p l e x than any o n e approach (or m i n d ? ) can c o m p r e h e n d .

T h e m o d e l p r o p o u n d e d h e r e is an attempt to

analyse M a r k ' s G o s p e l from o n e particular perspective, and o n l y to the extent that the m o d e l p r o v i d e s a m o r e satisfying e x p l a n a t i o n than h a s previously b e e n offered should it warrant attention.

T h e final section o f

this C h a p t e r w i l l s e e k to o u t l i n e h o w t h e t h e o r y m i g h t s u g g e s t

an

approach to aspects o f M a r k ' s use o f the O T with the aim o f discovering that 'overall perspective' w h i c h gives coherence to his Gospel.

IV. Mark: OT and Ideology—History as Hermeneutic The thorough-going Jewishness of Mark's Gospel seems

undeniable.

W h i l e m u c h o f this c o u l d b e d u e to the cultural setting of M a r k ' s story— Jesus w a s a J e w living in Palestine—that M a r k never appeals, for instance, to n o n - J e w i s h literature to e l u c i d a t e his account, s u g g e s t s that m o r e is involved.

T h a t h e o n o c c a s i o n feels the n e e d to explain J e w i s h c u s t o m s

also indicates that this is not b e c a u s e h e is writing only to J e w s w h o m a y not h a v e b e e n au fait

w i t h p a g a n literature, b u t suggests rather that the

M a r k a n J e s u s c a n o n l y p r o p e r l y b e c o m p r e h e n d e d in t e r m s o f J e w i s h categories, and particularly those derived from the O T . T h i s b e i n g s o , the n e x t question is, w h a t w a s the nature o f these O T categories, h o w w e r e they organised, and h o w did they operate? A s such things tend to b e the d o m a i n o f tacit knowledge, attempts to a n s w e r these questions will necessarily involve s o m e degree o f speculation. But w e are not without any evidence at all, for while M a r k ' s Gospel m a y not explicitly a n s w e r such questions, it is nevertheless an artefact apparently on the basis o f s o m e sort o f understanding o f the O T .

wrought

48

History

as

Hermeneutic

C. H. D o d d earlier suggested that the foundations of N T theology rested on the shared Weltanschauung

of the N T and O T authors, an idea further

d e v e l o p e d b y F r a n c i s F o u l k e s w h e n h e s a w the acts o f G o d as b e i n g paradigmatic for the J e w s ' subsequent comprehension o f their history and structure o f their future e x p e c t a t i o n .

57

This approach will b e recognised as

fully consistent w i t h the p r e c e d i n g discussion o f the mediatorial role of ideology and further s u g g e s t s that M a r k ' s categories for

apprehending

Jesus are to b e located and understood within an ideologically schematised u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Israel's history.

U l t i m a t e l y g r o u n d e d in the n a t i o n ' s

founding m o m e n t and inculcated b y m e a n s o f the various J e w i s h festivals celebrated t h r o u g h o u t the year, this self-understanding w a s b y its very nature s c h e m a t i c and simplifying—it had to b e if it w a s to carry out its unifying function.

W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k v a r i o u s i c o n s and s y m b o l s ,

including textual ones, served to evoke the various images and energies of that founding m o m e n t . It is p e r h a p s indicative o f the basic validity o f this m o d e l that, as the survey in the p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r d e m o n s t r a t e s , m a n y s t u d e n t s o f M a r k have intuitively recognised the importance o f Israel's early history for the hermeneutic that his Gospel applies to Jesus. N u m e r o u s scholars focused in particular on Israel's founding m o m e n t and h a v e seen in the various M a r k a n motifs a n d n a r r a t i v e s iconic or s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e s to e v e n t s within the larger Exodus framework.

Naturally enough, the next step was

to attempt to explain M a r k on the basis of an overarching E x o d u s schema. So far, all o f this is in keeping with w h a t o n e might h a v e expected on the basis o f the social function o f ideology. A p r o b l e m arises, h o w e v e r , in that t h e s e a t t e m p t s h a v e m e t with indifferent success. W h i l e there are isolated events and motifs w h i c h to varying degrees s e e m deliberately to e c h o E x o d u s categories, for instance, the feedings, the M o u n t o f Transfiguration, the sea crossings, and perhaps the d r o w n i n g o f the swine, w h e n taken as a literary unit M a r k does not seem to adhere to an Exodus schema. T h e explanation o f this apparent contradiction, I w o u l d suggest, is two fold. First, Israel's self-understanding not only derived from her ideologi cally s h a p e d

remembrance of her founding

moment, but was

also

p o w e r f u l l y , if n o t d e c i s i v e l y , influenced b y h e r p r o p h e t s w h o w h i l e 5

7

According

a n d Acts

respectively.

Mark:

OT and

49

Ideology

w o r k i n g w i t h i n the a m b i t o f earlier traditions also transformed

them.

5 8

All ideology necessarily has s o m e forward-looking dimension, b u t Israel's distinctive prophetic tradition represents a specially potent impetus in this direction. C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h i l e m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e correctly n o t e d the formative influence o f the first Exodus, they have often failed to allow for the prophetic transformation o f that founding m o m e n t into the future hope of a N E .

5 9

In other words, Israel's future lay in n o mere repetition o f

h e r founding m o m e n t , b u t in the m o r e glorious p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f a greater and m o r e p o r t e n t o u s N E .

That M a r k freely appeals to various

icons or s y m b o l s e v o c a t i v e o f the first E x o d u s w i t h i n a N E s c h e m a is hardly surprising given the prototypical role o f the former for the latter. This, I think, is the particular failing o f the approach o f scholars such as Suhl w h o , w h i l e rightly detecting that M a r k ' s Gospel is cast in the colours of the O T , w e r e unable to grasp the implications of this colouring. A second w e a k n e s s o f previous approaches is their double failure, first to appreciate the n e c e s s a r i l y s c h e m a t i c n a t u r e of i d e o l o g y , a n d then to discern the priorities which considerations here.

g i v e it its s t r u c t u r e .

There are

two

First, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f o u r b o o k i s h training,

scholars tend to seek explanations for the relationship between the O T and N T primarily in textual terms, often without giving d u e attention to the interaction b e t w e e n the text and w h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n in the m i n d s o f their authors and first readers, b y which I mean, not only h o w various O T texts w e r e interpreted b u t the role o f i d e o l o g y in g i v i n g s h a p e to the significance o f those texts. This is precisely Bailey's point in his treatment of the parables w h e n h e argues that their proper context is the matrix o f first century Palestinian social m o r e s and expectations.

In t e r m s o f o u r

discussion, D o d d , w h o s e pointing to a c o m m o n Weltanschauung

showed

the w a y forward, nevertheless s e e m e d to m i s s the crucial point w h i c h is that the texts themselves presuppose mental m a p s as m u c h as they seek to form and influence t h e m . mentally a time when

N o w if Israel's founding m o m e n t is funda

s h e is e l e c t e d b y Y a h w e h , t h e n s u r e l y

her

relationship w i t h Y a h w e h ought to b e a key consideration in h e r history, as indeed the biblical text bears out. If so, then it m a y well b e that Israel's

5

8

5

9

S e e e.g. t h e w o r k o f F i s h b a n e , Interpretation. M a u s e r , Wilderness, s i m i l a r l y t e n d s t o d o w n p l a y t h e s e c o n d E x o d u s i n p r e f e r e n c e t o t h e first. S e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 2 3 - 2 6 .

50

History

as

Hermeneutic

i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u a l o f h e r h i s t o r y is u l t i m a t e l y cast in t e r m s o f the initiative o f Y a h w e h in his saving acts and o f Israel's response (cf. e.g. Ps 78). T h e i m p o r t a n c e of D o d d ' s textplots then m a y lie not so m u c h in the surface o f the O T textplot, that is, a place w h e r e textual ' g e m s ' lying upon the surface could b e had for the picking, but in the underlying 'subtext' of the r e l a t i o n a l d y n a m i c b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d I s r a e l .

60

In other w o r d s ,

certain O T texts m a y b e appealed to b y M a r k b e c a u s e they invoke, within an ideologically s c h e m a t i s e d m e m o r y o f Israel's history, s o m e aspect of Yahweh and witness.

Israel's historical relationship

to w h i c h that t e x t b e a r s

For e x a m p l e , if Isaiah 6 describes Y a h w e h ' s m e a n s of j u d g e m e n t

u p o n a n already idolatrous Israel w h o h a s rejected his w i s d o m , then its use in M a r k m a y well presuppose that a similar impasse has b e e n reached. T h e s e c o n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n is that these m e n t a l m a p s are n e c e s s a r i l y s c h e m a t i c a n d simplifying.

A c o m p a r i s o n o f the first E x o d u s a n d its

derivative N E h o p e such as w e h a v e in the prophets suggests a c o m m o n underlying

s c h e m a o f d e l i v e r a n c e , j o u r n e y , and a r r i v a l at Y a h w e h ' s

d w e l l i n g ( w h e t h e r Sinai or J e r u s a l e m / Z i o n ) .

6 1

If so, then it is this simple

pattern, rather t h a n the m o r e c o n v o l u t e d a c c o u n t s that w e find in the E x o d u s n a r r a t i v e s t h e m s e l v e s — w h i c h texts I w o u l d a r g u e

presuppose

such a s c h e m a in any case—to w h i c h w e should b e looking. This is not to say that s u c h m a p s m u s t therefore b e simplistic and

mono-dimensional.

A s will b e c o m e apparent throughout the b o o k , even a basic s c h e m a allows ample opportunity for development and complexity, b u t in an hierarchical fashion w h i c h allows for accessibility in spite o f the complexity. E a c h n e w level o f sophistication a s s u m e s a prior level o f integration. O n c e this prior level has i n v o k e d the required o v e r a r c h i n g s c h e m a , one can focus m o r e precisely o n an aspect within that s c h e m a b y using various 'icons' to invoke frameworks relevant to the particular aspect desired.

For

instance, o n c e M a r k establishes that h e is operating within a N E s c h e m a , then a n fitting textual ' i c o n ' , p e r h a p s a text associated with the Y a h w e h W a r r i o r , c a n indicate w h e r e in the N E s c h e m a o n e is operating, namely, 6

0

6

1

S u n d b e r g , ' T e s t i m o n i e s ' , is o f t e n c i t e d a s h a v i n g d i s c r e d i t e d D o d d ' s ' t e x t p l o t ' hypothesis, but w h e n e x a m i n e d carefully Sundberg's a r g u m e n t s stand 'open to criticism at e v e r y p o i n t ' , M a r s h a l l , ' R e c e n t ' , 5ff. It a p p e a r s t h a t I s a 4 0 - 5 5 a s s u m e s s u c h a s c h e m a ; s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . E v e n t h e A b r a h a m i c s t o r y is o n e o f d e p a r t u r e , j o u r n e y a l o n g a n u n k n o w n w a y , a n d a r r i v a l in t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d . T h i s itself m a y w e l l o r i g i n a t e in a r e v e r s a l o f t h e F a l l : c a s t o u t f r o m Y a h w e h ' s b o u n t i f u l g a r d e n / p r e s e n c e , w a n d e r i n g , c i t y o f C a i n , cf. G a g e , Gospel.

Mark:

OT and

51

Ideology

the deliverance section. N o t only so, but that ' i c o n ' also invokes a partic ular set o f expectations on which basis M a r k draws his picture o f Jesus. W h a t w e ought to h a v e in m i n d , I suggest, is the ideologically shaped s c h e m a of Israel's history cast in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s and Israel's relation ship in w h i c h various texts act as hermeneutical pointers e v o k i n g sections of this schema. I a m not proposing that every appeal to the O T necessarily functions in this w a y , only that it is not unlikely that a n u m b e r of M a r k ' s citations a n d a l l u s i o n s d o , a n d if so m a y lead to the d i s c o v e r y o f a n overarching unity, a s s u m i n g for the m o m e n t that s u c h unity exists. A t this point w e n o t e s o m e o f the conclusions o f Christopher S t a n l e y ' s work.

6 2

A l t h o u g h appearing after the b u l k o f m y o w n had b e e n done, it

articulates with precision w h a t had at best b e e n intuitive in the approach taken here.

In order better to locate P a u l ' s citational m e t h o d in its first

century context, Stanley s u r v e y e d citational techniques and tendencies in both J e w i s h and Graeco-Roman authors and concluded that Paul generally a d h e r e d to the a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e s o f his day.

First, the j o i n i n g o f t w o

originally discrete verses or even commingling the language of such verses into a single ' q u o t a t i o n ' to address a special literary o r rhetorical c o n c e r n is n o t u n c o m m o n .

6 3

S e c o n d , w h e t h e r the author u s e s verbatim

or a d a p t e d citations s e e m s d e t e r m i n e d solely b y ' h o w well t h e original w o r d i n g coincided with the point that the later author w a n t e d to m a k e in adducing the p a s s a g e ' .

64

Third, it is c o m m o n practice for an author either

to o m i t various e l e m e n t s considered extraneous, to c h a n g e the g r a m m a r , or e v e n to r e p l a c e a w o r d or p h r a s e with another in o r d e r to help the r e a d e r / h e a r e r a p p r e h e n d the point o f the original text as the later author understood i t .

65

Finally, 'the m o s t noteworthy point about the adaptations

. . . i s the s h e e r o b v i o u s n e s s and e v e n naivete with w h i c h m a n y o f t h e m are carried out', w h i c h in the light o f the ease with w h i c h various changes could b e detected suggests the social acceptability o f such p r a c t i c e s .

66

s o m e b r i e f c o m m e n t s o n the w a y Graeco-Roman h e a r e r s w o u l d e x p e r i e n c e d the ' t e x t ' , S t a n l e y then p r o p o s e s that ' " i n t e r p r e t i v e

After have

render

i n g s " are thus a n integral part o f every public presentation o f a written

6

2

6

3

6

4

6

5

6

6

Language. Ibid., 3 4 2 . O n M a r k ' s u s e o f this t e c h n i q u e s e e a l s o K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 175ff. Ibid. Ibid., 3 4 3 f f . Ibid., 3 4 7 f . S e e a l s o t h e w o r k o f F i s h b a n e , Interpretation, cited above.

52

History

as

Hermeneutic

text, a reality w e l l u n d e r s t o o d and p e r h a p s e v e n anticipated b y ancient audiences'.

6 7

T h i s is e v e n m o r e s o in the J e w i s h m i l i e u w h e r e the

reinterpretation o f texts w a s inherent in their u s e o f the Scriptures (e.g. Chronicles 'rewriting' o f Kings, and the so-called 'rewritten B i b l e ' ) .

68

O n the basis o f S t a n l e y ' s findings, it s e e m s highly likely that informed r e a d e r s / h e a r e r s w o u l d not o n l y h a v e n o t e d a l t e r a t i o n s b u t also h a v e recognised that the altered form was o f interpretative significance. It is not too big a step to suggest that they m a y also h a v e b e e n generally a w a r e of the original context o f a given passage and so h a v e b e e n equally alert to the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c h a n g e s b e t w e e n the o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t a n d the p r e s e n t setting.

(Perhaps the J e w i s h leaders' response to w h a t s e e m s to b e J e s u s '

retelling o f Isa 5's vineyard parable in M k 12:lff is an e x a m p l e o f this very process.)

T h i s 'sensitivity' parallels w h a t Bailey p r o p o s e d r e g a r d i n g the

parables, a n d further undergirds what w e have suggested with respect to a similarly a s s u m e d pattern o f O T interpretation a n d e x p e c t a t i o n .

Since

there s e e m s n o reason to suggest that M a r k operates any differently from Paul or h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , o u r reading o f his use o f O T citations and allusions will seek to take this awareness into account. T o return to the question o f a M a r k a n s c h e m a , in addition to the use of the E x o d u s m o d e l , m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e o b s e r v e d the influence o f the b o o k o f Isaiah, particularly c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , o n M a r k ' s G o s p e l and especially s o in the prologue. This in itself already offers s o m e encourage m e n t that an N E s c h e m a , particularly that o f Isaiah w h o is p e r h a p s the greatest o f all N E exponents, might b e o f i m p o r t a n c e for M a r k .

However,

for w h a t e v e r reason this observation has b e e n confined to isolated sections of M a r k a n d until recently very little has been d o n e to d e v e l o p it in terms of his overall outline and subsequent d e v e l o p m e n t .

69

It is with a v i e w to

further exploring this link that w e n o w turn to e x a m i n i n g M a r k ' s opening sentences.

6

7

Ibid., 3 5 2 ; s e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a s i m i l a r d y n a m i c w i t h r e g a r d t o c l a s s i c a l G r e e k d r a m a in W a t l i n g ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S o p h o c l e s ' Theban Plays, 1 1 - 1 2 . Ibid., 3 5 0 - 5 3 . M a r c u s , Way, h a s n o w r e c e n t l y e m p h a s i s e d t h e p r o g r a m m a t i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e 1:1-3 f o r t h e G o s p e l w h e r e J e s u s is i d e n t i f i e d w i t h ' Y a h w e h ' s t r i u m p h a l m a r c h t h r o u g h t h e w i l d e r n e s s t o Z i o n in a n a c t of h o l y w a r o n b e h a l f o f h i s p e o p l e ' , 2 0 0 . 6

8

6

9

Chapter 3: Mark's Introductory Citation Mark's

only editorial

programmatic 'sandwich' NE

for

structure,

OT citation,

Perhaps

the Isaianic

components

as the conceptual

component

adds

occurring

his Gospel. framework

an ominous

in his opening reflecting invoke

of his work

dimension

while

his

the prophecies the

by highlighting

in Yahweh's

sentence,

is

characteristic of

the

Exodus/Malachi

the threat

inherent

coming.

I. Introduction Although M a r k ' s prologue is generally understood as setting the stage for his Gospel, there is considerable diversity o f opinion as to what that 'stage' is.

R. H. Lightfoot p r o p o s e d that the introduction, b y giving an insight

into a C h r i s t o l o g y w h i c h remains secret t h r o u g h o u t m o s t o f the G o s p e l , 'puts into the readers'

h a n d s ... the key w h i c h is designed to unlock the 1

meaning of the contents o f the b o o k ' while Martin Dibelius regarded the baptism as the cue for a Gospel o f secret epiphanies.

2

T. A. Burkill saw the

Gospel turning o n the struggle to understand the mystery o f J e s u s , already disclosed in the prologue as Messiah and unique Son o f G o d . c o m m e n t a t o r s t o o k a related a p p r o a c h , interpreting

3

Mark's

Numerous prologue,

particularly the voice from heaven, as 'anticipating the crucial points in the history h e relates', n a m e l y , the recognition that J e s u s is the Messiah (8:29) and ultimately the S o n o f G o d ( 1 5 : 3 9 ) .

4

J . M . R o b i n s o n and others

understood J e s u s ' initial victory over Satan in the desert as setting the tone for the ensuing eschatological conflict with the d e m o n s , the c o s m o s , and h u m a n hardness o f heart.

1

History,

2

Tradition,

5

L. E. K e c k , s o m e w h a t akin to E. Schweizer and

61ff. 2 3 1 f.

Yates, 'Form', also began with Jesus' baptism which he suggested

p r e f i g u r e d I s r a e l ' s ' c l e a n s i n g ' a s effected b y J e s u s in t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e w o r k . 3

4

Mysterious,

5 ; cf. M a t e r a , ' P r o l o g u e ' , 1 2 - 1 5 .

L a n e , 4 5 ; cf. e.g. H o o k e r , Message, 47-142. 5

5 ; P e s c h , 1.97; G n i l k a , 1.39f; E r n s t , 3 1 ; K i n g s b u r y , 6 0 ,

Problem, 1 4 1 f a n d 3 2 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; e a r l i e r h i n t e d a t b y S t o n e h o u s e , 2 1 ; cf. B u r k i l l , 21ff; a n d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c s t r u g g l e e n v i s a g e d b y K e e , 7 5 ; P e s c h , 1 . 9 8 . M a u s e r , 9 3 f , u n d e r s t o o d t h e differing r e s p o n s e s — a l l c o m e f r o m J u d e a a n d J e r u s a l e m ( 1 : 5 ) , w h i l e o n l y o n e

54

Introductory

Citation

Ernest Best, sees the 'way o f discipleship' as the primary concept with M a r k introducing his gospel with 'the call to follow and the p a r a d i g m for doing so'.

6

Others are impressed b y the presence o f O T motifs, particularly in the

opening citation, a n d either read M a r k ' s G o s p e l in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s as a 7

repetition o f the first E x o d u s , or, o b s e r v i n g a l o n g with R. G u e l i c h that Mark casts his b e g i n n i n g 'in the light o f Isaiah', stress this as setting the general 'eschatological t o n e ' o f w h a t f o l l o w s .

8

S o , for e x a m p l e , O t t o Betz,

w h o discerns p r i m a r i l y Deutero-Isaianic b u t also Daniellic influences in M a r k ' s prologue, sees the first half o f the G o s p e l reflecting the D e u t e r o Isaianic Warrior w h o is also the Daniellic Son o f M a n , w h i l e in the second part this Son of M a n is revealed as Isaiah 5 3 ' s ' G o t t e s k n e c h t ' .

9

Granted that M a r k is p r o b a b l y not a first-rate literary genius, it s e e m s untenable to attribute this lack o f c o n s e n s u s to M a r k a n ineptitude given the skill evident in, for e x a m p l e , his carefully constructed ' W a y ' s e c t i o n and thoughtful p l a c e m e n t and combination o f O T t e x t s .

11

10

T a k e n together

with M a r k ' s apparent a w a r e n e s s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y literary techniques (e.g. his use o f chiasm and hinge s t r u c t u r e s ) ,

12

these factors suggest that h e also

understood the i m p o r t a n c e o f his prologue.

In literary antiquity the role

of the prologue w a s , by convention, to provide 'an indication o f w h a t is to b e said so that hearers can k n o w beforehand w h a t the w o r k is a b o u t ' .

13

In

the first century A D , Q u i n t i l l i a n s p e a k s h i g h l y o f H o m e r b e c a u s e 'his proems m a d e his listeners attentive b y his m e n t i o n o f the greatness o f the theme and o p e n to instruction b y his swift s k e t c h o f t h e p l o t ' .

1 4

One

hundred years later, Lucian asserts that the g o o d historian 'will m a k e what

G a l i l e a n is m e n t i o n e d ( 1 : 9 ) — a s f o r e s h a d o w i n g t h e o n - g o i n g t e n s i o n b e t w e e n G a l i l e e a n d J e r u s a l e m ; cf. L o h m e y e r , Galilaa; M a r x s e n , 5 4 - 1 1 6 . ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 7 0 ; cf. S c h w e i z e r , ' C o n t r i b u t i o n ' , 421ff, 431ff; B e s t , Following, 15ff. S w a r t l e y , ' S t r u c t u r a l ' ; H o b b s , ' E x o d u s ' ; F a r r e r , Study; P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' ; D e r r e t t , Making; cf. M a u s e r ; K e l b e r , 67ff, ' P a r o u s i a ' , 1 0 9 ; S a h l i n , ' S a l v a t i o n ' , 8 3 ; D r u r y , ' M a r k ' . 6

7

8

' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 2 , w h o n o t e s a n u m b e r o f I s a i a n i c i n f l u e n c e s in t h e p r o l o g u e ; a l s o L a n e , 4 3 , a n d S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 52ff. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o n e o f t h e s e a u t h o r s d e v e l o p t h i s i n s i g h t m u c h b e y o n d t h e p r o l o g u e . B u t s e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s w h o a r g u e s for t h e p r i m a r y i n f l u e n c e o f Isaiah's m e s s a g e o f s a l v a t i o n . 9

'Jesu', 7 2 . R e s p e c t i v e l y : e.g. I s a 4 0 : 3 , 4 2 : 1 in v v . 2f, 1 1 ; a n d ' d e r S t a r k e r e n ' , cf. v v . 7, 12f; D n 7 : 1 0 - 1 4 . S e e C h a p t e r s 5 a n d 7. 1

0

1 1

1

2

1

3

1 4

A s n o t e d b y K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; s e e a l s o n o w M a r c u s , passim. S t o c k , ' H i n g e ' ; v a n Iersel, I j e t e k e n i s ' , a n d ' L o c a l i t y ' . A r i s t o t l e , Rhetoric, 1 4 1 4 b . Cf. B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated, 5 2 - 5 8 ; B e a v i s , Audience, Institutionis, 1 0 . 1 . 4 8 f , t r a n s . R u s s e l l - W i n t e r b o t t o m , Ancient, 1 5 9 , 3 8 7 .

32f.

Mark's

Opening

55

Sentence

is to c o m e easy to understand and quite clear, if he sets forth the causes and outlines the m a i n e v e n t s ' n o t i n g that e v e n if 'the subject matter requires no preliminary exposition ... he will use a virtual preface to clarify what h e is g o i n g to s a y ' .

1 5

S o w i d e s p r e a d w a s this c o n v e n t i o n that w h e t h e r y o u

were dealing with 'history, epideictic oratory, philosophical dialogue, political treatise or w h a t e v e r , y o u r first s e n t e n c e h a d to a n n o u n c e w h a t you were writing'.

16

T h e reasons for these rules w e r e eminently practical,

since: The technique of ancient b o o k production, the physical nature of the v o l u m e n did n o t a l l o w t h e r e a d e r e a s i l y t o s c a n t h e b o d y o f t h e w o r k t o a s c e r t a i n its subject. T h e first s e n t e n c e a n d first p a r a g r a p h p e r f o r m e d m u c h o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e title p a g e a n d list o f c o n t e n t s in a m o d e r n c o d e x .

1 7

G i v e n this n e a r u n i v e r s a l a g r e e m e n t b y a n c i e n t a u t h o r i t i e s o n t h e p u r p o s e o f the p r o l o g u e , h o w is o n e to a c c o u n t for the w i d e variety o f r e a d i n g s offered b y m o d e r n interpreters?

It is p r o p o s e d h e r e that the

present hiatus is largely d u e to a failure to appreciate fully the ' i c o n i c ' function of M a r k ' s o p e n i n g m i x e d citation in establishing the interpretive f r a m e w o r k for h i s G o s p e l .

T h e rest o f this C h a p t e r will s e e k first to

d e t e r m i n e t h e l e n g t h o f the o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e and t h e n to d i s c e r n its hermeneutical implications.

II. Mark's Opening Sentence A l t h o u g h 1:1 h a s c o m m o n l y b e e n regarded as a distinct unit, G u e l i c h h a s recently u r g e d that ' t h e u s e o f

Ka9a>c; y c y p a i T T a i

a n d the c o m p a r a b l e

function o f apxri in other » h e a d i n g s « m a k e the reading o f 1:1 w i t h 1:2-3 imperative'.

18

Citing parallels in Q u m r a n (with

3VD

"MfcO,

e.g. 1QS 5:17;

8:14, w h e r e it also introduces Isa 40:3; C D 7:19; 4QFlor 1:12), in the L X X (e.g. 2 K g s 14:6, cf. D a n 9:13 ( 8 ) ) , and in the N T (e.g. M k 7:6 (cf. 9:13; 14:21); L k 2:23; Acts 7:42; 13:33; 1 C o r 1:31; 2:9 etc.), he points out that in the N T w h e n Ka9o>c;/a>c; y c y p a T T T a i

1

5

1

6

1

7

1

8

Hist.,

is u s e d as a technical formula to i n t r o d u c e an O T

53.

E a r l , ' P r o l o g u e ' , 8 5 6 ; cf. S m i t h , ' T h e o r y ' , w h o n o t e s f o u r c a t e g o r i e s . Ibid. M y a i m h e r e is n o t t o c a t e g o r i s e M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e , b u t t o s t r e s s its i m p o r t a n c e . ' B e g i n n i n g ' , f o l l o w i n g A r n o l d , ' M k 1,1'; cf. K i l p a t r i c k , ' P u n c t u a t i o n ' ; A m b r o z i c , 18f. For a s u m m a r y of earlier views, Wikgren, ' A P X H ' .

56

Introductory

quotation,

1 9

Citation

it n e v e r b e g i n s a n e w t h o u g h t ,

p r e c e d i n g with the f o l l o w i n g .

21

2 0

b u t i n s t e a d l i n k s the

Verses 1 and 2 f b e l o n g together.

Mark's

'heading' reads: T h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g o s p e l o f J e s u s M e s s i a h , [Son o f G o d , ] a s is w r i t t e n in I s a i a h t h e prophet, way; His

'Behold I send m y m e s s e n g e r before y o u r face, w h o shall p r e p a r e y o u r

t h e v o i c e o f o n e c r y i n g in t h e w i l d e r n e s s : P r e p a r e t h e W a y o f t h e L o r d , m a k e paths straight'

2 2

and should b e construed as reflecting the concerns of the entire w o r k .

23

But G . A r n o l d h a s argued that in extra-biblical literature the anarthrous and verbless use o f apx*i pertains either to the i m m e d i a t e introduction o f a literary w o r k o r to the b e g i n n i n g o f a m a i n s e c t i o n as distinct from preceding preliminary c o m m e n t s .

2 4

A s there are n o preceding c o m m e n t s ,

verse 1 b e g i n s the i m m e d i a t e introduction and therefore verses I f f relate o n l y to t h e p r o l o g u e .

2 5

H o w e v e r , e v e n a l l o w i n g the first s e n t e n c e to

introduce the p r o l o g u e alone, the p r o l o g u e itself, both in terms of literary convention and o n empirical g r o u n d s (witness the opinions noted a b o v e ) , introduces the c o n c e r n s and t h e m e s o f the b o d y o f the w o r k .

It w o u l d b e

m o s t u n u s u a l if t h e t h e m e s e v o k e d in t h e o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e

were

fundamentally different from those dealt with in the b o d y o f the work. C l e a r l y then M a r k ' s citation is crucial.

A s part o f the h e a d i n g it is

p r o g r a m m a t i c for the prologue and therefore the w h o l e G o s p e l , w h i l e oic; y c y p a i T T a i also suggests that it is epexegetical of v. 1: the ' g o s p e l ' o f Jesus Christ is that g o s p e l about w h i c h Isaiah wrote.

That this is M a r k ' s only

explicit e d i t o r i a l O T c i t a t i o n in the G o s p e l a d d s to its s i g n i f i c a n c e .

1 9

Cf. F i t z m y e r , ' U s e ' , 7ff.

2 0

Pace T a y l o r w h o s e e x a m p l e s d o n o t d e a l w i t h t h e w h o l e p h r a s e . E . g . L k 2:23; A c t s 7:42; R o m 1:17; 2:24; 1 C o r 1:31; 2 : 9 . M a r k n e v e r b e g i n s a s e n t e n c e w i t h K a S o f c , Schweizer, 30. In s p i t e o f a v e r b l e s s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 4 n 2 6 ; cf. S t o n e h o u s e , 8f; K i l p a t r i c k , ' P u n c t u a t i o n ' ; A m b r o z i c , 1 8 ; n o w S c h n e c k , 2 9 - 3 1 . Contra L a g r a n g e ' s objection, 1, t h a t t h i s r e q u i r e s a n a r t i c l e w i t h ' A p x T j , t h e w o r d n e v e r h a s o n e in M a r k a n d f u r t h e r t h e a b s e n c e c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v e r s e is a h e a d i n g , G o u l d , 2 n l ; T a y l o r , 1 5 2 . T u r n e r , ' T e x t ' , 1 5 0 ; L a g r a n g e , I f ; a n d L a n e , 4 2 , t a k e v v . 1-4 a s c o m p r i s i n g a s i n g l e s e n t e n c e w i t h v v . 2 f b e i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l . S e e n o w a l s o G u n d r y , 3 0 f ; B o r i n g ' s s u r v e y in, ' B e g i n n i n g ' . 2 1

2 2

2 3

E . g . H a e n c h e n , 3 8 n l ; M a r x s e n , 1 3 8 ; M a r t i n , 2 8 ; P e s c h , 1.75; a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y M a r c u s ,

12-47. 2 4

' M k 1 , 1 ' . C f . o n t h e o n e h a n d , I s o c r a t e s , Phil. 1; P h i l o , de Sob. 1 § 1 ; Spec. Leg. 1 § 1 ; T a c i t u s , Hist. 1.1.1; a n d o n t h e o t h e r , P o l y b i u s , 1.5.1; D i o n . H a l . , Ant. Rom. 1.8.4; J o s . , B.J. 1.30. H o s 1:2 is n o t a p p l i c a b l e a s it is n o t t h e h e a d i n g o f t h e b o o k . S o e.g. A r n o l d , ' M k 1,1'; C r a n f i e l d , 3 4 f ; L o h m e y e r , 9ff; L a n e , 4 2 ; ' M e y e r , 1 6 ; G u e l i c h , 'Beginning'. 2 5

An

Early

57

Gloss?

H o w e v e r , the w e l l - k n o w n difficulty here is that M a r k d o e s not in fact quote Isaiah; at least not immediately.

Ill The Citation a) An Early

Gloss?

O n e w a y o f resolving this difficulty has b e e n to argue that verse 2 is a very early gloss. ascription,

B)

T h e w a r r a n t s n o r m a l l y a d v a n c e d are: A ) t h e i n c o r r e c t the lack o f agreement b e t w e e n

aoO

(v. 2c) and

auTou

(v. 3 c ) ,

C ) the m i x i n g o f a m e r g e d H e b r e w text w i t h o n e that a p p e a r s to derive from the L X X , D ) M a t t h e w and L u k e cite Isaiah 40:3 and the c o m b i n e d E x o d u s / M a l a c h i passages in different contexts, and E ) verse 2 b breaks the natural

connection

quotation.

between

the

Isaiah

reference

and

the

Isaiah

26

A l t h o u g h h a v i n g s o m e force t h e s e a r g u m e n t s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y compelling.

T h e m a t t e r o f t h e ' i n c o r r e c t ' ascription is s u s c e p t i b l e to

another explanation (see b e l o w ) . T h e lack o f agreement presupposes that M a r k w o u l d h a v e felt c o n s t r a i n e d to a s s i m i l a t e , b u t this h a s to b e demonstrated not a s s u m e d .

Although this degree o f merging o f different

text types is u n u s u a l in the N T , singularity is not in itself a sufficient g r o u n d for i n a u t h e n t i c i t y .

27

T h e later divergence o f b o t h M a t t h e w and

L u k e ( a s s u m i n g M a r k a n priority) m a y b e e x p l a i n e d b y a preference for c o m m o n ' Q ' materials, b u t in any case it is not clear that they should b e d e t e r m i n a t i v e for M a r k .

2 8

C o n t r a r y to b r e a k i n g the natural flow, M a r k

m a y have intentionally s a n d w i c h e d the E x o d u s / M a l a c h i text b e t w e e n the Isaiah ascription and quotation to ensure that it was understood within an Isaianic framework (see also b e l o w ) — a technique w h i c h is not altogether u n k n o w n in h i s w o r k .

F i n a l l y , the l a c k o f textual e v i d e n c e and

the

coherence o f these verses—including the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s allusion as will

2

6

E . g . L a g r a n g e ; S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; B e s t , Temptation, 1 1 4 n l ; R o b i n s o n , 'Elijah'. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 2 0 7 , r e g a r d s it a s a s e r i o u s p o s s i b i l i t y . L a c h m a n n ' s c o n j e c t u r e , N A , that vv. 2-3 should be deleted h a s found few followers; see Wellhausen, 4, w h o mentions E w a l d , a n d H i r s c h (cf. H a e n c h e n , 4 0 ) . 2 6

2

7

2

8

B u t cf. M k 1 1 : 1 7 , 13:24f; a n d M t 2:6; 2 1 : 5 p a r . J n 1 2 : 1 5 ; S t e n d a h l , School, G u n d r y , Use, 9 1 f ; 120f. A s Taylor admits.

99ff, U 8 f f ;

58

Introductory

Citation

M a l a c h i / E x o d u s allusion as will b e a r g u e d later—has c o n v i n c e d m o s t recent c o m m e n t a t o r s o f their authenticity. b) The Function

of Mark

1:2/

M a n y h a v e seen M a r k ' s o p e n i n g m i x e d citation as particularly important for his presentation, but in different w a y s . M o s t often M a r k ' s selection o f these particular texts has b e e n explained on the basis o f his c o n c e r n to introduce J o h n .

T h u s the p h r a s e kv TTJ cprfuc^ carries w i t h it ' t h e full

weight o f a great religious tradition embracing high hopes and promises as w e l l as d e e p s h a d o w s o f j u d g e m e n t '

2 9

and, as the setting for J o h n ' s

ministry, it b o l s t e r s the prophetic a n d eschatological significance o f his activity.

30

Verses 4ff, it is suggested, m a y even comprise a verse-by-verse

commentary

on the O T citation where John who

appears

'in

the

wilderness' proclaiming the 'stronger' ' c o m i n g o n e ' echoes the 'messenger' w h o 'cries in the wilderness' and thus 'prepares the w a y ' .

3 1

This line has

b e e n taken up recently b y R. H. G u n d r y w h o argues with s o m e vigour that ' v v 2b-3 ... covers only those verses w h o s e subject matter corresponds to the O T quotations, i.e. vv 4 - 8 ' .

3 2

W h i l e this v i e w is not without merit in that J o h n is clearly located at the b e g i n n i n g o f J e s u s ' ministry (cf. Acts 1:21-22; 13:24-25 a n d the other G o s p e l s ) , s e v e r a l factors indicate that this a s s e s s m e n t m a y n o t go far enough.

T h e unity o f v e r s e s 1-3 suggests that ' t h e b e g i n n i n g ' a n d the

substance o f w h a t is actually beginning, T O V cOayyc'Xiov 'IriaoO XpiaToO, o u g h t n o t to b e artificially separated.

G i v e n , too, the role o f o p e n i n g

sentences in antiquity—for e x a m p l e , G u n d r y admits that o n his v i e w the p l a c e m e n t o f the quotations in the superscription rather than at the close 33

of the narrative is ' u n n a t u r a l ' — o n e would expect them to b e descriptive of the w h o l e work, not merely o f M a r k ' s brief account o f J o h n . Moreover, the e m p h a s i s o n preparation (KcnaoKevdoei

and € T o i j i a a a T € )

3 4

allows n o

2 9

O n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d e s e r t m o t i f , e s p e c i a l l y in M k 1:3, 4 , 1 3 , M a u s e r ; T a l m o n , '"Desert"'; W r i g h t , 'Spirit'. 3 0

Marxsen, 37; Robinson, 25. L o h m e y e r , 9. Mark, 3 1 . L a t e r , h o w e v e r , G u n d r y s e e m s t o c o n t r a d i c t h i m s e l f w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t M a r k ' s ' c o m b i n a t i o n s o f . . . p r o n o u n s p r e p a r e for G o d ' s a d d r e s s i n g J e s u s in v. 11', 3 5 . Ibid., 3 4 . S t e n d a h l , School, 5 1 ; L o n g e n e c k e r , Apostolic, 1 3 8 , s e e KajaoKtvdoei a n d kro\\uxoaT€ as uniting t h e t w o p a s s a g e s o n t h e basis of a c o m m o n e x p r e s s i o n — t h e p h r a s e o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e o n l y in I s a 5 7 : 1 4 a n d 6 2 : 1 0 , b o t h o f w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s . O n this s o r t o f c o m b i n a t i o n a s a r a b b i n i c m e t h o d s e e fn. 1 7 1 , b e l o w . 3 1

3 2

3 3

3 4

Function

mistaking J o h n ' s subordinate r o l e terminology {odog

3 5

59

ofl:2f

and the three-fold repetition o f ' w a y '

(bis), Tpipouc;) naturally raises the question as to w h o s e

' w a y ' is being prepared; the answer can hardly b e the w a y of J o h n . A l o n g similar lines, the little that is said o f John, namely, his call for repentance (v. 4 ; M a i 3 : 1 , 2 3 ) , his

baptism

3 6

his u n w o r t h i n e s s (v. 7 ) , the anticipatory character o f

(v. 8 ) ,

3 7

and

the

inclusion

of otherwise

insignificant details c o n c e r n i n g his food and c l o t h i n g , consistent with

Malachi's Elijah whose

primary

38

apparently

is r e m a r k a b l y

role was

that

of

forerunner (cf. 9:11-13). Finally, as noted earlier, several points o f contact h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d b e t w e e n the opening citation a n d M a r k ' s account o f Jesus in the b o d y of the Gospel. There is thus a prima facie

case that l:2f,

although naturally n o t excluding J o h n in that h e is clearly related to the 'beginning', actually i m p l y a great deal about Jesus, w h o is, after all, the central focus o f M a r k ' s ' g o o d n e w s ' .

39

Other scholars, recognising that the Gospel as a w h o l e is also in v i e w , tend to offer only general and largely unexplored observations to the effect that these v e r s e s capture 'to a r e m a r k a b l e degree the e s s e n c e o f M a r k ' s story',

40

or indicate that the Gospel concerns the fulfilment o f the citation's

promises. 68og

4 1

F o r those w h o do attempt to go further, the appearance o f

in both halves o f the citation is often seen as proleptic o f 8:27 - 10:52

such that 'Jesus is about to begin to go "on the w a y " whi ch is prepared b y

3

5

3

6

3

7

3

8

3

9

4

0

4

1

R o b i n s o n , 24f; A m b r o z i c , 19f. L a n e ; cf. B o w m a n , 1 0 5 f ; R o b i n s o n , 24f. T h i s is c l e a r e r in L u k e , s e e H o o k e r , Jesus,

73nl.

W i n k , John, 4 . W i n k , John, 2f, 13f, 1 1 0 ; H o o k e r , Message, Si; H e n g e l , Charismatic, 35ff; K i n g s b u r y , 5 8 f ; pace K r a e l i n g , John, 14ff. T h e d e s e r t p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e in J e w i s h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d w a s in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s r e g a r d e d a s t h e h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e p r o p h e t s (Mart. Isa. 2 : 8 - 1 1 ) . L e a t h e r g i r d l e s a r e still w o r n t o d a y b y s o m e o r t h o d o x J e w s a n d a m a n t l e o f a n i m a l s k i n m a y h a v e b e e n s t a n d a r d g a r b for t h e p r o p h e t s (cf. Z e c h 1 3 : 4 ) . O t h e r s , e.g. B o c h e r / J o h a n n e s ' , 7 5 f ; G u e l i c h ; a n d G u n d r y , t r a n s l a t i n g bV2 a s ' h a i r y m a n ' ( L X X : a v f | p Saovg, Tg.: p i > 0 1 3 3 ) , r e j e c t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s e e i n g i n s t e a d a g e n e r a l p r o p h e t i c / d e s e r t - d w e l l i n g i m a g e ( Z e c h 1 3 : 4 ; cf. V i e l h a u e r , ' T r a c h t ' ) . H o w e v e r , g i v e n t h a t 2 K g s 2 : 1 3 f L X X t r a n s l a t e s ' m a n t l e ' w i t h uTiXoaTTf, ' s h e e p s k i n ' o r ' r o u g h s k i n ' (Tg. Ps.-J. t o 2 K g s 2:8 h a s m S B l © i.e. ' c o a r s e c l o a k ' ( J a s t r o w ) ) a n d s i n c e frequently m e a n s 'owner', M a r k m a y b e m o r e p r e c i s e , e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n 9 : 1 3 . S e e a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 8 4 , fn. 3 . S e e n o w B u r r i d g e , What, 2 5 6 , w h o c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e G o s p e l s b e l o n g t o t h e g e n r e Bios' a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e ' k e y t o t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u s t b e t h e p e r s o n o f t h e i r s u b j e c t , Jesus of Nazareth'. Kingsbury, 56f—an insight which unfortunately he neither substantiates n o r d e v e l o p s ; cf. M e y e r , 16f; B o w m a n , 1 1 ; S c h w e i z e r ; L a n e ; P e s c h ; S c h w e i z e r ; B e t z , ' J e s u ' , 7 2 ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 7. G r u n d m a n n , 2 6 ; S c h w e i z e r , 29ff; W i n k , John, 2; L a n e , 4 5 ; A m b r o z i c , 2 0 ; E r n s t , 3 1 ; e t c .

60

Introductory

John

the

Baptiser

and

which

Citation

ends

in

Jerusalem'.

4 2

The

most

c o m p r e h e n s i v e attempt to understand M a r k ' s structure in terms o f l : 2 f is that o f Swartley w h o discerns (not without s o m e effort) a recapitulation of Israel's first E x o d u s w a y .

4 3

A few d r a w attention to M a r k ' s c o m p l e x o f

J e s u s ' c u r s i n g o f t h e fig-tree and c l e a n s i n g o f the T e m p l e (11:12-21) s u g g e s t i n g that it m a y reflect the threat implied b y M a l a c h i 3 : 1 .

4 4

More

recently B e a v i s h a s noted the importance o f Isaiah for M a r k : h e is quoted as often as all the other O T prophets c o m b i n e d ,

45

is the o n l y o n e n a m e d

(bis: 1:2; 7:6) and shares m a n y c o m m o n motifs with M a r k : a Spirit-filled figure w h o b r i n g s a n e w m e s s a g e o f deliverance to an Israel that suffers from s p i r i t u a l b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s .

46

Finally, as n o t e d earlier, Joel

M a r c u s h a s since argued for the p r o g r a m m a t i c nature o f M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation in terms o f the Isaianic N e w E x o d u s w h i c h h e briefly develops, particularly

in t e r m s o f t h e G o s p e l ' s literary s t r u c t u r e .

47

Strangely,

h o w e v e r , apart from p a s s i n g c o m m e n t s on a p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n with J o h n the Baptist a n d the T e m p l e and fig tree c o m p l e x , n o o n e s e e m s to grant

much

weight

Malachi/Exodus

to

the

fact t h a t

Mark

t e x t s in h i s c i t a t i o n a n d

has that

also included they

too might

the be

programmatic. C o n s e q u e n t l y , in order better to appreciate the hermeneutical function of this c o m p o s i t e quotation, it will b e n e c e s s a r y to d e t e r m i n e the O T sources o f M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation and then to e x a m i n e their O T contexts and the w a y in w h i c h they m a y h a v e b e e n understood in S e c o n d - T e m p l e Judaism.

4

2

4

3

4

4

4

5

B e s t , Following, 1 5 ; ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; e.g. a l s o L u z , ' G e h e i m s m o t i v ' , 2 5 ; A m b r o z i c , 19f; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' ; K e l b e r , 6 7 ; M a l b o n , Narrative, 68ff. S e e t h e r e v i e w i n C h a p t e r 1, 19ff. S w a r t l e y is i n d e b t e d b o t h t o K e l b e r , ' K i n g d o m ' , a n d Kingdom, w h o s e e s t h e e n t r y o f J e s u s i n t o J e r u s a l e m a s e c h o i n g t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c m o t i f o f e n t r y i n t o t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d , a n d t o W i n d i s c h , 'Spriiche'. D o d d , According,

7 1 ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 5 ; T e l f o r d , Barren,

163.

Audience, 1 1 0 ; 1:2; 4 : 1 2 ; 7 : 6 ; 1 1 : 1 7 ; 12:lff, b u t s e e a l s o 1 3 : 2 4 , 2 5 . C f . M a i 3:1 in 1:2; Z e c h 1 3 : 7 in 1 4 : 2 3 ; D n 7 : 1 3 in 1 3 : 2 6 a n d 14:62; J e r 7:11 in 11:17. Ibid. Way, 1 2 - 4 7 . 4

6

4

7

61

Texts

IV. OT Sources** a)

Texts MarA: 2 : 2 /

Exodus LXX

•I6ou

i6ou

T

diToaTeXXa) TOV

ayycXov

TOV

dyycXov

Tipo

TrpoaaSnou

iva

(J>uXd?X)

kv

OO\)

i6ou

uou

TOV

dyycXdv

-[-ID©*?

o*€

KAI

Isaiah

€TTlpX€l|;€Tai

€V

€ToiudaaT€ TT|V

66OV

exjQeiag Tag r

66OV

€ll6€{aS"

TIOICITC

TPIPOUS*

aviToO

1:2:

T

'YIP

US

KUpiOU

TOU

0€OO TJUGJV

€yu> in

rwr

TTOl€lT€

Tpipous*

3

|AOU

"DIM

rag

'In t h e p r o p h e t s ' (A W / * Mk

« - N P

POCSVTOS'

T f j €piiu(p

TT|V

TTpoaO)TTOU

MT

'ETOiudaaT€ KUpiOU

nasi

40:3

LXX a>VT|

|iou

66ov TTP6

€ V T f i 4plfoup

nan

°€ya)

733*7

aou

t x ) 66*vf| p O W V T O S "

MT

€4a*noaT€XXa)

GOV

T

6 6 O V

3:1

LXX

run

-d:k

€ya)

uou

KaTaaKcudaei

TT)V

MT

aTToaTcXXa)

TTpO TfpOaOJTTOU og

Malachi

23:20

2ft) r e f l e c t s t h e m i x e d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c i t a t i o n .

KALW/l^gu

V

g

d

sy

h

8

sa™ b o "

18

] t e x t : B D 0 28* 565 p c lat c o ;

probably a n assimilation to E x a n d / o r M a i ( L X X ) , o r E x ( M T ) , o r M t 3:3. 2

A / 1 13 <m f f f 1 v g 11:10

c l

sy

h

1

sa "

5 5

w h i c h m a y e c h o M a i 3:1. 4

einrpooeev

b o P ] t e x t : N B D K L P W © 700* al l a t saP b o P ' , r e f l e c t s M t r

T O U 0€OO

T u r n e r ' s s u g g e s t i o n ('Text', 1 5 0 ) t h a t Ex 23:20: M T "l* ^]

T

1

AUTOU

T\\L&V D it] a n a s s i m i l a t i o n t o t h e L X X ;

reflects M t a n d L k s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d .

*0 ut a)vf) poa)VTos"

kv

Tfj

TTOI€IT€

uou

Tipo

(Isaiah)

TipoaajTTOU

TT\V bdov aou*

(Ex/Mai)

epTûti),

'EToiuaaotTC TT\V bdbv evQzias

TOO TipoTyrxi,

Tag

(Isaiah)

KupCou,

TpCpous* auToO,

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , the Isaiah ascription together w i t h the 40:3

text

provides the

187

framework

into which

the

Isaiah

Exodus/Malachi

conflation is inserted. T w o important considerations emerge: A ) taken on its o w n , M a r k ' s 'blanket' ascription is suggestive of the larger f r a m e w o r k o f his t h o u g h t have realised).

189

1 8 8

(as a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s

This is m o r e so if a type of ' s a n d w i c h ' structure is

intended. 1 8 4

K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; cf. M a n e k , ' C o m p o s i t e ' ; a n d S c h n e c k ,

Isaiah.

1 8 5

G u n d r y , Use, 1 2 5 , a n d Mark, 4 2 . D o n a h u e , Trial, 5 8 - 6 3 ; E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' . M a n e k , ' C o m p o s i t e ' , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t e x t s reflects t h e O T r e q u i r e m e n t for t w o o r t h r e e w i t n e s s e s , D t 1 9 : 1 5 . 1 8 6

1 8 7

Cf. M a u s e r ' s c o m m e n t , 8 1 n l : 'If . . . a n i n t e r p o l a t i o n , it w a s d o n e m o s t ingeniously'. 188 M 'Tradition', suggests that an O T ascription m a y be intended to indicate a l a r g e r t h e m a t i c c o n t e x t w h i l e t h e s p e c i f i c c i t a t i o n s e r v e s a s a foil t o a n i m p o r t a n t s u b t h e m e . In e x a m i n i n g M a t t h e w 2 7 : 3 - 1 0 , w h i c h e s s e n t i a l l y q u o t e s Z e c h 1 1 : 1 3 b u t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s w h i c h find n o c o u n t e r p a r t in Z e c h a r i a h (e.g. eig T O V aypbv T O U K € p a news'). M o o a r g u e d t h a t t h e J e r e m i a h a s c r i p t i o n is i n t e n d e d t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o J e r 1 9 n o t o n l y o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e v e r b a l links tfpl U1 (v. 4 , L X X : a i j i o t T a c j v d9cjo)v) a n d l ^ V ( v v . 1 , 1 1 , L X X : T T c n X a a j i e v o v ) b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r i k i n g t h e m a t i c p a r a l l e l s : a l o c a l i t y c o n n e c t e d w i t h p o t t e r s (v. 1 ) w i l l b e r e n a m e d w i t h a p h r a s e c o n n o t i n g v i o l e n c e (v. 6 ) a n d u s e d a s a b u r i a l p l a c e (v. 1 1 ) , a s a s i g n o f G o d ' s j u d g e m e n t u p o n J e r u s a l e m (v. 1 ) . Cf. E d e r s h e i m , Life, 2 . 5 9 6 ; G u n d r y , Use, 124f; S e n i o r , Passion, 3 6 0 . 0

1 8 9

0

/

F o r G r u n d m a n n , 2 6 , a s I s a i a h is t h e p r o p h e t par excellence o f t h e m e s s i a n i c t i m e ; cf. S c h m a u c h , Orte, 2 4 - 4 7 . F o r L a n e , 4 5 , s i n c e it ' i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e g o s p e l is t h e p r o m i s e o f f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n f o u n d in t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f I s a i a h ' ( h e a l s o s u r m i s e s t h a t t h e a s c r i p t i o n is n o t i n t e n d e d t o i n t r o d u c e t h e q u o t a t i o n a t all b u t i n s t e a d to l o c a t e t h e c o n t e x t in w h i c h J o h n t h e B a p t i s t u n d e r s t o o d h i m s e l f t o b e f u n c t i o n i n g , 4 7 n 3 0 ) . F o r G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 1 2 , a n d Mark, 1 . 1 0 , t h e I s a i a n i c c i t a t i o n ' g i v e s t h e r e a d e r t h e evangelist's p e r s p e c t i v e for interpreting the e v e n t s as indicative of the eschatological m o m e n t p r o m i s e d b y I s a i a h ' . G n i l k a , 1 . 4 5 , a s s e r t s 'dafi j e t z t n i c h t m e h r a u f d e m J e s a j a z i t a t , s o n d e r n a u f V e r s 2 d e r T o n liegt', b u t fails t o a c c o u n t for t h e I s a i a h a s c r i p t i o n .

90

Introductory

Citation

B) in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h M a r k a n . u s a g e , t h e ' B ' c o m p o n e n t indicate a special stress on the threat e l e m e n t .

190

may

W e shall see later that

not o n l y is this reading consistent with M a r k ' s continued development of the threat / r e j e c t i o n motif, b u t as w i t h his ' s a n d w i c h ' citation h e continues to link it with his overall Isaianic framework.

VII. Conclusion In k e e p i n g w i t h the role o f the o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e in literary antiquity, M a r k ' s s o l e explicit editorial citation o f the O T s h o u l d b e e x p e c t e d to c o n v e y t h e m a i n c o n c e r n s o f his p r o l o g u e a n d , therefore, h i s G o s p e l . M a r k ' s u s e o f the Isaiah ascription and the ' i c o n i c ' function o f the Isaiah 40:3 text w i t h i n v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s

i n d i c a t e s that the o v e r a l l

c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k for his G o s p e l is the Isaianic N E , the p r o p h e t i c transformation o f Israel's m e m o r y o f her founding m o m e n t into a m o d e l for her future h o p e . This suggests that for M a r k the long-awaited c o m i n g of Y a h w e h as K i n g and W a r r i o r has b e g u n , and with it, the inauguration of Israel's eschatological comfort: her deliverance from the h a n d s o f the nations, the j o u r n e y o f her exiles to their h o m e and their eventual arrival at Jerusalem, the place of Y a h w e h ' s presence. At the s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , M a r k ' s addition o f M a l a c h i 3:1 a d d s an ominous counterpoint.

T h o r o u g h l y integrated w i t h i n the E x o d u s / N E

s c h e m a — o n the o n e h a n d it looks b a c k to the first E x o d u s in its ironic use of E x o d u s 23:20 a n d o n the other it c o n c e r n s the d e l a y o f the I N E — i t implies n o t only that Israel is not ready for Y a h w e h ' s coming, but also that a right response to J o h n as Malachi's Elijah is imperative if the nation is to avoid the spectre of Yahweh's purging judgement which hangs over J e r u s a l e m ' s raison

d'etre,

the T e m p l e .

If and h o w M a r k develops these t w o themes will b e the subject o f the rest o f this study. W e n o w turn to an examination o f the remainder o f his prologue w h e r e , if our proposal is correct, w e should expect to find further evidence o f these t w o concerns.

1

9

0

E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' , 1 9 6 , n o t e s w i t h r e g a r d t o n a r r a t i v e t h a t 'the middle story nearly always provides the key to the theological purpose of the sandwich' (author's italics).

Chapter 4: The Markan Prologue When

read

motifs

in the light

in Mark's

evayydXiov prophesied,

form a coherent

is the drawing

and the splitting

the long-awaited descent

of the NE Isaianic

prologue

of the Spirit

whole.

near of the reign of the heavens

NE intervention

declare

of God which

Jesus

and

of the Isaiah

the inauguration

on Israel's

behalf.

to be Isaiah's

who is at once new 'Servant' deliverer,

the OT images The content

signals

of Yahweh

and the voice

messianic-'Servant',

prophecies,

Israel

and

of The

DavidicIsrael's

and Son of God.

I. Introduction In v i e w of o u r assessment o f M a r k ' s opening sentence, it is significant that a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e argued for a p e r v a s i v e Deutero-Isaianic influence o n M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e .

1

H o w e v e r , although the p r e s e n c e of O T

allusions is w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d , there is often little a g r e e m e n t as to their s o u r c e and s i g n i f i c a n c e .

2

But, again, in v i e w o f the increasing recognition

of M a r k ' s literary skill, it s e e m s h i g h l y i m p r o b a b l e that h e h a s intended such uncertainty.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , after d e t e r m i n i n g

the e x t e n t o f t h e

prologue, w e will s e e k to ascertain if the case for a I N E framework c a n b e sustained.

Finally, w e will argue that if s u c h a framework is allowed, not

o n l y does it resolve m a n y o f the questions as to the origins o f M a r k ' s O T allusions in his p r o l o g u e b u t it also a c c o r d s his u s e o f O T p h r a s e s a n d images a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e o f coherence.

II. Extent of the Prologue R. H. L i g h t f o o t ' s critique o f H o r t and W e s c o t t ' s earlier division (vv. 1-8) resulted in a n e w c o n s e n s u s w h i c h concluded the p r o l o g u e with verse 1 3 .

3

1

Especially L u h r m a n n , 'Biographic', 27-30; Guelich, 'Beginning', 8 - 1 0 , w h e r e ' F o r M a r k , e a c h e v e n t t h a t f o r m s this " b e g i n n i n g o f t h e g o s p e l " c o r r e s p o n d s t o I s a i a h ' s p r o m i s e for t h e e s c h a t o n ' ; C h i l t o n , God, 7 8 - 9 5 . 2

C f . s u r v e y s in L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 2 7 - 9 3 . Message, 1 5 - 2 0 , n o t i n g a l s o t h a t v v . 1 3 a n d 1 4 f a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d w h i l e v v . 1 4 f c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a s u m m a r y o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h ' s g o s p e l . C f . K u t h i r a k k a t t e l , Beginning, 9 - 2 0 . 3

92

Markan

Prologue

T h e a r g u m e n t s advanced in support of this division are: A ) the change o f 4

locality from the Wilderness to Galilee in verses 14ff, B ) the confinement of the key-words 4'priuoc; (vv. 3, 4 , 1 2 , 1 3 ) and n v e u u a (vv. 8 , 1 0 , 1 2 ) to verses 5

1 - 1 3 , C ) t h e difference b e t w e e n J o h n ' s future-orientated

p r e a c h i n g and

6

J e s u s ' m o r e i m m e d i a t e p r o c l a m a t i o n , and D ) , from the perspective o f a narrative reading, the information given in verses 1-13 is private while in verses 14ff it is p u b l i c .

7

L e a n d e r K e c k c h a l l e n g e d this c o n s e n s u s arguing that the p r o l o g u e should include verses 1 4 - 1 5 .

8

H e regarded the presence of 9

verses 1 a n d 14f as an inclusio,

and saw J o h n ' s

euayycXiov

Trapa6o9fi v a i

as

in of

p r i m a r i l y t h e o l o g i c a l interest and h e n c e functioning as the c l i m a x to v e r s e s 1-15.

T h r e e further o b s e r v a t i o n s s u p p o r t K e e k ' s v i e w : A ) the

presence o f the unifying Stichworte,

for example, u c T a v o i a - u c T a v o e c j (1:4,

15) and Krjpu'aao) (1:4, 7, 14), B ) the parallel three-fold presentation o f J o h n (vv. 2-8) a n d J e s u s (vv. 9-15) w h ic h suggests that they b e l o n g together in that both units begin with an 'identifying word from G o d ' (vv. 2f, 11), both m e n t i o n their r e s p e c t i v e subject's p e r s o n and w o r k (vv. 4 - 6 , 12-3), and both culminate with a reference to preaching (vv. 7f, 14f), and finally, C ) , the account o f J e s u s (vv. 9-15) correlates with the Isaianic t h e m e of verses 2f in that h e is presented as the promised one and this is confirmed b y the Isaianic allusion in the voice (v. 1 1 ; cf. Isa 42:1), the descent o f the Spirit (cf. Isa 42:1; 61:1) and the 'splitting' of the heavens (v. 10; cf. Isa 63:19 M T ) .

4

1 0

Mauser, 79.

5

R o b i n s o n , 28f, a n d J o h n s o n , Mark, 3 5 , n o t e t h a t TivcOua is t h e o n l y t h e m e t h a t b i n d s v v . 4 - 8 , 9 - 1 1 a n d 1 2 - 1 3 t o g e t h e r , cf. L a n e , 4 8 . 'Spirit' a p p e a r s o n l y t h r e e m o r e t i m e s in M a r k a n d only 3:29 relates directly to Jesus' w o r k . O n k e y - w o r d s as M a r k a n linking devices, Sundwall, Zusammensetzung. 6

R o b i n s o n , 24f. S c h w e i z e r ' s a r g u m e n t s for v v . 1 - 1 3 a r e b a s e d o n his q u e s t i o n a b l e t h e o r y of a t h r e e f o l d s t r u c t u r e for the G o s p e l b a s e d o n the t h e m e of discipleship, see K e c k , 'Introduction', 355f. 7

' P r o l o g u e ' , 5f. ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 5 9 - 6 2 . E a r l i e r W e l l h a u s e n , Marci; W e n d l i n g , Entstehung, 3; Zahn, Einleitung, 2 2 0 f f ; a n d l a t e r S e i t z , ' P r a e p a r a t i o n ' ; a n d K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' , h a d t a k e n this p o s i t i o n b u t K e c k w a s a m o n g t h e first t o d e f e n d it in detail. N o t e a l s o t h e r e l a t e d KTjpuaau) (cf. KTipuaacov K O I cviayycAiôuevos' f | p a a i X c i a v T O O 8 € o 0 , L k 8:1; 4 : 4 3 p a r . M k 1:38) in v v . 1:4, 7 , 1 4 ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2.718f. P e s c h , 1.72f, ' A n f a n g ' ; G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 7 - 9 ; cf. M i c h a e l s ' a n a l y s i s . Servant, 4 4 : A: The gospel of Jesus (v. 1); B: John the Baptist in the desert, in fulfilment of Scripture (vv. 2-4); C: John baptising in the Jordan (vv. 5-8); C: Jesus is baptised in the Jordan (vv. 9-11); B': Jesus in the desert (vv. 12-13); A': the gospel of God (vv. 14-15) 8

9

T

1

0

V

Extent

of the

93

Prologue

N o r m a n Perrin takes a mediating p o s i t i o n . the w o r k o f K. S c h m i d t ,

1 2

11

Apparently building o n

h e u n d e r s t a n d s verses 14f as a transitional

p a s s a g e s e r v i n g b o t h to c o n c l u d e the p r o l o g u e a n d to i n t r o d u c e Galilean ministry.

1 3

A l t h o u g h P e r r i n ' s overall thesis c o n c e r n i n g

Markan summaries has been challenged, received additional 15

classical rhetors.

14

the

his assessment of verses 14f has

s u p p o r t o n the b a s i s o f the literary t e c h n i q u e o f Following D. M u l l e r

1 6

d i s c u s s e s the t e c h n i q u e o f concatenatio

a n d H. P a r u n a k , (Muller) whereby

1 7

A. Stock a

transition from o n e p a r t o f a narrative to a n o t h e r is e f f e c t e d . picking up on the w o r k o f B a s van I e r s e l , p a r t i c u l a r d e r i v a t i o n o f this a p p r o a c h A/b/a/B.

the

19

smooth 18

Then,

he suggests that M a r k l : 1 4 f is a

k n o w n as an ' i n v e r t e d

hinge':

It c o n s i s t s o f a transitional unit ( b / a ; v v . 14f), s o m e w h a t

independent from the larger b l o c k s on either side ( A / B ; i.e. l : l - 1 3 / l : 1 6 f f ) , in w h i c h representative t h e m e s from the larger units are inverted b / a ) to facilitate the flow o f the narrative.

(thus

H e n c e , ' G a l i l e e ' in verse 14

looks forward to J e s u s ' ministry, while verse 15, as fulfilment, looks b a c k to the promise o f J o h n ' s role in the wilderness verses 2ff. T h e strength o f Perrin's and S t o c k ' s a p p r o a c h lies in its appreciation o f ancient literary

1 1

T o w a r d s ' ; P e r r i n a n d D u l i n g , Introduction, 239f. Rahmen, 3 2 0 . 'Apparently' because Perrin has not published any independent analysis of the s u m m a r i e s a n d his delineations follow S c h m i d t closely. See also E g g e r ' s p r o p o s e d m o d i f i c a t i o n s , Frohbotschaft, 44-69. Dodd, 'Framework', generally followed S c h m i d t in h i s a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y t h e t r a d i t i o n a l o u t l i n e o f J e s u s ' G a l i l e a n m i n i s t r y ; f o r a c r i t i c i s m o f D o d d s e e T r o c m e , 28ff. 1

2

1

3

1

4

1

5

K e e , 6 3 f ; K i n g s b u r y , 5 0 ; C h i l t o n , God, 5 3 f ; a n d E g g e r , Frohbotschaft. See also H o l t z m a n n ' s a p p a r e n t l y i n c o n s i s t e n t s t a t e m e n t s , Synoptiker, 1 1 , 1 1 5 , t h a t v. 1 5 e n d s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d y e t v v . 1 4 f is Uberschrift t o t h e G a l i l e a n m i n i s t r y , a n d G r a n t , Gospels, 8 7 f , 180f, w h e r e 1 : 2 - 1 5 is t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n a n d y e t 1:14 - 9 : 5 0 is ' J e s u s in Galilee'. R o b i n s o n , 2 2 , s t a t e s t h a t 'v. 1 4 p r o v i d e s a f o r m a l t e r m i n a t i o n t o J o h n ' s m i n i s t r y a n d a f o r m a l i n t r o d u c t i o n to Jesus' ministry'. Hedrick, 'Summary'. Stock, 'Hinge', mentions neither Perrin nor Hedrick. Hedrick's judgement, ' S u m m a r y ' , 2 9 4 , t h a t v v . 1 4 f a r e n o t t r a n s i t i o n a l is b a s e d o n a t o o - r e s t r i c t e d v i e w o f t h e c o n t e x t ( h e i g n o r e s v v . 1 - 1 1 ) a n d a n i n c o n s i s t e n t a n a l y s i s o f 1 : 1 6 - 3 : 6 w h i c h it is s a i d 'contains only o n e other reference to the p r e a c h i n g of Jesus', yet h e later states that l:21f, 2 7 , 3 8 f , 4 5 , etc. describe Jesus' p r e a c h i n g o r teaching. 1

6

1

7

1

8

1

9

Propheten. ' O r a l ' a n d ' T r a n s i t i o n a l ' , 540ff. ' H i n g e ' . L u c i a n , Hist., 5 5 , s t a t e s t h a t w h e n t h e h i s t o r i a n ' h a s f i n i s h e d t h e first t o p i c h e will i n t r o d u c e t h e s e c o n d , f a s t e n e d t o it a n d l i n k e d w i t h it like a c h a i n , t o a v o i d b r e a k s a n d a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f d i s j o i n t e d n a r r a t i v e s ' ; ' a l w a y s t h e first a n d s e c o n d t o p i c s m u s t not merely be neighbours but h a v e c o m m o n matter a n d overlap'. 'betekenis' a n d 'Locality'.

94

Markan

Prologue

m e t h o d and its integration o f the strengths o f both Lightfoot's and K e e k ' s positions.

20

Recently, h o w e v e r , R. H. G u n d r y has v i g o r o u s l y revived the c a s e for the p r o l o g u e e n d i n g at verse 8 citing the following warrants: A ) the O T quotations, since they speak only of preparation, are concerned solely with J o h n , that is, verses 4 - 8 , and so to go b e y o n d v e r s e 8 w o u l d 'violate the definition o f the b e g i n n i n g b y the K a G o f c - c l a u s e ' ; B ) it w o u l d 'violate the use of apxri ... for the first subject matter o f the book'; and C ) 'every phrase of v 9 a ' indicates the beginning o f a n e w p e r i c o p e .

21

W h i l e it is true that the O T portions cited b y M a r k o n l y specifically m e n t i o n ' p r e p a r a t i o n ' , w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n that the i m m e d i a t e O T contexts a n d the u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f these texts across a r a n g e o f J e w i s h traditions h a v e far m o r e in view. T h e y function almost as icons, evoking t h e l a r g e r s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s h o p e s for future s a l v a t i o n , n a m e l y , the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h to save his people. M o r e telling, perhaps, is G u n d r y ' s a s s u m p t i o n — a n d h e is certainly not a l o n e here—that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e o f such implications. B u t h o w s e c u r e is s u c h a position? M a r k ' s frequent, if not ubiquitous, use o f O T texts and motifs— particularly Isaianic ones and often, as K e e noted, at crucial points in the 2 2

n a r r a t i v e — i s prima

facie

e v i d e n c e o f an intentionality w h i c h strongly

suggests that at least s o m e o f his readership w e r e reasonably familiar with parts o f the O T . This is hardly surprising given that the O T constituted the S c r i p t u r e s o f the e a r l y c h u r c h .

2 3

I n d e e d , it is highly likely that s o m e

awareness o f the significance o f these Scriptures w o u l d h a v e b e e n part of the

catechism, if not

the

apologetic, of the

earliest

believers.

2 4

F u r t h e r m o r e , the l o n g e r M a r k ' s ' c o m m u n i t y ' h a d b e e n in e x i s t e n c e , the greater t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f u n l e a r n e d G e n t i l e s h a v i n g instruction in s u c h matters. A n d all o f this without taking into account the possibility that at least s o m e o f M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e m i g h t h a v e b e e n J e w i s h C h r i s t i a n s w h o p r e s u m a b l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e at h o m e with O T allusions.

2 0

A m o n g t h e m o r e r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s F e n e b u r g , Markusprolog, a r g u e s for v v . 1 - 1 1 , w h i l e H o r t - W e s c o t t h a v e n e w c h a m p i o n s in S c o t t , ' C h i a s t i c ' , a n d n o w G u n d r y ( s e e b e l o w ) . G u n d r y , 31ff. ' F u n c t i o n ' ; cf. S c h n e c k , passim. ^ S e e n o w , Ellis, Early. A s l o n g n o t e d b y e.g. L i n d a r s , Apologetic. Of c o u r s e the exact nature of the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f O T t e x t s f o r t h e e a r l y c h u r c h is a m a t t e r o f o n - g o i n g d e b a t e . 2 1

2 2

2

2

4

Extent

of the

95

Prologue

C o n c e r n i n g G u n d r y ' s s e c o n d point, it is not clear w h y the inclusion o f v e r s e s 9-13 w o u l d ' v i o l a t e t h e definition o f the b e g i n n i n g ' s i n c e J e s u s ' ministry p r o p e r d o e s n o t b e g i n until verse 14, nor is it clear w h y a ' n e w p e r i c o p e ' n e c e s s a r i l y indicates the e n d o f the p r o l o g u e — m u s t

prologues

h a v e only o n e pericope? O n the contrary, the preparation o f J e s u s , w h o s e ministry is in fulfilment o f the ' g o o d n e w s ' o f Y a h w e h ' s delivering action as implied, for e x a m p l e , b y I s a i a h 4 0 : 3 , s e e m s q u i t e a p p r o p r i a t e to t h e 'beginning . . . (as indicated) ... b y the KaSofc-clause'.

This is particularly so

w h e n s e e n o v e r a g a i n s t v e r s e s 14-15ff w h i c h r e c o r d t h e p r o p e r o f that ministry.

inauguration

I n d e e d , o n e could argue that the parallel use o f

e y c v c T o in v e r s e 9 (cf. v. 4 ) , instead o f indicating a p r i m a r y b r e a k b e t w e e n verses 8 and 9, suggests the complimentary nature o f verses 4-8 and 9-13 in that they serve to introduce the t w o protagonists and their related careers, n a m e l y , the p r e p a r a t o r y figure J o h n and the preparation o f J e s u s w h o s e coming John announces.

G u n d r y s e e m s a l m o s t to a d m i t as m u c h w h e n

h e says, first, that M a r k takes 'care to note that Jesus did not start preaching good n e w s till "after" ( u € T a ) the e n d of J o h n ' s ministry' and, s e c o n d , that the b e g i n n i n g ' c o n s i s t s in J o h n ' s p r e p a r i n g for and p r e a c h i n g about the stronger o n e before t h e stronger o n e b e g i n s his o w n p r e a c h i n g ' .

25

These

s t a t e m e n t s s e e m to i m p l y that the k e y issue is t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f J e s u s ' preaching.

T h u s , on the o n e hand, the b e g i n n i n g e n d s w i t h J o h n ' s

i m p r i s o n m e n t w h i l e , o n the other, J e s u s ' p r e a c h i n g m a r k s the start o f t h e b o d y o f M a r k ' s account. Consequently, the e n d o f the b e g i n n i n g continues to at least v e r s e 13, in w h i c h c a s e it s e e m s that the approach o f Perrin a n d Stock is still to b e preferred. A l l o w i n g then that t h e p r o l o g u e h i n g e s u p o n v e r s e s 14-15, a n d that verses 1-3 are its o p e n i n g sentence, w e will n o w e x a m i n e the c a s e for t h e presence o f Isaianic N E imagery.

2

5

G u n d r y , 31f.

96

Markan

Prologue

III. Isaianic Materials in Mark's Prologue a) The Gospel

and the Kingdom

of God

(i) Mark 1:1, 15: 'Apxfj TOV eitayyeXiov

... Kr)pvooa)v

Although clearly an important word for M a r k , engendered considerable discussion.

27

26

TO

his use o f

evayyeXiov cuayye'Xiov

has

In the H e b r e w Scriptures and the

L X X , the theological use o f the verbal form

("I&3, e u a y y e X i ' C o ) )

occurs

almost t w i c e as often in Isaianic N E contexts as in the rest o f the O T .

2 8

Because the N T ' s u s e o f the verb appears to b e d e p e n d e n t o n that o f the 2 9

OT,

a n u m b e r o f scholars hold that the Isaianic N E h o r i z o n is also

determinative for the m e a n i n g o f the substantive as it is utilized in the NT.30

A p r o b l e m arises, h o w e v e r , in that

miWD/cuayyeXiov

in the H e b r e w

and G r e e k Scriptures and in contemporary Jewish writings does not seem to share the r e l i g i o u s / e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s o f the verbal f o r m s .

31

T h e occurrence of

euayye'Xiov

corresponding

in the Pirene inscription

has, therefore, led s o m e scholars to suggest that the N T reflects a Pauline i n n o v a t i o n d e r i v i n g from imperial cult l a n g u a g e .

32

Others, observing

parallels b e t w e e n the Gospels and Hellenistic aretalogies, h a v e proposed that these latter texts constitute the primary b a c k g r o u n d for N T u s a g e .

33

Peter S t u h l m a c h e r , h o w e v e r , has recently challenged b o t h o f these latter positions, a r g u i n g that the Hellenistic u s e o f

cuayye'A-

in reference to

divine m e n , p o p u l a r philosophers, and the imperial cult, apart from the third century A D provenance o f the first two groups, reflects the rhetorical

2

6

2

7

2

8

2

9

3

0

1 : 1 , 1 4 , 15; 8:35; 10:29; 13:10; 14:9 a n d (16:15), M a r x s e n , 117-50; Perrin, 'Literary', 4-7; M a r t i n , 22ff; K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 5 7 f . Frankemolle, 'Evangelium'; Baarlink, Anfangliches. 4 0 : 9 (bis); 4 1 : 2 7 ( M T ) ; 5 2 : 7 (bis); 6 0 : 6 ; 6 1 : 1 ; cf. H o o k e r , Jesus, 6 6 f ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 0 7 - 1 0 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 1 0 9 - 2 2 ; S e c c o m b e , Possessions, 63ff. S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 1 2 2 ; S t r e c k e r , Evangelium, 504. E . g . S c h w e i z e r ; C r a n f i e l d ; G u e l i c h , ' " B e g i n n i n g " ' ; H o o k e r , Jesus,

66; Bruce, 'When',

325ff. 3

1

T h e s u b s t a n t i v e o c c u r s n e i t h e r in Q u m r a n n o r in P h i l o a n d o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y in J o s e p h u s ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 2 1 - 6 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 112-3, 124. 2

* S t r e c k e r , EWbNT, 2 . 1 8 0 ; H a r n a c k , Reden, 1.301-6; S c h n i e w i n d , Euangelion, 1 . 7 8 , 2 . 1 4 6 f ; S c h n e e m e l c h e r , NTApoc, F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 2 4 - 5 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 11-19. 3

3

D e i s s m a n n , Light, 366; 1.78ff; B l i g h , ' N o t e ' ; cf.

E . g . B i e l e r , OEIOZ; H a d a s - S m i t h , Heroes; P e t z k e , Tradition; T a l b e r t , ' B i o g r a p h i e s ' ; C a n c i k , ' G a t t u n g ' ; cf. T i e d e , ' R e l i g i o u s ' .

Smith,

'News';

The Gospel

and the Kingdom

of God

97

a n d stylistic c o n c e r n s o f s e c u l a r u s a g e rather than h a v i n g specifically religious i n t e r e s t s .

34

A s neither c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h nor Graeco-Rorrian s o u r c e s p r o v i d e decisive evidence, Stuhlmacher argues that the N T usage of c u a y y c ' A i o v is a distinctive C h r i s t i a n innovation formulated specifically to relate J e s u s Christ to O T promises. T h e evidence for a pre-Pauline gospel centred o n J e s u s ' death, resurrection, and exaltation (1 Thess 1:9-10; R o m 1:2-4; 1 C o r 15:3-5) is s u p p o r t e d b y indications within the Palestinian c h u r c h prior to the Gentile mission o f a gospel dealing principally with the O T promises of the c o m i n g o f the k i n g d o m o f G o d (citing Rev 14:6; 10:7; M t 11:2-6 par. Lk 7:18-23; Lk 4:16-30; M k l : 1 4 f ) .

35

T h e plausibility o f a Palestinian provenance is strengthened in that the c l o s e s t p a r a l l e l s to t h e N T d i c t i o n are found

in the Tg.

Nebarim's

innovative rendering o f the H e b r e w njJlfctt) with miDD (e.g. O b 1; Jer 49:14; Isa 5 3 : 1 ) .

36

Tg. Ezekiel

T h e use o f this Aramaic term in, for instance, Tg. Jeremiah 4:15, 21:12, and Tg. Isaiah

53:1 has c l e a r p r o p h e t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s ,

w h i c h are e p i t o m i s e d in the latter w h e r e m t O D refers to ' d i e H e i l erschliefiende O f f e n b a r u n g s - k u n d e ' . Targumic evidence is l a t e ,

38

37

Consequently, although the extant

its fairly broad attestation o f the prophetic use

of miOD and its s h a r e d cultural p r o v e n a n c e with the Palestinian c h u r c h suggests that the theological content o f euayyc'Aioi/ m o s t plausibly finds its origins in the translational terminology for the prophet's m e s s a g e (rwvatt? and miDD) and particularly for that message associated with Isaianic hope. (It is p e r h a p s n o t e w o r t h y then that B r u c e Chilton h a s also a r g u e d that certain dominical sayings concerning the Kingdom of G o d

3

4

3

5

appear

Evangelium, 1 9 1 - 2 0 6 ; cf. F r a n k e m o l l e , ' G a t t u n g ' , 1 6 7 2 f ; T i e d e , ' R e l i g i o u s ' . T h e e x c e p t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s c o n n o t a t i o n s o f c u a y y e ' X i o v in t h e P i r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n a r e m i t i g a t e d s i n c e it u s e s t h e t y p i c a l l y H e l l e n i s t i c p l u r a l , € u a y y € A i [ u ) v ] , s u g g e s t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h i s i n s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e N T , S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 201. Noch, ' A p o c r y p h a l ' , 6 5 , d o u b t s if t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r w i t h this u s e ; b u t see J u d g e , ' D e c r e e s ' . Ibid., 2 0 9 - 4 4 ; cf. Gillet, ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 1 7 5 ; H a h n , Mission, 4 0 - 4 1 ; H e n g e l , ' B e t w e e n ' , 27ff; pace S t r e c k e r , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 5 1 3 - 2 4 . Ibid., 1 3 1 - 3 3 . Ibid., 1 3 2 ; B u r r o w s , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 2 , 3 2 ; F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 3 . 7 0 6 f . T h e A r a m a i c u s a g e is b o r n e o u t b y t h e S y r i a c , B o w m a n , ' T e r m ' , 6 1 ff; C h i l t o n , God, 9 4 n 7 6 . T h e d a t i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s t r a d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e Tg. Isa is n o t o r i o u s l y difficult, cf. C h i l t o n ' s r e d a c t i o n - c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h . Glory, w h i l e o n t h e d a t e o f c o m p i l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n t w r i t t e n T a r g u m s , Y o r k , 'Dating'. 3

6

3

7

3

8

98

Markan

Prologue

particularly to reflect the l a n g u a g e o f earlier Palestinian traditions w h i c h w e r e later incorporated, again, into the Tg.

39

Isa ).

O f further interest in this regard is again Pss. Solomon

11.

of a collage of N E imagery d r a w n from Isaiah 40-66, it begins: 'l€pouaaXf|u 8a)vf|v cuayycXiCoiievou.

This juxtaposition

of

Consisting Kr|pu£aT€ Kflpu£-

kv and

euayycX- term-inology (the latter admittedly in verbal form) in the context of Isaianic h o p e is very similar to that in M a r k l : 1 5 ' s f^XBev 6 'Irjaoiic; ... Kripuaaajv

TO

cOayye'Xiov

eschatological

messenger

TOU

(cf. 13:10; 1 4 : 9 ) .

9€OU

intervention, again expressed

in

later

rabbinic

The idea of

an

("iflDft) w h o a n n o u n c e s the t i m e o f Y a h w e h ' s in Isaianic t e r m s , is also found b o t h in

Q u m r a n (e.g. 1 Q H 18:14, w h i c h clearly echoes Isa 6 1 , and

4 0

materials.

4 3

From

4 1

4 2

and

HQMelch )

this perspective,

Jesus'

a n n o u n c e m e n t of the n e a r n e s s of the reign o f G o d ( M k 1:15) s e e m s to h a v e b e e n c o n s t r u e d in the light of the ntoDB-tradition o f Isaiah 52:7 and 6 1 : l f (Mt 11:2-6 par.; Lk 4 : 1 6 - 3 0 ;

44

cf. L k 9 : 6 ) ,

45

and, as J e s u s ' w o r d s and

deeds b e c a m e the content of the verb €uayy€Xi£o), the substantive appears to have b e c o m e similarly understood (Mark 1 : 1 ) . 3

9

46

M k 1:15; L k 4 : 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 1 ; M t 8 : 1 1 ; L k 1 6 : 1 6 ; M k 9 : 1 ; C h i l t o n , God, passim-, Rabbi,

137-

47. 4

0

4

1

4

2

4

3

M a r t i n , 2 3 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 146. ' [ t h a t h e m i g h t b e ] , a c c o r d i n g t o T h y t r u t h , a m e s s e n g e r [in t h e s e a s o n ] o f T h y goodness; that to the h u m b l e he might bring glad tidings of great m e r c y , [proclaiming s a l v a t i o n ] f r o m o u t o f t h e f o u n t a i n [ o f h o l i n e s s t o t h e c o n t r i t e ] o f Spirit a n d e v e r l a s t i n g j o y t o t h o s e w h o m o u r n ' ; t r a n s . V e r m e s , DSSE, 2 0 6 . F u r t h e r , S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 4 2 - 4 6 . W h i l e t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e ITTO is u n c e r t a i n ( D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' F u r t h e r ' , 2 7 2 8 ) , a n d g r a n t e d t h e fluidity o f t h e c o n c e p t ( d e J o n g e , ' A n o i n t e d ' ) , t h e t e x t d o e s a p p e a r t o indicate that the p r o c l a m a t i o n of g o o d tidings w a s a m o n g the sphere of functions c o n n o t e d b y t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' M e s s i a h ' , A u n e , 'Jesus'. O n t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e N T , D e J o n g e , ' H Q ' , 309ff. In r e f e r e n c e t o I s a 5 2 : 7 : Pereq ha-Shalom 1 3 ( 5 9 b ) , a t t r i b u t e d t o R . J o s e t h e G a l i l e a n ( 1 1 0 ) , in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e M e s s i a h ' s c o m i n g ; Tanh " O l D S N u . 2:2; Midr. Ps. 1 4 7 : 1 ; f u r t h e r : Str-B, 3.9c, w h e r e Isa 5 2 : 7 a n d 60:3 a r e p r o m i n e n t . T h e 'messenger' m a y o r m a y n o t b e the M e s s i a h , b u t in a n y c a s e t h e p o i n t is t h e c o m i n g r e i g n o f G o d , S t r - B , 3 . 9 b , 1 0 c . In c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I s a 4 0 : 9 ; 4 1 : 2 7 ; 5 2 : 7 ; 6 1 : 1 a n d N a h 2 : 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y : Tanh m i ? ™ 1 6 a n d 1 3 5 ( S c h l a t t e r , Matthaus, 1 2 2 ) ; Pesiq., 2 8 e ; Pesiq. R. 3 6 ( 1 6 2 a ) a n d Pesiq. R. 3 5 ( 1 6 1 a ) , Tanh -OTDD o n N u 2:2; cf. F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 1 4 - 7 ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 135-53. 1

4

4

4

5

4

6

S e c o m m b e , Possessions, 4 4 - 6 9 ; C h i l t o n , God, 1 2 3 - 7 7 , s e e this t e x t a s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e Tg. Isa 6 1 : l f a n d 4 2 : 1 6 . S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 4 2 - 1 5 1 ; ' T h e m a ' , 2 1 ; C h i l t o n , God, 9 5 ; S c h l a t t e r , Glaube, 5 9 0 ; B e t z , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 70ff, for w h o m T U C J T C U C T C is t o b e c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f I s a 5 3 : 1 ; Schnackenburg, 'Evangelium', 320f; K o c h , 'Messias', 127. S t u h l m a c h e r , ' T h e m a ' , 21ff. The relationship between T O cOayye'Xiov 'Iriaou XpiaToO a n d T 6 c u a y y c X i o v T O 0 9 C O U , a p p e a r s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s t h e l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d a s 'die S e l b s t e r w e i s u n g G o t t e s ' (i.e. G o d ' s p o w e r f u l , s a v i n g , s e l f - r e v e l a t i o n ) w i t h t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s , h i s m e s s a g e a n d

The

Gospel

and the Kingdom

99

of God

In conclusion, although Stuhlmacher's position m a y 'textlich gesichert nicht realisiert w e r d e n ' ,

47

that o f Strecker et al seems to imply too radical a

disjuncture b e t w e e n the act of proclamation indicated b y its content,

euayyc'Xiov,

dependent upon O T concepts

4 8

proclamation 50

of the

a connotation

Isaianic

NE

4 9

appears

cuayye'Xiov

o f which the exemplarischen

to b e found in the prophecies o f the book of Isaiah a renewed

and

a disjuncture which is only heightened in view o f

the overall influence o f O T h o p e s on the N T . Thus,

Konigsherrschaft,

cuayyeXiCco

Belegen

are

As such it connotes

coming

of

Yahweh's

that is only reinforced given its close

proximity to M a r k ' s epexegetical O T citation. M a r k ' s explicit identification of the 'Apxrj

TOU

cuayyeXiou 'Inaou XpiaToO

the gospel to its O T Jewish r o o t s ' . (ii) Mark 1:15:

... rjyyiKei/

with Isaiah's N E , 'connects

51

rj paoiXeia

TOU Oeou

M a r k ' s introduction (vv. 1-3) is linked b y the key-word c u a y y c X i o v to the transitional h i n g e o f verses 14f w h i c h is w i d e l y r e c o g n i s e d p r o g r a m m a t i c b e g i n n i n g to J e s u s '

ministry proper.

5 2

as

The

Mark's parallel

.construction o f the t w o adverbial participles (KT)puaao)v ... K a l Xe'yuv) a b o v e all h i s m i n i s t r y ; cf. W e i s s , Predigt, 1 6 ; K u h n - S c h m i d t , TDNT, 1.571-4, 579-90; C h i l t o n , God, 2 7 9 , 2 8 3 f ; G u e l i c h , ' G e n r e ' , 2 1 0 f ; L e m c i o , ' I n t e n t i o n ' , 1 8 9 f ; b u t s e e C h i l t o n ' s c a v e a t s in ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 2 4 . S u c h a s e l f - d e m o n s t r a t i o n is a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f t h e N E a n n o u n c e m e n t o f I s a i a h , cf. W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 7 - 4 0 . 4 7

4

8

4

9

F r a n k e m o l l e , ' G a t t u n g ' , 1 6 8 8 , a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h t h e T a r g u m s in v i e w in, 'Jesus'.

S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 122ff; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 48-55. E . g . S t u h l m a c h e r , ibid., 1 5 2 , 1 0 9 - 2 2 ; ' V e r s o h n u n g ' , 4 4 ; cf. S c h n e e m e l c h e r , Apocrypha, 1 . 7 2 , w h o a r g u e s for a H e l l e n i s t i c o r i g i n b u t r e c o g n i s e s t h e p e r v a s i v e i n f l u e n c e of Dt. I s a o n t h e N T u s a g e . S e e n o w a l s o , M a r c u s , 18ff. A g a i n , pace G u n d r y , 4 1 , M a r k ' s subsequent a c c o u n t of Jesus' actions suggest that connotations of victory a n d ensuing p e a c e a r e t o b e s e e n h e r e , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , a l s o F r i e d r i c h , TDNT, 2 . 7 0 7 - 2 7 ; a n d a g a i n n o w M a r c u s , 26f. F u l l e r , Mission, 34ff; B o w m a n , ' T e r m ' , 55ff; H o o k e r , Jesus, 6 6 f ; L a n e ; S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, ' T h e m a ' ; Betz, 'Jesu'; etc. G u n d r y ' s d e m u r r a l , 4 1 , o n the possibility of v i c t o r y c o n n o t a t i o n s fails t o t a k e i n t o t h e a c c o u n t t h e b a t t l e i m a g e r y i n h e r e n t in t h e w h o l e N E t r a d i t i o n a n d M a r k ' s e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s a s t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in e.g. 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 , s e e f u r t h e r C h a p t e r 6. It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t w h i l e ' A p x f | m a y r e l a t e o n l y t o t h e p r o l o g u e ' s c o n t e n t s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f c u a y y c ' X i o v in t h e title a n d in w . 1 4 - 1 5 s u g g e s t s t h a t c u a y y c ' X i o v c o n c e r n s t h e e n t i r e w o r k , H e n g e l , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 5 3 n 8 1 . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e g o s p e l a b o u t J e s u s is for M a r k l a r g e l y s y n o n y m o u s w i t h J e s u s ' g o s p e l of t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d . G u e l i c h , ' G e n r e ' . B e t z , ' E v a n g e l i u m ' , 72ff, f u r t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t M k 1 4 : 9 ( T O c u a y y c ' X i o v eig 6'Xov T O V K o a j i o v ) r e f l e c t s I s a i a h 5 2 : 1 0 , a n d , a s t h e g o s p e l p a r t i c u l a r l y f o c u s e s o n J e s u s ' d e a t h ( n o t e t h e p r e - P a u l i n e c o n f e s s i o n in 1 C o r 1 5 : 1 - 5 ) , t h a t M a r k u s e s e u a y y c X i o v in 1:1 'weil e s a u c h in ( T g ) J e s 5 3 , 1 a m A n f a n g d e s B e r i c h t e s u b e r d a s L e i d e n d e s G o t t e s k n e c h t s t e n t ' , cf. H 3 m i 0 3 * ? . B e t z ' c o n n e c t i o n , ibid., 5 9 , o f e u a y y c X i o v w i t h t h e m o t i f of t h e ' s u f f e r i n g s e r v a n t ' d e p e n d s o f c o u r s e o n t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h i s m o t i f c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d in M a r k , s e e C h a p t e r 8. L i g h t f o o t , Gospel, 2 0 ; A m b r o z i c , 1 7 ; R o b i n s o n , 2 1 ; M a r x s e n , 6 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 1 0 0 - 7 . 5 0

5 1

5 2

100

Markan

s u g g e s t s that the second clause: (SaaiXeia

TOO

OCOU,

Prologue

ncTTXrfpuTai

is epexegetical of the first:

6

Kaipo? Kat rfyyiKcv

cuayye'Xiov

TO

G i v e n the p e r c e p t i o n of the Isaianic significance

€yyi£a)

5 4

GCOU.

5

3

o f c u a y y e ' X i o v , it is

p e r h a p s n o t surprising that several c o m m e n t a t o r s regard the use of c y y i O as also deriving from Isaiah 4 0 - 6 6 .

TOU

r\

Synoptics'

And in fact, although

o c c u r s frequently in the L X X , it is i n d e e d in Isaiah that it is

primarily

linked

with

the

promise

of

the

nearness

of

God's

r i g h t e o u s n e s s — u n d e r s t o o d as the j u s t e x e r c i s e o f his k i n g l y r e i g n in bringing salvation to his people (46:13; 51:5; 5 6 : 1 ) .

55

5 3

B l a c k , ' K i n g d o m ' , 2 9 0 , s e e s t h e p a r a l l e l o f TT€TTXT|'pwTai (cf. L a m 4 : 1 8 [ 1 9 ] ) a s s u p p o r t i n g t h e r e n d i t i o n o f 'TJyyiK€v = qerabhath (malkuth 'elaha)', i.e. t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d has come, cf. A m b r o z i c , 21f; L o h m e y e r , 3 0 . O n t h e d e b a t e s u r r o u n d i n g this v e r b : o n t h e o n e h a n d , D o d d , Parables, 'Kingdom'; Hutton, 'Kingdom'; and, on the other, Campbell, ' K i n g d o m ' a n d C l a r k , ' R e a l i z e d ' (sic); w h i l e m e d i a t e d b y F u l l e r , Mission; Robinson, 24; K u m m e l , Promise; B l a c k , ' K i n g d o m ' ; a n d B e r k e y , 'ErTIZEIN'. 5 4

E . g . P r e i s k e r , TDNT, 2 . 3 3 1 f ; F u l l e r , Mission, 2 4 ; a n d C h i l t o n , God, 5 8 f , for w h o m this ' w i d e l y a t t e s t e d in t h e N T a s a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e r m i n u s t e c h n i c u s ' . A m b r o z i c ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e K i n g d o m o f G o d in M a r k , in s p i t e o f r e c o g n i s i n g t h e fulfilment a s p e c t o f M k l:2f, l a r g e l y i g n o r e s t h e O T b a c k g r o u n d . O f t h e o t h e r p r o p h e t s , € y y i £ a ) o c c u r s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y in E z e k i e l b u t c o n c e r n s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m , cf. 7:7; 9:1; 1 2 : 2 3 ; 2 2 : 4 , 5 . In I s a i a h , Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e N E is a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f h i s r i g h t e o u s c o m m i t m e n t t o O Q ^ Q ( 4 1 : l f , 1 0 ; 4 2 : 1 - 7 ; 4 5 : 1 3 ; 5 1 : 4 - 7 ) . pis/nglX is p r i m a r i l y l i n k e d w i t h s a l v a t i o n (1>E?\ 4 5 : 8 , 2 1 ; 4 6 : 1 3 ) a n d Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i o n o f I s r a e l ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 313ff, R e i t e r e r , Gerechtigkeit. J u s t a s 1 2 : l f f links t h e t h e m e s o f c o m f o r t a n d t h e N E w i t h niHttP, s o t o o in 4 0 - 5 5 . Y a h w e h is d e c l a r e d t o b e t h e o n l y s a v i o u r o f b o t h I s r a e l a n d t h e n a t i o n s ( 4 5 : 1 5 , 1 7 , 21ff; 4 3 : 3 , 1 1 , 1 2 ; 4 9 : 2 5 , 2 6 ) ; n e i t h e r t h e i d o l s ( 4 2 : 1 7 ; 4 5 : 1 6 ; 4 6 : 1 - 4 ) n o r t h e v a r i o u s w i s e o n e s c a n d e l i v e r ( 4 7 : 1 3 , 1 5 ) . S a l v a t i o n a p p e a r s in p a r a l l e l w i t h pl^ s i n c e it is Y a h w e h w h o c r e a t e s b o t h ( 4 5 : 8 ) a n d b o t h will last f o r e v e r ( 5 1 : 6 , 8 ) . B o t h t e r m s dominate 4 0 - 5 5 as statements of God's imminent act (45:21, 2 5 ; 46:13; 54:14, 17). The relationship b e t w e e n these terms a n d D S 0 Q as characteristics of Y a h w e h ' s righteous a c t i v i t y is e x e m p l i f i e d in 5 1 : 4 f w h e r e h i s c o m i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n o n I s r a e l ' s b e h a l f is a m a t t e r of OBtip, pi*, a n d rWTCT; cf. B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT. T h i s a p p r o a c h is f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d in t h e i n n o v a t i v e u s e o f t h e ^Ki l a n g u a g e , S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 9 9 - 1 2 3 ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 1 6 9 , 1 7 2 , 2 9 7 . Y a h w e h ' s b o n d w i t h I s r a e l in h e r s l a v e r y ( 4 3 : 1 - 7 ) r e f l e c t s t h e k i n s m a n ' s o b l i g a t i o n t o r e s c u e h i s b r o t h e r f r o m s l a v e r y . I s r a e l is r e d e e m e d b y h e r k i n s m a n Y a h w e h w h o will g i v e E g y p t , C u s h , a n d S h e b a a s h e r r a n s o m ( 4 3 : 1 - 7 ; cf. 5 2 : 3 ) . T h i s c o n c e p t a l s o l o o k s b a c k t o t h e d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m E g y p t ( 5 1 : 1 0 ; cf. 4 8 : 2 0 f f ; 5 2 : 3 , lOff; S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 5 9 - 9 8 ) a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y I s r a e l ' s N E r e d e m p t i o n is l i n k e d w i t h W a r r i o r l a n g u a g e ( L o r d o f H o s t s in 44:6; 47:4; cf. t h e f r e q u e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o f ^Ka w i t h t h e t i t l e , ^K^fa;* ©ilp: 4 1 : 1 4 ; 4 3 : 1 4 ; 4 7 : 4 ; 4 8 : 1 7 ; 4 9 : 7 ; 54:5ff) a n d is a l s o a m a t t e r o f j u d g e m e n t for B a b y l o n a s it w a s for E g y p t ( 4 7 : 1 7 ) . T h e R e d e e m e r - M a r r i a g e m o t i f is e x p a n d e d in t h e t h e m e o f t h e c h i l d l e s s a n d r e j e c t e d b r i d e , w h o is m a d e m i r a c u l o u s l y fruitful b y t h e r e s t o r e d m a r i t a l l o v e o f Y a h w e h ( 5 4 : 1 - 1 0 ; 4 4 : 4 ; 49:19ff; 5 4 : 1 - 3 ; cf. 4 9 : 2 5 ) , cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 1 0 3 f , 115ff; a n d K r u p p , Verhaltnis, w h o d i s c u s s e s r o l e o f t h e m a r r i a g e b o n d in c o v e n a n t a l p e r s p e c t i v e a n d s e e s it a s t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e for 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d t h e h i g h l i g h t o f Y a h w e h ' s r e t u r n , such that ch. 5 4 forms the goal to which the w h o l e m o v e s . 5 5

The

Gospel

and the Kingdom

101

of God

This is supported b y C h i l t o n ' s proposal that Tg. Isaiah background t o M a r k 1:15.

is t h e specific

W h e n K^b/ttXtipogj is used in the M T a n d L X X

56

to speak directly o f G o d ' s act, it refers 'to the completion o f a stated period or t i m e o r p r o c e s s ' .

5 7

B u t C h i l t o n argues that b o t h verbs s e e m to lack

independent eschatological reference, a n d , therefore, that neither the M T nor the LXX provide a n explanation o f 'how a phrase with tt€ttXtjp(A)tc(i a n d

6

Kaipoc;

unmodified c a n h a v e b e e n used at M k 1,15 with t h e apparent

understanding

that it w o u l d h a v e b e e n i m m e d i a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d ' .

58

He

then observes, h o w e v e r , that b o t h terms reflect an eschatological p u r v i e w within Aramaic a n d Syriac contexts, concluding that 'TIs is the single m o s t important extant witness to the conceptions w h ic h a r e at the b a s e o f this a n n o u n c e m e n t ' , with correspondences to 'three out o f the four k e y terms in the saying (rrXripoco, Kaipoc;, p a a i X c i a ) , a n d language which is suggestive of ... the fourth ( f f y y i K c v ) ' .

59

These terms speak then o f t h e time in w h ic h G o d acts (Tg. Isa 60:1, 22). The days o f mourning a r e completed (Tg. Isa 60:20; cf. 57:18) as the reign o f 4

God breaks in (Tg. Isa 31:4; 52:7; in 40:9 it is the yon ™! K n o ^ a w h i c h is revealed). A l l that remains is to announce the near c o m i n g in strength o f G o d ' s p r e s e n c e (Tg. Isa 40:10; 56:1).

O n this basis, a n d in v i e w o f its

connection with fjyyiK€v, J e s u s ' ^ € T a v o € t T € is also to b e understood in the light o f O T prophetic usage, a n d again particularly o f that in Tg. F u r t h e r , in v i e w o f t h e I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d

of c u a y y e ' X i o v

60

Isaiah.

(as p e r

S t u h l m a c h e r ) , Chilton finds that ' t h e appearance o f a belief p h r a s e with bswrh at Tg.Is. 53,1 is a staggeringly close parallel to M a r k 1,15'.

5 6

5

7

5

8

61

God, 8 6 - 9 5 .

M o u l e , ' F u l f i l m e n t ' , 3 0 9 ; cf. C h i l t o n , God, 78ff; Delling, TDNT, 4 . 2 8 7 f . F o r t h i s a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g , C h i l t o n , God, 81ff. P e s c h , 1 . 1 0 2 , n o t e s t h a t t h e y a r e especially characteristic of apocalyptic terminology for the establishment of t h e reign of G o d , 4 Ezra 4:36f; 2 Bar. 4 0 : 3 . P e s c h a l s o lists T o b 1 4 : 5 b u t s e e C h i l t o n , op cit. 5 9

C h i l t o n , God, 88f. C h i l t o n , God, 90ff; AB, l l . x v i ; c f . T r i l l i n g , ' B o t s c h a f t ' , 5 3 ; K e l b e r , 1 4 ; pace W e l l h a u s e n , 8 ; L o h m e y e r , 3 0 ; A m b r o z i c , 5 . T h e i d e a o f r e p e n t a n c e is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e view that Isa 4 0 - 5 5 reveals a n e g a t i v e response, a failure t o believe in Y a h w e h ' s announcement; W a t t s , 'Consolation'. C h i l t o n , God, 9 5 ; Tg. Isa r e a d s : w m i o n ? yim ]D, cf. Tg. Isa 4 0 : 9 , 5 2 : 7 . 6

0

6 1

1

102

Markan

Prologue

This evidence suggests that M a r k 1:14-15, while clearly n o t a citation, is p r o b a b l y b e s t u n d e r s t o o d in t h e light o f t h e traditions reflected in Tg. Isaiah.

It a p p e a r s m o s t likely, therefore, that these v e r s e s constitute a

proclamation o f the inauguration o f the N E deliverance a n d t h e breaking in, 'in strength', o f Y a h w e h ' s reign. In this respect o n e might also note the suggestion that the

Kfjpu£-

coming

one'.

'stronger

verb also harks b a c k to J o h n ' s preaching o f the

6 2

I f s o , then p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s in t e r m s o f t h e

victorious Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (see C h a p t e r 6) w o u l d b e consistent with an overall Isaianic N E motif. T h u s far, the results o f the present study tend to confirm t h e proposal t h a t I s a i a h ' s N E is t h e c o n s i s t e n t a n d d o m i n a n t

motif within

the

structurally significant opening (vv. 1-3) a n d transitional sections (vv. 1415) o f the prologue. understood

The c u a y y c ' X i o v

within the framework

'Inaou XpiaTou

delivering self-revelation o f Y a h w e h p a a i X c i a T o u Gcou).

is, it s e e m s , t o b e

of the Isaianic expectation of the (euayye'Xiov

TOU

9 C O U , f f y y i K € v rj

A t this point an intriguing a m b i g u i t y arises in that

Y a h w e h ' s salvific self-revelation is not only p r o c l a i m e d b y J e s u s (1:14-15) but is also apparently identified with h i m (1:1-3). J e s u s not only proclaims but also effects the deliverance. In other words, o r at least s o it s e e m s from M a r k ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , the Isaianic herald is h i m s e l f r e v e a l e d to b e t h e agent o f Isaianic salvation (cf. L k 4:16ff; w e will s e e this sort o f ambiguous dual identification again in Mark.) T h e next question then is w h e t h e r o r not there is a n y evidence that the accounts o f J e s u s ' preparation (1:9-13) are also cast in terms o f t h e Isaianic N E motif.

b) The

Baptism

(i) Mark 1:10:... eidev KCCl to

ax^Co\iivo\)g TTveuiia

robs

. . . KCLTapatvov

oupavoiis €1$ CLXJTOV

T h e o p e n i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s is a familiar a p o c a l y p t i c i m a g e .

6 3

Mark's

a c c o u n t is d i s t i n c t i v e , h o w e v e r , s i n c e t h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f further 6

2

6

3

A m b r o z i c , 1 9 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 ( s e e 22ff o n p o s s i b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ) ; a n d G u n d r y , o n Mark's e m p h a s i s o n the stronger one. Schneck, 3 8 , discerns a n allusion here to Isa 40:10. N o t e a l s o t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l / m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s o f t h e flxeov s a y i n g s a n d J o h n ' s p r e a c h i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e 6 cpxonevos', e.g. A r e n s , HAGON, 2 8 6 - 3 2 4 , 3 4 8 ; M u f i n e r , ' G o t t e s h e r r s c h a f t ' , 8 2 ; S c h n e i d e r , TDNT, 2 . 6 6 8 f ; W e b b , John, 2 6 1 - 3 0 6 . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e M a r x s e n ' s e x e g e s i s , 1 3 4 , o f l : 1 4 f v i s 'I a m c o m i n g s o o n ' m i s s e s t h e fulfilment m o t i f . E . g . E z e k 1:1; A c t s 7 : 5 6 ; R e v 1 9 : 1 1 ; 2 Bar. 2 2 : 1 ; T. Levi 2 : 6 ; 5 : 1 ; 1 8 : 6 ; T. Jud. 2 4 : 2 ( t h e l a t t e r t w o m a y r e f l e c t C h r i s t i a n i n f l u e n c e ; D e J o n g e , Testaments; 'Influence'; Chevallier,

The

103

Baptism

64

v i s i o n a r y r e v e l a t i o n — w h i c h suggests s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a p o c alyptic origin—but instead the Spirit d e s c e n d s , Jesus to b e J o h n ' s 'stronger o n e ' .

6 6

65

thereby

demonstrating

This descent of the Spirit, in connection

with the strong language o f 'rending', has a m o n g other things (e.g. 6 3 : 1 1 , 14 LXX: KaT€prj TTveuâ u a p a K u p i o u ) led several c o m m e n t a t o r s to s e e Isaiah 63:19 M T as the background to this passage (cf. N e h 9 : 2 0 ) .

67

N e v e r t h e l e s s , o n e o f the m o s t recent and t h o r o u g h w o r k s o n t h e b a p t i s m o f J e s u s , that o f F . L e n t z e n - D e i s ,

68

contests this v i e w for t h e

following r e a s o n s : A ) a l t h o u g h M a r k uses a x ^ O

i n s t e a d o f the

more

c o m m o n dvoiyw and thereby reflects the s u d d e n irruption o f Y a h w e h ' s presence, the remainder o f his account does not cohere with a ' t h e o p h a n i e ' Gattung,

B ) in contrast to Isaiah 64:lf, M a r k does not describe G o d ' s descent

'zur V e r n i c h t u n g der F e i n d e u n d damit z u m Heil des V o l k e s ' but instead records the descent o f the Spirit, and C ) the j u d g e m e n t o f the w i c k e d 'ist aber nicht e i n m o g l i c h e r S i n n fur M k 1:10'.

Thus, while Lentzen-Deis

a l l o w s the p o s s i b i l i t y o f an allusion to I s a i a h 6 4 : 1 , it c a n n o t serve as background to M a r k 1:10 since the context o f 64:lff 'in ganz a n d e r e m Sinn weiterentwickelt' ,

6 9

Lentzen-Deis' assessment, however, may be challenged on several counts.

G r a n t e d that dvoiyo) is m o r e c o m m o n in this construction (e.g.

Gen 7:11; Ps 77:23 LXX; Isa 24:18; Ezek 1:1; Acts 7:56; 10:11 etc.), the L X X ' s use of dvoiyo) to render J n p in Isaiah 63:19 M T is anomalous.

Mark's a x ^ O ,

therefore, appears not only m o r e accurate, but m a y suggest a particular interest in the M T ' s account with its m o r e explicit statement o f Y a h w e h ' s coming.

7 0

F u t h e r m o r e , not only is the B a p t i s m the only place in the N T

L'Esprit, 1 2 5 - 3 0 ; H u l t g a r d , ' I d e a l ' ) ; cf. A c t s 1 0 : 1 1 ; R e v 1 1 : 1 9 . S e e a l s o v a n U n n i k , ' H i m m e l ' ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 99ff; T a y l o r ; C r a n f i e l d . 6 4

Such disturbances m a y also be a n indicator of eschatological judgement J o b 14:12 L X X ; P s 1 0 2 : 2 6 ; H a g 2 : 6 , 2 1 ; Sib. Or. 3 : 8 2 ; 8 : 2 3 3 , 4 3 1 ; M t 2 4 : 2 9 ; 2 P e t 3 : 1 0 ; R e v 6 : 1 4 , b u t a s G u n d r y n o t e s , 5 0 , n e i t h e r *by c o n t e n t n o r b y c o n t e x t c a n w e s a y t h a t J e s u s ' v i s i o n is a p o c a l y p t i c ' . 6 5

Guelich, 1.33. Gundry, 49. S e e in p a r t i c u l a r , B u s e , ' M a r k a n ' , w h o n o t e s a n u m b e r o f l i n g u i s t i c p a r a l l e l s , G u n d r y , Use, 2 8 f ; Feuillet, ' b a p t e m e ' , a n d n o w M a r c u s , 48ff; G u n d r y , 4 8 , 5 1 ; S c h n e c k , 4 4 - 4 7 . Taufe, 9 9 - 1 2 7 . 6 6

6 7

6 8

6 9

Taufe,

lOlff.

C f . G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 2 . T h e L X X d o e s n o t r e f l e c t t h e M T ' s rnT T , a l t h o u g h t h e S i n a i c o n t e x t i m p l i e s Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e . M a r k ' s axi£o> m a y a l s o reflect a n i r o n i c a l l u s i o n t o M k 1 5 : 3 8 , s u c h t h a t t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e h e a v e n s r e s u l t s in t h e r e n d i n g o f t h e v e i l , a l t h o u g h in the l a t t e r c a s e a x i £ o > w o u l d b e t h e e x p e c t e d v e r b , M a u r e r , TDNT, 7.959ff. 7 0

104

Markan

Prologue

where the descent of the Spirit is described b y KaTocpaivto but only in Isaiah 63 L X X is this verb associated with both the E x o d u s — a t h e m e central to Mark's opening citation—and the descent o f the S p i r i t .

71

Finally, it is also

noteworthy that both M a r k and Isaiah link the ' d e s c e n t ' / ' p l a c e m e n t ' KaTapaivco) o f the n n with 'coming up' out o f water i m a g e r y . Second, the reliance on Gattung

(D^/

72

as a determinative criterion ('Dies ist

der wichtigeste G e g e n g r u n d ' ) appears to b e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l w e a k n e s s . S u c h c a t e g o r i e s m a y b e helpful

descriptive

tools b u t

Lentzen-Deis'

prescriptive application s e e m s doubtful since it is not clear that M a r k ' s failure to conform strictly to Gattung

necessarily entails a disregard for the

essential t h e m e s and motifs of the Isaianic context. Lentzen-Deis appears to sense this w h e n h e goes on to add that the concerns of the two passages are incompatible. It is at this point, however, that Lentzen-Deis' argument s e e m s m o s t open to question, since an examination o f the Isaianic context reveals a n u m b e r o f motifs—in addition to the parallels n o t e d a b o v e — that are c o m p l e m e n t a r y to Mark. It

is g e n e r a l l y

disappointment

recognised

that

Isaiah

56-66

w i t h the reality o f the R e t u r n .

7 3

reflects

post-exilic

W h i l e there is the

reaffirmation of the h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g and the remaining e x i l e s ' i n g a t h e r i n g (56:8; 57:14ff; 60:4ff; 62:10ff; 66:20; cf. 58:8), t h e r e are also i n d i c t m e n t s o f (58:1-14; 56:9 - 57:13), a n d l a m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g ( 5 9 : l - 1 5 a ; 63:7 - 64:12), the w i c k e d in the nation w h o are seen as impediments to the promised

eschatological salvation

(59:lff)

7 4

and h e n c e attract s e v e r e

c e n s u r e ( 6 5 : l l f f ; 66:3ff, 14ff, 2 4 ) . T h e w h o l e intensifies until finally the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h as Warrior (59:15bff; 63:lff) sees the apostate T e m p l e

7 1

S e e S c h n e c k , 4 5 , c i t i n g L o h m e y e r , Evangelium, 2 1 . S c h n e c k g o e s o n t o n o t e t h a t in 1 C o r 10:1-4 P a u l c o m p a r e s Christian b a p t i s m to Israel's passing t h r o u g h the sea. 7

2

These parallels raise the intriguing possibility that John's linkage of a w a t e r b a p t i s m rite w i t h his p r o c l a m a t i o n o f a f u t u r e b e s t o w a l o f t h e Spirit m a y o w e s o m e t h i n g t o Isaiah 63's u n i q u e a c c o u n t of Israel's E x o d u s experience. P e r h a p s J o h n w a s symbolically offering p r o l e p t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a N e w E x o d u s — t h e r e - e n a c t m e n t o f p a s s i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e w a t e r b e i n g a r e p u d i a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s p a s t ' r e b e l l i o n ' (cf. I s a 6 3 : 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 0 ) — i n a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e ' c o m i n g o n e ' w h o s e ' b a p t i s m in t h e Spirit', i.e. a t l e a s t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s life-giving p r e s e n c e , w o u l d c o n s u m m a t e the r e n e w a l p r o c e s s (Isa 6 3 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) . J o r d a n - c r o s s i n g / c o n q u e s t m o d e l s tend to focus on land possession a n d miss the Spirit e m p h a s i s ( a s p e r W e b b , John, 360ff). J o h n is h e r e m u c h c l o s e r t o M o s e s w h o s e c o n c e r n is p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f Y a h w e h ( E x 3 3 : 1 5 f ) ; a s is M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c i t a t i o n . 7 3

R e n d t o r f f , Alte, 2 0 9 ; F o h r e r , Introduction, 3 8 6 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 5 0 7 . Kraus, 'Endtheophanie', 3 2 2 , w h e r e the p r o m i s e d theophanic deliverance h a s been p o s t p o n e d b e c a u s e of t h e p e o p l e ' s sin. 7 4

The

105

Baptism

dignitaries cast out and replaced b y the faithful servants o f Y a h w e h w h o m they had e x c o m m u n i c a t e d (65:13ff; 66:4-6, 14bff, 2 4 ) . J e r u s a l e m is then gloriously recreated amid n e w heavens and a new earth (chs. 60-3; 65:17-25; 66:7ff, 22f), her exiles return, a n d the survivors o f the Gentiles proclaim the glory o f Y a h w e h to the nations (66:19ff).

75

T h e text u n d e r consideration b e l o n g s to the last great lament w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e , c o n c l u d e s the w h o l e b o o k (63:7 76

64:12ET; cf. Ps 77).

I. Fischer's suggestion that, within the context o f the

b o o k as a whole, this distress represents the fulfilment (or a further one) o f the threat in the Berufungsvision even m o r e p o i g n a n t .

77

o f Isaiah 6, if correct, m a k e s the passage

T h e lament's main elements consist o f an account

of Y a h w e h ' s past acts o f redemption (63:7-14), an appeal for help w h i c h includes references to the p e t i t i o n e r s ' desperate straits (63:15 - 64:4), a confession o f sin (64:5f), and a final appeal which c o m b i n e s earlier themes (64:8-12).

7 8

M a r k ' s p o s s i b l e allusion b e l o n g s to the central and m o s t

impassioned element, n a m e l y , 6 4 : l - 5 a .

79

C o u c h e d in terms o f the E x o d u s

e p i p h a n y t r a d i t i o n s o f the a n c i e n t D i v i n e - W a r r i o r H y m n s (64:1-3; cf. 59:15bff; 6 3 : l f f ) , and, therefore, consistent with the p r e c e d i n g E x o d u s account (63:9ff cf. Ex 19:16ff; J u 5:5), they form an appeal to Y a h w e h O r a a , 63:16 (bis)) w h o is called upon to hear from heaven (LXX: oiipavdc;, 63:15; 64:1) and to repeat the saving event of the nation's founding m o m e n t .

80

F r o m this perspective, if M a r k is thinking in t e r m s o f the N E , then, pace

L e n t z e n - D e i s , h i s a p p e a l to i m a g e r y from this text is e m i n e n t l y

suitable. Not only is the passage itself part of the last great lament in Isaiah over the delay of the N E , but M a r k ' s description o f the b a p t i s m closely echoes that wh i c h the petitioners' long for: the descent o f Y a h w e h through the rent h e a v e n s . T h i s b r i n g s us to L e n t z e n - D e i s ' s e c o n d objection: in M a r k it is the Spirit, not Y a h w e h , w h o d e s c e n d s . H e r e , I w o u l d suggest, h e fails to 7

5

7

6

7

7

7

9

8

0

O n t h e s e t h e m e s , A c h t e m e i e r , Community; H a n s o n , Dawn; P a u r i t s c h , Gemeinde; a n d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f c h ' s 5 6 - 6 6 , C h a r p e n t i e r , Jeunesse, 79f; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 508. H a n s o n , Dawn; W e s t e r m a n n ; P a u r i t s c h , Gemeinde; W a t t s , Isaiah, s e e s a s e r m o n p r a y e r , cf. v o n R a d , ' L e v i t i c a l ' . Wo, 2 8 9 f f . 7 8 W h y b r a y ; W e s t e r m a n n ; H a n s o n , 79ff. T h e first u n i t is a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d , the others are debated. Westermann, 395; Whybray. H a n s o n , 8 7 ; W e s t e r m a n n ; cf. C r o s s , Canaanite.

106

Markan

Prologue

,

appreciate fully Isaiah 6 3 s r e m a r k a b l e p n e u m a t o l o g y .

I n addition to a

unique e m p h a s i s o n the Itiljj n n (63:10, 1 1 , cf. 14) there is an unparalled association o f tthpn n n with t h e E x o d u s w h e r e the n n is p r e s e n t e d as almost equivalent to Y a h w e h h i m s e l f . rend

the heavens

understood

81

and come down'

Further, the appeal to Y a h w e h 'to in 6 3 : 1 9 ( M T ) m u s t

surely be

in t h e light o f t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g c o n t e x t o f t h e

Exodus rememberance, which rememberance not only forms the very basis o f that appeal b u t is, as already noted, replete with n n language.

In

other words, if the m e m o r y o f Y a h w e h ' s great redemptive act, from Isaiah 6 3 ' s point o f view, is characterised b y his 'placing' o f his n n - p r e s e n c e in the m i d s t o f h i s p e o p l e then it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g

if the long-awaited

repetition o f the saving event should also b e so characterised. Of s o m e interest here, in light o f o u r earlier treatment o f t h e M a l a c h i and Exodus texts, is the appearance o f the enigmatic reference to VJQ ^K^ft (Isa 6 3 : 9 ) .

82

Again there s e e m s to b e s o m e degree o f identity b e t w e e n the

angel (or presence) a n d the n n in that the former saves t h e people (v. 9 ) , and the latter dwells with them (v. 11) a n d leads them through the desert to the p r o m i s e d land (v. 1 4 ) . Spirit is p r e s e n t e d

8 3

This is c o n s o n a n t b o t h w i t h t h e w a y the

in Isaiah 6 3

8 4

a n d w i t h t h e fact that t h e "^KÊ c a n

function a s a reference to Y a h w e h ' s self-manifestation.

It is, p e r h a p s ,

w o r t h n o t i n g in p a s s i n g that the implicit threat o f the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s texts are n o t far away. Here, too, there is the motif o f Y a h w e h ' s presence ( = ' a n g e l ' = ' H o l y Spirit'?) b e c o m i n g a threat d u e to Israel's disobedience, in that Israel's grieving iunp n n c a u s e d Y a h w e h to b e c o m e their e n e m y (63:10; cf. M a r k 3:29). W e t u r n finally to L e n t z e n - D e i s ' third objection: t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f adversaries ( ^ 1 ^ ) a n d the trembling o f the nations (tria, 64:1) are absent in 8

1

8

2

O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e r e is a d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d t h e n o t i o n t h a t a l l o f G o d ' s a c t s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o h i s S p i r i t a n d , o n t h e o t h e r , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f a t r e n d t o w a r d a d i s t i n c t hypostasis, Whybray; Westermann. T h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e Spirit is in fact n o t e d b y L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 0 2 ; cf. G u n d r y , Use, 3 0 . W h y b r a y f o l l o w s t h e L X X a n d r e a d s Ifthft a s a b s o l u t e , a d d i n g t h e a d v e r s a t i v e d X X ' a n d r e a d i n g V3Q a s axjrog—'no messenger n o r angel but his presence saved them'—partly b e c a u s e h e c o n s i d e r s t h e c o n c e p t a s it s t a n d s i n t h e M T ' u n i q u e a n d i m p r o b a b l e ' , cf. W e s t e r m a n n . I n s u p p o r t o f t h e M T (cf. D S S , 8 D ) t h e r e is m u c h i n t h e p a s s a g e t h a t a p p e a r s u n i q u e a n d it m a y b e t h a t "P3S ^K*??? is a n i n n o v a t i v e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m m ^K^D, w i t h t h e g e n i t i v e e m p h a s i s i n g t h e d e s i r e d a s p e c t , i.e. p r e s e n c e , m u c h t h e s a m e a s m i a n ^K*??? in M a i 3 : 1 . C f . D e l i t z s c h ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community; W a t t s , Isaiah. W a t t s , Isaiah, 3 3 2 . ' Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e t h e y u n i q u e l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s "his h o l y spirit'", H a n s o n , 9 0 . I s a

8

3

8

4

The

Mark.

107

Baptism

H o w e v e r , contrary to L e n t z e n - D e i s , the j u d g e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s

e n e m i e s is perfectly c o m p a t i b l e with M a r k ' s account. on w h o is s e e n as t h e e n e m y .

T h e question turns

O n the o n e h a n d , t h e I s a i a h c o n t e x t

envisages the destruction o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s apostate leaders and T e m p l e dignitaries at Y a h w e h ' s advent (65:1-15; 66:3-6, 14bff, 2 4 ) .

8 5

This has strong

affinities with the threat associated with Malachi 3:1 and M a r k ' s portrayal of Israel's leaders (e.g. 11:12-25; 12:1-12; 13:lff). O n the other hand, several scholars have noted Mark's heavy emphasis on J e s u s ' eschatological conflict w i t h S a t a n .

8 6

A l t h o u g h this will b e d e v e l o p e d m o r e fully in

Chapter 6, suffice it to say that for M a r k the e n e m y is n o longer the nations but the d e m o n s (thus in M a r k ' s first miracle the u n c l e a n spirit not o n l y designates J e s u s as ' t h e h o l y o n e o f G o d ' b u t also p e r c e i v e s his mission, 1:24, cf. his plundering o f Satan, 3:27, and the demise o f 'Legion', 5:lff). C o n s e q u e n t l y , it a p p e a r s that M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f the d e s c e n t

through

rent h e a v e n s o f the Spirit u p o n J e s u s is entirely in k e e p i n g w i t h the last great lament o f the B o o k o f Isaiah. For M a r k , Jesus is Y a h w e h ' s answer to that cry: h e h a s i n d e e d c o m e , ' i n strength', to a n n o u n c e and to effect Israel's long-awaited N E . S e v e r a l s c h o l a r s h a v e also d r a w n attention to t h e u n u s u a l M a r k a n construction, eig 63:11.

8 7

GLVTOV

(cf. c t t '

auTov

in par.), seeing here an e c h o o f Isaiah

T h e O T text is difficult in that the M T ' s 1 a n p ? a p p e a r s o n the

surface to h a v e o n e figure in v i e w , b u t the singular p r o n o u n ' s referent is not easy to discern, cf. the L X X ' s €v a u T o t c ; .

88

In any case, given that M a r k

c o u l d o n l y r e a s o n a b l y h a v e u s e d the s i n g u l a r ( c i ? a u T o ' v ) ,

it s e e m s

u n w a r r a n t e d to p r e s s this into a p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as I s r a e l ' s n e w shepherd, that is, a n e w M o s e s .

8 9

It is m o r e likely, given it is Israel w h o

comes up out o f the water (cf. dvapaivco in 63:10b (LXX) and M k 1:10), that Jesus

h i m s e l f is a p p a r e n t l y

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of, I s r a e l .

8 5

90

presented

as b e i n g

equivalent

to,

or

T h i s identification finds further s u p p o r t not

5 6 : 9 - 1 2 ; 5 7 : 3 - 1 3 a ; c h . 5 9 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 301ff; H a n s o n , 134ff; A c h t e m e i e r ,

Community,

128f. 8 6

E . g . R o b i n s o n , 28ff; K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 6 2 ; N i n e h a m , 6 3 ; L a n e , 6 2 ; P e s c h , 1 . 9 8 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 5 9 ; cf. K e e , 1 1 9 . 8 7

B u s e , ' A c c o u n t ' ; F e u i l l e t , ' b a p t e m e ' ; G u n d r y , Use; n o w S c h n e c k , 4 6 . Is it t h e s h e p h e r d , i.e. M o s e s , o r s h o u l d ' s h e p h e r d ' b e r e a d a s p l u r a l , o r is t h e singular used collectively of the people? See W h y b r a y ; W e s t e r m a n n . Pace S c h n e c k , 4 6 . S e e fn. 8 7 . 8 8

8 9

9 0

108

Markan

Prologue

o n l y in M a r k ' s recalling the m o r e general staples o f Israel's

founding

m o m e n t s u c h as desert, water, and 'forty days', but also his e m p h a s i s on the b a p t i s m ' s correspondences with the distinctive features o f the Isaianic account o f that inaugural event (Isa 6 3 : l l f f ; cf. 1 C o r 1 0 : l f f ) .

91

Such an identification raises a question: h o w can M a r k portray J e s u s as the o n e w h o both a n n o u n c e s and inaugurates Israel's deliverance (as per the cuayye'Xiov material above) and w h o at the s a m e time re-enacts Israel's E x o d u s either as the 'true Israel' or her representative?

Before dealing

w i t h this it is n e c e s s a r y to e x a m i n e w h a t is p e r h a p s the m o s t difficult section o f M a r k ' s prologue: the w o r d s spoken b y the voice from heaven. (ii)

Mark 1:11:...

Kai

(pcji/fi

kykvero

€K T&V

Zv €i 6 uioV pov 6 aya.'n^Tos, The

ovpavtiv,

kv aoi €X)6oKr)oa

O T h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n s e e n as the b a s i s for i n t e r p r e t i n g

1:11.

H o w e v e r , the v o i c e ' s brief statement reveals n o unequivocal O T allusion and the diversity o f p r o p o s e d origins, variously located in P s a l m 2 : 7 , Isaiah 42: l , thereof,

9 6

9 3

G e n e s i s 2 2 : 2 , 12, 1 6 ,

9 4

Exodus 4:22f,

m a k e s precise identification difficult.

95

or

9 2

combinations

C o n s e q u e n t l y , several

s c h o l a r s h a v e t a k e n the v i e w that the a l l u s i o n s in the v o i c e are so

9 1

B u s e , ' A c c o u n t ' ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 0 2 ; B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' ; H o o k e r .

9 2

V i e l h a u e r , Aufsdtze, 2 0 5 f ; L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 1 4 0 n 2 ; cf. J u s t i n , Dial, 8 8 , 1 0 3 ; C l e m . A l e x . , Paed., 1 . 6 . 2 5 ; Ap. Con. 2 . 3 2 ; GEb. frg 4 ; M e t h . , Symp, 8 . 9 ; Did., 9 ; L a c t , Inst., 4 . 1 5 . 9

3

F o l l o w i n g B o u s s e t ' s o r i g i n a l f o o t n o t e , Kyrios, 5 7 n 2 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5.701ff; Theology, 1.53ff; C u l l m a n n , Baptism, 17f; Christology, 6 6 ; M a u r e r , 'Knecht', 31f; Fuller, Mission, 5 5 ; Foundations, 1 6 9 ; Gils, Jesus, 56ff. P e s c h , 1 . 9 2 , p r i m a r i l y I s a 4 2 : 1 , b u t h e r e j e c t s J e r e m i a s ' p r o p o s a l f o r a viog/vcHg exchange. 9 4

T u r n e r , ' ! IOZ'; G a b o u r y , ' D e u x ' ; B e s t , Temptation, 1 6 9 - 7 2 ; V e r m e s , Scripture, 222f; D a n i e l o u , ' t y p o l o g i e ' ; D a l y , ' S o t e r i o l o g i c a l ' , 68ff; W o o d , ' I s a a c ' ; s o m e n o t i n g t h e i d e a o f A q e d a h - t y p o l o g y , cf. T. Levi 1 8 ; T. Judah 2 4 ; I r e n a e u s , Adv. Haer., 4 . 5 . 4 ; A t h a n a s i u s , Oratio, IV; Contra Arianos, 2 4 . O t h e r s w h o a l l o w t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f G e n 2 2 a s filial a r e less c o n v i n c e d a b o u t t h i s a s p e c t (fn. 9 6 ) . W h i l e A q e d a h - t y p o l o g y c a n n o t i m m e d i a t e l y b e d i s c o u n t e d , e.g. Trapa6i6o)jii in 1:14 sets 'the p r e a c h i n g a n d s u m m o n s of J e s u s i n t o t h e d i v i n e l y w i l l e d d e a t h w a r d w o r k o f J o h n ' , K e c k , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' , 3 6 0 , t h e fact t h a t M a r k a p p a r e n t l y d o e s n o t d e v e l o p t h e t h e m e m u s t tell a g a i n s t it, cf. G a b o u r y , ' D e u x ' ; P e s c h ; D a v i e s , Matthew, G u e l i c h . T h a t t h e N T k n o w s little if a n y t h i n g o f t h e A q e d a h in c o m p a r i s o n t o l a t e r C h r i s t i a n w r i t i n g s a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t it is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a p o s t - N T d e v e l o p m e n t , cf. Davies-Chilton, ' A q e d a h ' and literature cited therein. F o r m o r e recent responses taking t h e o p p o s i t e p o s i t i o n : H a y w a r d , ' P r e s e n t ' ; O ' N e i l l , 'Jesus'; S e g a l , ' H e ' . * Bretscher, ' E x o d u s ' ; Feuillet, 'bapteme', 'personnalite'. 9

9 6

G e n e r a l l y P s 2 a n d I s a 4 2 , a l t h o u g h s o m e a l l o w G n 2 2 a s w e l l : M a r s h a l l , 'Son'; L u h r m a n n , ' B i o g r a p h i c ' , 27ff; H a h n , Titles, 3 3 9 , 3 4 5 n 4 2 ; M o u l e ; T a y l o r ; S c h w e i z e r ; D o d d , According, 3 1 f , 8 9 ; M a n s o n , Jesus, 1 1 0 ; H u n t e r , Introducing, 15; Mauser, 96; Lindars, Apologetic, 1 3 9 f ; D a v i e s , Setting, 3 7 ; L a n e ; G n i l k a ; H u r t a r d o ; M a t e r a , ' P r o l o g u e ' ; D e r r e t t ; K e e , 122ff; K i n g s b u r y , 6 5 ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 1 9 2 ; S c h n e c k , 5 5 - 6 8 .

The

109

Baptism

fragmentary as to rule out any direct appeal to specific O T texts and thus regard M a r k 1:11 as a m o r e o r less general s t a t e m e n t o f J e s u s ' filial relationship to the F a t h e r .

97

This seems something of a counsel o f despair.

In any case, the preceding analysis o f M a r k ' s use of O T imagery m a k e s it unlikely that the pinnacle o f his p r o l o g u e ,

98

fragmentary t h o u g h its O T

allusions might b e , is offering only a 'general statement'.

Fortunately, the

task is simplified s o m e w h a t since our concern is only with possible points of c o n t a c t w i t h the I s a i a n i c N E .

T h e following table lists the

most

c o m m o n proposals for O T sources: Mark

1:11

Psalm LXX

oh

€i

6 uios*

UOU

\A6s

uou

Isaiah MT

€i

ou

€yd) OTJU€pOV ycycvvTjKa

2:7

42:1

LXX

(6

nnK

MT

Trots

1

O" ^)

uou)

Qy>n

ac

-pin^

Gen 22:2, 22, 17 LXX (6 6

uid?

uou)

dyau^Tog

TOV

uidv

MT aou

TOV a y a n x i T o v

"["ODTIK "]TrPTIK

'IoKOjp 6 7101?

uou

"HDi? ]n

avTiXijiJjouai auTOU 'IapaTjA ev

aoi

€u6oi, w i l l r e a l i s e t h e N E , cf. 4 9 : 8 - 1 3 ; S a w y e r , Dumbrell, 'Purpose', 1 2 6 ; Clifford,

Persuading-,

which

Patmos,

115;

1 8 1 ; C e r e s k o , ' R h e t o r i c a l ' ; a l s o cf.

von

W a l d o w , 'Message', 284f. This m a y also help explain w h y aspects of Isa 5 3 a r e attributed t o t h e M e s s i a h in

Tg. Isa 5 3 ; L e v e y , Messiah,

63-67; Chilton,

Glory,

86-96.

136 W a t t s , 'Consolation', 5 0 - 5 2 . 1

3

7

Levey,

Messiah,

102; Chilton,

Targum,

105.

The L X X , however, understands the

' s e r v a n t ' in 4 2 : 1 a s I s r a e l . T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f ' s e r v a n t ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e S o M f i g u r e i n the Similitudes of 1

Enoch

suggests that

Tg. Isa's

messianic interpretation m a y also be

e a r l y , t h e S i m i l i t u d e s b e i n g g e n e r a l l y d a t e d p r e - A D 7 0 , a l t h o u g h t h e l a c u n a e in Q u m r a n i c e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s c a u t i o n cf. G r e e n f i e l d - S t o n e , ' E n o c h i c ' ; M e a r n s , ' D a t i n g ' ; B a m p t f y l d e , ' S i m i l i t u d e s ' ; S c h u r e r , 3 . 2 5 6 - 5 9 ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' J e s u s ' , 39ff; b u t K n i b b , ' D a t e ' , l a t e first century.

(It is n o t c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t ' a d a t e l a t e r t h a n t h e t i m e o f J e s u s h a s h a d t o b e

c o n c e d e d for the Similitudes',

pace

Lindars,

Son, 5 , let a l o n e for t h e i d e a s t h e m s e l v e s . ) Tg. Isa, Z i m m e r l i - J e r e m i a s , Servant,

t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in

On 59ff;

A y t o u n , ' S e r v a n t ' . O n m e s s i a n i s m in t h e T a r g u m s g e n e r a l l y , H u m b e r t , ' M e s s i e ' ; S e i d e l i n ,

Exegese; G r e l o t , ' L ' e x e g e s e ' , ' L ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' ; L e v e y , Messiah; Glory, 86ff, 112ff. O n ' a n o i n t i n g ' o f t h e M e s s i a h , S c h u r e r , 2 . 5 0 3 f , 5 1 7 ; L e n t z e n D e i s , Taufe, 1 4 0 - 7 0 ; D e J o n g e - v a n d e r W o u d e , TDNT, 9 . 5 0 9 - 2 7 ; D e J o n g e , ' " A n o i n t e d " ' ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' ; C h e v a l l i e r , L'Esprit. Cf. Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 7 ' s a l l u s i o n t o I s a 1 1 , 'Ebed'; Brierre-Narbonne,

Chilton,

4 Q p I s a * a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d in A l l e g r o , DJD,

5.13f), a n d the readings of First a n d Second

R a b b i n i c Bibles, A n t w e r p P o l y g o t , R e u c h l i n i a n u s , a n d M s . J e w s ' C o l l e g e o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : 1 a n d 11:2 (Stenning,

Isaiah;

Chilton,

Targum,

80f, 28f) w h i c h suggest that anointing with the

H o l y S p i r i t ( o r S p i r i t o f Y a h w e h ) is in v i e w . 1

3

8

O n t h e m e s s i a n i c u s e s o f P s 2: A ) in Pss. Sol. 1 7 , H u n t r e s s , '"Son"', 1 2 0 ; W r i g h t , OTP,

'Messiah', 197f; Schiipphaus,

Psalmen,

2.643f, 667f; Charlesworth,

64ff, 124ff;

B ) i n Q u m r a n : 4 Q F l o r l:10f, Flusser, 'Notes', 1 0 3 ; Betz,

Temple,

30ff; e s p e c . B r o o k e ,

Exegesis;

178ff, 1 8 5 - 2 1 9 ;

What?,

88ff; G a r t n e r ,

l Q S a 2 : 1 1 , T ^ V is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y

116

Markan

Prologue

presence a n d import o f 'servant' imagery in the remainder o f the Gospel is a continuing source o f contention into w h i c h I do not intend to enter at this p o i n t ,

1 3 9

K e e ' s a n a l y s i s o f M a r k 1 4 - 1 5 s h o w s m a t e r i a l from

'Servant S o n g s ' to b e in s o m e e v i d e n c e .

1 4 0

the

Finally, the variations in the

Gospels n o t e d in the above discussion on aya-n^ros,

a term w h i c h it was

n o t e d h a s s o m e i m p o r t a n c e in ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , i n d i c a t e an e a r l y interpretative tradition that understood an allusion to Isaiah 42:1 in the voice. (It should also be observed that although the descent o f the Spirit is consonant with a presentation o f Jesus as the Spirit-anointed m e s s e n g e r of Isaiah 61:1; cf. 52:7; L k 4 : 1 8 f ,

141

the i m m e d i a t e context o f E x o d u s imagery

and the content o f the voice together suggest that Isaiah 61:1 is not M a r k ' s primary e m p h a s i s in the baptism account.) T h e a p p e a l to this ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e allows us n o w to a d d r e s s the question o f M a r k ' s previously noted ambiguity—is J e s u s Israel's deliverer or Israel's representative?

O n the o n e h a n d , H o o k e r has argued that the

three k e y - w o r d s in the v o i c e , ' u l o g , dyan^Tog

and € u 6 o ' K r j a a are all

different from the n o r m a l translations o f the verse(s) ... (and) together form a c o n c e p t w h i c h in the O l d T e s t a m e n t is applied o n l y to I s r a e l ' .

1 4 2

o r i g i n a l , e.g. B a r t h e l e m y , D / D , 1.117; C r o s s , ' Q u m r a n ' , 1 2 4 n 8 ; a n d m a k e s g o o d s e n s e w h e n it is r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f Dn« is D2?n T M K , G o r d i s , ' " B e g o t t e n " ' , 1 9 4 . C ) i n r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e , e . g . t h e baraitha in b. Sukkah 5 2 a ; Midr. Ps. 2:7 is i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h E x 4 : 2 2 ; I s a 4 2 : 1 ; 5 2 : 1 3 a n d P s 1 1 0 : 1 , M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 3 2 4 ; cf. D a l m a n , Words, 2 6 9 f f ; L o v e s t a m , Son, 19ff; S t r - B , 3 . 1 9 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 8.361ff. S e e a l s o : Tg. Ket. o n P s . 8 0 : 1 6 , H u n t r e s s , '"Son"', 1 2 1 ; B y r n e , 'Sows', 78f; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 16-24. S e e f u r t h e r b e l o w , e.g. C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 5 8 - 8 7 , a n d C h a p t e r 9 , p p . 3 4 9 - 6 5 . ' F u n c t i o n ' , 167ff. I s a 5 0 : 6 in M k 1 4 : 6 5 ; a n d a l l u s i o n s , I s a 5 3 : 1 2 ( ? ) in 1 4 : 2 1 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 5 in 1 4 : 5 8 ; 5 3 : 7 ( ? ) in 1 4 : 6 0 ; 5 3 : 6 ( L X X ) in 1 5 : 1 5 ; 5 0 : 2 f in 1 5 : 3 3 ; 5 3 : 9 in b o t h 1 5 : 4 3 a n d 4 6 . N o t e a l s o t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e g l o s s o f 5 3 : 1 2 in 1 5 : 2 8 . L u h r m a n n , ' B i o g r a p h i e ' , 2 7 f f ; B e t z , ' J e s u ' , 7 0 f f ; S t u h l m a c h e r , ' T h e m a ' , 21ff; S c h l a t t e r , Glaube, 5 9 0 ; Guelich, 'Genre', 206. With the dissection of chs. 4 0 - 6 6 the ' u n d o u b t e d s i m i l a r i t i e s ' b e t w e e n t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a n d t h e ' m e s s e n g e r ' w e r e d i s r e g a r d e d (Tg. Isa, h o w e v e r , i n t e r p r e t s t h e l a t t e r a s t h e p r o p h e t ) , cf. N o r t h , Suffering, 138f; C a n n o n , 'Isaiah'; P r o c k s c h , 'Jesus'; K o c h , 'Gottesgeist'; Michel, 'Eigenart'; Z i m m e r l i , ' " G n a d e n j a h r ' " , ' S p r a c h e ' , 6 9 f f ( 6 1 : I f f is e a r l i e s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' ) ; S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 5 7 ; S m a r t , History; D e l i t z s c h , Jesaja; W h y b r a y ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, noting e.g. v. 1: 4 2 : 1 , 7; 4 8 : 1 6 ; v . 2: 4 9 : 8 , 1 3 ; v. 3: 4 2 : 3 ; 5 0 : 4 ; v. 4: 4 9 : 8 ; v. 5 : 4 9 : 9 . O n t h e b a s i s o f a m o r e h o l i s t i c a p p r o a c h t h i s s e p a r a t i o n s e e m s i n d e f e n s i b l e , cf. M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 1 0 . 1

3

9

1

4

0

1

4

1

1

4

2

Jesus, 72f. O n I s r a e l a s s o n . E x 4:22; H o s 1 1 : 1 ; D t 1:31; cf. B y r n e , 'Sons', 16f. T h e later a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o n s h i p t o t h e r i g h t e o u s (fn. 9 9 ) m a y r e f l e c t t h e d i v i s i o n w i t h i n I s r a e l a s i m p l i e d b y e.g. I s a i a h 5 6 - 6 6 , e s p e c . 6 5 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 301ff, 402ff; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 128ff; H a n s o n , 134ff; cf. V e r s e p u t , ' R o l e ' , 5 3 8 . O n c u S d i o i a a : P s 4 3 : 4 ( 4 4 : 3 ) ; 149:4; I s a 6 2 : 4 ; 2 S a m 2 2 : 2 0 e t c . ; cf. R o b i n s o n , Ephesians, 2 3 2 . B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' , a l s o a r g u e s for t h i s v i e w b u t o n t h e b a s i s o f a n a l l u s i o n t o E x 4:22f, w i t h dtyciTTT|Td§' a s e q u i v a l e n t t o •npcoTOTOKos' b u t without the latter's nationalistic overtones. H o w e v e r , a y a - n ^ T o s * n e v e r renders in t h e

The

117

Baptism

A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l detailed studies might raise s o m e questions about t h e viability o f a r g u m e n t s b a s e d o n ' n o r m a l ' t r a n s l a t i o n s ,

143

the fact remains,

in support o f H o o k e r , that the prologue is replete with N E imagery.

The

matrix of the b a p t i s m a l setting with the c o m i n g up out o f the water, the d e s c e n t o f the Spirit, and the s u b s e q u e n t forty d a y s in the w i l d e r n e s s , seems to b e a conscious e c h o of Israel's Exodus e x p e r i e n c e .

144

T h u s Jesus is

apparently p r e s e n t e d , if not explicitly then implicitly, as ' t r u e I s r a e l ' — indeed for H o o k e r , o n l y as 'true I s r a e l ' .

1 4 5

T h e difficulty here is not the

identification, w h i c h has m u c h in its favour, but its exclusivity. T h e r e is, after all, substantial evidence in the N T of J e s u s being typologically under stood in terms o f several O T figures or entities and there is no good reason w h y several o f t h e m could not innovatively b e brought together h e r e .

1 4 6

The 722 terminology associated with the Isaianic N E m a y well provide the k e y .

O n e o f the o n - g o i n g d e b a t e s o v e r I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 ' s e n i g m a t i c

' s e r v a n t ' figure h a s b e e n w h e t h e r or not the ' s e r v a n t ' is an

individual,

Israel as a w h o l e , or a remnant within Israel. I have argued elsewhere that the ambiguity o f the 'servant' terminology is probably best understood in terms o f the B o o k o f Isaiah's remnant motif. O n this reading, Jacob-Israel's failure to fulfil her 'servant' role appears to result in the reduction of 'true' Israel to a future and as-yet-unknown but faithful 'servant' Israel w h o will L X X a n d E x 4 : 2 2 f d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e p l a y e d a m a j o r r o l e in t h e N T o r in e a r l y C h r i s t i a n l i t e r a t u r e — 2 P e t 1:17 m i g h t b e l a t e , H e b l:6ff (TTPCUTOTOKOS") d o e s n o t i n c l u d e E x . 4 : 2 2 f in its list o f t e x t s , a n d t h e ' a l l u s i o n s ' in R o m 8 : 3 2 a n d 1 J n 4 : 9 a r e q u e s t i o n a b l e . It is d o u b t f u l t h a t o n l y t h e Gospel of the Nazarenes contains the original tradition, and B r e t s c h e r ' s e x p l a n a t i o n s for t h e e a r l y l o s s o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g o f t h e v o i c e a n d f o r t h e o r i g i n o f t h e ' w e l l - p l e a s e d ' p h r a s e a r e u n c o n v i n c i n g , cf. M o o , Passion, 112ff; B o c k , Proclamation, 1 0 2 . H i s c a s e is f u r t h e r w e a k e n e d in t h a t t h e c e n t r a l a r g u m e n t t u r n s o n a r e c o n s t r u c t e d ' l i t e r a l ' t r a n s l a t i o n o f E x 4 : 2 2 f for w h i c h h e p r o v i d e s n o v e r s i o n a l e v i d e n c e a n d w h i c h itself d e p e n d s o n a n o r i g i n a l t h i r d p e r s o n a d d r e s s a t t h e b a p t i s m . M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 3 2 4 , c i t e s Midr. Ps. 2:7 w h i c h r e f e r s t o E x 4 : 2 2 . 1 4 3

E . g . S t e n d a h l , School; G u n d r y , Use; M a n s o n , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; s e e ' O T S o u r c e s ' a b o v e . S e e d i s c u s s i o n o f I s a 63:7ff a b o v e , a n d t h e ' f a t h e r / s o n ' t e r m i n o l o g y in E x o d u s / N E c o n t e x t s : E x 4:22f; I s a 43:6f; 6 3 : 3 6 ; Jer 31:9, 2 0 ; H o s 1 1 : 1 ) ; s e e a l s o M a u s e r , 92ff; L o h m e y e r , 2 5 ; F u l l e r , Mission, 8 5 f ; F e u i l l e t , ' p e r s o n n a l i t e ' ; B r e t s c h e r , ' E x o d u s ' , 3 0 5 ; L e n t z e n - D e i s , Taufe, 184. F o r h o v e r i n g o f t h e S p i r i t o v e r t r u e I s r a e l s e e e.g. 4 Q 5 2 1 1 ii 6 . H o o k e r , Jesus, 7 2 f , a l t h o u g h n o t i n g t h a t s o n s h i p h a d b e e n n a r r o w e d d o w n t o t h e r i g h t e o u s w i t h i n I s r a e l ; cf. M a i 3 : 1 7 ; E c c l 4 : 1 0 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 0 ; W i s 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 ; a l s o B y r n e , 'Sons', 6 2 f . S e e f u r t h e r G e r h a r d s s o n , Testing, 19ff; H a r e , Theme, 7 n 2 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 50ff; L a R o n d e l l e , Israel, 64ff; D o d d , According, 126ff; F o u l k e s , Acts. A s i d e from the matter of distinguishing b e t w e e n the notion of 'true Israel' a n d that of identification with Israel, M a r s h a l l ' s o b j e c t i o n t o this v i e w ('Son', 3 3 4 ) — t h a t it is n e v e r e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d in t h e N T — c a n p r o b a b l y b e m e t in t h e s a m e w a y h e m i g h t d e f e n d t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y . F r a n c e , Jesus, 43ff. 1 4 4

1 4 5

1 4 6

118

Markan

Prologue

both deliver imprisoned Jacob-Israel from its blindness and deafness, and implement

Y a h w e h ' s CDS WE o v e r t h e n a t i o n s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h

p r o m i s e s m a d e to D a v i d .

1 4 7

P s 2 allusion in the voice and Tg. Isaiah's 42:lff.)

the

(Note in this connection the presence o f the m e s s i a n i c interpretation o f Isa

If this assessment is correct then M a r k ' s apparently dual presen

tation o f J e s u s , o n the o n e h a n d , as the o n e w h o s e b a p t i s m

replicates

Israel's E x o d u s experience and thus s h o w s h i m to b e 'true' Israel (cf. Mt. 1:15), and, o n the other, as faithless (Jacob-) Israel's m e s s i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' deliverer (note that both h a v e Y a h w e h ' s Spirit put within or u p o n them, Isa 63:1 Off, 42:1) s e e m s best explained, again, in terms o f an Isaianic N E background.

c)

Other (i) Mark 1:13

... r\v jiera

TQJV

Orjpicji/

O n e o f the p r o l o g u e ' s more difficult images, the peculiar reference in 1:13 to Jesus b e i n g with the beasts, m a y b e an allusion to the motifs expressed in Isaiah 11:6-9; 34:14; 65:17-25; or p e r h a p s to Isaiah 4 3 : 2 0 .

1 4 8

In the first

case, J e s u s ' ( a s s u m e d ) peaceful co-existence with the wild a n i m a l s

1 4 9

is

seen as signalling the d a w n o f n e w creation conditions associated with the Isaianic N E , w h i l e in the s e c o n d , w i l d a n i m a l s in the desert are also mentioned in the context G o d ' s provision in the N E . H o w e v e r , it should b e noted that the idea of peaceful co-existence is not actually stated in the M a r k , the d e s e r t d o e s not ' b l o o m ' , n o r are the a n i m a l s p o r t r a y e d glorifying Y a h w e h (cf. Isa 43:20).

as

W h i l e a categorical rejection might b e

precipitous, the possible parallels with Isaiah are simply too vague for any convincing case to b e m a d e .

1

4

7

1

4

8

1

4

9

1

5

0

1 5 0

W a t t s , 'Consolation', 54f. S e e d i s c u s s i o n in B e s t , Temptation, xviff. Si; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 9 . G r u n d m a n n , TDNT, 7.797, a n d G u e l i c h , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 8ff, a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t 1:13b, c r e f l e c t s t h e n e w - P a r a d i s e h o p e o f J e w i s h e x p e c t a t i o n ( 2 Bar. 7 3 : 6 ) w h e r e J e s u s in o v e r c o m i n g S a t a n ' s t e m p t a t i o n r e v e r s e s A d a m ' s fall, c i t i n g : T. Naph. 8 ; As. Mos. 1 0 ; Adam and Eve, 3 2 - 3 8 ; 2 Bar. 7 3 : 6 ; b. Sanh. 5 9 b . T h i s is ' c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h I s a i a h ' s d e p i c t i o n o f the a g e of salvation' (11:6-8; 65:25), Guelich, 'Genre', 206. S e e G u n d r y , 58ff.

119

Isaianic New Exodus Themes in the Prologue

IV. Isaianic New Exodus Themes in the Prologue W e are n o w in a position to s u m m a r i s e our findings: A ) M a r k ' s use of cuayyc'Xiov (1:1, 14) appears best understood in terms of the Isaianic a n n o u n c e m e n t o f comfort (cf. Isa 40:9; 41:27; 52:7; 60:6; 61:1), n a m e l y , the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g to his p e o p l e . thorough-going INE imagery throughout Mark's prologue lends

The

further

s u p p o r t to a Palestinian rather than Hellenistic p r o v e n a n c e for the term. T h i s is n o t to d e n y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p o l e m i c a l e d g e in t e r m s o f €ii a y y c ' X i o v ' s H e l l e n i s t i c c o n n o t a t i o n s , b u t

o n l y to a r g u e

that

an

exclusively o r e v e n p r i m a r i l y Hellenistic p r o v e n a n c e s e e m s i m p r o b a b l e . F r o m this perspective, J e s u s in 1:14 stands in the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition o f Isaiah 6 1 . Interestingly, h o w e v e r , J e s u s s e e m s not only to p r o c l a i m the immediacy o f the I N E but also to effect it. B ) the r e n d i n g o f the h e a v e n s a n d t h e d e s c e n t o f the Spirit (1:10) appears to e c h o the Isaianic l a m e n t over the delay o f the I N E (Is. 63:7 64:12) and, therefore, s u g g e s t s that Y a h w e h ' s long-awaited 'in strength' intervention has c o m e . In this case, J e s u s s e e m s to b e portrayed either as I s r a e l ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r s o m e c o n c e p t i o n o f ' t r u e ' Israel in that his experience o f passing through the water and the Spirit descending o n h i m echoes Isaiah 6 3 ' s account o f Israel's Exodus experience. C ) the allusion to Isaiah 42:1 suggests that J e s u s is that 'servant' (Tg.: M e s s i a h ) u p o n w h o m Y a h w e h h a s ' p l a c e d ' his Spirit, w h o will deliver Israel's captives, and restore sight to 'the blind'. This is consistent with the Psalm 2 allusion which implies that he is also the messianic heir of D a v i d w h o will ultimately prevail in eschatological c o m b a t against the e n e m i e s of G o d ' s p e o p l e .

1 5 1

using similar terms.

H o w e v e r , Israel has also e l s e w h e r e b e e n described T h e v o i c e ' s language, in the context o f the general

E x o d u s i m a g e r y p e r v a d i n g the b a p t i s m and in addition to the particular parallels with Isaiah 6 3 (noted above), suggests that J e s u s is also, in s o m e sense, 'true' or representative Israel. A g a i n it is the I N E framework with its d u a l ' s e r v a n t ' m o t i f that s e e m s to p r o v i d e the h e r m e n e u t i c w h e r e b y

1

5

1

A l t h o u g h ' s o n o f G o d ' m a y n o t y e t b e a n e x c l u s i v e t e c h n i c a l title for t h e M e s s i a h , it

is n o t , t h e r e b y , a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e d e s c r i p t i o n , cf. fn. 9 9 a b o v e .

L a t e r in M a r k e v e n t s o c c u r

w h i c h s u g g e s t t h a t m o r e is m e a n t b y t h i s d e s i g n a t i o n t h a n m e e t s t h e e y e , s e e C h a p t e r s 6 and 8.

120

Markan

Prologue

J e s u s can fill the role o f b o t h ' t r u e ' ( ' s e r v a n t ' ) Israel a n d ' b l i n d ' J a c o b Israel's 'servant' (-Messiah) deliverer. D ) J e s u s ' p r e a c h i n g that the time is n o w fulfilled nevertheless entails a concomitant call to repentance (1:15). Here, too, and perhaps also to s o m e e x t e n t i n t e g r a l to t h e W a r r i o r - i m a g e r y n o t e d a b o v e , t h e e l e m e n t o f warning associated with M a l a c h i ' s message m a y also b e discerned.

IV. Conclusion It w a s a r g u e d in the previous C h a p t e r that M a r k ' s introductory editorial c i t a t i o n o f I s a i a h 4 0 functions i c o n i c a l l y , i n v o k i n g the h e r m e n e u t i c a l framework within w h i c h h e w a n t s his h e a r e r s / r e a d e r s to u n d e r s t a n d his Gospel.

T h e y are to think primarily in terms o f Isaiah's N E . Simultane

ously there is a w a r n i n g inherent in the E x o d u s / M a l a c h i text. T h e leaders a n d the p e o p l e m u s t r e s p o n d p o s i t i v e l y to the f o r e r u n n e r , Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g will occasion a curse u p o n the land.

otherwise

T h e question

w a s asked: is there a n y further e v i d e n c e in the p r o l o g u e to confirm that this is actually M a r k ' s p r o g r a m ?

B y w a y o f r e s p o n s e this C h a p t e r has

s u g g e s t e d that the p r o l o g u e is indeed replete w i t h textual icons derived from Israel's ideologically shaped recounting o f her history. Set within the o v e r a r c h i n g s c h e m a o f the I N E , these ' s u b s i d i a r y ' icons form a coherent w h o l e but also s e r v e to e m p h a s i s e particular e l e m e n t s crucial to M a r k ' s account o f the d e n o u e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s intervention. M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e b e g i n s w i t h the p r o b l e m a t i c e x p r e s s i o n , 'Apx™ T O U cuayyeXiou

( 1 : 1 ; cf. 1:14).

It w a s a r g u e d that c u a y y c X - l a n g u a g e is

p a r t i c u l a r l y suited to the h o p e o f the I N E , b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f its announcement.

Further, according to M a l a c h i (v. 2 b , c ) , the long-delayed

INE w a s to b e a n n o u n c e d b y a forerunner w h o s e task w a s the preparation of Y a h w e h ' s ' w a y ' .

W i t h i n this framework, the i m m e d i a t e l y following

a n d h i g h l y selective sketch o f J o h n i m p l i e s that h e is i n d e e d M a l a c h i ' s preparatory Elijah (vv. 4-8).

In this context, J o h n ' s baptismal proclamation

o f 'the s t r o n g e r o n e ' is h i g h l y s u g g e s t i v e o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g , 'in strength', to deliver his people (1:7; 14f). Having introduced the forerunner and thus preparing the ' w a y ' for his chief protagonist, M a r k ' s tapestry of motifs and images surrounding J e s u s ' preparation continues to w e a v e together various 'iconic' strands associated

121

Conclusion

with Israel's N E hopes. First, drawing on the last great lament o f the b o o k of Isaiah, the rending o f the h e a v e n s and the descent o f the Spirit at the baptism (v. 10) together signal the advent o f Y a h w e h ' s personal and longa w a i t e d i n t e r v e n t i o n to r e s t o r e Israel.

Then, the divine

attestation

suggests that J e s u s is b o t h the Isaianic 'servant' w h o as Y a h w e h ' s agent o f the N E is to d e l i v e r J a c o b - I s r a e l a n d to b r i n g light to the n a t i o n s , a n d simultaneously D a v i d ' s messianic son in w h o s e reign the ' n a t i o n s ' will b e b r o u g h t u n d e r Y a h w e h ' s rule.

At the s a m e time, the ' s e r v a n t ' motif, the

content of the voice, the E x o d u s imagery o f the baptism (cf. Isa 6 3 ) , and the forty-day wilderness sojourn also show Jesus to b e 'true', 'servant' Israel. It w a s noted that this s a m e ambiguity w a s characteristic o f the w a y in w h i c h 'servant' terminology is used in Isaiah 40ff. proclamation

is u n i q u e l y

appropriate

Finally, in verses 14-15, J e s u s ' to t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t

inauguration o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g 'in strength'.

of

the

Furthermore, Jesus

s e e m s , at least s e c o n d a r i l y , to b e p r e s e n t e d in t e r m s o f the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition o f I s a i a h 6 1 , s u c h that h e is n o t o n l y t h e a g e n t o f I s r a e l ' s deliverance b u t its herald as well. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it a p p e a r s to b e the c a s e that as far as his p r o l o g u e is concerned M a r k is operating out o f a consistent I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .

Given

the role o f p r o l o g u e s in literary antiquity, w e should expect this then to establish the interpretive framework for the remainder o f his w o r k . In the next chapter, w e will e x a m i n e this hypothesis in terms o f its implications for the structure o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l .

Chapter 5: The Significance of the Prologue for Mark's Literary Structure Mark's

Gospel

exhibits

progression

from

Mark's

over-riding

schematic

a basic three-fold

'Galilee-and-beyond', NE interest

of the NE from provides

structure along

in the prologue

'the nations', the paradigm

along for

his

in which

the 'Way', suggests the 'Way',

there

to that to

is

a

'Jerusalem'. Isaiah's 'Jerusalem'

structure.

I. The Markan Structure W h i l e it m a y b e that M a r k ' s general geographic m o v e m e n t from ' G a l i l e e to J e r u s a l e m ' is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an a t t e m p t to p r o v i d e t h e s i m p l e s t possible structure to his Gospel, growing recognition of his literary sophistication suggests otherwise.

1

A s noted in the 'Introduction', b u t

w h i l e not w i s h i n g to overstate M a r k ' s literary skill, few m o d e r n scholars w o u l d c o n c u r w i t h e a r l i e r a s s e s s m e n t s that M a r k is s i m p l y ' a p a s s i o n narrative with an e x t e n d e d introduction' (Kahler) or m e r e l y p u t together 'like pearls o n a string' ( S c h m i d t ) .

2

A l t h o u g h not exhaustive, the results o f a representative survey o f sixty one analyses of Markan structure revealed a considerable degree of uniformity in spite o f t h e r a n g e o f major structural units e n v i s a g e d — ranging from two-fold, w i t h three-fold b e i n g the m o s t c o m m o n , to eight and b e y o n d .

3

4

W h i l e not attempting to offer individual c r i t i q u e s it is clear

that e v e n in t h e face o f differing organising rubrics there is substantial agreement as to the major M a r k a n literary divisions.

1

I n i t i a l l y D i b e l i u s , Tradition, Introduction, 86.

2 1 9 f ; G u t t g e m a n n s , Offene,

7 4 f ; a n d cf. K u m m e l ,

2

See Hooker's perceptive response that the a n a l o g y breaks d o w n since pearls a r e h a r d l y a r r a n g e d h a p h a z a r d l y , Message, 3 . M o r e r e c e n t l y G u n d r y , 1 0 4 5 - 4 9 , s e e m s t o t a k e this m i n i m a l i s t v i e w . 3

In a d d i t i o n t o m y o w n research, including m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d f r o m Pesch, wartungen, 5 0 - 5 3 ; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 3 9 - 5 3 ; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 68-78; 'Kompositionsanalyse'; K o c h , 'Gliederung'. See n o w further Boring, 'Beginning'. S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in t h e a u t h o r s listed in fn.3 a b o v e . 4

NaherLang,

124

Mark's

Literary

Structure

O f the proposals reviewed, whether presented in terms o f geographicalchronological considerations, Christological/theological

development

centring o n Peter's confession, or literary/dramatic conventions, b y the far the most frequent divisions were those at 1 0 : 5 2 / 1 1 : 1 or 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 0 : 4 6 (50 x ' s ) , and 8 : 2 6 / 2 7 or 8 : 2 1 / 2 2 (45 x ' s , on three o c c a s i o n s 8 : 3 0 / 3 1 ) . amount

of divergence

can be explained

'transitional' or ' h i n g e ' p a s s a g e s . consists

of

three

major

6

in t e r m s

5

T h e small

of these

being

This suggests that M a r k ' s basic outline

sections:

1:14/16-8:21/8:27;

8:21/8:27-

1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 ; and 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 - 1 6 : 8 . But h o w are they to b e understood?

II. Assessment a) The'my':

8:22/27-

10:45/11:1

A s discussed in the preceding review o f his work (Chapter 1) w e noted that W . M . S w a r t l e y , in particular, e m p h a s i s e s the structural function o f the term 666c; in M a r k ' s G o s p e l .

7

H e b e g i n s b y noting that several scholars

h a v e confirmed the literary integrity o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' / ' j o u r n e y ' section, 8

n a m e l y 8 : 2 1 / 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 4 5 / 1 1 : 1 , citing its three t r i a d s consisting o f passion 9

predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:32f), the disciples' failure to understand (8:32-33; 9:32; 10:35-41), and subsequent teaching (8:34-38; 9:35-37; 1 0 : 4 2 - 4 5 ) .

10

Other

unifying t h e m e s are: an increasing focus on b o t h J e s u s ' disciples and discipleship

1 1

and via the passion predictions o n his m e s s i a h s h i p , the

Christological declarations

in the b r a c k e t i n g ' h e a l i n g o f t h e

blind'

narratives (8:22-30 and 10:46-52), the recurring use o f the S o M title, and the transfiguration s c e n e .

1 2

Finally, there is M a r k ' s redactional use of

13

666$.

5 Cf. L a n g , ' K o m p o s i t i o n s a n a l y s e ' , 1. 6

See T r o c m e , Perrin, Standaert, V a n Iersel, 'beteknis', 'Locality'; Stock, 'Hinge'; a n d d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 9 3 , a b o v e . 7

' F u n c t i o n ' , a f t e r e . g . B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; S c h e n k e , Wundererzahlungen, 354ff; M a l b o n , Narrative, 68ff; s e e n o w a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M a r c u s , 3 1 - 3 7 . G u t t g e m a n n s , Candid, 320ff; P e r r i n , 'Gattung', a n d t h e c o m m e n t s o f S t o n e h o u s e , 2 7 , 3 4 . S t r e c k e r , 'Passion'. Schweizer, 'Leistung'; Haenchen, 'Komposition'; Perrin, 'Towards'; H o r s t m a n n , Studien, passim. 8

9

1

0

1 1

W e i s s , ' E k k l e s i o l o g i e ' ; Q u e s n e l l ; B e s t , Following; T a n n e h i l l , ' C h r i s t o l o g y ' , Perrin, 'Creative'; Vielhauer, 'Erwagungen'. ' F u n c t i o n ' , 7 7 f ; cf. H o r s t m a n n , Studien, 9; H a h n , Titles, 2 2 4 ; M i n e t t e d e secret, 3 0 6 f , a n d a u t h o r s c i t e d b e l o w . G r a n t e d w e d o n o t h a v e M a r k ' s s o u r c e s , t h e o f k e y - w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s a r e h e l p f u l i n d i c a t o r s . Stein, ' P r o p e r ' ; B e s t , Temptation,

72ff.

1 2

1 3

Tillesse, presence 9.

The

As

'Way':

125

8:22/27-10:45/11:1

S w a r t l e y n o t e s , this term appears s e v e n times in the ' W a y ' section,

frequently in key contexts and in conjunction with imperfect verbs (8:27; 9:33, 34; 10:17, 3 2 , 4 6 , 5 2 ) .

1 4

M a r k a n redactional intent is suggested in that

of these i n s t a n c e s M a t t h e w h a s o n l y t w o parallels (both w i t h aorists: 20:17b, roughly par. to M k 10:32; 20:30 par. to M k 10:46) and L u k e m e r e l y o n e (18:35 p a r . M k 1 0 : 4 6 ) .

1 5

T h i s is in stark c o n t r a s t to t h e s e v e n

occurrences in M a r k outside of this section (l:2f; 2:23; 4:4, 15; 6:8; 8:3; 11:8; 12:14) five o f which are paralleled in both M a t t h e w and L u k e .

1 6

S w a r t l e y t h e n p r o c e e d s to a r g u e that this 6 6 o c ; - t e r m i n o l o g y

is

strategically placed so as to elucidate b o t h M a r k ' s literary structure and important t h e m e s .

T h e phrase c v TTJ 6SC5 is found at the b e g i n n i n g a n d

end o f the ' W a y ' section w h e r e it is linked with the miracles o f sight (8:27; 10:52), while in 9:33, 3 4 it locates the dispute over greatness as occurring 'on the w a y ' (cf. 10:32).

O n the other hand, tig 66dv is the aborted form

used o f the rich m a n w h o c o m e s into the w a y but d o e s not follow kv TTJ 66G3 (10:17, cf. 10:52), while n a p d TT\V odov

is w h e r e the b l i n d m a n sits

(10:46c). T h e kv TTJ 66a> in 8:27 is linked with the teaching on discipleship 17

by the phrase omaco u.ou d K o X o u 0 € i v in 8 : 3 4 , and in 9:33, 34 €v TTJ 66a> again connects a passion prediction with teaching on discipleship. In 10:32 kv TTJ 66(3 introduces another passion statement, while in 8:27; 10:46 ( n a p a

TTJV

66dv); and 10:52 it is connected with key Christological declarations in the crucial bracketing pericopae. The ways.

i m p o r t o f M a r k ' s u s e o f 6dog 1 8

has been understood

in v a r i o u s

W h i l e s o m e scholars see it as a m e r e linking phrase, an e x a m p l e 19

of M a r k ' s Rahmen,

others perceive a m o r e significant role, for instance, 20

in creating a sense o f transition from Galilee to J e r u s a l e m . T h i s sense o f j o u r n e y has b e e n linked with the passion teaching and J e s u s ' increased concentration o n the disciples such that the ' W a y ' is the w a y o f suffering

1 4

O n t h e I m p e r f e c t a s t h e f o r e g r o u n d t e n s e u s e d for e m p h a s i s in p a s t c o n t e x t s w h e r e t h e A o r i s t is u s e d a s b a c k g r o u n d t e n s e . P o r t e r , Verbal, 198ff. 1 5

T h i s is s u r p r i s i n g in v i e w o f L u k e ' s ' t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e ' (9:51ff) a n d his u s e o f odog A c t s , cf. R e p o , 'Weg'; B e s t , Following, 1 7 n 6 . ' F u n c t i o n ' , 75ff. Perrin, 'Literary', 6. I a m i n d e b t e d t o S w a r t l e y for t h e f o l l o w i n g s u r v e y . S c h m i d t , Rahmen, 2 1 6 , 2 3 0 ; B u l t m a n n , History, 2 5 7 , 3 3 2 ; R i g a u x , Testimony, 8f. T a y l o r , 3 7 4 f f ; C r a n f i e l d , 2 6 8 , 3 3 5 , 3 4 6 ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5.66ff. 1 6

1 7

1 8

1 9

2 0

in

126

Mark's

Literary

Structure

discipleship reflecting J e s u s ' o w n ' w a y o f the c r o s s ' .

21

This is then further

understood b y others as a hermeneutical tool c o n t e m p o r i s i n g J e s u s ' o w n history

in

the

light

of Mark's

presently

suffering

community.

2 2

J . S c h r e i b e r ' s distinctive v i e w is that M a r k ' s u s e o f 6 d o g is redactional t h r o u g h o u t and s e r v e s to unite the cross and exaltation b y p r e s e n t i n g J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y as a j o u r n e y l e a d i n g to a royal e n t h r o n e m e n t T e m p l e and c r u c i f i x i o n .

23

B y interpreting Christ's life as an anabasis

in the o f the

r e d e e m e r h e seeks to explain w h y J e s u s c o m e s to J e r u s a l e m only o n c e .

2 4

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , W . H . K e l b e r argues that M a r k c o m b i n e s his 6 6 d c ; - m o t i f w i t h a n o t h e r redactional t h e m e , n a m e l y , ' e n t r a n c e into the k i n g d o m o f 25

G o d ' (9:47; 10:15, 2 3 , 2 4 , 25 cf. 9 : 1 , 4 3 , 4 5 ; 1 0 : 1 5 ) ; w h i c h t e r m i n o l o g y h e argues derives from the D e u t e r o n o m i c phrase o f 'entering into the l a n d ' (LXX: D t 1:8; 4 : 1 ; 6:18; 1 6 : 2 0 ) .

26

O n this basis, not only is the odog

theme in

8:27 - 1 0 : 5 2 m o d e l e d o n the E x o d u s 66os'-journey into the p r o m i s e d land, but M a r k ' s use o f kv TTJ 66(3 is intended to draw attention to the section as the e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e N E ' W a y ' s p o k e n o f in l : 2 f w i t h its citation o f ,

E x o d u s 23:20 and repetition o f 66os -terminology

2 7

Swartley also affirms the p r o g r a m m a tic function o f M a r k l : 2 f and the Exodus-journey o f the ' W a y ' section but notes further that the a b u n d a n t use of

e^cpxojiai

entrance-motifs.

and

ciacpxojiai

is suggestive o f Israel's E x o d u s - and

H e observes in particular that the E x o d u s account and

M a r k ' s Transfiguration are b o t h b r a c k e t e d with ' e n t r a n c e - f o r m u l a s ' (Ex 23:23-33; 33:1-3; M k 9 : 1 , 43-47), and finds an E x o d u s e c h o in M a r k 9 : l ' s statement

that o n l y s o m e o f the p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n w o u l d

p r o m i s e d l a n d (a s o m e w h a t intriguing e x a m p l e ) . J. A. Z i e s l e r 2

1

2

2

2

3

2 9

28

s e e the

H e favourably cites

w h o in analysing the T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n / S i n a i m o t i f observes

E . g . L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v ' , 2 4 f ; S c h w e i z e r , 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 f , 3 8 5 ; P e r r i n , 'Gattung', ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , Following', passim-, a n d M e y e , Twelve, 73ff.

6; Best,

W e i s s , ' E k k l e s i o l o g i e ' , 4 2 5 ; R e p l o h , Lehrer, 9 6 , 1 0 7 , 1 4 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 6 . Theologie, 190ff, a n d B e s t ' s c r i t i q u e , Discipleship, 17. Gundry's rebuttal (based on odog in 2 : 2 3 ) , 4 4 2 , o f S c h r e i b e r ' s c l a i m t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t d e p i c t J e s u s o n a j o u r n e y b e f o r e 8 : 2 7 s e e m s o v e r d r a w n in t h a t it is t h e d i s c i p l e s w h o a r e specifically m e n t i o n e d 2

4

2

5

2

6

2

7

2

8

2

9

Schreiber, 'Christologie', 171. ' P a r o u s i a ' , 108ff; Kingdom, 67ff. After W i n d i s c h , 'Spriiche'. ' P a r o u s i a ' , 1 0 9 ; Kingdom, 67ff, f o l l o w i n g A m b r o z i c , 19f. Cf. B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 6 f f ; Following, 15. 'Function', 80; following Kelber, 'Parousia', 140. ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' , 2 6 5 f f ; b u t e a r l i e r , H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 5 f f ; cf. M a u s e r , 1 1 1 - 1 8 ; C h i l t o n , ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' , 120ff; L a n e , w h o a l s o s e e s M k 9 : 2 - 8 r e l a t i n g t o M k 14:1 - 1 6 : 8 a s

The

'Way':

127

8:22/27-10:45/11:1

the parallel t h e m e s o f the m o u n t a i n setting ( M k 9:2; E x 24:12-15), the six d a y s ( M k 9:2; E x 2 4 : 1 6 ) ,

30

M o s e s and J e s u s b o t h taking three

along (Mk 9:2; E x 24:1-9), a v o i c e w h i c h c o m e s from the

c l o u d ( M k 9:7; E x 2 4 : 1 6 ) , and (less convincingly) an e n s u i n g about

OKT)VCL{

( M k 9:5; E x 3 4 : 2 9 - 3 5 ) .

individuals

overshadowing discussion

S w a r t l e y a d d s the t h e m e o f t h e

glistening countenances o f both Jesus and M o s e s ( M k 9:7; E x 34:29-35) and notes that in b o t h accounts the voice c o m e s from the cloud o n the seventh day.

3 1

Jesus'

encounter

with

the

epileptic

boy

following

the

Transfiguration reflects M o s e s ' confrontation with idolatrous Israel ( M k 9:19 yeved

amaToc;).

3 2

O t h e r s h a v e suggested parallels b e t w e e n M o s e s '

d i s c o u r s e o n m a r r i a g e (Dt 2 4 ) , its location (Dt l : l f f ) , a n d the

divorce

controversy w h i c h follows the Transfiguration (Mk 10:2-12, cf. 10:1, eig TCL opm

TTIC;

'Iou6aiac;

[KCLI] iidpav

TOU

' I o p 6 a v o u ) , and b e t w e e n Israel's final

arrival at J e r i c h o a n d M a r k ' s distinctive statement that J e s u s ' c a m e into Jericho'.

3 3

S w a r t l e y , p r o p o s i n g that E x o d u s t y p o l o g y and

materials alternate t h r o u g h o u t 8:27 - 1 0 : 5 2

3 4 /

discipleship

concludes that ' M a r k presents

in this s e c t i o n o f his G o s p e l " T h e W a y o f D i s c i p l e s h i p (Suffering

and

I s a 5 2 : 1 3 - 1 5 p r e c e d e s I s a 5 3 : 1 - 1 2 ( t h e r e is, h o w e v e r , little i n t h e t e x t t o j u s t i f y t h i s supposition); H u r t a r d o ; H o o k e r , 'What?'; also Pesch; Gnilka; Schweizer, w h o sees E x o d u s 2 4 a s influential; pace T a y l o r , 386ff; a n d C r a n f i e l d , 2 9 3 , w h o a p p e a r s t o r e g a r d h i s t o r i c i t y a n d s y m b o l i s m as m u t u a l l y exclusive. Kelber's attempt, 72-83, t o set the Sinai story at o d d s w i t h h i s K i n g d o m t h e o l o g y fails t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e first w o r d o f G o d t o M o s e s w h e n I s r a e l arrives at Sinai c o n c e r n s their being a k i n g d o m of priests a n d a holy nation. E x 19:6. T h e transfiguration h a s also b e e n variously interpreted as: an anticipation of the parousia, ( L o h m e y e r , 1 7 2 f f ; B o o b y e r , Transfiguration; but see Riesenfeld's criticisms. Transfigure, 2 9 3 - 9 8 ) ; a s J e s u s ' e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e n t h r o n e m e n t a s M e s s i a h ( R i e s e n f e l d , Transfigure; appeal i n g t o t h e F e a s t o f T a b e r n a c l e s a n d its s u p p o s e d a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h a p o s t u l a t e d E n t h r o n e m e n t F e s t i v a l ; cf. S m i t h , ' T a b e r n a c l e s ' ; a n d F a r r e r , Study, 2 1 4 , w h o d o e s n o t h o w e v e r m e n t i o n a n enthronement); as prefiguring Jesus' glory at the Resurrection (Thrall, 'Transfiguration'); o r a m i s p l a c e d r e s u r r e c t i o n a p p e a r a n c e ( B u l t m a n n , History, 259ff; C a r l s t o n , ' T r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ' ; b u t s e e e.g. B o o b y e r , Transfiguration, 11-16; and Dodd, 'Appearances'). 3

0

3

1

3

2

Cf. M c C u r l e y , 'Six', a l t h o u g h h i s t h e s i s t h a t t h e p h r a s e is m e r e l y a l i t e r a r y d e v i c e fails t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e o t h e r S i n a i a l l u s i o n s . 'Function', 8 0 . F a r r e r , Mark, 1 1 0 ; H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 5 f . F a r r e r , Mark, 1 1 3 f ; H o b b s , ' G o s p e l ' , 4 7 f . 'Function', 82: Unit: E x o d u s / E n t r a n c e Typology Discipleship materials 1 8:27-30 Common introductory paragraph. 8:27-30 2 8:31-38 3 9:1-29 4 9:30-41 5 9:43 - 1 0 : 3 1 6 10:32-45 7 10:46-52 Common concluding paragraph. 10:46-52 3

3

3

4

128

Mark's

Literary

Structure

Cross) that L e a d s to the (Promised L a n d ) K i n g d o m o f G o d " ' . his recent w o r k on the subject, while affirming the popular

3 5

M a r c u s , in

understanding

of M a r k ' s redactional use of 666c; in this section, also goes o n to argue that it ought to b e u n d e r s t o o d in terms of Deutero-Isaiah's presentation.

Thus

M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section is not ' a b o u t the h u m a n w a y to the p a a i X c i a but rather about G o d ' s w a y , which is his p a a i X c i a , his o w n extension of kingly power'.

3 6

N e v e r t h e l e s s , R. H . G u n d r y has recently l a u n c h e d a root and b r a n c h attack on t h e w h o l e idea o f there b e i n g a c o h e s i v e '666$'

section.

37

respect to t h e t e r m i n o l o g y h e argues that a survey o f M a r k ' s u s e o f

With 666$

across the w h o l e G o s p e l does not support the idea o f a special theological s e n s e in 8 : 2 7 - 1 0 : 5 2 , n o r is there is any link b e t w e e n the ' w a y ' in l : 2 f and 8:27 - 10:52 since the o n e concerns the w a y of repentance and the other the w a y of the cross.

N e i t h e r is it M a r k ' s ' d e v i c e for m o v i n g J e s u s from

G a l i l e e t o w a r d J e r u s a l e m for t h e C r u c i f i x i o n ' s i n c e n o t o n l y is J e s u s initially h e a d i n g n o r t h but J e r u s a l e m is n o t m e n t i o n e d as the goal until 10:1. Instead, 666c; m e a n s 'simply the road on w h i c h an event takes p l a c e ' irrespective of the 'direction or destination' of travel.

38

Furthermore,

against this b e i n g a ' W a y ' o f suffering discipleship in w h i c h the ' b l i n d ' disciples' e y e s are ' o p e n e d ' to the true nature o f following J e s u s , G u n d r y argues that A ) the frequent presence o f c r o w d s undercuts a n y notion o f a 39

'private ecclesiastical teaching' (e.g. 8:34 - 9:1; 9:14-27; 10:1-9, 1 3 - 1 6 ) ; B ) the c o m m o n l y a c c e p t e d p r e d i c t i o n - i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n - i n s t r u c t i o n triads (8:31 9 : 1 ; 9:30-37; 10:32-45) constitute o n l y o n e q u a r t e r o f t h e total m a t e r i a l w h i c h militates against them playing a determinative role and in any case portents o f J e s u s ' death are found both before and after the so-called ' W a y ' section (e.g. 3:6, 2 1 ; 6 : 4 , 1 7 - 2 9 and 1 4 : 8 , 1 7 - 2 5 , and 41-42), as are statements of 40

the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:13, 4 0 ; 6:52; 7:18; 8 : 1 3 - 2 1 ) ; C ) the kv Tfj 66(3 language itself is not in fact associated with the standard three passion predictions: it occurs in 8:27 before 8:31ff, it does not occur in 9:9-13 w h i c h o u g h t also to b e c o n s i d e r e d a p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n (militating s o m e w h a t 3

5

3

6

Ibid. Way, 3 3 . U n l i k e S w a r t l e y , M a r c u s h a s g i v e n d u e w e i g h t t o M a r k ' s i n t r o d u c t o r y citation. 3

7

3

8

3

9

4

0

Especially, 440-42, 5 9 7 , 1047. 442,1047. 440. 440f

The

'Way':

129

8:22/27-10:45/11:1

against G u n d r y ' s point ( B ) ) , in 9:33f it concerns the disciples' dispute not J e s u s ' passion, and in 10:32 it is linked with the crowd o f pilgrims, not the disciples);

41

D ) the 'healing of the b l i n d ' miracles cannot b e seen as u n i q u e

on the grounds of standing alone—if indeed they do (8:22-26 stands beside 7:24 - 8:21)—since the m i r a c l e in 9:14-29 is also s i m i l a r l y isolated, a n d neither do they s y m b o l i s e the disciples' blindness since the o n l y reference to such a blindness occurs in 8:18, which is outside the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ;

42

and

finally, E ) the continued i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the disciples not only w h i l e on the ' W a y ' (8:32-33; 9 : 6 , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 8 , 2 7 , 3 2 , 33-34, 38-45; 10:10,13-14, 2 4 - 2 6 , 3 5 38) but also after it—one betrays Jesus, and all but o n e of the others flee for their lives a n d h e r e m a i n s o n l y to deny Jesus—flies in the face o f a n y symbolic healing or ' w a y o f discipleship' motif in which the disciples c o m e to realise the true nature o f J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p .

43

What can b e said in response to this impressive array? First, as is clear from the preceding discussion, the proponents of a ' W a y ' theology

have

,

always recognised that M a r k uses 66ds -terminology outside the so-called ' W a y ' section. Their argument, however, h a s been cast in terms of M a r k ' s redactional interest, s o m e t h i n g to which G u n d r y d o e s not really respond. Nevertheless, leaving aside the c o m p l e x p r o b l e m o f discerning redaction in M a r k and s i m p l y taking the text as it stands (which is, after all, w h a t M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e h e a r d or r e a d ) , t h e e v i d e n c e is n o t as straightforward

as G u n d r y

suggests.

Granted

that

various

6 dog

constructions appear throughout Mark, the phrase kv TTJ 66(3 is in fact onlyused o f J e s u s w h e n h e and his disciples travel together in 8:27; 9:33f; 10:32, 34; and, d e p e n d i n g o n h o w o n e u n d e r s t a n d s B a r t i m a e u s , in 10:52.

Even

11:8 m a y b e i n c l u d e d h e r e s i n c e it c o n c e r n s the c o n c l u s i o n o f J e s u s ' journey proper

as h e a r r i v e s in J e r u s a l e m .

W h i l e t h i s is

hardly

conclusive, it is still noteworthy that although Jesus and his disciples h a v e b e e n j o u r n e y i n g together a great deal since the b e g i n n i n g o f the G o s p e l , Mark nowhere

u s e s this p a r t i c u l a r

phraseology

of those journeys,

apparently reserving it for the materials associated with the ' W a y ' section. Second, Gundry's

proposed

contradiction between

the

'way

of

repentance' and the ' w a y o f the c r o s s ' is problematic, not least b e c a u s e the

4 1

4

2

4

3

442,1047. 597. 597,442.

130

Mark's

Literary

Structure

former is in fact the w a y o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g (one repents to prepare for it). A n d the contrast between the two is indeed quite the point. Far from dichotomising the two 'ways', Mark's wonderful

i r o n y , as his e a r l y

Christology and subsequent triadic passion predictions c o m b i n e to s h o w , is that the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g in triumphal deliverance o f his people turns out to b e n o t h i n g other than the s c a n d a l o u s ' w a y ' o f J e s u s to the cross (see C h a p t e r 8 ) . Finally, G u n d r y ' s observation that J e r u s a l e m is not mentioned as the goal until well into the ' w a y ' section is correct and ought to b e n o t e d .

B u t this is b e c a u s e the ' w a y ' is not primarily the ' w a y ' to

J e r u s a l e m per se as it is a statement, from the perspective o f this b o o k , of the true n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E w a y o f restoring his p e o p l e (again see C h a p t e r 8 ) . E v e n allowing this, however, G u n d r y ' s rejection o f J e r u s a l e m as goal s e e m s too adamant.

G i v e n that M a r k ' s G o s p e l is p r o b a b l y not a

theological s u p e r n o v a c o m i n g out o f the b l u e to his c o m m u n i t y , it is not too difficult to i m a g i n e that they k n o w o f his destination and w o u l d h a v e seen in J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion and death the deepening s h a d o w cast b y w h a t they k n o w awaits J e s u s in J e r u s a l e m . A n d o f course, o n c e e v e n the first-time reader reaches J e r u s a l e m with Jesus, realisation soon d a w n s as to w h e r e this j o u r n e y has b e e n heading all along. This is even m o r e likely g i v e n the framing effect o f the o n l y t w o ' h e a l i n g o f s i g h t ' miracles, and M a r k ' s particular use o f kv TTJ 66(3 phraseology. W e m a y n o w consider G u n d r y ' s arguments directed specifically against a 'way o f discipleship' theology. A ) Granted that the presence o f the crowds u n d e r c u t s a n y c l a i m that the ' W a y ' is e x c l u s i v e l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the private teaching o f the disciples, the fact remains that the great bulk o f the material is c o n c e r n e d with their private instruction (8:27 - 9:13; 9:30-50; 10:23-45; e v e n the p u b l i c 9:14-17 is directed t o w a r d t h e d i s c i p l e s ; the p r e s e n c e o f n a r r a t i v e s e e m s a non-issue).

T h i s a p p e a r s to constitute a

significant shift from the e m p h a s i s in earlier sections.

B ) Pace

Gundry,

w h a t gives the prediction-incomprehension-instruction triads their signif icance is n o t p r i m a r i l y their b u l k , a l t h o u g h it is not insignificant, b u t rather

their

repetition,

their

obvious

literary

structure,

and

their

placement especially given the close conjunction of the first and third with the framing 'healing o f sight' miracles. Further, w h i l e G u n d r y is right in noting portents o f J e s u s ' death elsewhere, these are hardly c o m p a r a b l e to t h e e x t e n t of, a n d

the c o m p o s i t i o n a l a r t i s t r y e v i d e n t in, t h e

three

The

c o m m o n l y accepted triads.

'Way:

131

8:22/27-10:45/11:1

(The incomprehension issue is taken up in ( E )

below). C ) Granted iv TTJ 66C3 language, as far as it concerns J e s u s and his disciples travelling together, m a y not occur precisely within the first t w o passion predictions per se (8:31-33; 9:30-32—it is in 10:32-34), nevertheless, they are v e r y closely aligned with or integral to the p a s s i o n prediction triads as w h o l e s .

A l t h o u g h G u n d r y states that 8:27 p r e c e d e s a p a s s i o n

prediction, h e later a r g u e s that verses 31ff are 'not ... a n e w p e r i c o p e '

4 4

which tends to undercut his earlier point. T h e other occurrences, 9 : 3 3 / 3 4 , are also integral to the s e c o n d passion prediction, b e i n g found in the s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n w h i c h d e a l s with t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Finally, 10:32 is in fact speaking o f the disciples and Jesus and not pilgrims generally s i n c e the i m p l i e d p r o n o u n (r\oav) verses 28-31 but leads naturally into the

auTotc;

is n o t only r e s u m p t i v e o f of verse 23b.

D)

G u n d r y is

right in arguing that the uniqueness of the 'healing o f the b l i n d ' miracles cannot b e sustained on the grounds that they 'stand alone'. H o w e v e r , that they are the only t w o such miracles in the w h o l e w o r k and that they are so closely linked to the first and last o f the passion prediction triads, suggests that they h a v e a significant structural role in M a r k ' s Gospel. This is e v e n m o r e so g i v e n the e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s ' teaching o f his disciples in this section—especially

concerning

his

passion—and

the

metaphorical

association o f sight and w i s d o m and understanding (see Chapter 8 ) . E ) A s to t h e d i s c i p l e s ' c o n t i n u e d i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , G u n d r y is, in m y v i e w , correct. But this hardly excludes the idea of a ' w a y o f suffering disciple ship': after all the disciples d o follow Jesus. M o r e to the point is that the ' w a y ' of the I N E involves not only a confession that J e s u s is at least the Christ, but also a recognition that h e must suffer and die—which coheres exactly with G u n d r y ' s a r g u m e n t that M a r k ' s p u r p o s e is to w a r n against b e i n g scandalised b y the cross—something w h i c h the disciples h a v e n o t yet grasped.

T h e role o f the inclusio 'healings of sight' is to highlight the

need for this extra 'sight' (i.e. w i s d o m ) that the disciples clearly h a v e not yet attained and apparently do not at least until after the resurrection. Finally then, w h e t h e r or not all of the observations o f those w h o see a ' W a y ' section are accepted, taken together they provide strong indications of a redactional unity in w h i c h the several concerns o f w i s d o m / t e a c h i n g

4

4

445.

132

Mark's

Literary

Structure

and j o u r n e y (quite possibly with E x o d u s / N E imagery) are c o m b i n e d . n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f this a s s e s s m e n t is that J e r u s a l e m a n d h a p p e n s there is the climax to which the 'journey' m o v e s . b) Galilee

and

A

what

4 5

Jerusalem

T h e fairly obvious polarity between Galilee and Jerusalem led E. L o h m e y e r and R. H. Lightfoot to posit their geographical t h e o l o g y . that the technical term

Knpu

46

Lightfoot notes

aato, with its associations o f the in-breaking

K i n g d o m o f G o d , does not appear in the J e r u s a l e m section (apart from 13:10 a n d 14:9 w h e r e it c o n c e r n s the future m i s s i o n a r y activity o f the disciples), and so h e concludes that from M a r k ' s point of view: T h e d e s p i s e d a n d m o r e o r less o u t l a w e d G a l i l e e is s h e w n t o h a v e b e e n c h o s e n b y G o d as the s e a t of the g o s p e l a n d of the revelation of the Son of m a n , while the s a c r e d city of J e r u s a l e m , the h o m e of J e w i s h piety a n d patriotism, h a s b e c o m e the c e n t r e of r e l e n t l e s s h o s t i l i t y a n d sin. s c e n e o n l y of r e j e c t i o n

4

G a l i l e e is t h e s p h e r e o f r e v e l a t i o n , J e r u s a l e m is t h e

7

G a l i l e e is seen as the p l a c e o f the m i g h t y d e e d s , the h o m e o f J e s u s ' disciples, the place o f his acceptance, w h e r e the resurrection

appearances

are to occur, while Jerusalem is the site o f the rebellion against the S o M , it is where J e s u s ' e n e m i e s c o m e from, and the place of the c r o s s .

48

It is doubtful, h o w e v e r , that the ' G a l i l e e - J e r u s a l e m ' distinction is so clear-cut.

49

T. A . Burkill observes that revelation also takes place in the

J u d e a n desert n e a r the J o r d a n , w h i c h is in fact the p l a c e w h e r e fulfilment begins (l:4f; cf. 1:11 and 9 : 7 ) .

50

Granted the absence of

divine

Kripuaao)

after 7:36, it is nevertheless questionable if m u c h should b e m a d e o f this since it is o n l y u s e d of J e s u s ' ministry in 1:14, 3 8 f a n d 4 5 .

The two

occurrences in 3:14 and 6:12 concerning the disciples m a y well have future missionary implications, and while it appears with s o m e miracle stories (1:45; 5:20; 7:36) it is missing from the majority (1:31; 2:12; 3:6; 5:34; 7:30; 8:26; 9:29), w h i c h s u g g e s t s that its a b s e n c e from 10:52 is not o f great

4

5

4

6

P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' ; K e l b e r , passim, e s p e c i a l l y n o t e s t h e s e n s e o f m o v e m e n t . T h e s a m e d u a l i t y i n f o r m s M a r x s e n ; C a r r i n g t o n , Primitive; K e l b e r , Oral; B o r i n g , ' B e g i n n i n g ' , 4 6 ; a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , F r e y n e , Galilee, 3 3 - 6 8 , w h o , w i t h m o r e j u s t i f i c a t i o n , contrasts the Galilean disciples with the J e r u s a l e m scribes. L i g h t f o o t , Locality, 1 2 4 f ; cf. L o h m e y e r , Galilaa, 5ff. M a u s e r , 9 3 f ; L o h m e y e r , Galilaa; M a r x s e n , 4 1 . S e e e s p e c i a l l y S t e m b e r g e r , 'Galilee'; a l s o F a w , ' O u t l i n e ' . 252ff. N o t e , t o o , t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y s a y J e s u s first b e g a n t o p r e a c h in Galilee, o n l y t h a t J e s u s c a m e t o G a l i l e e after J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t . 4

7

4

8

4

9

5

0

Galilee

significance.

51

and

133

Jerusalem

O n the other hand, 6i6daKO) which occurs in 4:1 also appears

in the region o f J u d e a (10:1) and Jerusalem (12:35; cf. 11:18), and the great crowds which are attracted b y J e s u s ' mighty words and deeds include both Judeans and those from Jerusalem (3:7f). Galilee is also the s c e n e o f considerable opposition. stories of 2:1 - 3:6 r e s e m b l e t h o s e in 1 2 : 1 3 - 4 4 . patriae

52

T h e controversy

J e s u s is rejected in his

(6:l-6a) and an apparent parallel is d r a w n in 3:20-35 b e t w e e n the

i m p e r c e p t i o n o f J e s u s ' family a n d that o f the scribes ( a d m i t t e d l y from Jerusalem) w h o , along with the Pharisees, again confront J e s u s in 7:1-23 (cf. 8 : l l f ) .

O n the o t h e r h a n d , J e s u s ' t r i u m p h a l e n t r y into J e r u s a l e m

occasions a tumultuous w e l c o m e (ll:8ff), his teaching appears both equally impressive and well-received (11:18, cf. 1:27; 2:12), such is J e s u s ' popularity that the hostile leadership are afraid to m o v e against h i m (11:18; 12:12; 14:2), and the ' e m p t y t o m b ' is situated in the e n v i r o n s o f J e r u s a l e m .

5 3

Admittedly, the crowd b e c o m e s antagonistic in 15:13f, but this is because o f the action o f the religious leaders (15:11).

Burkill is, therefore, correct in

recognising that J e r u s a l e m is only associated with hostility to the e x t e n t that it is the seat of the religious authorities.

Finally, it is true that J e s u s

does n o major miracle in J e r u s a l e m itself apart from cursing the fig tree, but in view o f the foregoing discussion this will need to b e explained in terms other than Lightfoot's revelation-rejection generalisation. E v e n in g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s the designation ' G a l i l e e ' is n o t entirely accurate.

G r a n t e d that m o s t o f J e s u s ' activity occurs within this region,

nevertheless there are sojourns that include the Decapolis (7:31), Tyre and S i d o n (7:24, 3 1 ) , and in the L o h m e y e r / L i g h t f o o t structure, J u d e a and beyond Jordan (10:1).

54

T h e s e visits on their o w n w o u l d not p e r h a p s b e

significant w e r e it n o t for the striking s a y i n g to the S y r o p h o e n i c i a n w o m a n at the outset o f these travels in 7:24-30. This must surely raise the question as to w h a t J e s u s is doing in these regions given that h e is n o t concerned with reaching Gentiles qua Gentiles? J e s u s ' statement, together with

5 1

5

2

5

3

5

4

L. E. Elliott-Binns' ample

demonstration

of

the

Pace L i g h t f o o t , Locality, 1 1 7 f ; s e e S t o n e h o u s e , 43ff. B u r k i l l , 253ff; D e w e y , 41ff, 163ff; S e r g e a n t , Lion, 4 5 . Stonehouse, 40-49. S t o n e h o u s e , 2 8 f ; M a l b o n , 'Galilee'; S t e m b e r g e r , 'Galilee', 4 1 5 - 2 1 .

unshakeable

134

Mark's

Literary

Structure

55

J e w i s h n e s s o f the G a l i l e a n s , m a k e s the theory that Galilee is primarily a symbol o f the Gentile world equally u n t e n a b l e .

56

Clearly, the simple designation 'Galilee' is inaccurate. B u t w h a t then is the rubric

under which

t h e three-fold

schema of movement

from

' " G a l i l e e " ' , along the ' W a y ' , to 'Jerusalem', is to b e understood?

III. Mark's Isaianic NE W e have already noted the suggestion b y several scholars that the use of 666$

in M a r k l : 2 f h a s a p r o g r a m m a t i c role with regard to M a r k ' s ' W a y '

section.

T h i s observation is further s u p p o r t e d in that the E x o d u s 23:20-

M a l a c h i 3:1 c o m p l e x (bearing in m i n d M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t presentation o f J o h n as M a l a c h i ' s Elijah) is consistent w i t h the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f J e s u s ' activity w i t h i n the T e m p l e and his p u r g i n g it as his first major act on reaching the city. Further, just as the goal o f Y a h w e h ' s ' W a y ' in Isaiah is J e r u s a l e m — a l t h o u g h c o m b i n e d with w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s (see C h a p t e r 8)—and in M a l a c h i the T e m p l e , so too for J e s u s in M a r k .

W . R. Telford

proposes that J e s u s ' symbolic act of cursing the fig tree, bracketing as it does the cleansing o f the T e m p l e , is the fulfilment o f the threat in Malachi 4:5f and suggests in passing its connection with M a r k ' s introductory M a l a c h i 3:1 q u o t e .

57

Telford is, I think, correct here (see Chapter 9 ) : Elijah has been

sent and rejected ( M k 9:12), the outcome can only be purging judgement. It m a y n o t b e u n i m p o r t a n t , therefore, that M a r k ' s J e s u s b e g i n s his ministry at the v e r y m o m e n t o f J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y as the leaders' response to J o h n is the central issue in the o p e n i n g panel o f the J e r u s a l e m confrontations (11:27-33).

Significantly, this confrontation is

preceded b y c u r s i n g / c l e a n s i n g (11:12-25) and followed b y the thinly veiled threat in the vineyard parable (12:1-12). T h e implication o f M a r k 1:2, that

5

5

5

6

5

7

E l l i o t t - B i n n s , Galilee, 1 3 , 2 5 ; M a y e r , ' A n f a n g ' ; F r e y n e , ' G a l i l e a n ' . Pace B o o b y e r , ' G a l i l e e ' ; E v a n s , ' G a l i l e e ' ; S c h r e i b e r , Theologie, 170-80; Swartley, 'Study'. A p p e a l s t o I s a 8 : 2 3 w o u l d b e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g if M a r k g a v e s o m e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e h a d it in m i n d . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , w h i l e 1 4 : 2 8 a n d 1 6 : 7 m a y reflect J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e t o h i s r e j e c t i o n in J e r u s a l e m , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , g i v e n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s ' G a l i l e e ' h a s w i t h i n t h e N E s c h e m a , t h a t it m a y a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t e d J e s u s a s t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r is t o c o n t i n u e t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h e c a p t i v e s t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f h i s d i s c i p l e s , cf. L i g h t f o o t , Gospel, 1 1 6 ; C a r r i n g t o n , Primitive, 88. Barren, 1 6 3 . D o d d , According, 71, h a d earlier suggested that the p u r g i n g of the T e m p l e m i g h t b e in m i n d in t h e u s e o f M a i 3 : 1 ; cf. L a n e , 4 0 5 ; S t o c k , Call, 3 3 .

Mark's

Isaianic

New

135

Exodus

J e s u s is to b e identified in s o m e w a y with the personal manifestation o f Y a h w e h ' s j u d g i n g p r e s e n c e , a p p e a r s to b e confirmed b y his i m m e d i a t e action on reaching J e r u s a l e m .

5 8

It might b e objected that t h e threat o f

c o m i n g to the T e m p l e is not explicitly stated in M a r k 1 : 2 .

59

But as a

n u m b e r o f scholars h a v e noted, the technique o f quoting the first section of a v e r s e w h i l e t h e latter unstated section is actually in m i n d is n o t u n c o m m o n in rabbinic w r i t i n g s .

60

O n the o t h e r h a n d , g i v e n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e t h e

programmatic

function o f t h e M a l a c h i 3:1 a l l u s i o n , it m a y b e p o s s i b l e that

Mark's

e m p h a s i s o n I s a i a h ' s N E , not o n l y in his introductory O T citation b u t throughout the prologue, might also b e reflected in the broad structure o f his Gospel. A s w e h a v e argued, Isaiah's N E schema involves three stages: A ) Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his exiled people from the p o w e r o f the nations and their idols; B ) the j o u r n e y along the ' W a y ' in w h i c h Y a h w e h leads his p e o p l e from their captivity a m o n g the nations; C ) arrival in J e r u s a l e m , the place of his presence, w h e r e Y a h w e h is enthroned in a gloriously restored Zion. At first sight this appears to b e reflected in the simplicity of M a r k ' s basic literary outline w h i c h c o m p r i s e s ' J e s u s ' ministry in Galilee a n d B e y o n d ' (1:16 - 8 : 2 1 / 2 6 ) , the ' W a y ' ( 8 : 2 2 / 2 7 - 1 0 : 4 5 / 5 2 ) , and 'Jerusalem' ( 1 0 : 4 6 / 1 1 : 1 16:8).

61

H o w e v e r , it is important to r e m e m b e r that this is not a matter o f a

straightforward

national-geographical

(i.e. J e w / G e n t i l e ) e q u i v a l e n c e

between M a r k ' s so-called 'Galilee' section and Isaiah's 'nations'. N o r can it b e a purely geographical opposition between receptive Galilee and resistant Jerusalem.

R a t h e r , M a r k ' s p o i n t o f contact lies in the nature

actions vis-a-vis

of Jesus'

Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his p e o p l e from the p o w e r s o f

the nations and their i d o l s .

62

T h e only geographical consideration is that

this happens, as in the I N E , outside o f Jerusalem. T h a t J e s u s ' delivering actions are n o t confined merely to Galilee is, therefore, exactly in keeping 5

8

5

9

Pace, K u m m e l , Promise, 1 1 8 n 5 3 . A r e n s ' a r g u m e n t , HAOON, t h a t t h e T I A 0 O V s a y i n g s h a v e m e s s i a n i c i m p l i c a t i o n s m a y w e l l b e justified; cf. H u g h e s , ' J o h n ' . G o u l d , Mark, 5 , n o t e s b u t d o e s n o t d e v e l o p t h e t h r e a t e l e m e n t . C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 5 9 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 1 ; M a r c u s , 2 0 0 ; cf. D o d d , According, 1 2 6 f . Koch, 'Gliederung', h a s already suggested the compatibility of Mark's geographical and thematic interests. I.e. t h e d i a s p o r a , b u t w h i c h n o w i n c l u d e s d e l i v e r a n c e f o r both J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , pace B o o b y e r , 'Galilee'; E v a n s , 'Galilee'; a n d S w a r t l e y w h o f o c u s o n G e n t i l e s o n l y . 6

0

6

1

6

2

136

Mark's

Literary

Structure

with the idea of an Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r at w o r k a m o n g a J e w i s h (cf. M k 7:24-30) diaspora.

Similarly, M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section is, at least on the

surface, c o m p a t i b l e with the j o u r n e y o f I s a i a h ' s N E ' W a y ' , and in both cases J e r u s a l e m is the g o a l .

63

If M a r k has b e e n consciously following this pattern, w e should expect to find parallels b e t w e e n the activities associated with a given section of the I s a i a n i c N E s c h e m a and its e q u i v a l e n t in the G o s p e l . consideration o f possible correlations that w e n o w turn.

6

3

See n o w also M a r c u s , 33-41.

It is to a

Chapter 6: Jesus as Yahweh-Warrior and Israel's NE Healer and Provider in Mark 1:16-8:21/26 In keeping with the INE motif, Mark presents Jesus' deliverance of those in bondage to the demons as the equivalent of both the Yahweh-Warrior's and the enigmatic 'servant's' deliverance of the Isaian captive. Similarly, Jesus' healing of the blind, deaf/dumb and lame, his forgiveness of sins, and his feeding of the multitudes signals the inauguration of the Isaianic NE.

I. Introduction In the previous Chapter, building on our estimation o f the importance o f the Isaianic N E prophecies for the Markan prologue, w e suggested that the parallels b e t w e e n the N E s c h e m a and the structure o f the G o s p e l are the result o f M a r k ' s conscious attempt to interpret Jesus within an Isaianic N E framework.

T h e purpose o f this Chapter is to test this hypothesis

further

b y assessing to w h a t degree, if any, correlations exist b e t w e e n the first c o m p o n e n t o f the N E s c h e m a , that is, Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his exiled people from the p o w e r o f the nations and their idols, and J e s u s ' activities in the first major section o f Mark. Although I do not intend to undertake a detailed comparative study of the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m i r a c l e s in M a r k a n d o t h e r t r a d i t i o n s o f the period,

1

several points should b e noted.

NT

In his analysis o f the so-called

pre-Markan miracle catenae, Paul Achtemeier states that 'any discussion o f "signs and w o n d e r s " related to J e w i s h traditions m u s t b e g i n w i t h the figure o f M o s e s ' , and that ' t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f the E x o d u s a n d o f the messianic t i m e is seen in typological relation with the desert

wandering

2

Although

on o c c a s i o n s e r v i n g as a p r o t o t y p e o f the m e s s i a n i c t i m e ' .

1

S e e for e x a m p l e K e e , Miracle, Medicine; a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios. ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 2 ; cf. T i e d e , Charismatic, 178ff. T h e p o s i t i o n t a k e n h e r e is t h a t t h e O T p r o v i d e s the p r i m a r y ' h o r i z o n ' for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the G o s p e l s ' p r e s e n t a t i o n of Jesus' m i r a c l e s , cf. e.g. M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , 5f, a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios, w h o n o t e s h o w w e l l m a n y o f Jesus' miracles correlate to activities otherwise the sole prerogative of Y a h w e h . A c h t e m e i e r b u i l d s o n M e e k s ' a r g u m e n t in Prophet-King that J o s e p h u s , a n d especially 2

138

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

heading in t h e right d i r e c t i o n g i v e n t h e p r i o r i t y o f I s r a e l ' s

founding

moment, attempts to fit M a r k into a first E x o d u s m o d e l w e r e not as w e have seen convincing, and in any case fail to take sufficient account o f the NE traditions in the prophets.

Furthermore, apart from the fact that both

Moses a n d J e s u s w o r k e d w o n d e r s , e v e n a c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f the former's miracles, as recorded both in the O T and in the M o s e s literature of H e l l e n i s t i c a n d

P a l e s t i n i a n J u d a i s m , r e v e a l s the d e g r e e

of

their

dissimilarity—except p e r h a p s for the feedings and, superficially, the sea crossings.

3

Likewise, although the miracles o f Elijah and Elisha apparently

influ

4

enced the popular conception o f the ' c h a r i s m a t i c ' r a b b i , similarities with any g i v e n m i r a c l e o f J e s u s are l i m i t e d .

5

N o n e o f this is to d e n y the

possible, p e r h a p s probable, influence o f M o s e s or E l i j a h / E l i s h a traditions on the a c c o u n t s o f s o m e o f J e s u s ' miracles.

T h e point, h o w e v e r , is that

several o f M a r k ' s m o r e important categories o f miracles d o not appear to be susceptible o f explanation on the basis o f either o f these traditions. This

Chapter

will

argue

that

Mark's

presentation

of

Jesus'

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s e x o r c i s m s , his a c c o u n t s o f J e s u s ' h e a l i n g s o f the blind, d e a f - m u t e ,

and

lame, of J e s u s ' pardoning

sins, and

of

miraculous feedings appear to b e cast in an Isaianic N E perspective.

the It is

interesting, therefore, that several s c h o l a r s h a v e r e g a r d e d the m i r a c l e s reported in, for e x a m p l e , 4:35 - 5:43, 6:34-44, 4 5 - 5 2 ; 7:32-37; and & 1 - 1 0 as epiphanic.

6

S u c h powerful 'self-manifestations' are entirely in k e e p i n g

with the p r o p o s a l that M a r k p r e s e n t s J e s u s as the i n a u g u r a t o r

o f the

Philo, u s e d t h e m i r a c u l o u s t o a u t h e n t i c a t e M o s e s a s a Qeiog GLVT\p ( b u t s e e T i e d e ' s c r i t i c i s m s , ibid., 237ff, a n d o n t h e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m a t i c o f Gcios* avTfp m o s t r e c e n t l y B l a c k b u r n , passim). M e e k s , Prophet-King, in d e a l i n g w i t h m i r a c l e s in J o h n m e n t i o n s n o M o s a i c c o u n t e r p a r t t o J e s u s ' h e a l i n g o f e.g. t h e b l i n d ( 9 : 1 - 1 2 ) o r t h e l a m e ( 5 : 1 - 9 ) . S e e f u r t h e r t h e e x a m p l e s c i t e d in T i e d e , Charismatic, 1 0 1 - 2 3 7 , a n d t h e ' s i g n s ' p r o m i s e d b y v a r i o u s ' p r o p h e t s ' in J o s e p h u s : Ant. 2 0 . 9 7 f ; 2 0 . 1 6 7 f f ; a n d B.J. 7A37H; cf. T h e i s s e n , Social, 6 0 ; T i e d e , Charismatic, 197ff; Smith, ' O c c u l t ' , 2 5 1 ; e s p e c . B e t z , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 2 2 6 - 3 1 , a n d Studies, 2 3 5 f , w h e r e h e p r o p o s e s ( u n s u c c e s s f u l l y in m y v i e w , s e e fn. 1 2 7 b e l o w ) t h a t J e s u s a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s c r o s s i n g t h e l a k e reflects M o s e s ' a n d Israel's j o u r n e y t h r o u g h s e a . 3

4

E . g . H o n i t h e C i r c l e - D r a w e r ( = O n i a s t h e R i g h t e o u s ) a n d H a n i n a b e n D o s a ; b. Ber. 3 4 b (cf. 1 K g s 17:91f; 1 8 : 4 2 ) ; m. Tann. 3 : 8 ; b. Taop€pa a ou T T p o a € 6 o K a ) ^ € v ; cf. M k

. . . ; S y m . , Th.:

4 : 4 1 , €(|>opTf9T|aav dpov \kiyav)

has

b e g u n to e x e c u t e a N E . A l s o , as w e h a v e seen, the i m a g e r y o f the t o m b s a n d pigs a p p e a r s to c o m e from Isaiah 6 5 : 1 - 7 — Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e to the p r e c e d i n g l a m e n t — w h e r e h e claims that w h i l e h e h a s a l l o w e d h i m s e l f to b e found, ' a s t u b b o r n and rebellious p e o p l e ' w h o 'sit a m o n g g r a v e s ' and 'eat s w i n e ' s flesh' did not seek h i m (65:lf; cf. M k 5 : 7 , 1 7 ) . It is p o s s i b l e then that M a r k has b e e n significantly influenced b y this final Isaianic lament over the delay o f the N E and Y a h w e h ' s response.

He

appeals to it in the p r o l o g u e to describe the significance o f J e s u s ' c o m i n g . H e m a y w e l l a p p e a l to it in the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y in his a c c o u n t of J e s u s ' w a r n i n g a g a i n s t b l a s p h e m y o f the Spirit. 1

3

0

1 3 1

Walking,

A n d M a r k 4:35 - 5:20's

59f, although here with respect to M t 14:22-33.

H a n s o n , Dawn,

8 7 - 8 9 ; C r o s s , Canaanite,

170.

Ultimate

163

Oppressors

'parabolic' representation o f deeds o f the 'stronger o n e ' 'midrashic' reflection on this very p a s s a g e . (d) The Ultimate

1 3 2

m a y also b e a

133

Oppressors

Recently several scholars h a v e c o m m e n t e d o n the political s y m b o l i s m o f this e x o r c i s m s e e i n g J e s u s ' e x p u l s i o n repudiation

of Roman

occupation.

1 3 4

o f ' L e g i o n ' as c o n s t i t u t i n g

a

T h e fact that R o m e w a s later

identified with swine, and that the Boar (although not a domesticated pig) w a s the e m b l e m o f the tenth legion, Fretensis, stationed in Palestine, lends tentative s u p p o r t to this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

135

T h e difficulty is that for these

commentators demonisation is seen as both symptomatic and symbolic o f political oppression and, therefore, tends to b e subordinated to political realities.

O n the other h a n d , c o n t e m p o r a r y sources indicate that certain

traditions w i t h i n J u d a i s m clearly u n d e r s t o o d

that spiritual forces w e r e

aligned with and ultimately controlled Israel's enemies (e.g. 1 Enoch 54:4-5; 1QS 4; 1 Q M , passim;

H Q M e l c h 2:4-6; Jubilees 4 8 ; T. Levi 18:12; T. Zeb. 9:8;

T. Sim. 6:6; T. Dan 5:10-13; cf. Mek. to E x 15:1; Ex. Rab. 1 : 5 ) .

136

Several N e w

Testament writers also s e e m to share the v i e w that the e n e m i e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e are at b o t t o m spiritual e v e n t h o u g h they m a k e u s e o f h u m a n agencies (Rev passim;

E p h 6:12; cf. 1 C o r 15:50; J n 1 8 : 3 6 ) .

1 3 7

It seems m o r e

likely that M a r k u n d e r s t a n d s ultimate Israel's oppressors, n o t to b e the R o m a n s w h o m J e s u s t e n d s not to attack, b u t the d e m o n s

1 3 8

—the

stark

contrast b e t w e e n the relatively flimsy chains o f h u m a n 'jailers' and the a w e s o m e m i g h t o f the d e m o n s perhaps serving to underline this point.

1

3

2

1

3

3

1

3

4

O n m i r a c l e s a s p a r a b l e s : F u l l e r , Mission, 7 3 , w h o s e e s 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 , in r e l a t i o n t o 4 : 1 3 4 , a s ' m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ... o f t h e s e c r e t o f t h e K i n g d o m ' ; K e r t e l g e , 1 2 5 f ; R i c h a r d s o n , 4 8 - 4 9 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' C a t e n a e ' , 2 7 5 ; H a w k i n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' ; D o n a h u e , ' P a r a b l e ' ; S t o c k , Call, 77,1171 9 ; H a m i l t o n , ' P a r a b l e ' ; B o u c h e r , 7 9 - 8 3 ; K o c h , Bedeutung, 1 9 3 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 60ff; B e a v i s , Audience, 157ff. O n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p a r a b l e a s a m e t a p h o r i c a l e v e n t , s e e e.g. D o d d , Parables, 1 6 ; F u n k , Language, 1 3 3 - 3 5 ; K e c k , Future, 243ff. Cf. S a h l i n , ' P e r i c o p e ' .

M u h l m a n n , Chiliasmus, 2 5 2 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 5 5 - 5 9 ; W i n k , Unmasking, 45-48; M y e r s , 1 9 0 - 9 4 , 1 4 1 - 4 3 . Cf. H o l l e n b a c h , ' J e s u s ' , 253ff. B o w m a n ' s d e n i a l , 1 4 4 , o f t h e R o m a n m i l i t a r y c o n n o t a t i o n s is m i s p l a c e d . 1

3

5

1

3

6

1

3

7

1

3

8

A n n e n , Heil, 170f. B e t z , ' H e i l i g e r ' ; S t e v e n s , ' J e s u s ' , 3 2 8 ; T i e d e , Charismatic,

188ff; W i n k , Naming,

26-

35. O n t h e s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e o f e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s t o e x o r c i s m s , H a r n a c k , 'Conflict', 1 3 1 f . L e i v e s t a d , Christ, 4 0 ; B e t z , Studies, 2 3 8 f ; P e r r i n , Kingdom, 1 7 1 . Cf. B a u e r n f e i n d , Worte, 5 4 f , w h e r e t h e d e m o n f u n c t i o n s a s t h e e n e m y o f t h e M e s s i a h . G i v e n t h e l i n k b e t w e e n i d o l a t r y a n d d e m o n s , it is t h e h o s t i l e J e w i s h l e a d e r s , if a n y o n e , w h o s e r e j e c t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s eschatological deliverer c a n be described as demonic (see further C h a p t e r 7).

164

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

In view o f the foregoing, I want to suggest that whereas in Isaiah it was the d o w n f a l l o f the n a t i o n s ' idols w h i c h w o u l d signal the c o m i n g o f deliverance, in M a r k it is the demise of the demons.

In Isaianic terms, the

' o c c u p y i n g l e g i o n s ' keeping Israel in ' e x i l e ' from her G o d are d e m o n i c . A n d furthermore,

it is J e s u s w h o , as Y a h w e h the C r e a t o r - W a r r i o r

had

done before him, delivers the prisoner while the oppressors are destroyed in the sea. It is, therefore, m o r e than a little ironic that J e s u s ' first miracle is the casting out o f an unclean spirit in a s y n a g o g u e (sacred space), the h o m e territory o f those w h o w e r e most concerned with ritual purity, and on the Sabbath (sacred t i m e ) . (e) Jew or

1 3 9

Gentile?

It is g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d that the d e m o n i a c is a G e n t i l e b e c a u s e o f the geography,

140

the presence of the pigs, the word of a d d r e s s ,

141

the dwelling

a m o n g the tombs, and fostered perhaps b y a perception o f M a r k ' s interest in the G e n t i l e m i s s i o n .

1 4 2

H o w e v e r , several lines o f indirect e v i d e n c e

raise s o m e questions about this assumption. U4R<JTOU

It is not clear that 6 Qeog T O O

is especially indicative o f a Gentile since it w a s also, apparently, a

current J e w i s h e x p r e s s i o n .

1 4 3

Similarly, although tomb-dwelling is not

w h a t o n e e x p e c t s o f a pious J e w , it does not establish the d e m o n i a c ' s nationality since it is presumably not incompatible with the d e m o n s w h o control h i m

1 4 4

and m a y simply testify to his desperate condition as does

the Prodigal's tending of pigs (Lk 15:15). Furthermore, Isaiah 65:1-7, which m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s see as the b a c k g r o u n d to this imagery, is describing

/

,

1 3 9 M y e r s , 1 4 1 ; C h i l t o n , R e p e n t a n c e , 1 5 f . T h i s i r o n y is e v e n m o r e f o r c e f u l if, a s C h i l t o n b e l i e v e s (pace S a n d e r s , Jesus, passim), it w a s ' J e s u s ' h a b i t o f t e a c h i n g a n idiosyncratic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of purity a n d sacrifice' that o c c a s i o n e d his death, 'Repentance', 17. 1

4

0

1

4

1

1

4

2

1

4

3

1

4

4

O n t h e u n c e r t a i n t y s u r r o u n d i n g b o t h t e x t a n d l o c a t i o n , A n n e n , Heil, 2 0 1 - 9 ; B a a r d a , 'Gadarenes'; Guelich. A r g u e d t o b e t y p i c a l o f n o n - J e w s , e.g. G n 1 4 : 1 8 ; N u 2 4 : 1 6 ; I s a 1 4 : 1 4 ; b y S c h m i d , Evangelium, 109; Swete, 94; Craghan, 'Gerasene', 532. E . g . L i g h t f o o t , History, 89f; N i n e h a m , 151; Sahlin, 'Pericope', 160; C r a g h a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' , 5 3 2 ; K e r t e l g e , 107f; P e s c h , 1.282; G n i l k a , 1.207; K e l b e r , 5 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 8 3 ; b u t s e e L o u w , 'bezetene'; Derrett, 'Contributions'; Schneck (apparently), 148; a n d G u n d r y , 2 5 7 , w h o rejects G e n t i l e s y m b o l i s m , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s p r e f e r s t o s e e a G e n t i l e . S e e a l s o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in v a n d e r L o o s , 386ff. K l o s t e r m a n n , Markusevangelium; e s p e c . D a l m a n , Words, 1 9 8 f , c i t i n g P s s 4 7 : 4 ; 5 7 : 3 ; 7 8 : 3 5 ; 9 : 3 ; S i r 4 6 : 5 ; 4 8 : 2 0 e t c . , cf. L k 1:32, 3 5 , 7 5 ; A c t s 7 : 4 8 , a l t h o u g h v a r y r a r e a m o n g t h e rabbis. b. Pes. 3 b ; b. Ber. 3 a , 6 2 b ; b. Shabb. 6 7 a ; b. Git. 7 0 a ; b. Sanh. 6 5 b .

Jew or

165

Gentile?

not Gentiles but J e w s . Granted the presence of such a great n u m b e r of pigs implies a G e n t i l e region, there is, nevertheless, no necessary b e t w e e n their p r e s e n c e and the nationality o f the m a n . warrant, therefore,

is t h e G e n t i l e r e g i o n .

o c c a s i o n d o e s M a r k relate an e n c o u n t e r

1 4 6

1 4 5

However,

connection

The primary only on

one

between Jesus and a clearly

designated Gentile in a Gentile setting: the Syrophoenician w o m a n w h o s e d a u g h t e r is also d e m o n i s e d .

1 4 7

But the pivotal feature is J e s u s ' initial

reluctance to help (7:24-27; cf. M t 1 5 : 2 4 )

148

— a disinclination w h i c h appears

to arise from the priority o f the J e w s and is reflected in o t h e r traditions as well as the b e h a v i o u r o f early Christian m i s s i o n a r i e s . raises a fundamental p r o b l e m .

Gospel 149

w h o m he h a d then sent out, p r e s u m a b l y , a m o n g other G e n t i l e s , here, in the first i n s t a n c e that u n q u e s t i o n a b l y

1

4

5

1

4

6

1

4

7

1

4

8

1

4

9

1

5

0

This

If J e s u s had already delivered a Gentile 1 5 0

why

involves a G e n t i l e , d o e s

,

T h e c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n Isa 6 5 s m o t i f s a n d this p e r i c o p e m a y i m p l y t h a t a p o s t a t e J e w s a r e in v i e w , s e e L o u w ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' b e z e t e n e ' , t h a t t h e d e m o n i a c ' s c o n d i t i o n w a s t h e r e s u l t o f h i s k e e p i n g p i g s ; F a r r e r , Matthew, 2 3 n l . B o t h Isa 6 5 a n d the p a r a b l e of the P r o d i g a l S o n p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t h a t J e w s , w h e t h e r a p o s t a t e o r in d i r e s t r a i t s , c o u l d i n v o l v e themselves with pigs. In v i e w o f t h e little t h a t is k n o w n a b o u t p r e - A D 7 0 r e l i g i o u s o b s e r v a n c e e s p e c i a l l y in t h e s e r e g i o n s , G o o d m a n ' s d i s c u s s i o n . State, 1 0 2 - 7 , o f t h e l a x i t y o f p o s t - A D 1 3 2 G a l i l e a n J e w s is e n l i g h t e n i n g a l t h o u g h h i s d a t a is l a t e , p e r t a i n s t o G a l i l e e , a n d m a y reflect d i s l o c a t i o n s s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e t w o r e v o l t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , r a b b i n i c J u d a i s m w a s o n t h e a s c e n d a n c y a n d , if a n y t h i n g , a p p l y i n g p r e s s u r e for g r e a t e r c o n f o r m i t y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p i c t u r e o f G a l i l e a n s in t h e N T s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s l a x i t y w a s n o t n e w . G o o d m a n s t a t e s t h a t in t h i s p e r i o d r a b b i n i c a u t h o r i t y w a s n o t a l l - p e r v a s i v e w i t h l a r g e n u m b e r s d i s r e g a r d i n g the purity laws a n d , to a lesser extent. Sabbath a n d tithing r e q u i r e m e n t s . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t is h i s r e f e r e n c e t o t. B. Mes. 5 : 7 w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t a substantial trade of 'small cattle' w e n t o n even though keeping t h e m w a s a serious e n o u g h sin, in R. I s h m a e l ' s o p i n i o n , a s t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e o f B e t h A b a (t. B.K. 8 : 1 4 ) . It s e e m s n o t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t s o m e m o r e - d e l i n q u e n t J e w s in a H e l l e n i s t i c e n v i r o n m e n t c o u l d h a v e g o n e f u r t h e r a n d b e e n e n g a g e d in k e e p i n g s w i n e f o r s a l e in t h e m a r k e t s o f t h e D e c a p o l i s . J e s u s ' i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p i g s is u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a n a c t o f j u d g e m e n t o n a p o s t a t e / d i s o b e d i e n t J e w s , for w h i c h a c t i o n w e h a v e s o m e s o r t o f p a r a l l e l in t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e s y m b o l i s m . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a c t w o u l d b e e x t r a o r d i n a r y if t h e p i g s w e r e o w n e d b y G e n t i l e s . O n t h e m a i n c o n j e c t u r e s , R i d d e r b o s , Coming, 1 1 3 - 1 5 ; v a n d e r L o o s , 3 8 6 - 9 3 . A l t , Where, 2 6 , s u g g e s t s that this a r e a w o u l d h a v e b e e n inhabited by J e w i s h p e a s a n t s b u t d o e s n o t d e a l w i t h t h e difficult q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e p i g s . T h i s e n c o u n t e r is m o r e o b v i o u s l y p r o l e p t i c o f t h e Gentile m i s s i o n . T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 5 4 , n o t e s t h a t in t h e n o n - J e w i s h p e t i t i o n e r a c c o u n t s i n v o l v i n g G e n t i l e s ( v i s - a - v i s S a m a r i t a n s ) t h e c o n t r a s t / r e s i s t a n c e m o t i f is ' p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o m i n e n t ' . M t 10:5f; 1 5 : 2 4 ; A c t s 1:8; cf. J e r y e l l , 'Lost'; P a u l ' s a t t i t u d e in R o m . 1:16, a n d m i s s i o n s in A c t s . G e n t i l e s o n J e w i s h t e r r i t o r y w e r e n o t e x c l u d e d b u t invite s p e c i a l c o m m e n t (e.g. M t . 8:10ff, p a r . ; J n 12:20ff), J e r e m i a s , Theology, 133f. So L o h m e y e r , 97; Taylor, 2 8 4 ; Pesch, 1.294; Guelich 1.289; but see W r e d e , 1 4 0 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 2 0 6 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 146f.

166

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

M a r k stress J e s u s ' hesitation to heal, and then attribute it specifically to the w o m a n ' s non-Jewish status ( 7 : 2 6 f ) ?

151

O n t h e other h a n d , w e k n o w that d u r i n g the M a c c a b e a n e x p a n s i o n Alexander J a n n e u s seized Gerasa ca. 82 B.C. Qos. Ant. 13.391-4; B.J. 1.103-5) and that n u m b e r s o f J e w s remained in the region, at least to the time of the First J e w i s h Revolt (B.J. 2 . 4 7 7 - 8 0 ) .

152

Not only would this reconcile the

a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d difficulty and the surprising lack of any c o m m e n t that the m a n w a s a Gentile, but it coheres with J e s u s ' focus on his o w n people. If J e s u s is being presented as the one w h o inaugurates the N E , then this account w i t h its c o m b i n e d E x o d u s / C r e a t i o n motifs (or, in terms o f social theory, 'iconic' elements) w o u l d be entirely consistent with a j o u r n e y into non-Jewish territory (or even once-Davidic lands) to effect the deliverance of a ' b o u n d ' Diaspora Israelite, even one w h o dwelt among t o m b s and did not seek h i m . H o w e v e r , because no direct textual evidence is available for either p o s i t i o n a n d s i n c e the c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the G e n t i l e w o m a n is ultimately an a r g u m e n t from silence, d o g m a t i s m should b e a v o i d e d . (iii) Mark's

Literary

153

Scheme

T h e observation that the destruction o f the d e m o n s in M a r k 5 reflects the fulfilment o f the d e m o n ' s question in 1 : 2 4

1 5 4

highlights the relationship

b e t w e e n the three accounts w e have analysed.

It should b e n o t e d that

t h e s e a r e the o n l y detailed references to J e s u s ' e n c o u n t e r s w i t h

the

d e m o n i c in the first section (9:14ff appears to serve a different purpose, C h a p t e r 8 ) . J e s u s ' first authoritative confrontation presages the c o m i n g destruction o f the d e m o n i c forces while the s e c o n d explains b o t h J e s u s ' actions a n d the s o u r c e o f his authority in terms o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h Warrior.

T h e link b e t w e e n the s e c o n d a n d third stories lies in the

p r o g r a m m a t i c p u r p o s e o f the former: w h i l e J e s u s ' u s e o f a p a r a b l e in response to his rejection b y the Jewish leaders (3:23) provides the point of

1

5

1

1

5

2

1

5

3

1

5

4

G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 8 7 ; J e s u s ' s e c r e c y ( 7 : 2 4 ) m a y s i m p l y r e f l e c t a d e s i r e for p r i v a c y , cf. ibid.,

385. Cf. B i e t e n h a r d , ' D e k a p o l i s ' ; S c h u r e r , 2 . 1 5 0 ; 3 / 1 . 1 3 - 1 7 ; A v i - Y o n a h , Jews, 1 6 - 1 9 . T h e b l a n k e t a s s e s s m e n t o f t h i s a r e a a s a p a g a n l a n d (e.g. S a h l i n , ' P e r i k o p e ' , 1 6 3 ) is, t h e r e f o r e , an oversimplification. C o n s e q u e n t l y , assertions s u c h as Kelber's, 1 5 , that the point of this ' m a s s i v e m i r a c l e ' p e r i c o p e d o e s n o t lie in t h e b r e a k i n g o f d e m o n i c p o w e r *but in h i s b r e a k i n g o f t h e G e n t i l e b a r r i e r ' , cf. K e r t e l g e , 1 0 9 , s e e m o v e r s t a t e d . H o o k e r , Message, 3 9 ; cf. B u r k i l l , 8 8 f ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 7 9 ; K e l b e r , 5 1 , w h o s e e s 5 : 1 - 2 0 a s t h e G e n t i l e c o u n t e r p a r t o f 1:21-28.

EvayydXiov and the

167

Warrior

transition to t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n the p u r p o s e o f p a r a b l e s in 4:1-34, t h e ensuing 'strong m a n ' saying (3:27) comes to a fuller b u t equally 'parabolic' expression in 4:35 - 5:20. A n o t h e r feature o f the conflict-with-demons m o t i f is that all o f t h e exorcisms are confined to the 'Galilee and B e y o n d ' section (again 9:14-29 is the exception). This striking peculiarity contributed to E . L o h m e y e r ' s and R. H. L i g h t f o o t ' s ' g e o g r a p h i c a l

theology'.

1 5 5

But since their theory is

untenable, h o w is this distribution to b e explained? T h e Isaianic N E motif may help.

J u s t as Y a h w e h ' s w a r r i o r

activities are associated

with

deliverances out a m o n g the n a t i o n s as a p r e c u r s o r to the restorational r e t u r n to J e r u s a l e m , s o a ls o J e s u s ' w a r r i o r activities a g a i n s t I s r a e l ' s oppressors occur prior to the journey along the ' W a y ' to J e r u s a l e m . (ij)

EvayyeXxov

and the

156

Yahweh-Warrior

W i t h this overall s c h e m e o f J e s u s as the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in m i n d , and in v i e w o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f e u a y y c ' X i o v in 1:1, it m a y not b e insignificant that several o f the religious uses o f cuayyeXi'Co) in the L X X involve this motif.

1 5 7

First, in P s a l m 67:12 (LXX)

euayyeXiCo) pertains to the m e s s a g e

which, in recalling the mighty acts o f G o d at the E x o d u s (vv. 8f), describes the scattering o f Y a h w e h ' s enemies (v. 2) as he mightily takes as prisoners those 'that act p r o v o k i n g l y , e v e n t h e m that dwell in t o m b s ' (v. 7; cf. Isa 65:3)

1 5 8

and then goes on to speak o f the spoiling o f the e n e m y (v. 13). T h e

o b v i o u s parallels s u g g e s t that this version m a y also h a v e e x e r t e d s o m e influence o n M a r k 5 .

1 5 9

P s a l m 95:2 ( L X X ) c o n c e r n s the declaration o f

Y a h w e h ' s m i g h t y d e e d s in b r i n g i n g about the return, and is o n e o f the texts that describes the n a t i o n s ' gods as d e m o n s (8a\\i6via, the third

u s e , in N a h u m

v. 5 ) . Finally,

1:15 ( L X X ) , c o n c e r n s t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f

1 5 5

S e e C h a p t e r 5 , p p . 132ff, a n d t h e c r i t i q u e t h e r e i n . T r o c m e , Formation, 5 3 n l , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t h i r t e e n t o fifteen m i r a c l e s w h i c h o c c u r in M a r k 1-9 m a y b e e x p l a i n e d o n t h e b a s i s of a ' l a k e s i d e c o l l e c t i o n ' . 156 p Burkill's suggestion, 2 5 5 , that the d e m o n s p r o v i d e s u p e r n a t u r a l testimony a n d are ' h a r d l y r e q u i r e d a f t e r P e t e r ' s c o n f e s s i o n ' a n d ' t h e d i v i n e c o n f i r m a t i o n o f it a t t h e transfiguration'. a

c

e

1 5 7

P s s 3 9 ( 4 0 ) : 9 ; 6 7 ( 6 8 ) : 1 1 , a n d 9 5 ( 9 6 ) : 2 ; N a h 1:15. T h e L X X is q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e M T , i n t r o d u c i n g s o m e a m b i g u i t y i n t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e € £ a y o ) v T T € T T € 6 T I ^ € V O U S : d o e s it m o d i f y v. 7 a a n d , t h e r e f o r e , d e s c r i b e the l i b e r a t i o n o f t h o s e w h o d w e l l a l o n e , o r , b e c a u s e o f t h e L X X ' s O ^ O I C D ? ( V . 7 C ) , d o e s it d e s c r i b e t h e t a k i n g p r i s o n e r o f i d o l a t o r s , cf. I s a 6 5 : 3 ? T h e c o n t e x t o f this l a t t e r t e x t m a k e s it h i g h l y u n l i k e l y t h a t Y a h w e h w o u l d b e r e d e e m i n g s u c h wilful a p o s t a t e s . 1 5 8

/

5 9

the

>

* E . g . N i n e h a m ; C r a g h a n , ' G e r a s e n e ' ; P e s c h , ' M a r k a n ' , 3 6 1 ; A n n e n , Heil, 4 5 , n o t i n g hapax K O I T O I K T J C J I V cf. L X X P s 67:7.

168

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and Israel's

NE

Healer

salvation p r e d i c a t e d on Y a h w e h ' s (the o n e w h o rules o v e r m a n y waters, v. 12) threefold a n n o u n c e m e n t concerning the destruction o f the idols and g o d s o f N i n e v e h , t h e c o n s e q u e n t b u r i a l o f its K i n g (v. 1 4 ) , a n d

the

shattering o f J u d a h ' s b o n d s (v. 13). H e r e again there is the conjunction of the motifs o f Y a h w e h as Creator-Warrior victorious over b o t h c h a o s and the n a t i o n s ' g o d s .

1 6 0

T h e S e p t u a g i n t ' s u s e o f the verb in these contexts

a p p e a r s n o t only to involve deliverance b u t associates the actions o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r in o v e r c o m i n g t h e n a t i o n s ' d e m o n i c g o d s .

T h i s is

entirely compatible with its use in Isaiah 40:9 (2); 52:7 and 61:1 w h e r e as w e h a v e seen euayyeAiCo) connotes the idea o f the deliverance o f the captives b y the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r .

161

Finally, if, as is c o m m o n l y held, M a r k presents J e s u s in eschatological conflict w i t h Satan and his d e m o n s , and if c u a y y c X i o v , understood as the content o f € u a y y € X i £ a ) , relates to the promised deliverance o f G o d ' s people, w h e n c e the antecedent?

Surely the m o s t o b v i o u s precursor is the general

motif e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t the O T o f Y a h w e h ' s battles w i t h the nations and their idols, particularly those in association with the great h o p e o f the INE. c)

1 6 2

Summary

T h e foregoing analysis suggests that M a r k understands J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s in terms of t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s actions in inaugurating I s a i a h ' s N E .

But,

w h e r e a s in Isaiah the c a p t i v e s w e r e p r i s o n e r s o f the i d o l s w h o

were

deemed

r e s p o n s i b l e for B a b y l o n ' s v i c t o r y , in M a r k it is t h e

unclean

160 D e r r e t t , ' L e g e n d ' , s u g g e s t s N a h 1 : 4 , 1 1 - 1 5 a s b a c k g r o u n d for M a r k 5 . 1

6

1

1

6

2

C f . 4 0 : 1 0 ; 5 2 : l f f , 9f; 6 1 : 1 . O n t h e l a t t e r , n o t e t h e l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e i n v o l v i n g t h e w a r r i o r in 5 9 : 1 5 b - 2 0 a n d 6 3 : 1 - 6 . L o n g m a n 'Divine', a d d r e s s e s this c o n n e c t i o n b u t m a k e s only p a s s i n g reference to J e s u s ' c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e d e m o n s . S e v e r a l w r i t e r s , e.g. B i s h o p , ' W h y ' ; m o r e r e c e n t l y F i s h e r , ' S o n ' ; L o v e s t a m , 'Fils'; B e r g e r , ' M e s s i a s t r a d i t i o n e n ' ; D u l i n g , ' S o l o m o n ' ; B r a d y , ' R o l e ' ; C h i l t o n , ' R e f l e c t i o n s ' ; n o t e t h a t t h e title ' S o n o f D a v i d ' m a y h a v e a t a p o p u l a r l e v e l r e f e r r e d t o S o l o m o n w h o w a s r e n o w n e d a s a f o r m i d a b l e e x o r c i s t ( J o s . Ant. 8 . 4 4 - 4 5 ; cf. V e r m e s , Jesus, 6 2 - 6 5 ) a n d s u g g e s t t h a t J e s u s m a y h a v e b e e n identified a s a S o l o m o n i c S o n of D a v i d . D u l i n g , 2 5 2 , a s k s t h a t if M a r k k n e w t h i s m a t e r i a l , w h y d o e s it n o t a p p e a r in t h e first half, a n d w h y n o t in a n e x o r c i s m ( B a r t i m a e u s , after all, is b l i n d ; cf. D e J o n g e , 'Son', 1 0 0 0 ? H e s u g g e s t s that M a r k modifies a S o l o m o n i c 'Son of D a v i d ' e x p e c t a t i o n as h e d o e s t h e ' r o y a l ' a s p e c t , s o t h e B a r t i m a e u s m i r a c l e h a r d l y fits w i t h d o w n - p l a y i n g t h e i d e a . If this t r a d i t i o n w a s c u r r e n t , a n d m o r e s o if it h a d e s c h a t o l o g i c a l c o n n o t a t i o n s ( w h i c h d o e s n o t a p p e a r s o ) , t h e n it m a y p r o v i d e f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o p o p u l a r p e r c e p t i o n s o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s (cf. P h i l o , Lib. Bib. Ant. 6 0 . 3 ) , a l t h o u g h o u r p r o p o s e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w o u l d s u g g e s t it p l a y s a m i n o r r o l e , a t least f r o m M a r k ' s p e r s p e c t i v e .

Jesus

and

the Isaianic

169

Healings

s p i r i t s / d e m o n s w h o are to b e u n d e r s t o o d as the o p p r e s s o r s w h o G o d ' s people captive.

hold

Just as the prophecies of the N E had s p o k e n of the

d e t h r o n e m e n t and humiliation o f B a b y l o n ' s idols, w h o w e r e seen as the s o u r c e of her p o w e r , so in the fulfilment

of Isaiah's p r o p h e c i e s J e s u s

defeats the d e m o n s w h o ultimately stand b e h i n d the idols and

liberates

their prisoners. J e s u s ' exorcisms, it appears, are the M a r k a n equivalent o f the release o f the Isaian c a p t i v e .

1 6 3

T h e N E motif m a y also explain

the

frequently n o t e d p h e n o m e n o n of M a r k ' s n e a r total confinement of J e s u s ' defeat of the d e m o n s to this first section o f his G o s p e l in that J e s u s ' ' W a r r i o r ' activities likewise o c c u r prior to the j o u r n e y along the w a y to Jerusalem.

1 6 4

IV. Jesus and the Isaianic Healings Here, too, the c o n c e r n is not to d e t e r m i n e if J e s u s ' activities are to b e understood in s o m e general w a y as an expression of the breaking-in of the reign of G o d .

1 6 5

W h a t is of interest is whether there is any evidence that

M a r k ' s presentation of J e s u s ' healing ministry has links with Isaiah's N E .

1

6

3

1

6

4

1

6

5

This b a c k g r o u n d , not disregarding Jesus' stated reason, 'because they knew him', m a y a l s o s h e d s o m e light o n J e s u s ' c o m m a n d i n g s i l e n c e o f t h e d e m o n s ( 1 : 2 5 , 3 4 ; 3 : 1 2 ) . I s a 5 2 : 1 5 d e s c r i b e s h o w , a s a r e s u l t o f their u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t i o n s , Israel's o p p r e s s o r s w i l l b e silent, a f i g u r e o f s p e e c h i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r i m m i n e n t s u b j u g a t i o n , cf. J o b 5 : 1 6 ; P s 1 0 7 : 4 2 , W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' . Tg. Isa t h e n d e v e l o p s t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b y i n t e r p r e t i n g 5 3 : 7 s u c h t h a t it is t h e m i g h t y o n e s w h o a r e s i l e n c e d a n d h e n c e ' n o n e shall b e b e f o r e h i m w h o o p e n s his m o u t h o r s p e a k s a w o r d ' . P e r h a p s t h e c o m m a n d s t o s i l e n c e reflect these ideas. First, as with the kings, the d e m o n s ' / s p i r i t s ' a w a r e n e s s of i m m i n e n t s u b j u g a t i o n is r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h o J e s u s r e a l l y is, a s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i r a c c u r a t e t e s t i m o n y t o J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y — a n d this, a s in I s a i a h , in c o n t r a s t t o I s r a e l ' s failure t o see a n d u n d e r s t a n d . W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' ; ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . S e c o n d , the c o m m a n d s t o silence c o u l d reflect t h e f a c t o f t h e i r s u b j u g a t i o n a s Tg. Isa e m p h a s i s e s , cf. E b e l i n g , Messiasgeheimnis, 1 1 4 - 2 1 8 . T h i s s e e m s t o b e b o r n e o u t b y t h e fact t h a t in J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e t h e c o m m a n d t o s i l e n c e is l i n k e d w i t h t h a t t o c o m e o u t ( 1 : 2 5 b ) . T h e u n c l e a n s p i r i t ' s o b e d i e n c e t o b o t h is w h a t a m a z e s the on-lookers (1:26). S c h e n k e ' s a t t e m p t , Wundererzahlungen, 3 9 6 , t o s e e all o f J e s u s m i r a c l e s a s ' a u f d e m W e g e ' c i t i n g e.g. M k 1 : 2 1 , 2 9 , 3 5 e t c . s e e m s t o i g n o r e M a r k ' s r e d a c t i o n a l u s e o f ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y , cf. S w a r t l e y , ' S t r u c t u r a l ' . E . g . L o i s y , Evangels, 160; Hoskyns-Davey, 167; Richardson, 43; and van der Loos, 2 3 6 , w h o s e e s J e s u s a c t i n g in a m e s s i a n i c c a p a c i t y . K a l l a s , Significance, stresses the c o s m i c d e m o n i c d i m e n s i o n s , w h i l e F u l l e r , Mission, s e e s in t h e m i r a c l e s t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s i g n s o f t h e K i n g d o m , cf. D e l l i n g , ' V e r s t a n d n i s ' , 1 5 4 ; S c h n i e w i n d , 8 5 ; L o h m e y e r , 4 8 . K e r t e l g e , 170ff, understands the miracles as revealing Jesus' mission rather than directly Jesus' identity, a l t h o u g h it is n o t c l e a r if s u c h a firm d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t a n d i d e n t i t y c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d in p r a c t i c e .

170

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

It should b e noted that w h i l e it w o u l d b e reductionistic to regard all o f J e s u s ' miracles only as 'signs' or to deny that several motivations could b e at w o r k in the o n e m i r a c l e , the former w a y .

1 6 7

166

clearly aspects o f s o m e miracles function in

T h e following m a t e r i a l is c o n c e r n e d w i t h

those

categories o f healing miracles which, in the light o f their treatment in the O T , could b e interpreted as indicative of the N E . a) The Healing

of Israel

in Isaiah's

1 6 8

NE

A l t h o u g h the O T h a s n u m e r o u s references concerning Y a h w e h ' s desire to heal

w h e t h e r individually (e.g. Pss 6:3; 41:5) or corporately o f Israel

(e.g. J e r 3 3 : 6 ; Pss 147:3; 60:4), statements concerning specific healings, for example, o f the blind, deaf, d u m b , lame, leprous, and o f a shrivelled limb occur infrequently. narratives.

1 7 0

169

T h e latter two cases are found o n l y in historical

T h e others, aside from a brief reference in the general

t h a n k s g i v i n g h y m n w h e r e Y a h w e h is d e s c r i b e d as the o n e w h o o p e n s blind e y e s (Psalm 146:8), are entirely confined to the prophetic utterances in I s a i a h .

171

F r o m a literary perspective, the interest in the restoration o f

sight a n d h e a r i n g a p p e a r s to o r i g i n a t e in t h e pivotal I s a i a h 6 w h i c h together with chapters 28-29 uses metaphorical blind and deaf terminology in the context o f j u d g e m e n t .

172

Similarly, the root K S 1 occurs first in 6:10

with reference to the healing that Israel, through blinding and hardening, is to b e denied.

H o w e v e r , it is in the descriptions o f Israel's restorational

healing that this language is most frequently found.

1

6

6

1

6

7

1

6

8

1

6

9

1

7

0

S e e t h e h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n in v a n d e r L o o s , 2 4 0 - 5 4 . E . g . R i c h a r d s o n , 5 7 ; M e n o u d , 'signification', 1 8 5 ; K e r t e l g e , 170ff. F o r M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , t h e m i r a c l e s in 4 : 3 5 - 8 : 2 6 e c h o t h o s e in P s 1 0 7 . T h e p a r a l l e l s a r e c l e a r e n o u g h , b u t t h e i r g e n e r a l n a t u r e a n d t h e l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t in o r d e r , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a s d u e t o c o m m o n O T m o t i f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e E x o d u s a n d E x i l e , cf. K i s s a n e , Psalms; K i r k p a t r i c k , Psalms; S n a i t h , Five, 17ff; C r i i s e m a n n , Studien, 7 3 . T h e 6 TiupcTos: m e n t i o n e d in 1:31 is l i s t e d in L X X D t 2 8 : 2 2 a s o n e o f t h e c u r s e s for c o v e n a n t u n f a i t h f u l n e s s , b u t Y a h w e h ' s h e a l i n g o f it is n o t m e n t i o n e d , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s i m p l i e d in 1 K g s 8 : 3 7 f a n d p a r . (1 K p 1

7

1

1

7

2

Respectively: Moses (Ex 4 ) , Miriam ( N u m 12) a n d N a a m a n (2 K g s 5 ) , a n d Jereboam 13:4).

J e r e m i a h 3 1 : 8 , p a r t o f a n o r a c l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e t u r n o f t h e e x i l e s , briefly m e n t i o n s the blind a n d l a m e as e x a m p l e s of the extent of Y a h w e h ' s c o m p a s s i o n s u c h that e v e n they a r e i n c l u d e d . T h e r e is n o m e n t i o n o f h e a l i n g . E z e k 3:26; 2 4 : 2 7 ; a n d 3 3 : 2 2 a r e c o n c e r n e d solely w i t h t h e p r o p h e t ' s o w n e x p e r i e n c e . G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 0 , n o t e s t h a t t h e h e a l i n g s o f t h e b l i n d , d e a f , a n d l a m e ( a l o n g w i t h t h e e x o r c i s m s ) h a v e ' n o p a r a l l e l in t h e O T ' a m o n g t h e ' m e n o f G o d ' b u t t h e y a r e ' e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r in t h e n e w a g e ' . C l e m e n t s ; S k i n n e r , Isaiah;

K a i s e r ; O s w a l t , Isaiah;

Beale, 'Retributive'.

Healing

of Israel

in Isaiah's

171

NE

In 29:18f the restoration o f sight, and hearing is o n e o f the characteristics of Israel's r e d e m p t i o n , w h i l e 32:1 speaks o f the righteous king in w h o s e reign the j u d g e m e n t s o f blinding and deafening will n o longer occur and the tongue o f the s t a m m e r e r will speak clearly (vv. 3f; cf. chapters 6 a n d 28f). It is in chapter 3 5 , h o w e v e r , that this restorational healing o f Israel is set most firmly in the context o f a N E .

1 7 3

H e r e 35:5 portrays this age as a

time w h e n the eyes o f the blind will (literally?) b e o p e n e d and the ears o f the deaf u n s t o p p e d .

174

This last example, which uses m e t a p h o r s from the

' w i s d o m ' genre (v. 8 ) , m a y suggest the interplay between the literal and the m e t a p h o r i c a l that c h a r a c t e r i s e s s o m e o f this l a n g u a g e in I s a i a h . terms of

1 7 5

In

Isaiah 30:26, in keeping with the reversal o f the j u d g e m e n t

in 6:10, describes the day of redemption as a time w h e n Y a h w e h will heal (KS"V)

the bruise (insfc) o f his people and bind up the fracture h e inflicted

(cf. 1 : 6 ) .

176

In the N E o f chapters 40-66, o n e o f the tasks o f the enigmatic

'servant' figure is to o p e n blind eyes and release the prisoners from their dungeon ( 4 2 : 7 ) ,

1 7 7

w h i l e in 42:16 Y a h w e h announces his intention to 'lead

the blind along a w a y they do not k n o w ' (see Chapter 8 ) . T h e general idea of h e a l i n g

(KQ"i)

is also explicitly p i c k e d up on t w o o c c a s i o n s in these

chapters: in 53:4f the suffering o f the 'servant' figure is linked with Israel's healing, a n d in 57:18f (bis) it is applied to Y a h w e h ' s restoration o f t h e nation. I n n o n - B i b l i c a l literature, a l t h o u g h t h e r e are g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e s to h e a l i n g or t h e b a n i s h i n g o f illness in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l salvation (e.g. Jub. 23:29f; T. Zeb. 9:8; 2 Bar. 73:2; 4 Ezra 13:50), there is little evidence to suggest that a messianic figure w a s specifically connected with the healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame during the N T period (but see n o w 4Q521).

1

7

3

1 7 8

W e m a y conclude that in the O T specific references to Y a h w e h ' s

E . g . T o r r e y , Second;

B r o w n l e e , Meaning, 1

7

4

1

7

5

1

7

6

1

7

7

1

7

8

S c o t t , ' R e l a t i o n ' ; O l m s t e a d , ' I s a i a h ' ; S m a r t , History,

247-55; Clements, 2 7 5 ; Wildberger, 3.1358; Steck,

292-94;

Bereitet.

C l e m e n t s , ' B e y o n d ' , 1 2 5 , cf. W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 3 6 2 . It is s o m e t i m e s difficult t o tell, h o w e v e r , w h e t h e r t h i s is m e t a p h o r i c a l w i s d o m l a n g u a g e or literal o r p e r h a p s e v e n b o t h , G e r l e m a n , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' ; v o n S o d e n - W a c h t e r , TWAT, 5 . 1 9 0 - 9 3 . O n t h e w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s in I s a i a h , s e e C h a p t e r 8 . Cf. W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 2 0 5 . W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 5 1 f. P a u l , ' C u n e i f o r m ' , 1 8 2 , s u g g e s t s , o n t h e b a s i s o f r o y a l c u n e i f o r m i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h a t 4 2 : 7 a is ' a m e t a p h o r f o r t h e r e l e a s i n g o f t h e i m p r i s o n e d o r " d w e l l e r s in d a r k n e s s ' " . Str-B, 1.593ff ( A m o r a i c p e r i o d o r later); Vielhauer, ' E r w a g u n g e n ' , 1 5 9 ; M a r t y n , History, 84ff; K l a u s n e r , Messianic, 5 0 2 - 1 7 ; V o l z , judische, 1 7 3 - 8 6 ; G r u n d m a n n , et al, TDNT,

172

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame, u n d e r s t o o d variously in literal and metaphorical terms, are primarily characteristics of Isaiah's N E , especially as described in Isaiah 35 (and Isaiah 61). b) Jesus and the Healing

of

179

Israel

Unfortunately M a r k offers n o equivalent to the Beelzebul controversy to help us u n d e r s t a n d the significance o f J e s u s ' healing miracles.

However,

both M a t t h e w and L u k e present an account o f J e s u s ' response to J o h n the Baptist's question, which response is near universally recognised as being c o u c h e d in terms o f Isaianic p r o p h e c i e s .

180

C o m m e n t a t o r s are likewise

largely agreed that the M a r k a n healings of the paralytic ( 2 : 1 - 1 2 ) ,

181

of the

deaf-mute (7:31-37, M a r k ' s iioyiXaXov, v. 3 2 , appears to c o m e directly from 9 . 5 0 5 - 2 7 ; S c h u r e r , 2 . 4 9 7 - 5 5 4 ; C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a h ' . Tg. Isa t a k e s b l i n d n e s s a s r e f e r r i n g t o b l i n d n e s s t o T o r a h (e.g. 3 5 : 5 ; 4 2 : 7 ; cf. 32:3f). H o w e v e r , 4 Q 5 2 1 s e e m s t o d e s c r i b e r e l e a s i n g c a p t i v e s , h e a l i n g t h e s i c k , r e s t o r i n g s i g h t , e t c . ( I s a 6 1 : l f f ) a s m e s s i a n i c e v e n t s (cf. M k 10:46ff), a l t h o u g h w h e t h e r u n d e r s t o o d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y o r w h e t h e r p e r f o r m e d b y Y a h w e h o r his M e s s i a h is difficult t o tell, s e e C o l l i n s , ' W o r k s ' ; E i s e n m a n a n d W i s e , Uncovered, 20ff. I m p o r t a n t l y , t h e l a t t e r d e m a r c a t i o n m a y w e l l b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e s i n c e in I s a i a h t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a f i r m d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d h i s a g e n t , Isa 3 5 : 5 ; 4 2 : 7 , 1 6 . J o h n 7:31 (cf. 2 : 3 2 ; 6 : 1 4 ) m a y r e f l e c t a n e x p e c t e d r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e m i r a c l e s o f M o s e s , M e e k s , Prophet, 1 6 2 - 6 4 , o r o f o t h e r s , M a r t y n , History, 8 7 f . S o l o m o n , a n o t e d t h a u m a t u r g e in folklore, d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f i g u r e , a l t h o u g h h e may b e in B a r t i m a e u s ' m i n d ( M k 10:46ff; s e e fn. 1 6 2 a b o v e ) . 1

7

9

F o r a c r i t i q u e o f W e e d e n ' s v i e w o f t h e n e g a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f m i r a c l e s in M a r k , Traditions, s e e K o l e n k o w , ' B e y o n d ' , a n d the e x c e l l e n t s u r v e y in D o w d , Prayer, 6 - 2 4 . 1 8 0 M 1 1 : 5 ( p a r L k 7 : 2 2 ; n o t e e s p e c i a l l y t h e link w i t h c u a y y c X i ' O , S t u h l m a c h e r , Evangelium, 2 1 8 f ) is w i d e l y u n d e r s t o o d a s r e f l e c t i n g I s a 2 6 : 1 9 ; 29:18f; 3 5 : 5 f ; 4 2 : 1 7 , 1 8 ; a n d 6 1 : 1 ; e.g. e s p e c . G r i m m , 1 2 4 - 3 0 ; b u t a l s o R i c h a r d s o n , 4 3 ; K l o s t e r m a n n , Matthausevangelium, 9 5 ; H e l d , ' I n t e r p r e t e r ' , 2 5 3 f f ; B r o w n , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 1 9 0 ; S c h l a t t e r , Matthaus; F i t z m y e r , Luke; M a r s h a l l , Luke; cf. I r e n a e u s , Adv., 4 . 5 5 : 2 ; J u s t i n , First Apology, 4 8 ; T e r t u l l i a n , Adv. Marc, 4.8. A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin', 199n2, suggests that Justin's statement m a y indicate that 'such s u m m a r i e s (i.e. t h o s e f o u n d in t h e F a t h e r s ) m a y b e ... d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i d e a o f C h r i s t fulfilling t h e p r o p h e c y o f Is 35:6'. O n l y t h e c l e a n s i n g o f t h e l e p e r s is a b s e n t a n d w h i l e s o m e (e.g. M a r s h a l l ) s e e p e r h a p s a n E l i s h a t y p o l o g y ( 2 K g s 5 ) it m a y b e , a s in t h e c a s e o f M a r k ' s r e s t o r a t i o n o f s i g h t ( s e e C h a p t e r 8 ) , t h a t t h e r e is a s y m b o l i c r e f e r e n c e t o I s r a e l ' s ' l e p r o u s ' c o n d i t i o n (cf. I s a l:5ff; 5 3 : l f f ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 6 9 0 ; B o w m a n , 6 5 f ) . A l t h o u g h s p e c u l a t i o n , it is a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e h e a l i n g o f t h e flow o f b l o o d in M k 5:25ff ( m e n o r r h a g i a , D e r r e t t , ' T e c h n i q u e ' , 4 7 6 f f ) is s y m b o l i c o f I s r a e l ' s c l e a n s i n g , g i v e n t h a t in Isa 6 4 : 5 (cf. I s a 3 0 : 2 2 ) this i m a g e r y is e m p l o y e d t o s t r e s s t h e d i r e n a t u r e o f I s r a e l ' s d e f i l e m e n t b e f o r e Y a h w e h (cf. L e v 1 2 ( e s p e c . v. 7 ) w i t h M k 5 : 2 9 , G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 9 7 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 0 1 ; b u t cf. v a n d e r L o o s , 5 0 9 f ) ; L e v 1 5 : 2 5 - 3 3 ; H a g 2 : 1 1 - 1 4 ; W h y b r a y ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 120. T h a t Jesus rebukes the fever o f P e t e r ' s m o t h e r - i n - l a w s u g g e s t s t h a t it m a y h a v e b e e n t h e w o r k o f a d e m o n , cf. v a n d e r L o o s , 5 5 2 , w h o m e n t i o n s t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y P a l e s t i n i a n belief in t h e d e m o n I m m M a l d a m w h o c a u s e d fever. t

1 8 1

P e s c h , 1 . 1 5 8 , o b s e r v e s t h a t M a r k ' s napaXuTiKos" ( n o t in L X X ) differs f r o m t h e L X X ' s X ^ A o ? (Isa 3 5 : 6 ) . H o w e v e r , TTapaXuTiKos- is n o t listed in L S J M u n t i l N T a n d l a t e r a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o n l y a p p e a r s t o h a v e c o m e i n t o c o m m o n u s e in t h e N T p e r i o d , cf. B A G D , a s a s y n o n y m for xÂos, cf. L N , 1.273.

Jesus

L X X Isa 3 5 : 6 ,

1 8 2

and the Healing

of

173

Israel

but cf. 29:18f), and o f the blind (8:22-26; cf. 10:46-52 w h i c h

lies outside o f the first section and along with 8:22ff serves a dual function, see C h a p t e r 8) primarily reflect Isaiah 35:5f (cf. 29:18; 3 2 : 3 f ) .

1 8 3

It hardly

needs to b e a d d e d that this is exactly what might b e expected if M a r k , in keeping with the orientation of his introductory sentence and prologue, is presenting J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the Isaianic N E .

1 8 4

O t h e r considerations offer further support for an I N E hermeneutic.

A

parallel has b e e n suggested in M a r k 2:1-12 b e t w e e n J e s u s ' offer to forgive the p a r a l y t i c ' s sins a n d the s c r i b e s ' indignant r e s p o n s e , and Y a h w e h ' s declaration—also in the midst o f a confrontation—to Israel in Isaiah 43:25 (cf. 4 0 : 1 - 3 ; 4 4 : 2 2 ) .

1 8 5

O n e o f the major t h e m e s in the I s a i a h p a s s a g e

concerns a theology of past and future in which Jacob-Israel's r e m e m b e r i n g and Y a h w e h ' s r e m e m b e r i n g are treated in p a r a l l e l .

186

Jacob-Israel m a k e s

accusation that Y a h w e h has b e e n unfaithful which h e refutes b y pointing to their corrupt w o r s h i p (vv. 23f). Echoing the language o f the prologue's programmatic

announcement

o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g (40:2), o n e o f the

central concerns o f this polemical confrontation (43:22-28) lies in the call to forget the past and to look instead to the future (43:18) just as Y a h w e h h i m s e l f is d o i n g in forgiving J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s transgressions and acting to effect their deliverance (43:25; cf. 4 4 : 2 2 ) .

1 8 7

F r o m this perspective, if M a r k

is presenting J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the I N E then the offer o f forgiveness is strikingly consistent with Y a h w e h ' s p a r d o n i n g o f sin as a 'sign' of the I N E (cf. E x 3 4 : 6 f )

1

8

2

1

8

3

1

8

4

1

8

5

1 8 8

Furthermore, as B . Blackburn notes, this

H o s k y n s , ' J e s u s ' , 72ff. H a w k i n ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' , 1 0 5 , t h a t I s a 6 : 6 - 9 is in view a p p e a r s unlikely, b u t at least recognises the origins of m u c h of the ' b l i n d / d e a f l a n g u a g e in I s a i a h ; s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' . E s p e c . K e e , Community, 1 2 5 f , w h o s e e s s t r o n g I s a i a n i c links, H o s k y n s - D a v e y , 167ff; L o h m e y e r , 1 5 1 ; R i c h a r d s o n , 8 1 - 8 9 ; F u l l e r , Interpreting, 60f; H a w k i n , 'Symbolism', 102f; E v a n s , Beginning, 2 9 ; N i n e h a m ; G o u l d e r , Calender, 2 4 6 ; B a r r e t t , Spirit, 70ff; A c h t e m e i e r , ' C a t e n a e ' , 2 8 9 ; H o o k e r , Message, 42ff; L a n e ; G n i l k a ; P e s c h ; B r o a d h e a d , Teaching, 1 3 3 . S a n d e r s , Jesus, 161ff, a r g u e s a g a i n s t I s a 3 5 : 5 f a s b a c k g r o u n d o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t healings of the blind, d u m b , a n d l a m e w e r e c o m m o n , a n d that Jesus also p e r f o r m e d other m i r a c l e s w h i c h a r e n o t m e n t i o n e d in I s a 3 5 . T h i s s e e m s t o m e t o fail t o g i v e full w e i g h t t o the fulfilment a s p e c t o f J o h n t h e B a p t i s t ' s q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s , b u t m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y i g n o r e s , a t least in M a r k ' s c a s e , t h e r o l e o f t h e p r o l o g u e in l i t e r a r y a n t i q u i t y . E . g . G r i m m , 1 3 5 - 3 7 ; cf. G n i l k a , 1 . 1 0 0 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 8 7 ; m a r g i n N A S c h n e c k , 70ff. 186 M e l u g i n , Formation, 116f. 1

8

7

1

8

8

2 6

.

See n o w also

Ibid; W e s t e r m a n n , 1 3 3 ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 190ff. G r i m m , 1 3 5 - 3 7 ; cf. L a n e ; P e s c h ; E r n s t ; G n i l k a ; G u e l i c h ; K l a u c k , ' S u n d e n v e r g e b u n g ' , 236f. O n Israel's critical r e s p o n s e t o t h e m e s s a g e of I s a 4 0 - 5 5 , s e e W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' .

174

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and Israel's

NE

Healer

text ' c o n s t i t u t e s a v e r y significant a s s i m i l a t i o n o f J e s u s to G o d ' ;

1 8 9

an

' a s s i m i l a t i o n ' that w o u l d h a r d l y b e o u t o f p l a c e g i v e n that M a r k has already intimated earlier on that J e s u s is s o m e h o w to b e identified with the personal presence of Y a h w e h (l:2f). A unique feature o f this healing, however, is that it is the only occasion in M a r k w h e n J e s u s offers f o r g i v e n e s s o f sins.

F u r t h e r m o r e as C h r i s

Marshall n o t e s , the link b e t w e e n forgiveness a n d h e a l i n g is not m e r e l y incidental but

demonstrates

the ' i n s e p a r a b l e

c o n n e c t i o n that

b e t w e e n h e a l i n g a n d forgiveness w i t h i n the activity o f J e s u s ' .

exists 1 9 0

The

question is, h o w e v e r , w h y is it m e n t i o n e d h e r e and n o w h e r e else, and what, if any, is the significance o f the individual being a paralytic? It is n o t e w o r t h y that this constitutes the first occurrence o f the

TTICJTIC;

-

TTiaTcua) w o r d g r o u p s i n c e J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the coming o f the k i n g d o m ' | i € T a v o € i T € Kal m a T c u a e ' (l:14f). In addition, 2 : 1 12 is the first in M a r k ' s series o f controversy stories w h i c h will eventually conclude with the climactic B e e l z e b u l confrontation.

Interestingly, these

two accounts are the only o n e s involving c h a r g e s o f b l a s p h e m y prior to J e s u s ' trial ( w h e r e the final c h a r g e o f b l a s p h e m y a p p e a r s ) , b o t h c o n c e r n matters o f J e s u s ' authority, and both involve scribes (although the second group c o m e s from J e r u s a l e m ) .

In 2:1-12, the y p a j i j i a T € t c ; reject J e s u s '

statements as b l a s p h e m o u s , w h i l e in the Beelzebul incident the sandal is on the other foot: it is the s c r i b e s ' assessment o f his e x o r c i s m s that J e s u s r e g a r d s as b l a s p h e m o u s .

T h i s p e r i c o p e m a y , t h e r e f o r e , b e s e e n as

s o m e w h a t pivotal. But w h y the link b e t w e e n sins and the paralytic? provide a clue.

Isaiah 33:23f m a y

T h e restoration o f I s r a e l ' s fortunes u n d e r Y a h w e h as

rightful k i n g is d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f the forgiveness o f sins w h i c h is specifically linked with the a b s e n c e o f s i c k n e s s (cf. P s 103:3).

This new

w h o l e n e s s is s u c h that e v e n the l a m e w o u l d participate in the spoils of Y a h w e h ' s victory (Isa 33:23).

If this b a c k g r o u n d is in m i n d , then J e s u s '

granting o f forgiveness (see Isa 33:24; 43:25 cf. 4 0 : 2 ; 44:22f) in association with the healing o f the lame m a n (33:23; cf. 35:6) m a y b e intended to testify to the breaking-in o f Y a h w e h ' s reign expressed in I N E terms (33:22; 52:7; cf. M a r k 1:15, Tg. Isa 40:9). 1 8 9

1

9

0

Theios,

139.

M a r s h a l l , Faith,

89.

F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h there is e v i d e n c e o f a

Jesus

and the Healing

of

175

Israel

general expectation o f an eschatological removal o f sin and purification o f the l a n d a n d t h e p e o p l e ,

1 9 1

there are n o clear g r o u n d s to s u g g e s t that

forgiveness o f sin is p r o n o u n c e d b y any other than Y a h w e h . forgives sins further

1 9 2

That J e s u s

reinforces t h e i d e a — a r t i c u l a t e d b y the

watching

scribes, implied b y M a r k 1:2-3, and reinforced b y the storm-stillings—that he is, in s o m e w a y , to b e associated with the p e r s o n a l manifestation o f Y a h w e h (cf. E x 2 3 : 2 1 ) .

1 9 3

In the case o f the d e a f m u t e (7:31-37), in spite o f several J e w i s h features in the narrative—Jesus a d d r e s s e s h i m in A r a m a i c (v. 3 4 ) , r e s p o n s e recalls L X X G e n e s i s 1 : 3 1 ,

1 9 5

1 9 4

the c r o w d ' s

and M a r k ' s jioyiXctXov (v. 3 2 , s e e

a b o v e ) — t h e r e c i p i e n t is g e n e r a l l y s e e n , at least in t e r m s o f M a r k ' s retelling, as a Gentile and this again purely o n the basis o f the geographical setting.

196

T h e story o c c u r s after J e s u s ' last confrontation with those from

J e r u s a l e m before h e reaches the capital (7:1-23). H e then m o v e s into w h a t are c u s t o m a r i l y u n d e r s t o o d as G e n t i l e regions, finally arriving at the S e a of Galilee. H e r e h e effects a healing of a kind promised in the I N E (i.e. Isa 35:5f), but o n this occasion receives a positive response (7:37; cf. 6:56 and 7:lff; a n d Isa 63:7?).

O n c e again, as with the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c , it is

difficult to tell w h e t h e r M a r k is w o r k i n g with a clear-cut G e n t i l e versus J e w motif s u c h that J e s u s ' healing o f a Gentile indicates that the future o f Christian m i s s i o n lies in the G e n t i l e world o f the D i a s p o r a , or in v i e w o f the clearly J e w i s h features, is depicting a Diaspora J e w . T h e p r o b l e m with the former v i e w is J e s u s ' professed reluctance to extend his mission to the Gentiles; there is n o t h i n g in the text that indicates that M a r k ' s J e s u s has c h a n g e d his m i n d .

1 9 7

O n the other hand, the account m a y b e analogous to

that o f the G e r a s e n e demoniac, in that Jesus effects the signs of the I N E out a m o n g the 'exiles' of Israel. C o m p a r e d to the clear Isaianic associations o f the healings o f the lame, the de'af m u t e , and the blind, interpreting J e s u s ' raising o f the dead girl is 1

9

1

1

9

2

E . g . H Q M e l c h 2:6ff; 1 Enoch Ezra 6:27f; 2 Bar. 7 3 : 4 ; Jub. 4 : 2 6 .

1 0 : 2 0 - 2 2 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 ; T. Levi 1 8 : 9 ; Tg. Isa 5 3 : 4 , 6 ; cf. 4

L a n e , 9 5 ; G n i l k a , 1 . 1 0 0 ; H o f i u s , ' V e r g e g u n g s z u s p r u c h ' ; M a i s c h , Heilung, 89f; G u n d r y , 1 1 3 , 1 1 7 - 2 3 ; pace V e r m e s , Jesus, 67ii. K o c h ' s a t t e m p t , ' M e s s i a s ' , t o s e e e v i d e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c f o r g i v e n e s s in Tg. Isa 5 3 is n o t c o n v i n c i n g , K l a u c k , ' S u n d e n v e r g e b u n g ' , 238f. 1

9

3

1

9

4

1

9

5

1

9

7

B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 137ff. Martin, 211. Richardson, 5 4 n , w h o sees a n allusion to Christ's w o r k as a n e w creation. 1 9 6 M a r t i n , Evangelist, 2 1 1 . S e e a l s o J e r e m i a s , Promise, 3 3 .

176

Jesus

rather m o r e c o m p l e x .

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

T h e resuscitation of the S h u n a m m i t e ' s son and the

revival o f the m a n w h o s e b o d y t o u c h e d Elisha's b o n e s are the sole O T narrative a c c o u n t s ,

1 9 8

w h i l e only Daniel 12:1-2 is generally accepted

m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h i p as an u n a m b i g u o u s r e f e r e n c e eschatological event. Elijah.

1 9 9

to a n y

future

by or

A n u m b e r of scholars h a v e noted the parallels with

O t h e r s h a v e seen a possible allusion to Isaiah 29:18 in J e s u s '

r e s p o n s e to the

Baptist's

messengers

2 0 0

w h i c h s u g g e s t s that the

one

resuscitation in M a r k could b e understood, along with the other miracles listed there, as integral to the Isaianic prophecies of d e l i v e r a n c e .

201

It may

b e the c a s e that there is an integration of several traditions c o n c e r n i n g Israel's e s c h a t o l o g i c a l 65:19f),

2 0 2

h o p e (cf. the p r o m i s e c o n c e r n i n g infants in Isa

b u t the e v i d e n c e is far from c o n c l u s i v e and the o r i g i n and

nature o f any d e e p e r significance m u s t remain u n c e r t a i n .

1

9

8

1

9

9

2

0

0

2

0

1

2

0

2

203

1 K g s 17:17ff; 2 K g s 4:18ff; 13:20f.

E . g . G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 0 f ; L i n d a r s , 'Elijah'. F n . 1 8 0 . J e r e m i a s , Theology, 1 0 4 , c i t e s a t a n n a i t i c list w h e r e b e i n g l a m e , b l i n d , a l e p e r , o r c h i l d l e s s is c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g a s g o o d a s d e a d . O n t h e d i v e r s e J e w i s h v i e w s o f a g e n e r a l r e s u r r e c t i o n , S c h i i r e r , 2.539ff. A l o n g t h e lines s u g g e s t e d b y H e i s i n g , ' E x e g e s e ' . 2 0 3 why d o e s M a r k , o r w h o e v e r r e d a c t e d t h e " m i r a c l e c a t e n a e " ( s e e F o w l e r , Loaves, 2 4 - 3 1 , for a c r i t i q u e o f A c h t e m e i e r ) , f o l l o w u p t h e s t o r m - s t i l l i n g a n d d e l i v e r a n c e o f t h e d e m o n i a c w i t h the intercalated a c c o u n t s of the raising of the d e a d girl a n d the healing of t h e f l o w o f b l o o d ( o n t h e u n i t y o f 4:1 - 5 : 4 3 , T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 4 8 f ) ? It h a s a l r e a d y b e e n p r o p o s e d that M k 4:35 - 5:20 could be a reflection on Isa 63:7 - 65:7 w h e r e Jesus, a l r e a d y identified w i t h Y a h w e h ' s intervention b y the p r o l o g u e ' s allusion to the s a m e p a s s a g e ( 6 3 : 1 9 ; M k 1:10), is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e D i v i n e - W a r r i o r . In a d d i t i o n , in fn. 1 8 0 I s u g g e s t e d t h a t the healing of the flow of blood m i g h t be symbolic o r 'parabolic' of Israel's cleansing— M a r k a p p e a r s t o u s e m i r a c l e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y I s a i a n i c o n e s ) in t h i s w a y , s e e fn. 1 3 2 . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , this u n u s u a l i m a g e r y is f o u n d in I s a i a h 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : 1 1 M T w h e r e it g r a p h i c a l l y describes the hopelessness of Israel's a t t e m p t s at righteousness (64:5). M o r e striking, h o w e v e r , is Y a h w e h ' s r e p l y ( I s a 6 5 : 1 - 2 5 ) w h i c h s p e a k s o f t h e l o n g e d - f o r , n e w - c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n a s a t i m e w h e n w e e p i n g will c e a s e , ' t h e i n f a n t w i l l n o t d i e ' , a n d all w i l l l i v e o u t their a l l o t t e d d a y s ( 6 5 : 1 9 f ; cf. Jub. 2 3 : 2 7 - 3 0 ) . In M a r k , J e s u s q u e r i e s t h e n e e d for w e e p i n g (5:38f) a n d r e v e r s e s t h e u n t i m e l y d e a t h o f a y o u n g girl b y r e s t o r i n g h e r t o life (5:41f), a n d in e a c h o f t h e f o u r m i r a c l e s t h e r e s p o n s e is o n e o f fear o r a w e ( 4 : 4 1 ; 5 : 1 5 , 3 3 , 4 2 ; cf. I s a 6 4 : 2 M T ) . C o u l d it b e t h a t t h i s w h o l e s e c t i o n , 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 , is r e d a c t e d a r o u n d t h e final l a m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e in t h e b o o k o f I s a i a h , a s t h e y a w a i t t h e N E , a n d Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e ? If s o , t h e n in 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 2 0 J e s u s is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e D i v i n e - W a r r i o r w h o c o m m a n d s t h e s e a a n d d e l i v e r s the o p p r e s s e d , e v e n t h o s e w h o d w e l l a m o n g t h e t o m b s a n d w h o d o n o t s e e k h i m , w h i l e in 5 : 2 1 4 3 h e s y m b o l i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t h e is t h e o n e w h o h e a l s I s r a e l o f h e r u n c l e a n n e s s a n d , b y r e s t o r i n g t h e c h i l d t o life, s i g n a l s t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e p r o m i s e s o f Y a h w e h ' s n e w c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f I s r a e l . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e s e m i r a c l e s b e a r all t h e h a l l m a r k s o f i n d i c a t i n g t h a t , in r e s p o n s e t o t h e l a m e n t a n d p r o m i s e w h i c h c o n c l u d e s t h e b o o k o f I s a i a h , Y a h w e h h a s i n d e e d 'split t h e h e a v e n s ' ( M k 1:10; I s a 6 3 : 1 9 ) , s e n t his H o l y Spirit a m o n g his p e o p l e ( M k 1:10; 3 : 2 2 - 3 0 ; cf. Isa 6 3 : 1 0 - 1 4 ) , a n d c o m e d o w n in J e s u s , a s t h e m i g h t y W a r r i o r (Mk 3:27), to i n a u g u r a t e the N E .

Provision

c)

for

Israel

in Isaiah's

177

NE

Summary

J e s u s ' healings o f the blind, d e a f / d u m b , and lame (the resuscitation m a y reflect Isa 6 5 : 2 0 ) d i s p l a y s u b s t a n t i a l a n d u n i q u e p a r a l l e l s w i t h t h o s e prophesied in the b o o k o f Isaiah as being characteristic o f the I N E . T h i s coheres with the overall framework suggested b y his opening sentence and prologue.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , M a r k ' s presentation of J e s u s ' h e a l i n g ministry

can be understood time',

2 0 4

as e v i d e n c e , not o f s o m e g e n e r a l i s e d ' m e s s i a n i c

b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y as ' i c o n i c ' i n d i c a t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

inauguration o f the Isaianic N E .

the

2 0 5

V. Jesus and the Isaianic NE Provision for Israel Finally, there is the matter of the miracles of provision in 6:34-44 and 8:110. Although scholars regularly note parallels with the E x o d u s event (see b e l o w ) , it is hardly surprising, given the paradigmatic nature o f Israel's founding m o m e n t , that e c h o e s o f the past should also b e integral to h e r prophetic h o p e o f d e l i v e r a n c e and indeed the I N E c o n t a i n s n u m e r o u s p r o m i s e s c o n c e r n i n g Y a h w e h ' s future p r o v i s i o n for his p e o p l e as h e c o m e s 'like a s h e p h e r d ' gently leading and providing for his flock. a) The Provision

for Israel

in Isaiah's

NE

D r a w i n g p e r h a p s on the traditions o f provision in the first E x o d u s , the p r o p h e t c o n c l u d e s h i s o p e n i n g d e c l a r a t i o n o f s a l v a t i o n (40:1-11) b y likening Y a h w e h to a shepherd w h o tends his sheep, gathers his lambs in his arms, and gently leads the nursing e w e s h o m e to Zion (40:11; cf. 63:11; Ex

15:13; Pss 77:21; 78:52f).

character,

206

Given the prologue's

programmatic

it is not surprising that similar imagery reappears throughout

subsequent chapters.

T h e n e w l y released and returning prisoners, w h o s e

b r e a d Y a h w e h p r o m i s e d w o u l d not b e lacking (51:14), are described as pasturing on the heights (49:9) as their compassionate G o d ( D m , 49:10, 13;

2

0

4

2

0

5

2

0

6

E . g . R i c h a r d s o n , 4 3 , w h o s e e s h e r e m e s s i a n i c m i r a c l e s b u t 'of I s a i a n i c p r e d i c t i o n ' . E . g . F u l l e r , Mission, 3 6 . A l o n g t h e lines o f e.g. K a l l a s , Significance; (although he e m p h a s i s e s t h e D a n i e l l i c i n f l u e n c e ) , a n d K e r t e l g e , 2 0 1 , if M a r k is o p e r a t i n g w i t h a I N E h e r m e n e u t i c a n d a s this is a m a t t e r o f t h e r e i g n o f Y a h w e h , (cf. C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 1 , fn. 1 5 1 ) , it is difficult t o s e e h o w t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r m i r a c l e s c o u l d n o t b e s i g n s o f t h e i n b r e a k i n g K i n g d o m , pace K o c h , Bedeutung, 173ff; B e s t , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 5 3 9 . I n t h e l a t t e r ' s c a s e it is n o t c l e a r h o w a p a s t o r a l p u r p o s e e x c l u d e s e.g. a c o n c e r n for C h r i s t o l o g y o r e s c h a t o l o g y . See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 7 8 .

178

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

cf. 40:17; 54:7, 10) provides food for the h u n g r y and water for the thirsty (49:10f; 48:20f; cf. 35:7; E x 17:2-7; a n d N u m

20:8), and

transforms the wilderness (35:6f; 43:19f; 41:17-20 ( ? ) ; b) INE Feedings

in

2 0 7

miraculously

49:9ff).

208

Mark

M a n y h a v e observed M o s e s traditions in the feeding of the 5000 ( M k 6:3444), primarily b e c a u s e o f the miraculous provision (cf. N e h 9:15; Pss 78:1732; 105:40), the location in the desert (cpnuoc;

TO'TTOC;,

VV.

3 1 , 3 2 , 35 cf. L X X Ex

16:1, 3, 10 etc.), t h e references to the s h e e p w i t h o u t a s h e p h e r d 27:16ff)/

209

(Nu

the division into h u n d r e d s and fifties (Ex 18:21), and p e r h a p s in

the question about provision (cf. N u l l : 2 1 f ; Ps 7 8 : 1 9 f )

2 1 0

Derrett, followed

b y S c h n e c k , sees an allusion to the ' w i s d o m ' invitation o f Isaiah 5 5 : l f f .

2 1 1

But the parallels are superficial, being based on c o m m o n terminology—for instance, Isaiah contains a s u m m o n s to ' b u y b r e a d without m o n e y ' , the disciples in M a r k h a v e n o m o n e y to b u y bread—without any substantive c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the r e s p e c t i v e c o n c e r n s o f e a c h p a s s a g e .

2 1 2

Lane

suggests Isaiah 25:6-9, reading it in terms of a messianic feast. But to equate the rather spartan loaves and fish with 'aged w i n e ... the choicest o f meats a n d the s u p e r i o r w i n e s ' s e e m s s o m e w h a t g e n e r o u s .

2 1 3

O t h e r s s e e the

influence o f the Elisha feeding story (2 Kgs 4:42ff; cf. 1 Kgs 17:8-16; 2 K g s 4:17 ) 2 1 4 w h e r e there is a similar c o m m a n d to provide food (1 K g s 4:42b; M k 6:37a) as well as a super-abundant provision (1 K g s 4:43b, 4 4 b ; M k 6:42-3). Although a combination o f both could b e in view, particularly if the Elisha

2

0

7

2

0

8

2

0

9

2

1

0

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

1

3

2

1

4

T h e i m a g e r y in 4 1 : 1 8 (cf 4 3 : 2 0 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t 4 1 : 1 7 - 2 0 c o u l d p e r t a i n t o t h e N E . A n d e r s o n , T y p o l o g y ' ; cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 2 7 2 . E.g. M a u s e r , 5 0 n l , 9 2 , 104f, 1 3 5 ; H o o k e r , 'Mark', 2 2 6 . O n the i m a g e r y of Y a h w e h a n d M e s s i a h a s s h e p h e r d , J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 6 . 4 8 8 - 8 9 . E.g. R i c h a r d s o n , 94-99; Ziener, 'Brotwunder'; H o b b s , 'Gospel', 40-42; M c C a s l a n d , 'Signs'; F r i e d r i c h , ' E r z a h l u n g e n ' , 18ff; G o p p e l t , Typos, 7 1 f ; v a n d e r L o o s , 6 3 1 - 3 7 ; K e r t e l g e , 133f; B o w m a n ; N i n e h a m ; Cranfield; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin', 202f; H u r t a d o ; Guelich. See, h o w e v e r , v a n I e r s e l ' s o b j e c t i o n s , ' S p e i s u n g ' , 1 8 8 , w h o s u g g e s t s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f P s 2 3 ; cf. H e i s i n e , ' E x e g e s e ' ; P e s c h . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y P s 2 3 c o u l d n o t a l s o b e i n c l u d e d . R e s p e c t i v e l y , Making, 1 . 1 2 2 , a n d Isaiah, 1 5 3 . B e g r i c h , Studien, 59-61; Melugin, Formation, 2 5 ; a n d C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 190ff; s e e h e r e a n i m i t a t i o n o f W i s d o m G e n r e ; cf. t h e s u m m o n s t o life: P r o v 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 ; 4 : 2 2 ; 8 : 3 5 ; 9:6ff; Sir 4 : 1 2 ; t o e a t a n d d r i n k : P r o v . 9 : 2 , 5 ; Sir 1:17; 15:3; 2 4 : 1 9 , 2 1 . Schneck, 1 5 5 , himself admits that the major parallel between the two—'eating b r e a d ' — o c c u r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e O T a n d t h e n t u r n s t o 2 K g s 4:42ff. Mark, 2 3 2 . E.g. B o w m a n ; Cranfield; Nineham; LaVerdiere, 'Feed'; Pesch; Ernst; Guelich; Schneck, 155.

179

Conclusion

stories themselves were influenced

by the Exodus n a r r a t i v e ,

2 1 5

the

n u m b e r of E x o d u s parallels suggests that it is predominant. H o w e v e r , the importance o f Isaianic imagery for M a r k thus far, and the fact that there is little correlation between the miracles o f E x o d u s 13-17 and those in the first section o f M a r k ,

2 1 6

suggests the possibility o f reading the

feeding a c c o u n t s in the light o f Y a h w e h ' s provision for his p e o p l e in the I N E . A s noted above, the s h e e p / s h e p h e r d imagery is highly developed in the Isaianic N E (cf. also 'scattered s h e e p ' in E z e k 34:5, 26-29) as is the motif of Y a h w e h ' s c o m p a s s i o n (cf. M k 6:34; 8:2) and his provision for his people. Some have proposed

that the ' g r e e n g r a s s ' is i n d i c a t i v e o f the

new

c r e a t i o n a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f the w i l d e r n e s s (Isa 3 5 : l f , 6f; 4 3 : 2 0 ; cf. 4 1 : 1 9 ) although this is far from c e r t a i n .

2 1 7

Further, the Q u m r a n

community,

w h i c h defined itself in t e r m s o f Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , used similar g r o u p i n g s o f fifties and h u n d r e d s w h e n describing the gathering o f true Israel in t h e desert in the last days (e.g. C D 13:1; 1QS 2:21-22; 1 Q M 4:1-5; cf. 4 Q 5 2 1 1 ii 13b).

T a k e n together, these factors suggest that the feeding o f the 5 0 0 0

should be seen in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s N E provision for his p e o p l e .

2 1 8

Since

M a r k ' s presentation o f the second feeding s e e m s deliberately to parallel the first, it is highly likely that it should b e similarly u n d e r s t o o d .

219

VI. Conclusion A t the outset o f this C h a p t e r w e p o s e d the question as to w h e t h e r there w a s a n y e v i d e n c e in this first s e c t i o n that M a r k , in k e e p i n g w i t h t h e apparent thrust o f his o p e n i n g sentence, prologue, a n d literary structure,

2

1

5

2

1

6

2

1

7

2

1

8

2

1

9

H e i s i n g , ' E x e g e s e ' ; Botschaft, 3 8 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 4 ; cf. e.g. M a s u d a , 'Bread'; Cranfield; B o w m a n ; N i n e h a m . M a u s e r , 1 3 6 , n o t i n g E z e k 34:26ff; A c h t e m e i e r , ' O r i g i n ' , 2 0 3 n 3 2 ; M a r c u s , 2 4 , c i t e s I s a 51:3. F r i e d r i c h , ' E r z a h l u n g e n ' , 18ff; M a u s e r , 1 3 6 f ; b u t cf. e.g. P e s c h , 1 . 3 5 0 n l l , w h o s e e s instead Ps 23:2. T h i s is n o t t o e x c l u d e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f a E u c h a r i s t i c e l e m e n t , a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f w h i c h lies o u t s i d e t h e i m m e d i a t e i n t e r e s t s o f this s e c t i o n . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n c l u d i n g S c h w e i t z e r ' s ' a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l b a n q u e t ' . Mystery, 1 8 6 7 4 ; s e e B o u c h e r , 70ff; Q u e s n e l l , 5 - 2 8 . O n w h y the feedings precede Mark's ' W a y ' section—one m i g h t h a v e expected t h e m w i t h i n i t — a n d w h y o n e e x o r c i s m a n d o n e h e a l i n g o f t h e b l i n d o c c u r o u t s i d e o f M a r k ' s first s e c t i o n , s e e t h e e x c u r s u s , p p . 292ff, b e l o w .

180

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and

Israel's

NE

Healer

w a s operating with s o m e expression o f a consistent I N E hermeneutic.

In

the light o f the foregoing w e can n o w m a k e the following observations. M a r k ' s first s e c t i o n s e e m s to s e r v e s e v e r a l p u r p o s e s .

F i r s t , the

presentation o f J e s u s ' deliverance o f his p e o p l e from the o p p r e s s i o n of d e m o n s a n d his healing o f the blind, deaf, and lame is consistent with the p r o l o g u e ' s a p p a r e n t designation o f J e s u s as the one w h o inaugurates the Isaianic N E .

M a r k ' s recounting o f these I N E ' i c o n s ' testifies to the in-

b r e a k i n g reign o f G o d .

A t the s a m e time, the j u x t a p o s e d ' i c o n o g r a p h i c '

accounts o f J e s u s ' storm-stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c legion e c h o t h e I s a i a n i c l i n k a g e o f the d e s t r u c t i o n o f P h a r a o h and Y a h w e h ' s victory in the Chaoskampf.

creator

G i v e n that in Isaiah this linkage is

intimately c o n n e c t e d w i t h the h o p e o f a N E , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t s e r v e s to u n d e r l i n e the I N E motif.

F u r t h e r m o r e , the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , the

storm-stilling, and water-walking all s e e m to suggest that M a r k ' s J e s u s is very closely identified with the personal presence of Y a h w e h . S e c o n d , related to the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r imagery is the question of the identity o f the forces w h o h o l d Y a h w e h ' s p e o p l e c a p t i v e .

The

account o f the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c in particular, but also the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , a n d M a r k ' s c o n s i d e r a b l e interest in d e m o n s and

unclean

spirits in general, strongly suggest that for h i m the ultimate oppressors are not the R o m a n s per se, b u t rather the d e m o n s .

2 2 0

Third, just as a large

n u m b e r o f J e s u s ' healing miracles cohere with the expectations of the I N E , his forgiveness o f sins—particularly given its connection with the healing of the l a m e — e c h o e s Y a h w e h ' s self-declaration as the o n e ' w h o blots out your transgressions' which accompanies the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the I N E (Isa 43:25). Fourth, at the climax o f Isaiah 40-55's prologue, Y a h w e h is not only presented as a warrior c o m e to deliver his people, but as a shepherd w h o would provide for his people-flock. M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s ' feeding miracles also coheres with this motif. C o n s e q u e n t l y , it appears that M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s is aimed at e m p h a s i s i n g s e v e r a l points o f contact b e t w e e n J e s u s ' ministry a n d the 2 2 0 W r e d e , Messianic, 4 5 , dismissed outright a n y idea of a tension b e t w e e n a political and spiritual c o n c e p t of messiahship. N e v e r t h e l e s s , allowing for the a n a c h r o n i s m i n h e r e n t i n c o n t r a s t i n g t h e s e t e r m s s o s t a r k l y , M a r k ' s G o s p e l s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e shift in e m p h a s i s a l o n g t h e s e lines m a y n o t b e s o i m p r o b a b l e in t h a t M a r k ' s J e s u s m a y w e l l b e w i s h i n g t o m a k e t h e p o i n t t h a t I s r a e l ' s p r o b l e m is n o t s o m u c h t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s i m p o s e d b y the R o m a n s as m u c h as the idolatrous state of their 'hearts'; see C h a p t e r 7 on Isa 6 in M k 4 .

181

Conclusion

events of the I N E : A ) J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s and storm-stillings recall the I N E presentation, and linkage, o f Y a h w e h as Creator and Y a h w e h as delivering W a r r i o r , B ) m a n y o f J e s u s ' h e a l i n g s r e s e m b l e those associated with the INE, C ) J e s u s ' forgiveness o f sins echoes Y a h w e h ' s self-designatory offer in the I N E , and D ) J e s u s ' feeding o f the crowds, w h o are like sheep without a shepherd, a n s w e r s to the flip-side o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , n a m e l y that o f Y a h w e h as tender s h e p h e r d o f his p e o p l e .

2 2 1

G i v e n an o v e r a r c h i n g I N E

perspective, it should b e noted, however, that the miracles o f J e s u s are not only e v i d e n c e pointing to Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g as a m i g h t y W a r r i o r w a g i n g w a r against his p e o p l e ' s oppressors but are also genuine expressions o f his compassion as shepherd o f his people (1:41; 6:34; 8:2; cf. Isa 40:1, lOf; 49:10, 1 3 , 1 5 ; 51:3; 5 4 : 7 f ) .

222

T h e difficulty in identifying those i n v o l v e d in several k e y m i r a c l e s , n a m e l y the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c , the deaf-mute, a n d the c r o w d in t h e s e c o n d feeding, is a c o n s t a n t frustration

to all a t t e m p t s to cast t h e s e

miracles in t e r m s o f a s i m p l e n a t i o n a l i s t i c / g e o g r a p h i c a l frame (i.e. J e w / Gentile or G a l i l e a n / J u d e a n ) . If, on the o n e hand, the G e r a s e n e d e m o n i a c and the others are in fact Gentiles, then this suggests that for M a r k this N E transcends traditional categories.

J e s u s c o m e s to d e l i v e r all p e o p l e

w h e t h e r J e w o r Gentile, w h e t h e r inhabitant o f Judea, Galilee o r elsewhere. M e m b e r s h i p in the n e w p e o p l e o f G o d is o p e n to those from all nations, but n o w u n d e r s t o o d in t e r m s o f the intensely p e r s o n a l a n d

individual

n a t u r e of J e s u s ' liberating activities—in other w o r d s it is as individuals, n o t as c o l l e c t i v e s , n a t i o n a l , e t h n i c , or o t h e r w i s e , t h a t d e l i v e r a n c e is experienced.

223

O n the other h a n d , if these events, although located in p r e d o m i n a n t l y Gentile regions, are nevertheless primarily

concerned with

'exiled'

Israelites (and M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' extremely reticent response to the one

clearly

identified

Gentile—the

Syrophoenician

woman—lends

considerable w e i g h t to this latter alternative), then J e s u s c a n b e seen acting in h a r m o n y with a stricter I N E agenda. S o w h y then M a r k ' s ambiguity? It

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

3

T h i s is t h e s t r e n g t h o f R i c h a r d s o n ' s p o s i t i o n o v e r a g a i n s t K a l l a s , in t h a t t h e l a t t e r d o e s n o t sufficiently a l l o w f o r t h e s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n o f t h e m i r a c l e s . Cf. M e y e , ' H o r i z o n ' , 8 , w h o n o t e s t h e d i m e n s i o n o f c o m p a s s i o n in J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s . Cf. P e r r i n , Kingdom, 1 7 1 , 1 9 9 . T h i s m a y reflect the t e n s i o n a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in Isaiah 5 6 - 6 6 b e t w e e n a national a n d individual perspective, W e s t e r m a n n , 302f, 403ff; H a n s o n , Dawn, 134ff; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 128ff.

182

Jesus

as Yahweh-Warrior

and Israel's

NE

Healer

may b e that his G o s p e l represents a combination o f both agendas: M a r k ' s Jesus

restricts

indeterminate

his

activity

identifications,

to I s r a e l , b u t foreshadows

Mark, by

means

of

that Jesus' ministry

his will

ultimately result in 'light to the Gentiles'. G r a n t e d the f o r e g o i n g , the n e x t q u e s t i o n is w h e t h e r o r n o t M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section also betrays signs o f an I N E hermeneutic.

H o w e v e r , before

a d d r e s s i n g that i s s u e , it is i m p o r t a n t to face a n o t h e r t h e m e w h i c h is foreshadowed

in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e , b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g e v i d e n t

throughout the series of controversy stories, and finally culminates in the B e e l z e b u l confrontation: n a m e l y the p o s s i b i l i t y that Israel, as M a l a c h i suggested, might not b e ready for Y a h w e h ' s I N E coming.

Chapter 7: Isaiah's Promise ... and Malachi's Threat: Part 1 Judicial Blinding In contrast to his opening portrayal of Jesus' powerful words and deeds, Mark soon shifts his focus to the growing tensions between Jesus and the Jewish leadership. In keeping with the warning implicit in Malachi and employing the Isaianic motif of Yahweh's hardening of the nation's selfreliant 'wise' ones, Mark shows how the present leadership's rejection of God's INE reign in Jesus results, by means of the parables, in a similar judicial blinding.

I. Introduction In the preceding Chapter it w a s argued that M a r k construes J e s u s ' miracles, n o t m e r e l y in t e r m s o f s o m e g e n e r a l i n - b r e a k i n g o f G o d ' s rule, b u t particularly w i t h i n the h o r i z o n o f the I N E expectations.

The exorcisms,

storm-stillings, h e a l i n g s o f the l a m e , the b l i n d , and the d e a f and

dumb,

forgiving o f s i n s , a n d m a s s feedings are all iconic t e s t i m o n i e s to the inauguration

t h r o u g h J e s u s o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g as w a r r i o r

and

shepherd o n b e h a l f o f his people. But this, unfortunately, is not the w h o l e story. Jesus is ultimately rejected and crucified b y the very heirs o f the I N E promises.

H o w is this astonishing o u t c o m e to b e understood, especially

given that the nation's leadership, w h o above all ought to h a v e discerned Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s , are c e n t r a l to this rejection?

Once again Mark's

explanation is couched in terms o f O T motifs. First, as d i s c u s s e d earlier, M a r k ' s appeal to M a l a c h i in his o p e n i n g sentence ( M a i 3:1 in M k 1:2) s o u n d s a note o f w a r n i n g . a n o m a l o u s , t h e failure o f a significant p r o p o r t i o n

Far from b e i n g

of Israel

through

unpreparedness to participate in Y a h w e h ' s saving I N E activity h a d always b e e n a possibility.

T h e n , on t h e o n l y t w o o c c a s i o n s in his first major

section w h e r e J e s u s is challenged b y religious authorities from J e r u s a l e m , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t c o n t a i n s a p p e a l s to t w o related j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g

and

hardening texts from Isaiah: Isaiah 6:9f in M a r k 4:12, and Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7:6f. Entirely c o n g r u e n t w i t h M a l a c h i ' s warnings, these appeals to

184

Isaiah's

the O T further

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

develop the theme of the unpreparedness

of Israel's

leadership b y reminding M a r k ' s audience o f the existence o f a profoundly disturbing p r e c e d e n t .

N o t o n l y is this n o t t h e first t i m e that I s r a e l ' s

l e a d e r s h i p h a v e relied u p o n their o w n w i s d o m a n d t h e r e b y

refused

Y a h w e h ' s offer o f deliverance, b u t it w a s this very attitude that led to the nation's exile in the first place. It w o u l d hardly b e surprising if it should do so again.

l

II. Isaiah 6:9f in Mark 4:12 a) The Markan

Setting:

Tension

Between

Jesus

and Israel's

Leadership

At the very beginning of his Gospel M a r k implicitly warned his readers, or reminded them as t h e case m a y be, that the good n e w s o f the inauguration of Y a h w e h ' s reign in the I N E might n o t b e a n occasion o f unalloyed j o y . On the contrary, the M a l a c h i / E x o d u s component of his introductory citation, although quite properly b e l o n g i n g within the s p h e r e o f t h e I N E hope, sounds a n o t e o f foreboding.

2

For Malachi, the I N E h a d already been

delayed b e c a u s e o f t h e u n p r e p a r e d n e s s o f Israel a n d , in particular, h e r religious l e a d e r s .

T h e p r o p h e t w a r n e d that in order t o b e r e a d y for

Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g they m u s t r e s p o n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y to h i s m e s s e n g e r , identified at the conclusion o f the b o o k as 'Elijah'. In M a r k ' s e y e s , as is generally agreed, this forerunner a p p e a r s to b e n o n e o t h e r than J o h n t h e Baptist (1:6; 9 : 1 3 ) .

3

H o w e v e r , in spite o f the

initially p r o m i s i n g signs—'all o f J u d e a a n d J e r u s a l e m ' c a m e o u t to hear h i m ( 1 : 5 ) — J o h n is i m p r i s o n e d .

That Mark apparently

regards

this

1

T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is i m m e n s e , s e e t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s in Q u e s n e l l , 72ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 - 6 , 7 3 - 1 2 1 ; E v a n s , See, 9 1 - 1 0 6 ; B e a v i s , Audience, 69-86, 131-155; a n d Lambrecht, Astonished, 107ff. T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , offers o n e o f t h e m o r e n u a n c e d a n a l y s e s . 2

3

S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 67ff, a b o v e .

S e e n o w T r u m b o w e r , 'John'; W e b b , John, 5 1 - 5 5 , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; C a m e r y H o g g a t h , Irony, 9 5 f ; a l s o C h a p t e r 3 , p . 5 9 , fn. 3 8 , a b o v e . T h e a m b i g u i t y o f l:4ff h a s l e d s e v e r a l r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s t o r e j e c t this i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t , g i v e n t h e a t t e s t a t i o n i n 9 : 1 3 , t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f J o h n f o r all f o u r G o s p e l s , a n d t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e b a s i c c o n t e n t o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l is l a r g e l y c o m m o n k n o w l e d g e a m o n g h i s a u d i e n c e , it s e e m s h i g h l y likely t h a t J o h n , e v e n in l:4ff, w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d t o b e M a l a c h i ' s Elijah. O n 9 : 1 3 , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e M a r c u s , 9 4 - 1 0 0 , w h o s e t r e a t m e n t is t o b e p r e f e r r e d t o t h a t o f G u n d r y , 4 6 4 . T h e latter, a l t h o u g h c o r r e c t l y n o t i n g t h e e m p h a s i s o n a-noKaQiojdvei ( v . 1 2 a ) , a p p e a r s n o t t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e i s s u e is n o t w h e t h e r Elijah h a s y e t r e s t o r e d all t h i n g s , b u t r a t h e r t o q u e s t i o n t h e s c r i b e s ' s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t r e s t o r a t i o n o f all t h i n g s b y Elijah w a s g u a r a n t e e d , a s J e s u s ' n e x t s t a t e m e n t s u g g e s t s (cf. M a i 3 : 1 , a n d ] S in 3:24b).

Markan

185

Setting

m o m e n t as t h e c a t a l y s t for J e s u s ' c o m m e n c e m e n t o f his o w n

ministry

hardly augurs well (1:14a; cf. especially 3:7f with 1:5). T h e o m i n o u s n e x u s b e t w e e n J o h n and J e s u s is further strengthened b y A ) the detailed a c c o u n t of J o h n ' s s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h at the h a n d s o f H e r o d in 6:14-29, B) the link b e t w e e n J e s u s ' death and the rejection o f Elijah ' w h o h a s c o m e ' (9:9-13), and C ) J e s u s ' appeal to J o h n in justifying h i s T e m p l e action (11:27-33; s e e Chapter 9 ) . If the national leadership had failed to respond

appropriately

to J o h n , h o w m u c h the less for the m o r e public and provocative J e s u s ? T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this u n p r e p a r e d n e s s b e c o m e s a major focus o f M a r k .

of Israel's leadership

soon

H a v i n g established J e s u s ' identity and

significance b y m e a n s a series o f 'breathless' (cf. €u9u'c;) and a l m o s t terse accounts of his authoritative w o r d s and powerful deeds—a 6 i 6 a x f j Kaivfj K a T ' € £ o u a i a v — M a r k q u i c k l y t u r n s to the i n c r e a s i n g l y h o s t i l e r e s p o n s e w h i c h J e s u s attracts.

4

In a prolonged series of controversy stories w e m e e t

the criticism, a n t a g o n i s m , and finally outright rejection w h i c h eventually leads to J e s u s ' d e a t h ( 2 : 1 - 3 : 6 ) .

5

A s n o t e d earlier, t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s

c u l m i n a t e in w h a t a m o u n t s to a crucial t u r n i n g point in the gospel: the Beelzebul d e b a t e w h e r e i n Israel's chief religious authorities—for the first time scribes from J e r u s a l e m — a n n o u n c e their considered r e s p o n s e to this Galilean exorcist: he h i m s e l f is possessed b y the chief d e m o n , Beelzebul. H o w e v e r , to c e n s u r e J e s u s and to attribute his e x o r c i s m s to the only realistic alternative, Beelzebul, is to b l a s p h e m e the H o l y Spirit and thereby to repeat the rebellion o f the first E x o d u s (cf. Isa 63:10).

In this context,

M a r k ' s ' b r a c k e t i n g ' the controversy with teaching about J e s u s ' true family (3:21, 31-35) h i g h l i g h t s the significance o f the v a r i o u s r e s p o n s e s to h i s ministry.

A c l e a r d i v i s i o n is n o w a p p e a r i n g w i t h i n Israel (cf. J o h n ' s

4

M a r k ' s f r e q u e n t a n d s o m e w h a t i d i o s y n c r a t i c u s e o f KOLI CUSUS* l e n d s a n u r g e n c y t o h i s a c c o u n t t h a t is s t r a n g e l y r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e s t y l e o f I s a 4 0 - 5 5 . S e e in p a r t i c u l a r S n a i t h ' s d e t a i l e d c o m m e n t s , ' S t u d y ' , 1 4 9 - 5 3 , o n t h e v i g o u r a n d u r g e n c y o f t h e p r o p h e t w h o s e s t y l e is ' o n e o f h u r r y i n g , o f r u s h i n g t u m u l t u o u s l y o n ' , w h e r e it is a c a s e o f ' i m m e d i a t e l y if n o t sooner'. S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 140f, similarly notes that the 'new thing' Y a h w e h p r o m i s e s w i l l h a p p e n 'suddenly a n d surprisingly' ( h i s i t a l i c s ) , cf. S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 152. 5

O n the unity of these passages a n d the increasingly adversarial stance of Jesus' o p p o n e n t s , s e e e s p e c i a l l y D e w e y ; K i i l u n e n , Vollmacht; Tannehill, 'Narrative', 6 8 ; Kingsbury, Conflict, 67ff. G u n d r y , 1 0 8 f , s e e s t h e s e m o r e a s s t o r i e s c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y , b u t e v e n s o h e n o t e s t h e p r o g r e s s i o n f r o m silent a c c u s a t i o n (2:6f) t h r o u g h t o q u e s t i o n i n g ( 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 4 ) , to a t t e m p t e d e n t r a p m e n t (3:2), a n d finally to p l o t t i n g Jesus' d e m i s e (3:6). This, in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h M a l i n a ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s o n t h e h o n o u r / s h a m e a x i s in s o c i a l c o n f l i c t . Insights, 2 5 - 4 9 , s u g g e s t s t h a t ' c o n t r o v e r s y ' is n o t a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e t e r m .

186

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

warning, M t 3:12; L k 3:17; and the appointment o f the T w e l v e , M k 3:13-19). N o l o n g e r it is a m a t t e r o f b l o o d l i n e b u t rather a d h e r e n c e to J e s u s ' teaching, himself the ' S / s o n o f G o d ' (1:11), that determines whether or not one is a m e m b e r o f his true family, that is, also a 'son o f G o d ' .

6

Already

the threat implicit in Malachi is c o m i n g to p a s s (cf. M a i 3:2-5, 18). T h e crucial p o i n t here, h o w e v e r , is that this decisive confrontation—couched explicitly in terms o f the first overt mention o f J e s u s ' teaching in parables (3:23)—leads immediately into M a r k ' s extended account o f the purpose of parables.

7

This suggests that the former occasions the l a t t e r and that the

parables themselves not only function in s o m e w a y as a response to those w h o h a v e rejected J e s u s b u t that t h e y d o s o in t e r m s o f the j u d i c i a l blinding and hardening expressed in the notorious crux, Isaiah 6:9-10. b) Textual Mark

Matters* 4:12

Isaiah LXX

iva

p X c T i o v T c c ; pXcncaaiv

Kai Kai

u f | i6a)cn.v, <XKO\JOVT€C;

Kai

ut)

aKOlJOKJlV

auvaaknv,

UT1TTOTC

6:9f

MT

Targum

' A K O f j OKOUa€T€ Kai

oil U T ) auvfJTc

Kai

pA€TTOVT€C; pA€lp€T€

Kai

Oil U T | l 6 T ) T €

...

UT1TTOTC

i6a>aiv Kai

TOXs 6(J>8aXuoic;

vrvi

p ... rorr

KQ^T ... prprjn p r r

caaiv

TOIC;

aKouauaiv Kai

Tfi Kap6ia

€TTiaTp€ilicoaiv

Kai

€maTp€i(ia)aiv

Kai

Kai

laaouai

a<J)€6f| a v i T o i c ;

auvaknv

aiiTouc;

M a r k ' s citation is clearly paraphrastic.

]mm V? KBTI T h e seeing and hearing clauses o f

Isaiah 6:9bc M T , L X X , and Tg. Isaiah are reversed, perhaps d u e to M a r k ' s interest in 'sight' as reflected in his t w o restoration-of-sight miracles which bracket his 'Way' section.

9

T h e s e c o n d person forms o f 6:9bc M T and

L X X — t h e latter uses emphatic denials as o p p o s e d to the M T ' s imperatives 6

S e e n o w S h e p h e r d , Sandwich, 1 3 6 . O n ' s o n ( o f G o d ) ' , s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p p . HOff a b o v e . G u n d r y , 1 8 6 , notices this relationship b u t p r i m a r i l y o n the basis of the c o m m o n 'parable' terminology. S e e G n i l k a , Verstockung, 13ff; G u n d r y , Use, 3 3 f ; S t e n d a h l , School, 129ff; E v a n s , See, 1 7 - 8 0 ; a n d n o w S c h n e c k , 102ff. S e e C h a p t e r 8. 7

8

9

The

w h i l e Tg. Isaiah

iva

187

Clause

treats then as relative c l a u s e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r e s e n t

condition o f the people—are altered to third person in k e e p i n g with the narrative

setting

dependence.

1 0

and

so

may

not

necessarily

M a r k ' s dc(>€6f}, as with Tg. Isaiah's

reflect

Targumic

pDW, e x p l i c a t e s t h e

significance o f ' h e a l i n g ' (cf. Isa 33:24) b u t m o r e importantly e c h o e s the threat of 3 : 2 9 .

n

M o s t o f Isaiah 6:10 has also b e e n omitted, p r o b a b l y to

capture the co-ordination o f the iva and

IITJTTOTC

clauses.

12

Although it is

often claimed that the M a r k a n diction is closest to that of Tg. Isaiah,

Mark's

divergences suggest that an assumption o f T a r g u m i c d e p e n d e n c e should be treated with c a u t i o n . c) The iva

13

Clause

M a n y commentators h a v e found the telic force o f 4:12 unacceptably harsh a n d / o r difficult to reconcile with the apparent e m p h a s i s o f the preceding parable (vv. 3-8) and w i t h the injunctions concerning careful hearing (cf. vv. 3, 9, 23, 2 4 ) .

1 4

N u m e r o u s attempts have been m a d e along grammatical

and linguistic lines to resolve these apparent difficulties, suggesting that M a r k ' s i v a is either: shorthand for 'iva TrXr|pa)0rj, Aramaic relative

1 0

I ,

1

6

causal with

Pace M a n s o n , Teaching, 'Outside', 296. 1 1

UTJTTOTC

15

a mistranslation o f the

as ' p e r h a p s ' ,

76ff; C h i l t o n , Galilean,

17

consecutive with

91; Schneck, 104. N o w also Goulder,

C o u r t s , '"Outside"'; s e e fn. 6 5 b e l o w . B l a c k , Aramaic, 214.

1 2

1 3

S e e W e n h a m ' s c r i t i c i s m s , ' S y n o p t i c ' , 2 5 n 5 9 , o f J e r e m i a s , Parables, G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 296f. 1

15, a n d n o w also

4

S e e t h e s u r v e y s i n A m b r o z i c , 6 7 f ; R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 11-20; Klauck, Allegorie, 2 4 5 - 5 5 ; E v a n s , See, 92H; B e a v i s , Audience, 69ff; a n d S c h n e c k , 1 0 5 - 1 3 . 1 5

L a g r a n g e , 9 9 ; S i e g m a n , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; S c h e l k e , ' Z w e c k ' ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 7 . It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t fulfilment a v o i d s t h e i s s u e s i n c e it t o o h a s a telic f o r c e , E v a n s , See, 9 4 , citing M e t z g e r , 'Formulas'. 6

* M a n s o n , Teaching, 7 6 f ; w i t h UT{TTOT€ e i t h e r a s c o n d i t i o n a l o r ' p e r h a p s ' , cf. A r . KD^t. A m i s t r a n s l a t i o n , w h i l e p o s s i b l e , is h i g h l y u n l i k e l y ' s i n c e w h o e v e r r e n d e r e d t h e A r a m a i c s a y i n g ... c e r t a i n l y h a d m o r e difficult c o n s t r u c t i o n s t o c o n t e n d w i t h , a n d c o u l d n e v e r h a v e s u c c e e d e d if t h i s p a r t i c l e ... p r o v e d t o o difficult for h i m c o r r e c t l y t o u n d e r s t a n d ' , C h i l t o n , Rabbi, 9 3 ; cf. B l a c k , Aramaic, 2 1 2 f f ; B u r k i l l , 114ff. B u r k i l l , 1 1 2 f f ; W i n d i s c h , ' V e r s t o c k u n g s i d e e ' ; cf. L a m p e , ' D e u t u n g ' ; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' ; Holzmeister, 'Verstockungszweck'. 1 7

188

Isaiah's

|IT|TTOT€

as ' u n l e s s ' ,

18

Promise

...

Malachi's

imperatival,

19

Threat:

Judicial

or telic but i r o n i c .

Blinding

20

T h e absence o f the

fattening o f the heart clause (Isa 6:10), seen b y s o m e as 'the very basis' o f the h a r d e n i n g theory, is also taken as mitigating the p u r p o s i v e f o r c e . Alternatively, a substantial n u m b e r o f m o r e recent c o m m e n t a t o r s upheld

the ' p u r p o s i v e '

plethora o f alternatives?

intention.

22

21

have

H o w is o n e to decide a m o n g this

G i v e n the overall a p p r o a c h s u g g e s t e d in the

p r e c e d i n g C h a p t e r s o f this b o o k it m a y well b e that M a r k e x p e c t s his readers to h a v e something of the Isaianic context in view. d) Isaiah

6 in

(i) Rebellion

Context as the Precursor

to Isaiah

6

It is generally agreed that Isaiah 1 constitutes the introduction both to the w h o l e w o r k and specifically to chapters 1 - 1 2 . is f o r e s h a d o w e d

as Y a h w e h institutes

faithless p e o p l e (Isa l : 2 f f ) .

24

23

F r o m the outset judgement

legal p r o c e e d i n g s

against

T h e case b e g i n s with a two-fold

his

thematic

statement c o n c e r n i n g the nation's faithlessness and culpable, e v e n wilful, ignorance.

2 5

O n the one h a n d , there is Y a h w e h ' s complaint, as father,

against his rebellious 'sons' 0*3 WWS ... c n 3 , 1:2b) and, on the other, there is a w i s d o m parable citing Israel's failure to understand C|3i3nn 1:3).

26

... 1?T

T

,

T h e i m p r e s s i v e c a t a l o g u e o f c h a r g e s w h i c h follows essentially

details these twin failings. 1

8

P e i s k e r , ' K o n s e k u t i v ' ; Suhl, 1 4 9 ; A n d e r s o n , 1 3 1 ; C h i l t o n , Rabbi, 9 1 - 9 8 , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n 4:11 a n d 4 : 3 3 f (cf. J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 7 f ) ; a n d r a b b i n i c e x e g e s i s , s o S t r - B , 1.662f. C a d o u x , 'Imperatival', 173. 1

9

2

0

2

1

2

2

2

3

2

4

2

5

M o o r e , ' M i c a i a h ' ; cf. H u r t a r d o , 5 9 f ; D a v i s , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 3 4 6 - 5 0 . 196ff, s u g g e s t s t h e v e r s e s h o u l d b e a q u e s t i o n .

Romaniuk, 'Exegese',

K e l b e r , 3 5 ; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 1 0 0 ; f o l l o w i n g M a n s o n , Teaching, 7 8 . E s p e c i a l l y : M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 1 9 - 2 1 ; ' E p i s t e m o l o g y ' ; B e a v i s , Audience, 78ff; E v a n s , See, 9 5 - 1 0 6 ; R a i s a n e n , 8 3 ; G u n d r y , 2 0 2 ; cf. e.g. B o u c h e r , 4 4 f ; G n i l k a , Verstockung, 45-50; B l a c k , Aramaic, 213ff; A m b r o z i c , ' C o n c e p t ' ; K e e , 5 8 ; P e s c h , 1 . 2 3 7 ; S c h n e c k , 1 2 8 . E . g . W i l d b e r g e r , 1.9ff; C l e m e n t s , 2 8 f ; S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 21ff; W a t t s , 1 . 1 0 . O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t 2 : 1 - 4 / 5 o u g h t t o b e i n c l u d e d a l o n g w i t h c h a p t e r 1 in t h e p r o l o g u e , s e e S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 3 0 f f ; A c k r o y d , ' N o t e ' ; T o m a s i n o , ' I s a i a h ' ; a n d t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l in C l e m e n t s a n d W i l d b e r g e r . E . g . N i e l s e n , ' G e r i c h t s ' , 2 7 - 2 9 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.9ff, 7 4 ; W r i g h t , ' L a w s u i t ' ; S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 1 2 0 - 2 3 ; W a t t s , ' F o r m a t i o n ' ; N i d i t c h , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' . C l e m e n t s , a c c e p t i n g t h e l e g a l d i m e n s i o n , d e n i e s t h a t it is c o v e n a n t a l in o r i e n t a t i o n . V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' ; H a m b o r g , ' R e a s o n s ' , 1 5 7 . O s w a l t , Isaiah, 6 6 , s e e s u n f a i t h f u l n e s s t o Y a h w e h a s t h e n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f p r i d e . S e e K a i s e r , 2 . 9 5 , ' w i t h o u t faith Israel d o e s n o t exist'; a n d H a m b o r g , ' R e a s o n s ' , 1 5 7 , for w h o m t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t r e a s o n for j u d g e m e n t of b o t h Israel a n d the nations, a l t h o u g h r e a s o n s for the latter a r e n o t a l w a y s g i v e n , is p r i d e , c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y e s s e n t i a l l y r e l i g i o u s t e r m s : r e v o l t , r e b e l l i o n , o r c o n t e m p t

Rebellion

The

opening

woe

as the Precursor

formula

of

189

to Isaiah 6

verse

4

reiterates

the

nation's

a b a n d o n m e n t o f Y a h w e h w h i l e the c o l l e c t i o n o f o r a c l e s in v e r s e s 5 - 2 0 e m p h a s i s e t h e p e o p l e ' s , a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e r u l e r s ' (v. 1 0 ) , failure u n d e r s t a n d (vv. 5-9).

to

T h e i r intensified religious o b s e r v a n c e (vv. 1 0 - 1 5 ) ,

a p p a r e n t l y to b e interpreted as m i s g u i d e d a t t e m p t s at r e m e d y i n g their present distress, is futile since w h a t Y a h w e h requires is justice (vv. 1 6 f ) .

2 7

H e then invites t h e m to ' r e a s o n t o g e t h e r ' w i t h h i m (vv. 1 8 - 2 0 ) , offering s a l v a t i o n — ' y o u will eat the best o f the l a n d ' (v. 1 9 b ) — i f t h e y repent, b u t a n n i h i l a t i o n — ' y o u w i l l b e e a t e n b y the s w o r d ' (v. 2 0 , cf. v. 9 ) — i f t h e y refuse and continue to disobey. T h e offer, h o w e v e r , s e e m s to fall on deaf ears. In verses 2 1 - 2 3 Y a h w e h l a m e n t s the f a i t h l e s s n e s s o f J e r u s a l e m a n d the r e b e l l i o n o f its r u l e r s , c o n c l u d i n g in v e r s e s 2 4 - 3 1 w i t h an a v o w a l to p u r g e the city.

Although

Y a h w e h p r o c l a i m s that h e will 'separate b e t w e e n the r i g h t e o u s a n d t h e w i c k e d ' , r e d e e m i n g t h e o n e a n d j u d g i n g the o t h e r ,

28

b y far the greater

e m p h a s i s lies o n the utter destruction of sinners and rebels w i t h the final threat b e i n g cast in i m a g e s associated w i t h the d e c a d e n t c u l t ' s terebinth worship (vv. 29-31). S u c h worship, Y a h w e h declares, will turn into sparks that, flaring u p , w i l l c o n s u m e b o t h t h e i d o l a t o r s a n d together.

their

works

29

F o l l o w i n g o n from this i n t r o d u c t i o n , c h a p t e r s 2 - 5 reflect s i m i l a r concerns.

Although expressing some prospect of hope (2:1-4/5; 4 : 2 - 6 )

3 0

they o v e r w h e l m i n g l y constitute a sustained d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i m p e n d i n g doom.

T w o t h e m e s are n o t e w o r t h y .

First, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the intro

duction's c o n c l u s i o n (1:29-31) there is considerable e m p h a s i s o n idolatry and witchcraft (2:6-8, 18-20; 3:3b; cf. 6:12-13). R. E. Clements c o m m e n t s that the ' m o s t striking feature' of s u c h passages 'is their e m p h a s i s ... u p o n the faithlessness and idolatry' and ' u p o n the worship o f i m a g e s a n d the resort

for Y a h w e h ; cf. R o b e r t s , ' D i v i n e ' ; L o v e , 'Call'; a n d V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 1 3 4 f , w h o c i t e s a s e x p r e s s i o n s o f this: c o n t e m p t (3:8f; 2:4f, 2 4 ; cf. 8 : 6 ; 2 8 : 1 2 ; 2 9 : 1 5 f ; 3 0 : 9 - 1 3 , 1 5 ) a n d d e r i s i o n (5:18f) for Y a h w e h , r e b e l l i o n ( 1 : 5 , 2 3 ; cf. 3 0 : 1 ; 3 1 : 6 ) , n e g l e c t o f Y a h w e h ( 1 7 : 1 0 ; 2 2 : 1 1 ) , p r i d e o r b o a s t i n g (2:7ff; 3:16ff; cf. 19:8ff; 10:5ff; 2 2 : 1 5 ; 2 8 : l f f , 14ff), n o t h a v i n g f a i t h ( 7 : 9 ; 2 2 : 1 1 ; 3 1 : 1 ) , a n d b e i n g d i s o b e d i e n t ( l : 1 9 f ; cf. 2 8 : 1 2 ; 3 0 : 9 , 1 5 ) . 2

6

2

7

S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 102ff; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.12ff. Cf. G i t a y , Audience, 31f. S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 1 2 2 . W i l d b e r g e r , 1.72f. O n the delimitation of these particular units, see especially the relevant discussions in W i l d b e r g e r , a n d S w e e n e y , Isaiah. 2

8

2

9

3

0

190

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

to illicit f o r m s o f c u l t u s ' w h i c h is u n d e r s t o o d Jerusalem's destruction.

31

Blinding

to h a v e o c c a s i o n e d

H e n c e , although it is certainly true that o n e of

the major lines o f Y a h w e h ' s indictment o f J u d a h is her injustice, idolatry o r at the v e r y least an i d o l a t r o u s attitude ( w h i c h a r g u a b l y l e a d s to injustice) appears to b e the major c o n c e r n .

32

S e c o n d , the p r i m a r y responsibility for the present state o f affairs rests squarely w i t h the leaders o f J e r u s a l e m (1:10, 23-26; 3:12ff; 5 : 1 8 - 2 4 ) .

33

The

vineyard s o n g (5:1-7) presages the desolation o f the nation, and introduces a series o f w o e s a i m e d primarily at J e r u s a l e m ' s leadership.

T h e scathing

i n d i c t m e n t , in v e r s e 2 4 b , o f the l e a d e r s ' r e p u d i a t i o n

of Yahweh's

i n s t r u c t i o n s u g g e s t s that 'a c o m p l e t e b r e a k w i t h Y a h w e h ' h a s o c c u r r e d (cf. 1 0 : l - 4 ) .

3 4

now

It is hardly surprising, then, that the final w o e

(vv. 25-30) is cast in terms o f a w a r oracle w h i c h describes 'impressively and

graphically

punishment'. unavoidable.

35

an

invading

enemy

who

functions

as

God's

T h e verdict has already b e e n given. Purging j u d g e m e n t is T h e o n l y question n o w c o n c e r n s its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and

this it s e e m s is the point o f the following 'call narrative' o f chapter 6. (ii) Isaiah

6: Ironic

Judgement

on Idolatrous

Wisdom

Given the great difficulty had b y m a n y concerning particularly Isaiah 6:10b, several points should b e observed. Within the present literary structure o f the b o o k , the m a n d a t e in Isaiah 6:9ff presupposes a rebellious, idolatrous, and culpably uncomprehending preceding

material

nation.

is to s h o w

that

The point of the extensive

all o f Y a h w e h ' s a t t e m p t s

at

r e c o n c i l i a t i o n h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y b e e n refused a n d that J u d a h ' s s e v e r e j u d g e m e n t is, therefore, j u s t i f i e d . 3

1

3

2

3

3

36

T h u s , w h e n Y a h w e h appears in his

'Prophecies', 425-428ff, w h i c h p a s s a g e s a r e p e r c e i v e d b y C l e m e n t s to b e later glosses. T h e T a r g u m r e p e a t e d l y clarifies the i d o l a t r o u s c h a r a c t e r of certain actions d e s c r i b e d in t h e H e b r e w t e x t , e.g. Tg. Isa 1:29; 2 : 6 ; 8 : 1 9 ( 2 ) ; 1 7 : 1 1 ; 2 8 : 1 0 , 2 1 ; cf. 5 7 : 5 , 8 ; 6 5 : 3 , 1 1 ; cf. S m o l a r - A u e r b a c h , Studies, 150ff. W h a t e v e r t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n — s e e e.g. J e n s e n ' s c r i t i c i s m s . Use, 4 7 f , 5 3 f , 1 2 3 , o f W h e d b e e , Isaiah—in t e r m s o f a first c e n t u r y p e r s p e c t i v e , i d o l a t r y w a s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s e e n a s t h e p r i m a r y i s s u e , s e e fn. 3 1 a b o v e . In a n y c a s e , t h e u s e o f s u c h i m a g e r y c o u l d well be part of a particularly s h a r p p o l e m i c against the wise w h o s e d i s m i s s a l o f Y a h w e h ' s w o r d t h r o u g h t h e p r o p h e t f o r t h e i r o w n l e a r n e d o p i n i o n s is regarded, by the prophet, as tantamount to idolatry. 2 : 6 - 6:1 is e s p e c i a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t a r r o g a n t l e a d e r s , S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 4 9 ; cf. J e n s e n , Use, 6 5 - 1 0 4 ; C l e m e n t s ; S w e e n y , Isaiah, 3 8 f . Wildberger, 1.213 (here ET). G i t a y , Audience, 116. R a i s a n e n , Hardening, 5 9 , 6 2 ; N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 1 4 ; E v a n s , See, 4 2 . 3

4

3

5

3

6

Isaiah

6: Ironic

Judgement

on Idolatrous

191

Wisdom

T e m p l e to c o m m i s s i o n Isaiah it is first a n d foremost as Z i o n ' s great k i n g (6:l-5)

3 7

b u t n o w in his capacity as holy j u d g e to i m p l e m e n t the sentence

already passed on his apostate p e o p l e .

38

Isaiah's preaching, then, is merely

to effect the verdict o f the divine K i n g b y confirming his hearers in their persistent and wilful i g n o r a n c e and, thereby, ushering t h e m t o w a r d s the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f their rebellion. S e c o n d , in t h e

light of the pre-eminence of idolatry,

it is

not

insignificant that the sentence is couched in terms o f blindness, deafness, and lack o f understanding.

Psalms 115:4-8 and 135:15-18 reflect a tradition

that associates the onset o f these conditions with the practice o f idolatry: 'those w h o trust in idols will b e c o m e like them, t h e y h a v e e a r s b u t t h e y cannot hear, e y e s b u t cannot s e e ' .

3 9

In the two psalms, only ' s e e i n g '

(ntn,

L X X 113:13b; 134:16b, opdo)) and 'hearing' (PIMJ, L X X 113:14a, aKouw; 134:17a, c v c j T i ^ d j i a i ) are in v i e w , but the metaphor is clearly understood later on in Isaiah 44:17f w h e r e blindness and hardness of heart are equated with lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( L X X , v. 1 8 , (VOCO)).

yiyvcjaKco, (t>pov€0))

and

comprehension

4 0

Y a h w e h ' s people, and a b o v e all their leadership, h a v e c h o s e n to reject him for idols. In response, h e suits the punishment to the crime: they are to b e as blind, as deaf, and as incapable of understanding as are their idols. H a v i n g rejected Y a h w e h their m a k e r , h e will n o w confirm t h e m in their decision b y recreating them, as it were, in the image o f the gods they h a v e chosen.

3

7

3

8

3

9

4

0

C o n s e q u e n t l y , Isaiah is c o m m a n d e d to d e c l a r e to the p e o p l e ,

O n t h e k i n g s h i p o f Y a h w e h i n I s a i a h , E i s s f e l d t , ' J a h w e ' ; M a a g , Malkut , 1 2 9 f f ; G r a y , 'Kingship'; Liebreich, 'Position'; Mettinger, ' Y H W H ' ; Roberts, 'Divine'; a n d D u m b r e l l , ' W o r s h i p ' ; cf. t h e b r o a d e r t h e o l o g i c a l m o t i f in O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion. K n i e r i m , ' V o c a t i o n ' , 5 5 f f ; G r a y , 1 . 1 0 9 ; cf. R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 3 1 2 . I n h i s s e c t i o n o n t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t o f I s a 6:9f, S c h n e c k , 1 1 4 - 2 3 , d e v o t e s m o s t o f h i s s t u d y t o t h e m e a n i n g o f 6 : 1 3 in w h i c h h e d e t e c t s a n i n d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e D a v i d i c k i n g s h i p ( = ' s e e d ' ; cf. s e e d in M k 4 ) b u t p a y s a l m o s t n o a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e t t i n g w h i c h I s a 1-5 p r o v i d e s for c h . 6 . Later, however, he notes the prominence of the preceding confrontations. Dr. G. Beale, G o r d o n - C o n w e l l T h e o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r y lectures ' O T in the N T ' , Fall 1985; see n o w Beale, 'Taunt'. Opinions on the dating of Ps 1 1 5 a r e divided: Mowinckel, Psalmenstudien, a n d W e i s e r , Psalms, s u g g e s t late pre-exilic o r early post-exilic, while Preufi, Verspottung; a n d K r a u s , Psalmen, o n a c c o u n t o f t h e s e v e r y v e r s e s s e e it l a t e r t h a n t h e a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c s o f I s a 4 0 - 5 5 . P s 1 3 5 is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s l a t e ( e x c e p t W e i s e r w h o s e e s it a s p r e - e x i l i c ) o n t h e b a s i s o f l i n g u i s t i c f e a t u r e s a n d w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e e x t e n s i v e b o r r o w i n g from other literature. C f . B o t t e r w e c k , TWAT, 3 . 4 8 7 , 4 9 1 f . W a t t s , l.liif, n o t e s t h a t g r o u p i n g s o f a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e w o r d s 'know, understand, hear, see, a n d turn' o c c u r in 5 : 2 0 f ( ? ) , 6:9f, a r e m o s t f r e q u e n t in c h a p t e r s 2 8 - 3 0 , a n d a p p e a r in c h a p t e r s 3 7 - 3 9 .

192

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

'Listen b u t do not perceive, look but do not understand'. His preaching is to ' m a k e the heart o f this people fat, their ears heavy, and their eyes dim, lest they s e e with their eyes, hear with their ears, and turn and b e h e a l e d ' (6:9f).

T h a t this blinding and deafening is an ironic j u d g e m e n t u p o n the

nation's idolatrous condition appears confirmed when her salvation, c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y restoration o f sight, hearing, and u n d e r s t a n d i n g (e.g. 29:18f; 32:1; 35:5), involves a concurrent rejection of idols (2:20; 17:7f; 27:9; 4

30:22; 31:7). * Third, n o t only does the language o f seeing and hearing in association w i t h heart, u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and c o m p r e h e n s i o n t e r m i n o l o g y h a v e links with anti-idol p o l e m i c s but such expressions are also the tupoi

of A N E

w i s d o m traditions (note the appearance o f a w i s d o m parable at the outset of the lawsuit, 1:3). T h e relationship between hearing, understanding, and the heart c a n b e found, as M . L i c h t e i m n o t e d , as far b a c k as the O l d K i n g d o m o f ancient Egypt, w h e r e for e x a m p l e o n e finds ' H e w h o hears is beloved o f god, h e w h o m god hates does not hear. T h e heart m a k e s o f its o w n e r a hearer or n o n - h e a r e r ' .

42

T h e w i s d o m connotations o f this language are particularly appropriate given the central role of J e r u s a l e m ' s l e a d e r s h i p .

43

Set in the context of

J e r u s a l e m ' s crisis in the face o f foreign invasion, the p i c t u r e is o f the J u d a h ' s ' w i s e ' ones w h o refuse to accept Y a h w e h ' s instruction or teaching (rnin 1:10; 5:24b; cf. 3 0 : 9 ) ,

44

w h o scoff at the prophet's w a r n i n g s (5:19; cf.

28:9-14, 2 2 ) , and instead increasingly rely on the nations and their idols as

4

1

4

2

4

3

4

4

Beale, T a u n t ' .

Ancient, 7 4 ; a l s o B r u n n e r , Altagyptische, o n t h e h e a r t , HOf, o n h e a r i n g , 131ff. If a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h e a r t is t h e gift o f t h e g o d o n e w o r s h i p s t h e n it m a y f o l l o w t h a t i d o l a t o r s r e c e i v e a h e a r t c o m m e n s u r a t e w i t h t h a t of t h e i r g o d . O n t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n a n d I s r a e l i t e w i s d o m , W h y b r a y , Wisdom. E v a n s , See, 2 4 - 5 2 , h a s a n e x t e n d e d s u r v e y o n o b d u r a c y t e x t s in I s a i a h a n d t h e O T , b u t fails t o n o t e t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e i t h e r w i s d o m o r idolatry. O n w i s d o m in I s a i a h 1 - 3 9 : F i c h t n e r , ' J e s a j a ' , 7 5 - 8 0 ; L i n d b l o m , ' W i s d o m ' , 1 9 2 - 2 0 4 ; M a r t i n - A c h a r d , ' S a g e s s e ' , 1 3 7 - 4 4 ; B l a n c h e t t e , ' W i s d o m ' ; M c K a n e , Prophets; W i l d b e r g e r , 1.188f; e s p e c . W h e d b e e , Isaiah; a n d J e n s e n , Use. T h e t e r m s h o u l d n o t p e r h a p s b e r e s t r i c t e d s o l e l y t o a r e g u l a t i v e c o d e . J e n s e n , Use, 1 3 5 , s e e s m m a s r e f e r r i n g g e n e r a l l y t o t h e w i s d o m o f Y a h w e h (cf. p a r a l l e l w i t h m m ' - D l (2:3) a n d mm (2:5)) a n d not a particular b o d y of law, a l t h o u g h s u c h a m o n o c h r o m a t i c a p p r o a c h m a y n o t b e j u s t i f i e d if s o m e f o r m o f c o v e n a n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o Y a h w e h is p r e s u m e d b y t h e p r o p h e t ; s e e n o w K i t c h e n , 'Fall'. T h e c r u c i a l d i s t i n c t i v e is t h e d i v i n e authority that attaches to m i n , whether formulated as law, taught by priest, or a n n o u n c e d b y p r o p h e t ; cf. G u t b r o d , TDNT, 4 . 1 0 4 4 f f ; S c h a r b e r t , LTK, 4 . 8 1 6 ; a l s o 1:10; 5 : 2 4 b ; 3 0 : 9 ; a l s o 9 : 7 - 1 2 ; 22:12ff (cf. v v . 1 5 - 2 5 ) ; 2 8 : l f f (cf. 29:15ff).

Judgement

Effected:

The Encounter

with

193

Ahaz

they formulate foreign policy (7:9-13; cf. 2:22; 28:15; 30:1-5 (6f); 3 1 : l - 3 ) .

4 5

Nevertheless, Y a h w e h ' s purposes will be accomplished (10:12-19; 19:3-11; n*i?: 5:19; cf. 19:17; 2 5 : 1 ; and W.

14:24, 26f; 19:12; 23:9) and the leaders'

rejection o f his w i s d o m brings their ruin u p o n t h e m (7:12-20; 10:5ff; cf. 14:24ff; 30:lff; 31:lff). T h e y are condemned to b e incompetent, that is, blind and deaf (6:9ff, cf. 28:9-14; 29:9-21), and hence to p u r s u e policies that will result in the devastation o f the land and exile (1:3; 5:13a; chs. 7-8; cf. 29:15ff; 30:1-5,12-17; 31:1-3). T h e conjunction o f judicial blindness and deafness, anti-idol polemics, and w i s d o m l a n g u a g e is, therefore, closely b o u n d up with the p e o p l e ' s idolatrous wisdom.

s t a n c e o v e r a g a i n s t the p r o p h e t ' s r e v e l a t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s M o r e specifically, the issue turns on their leaders' reliance on a

c o u n s e l for the future

preservation

o f J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is, at

dependent on the idolatrous outlook of the s u r r o u n d i n g n a t i o n s .

46

heart, Such

a course can only lead to disaster. (in) The Judgement It is h a r d l y

Effected:

The Encounter

with

Ahaz

c o - i n c i d e n t a l that Y a h w e h ' s c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f Isaiah

to

i m p l e m e n t the divine verdict is i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y an e n c o u n t e r with the nation's ultimate leader, A h a z (7:lff).

A h a z ' s 'pious' rejection o f

Y a h w e h ' s w o r d is not only paradigmatic, but also provides the archetypal illustration

of how

the

prophet's

message

confirms

unbelieving and idolatrous authorities in their b l i n d n e s s .

the

nation's

47

T h e form of Y a h w e h ' s word to A h a z is also significant. It is expressed primarily t h r o u g h the parabolic n a m e s o f the p r o p h e t ' s

4

'sign-children'

5

F o r K a i s e r , ' V e r k i i n d i g u n g ' , c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h f o r e i g n p o w e r s a n d t h e i r d e i t i e s is a r e f u g e o f f a l s e h o o d s , cf. 2 8 : 1 4 - 1 8 . 4 6 W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 1 4 4 f , s e e s t h e d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r Y a h w e h ' s c o u n s e l is in f a c t w i s e , w h e r e a s f o r J e n s e n , Use, 5 3 f , cf. 122ff, it is w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p r o p h e t h a d a s p e c i a l insight into Y a h w e h ' s p l a n w h i c h the w i s e t h e m s e l v e s did not h a v e . T h u s for Jensen, 5 7 , the 'signs' of chs. 7-8 a r e intended to c o u n t e r the rational a r g u m e n t s of the wise, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y it is b e c a u s e t h e c o u n s e l l o r s r e c o g n i s e d t h a t if Y a h w e h ' s nî? c o u l d b e k n o w n they w o u l d h a v e to yield, that their fault of v o l u n t a r y blindness to the light a l r e a d y o f f e r e d is s o c u l p a b l e . F r o m t h e l i t e r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n h e r e , a r g u m e n t s a s t o t h e s e c o n d a r y n a t u r e o f c o n t r a r y t e x t s (e.g. 3 1 : 2 , J e n s e n , Use, 5 2 n 3 1 ) a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e . In a n y c a s e it m a y w e l l b e t h a t b o t h m a t t e r s w e r e a t issue, a s J e n s e n s e e m s a l m o s t t o a d m i t , 5 5 . Cf. also M a r t i n - A c h a r d , 'Sagesse'. 4

7

L i e b r e i c h , ' P o s i t i o n ' , in p a r t i c u l a r s e e s Isa 6 : 9 f i m p l e m e n t e d in A h a z ' b l i n d selfr e l i a n c e a n d h i s c o n s e q u e n t j u d g e m e n t ; cf. S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 4 8 ; J e n s e n , Use, 5 7 ; N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 7, 9ff; S t e c k , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' , 198ff; ' B e i t r a g e ' , 1 6 1 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 6 4 6 f .

194

Isaiah's

(8:18)

48

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

w h i c h function as proleptic testimonies to the nature and certainty

of Y a h w e h ' s future intervention (7:11, 14; 7:3, and 8:3).

H o w e v e r , the

crucial e l e m e n t is that Y a h w e h ' s w o r d b e h e a r d with faith. hearer's

response

blessing or c u r s e .

49

that

alone determines

whether

It is the

Immanuel

means

T h e preceding chapters indicate, h o w e v e r , that Ahaz,

a l o n g w i t h his officials and the b u l k o f the nation, h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y rejected the w o r d o f Y a h w e h .

Their continued—but in the light o f their

previous responses hardly unexpected—rejection o f the offer o f salvation ensures that the proffered salvation o f ' G o d - w i t h - u s ' b e c o m e s a w o r d o f devastating j u d g e m e n t (iv)

50

(7:170).

Summary

Isaiah 6:9f introduces one o f the m o r e significant motifs o f chapters 1-39: ' t h e e n i g m a o f o b d u r a c y to Y a h w e h ' s offer ( w h i c h ) r u n s t h r o u g h w h o l e o f Isaiah's a c t i v i t y ' .

51

the

Presupposing a recalcitrant nation, Y a h w e h ' s

judicial blinding o f the leadership as projected in 6:9ff is to b e understood in terms o f an ironic j u d g e m e n t u p o n the self-reliant w i s d o m o f those w h o h a v e rejected his word.

T h e blatant refusal o f the nation's wise ones

to attend to Y a h w e h ' s instruction precedes and occasions Isaiah's mandate. This m a n d a t e , effected by m e a n s of parabolic 'child-signs', then serves to confirm t h e m , archetypically so in A h a z , in their rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s word.

T r a p p e d in their o w n w i s d o m , the leaders will remain ' b l i n d ' and

' d e a f , w h i c h condition will ultimately lead to their d e s t r u c t i o n . e) Mark's

Beelzebul

(i) Isaiah

Controversy

and the Beelzebul

and the Parables

52

Chapter

Controversy

It is readily apparent that M a r k ' s account of Israel's religious authorities a n d their r e s p o n s e to J e s u s e x h i b i t s c l o s e parallels to the situation in Isaiah.

A s w e h a v e a r g u e d in the p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r , t h e B e e l z e b u l

altercation in M a r k 3 constitutes the literary c l i m a x o f t h e p r e c e d i n g

4

8

N i e l s e n , ' D r a m a t i c ' , 12ff; J e n s e n , Use, 1 0 9 f ; cf. p a r a l l e l u s e o f n1» a n d D^ttto in E z e k

14:8. 4

9

H a s e l , Remnant, 2 8 5 - 8 7 ; E v a n s , ' C o n t e x t ' , 1 4 2 . S t e c k , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' , 199f; C l e m e n t s , 8 9 . v o n R a d , Theology, 2.154f. T h u s b o t h the 'because' a n d the 'purpose' senses a r e valid since they a r e t w o sides of t h e o n e c o i n . S e e n f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , Tg. Isa's r e l a t i v e c l a u s e m e r e l y r e c o g n i s e s t h a t this condition a l r e a d y prevails a m o n g the people. Rabbinic interpretations of Isa 6:9f a r e m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m i t i g a t i n g t h e t e x t ' s s e v e r i t y , E v a n s , See, 1 3 7 - 4 5 . 5

0

5

1

5

2

Isaiah

and

the

Beelzebul

195

Controversy

confrontations b y bringing to a h e a d the question o f J e s u s ' identity and the d i v e r s e r e s p o n s e s o f v a r i o u s g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , the hostility o f t h e scribes

from

Jerusalem.

5 3

T h e latter's r e p u d i a t i o n o f J e s u s , it w a s

suggested, recalls Isaiah 6 3 ' s recounting of the rebellion o f Israel in the first E x o d u s with the implication that Y a h w e h n o w b e c o m e s their e n e m y ( M k 3:29, cf. Isa 63:10). It w a s also proposed that M a r k ' s 'Parables C h a p t e r ' is intended to e x p l a i n t h e significance o f J e s u s ' parabolic r e s p o n s e .

54

This

section will argue that the appeal to Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 , given the Isaianic c o n t e x t n o t e d a b o v e , n o t o n l y p r o v i d e s the interpretative link b e t w e e n these two M a r k a n passages but, in light of Malachi's warning, articulates a prior O T hermeneutic for the response o f Israel's leaders to J e s u s . T o begin, certain features in M a r k 3:20-35 are noteworthy.

5 5

A s already

observed o n several occasions, the controversy c o m e s as the capstone, not only to a series o f J e s u s ' 'mighty w o r d s and deeds', b u t also to a consistent pattern o f questioning and rejection b y various leadership groups. although in 3:6 the Pharisees and the Herodians plot J e s u s ' d e a t h ,

Second, 56

this is

the first time o p e n rejection surfaces (3:22). Third, it is also the first time that the officials a r e d e s c r i b e d as c o m i n g 'from J e r u s a l e m ' , implicating the national centre.

thereby

Finally, this climactic c o n t r o v e r s y gives

rise to M a r k ' s first explicit statement that Jesus spoke kv TTapapoXat?.

5

3

5

4

5

5

5

6

5

7

57

See K e e g a n , 'Leaders', for a s u r v e y of v i e w s o n Mark's presentation of t h e g e o g r a p h ical r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s c r i b e s a n d t h e P h a r i s e e s . I s a 6 3 , a f t e r r e c a l l i n g I s r a e l ' s g r i e v i n g o f G o d ' s H o l y Spirit a t t h e E x o d u s , g o e s o n in v . 1 7 t o l a m e n t G o d ' s p r e s e n t h a r d e n i n g o f t h e i r h e a r t (cf. I s a 6 : 1 0 ) . G i v e n t h a t G o d ' s h a r d e n i n g j u d g e m e n t c o m e s o n h i s p e o p l e w h e n t h e y b e c o m e h i s e n e m i e s (cf. I s a 1:24 a n d 6 : 1 0 ; P s 9 5 : 8 f f ) , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e s a m e m o t i f p e r t a i n s h e r e . I n t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y , t h e l e a d e r s w h o h a v e s e e n Y a h w e h ' s w o r k , n e v e r t h e l e s s , reject it a n d s o g r i e v e his H o l y Spirit (3:29a). Y a h w e h then b e c o m e s their e n e m y (3:29b) w h i c h leads to t h e motifs of blinding, h a r d e n i n g of the heart, etc. (4:12). A l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e e n t e r e d i n t o h e r e , it s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e w h o l e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e fulfilment o f a p a r t i c u l a r O T t e x t is ' u n d e r s t o o d ' b y t h e N T a u t h o r s often f o u n d e r s o n a c o n f u s i o n o v e r w h a t 'fulfilment' m e a n s . If a n y t h i n g , t h e u s e o f e.g. H o s 11:1 in M t 2 : 1 5 o r t h e w a y i n J e s u s is s e e n a s 'fulfilling' t h e L a w ( M t 5 : 1 7 ; cf. R o m 1 0 : 4 ) o u g h t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e N T a u t h o r s a r e o p e r a t i n g w i t h a c o n c e p t i o n o f fulfilment w h i c h a s s u m e s the p a r a d i g m a t i c o r typological significance of the O T — a s Y a h w e h h a d d o n e h e w o u l d d o a g a i n ; a s p e r e.g. F o u l k e s , Acts; D o d d , According, 127ff—rather than the m o r e c o m m o n l y a s s u m e d literal p r e d i c t i o n . T h i s m a y b e t h e i m p e t u s for t h e i m p l i e d e l e c t i o n o f a n e w l e a d e r s h i p i n 3 : 1 3 - 1 9 ; e.g. C r a n f i e l d , 1 2 7 ; R e n g s t o r f , TDNT, 2.326; Schweizer; Lane; Guelich. Pesch, 1.204n4, d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o L X X I s a 4 3 : 1 a n d 4 4 : 2 e t c . w h e r e c o n c e r n i n g I s r a e l it r e a d s : 6 Qebg 6 TToniaas* a c , cf. L k 2 2 : 3 0 ; J e r v e l l , ' T w e l v e ' . O n n e w c r e a t i o n in I s a i a h , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 5 , fn. 9 2 . A l s o n o w G u n d r y , 1 8 1 . J e s u s m a y u s e p a r a b l e s e a r l i e r , e.g. 2:21 f, b u t 3:20ff m a r k s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n t h e i r f u n c t i o n , s e e b e l o w . O n t h e b r e a d t h o f t h e p a r a b l e genre a n d t h e

196

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

T h e parallels w i t h the Isaiah context are significant.

First, given the

n a t u r e o f the w i s d o m debates in Isaiah, it is n o t e w o r t h y that the m o s t p r o m i n e n t o p p o n e n t s o f J e s u s are the scribes, w h o are m e n t i o n e d alone (1:22; 2:6; 3:22; 9 : 1 1 , 14; 12:28, 3 8 ) , with the Pharisees (2:16; 7:15), the chief priests (10:33; 11:18; 14:1; 15:31), and the elders and chief priests (8:31; 11:27; 14:43, 5 3 ; 1 5 : 1 ) .

58

T h e y w e r e professionally c o n c e r n e d with the L a w and

had at least three duties: A ) to interpret and elaborate the L a w appropriate to the t i m e s ; B ) to instruct s t u d e n t s , a n d C ) to p a r t i c i p a t e in j u d i c i a l activities.

5 9

T h u s , they h a d a significant role as the n a t i o n ' s advisers,

analogous to the ' w i s e ' in Isaiah's day. S e c o n d , just as I s a i a h ' s p o l e m i c s w e r e directed primarily against the c o u n s e l l o r s and the leaders o f J e r u s a l e m , so too M a r k n o t e s that these scribes are 'from J e r u s a l e m ' .

T h i r d , in Isaiah the confrontation b e t w e e n

Y a h w e h and the leaders is set within the context of his divine kingship.

In

M a r k the overall context is the proclamation o f Y a h w e h ' s reign in terms of the a d v e n t o f the K i n g d o m o f G o d as Y a h w e h c o m e s 'in strength', the parables c o n c e r n the k i n g d o m , and the B e e l z e b u l debate itself is cast in terms w h i c h imply kingdoms ( M k l:14f; 4 : 1 1 , 2 6 , 3 0 ; cf. 3 : 2 4 ) .

60

Fourth, in

the b o o k o f Isaiah the leaders' hostility toward, and rejection of, Y a h w e h ' s instruction w a s the presupposition S i m i l a r l y in M a r k , the o p p o s i t i o n

o f the j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g o f Isaiah 6. to J e s u s a n d

the c r i t i c i s m o f his

teachings and deeds, which h a d been building for s o m e t i m e but are n o w out in the open, provide the immediate context o f J e s u s ' use o f the judicial blinding m o t i f o f Isaiah 6 .

6 1

Fifth, and finally, in both cases this considered

rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s word, whether spoken b y the prophet or revealed by Jesus, is explicitly met with parabolic forms of c o m m u n i c a t i o n (Isaiah 7:lff; M a r k 3:23).

c o n s e q u e n t d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f i n i t i o n s e e B o w k e r , ' M y s t e r y ' ; B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , 64ff; M i n e t t e - T i l l e s s e , Secret, 2 0 1 - 1 6 ; B o u c h e r , 17ff; D r u r y , ' S o w e r ' , 375ff, a n d Parables, 7 - 3 8 , a n d passim. 5

8

5

9

Osten-Sacken, 'Streitgesprach', 376-81; Kingsbury, 'Religious', 4 6 ; Smith, ' O p p o n e n t s ' , 1 6 7 . O n s c r i b e s a n d e s o t e r i c w i s d o m , J e r e m i a s , Jerusalem, 237-43. N o t e also the p r e s e n c e o f ' t w o p a i r s o f p a r a l l e l w i s d o m s a y i n g s ' in 4 : 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 4 - 2 5 , B o u c h e r , 5 3 . G n i l k a , 1 . 7 9 ; S a l d a r i n i , ' P h a r i s e e s ' , 1 0 , c i t e d in M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 2 6 5 . G u n d r y , 3 5 7 , o b s e r v e s t h a t ' t h e w i s d o m o f J e r u s a l e m i t e s w a s w e l l k n o w n ' , cf. Lam. Rab. 1.1 § 4 . Cf. S c h n e c k , 1 2 3 . S o a l s o G n i l k a , Verstochung, 205; Mann, 264; and n o w Schneck, 127. 6

0

6

1

Israel's

(ii) Israels

Leaders

Leaders

and Blinding

and Blinding

197

Judgement

Judgement

Given these parallels, it is worth noting that there are also several striking similarities b e t w e e n M a r k 3:20-35 and 4 : l - 3 4 :

62

A ) both passages contrast those w h o are 'outside' with those w h o are 'around' Jesus (3:21, 31ff; 4 : 1 0 f ) ,

63

B ) b o t h p a s s a g e s c o n c e r n k i n g d o m s , in that 3:24 i m p l i e s S a t a n ' s kingdom while 4:11 speaks o f the kingdom of G o d , C ) both the Scribes from Jerusalem in 3:23a and the outsiders in 4:11 are addressed in parables, D ) b o t h passages h a v e w a r n i n g s concerning non-forgiveness (3:29; 4:12c),

64

Given the literary proximity o f the two passages, these similarities strongly suggest that M a r k ' s account of the teaching on the p u r p o s e o f the parables flows directly out of J e s u s ' parabolic response to the open repudiation o f his exorcisms b y the Jerusalem Scribes. In the light o f t h e p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n the I s a i a n i c contexts,

6 6

6 5

and

Markan

the appeal to Isaiah 6:9f suggests that the judicial b l i n d i n g

effected b y J e s u s ' parables (whether understood narrowly as his w o r d s or inclusive o f his actions, cf. T O : uavja 6

v. l i b

6 7

) c o n c e r n s those w h o h a v e

2

O n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f 4 : 1 - 3 4 s e e e.g. S t a n d a e r t , 2 0 1 - 1 8 ; D e w e y , 1 4 7 - 5 2 ; L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 86ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 221 ( w h o follows Dupont, T r a n s m i s s i o n ' ) ; Beavis, Audience, 133ff; F a y , ' I n t r o d u c t i o n ' . 6

3

6

4

6

5

6

6

6

7

Cf. n o w G u n d r y , 1 9 6 .

A m b r o z i c , 5 3 f ; C o u t t s , ' " O u t s i d e " ' ( w h o a s n o t e d a b o v e s e e s 4 : 1 2 ' s d<j>€8fj r e f l e c t i n g 3 : 2 9 ) ; C e r f a u x , ' c o n n a i s s a n c e ' ; F a r r e r , Study, 2 4 0 ; F u s c o , Parola, 2 4 7 . T w o o t h e r Isaianic influences o n M k 4:1-34 h a v e been suggested. E v a n s , 'Isaianic', s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i d e a o f t h e r e m n a n t in 6 : 1 3 a n d t h e m e t a p h o r o f w o r d a s s e e d in 5 5 : 1 0 - 1 1 ' p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a skillfully (sic) d e v e l o p e d m i d r a s h ' w h i c h ' a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d of M a r k ' s t h e o l o g y o f t h e c r o s s ' e x p r e s s e s t h e Isaianic t h e o l o g y : ' o u t o f j u d g e m e n t c o m e s sal v a t i o n ' , 466f. A p a r t f r o m q u e s t i o n s a s t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Isa 6 : 1 3 , o n e is h a r d - p r e s s e d t o find t h e c o n c e p t o f r e m n a n t in 4 : l f f w h i l e t h e t h e o l o g y o f s a l v a t i o n o u t o f j u d g e m e n t is h a r d l y u n i q u e t o I s a i a h . W i l l i a m s , Gospel, 4 6 , a l s o p i c k s u p o n t h e i d e a o f J e s u s ' d e a t h p o i n t i n g t o I s a 5 3 : 1 0 ('he s h a l l s e e h i s s e e d ' ) s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s e e d t h a t is s o w n is t h e S o n of M a n . G i v e n t h a t t h e o n l y s u b s t a n t i v e link is t h e w o r d ' s e e d ' a n d e v e n t h e n it is u s e d in different s e n s e s — a g r i c u l t u r a l v e r s u s g e n e a l o g i c a l — W i l l i a m s ' s u g g e s t i o n is t e n u o u s . G u n d r y , 1 9 8 , states that 'Mark d o e s n o t inform his audience that the O T l a n g u a g e of G o d is b e i n g u s e d ( c o n t r a s t 1 : 2 - 3 ; 7 : 6 - 7 ; 1 4 : 2 7 ) ; s o t h e e m p h a s i s r e s t s s o l e l y o n t h e o b s c u r a t i v e p u r p o s e a s s u c h ' . A p a r t f r o m it b e i n g u n c l e a r w h e t h e r G u n d r y ' s c o n c l u s i o n n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w s , t h e fact r e m a i n s t h a t u n t o l d n u m b e r s o f r e a d e r s h a v e s e e n h e r e a v e r y c l o s e r e n d e r i n g o f t h e O T p a s s a g e , a n d it is t h e r e f o r e s t r a n g e t o s u g g e s t t h a t n o n e of M a r k ' s readers would h a v e m a d e the s a m e connection. B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , 6 1 f f ; B o u c h e r , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 5 6 , 109-11; and the l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 6 3 , fn. 1 3 2 . G u n d r y , 2 0 0 , a r g u e s t h a t ra T\dvia r e f e r s o n l y

198

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

steadfastly rejected Y a h w e h ' s delivering activity manifest in J e s u s .

68

If so,

then the j u d g e m e n t in 4 : l l f is directed against those religious authorities, particularly the ones 'from J e r u s a l e m ' but also p r e s u m a b l y the others w h o h a v e p l o t t e d his d e a t h in M k 3:6 (v. 5: ' h a r d n e s s o f heart'), w h o categor ically o p p o s e d themselves to J e s u s in 3 : 2 0 - 3 5 most implacable enemies.

7 0

69

and w h o h a v e b e c o m e his

Just as in the past Y a h w e h had refused to

c o u n t e n a n c e forgiveness (Isa 2:9b; 6:10; cf. e.g. l:24f, 2 8 , 3 1 ; etc.), so also h a v i n g c o m e u n d e r the ultimate sanction for attributing the activity o f the H o l y Spirit to Beelzebul (Mk 3 : 2 9 )

71

these leaders are n o w the ' o u t s i d e r s '

for w h o m the parables function as j u d g e m e n t ( M k 4:12c; cf. 1 2 : 9 ) .

73

72

Here

too, I m m a n u e l — t h i s time expressed in terms of Y a h w e h ' s I N E presence— b e c o m e s a w o r d of j u d g e m e n t w h e n not met with repentance and faith. O n this line of thinking, the i va clause is clearly purposive. As J u d a h ' s rebellious rulers had

been confirmed

in t h e

consequences of

their

u n w a v e r i n g refusal to accept Y a h w e h ' s plan, so too in Mark. T h e nation's present leaders, w h o in the 'blindness' of their 'idolatrous w i s d o m '

7 4

have

t o M k 4's k i n g d o m p a r a b l e s a n d n o t h i n g else. H o w e v e r , a s is e v i d e n t in o u r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s a n d in p a r t i c u l a r h i s e x o r c i s m s w h i c h a r e , a f t e r all, t h e c a t a l y s t for M a r k ' s ' p a r a b l e s c h a p t e r ' , t h e s e a c t i o n s c l e a r l y h a v e a p a r a b o l i c d i m e n s i o n . ° S e e a l s o C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 152ff. Cf. C o u t t s , ' " O u t s i d e " ' ; B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 6 8 ; a l s o H u b a u t , ' p a r a b o l e s ' ; M y e r s , Binding, 1 7 3 . T h i s a l s o e x p l a i n s M a t t h e w 1 3 : 1 3 ' s o n . Pace M a n s o n , ' M a r k ' , 1 3 3 f , J e s u s ' u s e o f p a r a b l e s in t h i s s e n s e m o r e i m i t a t e s t h a n transcends the prophet's earlier 'failure'—where m u c h d e p e n d s on w h a t one r e g a r d s as failure. E v a n s , w h o h a s d o n e t h e m o s t w o r k o n t h e I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t , fails t o c o n s i d e r t h e p r e c e d i n g B e e l z e b u l p e r i c o p e in his d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t of M k 4 , See, 1 0 1 - 3 . 8

6

9

7

0

O t h e r s h a v e a l r e a d y p l o t t e d a g a i n s t J e s u s in 3 : 6 b u t t h e k e y i s s u e h e r e is t h a t J e s u s ' r e j e c t i o n is n o w officially in t h e o p e n a n d , m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y g i v e n t h e c i t y ' s t h e o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , it c a r r i e s t h e i m p r i m a t u r o f J e r u s a l e m . Light, 7 1

K i n g s b u r y , ' R e l i g i o u s ' ; M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 2 7 0 f ; A m b r o z i c , 5 6 - 6 2 ; b u t cf. B u r k i l l , 216ff, o n the Pharisees.

Pace G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 8 0 , w h o s e e s J e s u s ' s t o p p i n g s h o r t of s u c h j u d g e m e n t . O t h e r s u g g e s t i o n s h a v e been: n o n - d i s c i p l e s ( B e h m , TDNT, 2 . 5 7 6 ; M e y e , ' T h o s e ' ) ; n o n C h r i s t i a n s ( N i n e h a m , 2 3 7 f ) ; n o n - i n i t i a t e s ( S m i t h , Secret, 2 3 6 ) ; old Israel (Gnilka, Verstockung, 8 5 ) ; s e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n in B e a v i s , Audience, 70-75. E v a n s , ' N o t e ' , in p a r t i c u l a r o b s e r v e s t h a t b o t h I s a i a h a n d J e s u s s p e a k a w o r d o f o b d u r a c y in t h e c o n t e x t o f Israel's j u d g e m e n t ; cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; F a r r e r , Study, 240ff; C o u t t s , '"Outside"'; C e r f a u x , 'connaissance'; T r o c m e , 'Parables', 462f; Boobyer, 'Redaction', 68f; F u s c o , Parola, 2 2 8 ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 - 9 5 ; K l a u c k , Allegorie, 248; Trocme\ 'Parables', 460. B o u c h e r , 8 2 , is c o r r e c t t o s e e t h e ' o u t s i d e r s ' in 4:1 I f a s r e p r e s e n t i n g J u d a i s m o n l y i n t h e limited sense implied b y 12:lff w h i c h depicts the r e m o v a l of Israel's p r e s e n t leadership. Pace C h i l t o n , Galilean, 97f, 4:1 I f is n o t m e r e l y a ' t e m p e r a m e n t a l i r a s c i b i l i t y . . . d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t o u t s i d e r s a n d i n s i d e r s a l i k e ' w h i c h s e e k s 'to s h a m e t h e m i n t o a m o r e p o s i t i v e appreciation of his message'. O n t h i s m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e o f ' i d o l a t r y ' , s e e C h a p t e r 8 . Pace J o h n s o n , ' T h e m e ' , 2 3 0 , M a r k ' s a p p l i c a t i o n o f b l i n d n e s s is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h O T a n d N T p r a c t i c e . I n v i e w o f t h e link 7

2

7

3

7

4

The

Crowds,

Outsiders,

and

199

Insiders

spurned G o d ' s w i s d o m for their o w n reasonings (cf. 6 i a X o y i £ € a 9 a i in 2:6ff, 11:31) and rejected the inbreaking I N E reign o f Y a h w e h in Jesus (l:14f), are confirmed in their 'blindness' and thereby given over to their r u i n .

75

That

this is so seems supported, for example, not only by the use o f the censure of Isaiah 29:13 in M a r k 7 b u t also b y M a r k 12:12 (cf. Isa 5:lff!).

The

' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' o f the c h i e f p r i e s t s , s c r i b e s , and e l d e r s ( 1 1 : 2 7 ) ,

who

perceive that the vineyard parable is 'told against them', actually sets their self-destruction in train since w h a t matters is not m e r e perception b u t a perception that leads to the r e p e n t a n c e a n d faith called for b y J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t in M a r k 1:15:

H C T C X V O C I T C

Kai

T U < J T € U € T € .

7

6

They n o w face a n e w and p e r h a p s final eschatological exile (see Chapter 9 on the use o f Isa 5:lff imagery in M k 12:lff; cf. M k 13). (Hi) The Crowds,

Outsiders,

H o w e v e r , this ' p u r p o s i v e '

and

Insiders

s e n s e raises difficulties largely d u e to the

uncertain status o f the c r o w d in 4:1 and of the ' t h e m ' in 4:33f. T h e 'insideroutsider' terminology (3:31ff) and the distinction implied in 4:10f and 4:33f together suggest that the groups in 4:1 and 4:33f are o u t s i d e r s .

77

But h o w is

this to b e reconciled with M a r k ' s m o r e positive treatment of the c r o w d s elsewhere in the gospel (e.g. 3:32ff; 6:34; 7:14), let alone the injunctions to hear (4:3, 9, cf. vv. 2 3 f ) ?

78

This long-recognised p r o b l e m derives primarily

b e t w e e n idols a n d d e m o n s ( C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 7 ) , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f b l i n d n e s s t o I s r a e l ' s h o s t i l e leadership m a y support Robinson's suggestion, 35-42, that these leaders are the h u m a n c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e d e m o n i c (cf. R e v 2 : 9 a n d L X X N u m 1 6 : 3 ; C a i r d ; S w e e t , 2 8 f ; B e a s l e y M u r r a y ) ; s e e f u r t h e r A m b r o z i c , 5 6 f ; D a n k e r , ' D e m o n i c ' , 56ff, 6 5 f ; pace B e s t , Temptation, 21. 7

5

7

6

7

7

7

8

S o a l s o e s p e c i a l l y M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 1 1 - 1 7 ; cf. B e a v i s , Audience, 102f. Kirkland, ' E a r l i e s t ' , 1 5 , w h o s e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t h e p a r a b l e s ' c o n f o u n d w h a t t h e d u l l a r d m a y think h e a l r e a d y k n o w s ' is c o r r e c t e x c e p t t h a t it is t h e w i s e w h o a r e c o n f o u n d e d b y t h e i r knowledge. W h e t h e r those on the outside are irrevocably so probably depends on whether t h e y c o n t i n u e in t h e i r self-reliant w i s d o m , cf. M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 9 9 . K e l b e r ' s s t a t e m e n t , 2 5 f , t h a t ' f r o m n o w o n s p e a k i n g "in p a r a b l e s " b e c o m e s J e s u s ' h a b i t u a l m o d e o f s p e e c h r e s e r v e d for t h e o p p o s i t i o n ' , is c l o s e t o t h e m a r k , if o v e r s t a t e d . O n p a r a b l e s a n d c o n c e a l m e n t in apocalyptic settings: H a r v e y , 'Mystery'; Siegman, 'Teaching'; Patten, 'Form'; MinetteTillesse, Secret, 194ff; a n d M a r c u s , ' E p i s t e m o l o g y ' , a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t t h a t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n is e n t i r e l y a t h o m e in t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f I s r a e l ' s c l a s s i c a l p r o p h e t s . C f . e.g. B o u c h e r , 8 1 , w h o is f o l l o w e d b y K i n g s b u r y , 1 7 ; pace, R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 2 7 - 3 3 ; L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 139-43; and G u n d r y , 198, w h o holds the 'riddling parables' to be 'meaningless to outsiders'; see further C h a p t e r 9. E . g . R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 7; cf. A m b r o z i c , 5 5 . A m b r o z i c , 5 5 - 7 0 ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, 1 8 ; R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 27-47, and 'Messianic', 92ff; M o u l e , ' M o r e ' ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 1 . O n t h e c r o w d in M a r k : C i t r o n , ' M u l t i t u d e s ' ; M o s l e y , ' A u d i e n c e s ' ; T a g a w a , Miracles, 5 7 - 6 3 ; T r o c m e , 'public'; M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' ; B e s t , 'Role', 3 9 0 - 9 3 ; M a l b o n , 'Disciples'. F o r s u m m a r i e s o f o t h e r a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in M k 4 , R a i s a n e n , 76ff, G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 289ff.

200

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

from an a s s u m p t i o n that there are only two categories in M a r k , 'insiders' and ' o u t s i d e r s ' .

79

But is this stark dichotomy valid?

To begin, it s e e m s unlikely that the crowd in 3:32, 3 4 is to b e identified w i t h 6 oxXog

T T X e t a T o c ; in 4 : 1 .

8 0

Not only do the 'very many

and

contrasting roles ... s h o w that the c r o w d possesses n o unitary role in the gospel', simpliciter,

8 1

b u t the fact that M a r k can s p e a k variously o f either a c r o w d or an oxXog-

TTOXU£,

or an oxXoc;

TTXCICTTOC;

indicates that for him

' c r o w d ' is m e r e l y a w a y of referring to an indefinite group.

Further, the

distinctive characteristic of the first ' c r o w d ' is that they are n c p l a u T o v (3:32, 3 4 ) , the s a m e identifying characteristic of those 'with the t w e l v e ' in 4:10 w h o , according to 4:11, are distinguished from the multitude in 4 : 1 .

8 2

Second, granted that 4:10 sets the T w e l v e and those around Jesus apart from the oxXo?

4:11 applies the negative function o f the parables

TTXCIO-TOS-,

only to oi €£o) (cf. 3 : 2 0 f f ) .

83

Although this m a y b e read to i m p l y that those

o u t s i d e a n d the g r e a t c r o w d are o n e a n d t h e s a m e , designations suggest c a u t i o n .

85

8 4

the

different

And again, w h a t then w o u l d b e the point

of the w a r n i n g s a n d injunctions if the ' g r e a t c r o w d ' o f 4:1 is already 'outside'? Third, 4:33f introduces yet another designation, a v a g u e 'them', w h o are contrasted to the disciples w h o receive explanations. In t e r m s o f the c o n c e r n s o f this a n a l y s i s t h e r e are, therefore, five different designations o f groups in these contiguous accounts: A ) a n $x\os

w h o sits u c p l a u T o v (Jesus) a n d w h o r e c e i v e s his

c o m m e n d a t i o n (3:32, 3 4 ) , B)

oxXos*

TTX€IO-TO£

(cf. o x X o s in 4:2) w h o , unlike the first crowd, are

not d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g n c p l avrbv

a n d w h o a r e e n j o i n e d to h e a r

carefully (4:1, 3 , 9 ) ,

7 9

E . g . Q u e s n e l l , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 106f; 'Epistemology'; Lane, 157; Boucher, 4 3 ; R a i s a n e n , 78f; a n d G u e l i c h , 1.203ff, w h o s e e m s u n c e r t a i n a s t o w h e r e t h e c r o w d s b e l o n g . A s d o e s Minear, "Audience', 82f, a l t h o u g h h e recognises the possibility that they a r e d i s t i n c t . It is difficult t o tell if t h e c r o w d in 3 : 2 0 is t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e in 3:32ff, o r w h e t h e r t h e l a t t e r is a s u b s e t o f t h e f o r m e r . Best, 'Role', 3 9 2 . 8 0

8 1

8 2

8 3

8 4

Lambrecht, 'Redaction', 279. M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' , 8 3 ; cf. G u n d r y , 196ff.

A s ' t h e r e a d e r m u s t a s s u m e ' , a c c o r d i n g t o R a i s a n e n , 7 8 ; cf. B o u c h e r , 4 3 . C f . G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; a n d n o w a l s o T o l b e r t , Sowing, 160, w h o recognises that the d i s c i p l e s / c r o w d p o l a r i t y is n o t t o b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e o u t s i d e r / i n s i d e r c a t e g o r y . 8

5

Crowds,

Outsiders,

and

201

Insiders

C ) o l TT€pl a u T o v a u v Tote; 6 a ) 6 € K a , w h o are ' i n s i d e r s ' and a p p a r e n t l y

regarded a s disciples ( 4 : 1 0 , 3 4 ) ,

86

D) oi €ô) for w h o m the parables function as j u d g e m e n t (4:11), E ) the e n i g m a t i c ' t h e m ' ( a u T o t c ; , 4:34) w h o (i) are n o t TT€pl a u T o v , (ii) m a y b e identical to g r o u p

(B),

(iii) o n l y r e c e i v e p a r a b l e s

KotOwc;

f | 6 u v a v T o a K o \ k i v (4:33), (iv) are contrasted with J e s u s ' disciples, and (v) do not, therefore, receive further private explanation (v. 3 4 ) . H o w are these groups related? Since the p r e c e d i n g account concerning the Beelzebul controversy a n d the n a t u r e o f J e s u s ' true family p r o v i d e s the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t for t h e e n s u i n g material o n parables it m a y offer s o m e h e l p .

8 7

The controversy

itself, as w e h a v e seen, strongly suggests that the scribes from J e r u s a l e m are o n the 'outside', b u t w h a t o f the m e m b e r s of J e s u s ' very o w n bloodline w h o are twice described as being 'outside' (c£a) O T T I K O V T C C ; in 3:31, and €£oa in v. 32)? A l t h o u g h M a r k aligns J e s u s ' family with the scribes in that b o t h groups

misunderstand

him,

8 8

n e v e r t h e l e s s s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s e e m s in

order since they neither explicitly repudiate J e s u s ' activity b y attributing it to B e e l z e b u l , n o r a r e they, c o n s e q u e n t l y , a d d r e s s e d in J e s u s ' r e b u k e . W h a t then is M a r k d r i v i n g at?

8 9

G i v e n that J e s u s ' family is o b v i o u s l y

' o u t s i d e ' in the spatial sense, the metaphorical use o f c ^ u in 4 : 1 1 n e v e r theless s u g g e s t s that M a r k is a l r e a d y l o o k i n g forward to t h e p a r a b l e s material.

90

A n d indeed, the spatial 'outside-inside' distinction (vv. 31-32)

is quickly transposed into the matter o f m e m b e r s h i p o f J e s u s ' true family

8 6

M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 . Kara \iovag e m p h a s i s e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n h i s f o l l o w e r s a n d o t h e r s . T h e l a t t e r g r o u p c o m p r i s e s n o t j u s t o u t s i d e r s (pace G u n d r y , 1 9 6 ) b u t a l s o t h e undecided c r o w d s (see below). 8 7

B o t h W e n d l i n g , Entstehung, 31ff, a n d G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 8 , r e g a r d t h e a p p e a r a n c e of € ^ C J i n 3 : 3 1 f a n d 4 : 1 1 a s t h e k e y l e x i c a l link in t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e o l t r a p ' a u T o u K . T . X . i n 3:21 a l s o s e r v e s t o link t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h J e s u s ' s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t h i s t r u e f a m i l y in 3:31ff; Best, ' M a r k ' ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 6 8 - 7 2 , 2 0 8 ; s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 5 a b o v e . 8

8

E.g. C r o s s a n , 'Relatives', 1 1 3 ; L a n e , 147; Guelich, 1.186; Hooker, 1 1 4 . G o u l d e r , 'Outside', 2 9 8 , w h o aligns J e s u s ' family w i t h the scribes a n d then, in a w a y r e m i n i s c e n t o f W e e d e n , T y s o n , a n d C r o s s a n , i n g e n i o u s l y c a s t s all t h i s in t e r m s o f M a r k ' s r e - w r i t i n g t h e p a s t in t h e c o n t e x t o f a p r e s e n t c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n M a r k ' s p r o - P a u l c o m m u n i t y a n d a P h a r i s a i c J e r u s a l e m c h u r c h r u l e d b y J e s u s ' f a m i l y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , M a r k ' s a n t i - J e r u s a l e m p o l e m i c (if it c a n i n d e e d b e s o c a l l e d ) e q u a l l y r e f l e c t s a t h o r o u g h - g o i n g O T p r o p h e t i c c r i t i q u e o f t h e failure of Israel's l e a d e r s h i p . 8 9

A l s o G u n d r y , 1 8 0 , 1 9 9 , cf. L a m b r e c h t , ' R e l a t i v e s ' , 2 4 5 f ; pace E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' , 209f. H o w e v e r , a s H o o k e r , 1 1 5 , o b s e r v e s ' m a d n e s s w a s often r e g a r d e d a s d u e t o p o s s e s s i o n b y a demon'. E . g . M a r c u s , Mystery, 8 9 ; n o w a l s o G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 1 . 9 0

202

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

(vv. 33-34); a designation w h i c h is reserved for those w h o d o the will of the father, w h i c h in the context translates into being hearing his t e a c h i n g .

TTCOI

a u T o v (Jesus) and

91

A l t h o u g h M a r k does not elucidate further, it m a y well b e his purpose, h a v i n g a l r e a d y s h o w n that outright rejection o f J e s u s e x c l u d e s o n e from G o d ' s k i n g d o m , to i n d i c a t e that e v e n t h e c l o s e s t k i n s h i p ties a r e n o t sufficient g r o u n d s to a s s u m e i n c l u s i o n either.

A n d if insufficient for

J e s u s ' o w n kith and kin, h o w m u c h less for the average Israelite? In this sense J e s u s radically alters b o t h national and familial obligations: h e alone m u s t b e the locus o f their l o y a l t i e s .

92

If this reading is correct, then M a r k in 3:20-35 is concerned to establish t w o key p a r a m e t e r s .

93

First, to reject J e s u s (as h a v e the representatives o f

the national leadership) is to invite the severest j u d g e m e n t , and, s e c o n d , e v e n that m o s t sacrosanct o f all ancient inter-personal obligations, that o f b l o o d l i n e , is insufficient to gain access to the K i n g d o m .

It appears that

with his account o f the J e r u s a l e m scribes' pivotal rejection o f J e s u s and his explanation o f the parables, M a r k e x p o s e s an e m e r g i n g division, a sifting o f Israel into 'insiders' and ' o u t s i d e r s '

94

and within this context affirms the

absolute priority o f the need to respond in repentance and faith to J e s u s , irrespective o f religious-cultural and familial loyalties. In the light o f the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a p p o i n t m e n t o f the T w e l v e , the i m p l i c a t i o n for M a r k s e e m s to b e that only as o n e identifies with the ' S / s o n o f G o d ' can o n e b e c o m e a true ' s o n of G o d ' , a true I s r a e l i t e .

95

Otherwise, o n e b e c o m e s

9 1

Cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 ; G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 5 . O n f a m i l y o b l i g a t i o n s a n d l o y a l t i e s s e e M a l i n a , World, 94ff; P i l c h a n d M a l i n a , Social, 70ff. A c c o r d i n g t o J o s e p h u s , t h e L a w r a n k s h o n o u r i n g p a r e n t s ' s e c o n d o n l y t o h o n o u r t o G o d ' , Ap. 2 . 2 7 ; cf. Ant. 4 . 2 6 0 - 5 ; P h i l o , De Spec. Leg. 2 . 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 ; L e v 2 0 : 9 ; a n d D t 2 1 : 1 8 - 2 1 . 9

2

9

3

9

4

9

5

S e e t h e s t r u c t u r a l o u t l i n e in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 5 a b o v e . A division entirely consistent with the concerns of Malachi (as already noted) a n d I s a 5 6 - 6 6 , in p a r t i c u l a r 6 5 : 8 - 1 6 a n d 6 6 : 5 ; s e e e.g. H a n s o n , Dawn; W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, 302ff; W i l l i a m s o n , ' C o n c e p t ' ; A c h t e m e i e r , Community, \7ii. S e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 2 , o n t h e title ' m y s o n ' a s a d e s i g n a t i o n f o r I s r a e l . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e T w e l v e in 3:13ff m a y p r e f i g u r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r e n e w e d I s r a e l u n d e r a n e w l e a d e r s h i p , w i t h l o y a l t y t o J e s u s a s its c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( 1 2 : 9 , s e e a l s o fn. 5 6 a b o v e ) . G i v e n t h e I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' i m a g e r y e a r l i e r i n M a r k , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e h o w t h e faithful a c t i o n o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in I s a 5 3 s e e m s t o b e t h e c a t a l y s t f o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f o t h e r ' s e r v a n t s ' i n Isa 5 4 ; s e e W a t t s ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 5 5 . T h u s G n i l k a , 1 . 1 5 3 , 'Diese j i i d i s c h e e m p f u n d e n e M a x i m e (vgl. R o m 2,17f) e r f a h r t i m W o r t J e s u e i n e n n e u e n Orientierungspunkt'.

Crowds,

Outsiders,

and

203

Insiders

an 'outsider' which, given its usage elsewhere, could well imply no longer being an I s r a e l i t e .

96

It is intriguing that the s a m e c o n c l u s i o n s e e m s to b e r e a c h e d at the c l i m a x of a series o f increasingly a c r i m o n i o u s p o l e m i c s b e t w e e n Y a h w e h and Jacob-Israel in Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 .

9 7

A n d this too in the context o f Y a h w e h ' s

a n n o u n c e m e n t o f salvation (40: Iff).

H a v i n g already h a d to r e m i n d

the

exiles of his s u p r e m a c y o v e r the idols, and that it w a s their faithlessness, not his, that c a u s e d their present distress, Y a h w e h ' s anger finally boils over at their questioning his w i s d o m in using C y r u s as his agent.

Jacob-

Israel might s w e a r ' b y the n a m e o f the L o r d ' and 'confess the G o d of Israel' but it is 'not in truth or right' (Isa 48:1).

T h e y are Israel in n a m e only.

I m m e d i a t e l y after this Isaiah 4 9 a n n o u n c e s the election o f a n e w servant. It s e e m s that a similar pattern is being repeated here. C a s t in s u c h terms, it is plain that groups ( A ) and ( C ) are ' i n s i d e r s ' to w h o m the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m of G o d

9 8

has b e e n g i v e n .

99

Group ( D ) ,

the outsiders, consists for the present of those religious authorities in 3:203 5 for w h o m t h e p a r a b l e s n o w function as j u d g e m e n t o n their wisdom.

own

T h i s , o f course, leaves groups ( B ) and ( E ) which, in the presence

of the injunctions to h e a r and the statement about J e s u s ' teaching ' t h e m ' in so far as they are able to hear, do not happily fit either c a t e g o r y . One solution

is to a s s u m e

that

M a r k is e i t h e r n o t

100

particularly

c o m p e t e n t o r s i m p l y n o t c o n c e r n e d to s m o o t h o v e r e v e r y d i s c r e p a n c y ,

9

6

T h u s , a l t h o u g h G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 1 , in n o t i n g t h e u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e t o r e f e r t o n o n - J e w s ( S t r - B , 2 . 7 ) rejects t h e n o t i o n t h a t ' o u t s i d e r s ' c a n m e a n t h o s e o u t s i d e I s r a e l , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h i s is p r e c i s e l y w h a t M a r k h a s i n m i n d , i n t h a t t o r e f u s e t o i d e n t i f y w i t h ' t h e ' S o n is t o e x c l u d e o n e s e l f f r o m faithful I s r a e l (cf. Sir, P r o / . , 1 C o r 5:12f; C o l 4 : 5 ; 1 T h e s s 4 : 1 2 ; S w e t e , 7 6 ; L a g r a n g e , 'but', 2 6 ; a n d S i e g m a n , ' T e a c h i n g ' , 1 7 3 , w h e r e ' o u t s i d e r s ' b e c a m e 'a s t a n d a r d r a b b i n i c t e r m f o r G e n t i l e s o r for J e w s less i n s t r u c t e d t h a n t h e P h a r i s e e s ' , c i t e d i n Boucher, 43n4). 9

7

9

8

9

9

1

0

S e e t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 5 - 4 9 . O f p r i m a r i l y S e m i t i c b a c k g r o u n d o f ' m y s t e r y ' . B r o w n , Semitic; B o r n k a m m , TDNT, 4 . 8 2 0 f ; B o w k e r , ' M y s t e r y ' ; M a r c u s , Mystery; B e a s l e y - M u r r a y , Kingdom; Bockmuehl, Mystery; b u t cf. H a r v e y , ' M y s t e r y ' ; a n d B e a v i s , Audience, 143ff. O n its s i g n i f i c a n c e in M a r k , e s p e c i a l l y B o u c h e r , 80ff; T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , 16f; D a h l , Memory, 1 4 1 - 6 6 . L a n e , 1 5 6 ; M i n e a r , ' A u d i e n c e ' , 8 2 ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 89f. O n t h e c o n f i n i n g o f e x p l a nations to the inner g r o u p throughout the gospel, Baird, 'Pragmatic'. 0

S o a l s o G o u l d e r , ' O u t s i d e ' , 2 9 0 , w h o n o t e s ' a p p a r e n t l y t h e c r o w d is able t o h e a r t h e w o r d i n p a r t — a d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n " t h e m " a n d "his o w n d i s c i p l e s " , w h o r e c e i v e a full e x p l a n a t i o n p r i v a t e l y ' . D r u r y , Parables, 6 0 , r e s o l v e s t h e t e n s i o n b y t a k i n g ' a s t h e y w e r e a b l e ' t o m e a n ' w i t h o u t c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , cf. 4:1 I f ; b u t this s e e m s t o fly in t h e f a c e o f t h e injunctions to h e a r carefully.

204

Isaiah's

Promise

e v e n rather blatant o n e s . is p o s s i b l e .

1 0 1

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

O n the other hand, a m o r e n u a n c e d approach

In the b u i l d u p to this section, v a r i o u s c r o w d s h a v e b e e n

present at the beginning, during, and after the e n d o f the five controversy stories (2:4, 13, 3:9). Furthermore, not only does the climactic B e e l z e b u l / family controversy take place in the context o f a gathering c r o w d (3:20) but the parables material likewise begins with a similar reference (4:1). All this suggests that in addition to those w h o are c o m m i t t e d to J e s u s and those w h o reject h i m , M a r k is also c o n c e r n e d with the v a r i o u s c r o w d s

who

follow J e s u s and particularly s o given the increasing polarisation w h i c h J e s u s occasions. Consequently, w h i l e it is true that for M a r k there are, in the end, only two fundamental

c a t e g o r i e s , n a m e l y , insiders a n d o u t s i d e r s (cf. 3:33f),

nevertheless, the existence o f groups ( B ) and ( E ) indicate that it is not yet t h e c a s e , a s is often

assumed,

that

immediately, either inside or o u t s i d e .

102

everyone must

necessarily be,

O n the contrary, the point s e e m s

to b e that, in the face o f the increasing criticism and n o w o p e n rejection of J e s u s , the m o m e n t o f decision has crystallised.

W h i l e s o m e h a v e taken

sides, there are the large n u m b e r s o f u n c o m m i t t e d folk w h o are as yet neither ' o u t s i d e r s ' (as are the hostile religious authorities) n o r ' i n s i d e r s ' (those TT€pl a u T o v ) b u t w h o are n o w confronted w i t h the n e e d to decide w h e r e they will stand. S u c h o n e s — c o - e x t e n s i v e w i t h the oxXos* nXeiojos

a n d t h e ' t h e m ' if

M a r k e x c l u d e s both the religious authorities and J e s u s ' followers from the two g r o u p s ,

1 0 3

or, if M a r k is d e e m e d to include 'outsiders' and 'insiders'

within these groups then comprising only part o f the oxXos 1

0

1

1

0

2

1

0

3

1

TTXCIGTOS"

and

C f . M e a g h e r , Clumsy; C h i l t o n , Galilean, 94ff; R a i s a n e n , 3 3 , T f h o w e v e r o n e s t o p s e x p e c t i n g a n y t h i n g like full c o n s i s t e n c y , a p o r t r a i t m i g h t e m e r g e o f M a r k a s . . . a r e l a t i v e l y skilful w r i t e r ' . A l o n g s i m i l a r lines m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s a r e e x e r c i s e d b y t h e v a r i o u s shifts i n s c e n e a n d a u d i e n c e , e.g. h o w c a n J e s u s w h o is a l o n e a n d s e a t e d i n a b o a t ( 4 : 1 - 2 ) b e a p p r o a c h e d ( v . 1 0 ) , s o e.g. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 3 f ; G n i l k a , 1 . 1 6 4 ? W h i l e it m i g h t b e t h a t M a r k w a s u n a w a r e o f s u c h d i l e m m a s it is a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t h e e x p e c t s a m o d i c u m o f r e a d e r l y expertise, akin p e r h a p s to the m o d e r n film-goer w h o copes rather well with such things as ' u n a n n o u n c e d ' s c e n e c h a n g e s a n d flashbacks. T h e fact that c o m m e n t a t o r s notice s u c h 'discrepancies' suggests that M a r k h a s indeed signalled his scene a n d a u d i e n c e changes. F u r t h e r m o r e , the c o m p o s i t e n a t u r e of the account simply serves to indicate that Mark's real i n t e r e s t lies i n t h e d y n a m i c w a y in w h i c h t h e v a r i o u s j u x t a p o s e d s c e n e s i n t e r a c t r a t h e r t h a n a p l o d d i n g b l o w - b y - b l o w a c c o u n t (cf. Ball, Seven, 5 5 - 1 0 3 ) . A s e.g. Q u e s n e l l , 8 5 f ; M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 0 6 f ; L a n e , 1 5 7 ; B o u c h e r , 4 3 ; R a i s a n e n , 78f; cf. G u e l i c h , 1 . 2 0 8 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h a t t h e c r o w d s a r e n o t ' o u t s i d e r s ' b u t t h e n n o t b e i n g s u r e w h a t t o d o w i t h t h e m t a k e s r e f u g e in a c o n v o l u t e d r e d a c t i o n a l h i s t o r y ; 1.258f. W i t h m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o s e e t h e c r o w d s a s d i s t i n c t f r o m 'insiders'.

The

the ' t h e m '

1 0 4

205

Disciples

— a r e , therefore, s p o k e n to KCLQ&s r j 6 u v a v T o dtKouciv

exhorted 'to h e a r ' c a r e f u l l y .

105

and

This is, after all, precisely the point o f the

parable of the soils: the w o r d is being p r o c l a i m e d and hearers m u s t b e careful how they respond ( 4 : 9 ) .

106

If they hear and repent and believe then

to the little they have, m o r e will b e a d d e d . will b e accessible to them.

1 0 7

T h e mystery of the kingdom

If they reject J e s u s ' teaching and refuse to b e

TT€pl a u T o v , then, having chosen not to do G o d ' s will (cf. 3:35), the parables will effect judicial b l i n d i n g so that as with the religious authorities e v e n the little they have will b e taken a w a y (4:24f; cf. 12:9; 1 3 : 2 ) . (iv) The

108

Disciples

Although m o r e fully discussed in Chapter 8, s o m e c o m m e n t o n the matter of the d i s c i p l e s ' lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g (4:13; 7:17f; 8:14-21; 10:10-12) is appropriate

s i n c e it is also frequently

contradictions in Mark.

c i t e d as e v i d e n c e o f

inherent

S u c h a view correctly observes that the ' w i s d o m '

terminology in M a r k 4 (blindness, deafness, lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , etc.) constitutes the d a t u m for its use in the rest o f the g o s p e l .

109

T h e fact that

such language is indicative o f an irrevocable bifurcation in Israel only adds to its significance. H o w e v e r , although the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m a y at first blush appear to characterise t h e m as 'outsiders', in fact neither ' b l i n d n e s s ' n o r 'lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' , w h e t h e r in terms o f M a r k or o f a b r o a d e r I N E perspective, 1

0

4

1

0

5

1

0

6

1

0

7

1

0

8

1 1 0

can b e c o n s t r u e d as sure signs o f b e i n g e i t h e r u n d e r

As Gundry, 190,234. T h u s e.g. 7 : 1 4 is n o t t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n R a i s a n e n , 9 0 , i m a g i n e s . V v . 3 3 f d o n o t i n v o l v e h a r d e n i n g a n d offer little s u p p o r t for M a r c u s ' t w o - s t a g e h a r d e n i n g t h e o r y . Mystery, 107f. B o u c h e r , 43ff, 82ff; K i n g s b u r y , 1 7 ; a n d T o l b e r t , Sowing, 1 5 0 f , w h o n o t e s 'the v i t a l r o l e o f h e a r i n g f o r t h e w h o l e p r o c e s s is s t r e s s e d b y t h e c o n s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n ' , c i t i n g t h i r t e e n o c c u r r e n c e s of otKouciv i n c l u d i n g a t t h e b e g i n n i n g (4:3) a n d e n d (4:33); cf. G u n d r y , 2 0 4 . O n v a r i o u s b a c k g r o u n d s t o this w i s d o m p r o v e r b , G e r h a r d s s o n , ' P a r a b l e ' , 180f, c i t i n g 2 Esd. 9 : 2 9 - 3 3 ; B o u c h e r , 4 3 ; Q u e s n e l l , 8 1 - 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 1 9 7 ; a n d M a r c u s , Mystery, 154f, w h o n o t e s Q u m r a n a n d r a b b i n i c p a r a l l e l s ( t h e l a t t e r f r o m L i n d e s k o g , ' L o g i a - S t u d i e n ' , 148ff). Cf. G u n d r y , 2 0 3 , w h e r e the p a r a b l e s p r e s u p p o s e , i n s t e a d of c a u s e , division; a l t h o u g h it is n o t c l e a r t h a t J e s u s t h e r e b y s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e d e t e r m i n e s h i s d e a t h . M a r c u s ' apocalyptic 'secret' model, 'Epistemology', misses the point because he reads M a r k through t h e l e n s o f Q u m r a n m a t e r i a l s . F u r t h e r m o r e , g r a n t e d t h e p r e d e s t i n a r i a n n a t u r e o f e.g. 1 Q H l:19f; o t h e r t e x t s e.g. 1 Q S 4 : 1 1 ; 8 : l l f ; 9:17ff; C D 8:32ff; c a n a l s o d e s c r i b e G o d ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h o s e w h o h a v e a l r e a d y r e j e c t e d h i s w o r d , cf. 1 Q H 2 : 9 - 1 9 ; 1 Q S 5 : l l f . W h a t e v e r the u n d e r l y i n g theological implications of 'he w h o h a s e a r s to hear', M a r k s e e m s n o t to m a k e p r e d e s t i n a r i a n h a y f r o m t h e m . R a t h e r , M a r k ' s c o n c e r n is t h e r e s p o n s e o f faith t o Y a h w e h ' s r e v e l a t i o n a l I N E c o m i n g in J e s u s , a s M a r c u s a l m o s t s e e m s t o a d m i t , 5 6 2 n 2 0 . 1

0

9

1

1

0

E s p e c i a l l y B e a v i s , Audience, S e e f u r t h e r . C h a p t e r 8.

87-130.

206

Isaiah's

Promise

...

j u d g e m e n t or an ' o u t s i d e r ' .

Malachi's

111

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

Instead, the central issue is not w h e t h e r

one sees for in o n e sense all the h u m a n observers involved are blind and labouring u n d e r misconceptions of s o m e sort. Instead, it is whether or not o n e is willing to let g o of conventional w i s d o m , to follow and 'be a r o u n d ' Jesus, and so participate in the revelation o f the mystery o f the K i n g d o m . J e s u s ' question in 4 : 1 3 , although probably expressing frustration, is from this perspective m o r e ironic than extirpative: if y o u disciples cannot grasp this parable about the need to understand properly (vv. 3-9), h o w will you e v e r u n d e r s t a n d a n y o f the p a r a b l e s ?

1 1 2

Nevertheless, s i n c e they h a v e

b e e n g i v e n the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m ,

1 1 3

J e s u s offers

instruction.

114

That he will continue to lead these 'blind' disciples ( M k 8:17) along a path they do n o t k n o w is the very point o f M a r k ' s increasing tendency to focus on the disciples' incomprehension prepares for his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n . f) 'The Parable

which, beginning

with

Mark 4,

115

Theory'

Finally, s o m e observations o n the implications o f the a b o v e for the socalled Parabeltheorie

are almost de rigeur.

In its c o m m o n form the theory

posits A ) a sharp division between J e s u s ' disciples and others, and B ) that the p a r a b l e s are p r e d e s tin a r ia n in intent, essentially i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ,

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

5

M y e r s , Binding, 1 7 2 , n o t e s a s i m i l a r t e n s i o n in D a n i e l a n d E z e k i e l , w h e r e e.g. t h e wise u n d e r s t a n d but the wicked d o not, a n d yet the seer confesses his o w n failure to understand ( D n 12:8, 10b, L X X ) . P e r h a p s the further instruction of the disciples indicates t h a t t h e t i m e o f t h e ' s e a l i n g u p ' o f t h e w o r d s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n d o f d a y s is a t a n e n d (cf. R e v 2 2 : 1 0 ) . O n D a n i e l in M a r k , S u n d b e r g , T e s t i m o n i e s ' , 2 7 4 ; a n d K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' . Pace B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t 'this p a r a b l e ' is v v . l l f . F i r s t , h e fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h i s b r o a d e r s e n s e o f ' h e a r i n g a r i g h t ' , cf. W e n h a m , ' S y n o p t i c ' , 1 8 n 2 4 ; Q u e s n e l l , 7 9 - 8 1 ; a n d s e c o n d , h i s s o l u t i o n fails h i s o w n t e s t for it is n o t c l e a r h o w m e r e l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g that o n e h a s been given the m y s t e r y will ' m a k e the disciples m e n with u n d e r s t a n d i n g "to k n o w all t h e p a r a b l e s ' " , 6 7 , cf. T u c k e t t , ' C o n c e r n s ' , 1 7 . M a r c u s , Mystery, 9 8 , s e e s t h e p a r a b l e s a s t h e c h a n n e l o f t h e d i v i n e gift, b u t in v. 11 t h e d i s c i p l e s ' e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s t a t u s is n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e c r o w d s t o w h o m t h e m y s t e r y h a s not been given. A similar criticism m a y be levelled against B r o w n , 'Secret'. The c o n d i t i o n o f h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n t h e m y s t e r y is t o b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g it, cf. Tuckett, 'Concerns', 16. Following v a n Iersel, 'System', 91f, w h o indicates m y s t e r i e s a r e n o r m a l l y ' r e v e a l e d ' n o t ' g i v e n ' ( c i t i n g e.g. dTTOKaXuTTTG) L X X : Sir 3 : 1 8 ; 2 7 : 1 6 , 1 7 , 2 1 ; T h e o d . : D a n 2 : 1 9 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 7 , 4 9 ; a n d dvaKaAuTTTO) in L X X : D n 2 : 2 8 , 2 9 ; T h e o d . : D n 2 : 2 9 ; a n d o t h e r v e r b s ) , G u n d r y , 197, d r a w s a helpful distinction b e t w e e n 'mystery' a n d the ' k i n g d o m ' w h e r e the 'kingdom' h a v i n g been given—as o p p o s e d to having been 'revealed'—does not contradict t h e n e e d for t h e ' m y s t e r i o u s ' c o n t e n t o f t h e p a r a b l e s t o b e e x p l a i n e d . Cf. P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' , 205ff, w h o s e e s t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , n o t W r e d e ' s m e s s i a n i c s e c r e t , 8 7 - 1 1 7 , a s t h e m a i n t h e m e o f 4:1 - 8 : 2 6 .

The

and d e s i g n e d to h a r d e n .

1 1 6

Parable

207

Theory

W h i l e it is true that the crisis precipitated b y

J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y initiates a f u n d a m e n t a l a n d u l t i m a t e l y final s e p a r a t i o n between 'insiders' and 'outsiders', Mark's so-called 'contradictions', I submit, are instead the result o f the ambiguity w h i c h necessarily arises out of the fact that the sifting o f Israel is still in process. S o m e h a v e m a d e u p their m i n d s for or a g a i n s t J e s u s , b u t the v a s t majority h a v e not.

These

latter constitute a third category (viz. the ' c r o w d s ' ) w h o are taught

Ka9a>c;

T | 6 u v a v T o <XKO\)€\V

and

are

regularly

exhorted

to

listen

carefully;

p r e s u m a b l y , that they m i g h t e n t e r into the m y s t e r y o f the k i n g d o m and avoid c o m i n g under the judgement n o w initiated upon the hostile 'outsiders'.

Again Mark's opening evocation of Isaiah's promise of

salvation (40:Iff) and M a l a c h i ' s warning to the unprepared is not far a w a y . S e c o n d , the parables m a y b e held to b e incomprehensible—but only in the terms that M a r k h i m s e l f sets up for us. A s m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e noted, it is clear that the parables are neither utterly indecipherable c o d e nor gibberish, e v e n to outsiders (e.g. 1 2 : l f f ) .

117

It is possible that M a r k m a y

h a v e b e e n s o dull as to h a v e m i s s e d this apparent 'contradiction'.

B u t it

s e e m s m o r e likely that his c o n c e r n is with a genuine c o m p r e h e n s i o n that l e a d s to r e p e n t a n c e a n d faith in J e s u s as t h e i n a u g u r a t o r o f the I N E Kingdom of God.

T h i s is entirely in k e e p i n g with J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c

a n n o u n c e m e n t (cf. 1:1, 1 4 f ) .

1 1 8

O n c e again, as n o t e d in the c a s e o f the

disciples, the issue is not a matter o f w h e t h e r or not o n e fully u n d e r s t a n d s but instead w h e t h e r o n e repents, has faith, and follows Jesus. It is this that u l t i m a t e l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s the disciples, and e v e n the u n d e c i d e d c r o w d s , from the J e r u s a l e m scribes. T h e latter alone h a v e firmly shut the door o n Jesus and his m e s s a g e .

1 1 9

H. Raisanen, in particular, has challenged this kind o f approach largely b e c a u s e it denies, h e c l a i m s , the patently o b v i o u s predestinarian character of 4 : 1 1 - 1 2 . 1

1

6

1

1

7

1

1

8

1

1

9

1 2 0

T h e difficulty here is that, if the Isaianic sense and the larger

S e e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 73f; B e a v i s , Audience, 78ff; R a i s a n e n , 76ff. E . g . R a i s a n e n , 87ff; B o u c h e r , 83ff. G u n d r y , 2 0 0 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h i s f a c t , skirts t h e difficulty b y r e d u c i n g t h e r e f e r e n t o f ' p a r a b l e s ' in 4:1 I f t o i n c l u d e o n l y t h o s e in M k 4 w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e k i n g d o m . T h e d i f f i c u l t y h e r e is t h a t M a r k d o e s n o t s e e m t o m a k e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n h i m s e l f , cf. v v . 3 3 f . C f . G n i l k a , 1 . 1 7 2 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 72ff; B o u c h e r , 82ff; M a r c u s , Mystery, 103-6. Cf. Guelich, 1.208, 2 1 1 . 120 "Messianic", 8 8 , w h o a l s o w a r m l y c o m m e n d s M e a g h e r , Clumsy, 1 2 0 - 2 2 , for t a k i n g 'seriously the s t e r n l y p r e d e s t i n a r i a n c h a r a c t e r of 4 . 1 1 f (in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h 4.34)', 2 9 . R a i s a n e n ' s a s s e r t i o n s e e m s t o r e s t o n t h e c o r r e c t l y n o t e d ' p u r p o s i v e ' s e n s e o f t h e l'va a n d

208

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

M a r k a n context are any guide, the reason for the parables (4:1 If) cannot, simpliciter,

b e d e e m e d predestinarian in the usual s e n s e .

1 2 1

A s w e have

seen earlier, Isaiah 6:9-10 c o m e s as Y a h w e h ' s judicial response

to a people

and a leadership w h o have already repeatedly refused his overtures. same considered

refusal

The

is m a n i f e s t in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t — a l t h o u g h

it

should b e noted that in M a r k only the leadership h a v e m a d e this break and h e n c e the greater possible ' o p e n n e s s ' o f the parables to the p e o p l e at large (4:33f).

T h i s is precisely the point o f the series o f controversies,

culminating as they d o in J e s u s ' rejection b y the leadership, n a m e l y scribes from J e r u s a l e m .

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , T. W . M a n s o n ' s c o m m e n t

that

M a r k 4 : 1 2 f is a 'definition o f the sort o f character w h i c h prevents a m a n from b e c o m i n g o n e o f those to w h o m the secret ... is g i v e n '

1 2 2

only in terms o f the considered recalcitrance described a b o v e .

is true, but

1 2 3

M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' u s e o f Isaiah 6:9-10 is, then, not so m u c h a matter o f predestination as a judicial response to those w h o h a v e already refused his m e s s a g e , that is the 'outsiders', w h i c h both confirms t h e m in their logic and consigns them to the consequences of their c h o i c e s .

124

This

is still the case w h e n considering J e s u s ' implicit use o f parables prior to Mark's

explicit reference

in the B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y

1 2 5

s i n c e the

leadership h a d e v e n then rejected M a l a c h i ' s preparatory Elijah, J o h n the Baptist (cf. M k 1:14; 6:17ff; 11:27-33). JIT{TTOT€ c l a u s e s , 8 2 f . predestinarian. 1

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

3

1

2

4

1

2

5

T h u s , allowing first that the w o r d

H o w e v e r , it is n o t c l e a r h o w h a v i n g a p u r p o s e m a k e s s o m e t h i n g

O f t h e r e c e n t m a j o r m o n o g r a p h s it is s u r p r i s i n g t h a t o n l y E v a n s , See, 1 7 - 5 2 , e x a m i n e s t h e I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t in d e p t h . B o t h R a i s a n e n a n d t h o s e w i t h w h o h e d i s a g r e e s ( e . g . B o u c h e r , K i n g s b u r y , a n d e v e n B e a v i s w h o is m o r e a w a r e t h a n m o s t o f t h e I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d ) fail t o g i v e m o r e t h a n a c u r s o r y e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e I s a i a n i c s e t t i n g . W h i l e m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s n o t e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h 4:1 I f c o h e r e s o r c o n t r a s t s w i t h w h a t f o l l o w s , e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 228ff, v e r y little a t t e n t i o n is g i v e n t o t h e p r e c e d i n g M a r k a n c o n t e x t . M a n s o n , Teaching, 8 0 , c i t e d in M o u l e , ' M o r e ' , 9 9 (cf. 1 0 1 ) ; s e e a l s o G e r h a r d s s o n , 'Parable', 180f; Cranfield, 'Mark', 6 1 ; Kirkland, 'Understanding', 13; Guelich, 1.213. A l t h o u g h t h e t e x t d o e s n o t o v e r t l y s t a t e t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e h e a r e r s ' r e a c t i o n , in M a r k a s in I s a i a h , t h e c o n t e x t p r e s u p p o s e s it, pace R a i s a n e n , Parabeltheorie, 8. O n the other h a n d , the true significance of the parables s e e m s not a l w a y s to be immediately a p p a r e n t — t h e y a p p e a r to require further explanation by Jesus—which s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e c o u l d w e l l b e a c e r t a i n ' h i d d e n n e s s ' t o t h e p a r a b l e s . If s o , t h e n t h e r e m a y b e s o m e g r o u n d s f o r s e e i n g a d i v i n e v e i l i n g a t w o r k . C f . M a r s h a l l , Faith, 7 3 , w h o r e c o g n i s e s t h a t h i d d e n n e s s 'is t h e v e r y s t r a t e g y o f r e v e l a t i o n ' b u t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o s e e h i d d e n n e s s a s a n i m p e d i m e n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d s o p l a c e s all h i s e m p h a s i s o n h u m a n responsibility. T o a r g u e f r o m the soils b e i n g only w h a t t h e y a r e t o s o m e s o r t of d e t e r m i n i s m , M a r c u s , Mystery, 2 2 5 , a g a i n i g n o r e s J e s u s ' e x h o r t a t i o n t o h e a r c a r e f u l l y . If t a k i n g , e.g. t h e line o f B o o b y e r , ' R e d a c t i o n ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t t h e e a r l i e r p a r a b l e s a r e a l s o in v i e w h e r e .

209

Conclusion

'hardening' is not u s e d ,

1 2 6

it is only in this specific sense that the parables

can b e c o n s i d e r e d as ' h a r d e n i n g ' : they h a r d e n those w h o h a v e already hardened their hearts, just as in Isaiah's d a y . g)

1 2 7

Conclusion

M a r k ' s 'Parables C h a p t e r ' is his p r o g r a m m a t i c response to the climactic Beelzebul c o n t r o v e r s y .

1 2 8

This is evident not only in the w a y o n e leads

directly into the other, thereby providing its immediate context, but also in their significant similarities.

In keeping with M a l a c h i ' s w a r n i n g , and as

revealed b y the B e e l z e b u l / f a m i l y controversy, a w i d e n i n g split is n o w occurring within Israel. W h e r e a s J e s u s ' a n n o u n c e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g 'in strength' signals the r e s t o r a t i o n o f sight to the b l i n d ,

1 2 9

the n a t i o n a l

leaders'

categorical rejection o f his ministry means that the parables confirm them in their ' b l i n d n e s s ' .

S u c h p e o p l e h a v e in fact rejected the K i n g d o m (cf.

l:14f) and w h a t little t h e y h a v e will b e taken a w a y .

As

'outsiders',

Y a h w e h ' s manifest presence ( T m m a n u e l ' ) m e a n s only j u d g e m e n t 1

2

6

1

2

7

1

2

8

1

2

9

(12:lff).

A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m i n o l o g y d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y o c c u r h e r e , t h e c o n c e p t is i n t e g r a l t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n a s is a p p a r e n t in I s a i a h a n d M a r k , a s B e a v i s , Audience, 89ff, n o t e s . C f . Boucher, 84, w h o although recognising the ambiguity of the concept, nevertheless correctly o b s e r v e s t h a t in t h i s s e n s e ' t h e p a r a b l e s a r e t h e m e a n s b o t h b y w h i c h G o d j u d g e s t h e hearers, and b y w h i c h the h e a r e r s bring j u d g e m e n t on themselves'. Space p r e c l u d e s a detailed p r o p o s a l on the c o h e r e n c e of 4:1-34 but the following s u g g e s t i o n is offered: in v i e w o f t h e fact t h a t a d i v i s i o n is u n d e r w a y w i t h i n I s r a e l ( 3 : 1 3 - 1 9 ) the c r o w d s w h o h a v e been following Jesus are confronted with a choice, inside or outside ( 3 : 2 0 - 3 5 ) , a n d t h i s t u r n s o n h o w t h e y ' h e a r ' ( 4 : 1 - 9 ) . W h y d o e s J e s u s ' s p e a k in p a r a b l e s (v. 1 0 ) ? B e c a u s e , o n t h e b a s i s o f I s a 6 , it is p a r t of Y a h w e h ' s p l a n t o c o n f o u n d t h e w i s d o m o f t h e w i s e w h o reject h i s p u r p o s e s ( v v . l l f , cf. 3:20ff). J e s u s t h e n i r o n i c a l l y c o m m e n t s o n t h e disciples' inability to h e a r p r o p e r l y (v. 1 3 ) a n d g o e s o n (vv. 21ff) to e x p l a i n that his s p e a k i n g in p a r a b l e s is n o t i n t e n d e d t o c o n c e a l t h e t r u t h b u t t o m a n i f e s t it (in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h G o d ' s p r i o r o b j e c t i v e , cf. Q u e s n e l l , 8 1 - 8 3 ) , a l t h o u g h a g a i n s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e is h o w o n e h e a r s . V v . 1 4 - 2 0 e x p l a i n t h e p a r a b l e , n o t i n g h o w t h e n a t u r e o f t h e soil is r e v e a l e d in r e s p o n s e t o t h e s o w i n g o f t h e s e e d . U s i n g t h e i m a g e r y o f t h e light o f t h e l a m p , vv. 2 1 - 2 5 picture the revelatory impact of the parables, and again w a r n s about hearing a r i g h t : t h e little w i s d o m t h a t t h e s c r i b e s h a v e will b e t a k e n a w a y b u t t o t h o s e w h o h a v e e a r s t o h e a r , 'it' ( t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r y o f t h e k i n g d o m ) w i l l b e g i v e n ( v v . 23ff)T h e r e a s o n for c a r e f u l h e a r i n g is t h e n p r e s e n t e d : t h e k i n g d o m is n o t c o m i n g a s t h e w i s e e x p e c t it ( v v . 2 6 - 3 2 ) a n d t h e w h o l e c o n c l u d e s w i t h a s t a t e m e n t r e - a f f i r m i n g J e s u s ' d e s i r e t o reveal the truth, b u t o n his t e r m s (vv. 33f). Cf. e.g. W e i s s , Evangelium, 57f, w h o sees the 'parable t h e o r y ' as the basis of the m e s s i a n i c s e c r e t r a t h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r w a y a b o u t ; B o o b y e r , ' S e c r e c y ' , f o r w h o m 4:1 I f r e p r e s e n t s t h e ' t r u l y d e f i n i t i v e a c c o u n t o f t h e e v a n g e l i s t ' s p o i n t o f v i e w ' ( b o t h c i t e d in M a r c u s , Mystery, l l l n l 3 3 ) ; a n d n o w p a r t i c u l a r l y B e a v i s , Audience, 87-130,157ff. S e e p p . 1 7 0 f f a b o v e . A n d e r s o n , Understanding, 4 4 7 , sees Isa 4 0 : l f a s reversing the j u d g e m e n t o f I s a 6:9ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 3 f , c o m p a r e s 1:4 w i t h 4 0 : 1 ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 298ff; A c k r o y d , ' P r e s e n t a t i o n ' , 45f; E v a n s , ' U n i t y ' , 1 3 7 .

210

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

O n the other h a n d , those w h o hear and respond in h u m b l e faith—even if they barely understand—find that they have b e e n given the mystery o f the kingdom and receive further instruction (4:24f; cf. 1 Q H 4:32f; 1 Q S 5 : l l f ) .

1 3 0

But for the undecided w h o are, as it were, in the middle, the parables are in a very real sense open-ended. They m a y lead to life, or death, and hence the urgent exhortation to 'hear carefully'. Everything d e p e n d s on it. T h e parable o f the s o w e r , with its exhortations to careful h e a r i n g , s o u n d s a warning against 'hearing' like the n o w 'outside' leaders w h o s e increasingly critical s t a n c e t o w a r d J e s u s h a s c u l m i n a t e d in their attributing to Satan that w h i c h derives from the H o l y Spirit. O n this basis, the primary point o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 does not appear to b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h accounting for the b l i n d n e s s o f the J e w i s h p e o p l e en toto—although

the use of this h a r d e n i n g motif in J o h n 12:37ff a n d Acts

28:26ff s u g g e s t s that it m a y well foreshadow i t .

1 3 1

In M a r k ' s story, the

c r o w d s per se are n o t yet p r e s u m e d subject to the n e g a t i v e effect o f parables.

T h e building conflict cycle and its climactic culmination w h i c h

precede M a r k 4 are focussed on Israel's leadership, and especially those from J e r u s a l e m .

It s e e m s , therefore, that t h e p r i m a r y interest o f the

Beelzebul-Parables c o m p l e x in its immediate context is to explain h o w the l e a d e r s h i p ' s r e j e c t i o n o f J e s u s o n l y l e a d s to t h e i r j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g . Nevertheless, there is surely another concern, n a m e l y , to w a r n others of the need for an appropriate response.

Ill Isaiah 29:13 in Mark 7:6f a) The Markan

Setting:

Tension

Over

Purity

It is n o t e w o r t h y that on the only other occasion prior to J e s u s ' arrival in Jerusalem when

h e is c h a l l e n g e d b y a u t h o r i t i e s from

Jerusalem

response is again c o u c h e d in terms o f an Isaianic j u d g e m e n t t e x t .

1 3 2

his The

confrontation in M a r k 7 arises out o f the disciples' failure to purify their 130 M a r c u s , Mystery, r e s p e c t i v e l y , 105f, a n d 9 0 f . 131 p L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 159f, w h o s e p a r a t e s M k 4 : l l f from the issue of parables, s e e i n g h e r e a n e x p l a n a t i o n for J e w i s h unbelief. In this s e n s e M a c k , Myth, 1 5 5 , is c o r r e c t . M k 4 is a b o u t t h e fate o f I s r a e l , a n d I m i g h t a d d , j u s t a s w a s I s a 6 b e f o r e it. Cf. G r u n d m a n n , 1 4 6 ; S c h m i d , 1 9 8 ; M a l b o n , ' L e a d e r s ' , 264f. T h e r e a r e further c o n f r o n t a t i o n s in 8 : 1 1 - 1 3 ; 9 : 1 4 ; a n d 1 0 : 2 - 1 2 b u t t h e s e d o n o t i n v o l v e l e a d e r s e x p l i c i t l y f r o m Jerusalem. a

1

3

2

c

e

Markan

hands

(Koivais'

Setting:

Tension

Over

211

Purity

x ^ p a i v ) after visiting the marketplace (vv. 1-5; cf. v. 4 ) .

1 3 3

C o m i n g to his d i s c i p l e s ' defence, J e s u s r e b u k e s the critics, d e n o u n c i n g t h e m in terms o f a citation from Isaiah 29:13 L X X (vv. 6f). T h e n , citing their practice o f Corban, he exposes the hypocrisy of their d e m a n d i n g strict adherence to the traditions of m e n while permitting the circumvention o f the c o m m a n d s o f G o d (vv. 8-13). This leads to a 'parable' addressed to the c r o w d s (cf. v. 16) w h e r e the n a t u r e o f true p u r i t y a n d d e f i l e m e n t

is

explained (vv. 14-23): it is a matter of the heart, not the hands. Before g o i n g on, h o w e v e r , several points should b e noted. 7:1-23 is generally regarded as breaking with the p r e c e d i n g

Although

narrative,

134

M a r k ' s s u m m a r y account o f J e s u s ' ministry in 6:53-56 a p p e a r s to set the scene for chapter 7, not only because the controversy immediately follows, but also b e c a u s e of its reference to the sick w h o are being brought kv raxg ayopdxg.

T h i s is the first time d y o p a

o c c u r s in the g o s p e l .

a p p e a r s o n c e m o r e before J e s u s arrives in J e r u s a l e m

1 3 6

1 3 5

It o n l y

and that is a few

verses later in an editorial insertion w h e r e M a r k explains t h e Pharisaic practice o f not eating without washing if they have c o m e a n ' ayopac; (v. 4 ; cf. w . 2, 5 ) .

1 3 7

While possibly a co-incidence, the fact that both occurrences

are in editorial c o m m e n t s strongly suggests otherwise. M a r k s e e m s to intend that 7:Iff b e read in the light o f the g e n e r a l ministry s u m m a r y o f 6:53ff.

If so, then M a r k presents a situation similar

to that w h i c h o b t a i n e d in M a r k 3 : 2 0 - 4 : 3 4 .

There, Jesus' deliverance of

d e m o n i s e d Israelites h a d b e e n met, not with thanksgiving, b u t censure. H e r e , J e s u s ' healing the sick is met, not w i t h joyful praise (cf. 7:37), b u t with renewed criticism, this time for transgressing w h a t is presented as a tradition o f the elders. parallels.

138

Furthermore, b o t h instances exhibit a n u m b e r o f

First, there is the s a m e overall literary structure. M a r k begins

1 3 3 T h p r o b l e m s w i t h M a r k ' s d e s c r i p t i o n a r e w e l l k n o w n . N e u s n e r , Pharisees, 2 3 0 f f , d e n i e s t h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s p o s s e s s e d s u c h t r a d i t i o n s , b u t s e e t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n for t h e c o n t r a r y in G u n d r y , 358ff. In o u r c o n t e x t w e a r e c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n . e

1

3

4

1

3

6

1

3

7

1

3

8

S e e e.g. L a n e , 2 4 4 ; G u n d r y ; H o o k e r ; G n i l k a . 1 3 5 M y e r s , Binding, 2 1 8 , n o t e s M a r k ' s m e n t i o n o f t h e m a r k e t p l a c e b u t s e e s it o n l y i n terms of e c o n o m i c oppression, suggesting that the disciples' c o n t a m i n a t i o n results f r o m previous contact with the Gentiles. 1 2 : 3 8 is t h e o n l y o t h e r i n s t a n c e . T h e t e x t is a m b i g u o u s b e c a u s e o f a n ellipsis. P e s c h , T a y l o r , a n d G u e l i c h s u p p l y a plural impersonal p r o n o u n s o that 'things' from the m a r k e t place a r e w a s h e d , citing the l a c k o f e v i d e n c e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s w a s h i n g t h e m s e l v e s in this m a n n e r . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , Cranfield, Gnilka, a n d L a n e stay with the natural sense of the middle. Cf. A m b r o z i c , 7 0 f , 1 0 1 ; H e i l , Walking, 1 3 5 f ; B e a v i s , Audience, 92ff; cf. G u n d r y , 1 8 7 .

212

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

with a controversy which is followed b y a parabolic response both in word and in d e e d .

1 3 9

C o n t r o v e r s y (3:20-35)

C o n t r o v e r s y ( 7 : 1 - 1 3 ; cf. 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 )

- w h o is a t w o r k , Beelzebul

or Yahweh?

- scribes f r o m J e r u s a l e m a n d J e s u s '

- w h o is clean or

unclean?

- Pharisees, a n d scribes from

family m i s u n d e r s t a n d

Jerusalem as hypocrites, - Isa 29:13, hearts far from G o d

Parables as Response:


in W o r d ( 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 ; 4 : 1 - 3 4 )

in W o r d ( 7 : 1 4 - 2 3 ; cf. v. 1 7 )

- I s a 6 : 9 - 1 0 : see b u t n o t p e r c e i v e , h e a r b u t n o t u n d e r s t a n d , (v. 1 2 ) - D i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (OT6<XT€, v. 1 3 , yvuSacaec, v. 1 3 b )

- Disciples w i t h o u t u n d e r standing (dau'vcToi € O T € ; OU V O € l T € , V . 1 8 )

in D e e d ( 4 : 3 5 - 5:43): Jesus as the INE

in D e e d ( 7 : 2 4 - 3 7 ) : purity

Yahweh-Warrior

Gentile

- s t o r m (disciples' d o n o t

and the

regions

- Syrophoenician w o m a n

u n d e r s t a n d (v. 4 1 ) ) / d e m o n i a c ; - unclean woman/Jairus'

- deaf and d u m b m a n

daughter

Parallels also exist in the details of the accounts. After the confrontation, Jesus addresses T O V o x ^ o v ( V . 14a; cf. 4:1) and in language reminiscent of the parables material he exhorts them to hear and to understand a parable (v. 14b; cf. 4:3, 9 ) . After a change of scene (v. 17; cf. 4:10), the disciples again ask for an explanation (v. 17; cf. 4 : 1 0 ) 4:13).

1 4 0

and yet again are rebuked (v. 18; cf.

M a r k 3:20 - 4:34 w a s in the c o n t e x t o f J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , h e r e the

confrontation is set in the context o f J e s u s ' healings, both activities being key indicators

of the I N E .

1 4 1

J u s t as J e s u s r e s p o n d e d

to the

first

controversy by continuing his parabolic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r activities (4:35ff) so here h e responds to this confrontation in a similar fashion and again in apparently

Gentile r e g i o n s .

1 4 2

T h e s e similarities strongly suggest that

M a r k i n t e n d s 6:53 - 7:13ff to b e read in terms o f the issues raised in 3:20 4:34. W h a t is o f further interest is that Isaiah 6 and Isaiah 2 9 , as w e shall

1

3

9

In p a r t i c u l a r . L a n e , 2 4 4 . T o l b e r t , Sowing, 148f, 164f, highlights the relationship b e t w e e n 4 : 1 - 3 4 a n d 4 : 3 5 - 5:43; n o w a l s o M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 2 1 8 f , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y 2 2 4 f , w h e r e 4 : 1 - 3 4 p r e c e d e s a s e r i e s o f p a r a b o l i c 6uvaiA€ic\ N o t e a l s o t h e s c r i b a l a d d i t i o n o f v. 1 6 , € i TIG € X € i ma O K O U C I V otKoucTU), cf. 4 : 9 , 2 3 . In c o m p a r i n g t h e s u m m a r y s t a t e m e n t s in 3 : 7 - 1 2 a n d 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 t h e f o r m e r h a s a g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n J e s u s ' p o w e r o v e r u n c l e a n spirits w h i l e t h e l a t t e r o n h i s h e a l i n g . L a n e , 2 5 9 ; S c h m i d , 1 9 8 ; P e s c h , 1.384; G r u n d m a n n , 1 4 6 ; A m b r o z i c , 2 2 4 . 1

4

0

1 4 1

1

4

2

Isaiah 29 in

213

Context

see, are also c l o s e l y related in that the latter a p p e a r s to d e s c r i b e the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the former. b) Textual

Matters Mark

7:6f

Isaiah

29:13

LXX*AQ

OUTO?

6

Xabg

€yyi£€i

uoi

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pm

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a n ' €uou-

6i6aaKOVT€s- € V T a X u o n r a

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Mk7:6:

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m^ft

c

ev (om Luc) Tip crrduaTi auTou, KOU cv in L X X ^ t D L u c

T h e manifold variants in the last part o f the Isaiah 29:13 suggest that the Hebrew

t e x t is c o r r u p t ,

1 4 3

b u t for o u r p u r p o s e s

the

significant

variations are few. M a r k ' s text m a y represent a very slight abbreviation o f the already shortened L X X * - , although if the omission o f kv T ( 3 a T o u a n A0

K.T.X.

parallels the t e n d e n c y s e e n in M a r k 4:12 to o m i t repetitive ideas, B

then his s o u r c e m a y b e L X X . significantly altered.

In any c a s e , the M T ' s m e a n i n g is not

T h e s a m e applies to the c h a n g e to T i u a to a c c o m

m o d a t e the omission o f the possessive plural.

T h e major issues concern

M a r k ' s dependence on the L X X w h ic h apparently read T i m over against the M T ' s Tffli, and a Piel masc. pi. (D'HB'ra, so also the Tg.) instead o f the M T ' s Pual fern. sg. (rnfc^fc) thereby suggesting a causal clause. C o m m e n t on this will b e left until after the following discussion. c) Isaiah

29 in

Context

Isaiah 29 b e l o n g s to that series o f utterances in c h a p t e r s 2 8 - 3 1 w h i c h , building on the earlier p o l e m i c s against idolatrous w i s d o m in the earlier chapters, constitute the book's most sustained attack on the

1 4 3

nation's

S e e W a t t s , 1 . 3 8 4 ; S t e n d a h l , School, 56ff; a n d G u n d r y , Use, 1 4 ; a n d Mark, 3 5 0 .

214

Isaiah's

leaders.

144

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

T h e historical setting is J u d a h ' s abortive participation in a rebel

coalition against Assyria, and, although chapter 2 8 a n n o u n c e s the c o m i n g of j u d g e m e n t u p o n the proud c r o w n o f the drunken and corrupt leaders of E p h r a i m (vv. 1-4), b y verse 14 it is clear that the prophet is w a r n i n g the rulers o f J e r u s a l e m w h o h a v e rejected his m e s s a g e .

1 4 5

T h e issues are

precisely t h e s a m e as those a d d r e s s e d earlier in the b o o k .

1 4 6

Set in the

context o f J e r u s a l e m ' s crisis, the ' w i s e ' (included in the 'obstinate children' in 3 0 : 1 , 9; cf. 1:2) reject Y a h w e h ' s instruction o r teaching (30:9-11), and increasingly resort to the nations and their idols as they plan their foreign policy (28:15; 30:1-5 (6f); 31:1-3). Nevertheless, Y a h w e h will accomplish his purpose (28:2f, 18-22): c o n d e m n e d to b e blind and deaf (28:9-14; 29:9-21) the nation's ' w i s e o n e s ' will p u r s u e policies that will result in the devastation of the land and ultimately exile (30:1-5,12-17; 31:1-3). In the light o f this b a c k g r o u n d , Isaiah 2 9 o p e n s w i t h a w o e o r a c l e against the capital w h i c h declares that Y a h w e h himself will lay siege to the city (vv. 1-8; cf. M k 1 3 ) .

1 4 7

V e r s e s 9 - 1 4 , a chiastic formulation in w h i c h

e a c h stanza is a variation on the t h e m e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y ,

148

into a derisive i n d i c t m e n t o f J e r u s a l e m ' s blind a n d d e a f leaders.

launch Once

again, although verse 13 reads n tn D^n, it is clear that the leaders are again :

the primary targets (vv. 1 0 , 1 4 ) .

1 4 9

T h e p a s s a g e from which M a r k ' s J e s u s cites begins with a difficult verse. T h e point, h o w e v e r , s e e m s clear e n o u g h in that it taunts those w h o ought to h a v e k n o w n Y a h w e h ' s will b u t b e c a u s e o f their wilful rejection o f his w o r d are likened to staggering drunkards (v. 9; cf. 28:7): ... blind y o u r s e l v e s a n d b e blind, b e d r u n k b u t n o t with wine, stagger b u t n o t b e c a u s e o f s t r o n g d r i n k , f o r t h e L o r d h a s p o u r e d u p o n y o u a spirit o f d e e p s l e e p . H e h a s s h u t y o u r eyes, p r o p h e t s , a n d y o u r h e a d s , seers, h e h a s c o v e r e d (Isa 29:10).

1

4

4

1

4

5

1

4

6

1

4

7

1

4

8

1

4

9

S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 5 6 - 5 8 ; V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 1 3 4 n 9 . E x u m , ' L i t e r a r y ' , 1 2 4 ; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 0 4 4 ; cf. C l e m e n t s , 2 2 9 .

S e e p p . 1 8 8 f f a b o v e ; cf. J e n s e n , Use, 115ff. V v . 5 - 8 a r e difficult b e c a u s e o f t h e a p p a r e n t s u d d e n r e v e r s a l o f Y a h w e h ' s a t t i t u d e . C l e m e n t s r e g a r d s t h e m a s a later redaction while W i l d b e r g e r h a s Isaiah c h a n g i n g his s t a n c e . F o r E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 4 5 , t h e p o i n t is t h a t e v e n t h o u g h A s s y r i a is Y a h w e h ' s t o o l s h e w i l l e v e n t u a l l y b e p u n i s h e d for h e r a r r o g a n c e . E x u m , 'Broken', 3 4 7 . M c K a n e , Prophet, 7 0 f ; J e n s e n , Use, 5 1 , 5 5 f , 6 7 f ; C l e m e n t s , 2 3 6 ; E v a n s , See, 4 3 .

Isaiah 29 in

215

Context

T h i s i n s e n s i b l e c o n d i t i o n is Y a h w e h ' s d o i n g (v. 1 0 ) a n d expression

Wttft

Wtiyntin

in verse 9

1 5 0

the

unique

strongly s u g g e s t s that it is in fulfil

m e n t o f the p r o p h e t ' s earlier c o m m i s s i o n w h e r e h e w a s instructed tttin VTX) (6:10, cf. 3 2 : 3 ) .

1 5 1

If this is s o , then w e h a v e h e r e a p i c t u r e of the

nation's head a n d eyes—its prophets and seers—who are n o w s o incapable of c o m p r e h e n d i n g Y a h w e h ' s p l a n (i.e. v i s i o n

1 5 2

) that it is as i m p e n e t r a b l e

as a sealed b o o k to a n illiterate (v. 1 2 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , leaders a n d p e o p l e together apparently persist in earnest prayers and performance o f religious duties, even t h o u g h they p u r s u e strategies directly at o d d s with Y a h w e h ' s will

1 5 3

— a situation n o t dissimilar to that w h i c h w e h a v e already described

in Isaiah 1:10-15.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , Y a h w e h indignantly rejects their h o n o u r

of h i m as m e r e lip service and e m p t y adherence to cultic r e g u l a t i o n s :

154

B e c a u s e this p e o p l e d r a w n e a r w i t h t h e i r w o r d s a n d h o n o u r m e w i t h t h e i r s p e e c h b u t r e m o v e their hearts from m e , I will again o n c e again deal w o n d r o u s l y w i t h this p e o p l e ... a n d t h e w i s d o m o f t h e i r w i s e m e n s h a l l p e r i s h , a n d t h e d i s c e r n m e n t o f t h e i r d i s c e r n i n g m e n s h a l l b e c o n c e a l e d ( I s a 29:13f)-

U s i n g l a n g u a g e o t h e r w i s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h his past s a v i n g acts, Y a h w e h ironically a n n o u n c e s that h e will ' w o n d r o u s l y ' (cf. J o s 3 : 1 ; P s 78:12; 98:1 etc.) subvert the w i s d o m o f the w i s e such that their p l a n s will lead instead to utter devastation, a t h e m e that quite pervades these chapters (vv. 14, 2 9 ; cf. 28:lff, 13-22; 2 9 : 1 - 4 , 1 9 ; 3 0 : 1 - 5 , 1 2 - 1 5 ) .

155

Isaiah 29:13f thus presents a picture of a national leadership and a p e o p l e , a l r e a d y u n d e r the effects o f the j u d i c i a l b l i n d i n g p r o n o u n c e d in Isaiah

6, w h o

are

further

c o n s e q u e n t l y , destruction.

given

over

to t h e i r

own

wisdom

and,

Y e t at the s a m e t i m e as t h e y s e c r e t l y p u r s u e

t h e i r o w n r e b e l l i o u s p l a n s , t h e y c o n t i n u e to p r o f e s s t h e i r l o y a l t y to

1

5

0

S c h m i d t , ' G e d a n k e n ' , f o l l o w e d b y W a t t s , r e a d s wntin a n d WW f o r WV: ' d e l i g h t y o u r s e l v e s a n d g a z e i n t e n t l y ' . W e f o l l o w W i l d b e r g e r in t h a t t h e o m i s s i o n i n t h e L X X a n d t h e differing r e n d e r i n g s o f t h e v e r s i o n s a r e n o t sufficient r e a s o n s t o e m e n d t h e t e x t ; cf. BDB, 1044. 151 W a t t s , 1 . 3 8 5 ; cf. C l e m e n t s , D e l i t z s c h . T h e u n i f y i n g p r i n c i p l e is ' t h e f o c u s o f e a c h p o e m o n vision', E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 5 1 . A l t h o u g h t h e L X X o m i t s t h e M T ' s ' b l i n d i n g ' p h r a s e i n 2 9 : 9 a , its K a w i u c i v i n v . 1 0 p i c k s u p I s a 6:10. 1

5

2

O r ' r e v e l a t i o n ' , s e e E x u m , ibid., 3 4 8 f ; K a i s e r , 2 . 2 6 9 . E x u m t a k e s it t o r e f e r t o t h e contents of the p o e m while Wildberger, 3.1115f, sees the entire m e s s a g e of G o d to the people. 1

5

3

1

5

4

1

5

5

C l e m e n t s , 2 3 8 f ; D i e t r i c h , Politik, 173ff; W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 1 2 0 . O n D^tt* rnsn a s c u l t i c r e g u l a t i o n s , W i l d b e r g e r , 3 . 1 1 2 1 f . J e n s e n , Use, 6 7 , h o w e v e r s u g g e s t s t h a t it is a r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t e a c h i n g s o f t h e w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . C f . C l e m e n t s , 2 3 9 ; E x u m , ' B r o k e n ' , 3 4 8 ; M c K a n e , Prophets, 7 0 f .

216

Isaiah's

Promise

Y a h w e h w h o disdainfully

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

rejects s u c h h y p o c r i t i c a l w o r s h i p as m e r e l y

adhering to rules taught by men. d) Isaiah 29 in Mark 7 It has b e e n contended that the point o f the argument in M a r k 7:1-13 d e p e n d s o n the L X X because it supports an attack on the teachings o f m e n w h e r e a s t h e M T a n d Tg. Isaiah worship of God 'commanded c o m m e n t s can b e m a d e .

are rather c o n c e r n e d w i t h a deficient b y m e n and l e a r n e d b y r o t e ' .

1 5 6

Two

First, there is in fact little substantive difference

b e t w e e n the s e n s e s o f either the L X X or the M T .

S i n c e in b o t h cases

Y a h w e h is c l e a r l y d i s p l e a s e d with a w o r s h i p that fails to reflect his priorities a n d c o n c e r n s

157

— a n d in any case the major c h a n g e in the L X X ,

'in vain', is not explicitly taken up b y M a r k .

1 5 8

S e c o n d , to focus o n the 'traditions o f m e n ' s e e m s to m i s s the larger point which is evident in both the M T and the L X X . The concern in Isaiah is not m e r e l y a m a t t e r of rote recitation versus sincere religious practice, although this m a y b e part o f the problem.

The matter of worship as mere

a d h e r e n c e to religious rules ' t a u g h t b y m e n ' arises o n l y in the larger c o n t e x t o f the Yahweh's

more

purposes.

1 5 9

fundamental

issue, namely,

rebellion

against

T h i s is precisely the situation in M a r k , a n d I

suggest, t h e r e a s o n for the similarities n o t e d earlier b e t w e e n the t w o c o n t r o v e r s i e s in 3 : 2 0 - 4 : 3 4 and 7 : l - 2 3 .

1 6 0

T h e religious authorities from

J e r u s a l e m h a v e already rejected Y a h w e h ' s I N E reign b e g u n in J e s u s b y attributing his e x o r c i s m s to Beelzebul. T h e y h a v e set their faces against

1

5

6

1

5

7

1

5

8

1

5

9

1

6

0

B o o t h , Purity, 9 1 f ; cf. S c h w e i z e r , 1 4 5 ; N i n e h a m , 1 9 4 f ; L i n d a r s , Apologetic, S t e n d a h l , School, 5 8 ; G o u l d , 1 2 8 .

165;

T h e L X X ' s 'in v a i n ' m a k e s e x p l i c i t w h a t is a l r e a d y i m p l i c i t in t h e M T a n d t h e L X X ' s e p e x e g e t i c a l p a r t i c i p l e , 6\8O:OKOVT€S, r e f l e c t s t h e M T ' s a d j e c t i v a l p h r a s e ; cf. L a n e , 2 4 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 6 7 . A g a i n s t C r o s s a n ' s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t M a r k u s e d Egerton Papyrus 2, s e e Gundry, 362; a n d Schneck, 173-82. F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 5 0 . Cf. S u h l , 8 1 , 'Die H a l t u n g d e r G e g n e r lafit s i c h s e h r g u t m i t d e n W o r t e n J e s a j a s u m s c h r e i b e n . Sie s i n d d a m i t a l s s o l c h e q u a l i f i z i e r t , d i e s c h o n i m m e r d i e F e i n d e G o t t e s w a r e n ' . B o o t h , Purity, 92, t a k e s a s o m e w h a t i d i o s y n c r a t i c p o s i t i o n ( h e c i t e s n o o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s ) in a r g u i n g t h a t Isa 2 9 c o n s t i t u t e s a n a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h e o b s t r u c t i o n i s t t e a c h i n g of the wise w h i c h p r e v e n t s people f r o m true learning. This misses the point both of the l a r g e r I s a i a n i c c o n t e x t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f ' h y p o c r i t e ' ; s e e fn. 1 6 6 b e l o w . G u n d r y ' s o b s e r v a t i o n , 3 4 9 , t h a t 3 : 2 2 ' h a s p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d for a n a c c u s a t o r y q u e s t i o n ' is, t h e r e f o r e , h e a d i n g in t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .

Isaiah 29 in Mark

217

7

Y a h w e h ' s p l a n , g r i e v e d his H o l y Spirit, a n d so h e h a s b e c o m e t h e i r enemy.

1 6 1

C o n s e q u e n t l y , J e s u s ' parabolic teaching, and in all likelihood

his miracles as well, m e r e l y s e r v e to confirm t h e m in their b l i n d n e s s ( M k 4).

N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y then, w h e n in M a r k ' s account the leaders are c o n

fronted with J e s u s ' healings (6:53-56, cf. d y o p d in v. 5 6 , and 7:4), they again r e s p o n d w i t h c r i t i c i s m , this t i m e o f the d i s c i p l e s ' failure to c o n f o r m to their traditions (7:1-5). J e s u s ' response is exactly in keeping with the Isaiah 29's

denunciation:

although

the religious authorities appear

Y a h w e h their ' w o r s h i p ' is n o t h i n g b u t €VTdX\iaja

to s e r v e

dv9pa)TT0)v s i n c e t h e

truth o f the matter is that they are at bottom opposed to G o d ' s p u r p o s e s . The this.

1 6 3

162

a c c u s a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e practice o f C o r b a n s e r v e s to illustrate C o m m a n d i n g others to k e e p

in the n a m e o f piety afydvreg

T T J V

*napa6oaiv

rr\v evroXfiv T O U 8 € O 0

T C J V

dvSpamwv w h i l e

may be manifestly

' h y p o c r i t i c a l ' to a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y r e a d e r , b u t m o r e to t h e p o i n t it d e m o n s t r a t e s a c o n s i s t e n t l y u n g o d l y proclivity to ' s e t a s i d e ' w h a t G o d w a n t s for t h e s a k e o f their o w n t r a d i t i o n s . l a r g e r i s s u e at s t a k e t h r o u g h o u t should 'repent and b e l i e v e ' (l:14f).

Mark.

164

A g a i n , this is e x a c t l y the

W h a t G o d w a n t s is that t h e y

But, as M a r k has d e m o n s t r a t e d earlier

t h r o u g h o u t h i s e x t e n d e d series o f c o n t r o v e r s i e s ( 2 : 1 - 3 : 6 ) , t h e r e l i g i o u s authorities h a v e constantly preferred their o w n traditions (2:7f, 16, 18, 2 4 ; 3:4f)

1 6 5

a n d t h u s t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d to reject Y a h w e h ' s

W i t h s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e justification, KCL\&s ToiauTa

TroXXa T r o i c t T c .

purposes.

1 6 6

J e s u s m a y add that irapduoia

H o w c a n the authorities b e expected to respond

1 6 1

T h e r e s p o n s e o f J e s u s ' f a m i l y in 3:20ff m a y b e e c h o e d in J e s u s ' r e j e c t i o n a t N a z a r e t h , 6:lff, w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h i a s t i c s t r u c t u r e : [3:7-12 Summary statement echoing John's success (prior to his rejection) in 1:5 which concludes first section of Jesus' mighty words and deeds and series of five subsequent confrontations.! 3:13-19 Twelve chosen (word and deed) 3:20-36 Rejection of Jesus by the scribes and his family 4:1-34 Parables as response: in word (Isa 6) 4:35 - 5:43 Parables as response: in deed 6:1-6 Rejection at Nazareth in his patria 6:7-13 Twelve sent (word and deed) Cf. F i s h e r a n d v o n W a h l d e , ' M i r a c l e s ' , w i t h ' p r e a c h i n g ' a n d ' e x o r c i s m ' i n s t e a d o f ' w o r d ' a n d ' d e e d ' ( b u t 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 ? ) a n d different v e r s e s e l e c t i o n (e.g. s e n d i n g t h e T w e l v e : 6 : 7 - 3 3 ) . 1 6 2

G u n d r y ' s c o m m e n t , 3 5 1 , t h a t M a r k l i m i t s I s a i a h ' s 'this p e o p l e ' t o t h e r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s , fails t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t t h e l e a d e r s a r e in fact t h e f o c u s in I s a i a h ( a s a b o v e ) . O n C o r b a n , s e e e.g. D e r r e t t , Studies, 1 . 1 1 2 - 1 7 ; W i l c o x , ANRW, 2 . 2 5 : 2 ; G u n d r y , 3 6 3 . Cf. G n i l k a , 1 . 2 8 2 , a n d W i l k e n s , TDNT, 8 . 5 6 4 . T h u s w h e r e a s L a n e , 2 4 8 , s p e a k s o f t h e P h a r i s e e s l i v i n g ' a lie b e c a u s e t h e y h a d n o t s u r r e n d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s t o G o d ' , f o r M a r k this m e a n s b e l i e v i n g a n d f o l l o w i n g J e s u s . 166 W i l k e n s , TDNT, 8 . 5 6 4 , w h e r e ' h y p o c r i t e ' ' a l w a y s d e n o t e s t h e w i c k e d m a n w h o h a s alienated himself f r o m G o d b y his acts'. G u n d r y ' s a t t e m p t , 3 6 1 , t o infer 'hypocrisy', u n d e r s t o o d in t h e m o r e m o d e r n s e n s e o f d i s s e m b l i n g , is t h e r e f o r e u n n e c e s s a r y . 1 6 3

1 6 4

1 6 5

218

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

appropriately to the n e w thing G o d is doing in J e s u s when, in the n a m e o f 'piety', they h a v e all along been avoiding what G o d ' s law requires? This implicit threat also suggests that there is m o r e to the singling out of the p r a c t i c e o f C o r b a n than m e e t s the e y e .

H o n o u r i n g p a r e n t s is,

a c c o r d i n g to E p h e s i a n s 6:2, the first c o m m a n d m e n t w i t h you m a y live long in the land (cf. L X X E x 20:12 and Dt 5 : 1 6 ) .

promise—that 167

It is possible

that M a r k ' s J e s u s is raising t h e spectre o f c o v e n a n t s a n c t i o n , n a m e l y , destruction a n d exile from the land (cf. Ex 21:15, 17; L e v 20:9; D t 21:18-21; 27:16). Again, this is not only in keeping with the thrust o f Isaiah 2 9 , but also with M a r k 12:lff and M a r k 1 3 . e)

1 6 8

Conclusion

Just as Isaiah 6:9ff announced the sentence o f judicial hardening and 29:914 describes its implementation, so too the effects o f M a r k 4:1 I f are b e i n g w o r k e d o u t in 7:6f.

T h e a u t h o r i t i e s in I s a i a h 28f, in s p i t e o f t h e i r

c o n t i n u i n g religious profession, had in fact rejected Y a h w e h ' s plan and w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y u n d e r judicial h a r d e n i n g and c o n s i g n e d to p u r s u e a course o f action that w o u l d ultimately destroy t h e m and their city.

The

s a m e situation holds in M a r k with regard to the religious authorities from Jerusalem. H a v i n g already rejected J e s u s ' exorcisms, they are n o w subject to Y a h w e h ' s judicial blinding. W h e n faced with J e s u s ' 'parabolic' healings, the true nature o f their loyalty to Y a h w e h is revealed, and their blindness is further confirmed.

T h e threat o f j u d g e m e n t l o o m s . T h i s , o f course, is

the point o f both the parable o f the tenants in M a r k 12:lff and the predicted destruction o f the T e m p l e in M a r k 13. Indeed, if Y a h w e h h a d m e t such hard

heartedness

with destruction

surprising if h e should do so a g a i n .

in t h e p a s t , it w o u l d

hardly

be

169

IV. Conclusion M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c o m p o s i t e citation not only e v o k e d the expectation o f the I N E but also the w a r n i n g inherent in M a l a c h i that Israel, and particularly

1

6

7

1

6

8

1

6

9

O n filial r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e O T , P h i l l i p s , Ancient, 80ff, a n d v a r i o u s r a b b i n i c a l t r a d i t i o n s , e.g. b. Qidd. 3 1 b ; Mek. R. Ish. B a q o d e s h 8:14ff; B l i d s t e i n , Honor. S e e e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 4 7 8 f ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 1 4 5 f . G i v e n t h i s I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d , it m a y w e l l b e t h a t M a r k 1 3 o w e s m o r e t o t h e stimulus of the classical p r o p h e t s than to a n y particularly apocalyptic m o d e of thinking.

219

Conclusion

the religious authorities, must

be prepared

for Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g .

Unfortunately, they w e r e not. J o h n , Y a h w e h ' s forerunner, is rejected and imprisoned

( 1 1 : 2 7 - 3 3 ; cf. 1:14; 6:14-29; 9:11-13) a n d J e s u s h i m s e l f

is

denounced. Following his initial presentation o f J e s u s as the inaugurator Y a h w e h ' s I N E reign, M a r k quickly turns to an extended series o f debates culminating in the pivotal B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y w h e r e J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , for the first time, are publicly repudiated b y the Jerusalem authorities. J e s u s ' response, also for the first t i m e , is explicitly described as b e i n g 'in p a r a b l e s ' and concerns the 'strong m a n ' . This gives rise to two developments. First, the incipient m e n t i o n o f parables and its particular occasion leads directly into the e x p l a n a t i o n o f their p u r p o s e .

In terms o f the Isaiah 6 citation, the

p a r a b l e s effect j u d i c i a l b l i n d n e s s o n the r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s w h o , in rejecting Y a h w e h ' s I N E d e l i v e r a n c e , h a v e g r i e v e d the H o l y Spirit a n d have placed themselves on the 'outside'.

H a v i n g refused Y a h w e h ' s

purposes and rejected the call to repent and believe, h e n o w b e c o m e s their e n e m y . F r o m this point o n a fundamental and increasingly o p e n division within Israel is u n d e r w a y , with the ' c r o w d s ' being put on notice that they too m u s t c h o o s e . S e c o n d , t h e 'first' p a r a b l e c o n c e r n s the ' s t r o n g m a n ' .

Immediately

following the e x p l a n a t o r y parables in w o r d (4:1-34), M a r k returns to this motif in the paired miracles o f the storm stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the demonic

l e g i o n ( 4 : 3 5 - 5:20) w h i c h at t h e least e c h o I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s

founding m o m e n t . J e s u s is further s h o w n to b e the o n e w h o inaugurates Israel's N E . If o n e also includes the intercalated healing o f the w o m a n and the raising o f the y o u n g girl (5:21-43), t h e n p e r h a p s the four m i r a c l e s together constitute a pastiche reflecting Isaiah 6 3 : 7 - 6 5 : 2 5 .

1 7 0

M a r k 7, h o w e v e r , c o n t i n u e s the M a l a c h i 'trajectory' b y i n v o k i n g the futile situation o f Isaiah 2 9 w h e r e the n a t i o n ' s leadership, already u n d e r the influence o f judicial blinding, continues to resist Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s w h i l e at the s a m e t i m e earnestly adhering to strict religious practice. b o t h Isaiah 6 a n d 2 9 j u d g e m e n t is the u n a v o i d a b l e o u t c o m e .

In

W i t h this

b a c k g r o u n d it is, therefore, n o t s u r p r i s i n g that o n r e a c h i n g J e r u s a l e m m u c h o f J e s u s ' activity involves the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the s a m e .

1

7

0

S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 , a b o v e .

220

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Judicial

Blinding

O n the o t h e r h a n d , returning to I s a i a h ' s h o p e o f a N E , there are the 'insiders' w h o h a v e chosen to follow Jesus. Often described in terms m o r e appropriate

to ' o u t s i d e r s ' , t h e s e ' b l i n d ' a n d dull-witted

d i s c i p l e s are,

nevertheless, those to w h o m the mystery o f the k i n g d o m h a s b e e n given. W h a t is o n e to m a k e o f this i n c o n g r u i t y ?

G i v e n the p r o p o s a l offered

here—that M a r k is to s o m e extent o p e r a t i n g w i t h an I N E m o d e l — i t is intriguing that his next major section is not only b o u n d e d b y his only t w o ' h e a l i n g - o f - t h e - b l i n d ' m i r a c l e s , b u t also t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e o n J e s u s ' leading these 'blind' followers 'along a w a y they do not k n o w ' (Isa 42:16).

Chapter 8: The Way of the New Exodus: Mark 8:21/26-10:45/11:1 Mark's section. along the of their 'Way'

interest in the disciples' incomprehension prepares for his 'Way' In Isaiah, Yahweh's healing of 'blind' Israel and his leading them 'way' was indicative of Israel's need to accept his wisdom as part deliverance. So also Mark's 'restoration of sight' miracles on the illustrate the 'blind' disciples' need to understand that the INE would be accomplished through a suffering Messiah.

I. The Disciples' Incomprehension a)

Introduction

O n e o f the m o s t w e l l - r e c o g n i s e d and p e r p l e x i n g motifs that

unfolds

throughout the last half o f the first section o f M a r k ' s gospel is the disciples' incomprehension

(4:13, 4 1 ; 6:52; 7:18f; a n d S ^ f f ) .

1

It is o n e thing for

M a r k ' s J e s u s to apply Isaiah's ancient metaphors of judicial blindness and deafness to the hostile religious authorities. describes his disciples.

It is quite another w h e n he s o

H o w is it that 'insiders', to w h o m the mystery o f

the kingdom o f G o d has been given, can b e so devoid of understanding, so blind, and so deaf? W h a t is it that they do not understand?

A n d h o w is it

that they are not also subject to j u d g e m e n t ?

1

S e e e.g. W r e d e , 2 3 1 f f ; T y s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' ; W e e d e n ; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; Q u e s n e l l ; R e p l o h , Lehrer; T a n n e h i l l , ' N a r r a t i v e ' , 69ff; S t o c k , Call, 1 0 3 - 1 7 ; W r i g h t , Search; M a l o n e y , ' V o c a t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , ' F a l l i b l e ' ; ' D i s c i p l e s ' ( b u t s e e n o w 'Echoes'); K l a u c k , 'Rolle'; M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; R a i s a n e n , 1 9 5 - 2 2 2 . But, taking t h e g o s p e l a s it n o w s t a n d s ( a s o p p o s e d t o t h e r e d a c t i o n c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h o f e.g. B e s t , ' R o l e ' , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; s e e B l a c k ' s c r i t i q u e , Disciples, o f this m e t h o d p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d t o t h e d i s c i p l e s in M a r k ) , w h o d o e s M a r k m e a n b y 'disciples': t h e ' t w e l v e ' o r t h e ' t w e l v e ' p l u s o t h e r f o l l o w e r s ? B l a c k , Disciples, 273n5, suggests they ought not be distinguished since. A ) the T w e l v e a r e s o m e t i m e s m e r g e d w i t h a l a r g e r g r o u p ; B) often t h e y a r e n o t 'rigorously' differentiated f r o m the 'disciples'; a n d C ) b e h a v i o u r a s s o c i a t e d with the T w e l v e o r t h e d i s c i p l e s is f r e q u e n t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o o t h e r s . B u t p e r h a p s it is w i s e s t t o a v o i d categorical e x c l u s i o n since: A ) at times M a r k does distinguish b e t w e e n the T w e l v e a n d t h e l a r g e r g r o u p ( 4 : 1 0 ; 1 0 : 3 2 ) ; B) it m a y s o m e t i m e s ( b u t n o t a l w a y s ) s u i t M a r k t o t a l k a b o u t b o t h g r o u p s u n d e r o n e h e a d o r h e e x p e c t s t h e c o n t e x t t o s h o w t h a t t h e s m a l l e r g r o u p is in v i e w ; a n d C ) it is n o t b e h a v i o u r per se b u t i n s t e a d f o l l o w i n g J e s u s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s a d i s c i p l e f r o m o t h e r s (e.g. 5 : 2 0 ; 7:17; 9 : 3 8 ) .

222

The New

Exodus

Way

This paradoxical presentation has led to polarisation.

2

S o m e stress the

d i s c i p l e s ' m e r i t s , e m p h a s i s i n g their role as g u a r a n t o r s o f the t r a d i t i o n .

3

F o r others, the failings o f the disciples are far m o r e i m p o r t a n t and they b e c o m e p r o x i e s for M a r k ' s o p p o n e n t s a n d as s u c h are little better than heretical r e p r o b a t e s .

4

A third group, seeking to mediate b e t w e e n these two

extremes, gives d u e weight to both realities such that the disciples in b o t h their s u c c e s s e s a n d their failures s e r v e to e n c o u r a g e M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e .

5

W h a t is c l e a r is that, although the disciples are surely ' i n s i d e r s ' , as the narrative progresses they are increasingly described in terms applicable to the ' o u t s i d e r s ' , c l i m a x i n g in the sharp r e p r i m a n d in 8:17ff.

H o w is this

tension to b e resolved? Given, too, our hypothesis o f an I N E framework, to w h a t e x t e n t d o e s M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n c o h e r e w i t h t h e I s a i a n i c descriptions o f Y a h w e h leading Israel along the ' w a y ' to J e r u s a l e m ?

And

h o w , if at all, are these two matters related? T h i s C h a p t e r p r o p o s e s that M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' disciples exhibits significant parallels with Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 ' s description o f exiled Israel awaiting deliverance.

6

' B l i n d ' and ' d e a f , the nation continued to misun

derstand Y a h w e h ' s p u r p o s e s a n d constantly q u e r i e d the w i s d o m o f his actions.

E v e n so, Y a h w e h declares that h e 'will lead the b l i n d b y a w a y

they do not k n o w , along paths they do not k n o w I will guide them. I will turn the darkness into light before t h e m ' (Isa 42:16a). Similarly, at the end of M a r k ' s first section J e s u s ' u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g disciples are also described as ' b l i n d ' a n d ' d e a f .

Nevertheless, J e s u s leads t h e m along the ' W a y ' to

J e r u s a l e m w h i c h , significantly, begins and ends with M a r k ' s o n l y healingof-sight miracles. O n this ' W a y ' the disciples are likewise confronted with Yahweh's unconventional

wisdom:

the revelation that

the

ultimate

e x p r e s s i o n o f his I N E c o m i n g a n d I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e is n o t h i n g o t h e r than the scandalous w a y of J e s u s to the cross. Just as the mysterious career of Isaiah 5 3 ' s 'suffering s e r v a n t ' w a s integral to the I N E , s o M a r k ' s N E

2

S e e t h e h e l p f u l s u m m a r y o f t h e M a r k a n d a t a in B l a c k , Disciples, 41-46, a n d his subsequent discussion. I n p a r t i c u l a r , M e y e , Jesus, b u t s e e a l s o e.g. K e r t e l g e , ' F u n k t i o n ' ; B u d e s h e i m , ' J e s u s ' ; S c h m a h l , Zwolf; S t o c k , Boten. 3

4

N o t a b l y , T y s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' ; W e e d e n , ' H e r e s y ' ; Conflict; but also earlier Kuby, ' K o n z e p t i o n ' ; a n d t h e n K e l b e r , Story, ' A p o s t o l i c ' ; S e l v i d g e , ' F e a r e d ' , Woman, 3 9 f . - R e p l o h , Lehrer; Focant, 'L'incompreltension'; H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension'; Best, ' T w e l v e ' , Following; M a l b o n , 'Fallible', 'Disciples', a n d h e r c r i t i q u e o f K e l b e r in ' T e x t ' . S e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 31ff. 6

Themes

and

223

Emphases

' W a y ' reveals the e n i g m a of the messianic S / s o n o f G o d w h o is also the suffering S o n o f M a n (8:31-33; 9:30-32; 10:32-34; cf. 8:29 and 10:45). This suggests that M a r k ' s p r i m a r y concern is not so m u c h to describe the path o f suffering discipleship—although it is surely important—nor to recount the disciples' attaining full cognition, for clearly they do not.

On

the contrary, M a r k ' s point appears to b e that participation in the I N E ' w a y ' inevitably i n v o l v e s the recognition and affirmation of t w o critical data. First, that the M a r k a n J e s u s is not only Israel's M e s s i a h , the royal son o f G o d , but in a unique and extraordinary sense the divine S o n o f G o d .

7

And

s e c o n d , as the three-fold p a s s i o n predictions indicate, that in Y a h w e h ' s wisdom

Israel's N E

redemption

is p r e d i c a t e d

on

the

death—and

resurrection—of 'true Israel', n a m e l y the S o n o f M a n . b) Themes

and

Emphases

T h e outline o f 3:7 - 8:21 overleaf is not yet another attempt at the structure 8

of this notoriously difficult s e c t i o n , but instead seeks to highlight those t h e m e s that m i g h t h a v e s o m e b e a r i n g o n the ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' motif. T h e larger division into two sections, M a r k 3:7 - 6:52 and 6:53 - 8:21, h a s b e e n m a d e s i m p l y to e m p h a s i s e similarities in t h e w a y M a r k h a n d l e s certain incidents and the m a n n e r in which h e connects t h e m .

9

In terms o f the materials leading up to the ' W a y ' section, a n u m b e r o f observations can b e m a d e . First, as previously noted, the two 'Controversy and

R e s p o n s e - t h r o u g h - P a r a b l e s ' s t o r i e s ( 3 : 2 0 - 5 : 4 3 ; 7:1-37) e x h i b i t a

n u m b e r o f parallels.

T h e y b e g i n with a controversy i n v o l v i n g religious

authorities from J e r u s a l e m to w h i c h Jesus responds with parables o f w o r d 7

Cf. Israel a s ' s o n ' a n d J e s u s a s 'Son', s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 8 6 , a n d C h a p t e r 4 , p p . HOff.

8

F o r a s u r v e y of earlier alternatives, Quesnell, 28-36. A l s o m o r e recently, Petersen, 'Composition', w h o gives a primary structural role to the boat scenes, 195f; as does n o w M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' ; a n d F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 1 3 , w h o o b s e r v e s a s e r i e s o f i n t e r l o c k i n g d o u b l e t s centred on the t w o feeding accounts, 113. 9

G i v e n t h e c h i a s m s u g g e s t e d a b o v e ( C h a p t e r 7, p . 2 1 7 , fn. 1 6 1 ) , p e r h a p s a l s o :

6:14-29 Herod, Jesus, and John's death: Herod does not understand Jesus' signs 6:30-44 Feeding of the 5000 6:45-56 Miracles: storm stilling and healing the sick 7:1 - 2 3 Authorities from Jerusalem: Isa 2 9 and the traditions of the elders 7:24-37 Miracles: the demonised daughter and the deaf-mute 8:1-10 Feeding of the 4000 8:11-13 The Pharisees seek a sign [8:14-21 Conclusion: warning or the leaven of the Pharisees and Herod] T h e w a r n i n g concerning the leaven of the Pharisees a n d H e r o d (8:14-21) functions as the c o n c l u s i o n t o t h e s e c t i o n b y b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r H e r o d (6:14ff), t h e P h a r i s e e s (8:1 Iff)/ t h e f e e d i n g s (6:30ff; 8:Iff), a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s ' l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ; all o f w h i c h p r e p a r e f o r Mark's ' W a y ' section.

224

The

and then o f d e e d .

New

Exodus

Way

B u t the disciples t h e m s e l v e s ' u n d e r s t a n d ' neither the

s p o k e n parable nor the true significance of the d e e d s . Outline

of 3:7 - 8:21:

Parallel

Literary

10

Structures

M a r k 3:7 - 6:52

Mark 6:53-8:21

S u m m a r y (3:7-12)

S u m m a r y (6:53-56)

Choosing the Twelve (3:13-19)

C o n t r o v e r s y ( 7 : 1 - 1 3 ; cf. 6 : 5 3 - 5 6 ) Controversy (3:20-35) - w h o is a t w o r k , Beelzebul or Yahweh? - w h o is clean or unclean? - scribes f r o m J e r u s a l e m a n d J e s u s ' - Pharisees, a n d scribes f r o m family misunderstand Jerusalem as hypocrites. - I s a 2 9 : 1 3 , h e a r t s far f r o m G o d Parables as Response:


in W o r d ( 3 : 2 3 - 2 7 ; 4 : 1 - 3 4 )

in W o r d ( 7 : 1 4 - 2 3 ; cf. v. 1 7 )

- Isa 6:9-10: see but not perceive, h e a r b u t n o t u n d e r s t a n d , (v. 1 2 ) - Disciples without

- D i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (o'(6aT€,

v . 1 3 , yvuoeoQe, v. 1 3 b )

understanding

( d a U V C T O l € O T € ; OU V O € l T € , V . 1 8 )

in D e e d ( 7 : 2 4 - 3 7 ) : purity

in D e e d ( 4 : 3 5 - 5 : 4 3 ) : Jesus as the INE Yahweh-Warrior

Gentile

and

the

regions

- s t o r m (disciples' d o n o t

- Syrophoenician

u n d e r s t a n d (v. 4 1 ) ) / d e m o n i a c ; - unclean w o m a n / J a i r u s ' daughter

woman

- deaf and d u m b m a n

Rejection at N a z a r e t h (6:l-6a) Sending the Twelve (6:6b-13) Herod

a n d John Baptist (6:14-29) - m i s u n d e r s t a n d s t h e m i r a c l e s (v. 1 4 )

F e e d i n g o f 5 0 0 0 , a n d loaves ( 6 : 3 0 - 4 4 )

F e e d i n g o f 4 0 0 0 a n d loaves ( 8 : 1 - 1 0 ) Pharisees

seek a sign, refused (8:11-13)

B o a t in t h e s t o r m / w a t e r w a l k i n g ( 6 : 4 5 - 5 2 ) B r e a d in t h e B o a t ( 8 : 1 4 - 2 1 ) - d i s c i p l e s a s t o u n d e d (v. 5 1 )

- b e w a r e t h e l e a v e n o f Herod t h e Pharisees

- disciples d o not understand (auvfiKav) a b o u t t h e loaves

(v. 5 2 a )

- h e a r t s a r e h a r d (v. 5 2 b )

and

(v. 1 5 )

- d i s c i p l e s d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d (ovmu> voeiTe

ou6€

loaves

a n d broken

a u v i € T € ) about the pieces

(v. 17)

- ' a r e y o u r h e a r t s h a r d ? ' , cf. J e r 5 : 2 1 , E z k 1 2 : 2 ; I s a 6:9; b l i n d e y e s , d e a f e a r s , etc. (vv. 18f). - 'do you not yet understand ( < J U V l € T € ) ? ' (v.

1

0

21)

O n c o n f r o n t a t i o n - p a r a b l e - m i r a c l e a s a M a r k a n p a t t e r n s e e a l s o , K e l l e r , ' J e s u s ' , 36f, a l t h o u g h his s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s is o p e n t o q u e s t i o n .

Themes

and

225

Emphases

S e c o n d , in 6:30 - 8:21 there are t w o b o a t scenes w h i c h also feature the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n : fear at J e s u s ' w a l k i n g o n the w a t e r in 6:45-52 a n d m i s c o n s t r u a l o f t h e l e a v e n w a r n i n g in 8:14-21.

In b o t h c a s e s this

i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n is linked to the preceding feeding accounts (6:30-44; 8 : 1 10) b y m e a n s o f statements about loaves (6:52; 8 : 1 7 - 2 1 ) .

n

Third, the feeding

stories t h e m s e l v e s (6:30-44; 8:1-10) are b r a c k e t e d w i t h a c c o u n t s that also concern 'understanding'

(see t h e o u t l i n e b e l o w ) .

Both Herod and

the

Pharisees are interested in signs, and particularly o n e s that will establish J e s u s ' identity (6:14-29; 8:11-13). Herod m i s t a k e s J e s u s for a r e s u r r e c t e d J o h n B a p t i s t

(6:14-29)

F e e d i n g o f 5 0 0 0 , a n d loaves ... intervening

material

(6:30-44) ...

(6:45-7:37)

F e e d i n g o f 4 0 0 0 a n d loaves Pharisees

(8:1-10)

seek a sign from Jesus a n d a r e refused

(8:11-13)

L e a v e n a n d loaves: s u m m a r y w a r n i n g about Pharisees a n d H e r o d

(8:14-21)

F u r t h e r , b o t h o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s are a l l u d e d to in the l e a v e n ('OpctTC,

PXCTTCTC

dtTTo TT\s

C^WS

TG3V

4>apiaaiG)v Kai

TTJC;

warning f

Cu^nc; HpG$6ou)

w h i c h then forms t h e b a s i s o f the c o n c l u d i n g p e r i c o p e 8:14-21 ( t a k i n g vv. 22ff as t r a n s i t i o n a l to the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ) .

F o u r t h , this c o n c l u d i n g

pericope (8:14-21) s e e m s to function as s o m e t h i n g o f a s u m m a r y since it b r i n g s t o g e t h e r a n u m b e r o f the c o n c e r n s , t h e m e s , and motifs from the preceding

material:

1 2

the reference to H e r o d and the P h a r i s e e s (6:14ff;

8:1 Iff; cf. 3:5f), the disciples' failure to understand ( c o m b i n i n g terms u s e d in 6:52 and 7:18), m e n t i o n o f the ' l o a v e s ' , the disciples' hard-heartedness (6:52), and the s u p e r a b u n d a n c e o f the feedings It is also the last time M a r k records Jesus questioning the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n .

13

That this

series of q u e s t i o n s is the m o s t extensive to date (8:17-21) o n l y h e i g h t e n s the sense o f crisis. B u t w h a t is it that the disciples d o not understand, and w h y is their i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n particularly connected with the l o a v e s ?

1

1

E . g . F u l l e r , Mission,

Hawkin,

1 4

74; Keck, 'Christology', 356n96; Glasswell, 'Miracles', 158f;

' S y m b o l i s m ' ; Q u e s n e l l , passim;

F o w l e r , Loaves,

109-14; Meye, 'Horizon', 4;

S c h w e i z e r , 1 2 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1.316f; M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' . 1

2

C f . H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 5 ; Q u e s n e l l , 1 2 5 , 1 7 6 ; H e i l , Walking,

131-44;

Guelich, 1.419. 1

3

T h e c l o s e s t h e c o m e s a f t e r this is 9 : 1 9 b u t t h i s is s p e c i f i c a l l y a b o u t unbelief, n o t l a c k

of perception, a l t h o u g h the t w o a r e probably related. 1

4

T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e , f o r s u r v e y s : Q u e s n e l l , 1 - 2 8 ; B o u c h e r , 6 9 - 8 0 ;

G i b s o n , 'Rebuke'.

226

The New

Exodus

Way

c) Mark 8:14-21 and Mark 4:1-34: the Feedings

as

Parables

T h e s u m m a r y character of 8:14-21 suggests that it must, in s o m e w a y , b e pivotal to the i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n p r o b l e m .

15

T h e reference to the disciples

forgetting to bring bread (v. 14) might recall the preceding feedings, but in terms of the narrative setting is m o r e likely intended to provide, b y m e a n s of w o r d a s s o c i a t i o n , the o c c a s i o n for J e s u s ' w a r n i n g a b o u t the l e a v e n (v. 1 5 ) — m u c h as the w o r d 'salt' functions as a key-word link b e t w e e n the 'salt-sayings' of 9 : 4 9 f .

16

In the context of the Pharisees' d e m a n d for a sign

(v. 11) a n d H e r o d ' s confusing J e s u s w i t h J o h n (6:14-16), t h e ' l e a v e n ' m e t a p h o r s e e m s m o s t naturally to refer to that w h i c h blinds b o t h H e r o d and the Pharisees to the true significance of J e s u s ' p a r a b l e - d e e d s .

17

T h e fact

that the disciples quite misunderstand the 'leaven' warning, thinking it to b e a v e i l e d r e b u k e at their forgetting to b r i n g sufficient b r e a d (v. 1 6 ) , d e m o n s t r a t e s its t i m e l i n e s s and o c c a s i o n s J e s u s ' r e p r i m a n d (vv. 17-18). The lack o f bread is simply not the issue. Jesus could easily h a v e provided more, as his questions indicate (vv. 19a, 20a) and as the disciples' answers reveal they well k n o w (vv. 19b, 2 0 b ) .

1 8

W h a t is o f concern is the disciples' failure to understand the point of the 'leaven' m e t a p h o r .

1 9

T h i s failure to p e r c e i v e is characteristic o f a

t h o r o u g h g o i n g condition w h i c h has b e e n evident since the first m e n t i o n of their i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:13) w h e r e they failed to u n d e r s t a n d parable o f the soils and seed. understand?'

(8:21).

the

H e n c e the final question, ' D o y o u still not

Just as J e s u s h a d earlier l a m e n t e d the d i s c i p l e s '

1

5

2 4 6 f f ; B e c k , ' R e c l a i m i n g , 4 9 f ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 6 f ; cf. K l a u c k ,

1

6

It is n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e e x c e p t i o n c l a u s e , v. 1 4 b , is a s e n i g m a t i c a s is often s u p p o s e d , cf.

1

7

1

8

E . g . P e r r i n , Introduction, 'Rolle', 13.

7

6:8. Q u e s n e l l , 2 3 2 - 5 7 ; P e s c h , 1 . 4 1 3 ; cf. B o u c h e r , 7 7 f ; a n d o n t h e s y m b o l i s m o f l e a v e n , W i n d i s c h , TDNT, 2 . 9 0 2 - 6 ; S t r - B , 1.278f. G i b s o n , ' R e b u k e ' , 3 1 . O n t h e a r g u m e n t ( a s e.g. G u n d r y ) t h a t t h e d i s c i p l e s d o n o t r e c o g n i s e J e s u s ' ability t o p r o v i d e , s e e fn. 2 4 b e l o w . 9

* G u n d r y , 408f, a r g u i n g that M a r k emphasises not the disciples' dullness but rather the s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of the feedings (vv. 19-20), sees the e m p h a s i s o n 'Jesus' m i r a c u l o u s p o w e r ' a n d h i s ability t o m e e t 'the p r e s e n t n e e d ' . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s h e r e . O n this r e a d i n g it is difficult t o s e e w h y M a r k s h o u l d i n c l u d e v v . 1 5 - 1 6 a t all s i n c e t h e p o i n t w o u l d b e w e l l m a d e w i t h o u t t h e m . G u n d r y a l s o s e e m s t o m i s r e a d t h e e x c h a n g e in t h a t J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n s a r e a i m e d a t d i s a b u s i n g t h e d i s c i p l e s o f t h e i d e a t h a t h e is c o n c e r n e d a b o u t b r e a d ( v . 1 6 ) . T h e ' l e a v e n ' w a r n i n g itself c a n h a r d l y b e a b o u t f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e f a c t o f a miracle since even H e r o d and the Pharisees recognise that Jesus performs such. W h a t m a t t e r s is t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e m i r a c l e s a s is b o r n e o u t b y t h e u s e o f b l i n d , d e a f , l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e t c . t e r m i n o l o g y a s d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e v i o u s C h a p t e r .

Feedings

as

227

Parables

inability to grasp t h e parable about the importance o f genuine understand ing (4:13), s o here h e is a m a z e d at their inability to understand his w a r n i n g about the dangers o f misunderstanding. about understanding

T w o c o m p l e m e n t a r y warnings—

and misunderstanding—thus

s e e m to b r a c k e t t h e

material w h i c h c o n t i n u e s directly from t h e B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y u p to the beginning o f the ' W a y ' section. T h e connection b e t w e e n 8:14-21 and 4 : l f f b e c o m e s m o r e obvious w h e n it is recognised that the language of J e s u s ' rebuke (8:17f) follows closely that used in the parables material: a u v i r i u i ( 4 : 9 , 1 2 ; cf. 7:18), pXcTrcj (4:12; cf. 4:24), dKoiJuj generally (4:3, 12, 15, 16, 18, 2 0 , 24; cf. 4:33), a n d in particular in t h e question

(STO:

C X O V T C C ;

O U K CIKOU'CTC;

(4:9, 2 3 ) .

2 0

M . A . Beavis h a s noted that

4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:1-20 all reflect a similar structure.

T h e y each b e g i n

with a parable o r parable-event in a public setting (4:1-9; 7:14-15; 8:1-10), and

then

are followed

b y a private

expression of the disciples'

i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (4:10; 7:17; 8:16), a r e b u k e b y J e s u s in t h e l a n g u a g e o f Isaiah 6:9f (4:11-13; 7:18; 8:17f, 2 1 ) , a n d conclude with an explanation o f t h e p a r a b l e (4:14-20; 7:19-23; 8 : 1 9 - 2 0 ) .

21

Finally, the l a n g u a g e o f hardening,

w h i c h is integral to Isaiah 6:9f, is explicitly mentioned in 6:52 a n d in 8:17. A l t h o u g h m o s t r e c e n t c o m m e n t a t o r s h o l d t h e l a n g u a g e in 8:18 to b e primarily a combination o f J e r e m i a h 5:21 a n d Ezekiel 1 2 : 2 Isaiah 6:9f, B e a v i s h a s a r g u e d that 8:18 is 'a deliberate

2 2

with echoes o f allusion'

to t h e

unquoted part o f Isaiah 6:9f in M a r k 4 since neither t h e cognitive language ( a u i a r j u i , v o € a ) ) n o r t h e h a r d - h e a r t e d n e s s ( c T r a x u v B r i , Isa 6:10; TTCTTtopcouevTi,

M k 8:18) is found in J e r e m i a h 5 o r Ezekiel 1 2 .

2 3

W h i l e n o t d e n y i n g that

the latter t w o texts a r e in v i e w , given t h e importance o f M a r k 4 it s e e m s

2

0

2

1

2

2

2

3

T h e p r o g r a m m a t i c n a t u r e o f M a r k 4 h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y i n C h a p t e r 7, s e e especially p p . 208ff. Audience, 158. 8:19-20 comprises rhetorical questions w h i c h function negatively b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e l e a v e n p a r a b l e c a n n o t r e f e r t o t h e l a c k o f b r e a d , ibid., 1 1 1 . L e m c i o , 'Structure', also p r o p o s e s a c o m m o n structure between 4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:14-21. W h a t e v e r the merits o r otherwise of the p r o p o s e d units—ambiguity, incomprehension, surprise a n d / o r r e j o i n d e r , a n d e x p l a n a t i o n — i t s u r e l y d i s c e r n s t h a t t h e r e is a t l e a s t s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the three. It a p p e a r s c l o s e r t o J e r 5 : 2 1 a n d less s o t o E z e k 1 2 : 2 , b u t a s a q u e s t i o n it is c l o s e r i n c o n t e x t t o I s a 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; cf. v . 1 6 . W i t h less l i k e l i h o o d D e r r e t t , Making, s e e s E x 1 4 : 1 7 a a n d J o s h 1 1 : 2 0 w h i l e M y e r s , Binding, a r g u e s f o r D t 2 9 : 2 - 4 . S e e n o w a l s o t h e e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n in S c h n e c k , 2 0 4 - 2 0 . Audience, 1 1 4 , s e e a l s o 9 0 f ; cf. S u h l , 1 5 2 ; P r y k e , 5 5 . O n t h i s t e c h n i q u e i n t h e r a b b i s , s e e a g a i n C r a n f i e l d , ' S t u d y ' , 5 9 ; J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 7 0 1 ; M a r c u s , 2 0 0 ; cf. D o d d , According, 126f.

228

The New

Exodus

Way

that they are to b e u n d e r s t o o d within the Isaiah 6 f r a m e w o r k

already

established. This linking o f the disciples' incomprehension of the feedings with the parables material suggests that M a r k intends the former to ' b e understood in s o m e w a y similar to the p a r a b l e s ' .

24

B u t w h a t is it that the parable-

feedings a r e intended to reveal and that the disciples in 8:14-21 d o not understand?

If the feedings themselves are parables, then p e r h a p s the best

place to begin is M a r k ' s 'Parables Chapter'. d) The Parable-Feedings

and Jesus'

Identity

In v i e w o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f M a r k ' s ' P a r a b l e s C h a p t e r ' for b o t h the intervening material o n the d i s c i p l e s ' ' l e a v e n - l i k e ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n (cf. e.g. 6:52; 7:18) and the concluding pericope (8:14-21), it is probably o f s o m e significance that 4:1-34 (and 4:35 - 5:43) is itself closely related to the larger question o f J e s u s ' identity and the significance of his a c t i o n s .

25

A l t h o u g h an issue earlier (e.g. 1:11, 2 4 , 27; 3:11), the m a t t e r o f J e s u s ' identity b e c o m e s decisive in the climactic B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y (3:20ff) which, w e h a v e already argued, is the catalyst for the following exposition o n the significance o f the parables.

F r o m this perspective the m y s t e r y o f

the k i n g d o m (4:11) concerns not only the mystery whi ch is the k i n g d o m , b u t also t h e m y s t e r i o u s w a y in w h i c h the k i n g d o m is e x p r e s s e d

and

revealed in J e s u s ' m i g h t y deeds, in his powerful w o r d s , and ultimately, linked to h i s i d e n t i t y .

26

A n d all this within the p a r a m e t e r s o f Israel's

hopes and expectations concerning the inauguration o f G o d ' s I N E reign.

2

4

2

5

2

6

B o u c h e r , 6 9 ; cf. B l o m b e r g , ' M i r a c l e s ' ; B e a v i s , Audience, 1 0 3 - 1 4 ; H e i l , Walking, 1 3 6 4 0 . G i v e n t h e d i s c i p l e s ' r e s p o n s e t o t h e s p o k e n p a r a b l e s ( 4 : 1 3 ; 7 : 1 8 ) it is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y fail t o u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t t h e ' l o a v e s ' . G u n d r y , 1 3 3 f , i n t e r p r e t s 6 : 5 2 t o m e a n t h a t t h e disciples d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d the feeding of the 5 0 0 0 to b e a m i r a c l e (e.g. M a r k m a k e s n o m e n t i o n of a m a z e m e n t o n behalf of the c r o w d o r of the disciples—an a r g u m e n t from silence) a s s e r t i n g t h a t if t h e d i s c i p l e s h a d r e a l i s e d t h a t it w a s t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n s u r p r i s e d a t t h e w a l k i n g o n t h e w a t e r . It is n o t c l e a r t h a t G u n d r y ' s l a t t e r p o i n t s t a n d s , s i n c e although miraculous feedings involving h u m a n beings (namely, prophets) h a v e O T p r e c e d e n t s ( e . g . M o s e s , E l i s h a ; s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 8 f ) , w a l k i n g o n t h e s t o r m y s e a , itself a n ' a d v a n c e ' o n t h e s t o r m - s t i l l i n g in 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 , d o e s n o t . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e u s e o f n c j p o a ) a n d o u v u i n i e l s e w h e r e in M a r k s u g g e s t s t h a t it is n o t t h e f a c t o f t h e f e e d i n g m i r a c l e b u t its s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t is n o t u n d e r s t o o d . S e e a l s o H e i l , Walking, 125ff. I n t e g r a l t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y a r e h i s u n a c c e p t a b l e modi operandi w h i c h a r e t h e c e n t r a l i s s u e s in t h e five c o n t r o v e r s y s t o r i e s , 2:1 - 3 : 6 . Cf. e.g. M a r c u s , Mystery, 51ff, 5 6 ; B e a v i s , Audience, 1 4 6 . F o r this r e a s o n , G u n d r y ' s d i s t i n c t i o n , 2 0 1 , b e t w e e n t h e k i n g d o m a n d t h e p e r s o n o f J e s u s s e e m s insufficiently n u a n c e d .

Parable

-Feedings

and Jesus'

229

Identity

F o r the disciples, M a r k ' s increasingly important question c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s ' identity finds its initial expression o n the other side o f the 'parables of w o r d ' material (4:1-34), w h e r e , in the first o f the b o a t s c e n e s , they a s k ' W h o then is t h i s ? ' ( 4 : 4 1 ) .

27

Interestingly, the paired motifs o f a parable-

6uvajiic; and the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n are also found in b o t h the intervening and final boat scenes (6:45-52; 8:14-21). O n this b a s i s it w o u l d

s e e m that t h e first b o a t s c e n e (4:35-41) is

p r o g r a m m a t i c for the o t h e r t w o , w h i c h s u g g e s t s that the

fundamental

question for all three concerns J e s u s ' identity and s i g n i f i c a n c e .

28

If so, then

M a r k ' s recording in the final boat pericope (8:14-21)—which also concludes his first s e c t i o n — o f J e s u s ' v i g o r o u s w a r n i n g about the ' l e a v e n ' of H e r o d and the 'sign-seeking' Pharisees simply underlines the point.

H e r o d hears

of J e s u s ' 6 u v a | i € i c ; b u t confuses h i m with a resurrected J o h n , w h i l e t h e Pharisees, w h o are already s o m e w h a t hostile to Jesus, continue to find his signs a m b i g u o u s (6:14; 8:11-13; cf. 3 : 5 - 6 ) .

29

Accordingly, Jesus cautions his

disciples against the ' l e a v e n ' o f both since it leads to a misconstrual o f his actions and a concomitant failure to recognise w h o h e really is. T h a t the q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' identity a n d significance is t h e

primary

e m p h a s i s o f the material up to this juncture is further supported b y w h a t M a r k does next.

I m m e d i a t e l y after J e s u s ' w a r n i n g c o m e s M a r k ' s first o f

only two accounts of the healing o f the blind. It is generally agreed that h e is intending 8:14-21 to b e interpreted in the light of the transitional story o f the 'laborious' healing o f the blind m a n (8:22-26) and o f J e s u s ' increasingly p o i n t e d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g his identity w h i c h then lead directly to P e t e r ' s confession (8:27-30; e s p e c . v. 2 8 ; cf. 6 : 1 4 - 1 6 ) . 2

7

2

8

30

Not o n l y so, b u t

Cf. M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 219ff, 224f, for w h o m the p a r a b l e s m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n s t h e q u e s t i o n : 'to w h a t s h a l l w e l i k e n t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d ? ' , w h e r e a s 4 : 3 5 - 8:21 c o n c e r n s J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y . B u t t h i s is a l r e a d y a t i s s u e , o r s o it s e e m s t o m e , c e r t a i n l y in 3 : 2 0 f f a n d e v e n earlier. Cf. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 6 , w h o s e e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n p o s e d b y t h e first s e c t i o n a s ' W h o is t h i s ? ' ; a l s o K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , ' E c h o e s ' , 2 2 4 ; a n d K i n g s b u r y , 80ff. 9

^ H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension', 4 9 5 ; Petersen, 'Composition', 210f; Guelich, 1.423. A l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e is l a t e ( e . g . Mek. o n E x . 1 6 : 2 5 ( c . 1 1 0 ) ; 2 Bar. 2 9 : 8 ; Qoh. Rab. o n 1:9; cf. V o l z , Eschatologie, 3 8 8 f ; B e h m , TDNT, 1 . 4 7 7 ; H e i s i n g , Botschaft, 46; van Cangh, multiplication, 1 1 9 , 5 0 - 5 3 ) , s o m e t h i n g like a n e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e M a n n a m i r a c l e m i g h t b e w h a t t h e P h a r i s e e s h a v e in m i n d , e s p e c i a l l y a s M a r k h a s t h e i r r e q u e s t immediately following the s e c o n d feeding. L i g h t f o o t , History, 90f; Richardson, 8 6 ; Best, 'Discipleship', 325ff; H a w k i n , 'symbolism', 104f, 'Incomprehension', 499f; Focant, 'L'incomprehension', 170; Heil, Walking, 1 3 8 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 2 0 , 4 2 6 . L a n e , 2 6 9 , o b s e r v i n g s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e 3

0

230

The New

Exodus

Way

Peter's 'trees-as-men-walking' declaration suggests that this incomprehen sion is r e m e d i e d , b u t only partially, b y his p r o n o u n c e m e n t that J e s u s is 1

6 XpiaTos .

31

F r o m this perspective, the disciples' question in M a r k 4 : 4 1 , ' W h o then is this?', signals this section's recurring interest in their incomprehension. It resurfaces in the second boat story, ' F o r they did not understand about the loaves, b e c a u s e their heart w a s h a r d e n e d ' (6:52), is picked u p b y J e s u s , ' D o y o u still not u n d e r s t a n d ? ' (8:21), alluded to in his question ' w h a t d o y o u s e e ? ' (8:23), then sharpened at C a e s a r e a Philippi w h e n J e s u s asks the disciples ' W h o do people say that I a m ? ' (8:27) and again m o r e pointedly in his ' B u t w h o do y o u say that I a m ? ' (8:29a), and is finally answered in part by Peter's response, 'Zii €i 6 XpiaToV (8:29b). C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the t h r e e b o a t stories b e a r s further investigation.

In the first instance, the parable-sign o f the storm-

stilling is m e t with terror and lack o f understanding (4:41). In the second, the water-walking e v o k e s a similar r e s p o n s e b u t the disciples' incompre h e n s i o n is r e l a t e d n o t , as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , to the p r e c e d i n g

and

s o m e w h a t parallel storm-stilling but instead to the interposed first feeding (6:50, 5 2 ) . T h e n , in a clearly ordered progression, the third b o a t s c e n e concentrates solely o n the feedings (8:14-21). S e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s arise: w h y is the all-important q u e s t i o n o f J e s u s ' identity ultimately connected, through the boat scenes, with the feedings? A n d w h y d o e s M a r k first focus on J e s u s ' authority over the sea b u t then t w o feedings (6:31-44; 8:1-9), crossings (6:45-56; 8:10), conflict scenes (7:1-23; 8:11-13), b r e a d sayings (7:24-30; 8:14-21), healings (7:31-36; 8:22-26), a n d confessions (7:37; 8:27-30), s u g g e s t s that the healing miracles symbolically refer to the o p e n i n g of the disciples' e a r s a n d e y e s . M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 167ff, s e e s 6 : 4 5 - 8 : 2 6 a s c e n t r e d a r o u n d a j o u r n e y t o B e t h s a i d a w h i c h , i n t e r r u p t e d b y t h e s t o r m o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n in 6 : 4 5 - 8 : 2 1 , is finally c o m p l e t e d i n 8:22ff w h e r e t h e b l i n d m a n is h e a l e d . H e a l s o n o t e s , 1 7 1 , s t r u c t u r a l parallels b e t w e e n : A ) Bethsaida a n d villages of C a e s a r e a Philippi, B) 'Do y o u see anything', a n d ' W h o d o m e n say that I a m ? ' , C ) the m a n sees clearly a n d Peter correctly i d e n t i f i e s J e s u s , a n d D ) t h e m a n is f o r b i d d e n t o e n t e r t h e v i l l a g e a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e c o m m a n d e d t o tell n o o n e . 3

1

M a t e r a , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 6 9 . T h e p r o p o s a l that Jesus rejects Peter's confession, o f t e n a r g u e d o n t h e b a s i s o f r e d a c t i o n a l t h e o r i e s (e.g. P e t e r s e n , Literary, 61ff; W e e d e n , 64ff; Kelber, 82f; Perrin, 'Christology'; Charlesworth, 'Messianology', 12, citing Fuller, Foundation, 1 0 9 ) s e e m s t o b e m a d e o n o t h e r g r o u n d s , a n d in o u r c a s e w h e r e w e a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h M a r k a s it n o w s t a n d s , is h a r d l y t o b e a c c e p t e d . H o o k e r , Message, 5 2 f ; K i n g s b u r y , 91ff; G u n d r y , 4 4 5 . W h a t p r e c i s e l y P e t e r h a d in v i e w ( f o r M a r k ) is difficult t o tell, a l t h o u g h w h a t e v e r e l s e it s e e m e d n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e i d e a s o f 'suffering', 'failure', o r 'rejection'. T h a t P e t e r m a k e s t h e c o n f e s s i o n h a r d l y r u l e s o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t G o d h a s r e v e a l e d it t o h i m , cf. C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' , 1 2 n 2 5 .

Parable

-Feedings

and Jesus'

231

Identity

a p p a r e n t l y a b a n d o n this to c o n c e n t r a t e o n the m i r a c u l o u s p r o v i s i o n o f food?

I s u g g e s t that t h e y represent M a r k ' s account o f the failure o f the

disciples to d i s c e r n the significance o f J e s u s ' parable-iactions: first in the s t o r m - s t i l l i n g / s e a - w a l k i n g , and then in the feedings. M o s t p r o b a b l y t h e r e a s o n w h y the d i s c i p l e s fail to a p p r e h e n d

the

significance o f t h e storm-stilling and s e a - w a l k i n g is b e c a u s e t h e y i m p l y c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e a b o u t J e s u s ' identity than a n y o n e m i g h t h a v e reason ably e x p e c t e d .

3 2

A s r e g a r d s t h e s t o r m stilling, the disciples w h o w e r e

earlier apparently terrified b y the storm itself are n o w e v e n m o r e terrified b y the profound implications o f J e s u s ' authoritative r e b u k e (€(()0pTf9T|aav 4>dpov u c y a v , 4 : 4 1 ) . p r o p h e t at a l l . sea-walking.

3 3

T h i s is n o o r d i n a r y p r o p h e t ; if i n d e e d m e r e l y a

T h e s a m e p o i n t is m a d e e v e n m o r e forcibly in the later

In addition to the D i v i n e W a r r i o r materials cited earlier in

conjunction w i t h 4 : 3 5 - 4 1 ,

3 4

the expression n a p c X S c t v auTou'c; (6:48b cf. E x

3

33:19-23; 34:6; 1 K g s 1 9 : 1 1 ) 5 and J e s u s ' kyti 43:10-11)

36

€ l u i (6:50 cf. E x 3:14; Isa 4 1 : 4 ;

suggest that the disciples are witnessing an epiphany o f the ' O n e

w h o W a l k s o v e r the W a t e r ' (e.g. J o b 9:8, espec. L X X ; P s 77:20 M T , T g . ) .

3 7

If

a n y t h i n g , this g o e s b e y o n d their earlier t r a u m a t i c e x p e r i e n c e : w h e r e a s Jesus h a d previously c o m m a n d e d the sea n o w h e w a l k s u p o n it! T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b o t h d e e d s are far-reaching, a l t h o u g h quite in keeping with M a r k ' s o p e n i n g c o m p o s i t e citation ( l : 2 f ) the

rent

heavens

(1:10).

3 9

3 8

and his account o f

Jesus, the one w h o both announces

the

c u a y y c X i o v o f the I N E and as M e s s i a h inaugurates it, is also, it s e e m s , to b e closely identified with the actual presence o f Y a h w e h himself.

For Mark,

Jesus appears n o t only to b e b o t h Messiah and the true son o f G o d (i.e. true Israel) b u t also the S o n o f G o d (cf. 1 : 1 ,

40

2 4 ; 3 : 1 1 ; 5:7; 15:39; M t 1 4 : 3 3 ) .

41

Y a h w e h h a s , in a u n i q u e w a y , ' c o m e d o w n ' a m o n g his p e o p l e to s a v e 3

2

3

3

O n p o s s i b l e a n t e c e d e n t s , B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 5 2 - 8 2 . O n t h e p o s s i b l e I s a 6 3 - 6 4 h o r i z o n f o r this a c c o u n t a n d t h e f o l l o w i n g m i r a c l e c o l l e c tion, s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 . 3

4

3

5

S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 160ff, a b o v e . L o h m e y e r ; K r e m e r , 'Jesu', 2 2 6 - 2 8 . H e i l , Walking, 69f; Guelich, 1.351. H e i l , Walking, 1 7 - 3 0 , 3 7 - 5 6 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y n o w B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 4 5 - 5 2 ; M a r c u s , 144f. S t e g n e r , ' W a l k i n g ' , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t this e v e n t is a l s o m o d e l l e d o n I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e d u r i n g t h e E x o d u s , in p a r t i c u l a r t h e a c c o u n t in E x 1 4 . 3

6

3

7

3

8

See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 8 7 , point (D).

3

9

See Chapter 4, pp. 102-7, above. O n the textual problem. H e a d , 'Study'. B o u c h e r , 7 1 f ; H e i l , Walking, 5 6 ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 6 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 5 0 ; cf. K i n g s b u r y , 140ff.

4

0

4

1

232

The New

Exodus

Way

them (Mk 1:10, cf. Isa 59:15b-20; 63:1-5, 19). But all this is too m u c h for the disciples to grasp a n d results in fear and a m a z e m e n t rather than the recognition that constitutes f a i t h .

42

W i t h the feedings, h o w e v e r , things are less p r o b l e m a t i c . certainly true that they have prophetic c o u n t e r p a r t s

43

W h i l e it is

it is also the case that

t h e y c o n s t i t u t e t h e o n e c a t e g o r y o f m i r a c l e w h i c h h a s as its c l e a r e s t antecedent the p r o v i s i o n o f m a n n a in Israel's founding m o m e n t E x o d u s experience, a provision that in s o m e J e w i s h traditions w a s expected to b e repeated in the age to c o m e .

4 4

T h u s , in regard to our first question—why is the all-important matter of J e s u s ' i d e n t i t y u l t i m a t e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h the f e e d i n g s ? — M a d e l e i n e B o u c h e r is, I think, correct.

It appears, for M a r k , that o f all the ' s i g n s '

w h i c h J e s u s performs the miraculous provision in the wilderness should h a v e b e e n the clearest indication that the N E w a s b e g i n n i n g , with J e s u s being at least Israel's s h e p h e r d - M e s s i a h .

45

Although the specific healings

of the blind, the deaf, etc., are in their individual particularity signs o f the I N E and r e c o g n i s a b l y so o n c e o n e allows an I N E framework, in terms o f general categories they, along with the e x o r c i s m s and resuscitations, are not sui generis.

T h e prophets and others (cf. L k 11:19) h a v e performed

similar m i r a c l e s .

4 6

H e n c e it is not surprising that M a r k c a n record that

m a n y regarded Jesus as a prophet (6:15; 8:28). M a r k ' s linking o f the feedings with Peter's confession, Zu

€i

6

XpiaTog,

c o h e r e s w i t h the c i r c l e o f i d e a s found in s o m e t r a d i t i o n s w h e r e the Messiah (Anointed O n e ) w a s associated explicitly with the repetition o f the provision o f m a n n a (2 Bar. 29:3, 8; cf. J o h n 6:5-15) a n d / o r m o r e generally

4

2

4

3

4

4

4

5

4

6

S e e M a r s h a l l , Faith,

216ff.

P a r t i c u l a r l y E l i s h a s e e e.g. v a n d e r L o o s , 6 2 4 f f ; B l a c k b u r n , Theios, m a t e r i a l s c i t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 8 f , a b o v e .

195f, a n d the

S e e B o u c h e r , 7 4 , w h o c i t e s 2 Bar. 2 9 : 8 ; Sib. Or. frag. 3 : 4 6 - 4 9 ; Midr. Qoh. Rab. o n E c c l 1:9; Midr. Tan. tfsullah 2 1 ; Mek o n E x 1 6 : 2 5 e t c . , a n d B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 9 5 f . B o u c h e r , 7 4 . Cf. S t o c k , Discipleship, 123f; Matera, 'Incomprehension', 164; Pesch 1 . 3 5 0 ; v a n C a n g h , ' m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ' , 3 4 4 ; T o o l e y , ' S h e p h e r d ' . Pace F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 3 0 , w h o sees the 'controversy b e t w e e n Jesus a n d the disciples' as the 'central focus' of the feedings. K o c h , Bedeutungen, 1 1 2 , w h o c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s t h e link b e t w e e n t h e n a t u r e m i r a c l e s a n d t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , is n e v e r t h e l e s s m i s t a k e n w h e n h e s t a t e s ' M a r k u s w i l l ... d i e M o g l i c h k e i t a u s s c h l i e f i e n , d i e , N a t u r ' w u n d e r a l s u n z w e i d e u t i g e E p i p h a n i e n J e s u ... z u verstehen.' T h e severity of Jesus' rebuke over the feedings suggests otherwise. V a n d e r L o o s , 2 3 7 - 3 9 ; T h e i s s e n , Miracle, 2 6 5 - 7 6 ; B l a c k b u r n , Theios, passim-, a n d t h e b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 137ff, a b o v e . Cf. D u n n ' s c r i t i q u e , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 9 4 , o f W r e d e w h e r e h e a r g u e s that the miracles a r e n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y messianic.

Parable

-Feedings

and Jesus'

233

Identity

with Moses a n d / o r a N e w Exodus (e.g. Frg. Tg. Ex 12:42; Ex. Rab. 18:12; Qoh. Rab. 1:28; Tg. Ket. C a n t 4:5; 7:4 and L a m 2 : 2 2 ) .

47

(An intriguing conjunc

tion of ' a n o i n t e d ' terminology and N e w E x o d u s imagery is found in Isaiah 45:1.

H e r e C y r u s , as Y a h w e h ' s a g e n t o f Israel's N E d e l i v e r a n c e

from

Babylon, is described as 'his anointed'—the only place w h e r e iVttto occurs in 48

chapters 4 0 - 5 5 . )

A l o n g similar lines, the groups described in M a r k 6 are

not unlike those envisaged b y the Q u m r a n C o v e n a n t e r s as they waited for and

a n t i c i p a t e d e a t i n g w i t h the

Messiah

of Israel

(1QS

2:ll-22).

4 9

Consequently, as most c o m m e n t a t o r s agree, Mark's Jesus is revealed b y the feedings as Israel's messianic S h e p h e r d (cf. Ezek 34:23; Pss. Sol. 17:40; J n 6:15).

5 0

If so, then it appears that for M a r k the feedings w e r e the clearest

signs that J e s u s is at least the M e s s i a h and as s u c h he is i n a u g u r a t i n g Israel's long-awaited N E .

5 1

Returning to the second question—why does M a r k first focus on J e s u s ' authority o v e r the sea but then apparently a b a n d o n this to concentrate on the m i r a c u l o u s p r o v i s i o n of food?—the interpretation just offered

might

help us understand M a r k ' s p u r p o s e in relating the boat scenes as he does. Echoing the thematic statement on J e s u s ' identity as ' S / s o n ' in 1 : 1 1 ,

4

7

4

8

4

9

5

0

52

the

S e e a l s o t h e n u m e r o u s m a t e r i a l s c i t e d in J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4.859-63. Again, due c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d in light o f t h e difficulty o f d a t i n g . O n t h e T a r g u m s s e e L e v e y , Messiah, ad loc. Cf. s o m e r e a d i n g s o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : 1 a n d L X X w h e r e t h e ' s e r v a n t ' (in t h i s t e x t , w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y i n g t h e s a m e f o r t h e o t h e r ' s o n g s ' ) is i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e M e s s i a h ( c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 ) ; a l s o J e r 23:5ff; 30:9f; 3 3 : 1 4 - 2 6 ; E z e k 3 4 : 2 0 - 3 1 ; 3 7 : 1 5 - 2 8 w h i c h d i s c u s s a D a v i d i c s c i o n a s t h e s h e p h e r d o f Y a h w e h ' s p e o p l e in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r N E r e s t o r a t i o n . It is n o t e w o r t h y , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s D a v i d i c f i g u r e p r e s i d e s o v e r t h e r e s t o r e d n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n effects its d e l i v e r a n c e . S e e a l s o H a n s o n , ' M e s s i a h s ' , 71 f. S e e T a l m o n , ' C o n c e p t s ' , 1 0 8 - 1 3 , a n d t h e m a t e r i a l s c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 7 9 . A s d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r in C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 177ff. Pace G u n d r y , 3 2 8 , t h a t t h e c r o w d is l i k e n e d t o ' s h e e p w i t h o u t a s h e p h e r d ' a l m o s t r e q u i r e s t h a t J e s u s in h i s c o m p a s s i o n b e s e e n as their s h e p h e r d , a n d this regardless of w h e t h e r or n o t the disciples eat of the loaves J e s u s p r o v i d e s n o w , o r l a t e r in 7:2. S i m i l a r l y , it w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l e r r o r t o a r g u e t h a t t h e a b s e n c e o f i d e n t i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y (e.g. TOTTO?) e x c l u d e s c o n c e p t u a l c o n g r u e n c e w i t h t h e w i l d e r n e s s o f the E x o d u s . W h i l e this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t necessarily utterly e x c l u d e the possibility that M a r k ' s c o m m u n i t y a l s o u n d e r s t o o d t h e r e m a i n i n g l o a v e s , o r t h e o n e l o a f in t h e b o a t , a s a l l u d i n g t o t h e J e w i s h / G e n t i l e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h ( s e e e.g. B o o b y e r , ' M i r a c l e s ' ; H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 5 ; K e l b e r , 5 8 ; B e c k , ' R e c l a i m i n g ' ; G i b s o n , ' R e b u k e ' ; cf. S u n d w a l l , Zusammunsetzung; b u t s e e H o o k e r ' s c a u t i o n s . Message, 46ff) it d o e s u r g e t h a t s u c h is n o t t h e p r i m a r y p o i n t . P e t e r d o e s n o t c o n f e s s , "Thou a r t t h e O n e b r e a d w h o f e e d s b o t h J e w a n d Gentile', a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t b y failing t o i n c l u d e s o m e t h i n g t o this effect h e m i s u n d e r s t o o d the real point of the loaves. H u m p h r e y , ' W i s d o m ' , suggests that the feedings reveal Jesus as the personification of W i s d o m . Kingsbury, 60-71. 5

2

234

The New

Exodus

Way

s u m m a r y in 3:11 (cf. 5:7) records the exorcised d e m o n s ' confession of J e s u s as the 6

viog

terminology

TOVJ 5 3

9€OU.

B u t g i v e n the d i v e r s e u s a g e o f this sort o f

what does it m e a n w h e n applied to J e s u s ?

T h e c r u c i a l ' B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y ' is not o n l y the o n e p l a c e w h e r e M a r k ' s J e s u s gives a n y indication o f his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f his e x o r c i s m s , but in k e e p i n g with M a r k ' s opening citation and 1:10 also s e e m s to indicate that they a r e to b e c o n s t r u e d in t e r m s o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r . While 4:1-34 then

picks up

and

develops

the

implications of

the

' c o n t r o v e r s y ' e l e m e n t (i.e. J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e to his rejection), the following (and first) b o a t s c e n e involving the disciples (4:35ff) returns again to the 'Warrior' motif.

Invoking themes associated with

the first

Exodus

t h r o u g h t h e storm-stilling a n d the d r o w n i n g o f legion, M a r k ' s a c c o u n t further d e v e l o p s t h e link b e t w e e n J e s u s a n d the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r with Jesus exercising authority

traditionally associated only with Y a h w e h

himself: h e directs the sea a n d effects the w a t e r y d e m i s e o f the d e m o n i c enemy, Legion. H o w e v e r , c o m i n g to terms with the implications o f such extraordinary actions appears b e y o n d the disciples. Their fear suggests that they h a v e at least s o m e i n t i m a t i o n o f w h a t all this m e a n s b u t are s i m p l y u n a b l e to accept the c o n c l u s i o n to w h i c h the e v i d e n c e points.

If this is too m u c h ,

then the f e e d i n g s — w h e n interpreted as p a r a b l e - s i g n s w h i c h , g i v e n the language

used

in 6 : 5 2 a n d

8:14ff,

is a p p a r e n t l y

how

Mark's Jesus

u n d e r s t a n d s them—provide a m o r e accessible starting point since they do not entail the staggering implications o f the sea miracles. A t least, then, J e s u s is the m e s s i a n i c S h e p h e r d - k i n g w h o inaugurates the N E (although for those w i t h e y e s to see, his actions m i g h t e v e n m o r e c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e those o f the ' Y a h w e h - S h e p h e r d ' o f Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 ) .

54

F r o m this perspective, part o f M a r k ' s rationale in interleaving the three b o a t s c e n e s w i t h the feeding a c c o u n t s appears to b e the detailing o f the d e v e l o p m e n t , or rather lack thereof, o f the disciples' appreciation o f J e s u s ' identity. 5

3

5

4

M a r k ' s p o i n t at the c o n c l u s i o n o f the s e c o n d b o a t s c e n e (6:52)

S e e a g a i n C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 0 , fn. 9 9 , a b o v e . S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 7 7 f , a b o v e . B o u c h e r , 7 4 , a l s o n o t e s t h e p r e s e n c e t h r o u g h o u t this section of Isaianic motifs s u c h as wilderness (40:3; 43:19-20), divine p o w e r o v e r the w a t e r s ( 4 3 : 2 , 1 6 ) , t h e s h e p h e r d f e e d i n g h i s flock ( 4 0 : 1 1 ) , d e a f n e s s a n d b l i n d n e s s ( 4 2 : 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 0 ; 4 3 : 8 ) , 'I a m h e ' ( 4 1 : 4 ; 4 3 : 1 0 , 1 3 , 2 5 ) , a n d ' f e a r n o t ' ( 3 5 : 4 ; 4 1 : 1 0 ) . T h e e x c e p t i o n t o Y a h w e h a s s h e p h e r d in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 is f o u n d in 4 4 : 2 8 w h e r e t h e M T , a l o n g w i t h s e v e r a l M S S , S y r , a n d V g , , h a s C y r u s a s ' m y s h e p h e r d ' a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s l Q I s a r e a d s ' m y friend'. a

Parable

-Feedings

and Jesus'

235

Identity

s e e m s to b e that it is hardly to b e wondered that the disciples w e r e unable to grasp the m e a n i n g o f J e s u s ' w a l k i n g o n the w a t e r since n o t only h a d they failed to u n d e r s t a n d the significance o f the storm-stilling, but they had trouble e n o u g h with the considerably less problematic implications o f the f e e d i n g s .

55

A s J . P. Heil remarks, this is probably w h y the M a r k a n Jesus

reverts to focussing o n the loaves until Peter finally perceives J e s u s to b e the Messiah ( 8 : 1 4 - 3 0 ) .

56

This b e i n g so, two further questions arise. W h y M a r k ' s interest in the disciples' inability to c o m p r e h e n d that J e s u s is at least the Messiah, if not the S o n of G o d , w h o inaugurates the I N E ? A n d w h y is Peter's confession u s e d to introduce the ' W a y ' section?

W i l l i a m W r e d e suggested that the

disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n formed part o f the ' M e s s i a n i c S e c r e t ' ,

57

but as

J . T y s o n and T. J . W e e d e n recognised it is not so m u c h that t h e disciples k n e w o f J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p and w e r e forbidden to reveal it; they funda mentally misunderstood its nature.

For T y s o n and W e e d e n

5 8

the disciples

are better u n d e r s t o o d as representatives o f a viewpoint that M a r k n e e d e d to refute.

A l t h o u g h the disciples h a v e recently fared better b e i n g seen as

fallible m o d e l s exhibiting b o t h positive and negative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

5

5

5

6

5

7

59

the

Boucher, 7 3 ; L a n e , 2 3 8 ; Guelich, 1.352. Walking, 142.

Messiasgeheimnis. T h e l i t e r a t u r e h e r e is i m m e n s e a n d t h e i s s u e e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l e x ( s e e e.g. t h e s u r v e y s o f t h e d e b a t e in B l e v i n s , Research, a n d T u c k e t t , Secret), not l e a s t b e c a u s e o f difficulties in d e f i n i n g w h a t is t o b e c o n s i d e r e d p a r t o f t h e s e c r e t a n d w h a t is n o t , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e is e v e n a n o v e r a r c h i n g M a r k a n ' s e c r e c y ' m o t i f , s e e e.g. L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v ' a n d R a i s a n e n , 'Messianic'. W i t h o u t going into detail, o u r assessment of M a r k 4 s u g g e s t s t h a t it is n o t s o m u c h p a r t o f a M a r k a n ' s e c r e c y ' p r o j e c t a s a n a c t o f j u d g e m e n t a k i n t o t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d e a r l i e r in I s r a e l ' s h i s t o r y . Similarly, Mark's f r a m e w o r k for u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s m i g h t o w e m o r e t o O T categories, particularly Isaianic ones (see below), than an overarching M a r k a n 'secrecy' s c h e m a t i c . In r e s p e c t o f t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t , i.e. t h e g e n e r a l a t m o s p h e r e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n , R o b i n s o n ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' G n o s t i c i s m ' , 1 4 2 , t h a t M a r k is s e e k i n g t o ' p u s h b a c k t h e h e r m e n e u t i c a l t u r n i n g p o i n t ' m i g h t b e h e l p f u l — e v e n if h i s a n t i - G n o s t i c p o l e m i c t h e o r y is less s o . It c o u l d b e t h a t M a r k is s e e k i n g t o s h o w t h a t , a l t h o u g h e v e n J e s u s ' d i s c i p l e s d i d n o t fully a p p r e c i a t e w h o h e w a s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t i n g C h r i s t i a n c l a i m s a b o u t J e s u s w a s i n f a c t i m p l i c i t i n J e s u s ' w o r d s a n d a c t i o n s . It t o o k t h e r a d i c a l p a r a d i g m shift i n h e r e n t in t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n t o e n a b l e h i s f o l l o w e r s t o m a k e t h e ' l e a p ' f r o m s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e ' i m p o s s i b l e ' i m p l i c a t i o n s o f e.g. J e s u s ' f o r g i v e n e s s o f s i n s a n d s e a - m i r a c l e s , t o finally affirming t h e m n o t m e r e l y a s the possible b u t the factual. 5

8

5

9

' B l i n d n e s s ' , ' H e r e s y ' ; cf. K e l b e r , Kingdom; Oral. A l b e i t in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s : Q u e s n e l l ; P e a c o c k , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; R e p l o h , Lehrer; B e s t , ' P e t e r ' ; ' T w e l v e ' , Following; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' ; Tannehill, 'Disciples'; F r e y n e , ' D i s c i p l e s ' ; K l a u c k , ' R o l l e ' ; M a l b o n , ' D i s c i p l e s ' , ' F a l l i b l e ' . S c h m a h l , Zwblf, a n d S t o c k , Boten, s t r e s s t h e i r u n i q u e h i s t o r i c a l r o l e . M e y e , Jesus, t a k e s t h e m o s t p o s i t i v e p o s i t i o n .

236

The New

Exodus

Way

distinction b e t w e e n the d i s c i p l e s ' a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f the fact o f J e s u s ' messiahship and their understanding its nature remains v a l i d . e) Jesus'

Identity,

Peter's

Confession,

and the

60

'Way'

At the level o f the narrator, then, M a r k ' s first section e m p l o y s a n u m b e r of I s r a e l ' s a n c i e n t i c o n s to p r e s e n t J e s u s n o t m e r e l y as M e s s i a h i n a u g u r a t e s the I N E , b u t also as the true S / s o n o f G o d .

6 1

who

W i t h i n the

narrative, h o w e v e r , things are not so obvious. In contrast to the d e m o n s , the human

participants, including

the disciples, have

considerable

difficulty in apprehending the full significance o f J e s u s ' w o r d s and deeds. T h u s , although Peter's declaration represents something o f a climax, J e s u s w a s clearly m u c h m o r e ; provided one had eyes to see. Nevertheless, o n e m u s t b e thankful for small mercies, and if ' M e s s i a h ' represented the extent of the disciples' perception then so be it. Consequently, it is M a r k ' s account of Peter's 'trees as m e n walking' confession of J e s u s as M e s s i a h that serves to i n t r o d u c e the ' W a y ' s e c t i o n w h e r e the u n e x p e c t e d d e s t i n y o f this Messiah is revealed: h e must give his life a ransom for m a n y (10:45). A s o t h e r s h a v e n o t e d , it is a l m o s t a truism that t h e s e t w o m a j o r sections are related b y m e a n s o f a t h e m a t i c p r o g r e s s i o n w h e r e b y ' t h e unveiling o f the secret of J e s u s ' identity'—or at least partial unveiling— 'leads the w a y for the unveiling of the mystery o f his d e s t i n y ' .

62

The one

caveat w o u l d b e that, at least for this section o f Mark, the limiting factor is n o t so m u c h J e s u s ' hesitancy to reveal his identity (although this m i g h t well b e a contributing factor, cf. 3:12; 9:9) as it is the disciples' inability to grasp the full implications of J e s u s ' words and deeds. W h a t is striking in this regard is that M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s as the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w h o inaugurates the I N E is orientated not, as m i g h t t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e x p e c t e d , t o w a r d the p o l i t i c a l s u b j u g a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s perceived h u m a n e n e m i e s (in this case the R o m a n s ) , but instead the true source o f evil, that is, the d e m o n i c h o r d e s and their prince B e e l z e b u l . It m i g h t w e l l b e that it is this p e r s p e c t i v e , g i v e n the

6

0

6

1

6

2

intertestamental

F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 8 5 ; cf. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 4 9 3 .

K i n g s b u r y , Christology, is c o r r e c t in e m p h a s i s i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f ' S o n o f G o d ' terminology, although the stress appears not so m u c h on 'royal' connotations but instead on t h e d i v i n e ; cf. n o w a l s o B l a c k b u r n , Theios. H a w k i n , ' I n c o m p r e h e n s i o n ' , 5 0 0 ; cf. e.g. K u b y , ' K o n z e p t i o n ' , 5 8 ; L u z , ' G e h e i m n i s m o t i v e ' , 2 3 ; Best, 'Discipleship', 3 2 5 ; Quesnell, 161f. O n Strecker's c r i t i c i s m of this d i s t i n c t i o n , fn. 1 1 4 .

Jesus'

Identity,

Peter's

Confession,

and the

237

'Way'

conjunction o f idolatry and the d e m o n i c , that both confuses the disciples and

ensures

that

those who

set themselves over against

Jesus—in

particular the J e r u s a l e m scribes—are regarded as the descendants of Israel's idolatrous r u l e r s o f o l d and s o incur a s i m i l a r j u d g e m e n t (as a r g u e d Chapter 7 and further in Chapter 9 ) . W h a t , then, is the r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d M a r k ' s stress o n t h e d i s c i p l e s ' incomprehension

as

a

precursor

observations may be made. participation

to

the

'Way'

section?

6 3

Several

First, I s u g g e s t , h e w a n t s to s h o w

in the p a r a b l e - u v a | i € i c ;

does

not

necessarily

that entail

c o m p r e h e n s i o n (even though failure to understand is culpable, 8 : 1 4 - 2 1 ) .

64

C o n s e q u e n t l y , M a r k p o i n t e d l y relates the disciples' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n in the context o f the m o s t perspicacious of the miracles: the feedings.

Even

J e s u s ' c l o s e s t f o l l o w e r s c a n p a r t i c i p a t e in the m i r a c u l o u s s i g n s w h i c h attend, or b e t t e r p e r h a p s a n n o u n c e , the inaugurated

INE.

B u t w h e n it

c o m e s to p e r c e i v i n g J e s u s ' identity, they are like t h o s e w i t h

hardened

hearts in that they too d o not u n d e r s t a n d the true significance o f the events in w h i c h they are caught up.

This not only d r a w s attention to the

pervasive ' b l i n d n e s s ' o f the h u m a n p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

65

b u t also distinguishes

participation in the signs from true participation in the actual event itself. This is perhaps w h y M a r k does not locate the feedings in his ' W a y ' section as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d o n the b a s i s o f an I N E h e r m e n e u t i c . feedings a d v e r t i s e the i n a u g u r a t i o n

of the I N E , g e n u i n e

W h i l e the participation

d e p e n d s on m u c h m o r e , not least the a c c e p t a n c e o f the suffering scandalous ' w a y ' o f the cross (cf. 8:34 - 9 : 1 ) .

6

3

6

4

6

5

6

6

and

66

Cf. F u l l e r , Mission, 7 4 ; G l a s s w e l l , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 1 5 8 f ; H a w k i n , ' S y m b o l i s m ' ; Q u e s n e l l , passim; F o w l e r , Loaves, 1 0 9 - 1 4 ; P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' ; P e s c h , 1 . 3 8 5 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 3 1 6 f ; M a t e r a , 'Incomprehension'; Best, 'Twelve', 3 1 . P e t e r s e n , ' C o m p o s i t i o n ' , 2 1 5 ; cf. H o o k e r , Message, 5 4 , w h o o b s e r v e s this d y n a m i c in the t e a c h i n g parables. W h i l e it is t r u e t h a t v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s c o m e t o J e s u s i n h e a l i n g f a i t h , I w o u l d a r g u e t h a t in n o n e o f t h e c a s e s d o e s t h i s n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e a n a f f i r m a t i o n o f a n d personal c o m m i t m e n t to Jesus' messiahship. A l t h o u g h w e feel n o u r g e n c y t o f o r c e e v e r y t h i n g o n t o a P r o c r u s t e a n I N E b e d — t h e feeding accounts c a n happily b e u n d e r s t o o d independently of a N E s c h e m a w i t h o u t negating t h e o v e r a l l t h e s i s — M a r k ' s e d i t o r i a l skill a n d e v i d e n t i n t e r e s t in l i n k i n g t h e f e e d i n g s w i t h t h e i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m o t i f s u g g e s t t h a t h e h a s s o m e t h i n g in m i n d . F r o m a l i t e r a r y s t a n d p o i n t , h a v i n g a s s u m e d a n I N E h e r m e n e u t i c t h e r e a d e r m i g h t e x p e c t t o find t h e f e e d i n g s in the ' W a y ' section. B y misplacing t h e m , a n d thereby contradicting the reader's expectation, M a r k d r a w s attention both to the feedings and, p e r h a p s m o r e importantly, to the i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n m o t i f , t h u s u n d e r l i n i n g t h e fact t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e s i g n s is n o t t o b e

238

The

New

Exodus

Way

S e c o n d , e v e n if o n e partially perceives J e s u s ' identity, this too is not enough and

hence Mark's integration

account o f the two-stage h e a l i n g .

67

of Peter's confession with

the

For Mark, such confession a m o u n t s to

a precondition o f e m b a r k i n g on the I N E ' w a y ' in that it is only w h e n Peter c o n f e s s e s at l e a s t t h a t J e s u s is t h e M e s s i a h — w i t h ,

most

likely,

the

c o n c o m i t a n t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f s o m e sort o f national s a l v a t i o n — t h a t

the

68

disciples c a n then begin to b e taught the m o r e difficult but essential lesson that the ultimate m e a n s o f the I N E salvation is for J e s u s to give his life a r a n s o m for m a n y ( 1 0 : 4 5 ) .

69

This, it s e e m s to m e , is precisely the point of

M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section with its e m p h a s i s o n the private instruction o f the disciples concerning the true nature o f J e s u s ' messiahship. accepted that G o d ' s w i s d o m

7 0

O n l y w h e n it is

means that the realisation o f Israel's N E and

the nations' salvation (cf. Isa 56:7 in M k 11:17) is predicated on the scandal of Xpurroc; e a T a u p c a u c v o c ; (1 C o r 1:23) can one begin to participate truly in the I N E .

7 1

O f c o u r s e , in k e e p i n g w i t h the earlier M a r k a n t h e m e s , this

must b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y an affirmation o f J e s u s ' divine Sonship. F i n a l l y , in t e r m s

of M a r k ' s overall agenda,

it a p p e a r s that h e is

concerned to s h o w that n o o n e really u n d e r s t o o d the full significance o f J e s u s ' w o r d s and deeds, not e v e n those o n the 'inside'.

If J e s u s ' disciples

m a d e such a m e a l o f it, then it is hardly to b e w o n d e r e d that the b u l k o f e q u a t e d w i t h e n t r y i n t o t h e I N E ' W a y ' . (This is n o t , h o w e v e r , t o s u g g e s t t h a t M a r k s e e k s t o d e n i g r a t e J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s ; s e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 5 , p . 1 7 2 , fn. 1 6 6 . ) B e s t , Following, 1 3 5 ; K i n g s b u r y , 9 5 ; cf. D e r r e t t ' s s u g g e s t i o n , ' T r e e s ' , 3 6 , t h a t t h e s e c o n d h e a l i n g is r e l a t e d t o p e r c e p t i o n . 6

8

Pace P e s c h , ' M e s s i a s b e k e n n t n i s ' , 2 5 , a n d C h a r l e s w o r t h , ' M e s s i a n o l o g y ' , 1 2 n 2 5 , t h e m e s s i a n i c / S o n o f D a v i d e l e m e n t s in this s e c t i o n c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g M a r k 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 5 (see b e l o w ) s u g g e s t that for M a r k Peter's c o n c e p t i o n h a d a t least s o m e n a t i o n a l i s t i c o v e r t o n e s . S e e e.g. Pss. Sol. 17:21ff; c o n c e r n i n g Q u m r a n , L o a d e r , ' N e w ' ; a n d in general Mendels, 'Pseudo', a n d the literature cited therein. 6 9

T h u s t h e p o i n t is t w o f o l d . F i r s t , t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e n o w t a u g h t t h a t t h e M e s s i a h m u s t d i e simpliciter a n d t h e n a f t e r t h r e e d a y s b e r a i s e d . A l t h o u g h W r e d e a r g u e d t h a t t h i s is i n c o n s i s t e n t s i n c e J e s u s ' p a s s i o n is a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in 2 : 1 9 , M a r k ' s o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e d i s c i p l e s p r o v i d e s little g r o u n d s for s u p p o s i n g t h a t t h e y fully u n d e r s t o o d its i m p l i c a t i o n s . S e c o n d , t h e r e is t h e m a t t e r o f t h e p u r p o s e o f J e s u s ' d e a t h . O n e a s p e c t lost in t h e d i s c u s s i o n is h o w a l i e n t h i s m u s t h a v e s o u n d e d t o t h o s e w h o d i d n o t h a v e c e n t u r i e s o f C h r i s t i a n belief behind them. 7 0

A l t h o u g h M a r k d o e s n o t specifically m e n t i o n ' w i s d o m ' , s u c h M a r k a n t e r m i n o l o g y a s e.g. pXcTTO), opaa), aKoua), O W I T I U I , a n d yivaSaKG) is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f I s r a e l ' s w i s d o m t r a d i t i o n . C f . H e n g e l , Atonement, 43f: 'Although countless J e w s w e r e crucified u n d e r the S e l e u c i d s , t h e H a s m o n e a n s a n d a b o v e all t h e R o m a n s , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e s o m a n y c r u c i f i e d p i o u s m e n a n d t e a c h e r s , a s f a r a s I c a n s e e w e find o n l y o n e r e f e r e n c e t o a c r u c i f i e d m a r t y r in r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s ... D e u t e r o n o m y 2 1 . 2 3 e v i d e n t l y m a d e it difficult t o t u r n a crucified m a n into a religious figure o r a hero'. 7 1

Blindness,

Understanding

... Mark's

Way:

239

Introduction

the M e s s i a h ' s o w n p e o p l e likewise misunderstood, and even continued to misunderstand.

A n d this without the additional and almost insuperable

i m p e d i m e n t o f a M e s s i a h w h o is crucified.

In this respect, M a r k m i g h t

well b e addressing the s a m e sort o f issue faced b y P a u l in R o m a n s 9 - 1 1 : h o w is it that G o d ' s o w n p e o p l e c o u l d m i s s , to b o r r o w N . T . W r i g h t ' s p h r a s e , the c l i m a x o f the c o v e n a n t ?

M a r k ' s r e s p o n s e , o n c e again, is

couched in terms o f the nation's past as expressed in her Scriptures. T h e r e had been on many occasions a hard-heartedness

in I s r a e l a n d

her

leadership that led t h e m to prefer their o w n w i s d o m to that o f Y a h w e h . F o r M a r k , this t e n d e n c y r e c u r r e d in J e s u s ' day, b l i n d i n g t h e n a t i o n ' s religious authorities a n d e v e n J e s u s ' o w n disciples. T h e great difference being that the latter, although ' b l i n d ' (10:32), nevertheless f o l l o w e d . Granted

the above, what

72

a b o u t the o v e r a l l p r o p o s a l o f an I N E

hermeneutic for M a r k ? If M a r k ' s J e s u s is at o n e and the s a m e time, Israel's Messiah and 'true servant Israel' ( M k 1:11), the true son of G o d , w h o is also u n i q u e l y identified w i t h the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (thus S o n o f G o d ) a n d w h o s e w o r d s and deeds reflect the icons o f Israel's ' E x o d u s ' deliverances and as such a n n o u n c e the inauguration o f the I N E , w h a t are w e to m a k e of M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n ?

A r e t h e r e , as w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r ,

correlations b e t w e e n the I N E ' w a y ' and M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section?

W e will

n o w turn first to a discussion o f the ' w a y ' i m a g e in the Isaianic N E , a n d then see if a c a s e c a n b e m a d e for its influence o n the m a n n e r in w h i c h M a r k develops his ' W a y ' .

II. Blindness and Understanding: Mark's 'Way' Section a)

Introduction

A s noted earlier scholarly opinion is largely agreed o n several features o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section (see C h a p t e r 5 ) . B y w a y o f recapitulation, M a r k ' s

7

2

T h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h y Y a h w e h c h o s e t o effect h i s d e l i v e r a n c e in t h i s u n e x p e c t e d w a y lies b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s t h e s i s , a l t h o u g h a s i m i l a r d y n a m i c c a n b e s e e n in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 w h e r e t h e e n i g m a t i c 'suffering s e r v a n t ' ( a n d i n d e e d C y r u s ) s e e m s t o s t a n d in m a r k e d contrast to m o r e conventional h o p e s of p e r h a p s a n e w David (given the l a n g u a g e of Isa 9 a n d 1 1 ) o r a n e w M o s e s ( g i v e n t h e E x o d u s i m a g e r y ) . It m i g h t b e t h a t Y a h w e h ' s s t r a t e g y i n o p e r a t i n g in this u n e x p e c t e d m a n n e r w a s t o s u b v e r t h u m a n r e l i a n c e o n its o w n w i s d o m (cf. Watts, 'Consolation', 4 1 - 4 9 ) , a n issue apparently central to the a c c o u n t of creation a n d the e x p u l s i o n in G e n 3 a n d p e r h a p s e c h o e d i n I s a i a h ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e w i s d o m d e b a t e a s c e n t r a l t o t h e r e a s o n for I s r a e l ' s e x i l e .

240

The

New

Exodus

Way

central j o u r n e y section focuses not only o n the issues o f discipleship, but fundamentally on J e s u s ' relatively private teaching o f his disciples about his future suffering.

T h e healing-of-the-blind miracles w h i c h

a n d c o n c l u d e this s e g m e n t further understand.

introduce

s y m b o l i s e the d i s c i p l e s ' n e e d

to

M a r k ' s redactional u s e o f 66o's- e m p h a s i s e s the s e n s e o f

journey (in geographical-theological terms, toward Jerusalem, the place of Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e ) and is associated not o n l y with e a c h o f the three passion predictions b u t also with both the rich m a n w h o rejects J e s u s ' call to follow and B a r t i m a e u s w h o does follow.

T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f 686$

M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation is also in all likelihood p r o g r a m m a t i c , forward to the ' W a y ' p r e p a r e d for b y J o h n

7 3

in

pointing

that J e s u s as the suffering

Messiah m u s t take to Jerusalem and wherein the disciples m u s t f o l l o w .

74

T h e question that concerns us is to w h a t extent, if any, does M a r k ' s linking o f the motifs o f s i g h t / u n d e r s t a n d i n g

and ' W a y ' reflect the Isaianic

N E ? T h e next section of this chapter will e x a m i n e the role of the motifs of sight, understanding, and ' w a y ' in Isaiah's N E . W e will argue that the INE ' w a y ' in c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 (cf. ch. 3 5 ) i n v o l v e s the r e v e r s a l o f I s r a e l ' s i d o l a t r o u s rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m a n d h e r s u b s e q u e n t 'blinding a n d deafening'.

judicial

T h u s the m e t a p h o r i c a l aspect o f h e r healing

indicates h e r a c c e p t a n c e o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , in particular his plan for national salvation, a n d the rejection o f her idols. b) Isaiah

and the NE 'Way' as the 'Way'

(i) Idolatry,

Blindness,

of Yahweh's

and the Rejection

Wisdom

of Yahweh's

Wisdom

In the previous C h a p t e r w e s a w that throughout Isaiah 1-39 the thematic contrast is b e t w e e n j u d g e m e n t and redemption, promise and threat, with the e m p h a s i s increasingly falling on the n e g a t i v e .

75

Y a h w e h ' s people are

accused o f being impious, evil-doers, speakers o f folly (9:15), godless (10:6),

7

3

7

4

A s n o t e d briefly in C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 4 f , a b o v e . B e s t , Following, 15f. Cf. e.g. Burkill, 'Strain', 3 2 ; K e r t e l g e , 1 8 1 ; K e l b e r , 9 5 . L a n e , o n t h e b a s i s o f p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n 6 : 3 1 - 7 : 3 7 a n d 8 : 1 - 3 0 (fn. 3 0 ) , e x c l u d e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 2 f r o m t h e d i s c i p l e s ' l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o t i f , s e e i n g 8 : 2 2 - 2 6 a s c o n c l u d i n g t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n , e.g. K l o s t e r m a n n , 7 7 ; K o c h , Wundererzahlung, 71f; P e s c h , 1 . 4 2 1 ; G u e l i c h , 1 . 4 3 0 . O t h e r s s e e it a s i n t r o d u c i n g w h a t f o l l o w s , e . g . L i g h t f o o t , History, 9 0 f ; B e s t , Disciples, 3; Johnson, ' B e t h s a i d a ' ; G n i l k a , 1 . 3 1 5 . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y 8 : 2 2 - 2 6 c a n n o t f u n c t i o n a s a ' h i n g e ' t r a n s i t i o n . B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 5 ; R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 236ff. 5

' See p p . 188-94 a n d pp. 2 1 3 - 1 6 above. Chs. 1-12 a r e o r d e r e d a r o u n d ch. 6 with chs. 1 a n d 12 as book-ends: the former primarily of j u d g e m e n t a n d the latter of hope; A c k r o y d , ' P r e s e n t a t i o n ' , passim a n d 4 5 f ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' .

Restoration

of Sight:

Being

Taught

by

241

Yahweh

unjust, corrupt, greedy, intemperate, and violent (e.g. l:15ff; 5:7-12).

Far

from being ' h o l y / the nation is characterised b y sin (e.g. 1:4; 33:14), iniquity (e.g. 1:4; 28:9), evil (e.g. 3:9; 32:7), and transgression (1:2, 28; etc.). T h e root o f these social and moral evils lies in the fact that the p e o p l e are inflated with pride and boastful arrogance (2:7f; 3:16ff; 5:21; 9:7ff; 28:1). Y a h w e h is n o t o n l y n e g l e c t e d b u t d e r i d e d , his p u r p o s e s a n d c o u n s e l despised, and his law rejected (1:4b; 3:8f; 5:12,18f, 24b; 8:6; 17:10; 22:11; 28:12; 29:15f; 30:9-13, 1 5 ) . H a v i n g forgotten the G o d of h e r salvation (17:10), which ignorance is from the outset coupled with her rebellion (1:2b, 4 , 5; cf. 3 0 : 1 , 1 3 ) , t h e n a t i o n

demonstrates

understands (1:3, L X X : y i y v c j a K c o ,

that s h e n e i t h e r k n o w s

o\)v\r\\i\;

5:13a, L X X :

e i 6 o v ) ,

nor and

consequently her religion is effectively mere pretence (1:11-15; 29:13ff). M o r e importantly w e noted that the quintessence o f the nation's sin— revolt against Y a h w e h (1:2; 3 0 : 1 , 9 ) and a wilful refusal to r e c o g n i s e , believe, or to h a v e obedient faith (7:9)—was the practice o f idolatry (l:29f; 2:6, 8 (cf. vv. 18, 20); 10:10f; cf. 17:8; 27:9b; 30:22; 31:7; cf. witchcraft, 3:3b; 8:19; 17:8, 10; cf. 2:6). This c o m e s fully into focus in A h a z ' persistent refusal to accept Y a h w e h ' s offer o f salvation, preferring instead his o w n political machinations (chs. 7-8; cf. chs. 28-33).

W e then argued that the blinding

and deafening a n n o u n c e d in Isaiah 6 a n d d e s c r i b e d in I s a i a h 2 9 a n d e l s e w h e r e w a s to b e u n d e r s t o o d as Y a h w e h ' s ironic j u d g e m e n t o n Israel for relying o n its o w n idolatrous w i s d o m .

T h e p e o p l e and in particular

their leaders w e r e , m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , to b e ' r e c r e a t e d ' in the i m a g e o f t h e lifeless and u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g

idols t h e y w o r s h i p p e d .

Consequently,

J e r u s a l e m ' s self-reliant w i s e m e n w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y lead t h e

country

toward that very destruction which they so ardently sought to avoid. (ii) Restoration

of Sight:

Being

Taught

by

Yahweh

U n d e r s t o o d a g a i n s t this b a c k g r o u n d , I s a i a h ' s r e d e m p t i v e p r o m i s e s o f restorational seeing and hearing take on greater significance. Irrespective of a n y p h y s i c a l referent, they too function as m e t a p h o r s describing t h e reversal of Y a h w e h ' s judicial application o f the 'idolators curse', and often do so in the c o n t e x t o f the purified r e m n a n t returning o n t h e ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m to J e r u s a l e m .

76

In other words, Israel's restoration is

described b y m e a n s o f w i s d o m terminology based on 'seeing' and 'hearing' 7

6

Cf. e.g. 1 0 : 2 0 , a n d G e r l e m a n , ' B e r m e r k u n g e n ' ; v o n S o d e n - W a c h t e r , TWAT, O n t h e r e m n a n t m o t i f , H a s e l , Remnant.

5.1190-93.

242

The New

Exodus

Way

m e t a p h o r s i n t e r w e a v e d with the spatial l a n g u a g e o f e x o d u s j o u r n e y i n g along the ' w a y ' to Zion. T h e following e x a m p l e s should suffice.

In 30:21 f Y a h w e h is presented

as I s r a e l ' s ' t e a c h e r ' w h o will n o l o n g e r h i d e h i m s e l f from h i s p e o p l e . Their e y e s will see h i m , they will hear a voice directing them in ^JTin they should go, and they will cast a w a y their i d o l s .

77

That 29:18's depiction of

the restoration of sight and hearing should also b e understood along these lines is s u g g e s t e d b y verse 24 w h i c h promises that those w h o err in mind will k n o w the truth and those w h o criticise will accept instruction (cf. 29:916; 2 8 : 9 - 1 4 ) .

7 8

A s i m i l a r c o n j u n c t i o n a l s o o c c u r s in 3 2 : 3 w h e r e

cessation of judicial blinding

the

is p a r a l l e l e d b y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f its

..consequences such that the hasty will discern truth. This is then followed b y a h o m i l y on the contrast b e t w e e n the fool and the n o b l e m a n (vv. 4 - 8 ; cf. Tg. Isa ad loc). New

Exodus

C h a p t e r 3 5 , Isaiah 1-39's m o s t e x p a n s i v e a c c o u n t o f a

reversal

of Isaiah's judgement

commissioning, links

restoration o f sight to the blind and hearing to the deaf with a description of the h o l y w a y (vv. 8-10; cf. 6 : 3 )

7 9

u p o n w h i c h neither the u n c l e a n n o r

fools will w a l k (v. 6) and which leads to Z i o n .

80

F r o m this it is e v i d e n t that ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y has b o t h spatial and sapiential connotations (cf. also Tg. Isa 35:1-10). This dual e m p h a s i s might b e the point o f the author's using both ^"n and ^ O f c in 35:8 w h e r e the latter s e e m s specifically to refer to a prepared h i g h w a y p e r h a p s leading to the locus o f Y a h w e h ' s presence, n a m e l y the T e m p l e ,

81

while the former is

e l s e w h e r e u s e d in sapiential contexts, for e x a m p l e , 8:11; 3 0 : 1 1 , 2 1 .

8 2

The

sapiential d i m e n s i o n o f the n a t i o n ' s restoration c a n also b e seen in the e m p h a s i s o n Y a h w e h ' s counsel and w i s d o m in the depictions o f the future 7

7

7

8

7

9

8

0

K a i s e r ; C l e m e n t s a n d W i l d b e r g e r r e n d e r "^"HD in t h e s i n g u l a r . O n t h e w i s d o m a s s o c i a t i o n s , e s p e c . J e n s e n , Use, 131ff; W a t t s , Isaiah, i . 3 9 8 f . Clements, 'Beyond', 104, notes the connection of g l o o m a n d darkness with 8:23, ' t h e r e b y l i n k i n g t h i s i m a g e r y w i t h t h a t o f b l i n d n e s s ' ; l i g h t / d a r k n e s s is w i d e l y u s e d for p r o s p e r i t y / d i s a s t e r , H e m p e l , ' L i c h t ' . O n t h e w i s d o m i n f l u e n c e in 2 9 : 1 6 f f , W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 7 3 - 7 5 , 1 3 0 - 3 1 . K a i s e r , 2 . 3 6 5 , s e e s t h e w a y a s l e a d i n g t o t h e T e m p l e ; R o b e r t s , ' I s a i a h ' , 312ff, r e g a r d s Y a h w e h ' s h o l i n e s s a s t h e l o c u s o f h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h h i s p e o p l e , cf. 4 : 3 ; 6 : 1 3 ; 2 9 : 2 3 . O n a sapiential understanding. Kaiser, 1.364; Wildberger, 2.1362. Clements, 1 2 5 , sees t h e i m a g e r y o f d e a f n e s s a n d b l i n d n e s s h e r e in a l i t e r a l a n d n o t m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , b u t s e e m s t o e q u i v o c a t e in ' U n i t y ' . 8 1

B e r g m a n n , H a l d a r , R i n g g r e n , K o c h , TDOT, 3 . 2 7 8 . O n t h e difficulties in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c fields o f ' w a y ' t e r m i n o l o g y , B e r g m a n n , et al, ibid., 2 7 1 f, 2 7 6 f ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5.49ff. 8

2

Leading

the Blind

in the

243

INE

idealised Davidic prince. In contrast to the nation's present corrupt rulers, mm

nn

w i l l rest u p o n h i m g r a n t i n g

wisdom,

knowledge,

strength, knowledge, and the fear o f Y a h w e h ( l l : 2 f f ) .

83

counsel,

Likewise, accounts

of restored Z i o n in w h i c h Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e d w e l l s p r e s e n t

Yahweh

residing there as teacher of Israel and the nations (2:3f; cf. 33:6). F r o m this perspective, the ' w a y ' of the N E is not only the ' w a y ' o f the returning exiles to Jerusalem but is also a matter of rejecting the idolatrous w i s d o m o f the past and e m b r a c i n g Y a h w e h ' s teaching. Similarly, whether understood in physical terms or not, the blind 'seeing', the deaf 'hearing', and the ' l a m e ' walking upon the ' w a y ' of holiness which leads to the place of Y a h w e h ' s presence, Zion, should also at least be seen as metaphors for the attaining

o f that w i s d o m

w h i c h s i g n a l s fidelity to Y a h w e h

therefore the return to his p r e s e n c e . (Hi) Leading

the Blind

in the INE

M o v i n g into Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , it is n o t e w o r t h y that b l i n d n e s s and terminology Israel. 8

3

8

4

8

5

8

6

86

reappears

and

84

throughout

8 5

deafness

in descriptions o f captive J a c o b -

Not only is the language associated with anti-idol polemics (espec.

Cf. W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 1 4 5 ; J e n s e n , Use, 1 2 4 - 3 0 ; K o c h , ' G o t t e s g e i s t ' , 2 5 0 f f ; R o b e r t s , 'Divine'. P u t in t h e s e t e r m s , it m a y b e t h a t t h e E x o d u s p a t t e r n d e r i v e s i n p a r t f r o m a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t it r e p r e s e n t s a r e v e r s a l o f t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c e x p u l s i o n f r o m E d e n (it is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 r e g a r d s t h e N E a s a n e w c r e a t i o n , s e e C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 5 5 , fn. 9 2 a b o v e ) . J u s t a s r e j e c t i o n o f Y a h w e h a s t h e w i s e K i n g r e s u l t s in b e i n g d r i v e n a w a y f r o m t h e p r e s e n c e , s o n o w a c q u i e s c e n c e t o his w i s d o m c h a r a c t e r i s e s t h e r e t u r n . O n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f w i s d o m t e r m i n o l o g y in c h a p t e r s 4 0 - 5 5 , e.g. v o n W a l d o w , Hintergrund, 47ff; ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 7 0 , w h e r e t h e p r o p h e t f u n c t i o n s 'like a w i s d o m t e a c h e r ' ; M c K a n e , Prophets, 8 1 - 8 5 , 9 4 - 9 7 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 31ff, w h o d i s c u s s e s t h e d i s p u t a t i o n s in t e r m s o f W i s d o m g e n r e ; W h y b r a y , Counsellor; W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' ; a n d T e r r i e n , ' Q u e l q u e s ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t it w a s t h e w i s d o m p o e m J o b t h a t ' i n t r o d u c e d t h e m o t i f o f c r e a t i o n i n t o t h e v e r y h e a r t o f t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s t r u g g l e . D e u t e r o - I s a i a h t o o k t h i s t h e m e a n d a p p l i e d it t o his i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s r a e l ' s m i s s i o n in h i s t o r y ' ( 3 1 0 ) . W a t t s , 'Consolation', 4 1 - 4 9 . T h e t e r m 'Jacob-Israel' reflects the Jacob-Israel p a r a l l e l i s m f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d in I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 (e.g. 4 0 : 2 7 ; 4 1 : 8 ; 4 1 : 1 4 f , 2 0 f ; 4 2 : 2 4 ; 4 3 : 1 , e t c . ) a n d is h e r e u s e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n I s r a e l per se a n d t h e ' s e r v a n t ' f i g u r e p o r t r a y e d in t h e s o c a l l e d ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' , s e e ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 5 . W h i l e e.g. J u e l , Messianic, 1 2 5 , rightly rejects t h e i d e a t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h e x e g e s i s p r e s u p p o s e d a unified a p p r o a c h t o t h e ' S o n g s ' , h e n o t e s t h a t t h i s d o e s n o t r u l e o u t t h e possibility t h a t e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s l i n k e d e l e m e n t s o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' t e x t s — j u s t a s s o m e e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa identified t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in Isa 4 2 a n d p a r t s o f Isa 5 3 w i t h t h e M e s s i a h ( C h a p t e r 3 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 2 7 ) — b u t o n t h e b a s i s o f a different m e s s i a n i c c o n c e p t i o n , ibid., 1 3 1 . T h u s e.g. L u k e a p p l i e s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s ' s o n g s ' t o J e s u s , i.e. Isa 4 2 : 1 ; 4 9 : 6 ; a n d 5 3 : 1 2 ; B o c k , Proclamation, 85f, 1 0 4 , 1 3 7 - 3 9 . B u t if o t h e r s c o u l d m a k e the c o n n e c t i o n — a n d n o t e h e r e later J e w i s h notions of vicarious m e s s i a n i c suffering, p o s s i b l y o n t h e b a s i s of t h e c a r e e r o f S i m o n b a r K o k h b a , cf. V e r m e s , Jesus, 1 3 9 , b. Sukk. 5 2 a ; S e g a l , Children, 6 4 - 6 7 , 8 6 ; c i t e d in ibid., 1 2 7 — w h y n o t J e s u s , e s p e c i a l l y if h e s a w h i m s e l f

244

The New

44:9-20),

8 7

Exodus

Way

b u t it is linked w i t h Y a h w e h ' s c o m p l a i n t s c o n c e r n i n g J a c o b -

Israel's consistent lack of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and unwillingness either to obey his niin or to walk

VDT13

(e.g. 42:18-25, note v. 17!; 43:8; 48:8, 1 8 - 2 0 ) .

88

P e r h a p s e v e n m o r e striking, given the u s u a l l y positive c o n s t r u c t i o n given to these chapters, is the stridently polemical use of blind and deaf m e t a p h o r s in the d i s p u t a t i o n s . altercation

with his people,

C o m p r i s i n g the n e x u s o f

these centre

on

Y a h w e h ' s ' a n o i n t e d ' deliverer, n a m e l y C y r u s .

t h e i r refusal

89

Yahweh's to

accept

O n c e again the matter at

issue is Israel's criticism of Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m as it relates to his m e a n s of effecting salvation and deliverance for his people (cf. Isa 7-8, 30f). As I h a v e suggested elsewhere, this implies that the prophet regards the exile, b y and large, as having c h a n g e d n o t h i n g . a n d deaf as before.

90

T h e people are as blind

T h e y continue to insist on dictating to Y a h w e h

how

and w h e n h e o u g h t to save them. This it w o u l d appear explains w h y the post-exilic c o m m u n i t y is still described as those w h o 'grope for a wall like the blind, like those w h o h a v e n o e y e s ' (59:9-10). That this last expression is also to b e u n d e r s t o o d within the s a m e ' w i s d o m ' framework is evident in m e s s i a n i c t e r m s a n d , in t h e light o f t h e i m p l i e d s u f f e r i n g o f D n 7's S o M , i n t e g r a t e d t h e 'servant's' suffering into his messianic self-understanding? M u c h d e p e n d s , therefore, o n the v a l i d i t y o f e.g. H o o k e r ' s a r g u m e n t s . Servant, that Jesus did n o t a p p e a l to Isa 5 3 w h e n d e s c r i b i n g h i s s u f f e r i n g s — b u t o n this s e e b e l o w — a l t h o u g h D o d d ' s s u g g e s t i o n . According, 1 0 9 f , t h a t t h e s e m i n a l i m p e t u s lies w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l g e n i u s o f J e s u s s e e m s t o m e t o m a k e b e t t e r h i s t o r i c a l s e n s e . S i m i l a r l y , if c e r t a i n I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a s i n g l e f i g u r e ( e . g . t h e M e s s i a h in Tg. Isa a n d 1 Enoch, see V a n d e r K a m , 'Righteous') t h e n it is n o t a l a r g e s t e p t o reflect o n t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a s a u n i f i e d f i g u r e in h i s o w n r i g h t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n m i g h t h a v e c r e a t e d difficulties, n o less t h e n a s t o d a y . In a r g u i n g h i s c a s e J u e l a l s o p r e s u m e s t h a t t h e e a r l y C h r i s t i a n s n e c e s s a r i l y e n g a g e d in w h a t is h e l d t o b e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a t o m i s t i c e x e g e s i s o f first c e n t u r y J u d a i s m . H o w e v e r , this c o m m o n l y h e l d e s t i m a t i o n o f first c e n t u r y e x e g e t i c a l t e c h n i q u e h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d , b o t h w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r a b b i s ( s e e I n s t o n e - B r e w e r , Techniques) a n d the N T ( s e e t h e v a r i o u s e s s a y s in B e a l e , e d . . Doctrine). 8

7

O n these passages. Watts, 'Consolation', 36, 38. Merrill, 'Language', has cited e x a m p l e s o f e l a b o r a t e B a b y l o n i a n r i t e s in w h i c h t h e e y e s a n d e a r s e t c . o f t h e i d o l s a r e o p e n e d b y their w o r s h i p p e r s . In a c o n v e r s a t i o n h e p o i n t e d o u t the i r o n y of idolators 'opening' the e y e s of their g o d s ' representative f o r m s while Y a h w e h h a s to o p e n the eyes of h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , I s r a e l , cf. I s a 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 0 ; 4 3 : 8 - 1 3 . 8

*> ' W a y s ' m e a n i n g a b r o a d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f mm, cf. 4 2 : 2 1 , 2 4 c ; C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 9 2 , fn. 4 4 . W a t t s , 'Consolation', 41-49. F o r Clements, 'Unity,' 1 2 5 , blindness, deafness, a n d lack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r e a l l u s i o n s t o Isa 6:9f's p r o p h e t i c c o m m i s s i o n , w h e r e t h e 'entire p e r i o d o f I s r a e l ' s s u b j u g a t i o n t o t h e M e s o p o t a m i a n p o w e r s (is v i e w e d ) a s a o n e o f n a t i o n a l b l i n d n e s s a n d deafness' a n d 'the t h e m e of Israel's blindness a n d deafness ... a p p e a r e d ... as a v e r y striking feature of the p r o p h e t i c e x p l a n a t i o n for the c a t a s t r o p h e s w h i c h h a d o v e r t a k e n Israel'. In ' B e y o n d ' , 1 0 2 , h e states: ' t h e t h e m e o f Israel's b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s , u n d e r s t o o d in a m e t a p h o r i c a l s e n s e , is c l e a r l y o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e t o Is. 4 0 - 5 5 ' . W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 4 7 - 4 9 ; cf. W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' , 127f. 8

9

9

0

Leading

the Blind

245

in the INE

in the final lament w h e r e , in language reminiscent o f 6:9f, 63:17 asks ' w h y do y o u c a u s e us to w a n d e r from y o u r w a y s and h a r d e n our hearts so that w e d o not fear y o u ? ' T h e appearance, therefore, o f ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'sight' terminology in conjunction with the N E "?J1T in 40-55 also implies, as in 139, a sapiential aspect to the d e l i v e r a n c e .

91

G i v e n the o v e r a r c h i n g t h e m e o f the w i s d o m d e b a t e w i t h its ' w a y ' o f wisdom

m o t i f , I s a i a h 4 2 : 1 6 is o f p a r t i c u l a r

interest.

Here

announces that h e will, nevertheless, lead the blind W P vb

Yahweh (cf. 50:10f

w h i c h contrasts those w h o hear the w o r d o f Y a h w e h ' s servant and yet are in d a r k n e s s w i t h t h o s e w h o s e e k i n d e p e n d e n t l y to establish their o w n 9 2

' l i g h t ' b y w h i c h to w a l k ) . w h i c h in r e s p o n d i n g

T h e p a s s a g e is a p r o c l a m a t i o n o f salvation

to a c o m m u n a l

lament declares that

although

Y a h w e h had b e e n silent h e is n o w going to act on b e h a l f o f his p e o p l e .

93

H o w e v e r , there is s o m e d e b a t e o v e r the significance o f the b l i n d n e s s imagery w h i c h has b e e n variously interpreted as referring to the e x i l e , travellers w h o c a n n o t s e e the p a t h , perception of Y a h w e h ' s p l a n s .

9 7

9 5

to h o p e l e s s n e s s ,

96

94

to

or to the lack o f

T h o s e w h o reject the fourth alternative

u s u a l l y do s o o n the b a s i s o f there b e i n g n o m e n t i o n o f unbelief, b u t several lines o f e v i d e n c e suggest that it is to b e preferred. First, as w e h a v e seen, ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'deafness' l a n g u a g e consistently bears s a p i e n t i a l / r e l i g i o u s connotations throughout Isaiah and is one o f the unifying t h e m e s of chapters 1-39 and 40-55. S e c o n d , the form and content of t h e s u m m a r y

s t a t e m e n t ( 4 2 : 1 6 c - 1 7 ) d e r i v e from w i s d o m

w h i c h i m p l i e s that a sapiential c o n t e x t is i n t e n d e d .

98

literature

Third, there is the

o t h e r w i s e u n e x p e c t e d c e n s u r e o f those w h o trust in idols (v. 17) w h i c h , considering 1-39 and the anti-idol polemics throughout 40-48, suggests that the ' u n k n o w n w a y ' o f Y a h w e h is to b e contrasted to the ' k n o w n w a y ' o f 9

1

9

2

C f . S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 6 7 , 'In D t - I s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f derek... past and present o v e r l a p , m o r a l i t y a n d g e o g r a p h y c o m m i n g l e ' . A g a i n ^yi is u s e d a s i d i o m : i n p a r a l l e l t o RNFC f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g in 4 0 : 1 4 ; o f t h e w a y o f Y a h w e h ' s RNLN ( 4 2 : 2 4 ; 4 8 : 1 7 ; 5 5 : 8 f ) ; a n d o f t h e lifestyle o f s i n n e r s w h o r e j e c t t h a t RNIN ( 5 3 : 6 ; 5 5 : 7 , 8 f ) . A l s o M u i l e n b u r g , 4 9 5 . S e e e.g. W e s t e r m a n n , b u t w i t h v. 1 1 b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d a s a p i c t u r e o f t h o s e w h o s e e k t o o v e r c o m e t h e d a r k n e s s b y d i n t o f t h e i r o w n e f f o r t , t h e L X X ' s T < $ a)Ti b e i n g a paraphrastic rendering. 9

3

9

4

9

5

9

6

9

7

9

8

M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 0 2 f ; W e s t e r m a n n ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 9 0 f . F i s c h e r ; W h y b r a y ; S c h o o r s , Saviour, 92; E l l i g e r . Skinner; Kissane. Calvin; Cheyne; McKenzie; W e s t e r m a n n . D e l i t z s c h ; L e u p o l d ; N o r t h ; S m a r t ; Y o u n g ; cf. M u i l e n b u r g . M e l u g i n , ibid.; cf. C h i l d s , Assyrian, 1 2 8 - 3 6 ; W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 7 5 - 7 9 ; N o r t h .

246

The New

the i d o l s . "

Exodus

Way

Fourth, in the i m m e d i a t e l y s u c c e e d i n g verses J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s

captivity is attributed to a b l i n d n e s s that is u n e q u i v o c a l l y related to a refusal to w a l k in the w a y s / r n i n of the Lord (42:18-25). Finally, the Hiphil of "J"n (cf. DDniK in v. 16b) occurs only in o n e other place in 40-55 and there it describes Y a h w e h ' s role as teacher ( 4 8 : 1 7 ) .

100

T a k e n together, these t h e m e s are consistent with those found in the w i s d o m d e b a t e s o f c h a p t e r s 1-39.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , w h e n p l a c e d in the

context o f chapters 4 0 - 5 5 , the phrases wv

T p - J 3 and i j r r - t f

nl:rn33

(42:16) s e e m best interpreted as the unexpected m e a n s b y whi ch Y a h w e h in his wise counsels h a s determined for the N E to b e accomplished, namely, his scandalous election o f a pagan, Cyrus, to b e Israel's deliverer. Israel is 'blind' and does not ' k n o w ' this ' w a y ' because b y and large she refuses to accept Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m as expressed in his choice o f C y r u s .

101

This sapiential c o n c e r n is further stressed in the p u r p o s e o f the N E which is so that Y a h w e h ' s people Vrsftn Wftn w n

%rp that it is h e alone,

not the idols, w h o delivers (41:20; cf. 43:10; 49:23; E x 6 : 5 - 7 ) .

102

Likewise, the

restoration is characterised as a time w h e n J e r u s a l e m ' s n u m e r o u s children will b e taught b y the Lord (54:3, 13; cf. 48:17-19). T h e continuation o f the w i s d o m t h e m e m i g h t also b e the point o f t h e c h a p t e r 5 5 w h i c h b e a r s r e m a r k a b l e similarities to the s p e e c h o f D a m e W i s d o m in P r o v e r b s .

1 0 3

H e r e at the conclusion o f 40-55 an invitation is m a d e to enter into life b y accepting instruction in accordance with Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m . Once again

a s i m i l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g is e v i d e n t

in s o m e o f

the

interpretive traditions contained in Tg. Isaiah w h e re, for e x a m p l e , in 42:18 those w h o are d e a f and blind are explicitly described as b e i n g fcTJTttn (wicked) and fcOD^n ( u n g o d l y / s i n n e r s ) with either j u d g e m e n t or potential blessings b e i n g c o u c h e d in terms of either rejecting or observing the law (vv. 14, 2 1 , and 2 4 ) .

L i k e w i s e , ' d e a f n e s s ' in 4 8 : 8 m e a n s rejecting the

instruction o f the l a w , w h i l e 5 5 : l f f is c o u c h e d in terms o f learning and 9

9

W e s t e r m a n n ' s c o n t e n t i o n , 1 0 9 , t h a t b l i n d n e s s is n o t a sin, fails t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t b o t h t h e o r i g i n s o f this c o n d i t i o n a n d t h e s e v e r i t y o f Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e t o it, cf. 4 8 : 1 - 8 . O n a n t i - i d o l p o l e m i c s : C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 1 , fnn. 2 3 , 2 4 , a b o v e ; W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 3 6 - 3 8 , 4 4 . Elliger. 1

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

2

1

0

3

W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 41ff; cf. t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in fn. 9 7 . T h a t I s r a e l m i g h t ' k n o w Y a h w e h ' is o n e o f t h e m a j o r t h e m e s o f E x o d u s : E x 6:6f; 10:2; 1 6 : 1 2 (cf. v. 6 ) ; 2 9 : 4 6 ; 3 1 : 1 3 . B e g r i c h , Studien, 5 9 - 6 1 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 2 5 ; a n d C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 190ff, s e e h e r e a n i m i t a t i o n o f W i s d o m G e n r e cf. t h e s u m m o n s t o life: P r o v 3 : 1 3 - 1 8 ; 4 : 2 2 ; 8 : 3 5 ; 9:6ff; Sir 4 : 1 2 ; t o e a t a n d d r i n k : P r o v 9:2, 5 ; Sir 1:17; 15:3; 2 4 : 1 9 , 2 1 ) .

The

'Way' in

attending diligently to Y a h w e h ' s Memra.

247

Mark

T h e s a m e perspective is also

evident in t h e Q u m r a n c o m m u n i t y ' s self-defining d o c u m e n t , 1 Q S , w h e r e to prepare Isaiah 40:3's ' w a y o f the L o r d ' (1QS 8:12b-16a; 9:17b-20a) means to study Torah (8:15; 9:9bf) and to ' w a l k ' v a n V o n D'on (2:2; s e e also l:12f; m

3:9bff; 5:7b-ll; 9:17f; and the ' w a y ' language infra).

According to C D l:9ff,

the m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u n i t y w e r e - p i D'fflraa'Dl D m w

(cf. Isa 59:10; see

also 2:2-6, 14-16; etc.) b u t n o w they are exhorted to ' h e a r ' that their e y e s m i g h t b e ' o p e n e d ' s o that they might ' s e e ' and ' k n o w ' the w o r k s o f G o d and as a result b e able

TOTl *7M

D'on

"[bnnnb

(CD 2:14ff; cf. the use o f the a

language o f healing over against blindness in 1QS 4 : 6 b - l l a ; cf. 4 Q p H o s 1:8; C D 16:lff).

H e r e , t o o , t h e p r o p h e t i c a l l y reconstituted i c o n s o f I s r a e l ' s

founding m o m e n t are integral to the self-understanding

of a Jewish

eschatological c o m m u n i t y . (iv)

Conclusion

T h e w i s d o m connotations o f 'sight', 'hearing', and 'understanding' suggest that the N E ' w a y ' h a s m o r e than a m e r e l y spatial focus.

T h e language

originates in Isaiah's c o m m i s s i o n i n g and reflects Y a h w e h ' s j u d g e m e n t o n Israel's adherence to idols in preference to his ' w i s d o m ' : the idolators will b e c o m e as blind, deaf, etc., as their inanimate idols. T h e N E ' w a y ' is thus also a holy ' w a y ' , a sapiential ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m w h e r e i n t h e restoration o f sight a n d t h e rejection o f idols signifies t h e rejection o f human wisdom and the acceptance of and reliance upon Yahweh's peculiar counsels in bringing about his N E purposes for Israel.

T h e y are

t w o sides o f t h e o n e coin: true h o l i n e s s entails true w i s d o m a n d

vice

versa. c) The 'Way' in Mark G i v e n these t h e m e s w i t h i n the setting o f the I N E , the n e x t question is w h e t h e r or n o t a similar theological construct is e v i d e n t in M a r k .

We

h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d for the t h e o l o g i c a l significance o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section particularly with regard to the motifs of 'journey', discipleship, a n d the ' r e s t o r a t i o n o f s i g h t ' .

But what about the 'wisdom debate' over

Y a h w e h ' s m e t h o d s o f d e l i v e r i n g h i s p e o p l e , a n d Y a h w e h ' s frustration with the persistent ' b l i n d n e s s ' o f those w h o m h e h a s c o m e to deliver? Is there any evidence o f M a r k a n counterparts? In a word, yes. 104 5 ^

e

g

L e a n e y , Rule,

222f.

248

The New

(i) 'Blindness'

and the

Exodus

Way

Disciples

First, there is clearly a general similarity b e t w e e n M a r k and Isaiah ( L X X ) b o t h in v o c a b u l a r y (pXcTTO), o p a a ) , dKou'co) and in the diversity o f t e r m s related to 'understanding'

(yiyi/cjaKO),

Isaiah 6:9 is the Grunilage

for the imagery o f blindness and deafness etc. in

aui/irjui, €i6ov, voc'a)). Second, just as

Isaiah, so also in M a r k the interpretive context for this cluster o f terms is his appeal to Isaiah 6:9 in 4:12f where for the first time, auv{rjui, €i6ov, and

yivaJaKO)

are found t o g e t h e r .

105

P X C T T O ) , o p a a ) , aKou'a),

This fits well with the

suggestion m a d e earlier that the circumstances s u r r o u n d i n g J e s u s ' appeal to Isaiah 6 are consistent with an Isaianic polemic against J e r u s a l e m ' s wise o n e s w h o reject Y a h w e h ' s plan for their deliverance.

Further s u p p o r t is

found in M a r k 7, w h e r e again in response to the only other challenge b y authorities from J e r u s a l e m outside of M a r k l l f f J e s u s quotes Isaiah 29:13, w h i c h as w e h a v e s e e n is particularly i m p o r t a n t in linking the judicial blindness o f Israel's leaders with sapiential c o n c e r n s .

106

I suggest that the

conflict b e t w e e n J e s u s and I s r a e l ' s leaders, g i v e n the firm

continuity

b e t w e e n Isaiah 6 ( M k 4) and the themes o f blindness, etc. in Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , reflects the m o r e e x t r e m e response in the Isaianic w i s d o m debate. J e r s u a l e m authorities h a v e rejected Jesus outright.

The

T h e s e 'blind and d e a f

leaders, b y and large, amply fill the role o f those w h o are unremittingly critical o f Y a h w e h ' s plan, and especially his c h o i c e o f agent (cf. J a c o b Israel's response to Cyrus, see above), as he effects the N E . But w h a t then are w e to m a k e of the application o f this language to the disciples?

D o e s M a r k intend that they, like Israel in the Isaiah (and,

p r e s u m a b l y , apostate J e w s from the m o r e c o n t e m p o r a r y p e r s p e c t i v e o f Q u m r a n ) , a r e idolatrous and u n d e r j u d g e m e n t ?

1 0 7

This m i g h t appear so

except that this terminology as w e h a v e seen is applied not only to Israel under sentence of judgement deliverance h a s b e e n a n n o u n c e d .

but

a l s o to I s r a e l in e x i l e to

whom

T h e fact that M a r k ' s portrayal o f the

disciples c o m b i n e s not just Isaianic ' w i s d o m ' imagery ( M k 4 etc. in his first section and the t w o sight miracles), but also ' w a y ' i m a g e r y (both in his

1

0

5

Lemcio, 'Structure'; Petersen, 'Composition'; Johnson, 'Theme', 227; Beavis, 157ff. L e m c i o , 'Structure', 337f, noting the o b d u r a c y motif, s u g g e s t s the structure of 4:1-20; 7:14-23; a n d 8:14-21 reflects 'the sort of didactic i n t e r c h a n g e ' e x p e r i e n c e d b y the p r o p h e t s .

Audience, 1

0

6

1

0

7

J o h n s o n , ' B l i n d n e s s ' , 3 7 , 2 2 7 , r e c o g n i s e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f 4:10ff f o r t h e d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n motif b u t provides n o discussion of the Isaianic significance of these terms.

'Blindness'

and

the

249

Disciples

introduction a n d t h r o u g h o u t the second m a i n section), indicates that his focus is on Israel's deliverance. Several data confirm t h i s .

1 0 8

First, just as Israel in Isaiah 4 2 is rebuked for having seen m a n y things but failing to u n d e r s t a n d , so too the disciples ( M k 8:14-21; cf. 4:13; 6:52; 7:18).

G i v e n o u r interpretation o f the relationship b e t w e e n the d e m o n s

and the n a t i o n s ' idols, and especially in the light o f the latter's role in I s a i a h ' s w i s d o m d e b a t e s , J e s u s ' r e b u k e o f P e t e r — " Y t T a y e oTTiao) Zaravd—may

\iov

y

in o n e s e n s e b e seen as analogous to Y a h w e h ' s rebuke o f

exiled Israel's adherence to idolatrous w i s d o m .

1 0 9

S e c o n d , Israel's rebuke

is yet on the threshold o f Y a h w e h ' s proffered deliverance; salvation is still available for those w h o would follow. Likewise, M a r k places J e s u s ' rebuke immediately p r e c e d i n g his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .

110

Third, a characteristic of the

I N E is that Y a h w e h will lead the blind along a p a t h they d o not k n o w (provided, o f course, they are willing)—which i m a g e r y w e h a v e a r g u e d refers to the u n e x p e c t e d n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s plan for deliverance.

108 S g 1

0

9

1

1

0

e

n

o

w

a

i

s o

And,

M a r c u s , 34f.

Cf. D a n k e r , ' D e m o n i c ' , 6 3 . O s b o r n e , ' S t u m b l i n g - B l o c k ' , n o t e s Q u m r a n ' s belief t h a t t h o u g h t s o p p o s e d to G o d ' s ' w a y ' w e r e u n d e r s t o o d as c o m i n g f r o m Satan. In w h a t sense, h o w e v e r , is it a p p r o p r i a t e t o s p e a k o f a n ' i d o l a t r o u s w a y o f t h i n k i n g ' a n d is t h e r e a n y e v i d e n c e for s u c h a m e t a p h o r i c a l u s a g e ? In e.g. 1 Q S 4 : 1 1 ; 1 Q H 4 : 1 9 ; C D 2:14f; C D 16:2f; C D 2 : 1 6 f t h e l a n g u a g e o f s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h e a r t , b l i n d n e s s , d e a f n e s s , a n d g o i n g a s t r a y , is c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h a t o f s e e i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d w a l k i n g in t h e ' w a y ' . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t is t h e e x p r e s s i o n 3*7 n W T C D w h i c h a p p e a r s in t h e c u r s e p r o n o u n c e d o v e r t h e false m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o b l e s s e s h i m s e l f w h i l e h e c o n t i n u e s t o w a l k in t h e s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h i s h e a r t , 1 Q S 2 : 1 4 , cf. D t 2 9 : 1 9 . T h i s d u p l i c i t y is a t t r i b u t e d t o his h a v i n g e n t e r e d t h e c o m m u n i t y a l o n g w i t h 'the i d o l s o f his h e a r t ' (13*7 ^ V O T , 1.11), t h e i d o l s b e i n g t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h c a u s e h i m t o fall i n t o i n i q u i t y , cf. C D 2 0 : 9 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y E z e k 1 4 : 3 - 7 , D a v i e s , Damascus, 1 8 4 . D^Vw, w h i c h a p p e a r s 3 9 t i m e s in E z e k i e l ( o u t o f 4 8 in O T ) , r e f e r s t o c u l t o b j e c t s b u t w i t h a s t r o n g s e n s e o f u n c l e a n n e s s (e.g. 1 6 : 3 6 , Z i m m e r l i , Ezekiel, cf. C D 3 : 1 7 ) , itself a m a j o r c o n c e r n a t Q u m r a n (e.g. H u p p e n b a u e r , ' S e k t e n r e g e l ' ) . E i c h r o d t , Ezekiel, 1 8 0 , understands a secret syncretism which, while not countenancing public apostasy from Y a h w e h , n e v e r t h e l e s s a d o p t e d 'the prevailing p a g a n attitude of m i n d ' c o m b i n i n g 'a r e c o g n i t i o n o f Y a h w e h ' s l o r d s h i p w i t h r e c o u r s e t o s u b o r d i n a t e p o w e r s ' ; cf. S c h o n e v e l d , ' E z e k i e l ' , w h o s e e s t h e w e a r i n g o f a m u l e t s . H o w e v e r , G r e e n b e r g , Ezekiel, r e j e c t s s y n c r e t i s m a s h e c a n find n o r e a s o n f o r t h e p r o p h e t ' s s i l e n c e u n t i l this p o i n t , n o t i n g i n s t e a d t h a t t h e elders a p p a r e n t l y e s t e e m themselves w o r t h y of Y a h w e h ' s attention. G r e e n b e r g suggests t h a t t h e r e a l s i n is t h e i r a s s u m p t i o n t h a t all is w e l l b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d Y a h w e h w i t h o u t h a v i n g r e s o l v e d t h o s e i s s u e s t h a t c a u s e d t h e e x i l e in t h e first p l a c e : ' T h e "idols" in t h e p e o p l e ' s t h o u g h t s ... m u s t b e a r u b r i c for a n u n r e g e n e r a t e s t a t e o f m i n d ' , 2 5 3 . In a n y c a s e it is i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t m e m b e r s o f t h e m o n a s t i c b r o t h e r h o o d ( t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f 1 Q S if not C D ) could h a v e secretly w o r n amulets or practiced syncretism. W h a t appears to be i n d i c a t e d is a n i d o l a t r o u s a t t i t u d e a l s o d e s c r i b e d a s s t u b b o r n n e s s o f h e a r t w h i c h a l o n g w i t h b l i n d n e s s a n d d e a f n e s s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e w h o reject t h e ' W a y ' . Cf. A m b r o z i c ' s c r i t i c i s m , 6 9 , o f J e r e m i a s , Parables, 15, noting that the d a m n i n g c o n c l u s i o n o f 4 : 1 2 is m i s s i n g f r o m 8:18; cf. M a r c u s , Mystery, 1 0 1 ; Burkill, ' B l a s p h e m y ' , 6 5 .

250

The New

Exodus

Way

just as Y a h w e h takes the initiative by leading the blind in Isaiah, so also in M a r k the initiative lies with Jesus in his call to f o l l o w .

111

It s e e m s significant, then, that M a r k places his only two 'sight' miracles at the beginning and end of his ' W a y ' section, along which ' W a y ' Jesus will lead his d i s c i p l e s .

112

A s several scholars have argued, the sight miracles

s e e m to highlight the sapiential (Best: 'spiritual') aspects o f the journey. In M a r k ' s case, the major ' w i s d o m ' issue, judging b y the carefully structured placement o f the three passion predictions, is the extraordinary lesson that Israel's M e s s i a h (and S / s o n o f G o d ) m u s t s u f f e r .

113

c e n t r a l c o n c e r n is s u p p o r t e d b y h i s p l a c e m e n t

That this is M a r k ' s o f the first

passion

prediction, and P e t e r ' s rejection o f the s a m e , i m m e d i a t e l y following his confession at the opening o f the ' W a y ' section w h i l e the last immediately precedes B a r t i m a e u s ' confession at its c o n c l u s i o n . (ii) Healing

of Sight and the Way of the

114

Cross

G i v e n the foregoing, it appears that M a r k intends the

sapiential-spatial

j o u r n e y o f the I N E to b e the hermeneutical horizon for his ' W a y ' .

What

Y a h w e h h a d p r o m i s e d to do for ' b l i n d ' and ' d e a f Israel, leading t h e m along a p a t h they did not k n o w , Jesus does for his disciples. T h e y are his true family (and faithful Israel, 3:13-19, 2 1 , 31-35). But even though given the mystery o f the k i n g d o m (4:11) they fail to understand the nature o f the 'path' that Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m has planned (as is evident in their responses to the passion predictions, 8:32-33; 9:32; 10:35-41). Nevertheless, Jesus leads t h e m along the I N E ' w a y ' w h i c h they too 'do not k n o w ' .

A n d again, the

central point for M a r k is that the ' w a y ' o f the I N E , the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s wise deliverance, revolves around the death o f his messianic S / s o n . 1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

3

1

1

4

1

1

5

1 1 5

B e s t , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 3 2 7 ; F o c a n t , ' L ' i n c o r n p r e h e n s i o n ' , 1 8 5 ; M a l o n e y , ' V o c a t i o n ' ; cf. Schweizer, 'Portrayal'; H a w k i n , 'Incomprehension', 4 9 3 . F o r a helpful discussion o n the r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' c o n t i n u e d failure t o s e e after 2 0 : 4 5 , B e s t , Following, 1 3 6 f . O n the literary a n d t h e m a t i c integrity of this section, see C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 124-32.

E.g. Strecker, 'Passion'; Best, 'Discipleship', ' E n d i n g ' ; K i n g s b u r y , 89f.

3 2 5 f f ; P e r r i n , 'Gattung';

Reedy,

S t r e c k e r ' s c r i t i c i s m , ' P a s s i o n ' , 4 3 8 n 4 9 , o f L i g h t f o o t , History, 90f, a n d Burkill, 1 5 0 , t h a t 8:27ff c a n n o t a n t i c i p a t e P e t e r ' s c o n f e s s i o n b e c a u s e ' o n e d o e s n o t h e a r a b o u t t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e " b l i n d n e s s " o f t h e d i s c i p l e s ' is o n l y p a r t i a l l y c o r r e c t . T o s e e J e s u s a s M e s s i a h c o n s t i t u t e s a p a r t i a l h e a l i n g , b u t t h e d i s c i p l e s a r e still b l i n d a s t o Y a h w e h ' s p l a n for the N E . In d e n y i n g a distinction b e t w e e n the disciples' m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g before a n d a f t e r 8:27ff, S t r e c k e r , 4 3 9 n 5 0 , a s d o e s J o h n s o n , ' B e t h s a i d a ' , 3 8 2 , fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e significance of the loaves. Cf. t h e ' s u f f e r i n g ' o f I s a 5 3 a s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e I N E is e f f e c t e d ; s e e b e l o w , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d e a r l i e r in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 .

Healing

In v i e w

of Sight

and the Way of the

251

Cross

o f t h e a b o v e , o n e final c o m m e n t is w a r r a n t e d

on

the

relationship b e t w e e n the t w o sight miracles and M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section.

A

n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s r e c o g n i s e that the t w o - s t a g e h e a l i n g w h i c h b e g i n s the section indicates that P e t e r ' s confession n e e d s the additional i n s i g h t that t h e M e s s i a h m u s t die.

T h i s raises the q u e s t i o n o f t h e

significance o f B a r t i m a e u s ' healing. For Ernest Best, 'after full instruction, w e h a v e ' in B a r t i m a e u s ' t h e h e a l i n g o f a blind m a n w h o i m m e d i a t e l y follows J e s u s " o n the w a y " , i.e. h e is r e g a r d e d as a true d i s c i p l e ' .

1 1 6

H o w e v e r , Best is a w a r e that the disciples t h e m s e l v e s fail to act as ' t r u e disciples', e v e n after instruction while on the ' W a y ' , and therefore appears to suggest that Bartimaeus symbolises what ought to h a p p e n .

1 1 7

B u t h o w so? N o t o n l y does Bartimaeus p r o m p t l y disappear from the story, but it is not o b v i o u s that his following ' o n the w a y ' implies that h e understands or e v e n k n o w s o f J e s u s ' death—the disciples w h o m o s t o f all follow ' o n the w a y ' clearly do not and there is n o t h i n g in the narrative that s u g g e s t s B a r t i m a e u s is a n y d i f f e r e n t .

118

O n the contrary, h e o n l y

recognises J e s u s as the ' S o n o f D a v i d ' and, as Best admits, his confession c o m e s 'while h e is blind, just as Peter used " C h r i s t " at the time w h e n h e could not s e e p r o p e r l y ' .

1 1 9

B a r t i m a e u s is n o m o r e a 'true disciple' than

Peter: both ' b l i n d ' m e n h a v e m a d e imperfect confessions and even though both follow in the ' w a y ' there is nothing in the text to suggest that either have grasped the truth that the Messiah must die or its significance. T h e key, therefore, s e e m s n o t to lie in the role o f B a r t i m a e u s as a m o d e l disciple b u t instead in M a r k ' s editorial p u r p o s e s in linking the healings of sight with the I N E ' w a y ' as the ' W a y ' o f the suffering Messiah. G i v e n M a r k ' s a p p a r e n t evocation o f the Isaianic w a y / w i s d o m

framework

and his e m p h a s i s on the disciples' blindness, etc., it w o u l d appear that the t w o sight miracles are there to inform the reader of the true significance o f his ' W a y ' section: it is all about understanding the ' w a y ' of Y a h w e h ' s I N E wisdom. 1

1

6

1

1

7

1

1

8

1

1

9

C o n s e q u e n t l y , as m a n y h a v e r e c o g n i s e d , the first, ' t w o - s t a g e '

Following, 1 3 6 ; cf. R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 2 6 . A s t h e ' h e a l i n g ' is A o r i s t a n d t h e ' f o l l o w i n g ' I m p e r f e c t , it m i g h t b e t h a t t h e e m p h a s i s lies o n t h e a c t o f ' f o l l o w i n g ' , a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e in t e n s e s m i g h t s i m p l y reflect t h e c o m p a r a t i v e t e m p o r a l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n s . Ibid., 1 3 6 ; cf. J o h n s o n , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 1 9 8 . G u n d r y , 4 4 2 , 5 9 7 , p l a c e s c o n s i d e r a b l e e m phasis o n the disciples' failure. Cf. L a n e , 3 8 9 ; K i n g s b u r y , 1 0 4 f . Pace, S c h e n k e , W under erzahlungen, 368, although he correctly interprets the Markan symbolism. Ibid., 1 4 0 .

252

The New

Exodus

Way

healing signifies the incompleteness of Peter's confession; the deficiency of w h i c h is indicated b o t h by Peter's refusal to accept that the Messiah must die and J e s u s ' p u n g e n t response. W h a t follows is a carefully constructed account wherein the subsequent passion predictions reiterate that Jesus the M e s s i a h — n o w , h o w e v e r , identified in each case as 6 mbg T O U dv0pamou— must die. O n l y after this has b e e n driven h o m e , d o w e then find another ' m e s s i a n i c ' c o n f e s s i o n linked with sight.

T h i s t i m e , h o w e v e r , sight is

restored b y o n e simple c o m m a n d (Mk 10:46ff). M a r k ' s literary point s e e m s clear: the o n l y messianic confession that coincides with Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m is o n e predicated o n the teaching that the messianic ' S o n o f M a n ' must die as a r a n s o m for m a n y .

G e n u i n e restoration o f sight, a n d therefore the

genuine ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' w h i c h is the sine qua non o f truly j o u r n e y i n g on the I N E ' w a y ' , can only c o m e b y accepting that the I N E ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s r e d e m p t i v e w i s d o m is expressed in Christ crucified (cf. 1 C o r 1 : 1 8 - 2 5 ) .

120

O n l y w h e n understood from this perspective can w e then agree with Best 'that M a r k v i e w s true discipleship with real understanding as a possibility after 1 0 : 4 5 ' . d) Jesus

121

and the Isaianic

'Servant'-Teacher

It w a s argued in C h a p t e r 6 that J e s u s ' healing and delivering activities are portrayed b y M a r k in terms applicable not only to the Yahweh-Warrior but also to the Isaianic 'servant'-deliverer w h o also plays a major role in the 1 2 2

NE.

In the light o f b o t h this and the p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n o n the

sapiential significance o f ' b l i n d - a n d - d e a f terminology and o f M a r k ' s sight miracles for his ' W a y ' section the possibility o f c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s b e t w e e n J e s u s as t e a c h e r and the apparent teaching role o f the Isaianic 'servant' w a r r a n t brief examination. T h e e n i g m a t i c 'servant' figure in Isaiah 40-55 is not only instrumental in delivering Jacob-Israel from b o n d a g e (e.g. 42:lff; see Chapter 6) b u t also o p e n s the e y e s o f the blind (42:7; 49:6; cf. also 6 1 : l f ) . 'deafness' o f Jacob-Israel (y\vo\y\i4.va

TOC WTOC,

Kai

OUK

1 2 3

f|KouaaT€,

48:6-8 L X X ) , the 'servant' is described in 50:4 as having 1

2

0

1

2

2

1

2

3

In contrast to the 42:20 L X X ; cf.

GJTIOV

dKoifeiv.

In

C f . J o h n s o n , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 1 9 7 . P e r h a p s J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n i n 1 0 : 1 8 is t o s h o w t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e 6 i 6 a a K a X c dyaGc c o n f e s s i o n a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o d i s c i p l e s h i p ( 1 0 : 1 7 - 2 2 ) . * Ibid., 1 3 6 . Cf. C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 4 2 - 4 3 ; a n d a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 8 , o n I s a 4 2 : 1 in M a r k ' s prologue. Watts, 'Consolation', 50-56. 12

Jesus

and

the Isaianic

253

'Servant'-Teacher

view of the sapiential connotations of both 'sight' and ' h e a r i n g ' i m a g e r y throughout, w e m a y b e justified in seeing here a teaching or instructional role for the 'servant' (50:4f, 10; cf. 30:21; 32:3; 3 3 : 5 ) .

124

A l t h o u g h a notoriously problematic text, Isaiah 53:11 m i g h t also refer to the 'salvific' k n o w l e d g e o f the ' s e r v a n t ' .

125

A . G e l s t o n h a s recently

argued that i r u n a cannot m e a n ' k n o w l e d g e ' primarily on the g r o u n d s that it d o e s not fit the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t .

1 2 6

O n the other h a n d , the united

testimony o f the L X X and the later G r e e k versions, the Peshitta, and Isaiah,

Tg.

all o f w h i c h u n d e r s t a n d something along the lines o f ' k n o w l e d g e /

suggests that this option ought not b e dismissed too quickly. G i v e n that the suffix is almost certainly subjective then w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g like 'his knowledge', b u t does it go with what precedes or w h a t follows? Since w e are dealing w i t h p o e t r y it is p e r h a p s not surprising that there is s o m e ambiguity, and p e r h a p s e v e n intentionally so. T a k i n g i n i n D w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e s , o n e c o u l d translate ' h e will b e satisfied w i t h / b y / i n his k n o w l e d g e ' .

Contextually, granted there is n o

immediate indication o f the nature o f this knowledge, it is not impossible that the m o s t recent s p e e c h o f the 'servant' w h i c h c o n c e r n s h i s teaching role (50:4-9) is in view. If so, then the idea might well b e that the 'servant' w i l l b e satisfied (J^to*!) ' i n ' h i s k n o w l e d g e vindication (cf. 50:7-9; and Ps 1 6 : 7 - 1 1 ) . a

127

b

of Yahweh's

promised

This coheres well with 'he will

see light' (53:11a; following l Q I s , l Q I s , and L X X ) ,

1 2 8

not least in v i e w o f

the salvific a n d sapiential connotations o f the i m a g e r y (cf. 50:10-11).

In

other words, the 'servant' has earlier castigated those w h o seek to provide their o w n light, w a r n i n g t h e m o f their i m p e n d i n g ' d i s c o n t e n t ' (ro^tfE;

1

2

4

1

2

5

1

2

6

1

2

7

1

2

8

E . g . W e s t e r m a n n , 2 2 8 f , 2 3 4 f . A s n o t e d earlier, a n i n v i t a t i o n t o h e a r is f o u n d in w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a ' D a m e W i s d o m ' s p e e c h w h i c h c o n c l u d e s 4 0 - 5 5 , i.e. 5 5 : 1 - 3 ; s e e f u r t h e r t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in fn. 1 0 3 a b o v e . In p a r t t h e i s s u e in 5 3 : 1 1 t u r n s a r o u n d A ) t h e m e a n i n g o f ini?lD ( w h i c h c a n n o l o n g e r b e u n d e r s t o o d a s ' h u m i l i a t i o n ' ; cf. J o h n s t o n e , ' Y D " ) , B) w h e t h e r it is t o b e t a k e n w i t h w h a t p r e c e d e s o r w h a t f o l l o w s , a n d C ) w h e t h e r t h e suffix is o b j e c t i v e o r s u b j e c t i v e . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in G e l s t o n , ' K n o w l e d g e ' . 'Knowledge', 134f. P s a l m 1 6 : 7 - 1 1 e x p r e s s e s a s i m i l a r c o n j u n c t i o n o f t r u s t i n g in Y a h w e h ' s w o r d o f i n s t r u c t i o n a n d a c o n f i d e n c e in t h e f a c e o f t h r e a t e n i n g d e a t h w h i c h l e a d s t o nlnDfo 1)3(0. S e e K r a u s , Psalms 1-59, ad loc; C r a i g i e , Psalms 1-50, ad loc. T h e M T a l s o m a k e s s e n s e o n this b a s i s . W h e r e a s h e e a r l i e r w a l k e d in d a r k n e s s a n d h a d n o l i g h t ( 5 0 : 1 0 b ) , n o w , a s a r e s u l t o f h i s o b e d i e n c e , l i i s s o u l w i l l s e e ' ( 5 3 : 1 1 : n^n* 1 0 3 3 ; n o t e t h e u s e o f t h e v e r b w i t h o u t d i r e c t o b j e c t in 6:10; 2 9 : 1 8 ; cf. 3 0 : 1 0 ; 49:7; 6 0 : 5 ) .

254

The New

50:11).

Exodus

Way

H e , h o w e v e r , ' k n o w s ' (cf. v. 7;

that although h e w a l k s in

darkness, h e will yet, as one w h o trusts in Y a h w e h , see light (50:10). T h e e x p r e s s i o n in 53:11b s e e m s to describe, in contrast to the discon s o l a t e r e p r o b a t e s o f 50:11c, t h e full v i n d i c a t i o n ( ' s a t i s f a c t i o n ' ) o f the 'servant' in his reliance on, and adherence to, Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m .

1 2 9

is p e r h a p s w h y the 'fourth' s o n g o p e n s with sapiential a n d

reversal

This

themes (52:15b; 53:1: those w h o thought they understood, do not, etc.). Not only are they entirely congruent with Isaiah's ' w i s d o m debate' as a whole, b u t also w i t h the distillation o f this issue as reflected in the life o f the 'servant'. O n the other h a n d , if i m n a is taken with w h a t follows, then w e h a v e s o m e t h i n g like ' b y his k n o w l e d g e m y (righteous?) servant shall justify m a n y ' . Chapters 40-48 earlier focussed on the debate over Y a h w e h ' s ability to save Israel, his concern for them, and the w i s d o m of his choices. If this context is b o r n e in m i n d , then, in contrast to the failure o f servant J a c o b Israel, the faithful 'servant' through his obedience to and proclamation of Y a h w e h ' s instruction b e c o m e s Y a h w e h ' s ultimate agent o f d e l i v e r a n c e , not only for Jacob-Israel but also for the nations ( 4 9 : 6 ) .

130

In sum, whereas the first alternative focuses on the impact o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m on the 'servant' himself, namely his vindication, the second deals with the c o n s e q u e n c e s of his faithful a d h e r e n c e to Y a h w e h ' s w o r d for Jacob-Israel and the nations, that is, they will be 'justified'. Either approach m a k e s g o o d sense, and it is not unlikely given the poetic nature o f the material that the reader is invited to see both meanings h e r e .

1 3 1

This conception o f the 'servant' as a teacher is supported b y the expansionistic renderings o f Tg. Isaiah where in 42:7 it understands 'blindness' as b l i n d n e s s to the l a w ( « n m «

p

pOD), w h i l e the deafness in v. 2 0 is a

refusal to h e a r instruction, ID^K pn^'Qp (cf. v. 24).

F u r t h e r m o r e , 50:4 is

interpreted as referring to the ability to teach w i s d o m to the righteous and to open s i n n e r s ' ears to instruction.

Similarly, in 53:11 it is through his

w i s d o m that the 'servant' justifies 'the just so that m a n y might b e subject

1

2

9

1

3

0

O n this t h e m e in t h e ' s o n g s ' s e e B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT;

Ward, 'Knowledge'.

A l t h o u g h C y r u s i n i t i a t e s t h e p r o c e s s t h e full p r o m i s e s o f t h e r e t u r n a r e n o w predicated o n the action of the 'servant'. Watts, 'Consolation', 54-57. 1 3 1

S e e e.g. t h e h e l p f u l c o m m e n t s in W a r d , ' K n o w l e d g e ' , 1 3 1 . O n e m i g h t n o t e t h a t this s o r t o f a m b i g u i t y is n o t o n l y o n e o f t h e h a l l m a r k s o f t h e l y r i c s o f m o d e r n p o e t s b u t a d d s t o t h e i r a p p e a l , e.g. t h e w o r k o f T. S. Eliot a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y B o b D y l a n .

Jesus

to T o r a h ' .

and

the Isaianic

255

'Servant'-Teacher

L i k e w i s e , Q u m r a n ' s p r o g r a m m a t i c and self-definitional state

ments in 1 Q S 8:13-16 and 9:16-21 also interpret ' m a k i n g straight the w a y ' o f Isaiah 40:3 as fulfilled in their s t u d y of T o r a h (8:15; 9:17) in the desert. H e r e , too, t h e r e is a c o n f l u e n c e o f the spatial and the sapiential. intriguing, g i v e n the Isaianic c o l o u r i n g o f the c o m m u n i t y ' s standing,

1 3 2

It is

self-under

that this t e a c h i n g is largely u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e o f their

esteemed ' T e a c h e r of R i g h t e o u s n e s s ' w h o is recorded as describing h i m s e l f in terms reminiscent of, a m o n g other O T figures, the 'servant' o f Isaiah (in addition to the frequent use o f 'servant', see especially 1 Q H 15:10; 16:36; [cf. Isa 50:4]; 17:29-31; [cf. Isa 49:1]; and also 23:14f; [cf. Isa 6 1 : l f ] ) .

133

G i v e n this ' w i s d o m ' d i m e n s i o n , M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s as t e a c h e r m i g h t take on greater s i g n i f i c a n c e .

134

W e h a v e already seen that not o n l y

are promises o f instruction characteristic of the N E but in Isaiah 42:1-9, a passage already of i m p o r t a n c e for M a r k in identifying J e s u s (1:11), it is the task o f the S p i r i t - e n d o w e d ' s e r v a n t ' figure to b r i n g liberation and sight, that is, u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m . points can b e noted.

1 3 5

With this in m i n d , several

First, a s i m i l a r d u a l d e l i v e r i n g - t e a c h i n g role is

h i g h l i g h t e d b y R. T . F r a n c e w h e n h e c o m m e n t s o n ' t h e s t r i k i n g

and

emphatic use o f 6 i 6 a x r i in M a r k 1:22, 2 7 in the context of an e x o r c i s m ' — a n e x o r c i s m w h i c h he too h a s s e e n as ' p r o g r a m m a t i c for J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y ' — and then c o n c l u d e s that, for M a r k , J e s u s ' teaching and action contribute 'together to the fulfilment o f his messianic r o l e ' .

1 3 6

S e c o n d , in M a r k 4 , a

c h a p t e r w h i c h w e h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d is h e a v i l y i n d e b t e d to I s a i a n i c 'wisdom' language, Jesus' repeated summons—"Oc;

GJTO:

CXKOUCIV

dKoucTo (vv. 9, 2 3 ; cf. v. 2 4 ) — a n d the preponderance o f ' h e a r i n g ' terminol o g y (4:3, 12, 1 5 , 16, 1 8 , 2 0 , 33) c o h e r e s perfectly with an Isaianic ' s e r v a n t ' p a r a d i g m (espec. e.g. Isa 50:4).

1

3

2

Third, not o n l y does M a r k 4 p r o v i d e t h e

S t a r k o v a , ' I m p o r t a n c e ' , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y in C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 2 , fn. 1 5 7 . 133 ^ f t h e r , D u p o n t - S o m m e r , Writings, 3 5 8 - 6 7 ; Kittel, Hymns, 130, 136; Ringgren, Faith, 196ff. E v a n s , Beginning, 4 3 - 6 1 ; M a r t i n , 1 1 3 ; F r a n c e , ' T e a c h i n g ' ; cf. R i e s n e r , Lehrer; R o b b i n s , Teacher; B a a r l i n k , Anfangliches, 148-74; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Reflections'; H o o k e r , 'Mark'; Piper, 'Unchanging', 19. O n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e M e s s i a h a s t e a c h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in I s a i a n i c t e r m s , R i e s n e r , Lehrer, 3 0 4 - 4 4 ( a l t h o u g h h e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o d e a l w i t h t h e w i s d o m c o n n o t a t i o n s of ' b l i n d n e s s ' a n d 'sight' t e r m i n o l o g y ) ; o n I s a 11 J e n s e n , Use, 124ff. O n t h e w i s d o m e l e m e n t in J e s u s ' m e s s a g e , H e n g e l , Charismatic, 45ff. 1 3 6 T e a c h i n g ' , 1 0 7 , H O f ; cf. K e e , Miracle, 1 6 1 ; K o c h , Bedeutung, 42-45; Egger, Frohbotschaft, 165ff; a n d C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 154ff, a b o v e . u r

1

3

4

1

3

5

256

The New

Exodus

Way

basis for J e s u s ' s u b s e q u e n t use o f sapiential language but it also follows h a r d o n the heels o f J e s u s ' redefinition both o f his true family and, since h e is S / s o n o f G o d , also of Israel (3:20-35). In the light o f M a r k ' s p r o l o g u e and especially J e s u s ' p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g (l:14f), these data suggest that reconstituted I s r a e l ' s participation in the I N E is d e p e n d e n t o n hear i ng J e s u s ' teaching (4:9, 2 3 ; and 3:34f). It is possible, then, that w e have here an e c h o of the 'servant' inviting ' d e a f Jacob-Israel to hear and respond (cf. Isa 42:20). It is noteworthy that in both Q u m r a n and Tg. Isaiah the focus o f the I N E instruction w a s T o r a h .

In M a r k , h o w e v e r , the focus is on J e s u s '

teaching w h i c h implies that, for M a r k , it n o w ' r e p l a c e s ' T o r a h on centre stage.

1 3 7

The presentation o f Jesus as 'deliverer-teacher' is, therefore, particularly apposite if M a r k is operating with an I N E hermeneutic.

This is especially

so given the previously discussed m o t i f o f the u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g

'blind'

disciples a n d the w i d e s p r e a d recognition that in the ' W a y ' section J e s u s n a r r o w s his teaching from the c r o w d s at large to focus o n his disciples (including the T w e l v e ) w h o a r g u a b l y represent the N e w / R e c o n s t i t u t e d Israel (cf. M k 3:13-19, 3 1 - 3 5 ) .

1 3 8

If so, then M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section would b e

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f J e s u s as t h e I s a i a n i c

'servant-

deliverer-teacher' w h o , as Y a h w e h ' s agent, leads blind Israel in a N E along a w a y they d o not know. e)

Conclusion

There has been considerable debate over what understood b y his use o f 666$

Mark intends

to b e

terminology, usually with e m p h a s i s b e i n g

placed on o n e or another o f several a l t e r n a t i v e s .

139

F r o m the perspective

taken here, M a r k ' s p u r p o s e is p e r h a p s best u n d e r s t o o d as multifaceted. Based on the Isaiah 40:3 imagery to which M a r k ' s opening citation appeals, 1

3

7

Cf. H o o k e r , ' M a r k ' , w h o a d d r e s s e s this t e n s i o n b e t w e e n J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g a n d T o r a h .

1

3

8

S e e b r i e f l y C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 128ff, a n d C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 9 5 , fn. 5 6 , a b o v e .

1

3

9

See M a r c u s ' analysis, 2 9 - 4 5 , of the m e a n i n g of M a r k ' s ' W a y ' sets o u t the differences in p e r s p e c t i v e b e t w e e n S n o d g r a s s , ' S t r e a m s ' ; S w a r t l e y , ' F u n c t i o n ' ; a n d K e l b e r , ' K i n g d o m ' ; o n t h e o n e s i d e , a n d t h a t o f L o h m e y e r , Markus, o n t h e o t h e r . H e a g r e e s w i t h L o h m e y e r t h a t t h e m a i n e m p h a s i s is o n Y a h w e h ' s s a v i n g a c t i o n a n d o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y o n h u m a n r e s p o n s e . W h i l e n o t d e n y i n g for M a r k t h e o n t o l o g i c a l l y p r i o r s t a t u s o f Y a h w e h ' s a c t i o n , t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n w h y this s h o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y r e l e g a t e t h e n e e d for h u m a n r e s p o n s e t o s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e . T h a t is, s i n c e Y a h w e h h a s a c t e d t h r o u g h t h e I N E ' W a y ' o f t h e c r o s s , it is n o w i n c u m b e n t o n all t o a c c e p t hi s w i s d o m a n d in s o d o i n g t h e m s e l v e s p a r t i c i p a t e in its fulfilment.

Jesus:

'Suffering

Servant'

and Son of David:

257

Introduction

his ' W a y ' s e e m s clearly to b e the ' w a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g .

In

addition, h o w e v e r , the sapiential connotations of M a r k ' s language suggest that his ' W a y ' serves to s h o w that true participation in the I N E entails acceptance o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , namely, that the Messiah, S / s o n o f G o d , m u s t go the ' w a y ' o f the cross.

F u r t h e r m o r e , given the p r o m i n e n c e o f

Isaianic w i s d o m l a n g u a g e in M a r k , it is hardly surprising that his I N E ' w a y ' of J e s u s is likewise a journey of instruction. M o r e g e n e r a l l y , the a b o v e a s s e s s m e n t s u g g e s t s that M a r k ' s ' W a y j o u r n e y ' m o t i f c o i n c i d e s with (and m i g h t thus inform) that early a n d particularised conception of the Christian life which described itself as ' T h e W a y ' (e.g. Acts 9:2; 19:23; cf. Bar. 18-20; Did. 1-5; also 5:16; R o m 6:4; and E p h 5:15). only

with

Qumran's

TTCPITTCXTCCJ

in e.g. G a l

It thus shares a similar cultural milieu not

Isaianic 'spatial-sapiential'

self-conception

in

particular (e.g. 1QS 8:13-16; 9:16-21) but also more broadly with the absolute use of ' w a y ' terminology in J u d a i s m at large (e.g. 1 Q S 3:9 - 4:26; Jub. 23:20f) through which it traces its roots to the O T .

1 4 0

HI. Jesus: 'Suffering Servant' and Son of David? a)

Introduction

In the discussion o f the p r o l o g u e w e argued that the voice from h e a v e n contained allusions to Psalm 2 and Isaiah 4 2 which indicated that for M a r k J e s u s was to b e understood in terms of the Isaianic 'servant' and D a v i d ' s messianic son.

Similarly, M a r k ' s editorial use of Isaiah 4 0 : 3 — g i v e n its

larger ideological a n d intertextual c o n n o t a t i o n s — m i g h t also b e seen to have similar implications.

In v i e w o f the p r o l o g u e ' s

introductory

function, w e w o u l d e x p e c t these identifications to b e e c h o e d t h r o u g h o u t M a r k ' s Gospel, and w e h a v e argued at numerous points that this is indeed so. In the context o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, this raises two questions: does M a r k in 10:45 also u n d e r s t a n d J e s u s in t e r m s o f the suffering o f t h e 'servant' figure o f Isaiah 5 3 , and does he, as s o m e claim, present J e s u s as repudiating Davidic messiahship (10:46-52)?

1

4

0

Cf. B e r g m a n n , H a l d a r , R i n g g r e n , K o c h , TDOT, 3 . 2 9 1 - 9 3 ; M i c h a e l i s , TDNT, 5 . 4 8 - 9 6 ; N o t s c h e r , Gotteswege, 7 6 - 9 6 , lOOf; R e p o , Weg; M c C a s l a n d , ' " W a y " ' ; F i t z m y e r , ' C h r i s t i a n ity'; S w a r t l e y , ' S t u d y ' , 1 6 3 - 9 0 .

258

The New

b) Jesus and Isaiah's

'Suffering

Exodus

Servant':

Way

the INE and Mark

Several observations have been made

10:45

t h r o u g h o u t on the

similarities

b e t w e e n J e s u s ' d e l i v e r i n g , healing, and t e a c h i n g activities a n d ascribed to Isaiah's enigmatic 'servant'.

those

It has also been suggested

that

Isaiah 5 3 , within the literary context of the b o o k ' s final form, indicates the w a y in w h i c h the N E promises w e r e finally to b e r e a l i s e d .

141

Likewise,

J e s u s ' concentration o n reorienting his disciples' conception o f messiahship a p p e a r s to parallel Israel's n e e d , in the light o f the d e b a t e o v e r Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , to reconsider her expectations of h o w her redemption is to occur.

Given, then, that m a n y scholars have seen in M a r k 10:45—the

conclusion o f the third and final passion prediction collection ( 1 0 : 3 2 - 4 5 )

142

and itself at the climax of the ' W a y ' section—an allusion to Isaiah 53:1012,

1 4 3

a foray into this well-known minefield seems unavoidable.

In the light o f the unified Isaianic presentation w h i c h this b o o k is proposing, an allusion to Isaiah 53 w o u l d not b e surprising.

But this is

hardly a forgone conclusion and several w e i g h t y a r g u m e n t s h a v e b e e n mounted

against

it.

1 4 4

O n the o t h e r h a n d , m o s t s c h o l a r s

although

recognising the existence of conceptual similarities—how else w o u l d the debate h a v e arisen?—tend to approach the question by m e a n s o f detailed linguistic s t u d i e s a n d s e e m u l t i m a t e l y to b a s e their d e c i s i o n on

the

existence or otherwise of exact and one-for-one correspondences b e t w e e n w o r d s in M a r k a n d w o r d s in I s a i a h .

1 4 5

G r a n t e d the validity o f this

m e t h o d , s o m e c a v e a t s are in order, not least b e c a u s e o f M a r k ' s operandi

1 4 1

1

4

2

1

4

3

1

4

4

1

4

5

modus

elsewhere.

A g a i n s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 , a b o v e .

A prediction (vv. 33-34), misunderstanding (vv. 35-41), and teaching (vv. 42-45); P e r r i n , 'Gattung', 6. T h e l i t e r a t u r e is i m m e n s e . H o w e v e r , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e w o r k s c i t e d infra s e e e.g. P e s c h 2 . 1 6 3 f ; T r o c m e , 1 5 7 ; T a y l o r , 4 4 5 f ; C r a n f i e l d , 3 4 2 ; T o d t , Son, 2 0 0 f f ; H a e n c h e n , 3 6 9 ; S c h w e i z e r , 2 1 9 ; L a n e , 3 8 3 f ; K e e , 1 3 5 ; G n i l k a , 1.104; E r n s t , 3 1 0 ; L i n d a r s , Son, 7 8 ; a l s o G r i m m , 231-77; Stuhlmacher, 'Vicariously'. Moulder, 'Background', a d d s Dn 12:3. Dissenters i n c l u d e B e s t , Temptation, 140-44, a n d A n d e r s o n , 2 5 7 , while H u r t a r d o , 159f, ignores the issue. N o t a b l y t h e s e m i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , a n d H o o k e r , Jesus. T h e l a t t e r is c o n c e r n e d w i t h J e s u s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , n o t M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n . H o w e v e r , s i n c e H o o k e r ' s w o r k p r e d a t e s t h e r i s e o f r e d a c t i o n a l a n a l y s e s o f M a r k h e r t r e a t m e n t is a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e final f o r m o f t h e t e x t . K e e , ' F u n c t i o n ' , 1 8 3 , c o n c l u d e s , ' T h e r e a r e n o s u r e r e f e r e n c e s t o Isa 5 3 . ' T o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s in e.g. H o o k e r , Servant; B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' ; H i g g i n s , Jesus; Moulder, 'Background'.

OT

Setting

of Jesus'

Suffering:

Mark

259

9:12

In the only other place w h e r e M a r k records Jesus offering s o m e sort o f explanation o f a significant aspect o f his activity, n a m e l y his e x o r c i s m s ( M a r k 3:23-29), the c o n c e p t u a l parallels are such that h e is g e n e r a l l y understood b y the majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s to b e alluding to Isaiah 4 9 . A n d this in spite o f the a b s e n c e o f u n a m b i g u o u s lexical parallels.

We

have

the

a l so a r g u e d

that

a similar relationship

obtains between

i m m e d i a t e l y following ' b l a s p h e m y ' saying and Isaiah 6 3 .

G i v e n these

p r e c e d e n t s , n o t o n l y w o u l d it not b e surprising if M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f another o f J e s u s ' explanations is similarly 'allusive' but it m i g h t e v e n b e expected.

In addition, given not only M a r k ' s ' m i x e d ' O T citations and

allusions e l s e w h e r e b u t also similar practices e v i d e n t in c o n t e m p o r a r y Jewish literature,

146

an assumption o f a single exclusive influence b e h i n d

the saying might well b e reductionistic. S e c o n d , m o s t o f t h e earlier linguistic a p p r o a c h e s t e n d e d to focus, naturally e n o u g h , o n M a r k 10:45 i t s e l f .

147

In practice this took place to a

greater or lesser extent in isolation from the rest of Mark. But since J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion, references to his future suffering, and M a r k 10:45, relate to the s a m e event, surely s o m e consideration o u g h t to b e given not only to the question o f their overall coherence but also to the fact that t h e f o r m e r m a t e r i a l s c o n s t i t u t e the i m m e d i a t e

interpretive

context for the latter. A l o n g similar lines, assuming an overarching unity to M a r k ' s gospel s o m e weight should also b e given to its larger conceptual framework as proposed herein, namely, the I N E . Finally, it is important to r e m e m b e r that while the use or non-use o f like m a t e r i a l in c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s m i g h t p r o v i d e b a c k g r o u n d

to

M a r k ' s account of J e s u s ' understanding, it cannot b e determinative.

It is

a l w a y s p o s s i b l e that a c r e a t i v e m i n d w i t h a different ' h o r i z o n '

may

validly—provided the wording of the text is not violated—see n e w things in the text that others because of their particular presuppositions have not. (i) OT Setting

of Jesus'

Suffering:

Mark

9:12

Granted the foregoing, it is well to ask if M a r k ' s J e s u s himself gives any indication of the background

1

4

6

1

4

7

from w h i c h his u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s

S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 5 , fn. 1 7 0 ; in t e r m s o f t h e l a t t e r , e.g. V a n d e r K a m , ' R i g h t e o u s ' , and Stanley, Authority. L a t e r w o r k s s u c h a s C a r a g o u n i s , Son; a n d K i m , '"Son"', g i v e g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e overall coherence of Jesus' statements on these matters.

260

The

suffering derives. giving

one's

martyrs),

1 4 8

In fact, h e does.

life

contemporaries

New

for

another

Exodus

Way

N o matter h o w prevalent the ideas o f might

have

been

among

( p e r h a p s u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e e.g. o f t h e

Mark's

Maccabean

it s e e m s quite clear that in 9:12b the M a r k a n J e s u s links his

understanding of his suffering specifically to the O T 6€i in M k 8 : 3 1 ) .

1 4 9

(KOCI

T\&$ yiypaurax;

B u t if the source o f his understanding is derived

cf. from

the O T , and if as m a y at least initially b e assumed its content is reflected in J e s u s ' w o r d s , w h a t passage or passages lie behind J e s u s ' language o f noXXa TTOtSrj KOI € £ 0 U 6 € V T j 9 f j ?

A l t h o u g h M . D . H o o k e r n o t e s there is n o direct O T p r o p h e c y o f a suffering S o M ,

1 5 0

she nevertheless sees in €£OU6€VTI9T} a pointer to Daniel 7

(citing € £ o u 6 € v T i i i a in Ps 21:7 LXX,

see b e l o w ) .

1 5 1

T h e r e is possibly an

implication in Daniel 7 of the S o M identifying with, if not sharing in, the suffering o f the s a i n t s .

152

T h e problem is that, conceptually, it is only an

148 g e e e.g. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 12f; H o o k e r , Servant, 1 5 8 f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 6-28; a n d G u n d r y w h o a p p e a l s t o 6 o 0 v a i TTIV IJJUXTIV in G r a e c o - R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , c i t i n g B u s c h e l , TDNT, 2 . 1 6 6 ; b u t cf. t h e c o m m e n t s o f B e s t , Temptation, 1 4 3 f . 1 4 9

S o e.g. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 8 1 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 3 f ; M o o , Passion, 8 7 ; G u n d r y ( b u t o f d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ) , 4 6 5 ; M a r c u s , 9 4 - 1 1 0 ; cf. H o o k e r , Mark, 2 2 0 ; E r n s t , 2 6 3 ; G n i l k a , 41ff; a l t h o u g h t h e e x p r e s s i o n is u s e d e l s e w h e r e t o i n t r o d u c e e x e g e t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e O T , M a r c u s , ' " W r i t t e n " ' , 44f. A s i d e f r o m o u r p a s s a g e ( p a r . 1 4 : 2 1 ) , M a r k ' s J e s u s u s e s ycypaTTTai o n l y w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e O T ( 7 : 6 ; 1 1 : 1 7 ; 1 4 : 2 7 ; cf. 1:2). A g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t y e y p a t T T a i r e f e r s t o A p o c r y p h a l w r i t i n g s , s e e Ellis, Canon, 3 - 5 0 ; B e c k w i t h , Canon, infra. A l s o , kôvSev a n d its v a r i a n t s p e l l i n g s o n l y o c c u r in 1 M a c e 3 : 1 4 a n d 2 M a c e 1:27 a n d in n e i t h e r o f t h e s e c a s e s d o t h e c o n t e x t s fit J e s u s ' s a y i n g in M a r k 9 : 1 2 . T a k e n t o g e t h e r this e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t M a r k i n t e n d s u s t o s e e in 9 : 1 2 b a n a l l u s i o n t o t h e O T . I n s p i t e o f s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s ' c o n c e r n s , t h e r e f e r e n c e t o Elijah in v. 1 3 p r o b a b l y m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n j u s t a s the O T p r o p h e t h a d b e e n r e j e c t e d b y I s r a e l ' s i d o l a t r o u s l e a d e r s h i p s o t o o h a d J o h n . T h i s m u c h is a t l e a s t i m p l i e d b y t h e w a r n i n g in M a i 3 : 2 4 b M T . T o r e a d 9 : 1 3 a s t h o u g h it s u g g e s t s a v i o l e n t fate f o r t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l E l i j a h f i g u r e n o t o n l y g o e s b e y o n d t h e t e x t , b u t fails t o take seriously the d e t e r m i n a t i v e status that M a r k ' s Jesus implicitly gives the O T allusion. M a r c u s , ' " W r i t t e n " ' , d e n i e s this p o s s i b i l i t y o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t m e n t i o n of t y p o l o g y . B u t t o a s s u m e t h a t N T a u t h o r s m u s t a l w a y s e x p l i c i t l y i n d i c a t e t y p o l o g i c a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s in t h e w a y t h a t M a r c u s s u g g e s t s fails t o a p p r e c i a t e t y p o l o g y ' s m e t a p h o r i c a l n a t u r e . O n t h e J e w i s h i d e a o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t r i b u l a t i o n , A l l i s o n , End, 5 - 2 5 . 1 5 0

Mark, 2 2 0 . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , a s s u m e s t h a t S o M is a title w i t h O T r o o t s , a n d n o t a t e r m of g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e . T h e d e b a t e c o n t i n u e s , s e e e.g. M o u l e , ' F a c t s ' ; C a s e y , ' I d i o m ' ; S l a t e r , 'One'. Ibid. S e e e.g. M o u l e , Phenomenon, 8 3 ; H o o k e r , Son, 27ff; B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 13f; a n d the l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in M o o , Passion, 1 0 1 n 3 . C a s e y , Son, 2 4 - 2 7 , 39ff, v i g o r o u s l y d e n i e s this a r g u i n g t h a t A ) t h e a u t h o r ' s e m p h a s i s in D n 7 : 1 3 , 1 4 is o n t h e u l t i m a t e v i c t o r y o f I s r a e l a s s y m b o l i s e d b y t h e S o M a n d t h u s e x c l u d e s a n y n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g f o r t h e l a t t e r ; B ) if t h e a u t h o r d o e s n o t e x p l i c i t l y a t t r i b u t e 'suffering' t o t h e S o M , t h e n it m u s t b e e x c l u d e d ; C ) t h e n o t i o n o f a s u f f e r i n g S o M is f o u n d n o w h e r e a m o n g a n c i e n t e x e g e t e s . W h i l e C a s e y ' s p o i n t a b o u t t h e e m p h a s i s is v a l i d , his s e c o n d d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y f o l l o w — n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e it 1 5 1

1 5 2

OT

implication and,

Setting

of Jesus'

Suffering:

Mark

261

9:12

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y , n o n e o f M a r k ' s suffering l a n g u a g e

(or

s y n o n y m s thereof) is found in either the L X X or later G r e e k v e r s i o n s o f D a n i e l 7, e i t h e r w i t h r e g a r d to the saints or the S o M .

1 5 3

F u r t h e r , the

n o t i o n or d e s c r i p t i o n o f a suffering S o n o f M a n figure is u n k n o w n in c o n t e m p o r a r y J e w i s h literature.

At best it s e e m s that the explicit descrip

tions of suffering are d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from e l s e w h e r e in the O T

and

then used to explicate the implied suffering of Daniel 7's Son o f M a n . T u r n i n g to other possibilities, a m o r e likely c a n d i d a t e p e r h a p s is P s a l m 21:7 ( L X X ) w h i c h is later cited on two occasions in the passion narrative in M a r k 15:24 and 34 (appealing to L X X Ps 2 1 , verses 19 and 2 respectively). T h e p e t i t i o n e r ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f as o n e s c o r n e d b y the p e o p l e is certainly a p p r o p r i a t e to Jesus; although M a r k uses a verbal form w h e r e a s the L X X u s e s € ^ o u 6 € v r m a .

Similarly, g i v e n M a r k ' s use of P s a l m 117:22

(LXX) e l s e w h e r e (12:10, cf. 8:31), s o m e h a v e also s u g g e s t e d its influence here.

1 5 4

Since it is a h y m n o f t h a n k s g i v i n g for deliverance, an appeal to

this p s a l m m i g h t not b e inappropriate. E v e n so, it is not clear w h y M a r k s h o u l d use € £ o u 6 € V € 0 )

here

when

aTTo6oKiua£o) (in 12:10; cf. 8 : 3 1 ) .

1 5 5

elsewhere

he

retains

the

LXX's

P s a l m 118 ( L X X ) , w h i c h is not usually

m e n t i o n e d in this r e g a r d , m i g h t also b e a possibility.

D e a l i n g in p l a c e s

a l l o w s n o r o o m f o r t h e s u b t l e t y o f t h e implicite. S i n c e t h e first f o u r s y m b o l s in D n 7 r e l a t e to both t h e s u c c e s s a n d t h e d o w n f a l l o f t h e i r r e f e r e n t s , it m i g h t b e t h a t t h e r e a d e r is b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d t o b r i n g t h e s a m e ' r e v e r s a l ' p a r a d i g m t o t h e fifth, i.e. t h e S o M , e v e n if t h e e m p h a s i s lies o n the S o M ' s e x a l t a t i o n . T h e t h o r o u g h - g o i n g m o t i f of v i n d i c a t i o n after s u f f e r i n g in D n 2 , 3 , 5 , a n d 6 ( b e a r i n g in m i n d t h e i r c h i a s t i c l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , L e n g l e t , ' s t r u c t u r e ' ; cf. a l s o c h . 1 2 ) , l i k e w i s e e n c o u r a g e s r e a d e r s t o s e e t h e S o M ' s ' c o m i n g o n t h e c l o u d s ' t o b e o n e , n o t o f d e s c e n t , b u t o f a s c e n t , i.e. o f e x a l t a t i o n a n d v i n d i c a t i o n . A n d if vindication, t h e n this implies suffering w h i c h c o h e r e s n a t u r a l l y w i t h the l a r g e r t h e m e s o f the b o o k a n d a l s o w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f ' t h e p e o p l e o f t h e S a i n t s ' in D n 7 w h o m t h e S o M clearly represents. Similarly, ancient exegetical tradition can hardly be taken as n o r m a t i v e s i n c e it c o u l d e q u a l l y b e t h e r e s u l t o f p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t h a v e a priori e x c l u d e d t h e p o s s i b l i t y o f s u f f e r i n g f o r s u c h a n e x a l t e d f i g u r e (cf. t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Tg. Isa 5 3 ) . A c h a n g e o f h o r i z o n m i g h t e n a b l e r e a d e r s t o s e e in D n 7 m o t i f s t h a t their former w o r l d v i e w c a u s e d t h e m to miss. Consequently, n o t only d o e s D n 7 n o t e x c l u d e the suffering o f t h e S o M / I s r a e l p r i o r t o v i n d i c a t i o n , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y m i g h t i m p l y it. 1 5 3

Again, although the S o M self-designation m i g h t b e u n d e r s t o o d as alluding to D n 7 in g e n e r a l , g i v e n t h e ' m i x i n g ' o f t e x t s in M a r k a n d t h e i n t e r t e s t a m e n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n o f c o n c e p t s f r o m different p a s s a g e s ( s e e fn. 1 4 6 a b o v e ) , it s e e m s u n w a r r a n t e d t o a s s u m e t h a t all of M a r k ' s S o M p r e d i c a t i o n s m u s t b e f o u n d in D n 7. 1 5 4

E.g. G u n d r y , 4 8 5 . G u n d r y , 4 8 5 ; cf. S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, 9 3 n 2 0 3 , w h o s e a p p e a l t o L u k e ' s u s e o f €ôu6€vt'o) in A c t s 4:11 falters w h e n h e c i t e s M a r k 8:31 a s a n a l l u s i o n — M a r k h e r e u s e s a * n o 6 o K i n a < o ) j u s t a s h e d o e s in h i s c i t a t i o n in 1 2 : 1 0 (cf. 1 P e t 2 : 7 ) . A p p e a l s t o P a u l ' s s t y l i s t i c p r e f e r e n c e a r e l i k e w i s e u n c o n v i n c i n g a n d G u n d r y fails t o r e s p o n d t o F r a n c e ' s c r i t i c i s m , Jesus, 123f, t h a t t h e contexts are too dissimilar. 1 5 5

262

The New

Exodus

Way

w i t h a r i g h t e o u s sufferer, v e r s e 2 2 r e c o r d s t h e p s a l m i s t Y a h w e h to deliver h i m from iôvdivôiv, himself as faithful and yet

petitioning

and in verse 141 h e describes l5e

k£o\)8€vu\i£vos.

Finally, w h e n S y m m a c h u s , Aquilla, and T h e o d o t i o n translate Isaiah 53:3, they display an unusual degree o f unanimity in rejecting the L X X ' s s o m e w h a t idiosyncratic choice and uniformly adopting € £ o u 6 e v a ) H € v o c ; —the s t a n d a r d r e n d e r i n g e l s e w h e r e in the L X X .

1 5 8

157

( W h e r e HT3 o c c u r s

e l s e w h e r e in Isaiah, 37:22 and 49:7 (!), the t r a n s l a t o r / s h a v e also g o n e against the n o r m in using (t>auXi£a).) W e h a v e already seen that although M a r k apparently uses the L X X , h e is clearly not b o u n d b y it, and will go his o w n w a y w h e n it s u i t s .

1 5 9

M a r k ' s term here m i g h t well reflect w h a t he

considers the m o r e appropriate 'standard' or c o m m o n translation. Bearing in m i n d that w e are speaking of o n l y o n e w o r d , it is hardly surprising that the evidence is a m b i g u o u s .

O n e , or s o m e combination, of

the three p s a l m s m i g h t b e in view. O n the other h a n d , it is possible that €£OU6€VTI0TJ

represents a more c o m m o n rendering o f nt3 in Isaiah 53.

But t h e r e is also the first part o f the phrase: n o X X d r r a e r j .

At a

conceptual level. P s a l m 21 (LXX) and Isaiah 53 h a v e extensive descriptions of the sufferings undergone b y their respective subjects. P s a l m s 117 (LXX) and 118 ( L X X ) m e n t i o n suffering in places but to a lesser degree, w h i l e Daniel 7 at least enters the lists in that it m e n t i o n s the suffering o f the saints (v. 25), and m i g h t thereby imply that of the S o M . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f linguistic parallels, in m a r k e d contrast to its frequent u s e in the N T n a a x c j is found relatively rarely and late in the L X X ( i n c l u d i n g the A p o c r y p h a ) w i t h o n l y a few o f t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s 156 M o o , Passion, 9 0 , c i t e s P s 8 8 : 3 9 ( L X X ) a s u s i n g kôvdeviiioag t o s p e a k expressly 'of the r e j e c t i o n b y I s r a e l o f i t s M e s s i a h ' ; h o w e v e r , it is a c t u a l l y Y a h w e h w h o is a c c u s e d o f covenant unfaithfulness. R u p p e r t , Gerechte, posits a n influential role for the P s a l m s ' 'righteous sufferer', but barely considers the O T origins of Mark's material, while S t e i c h e l e , Sohn, lOOff, g e t s s o m e w h a t s i d e t r a c k e d b y t h e E l i j a h r e f e r e n c e (cf. fn. 1 4 9 a b o v e ) . S e e B e s t , Temptation, xlviiiff, for a c r i t i q u e o f t h e ' r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r ' p o s i t i o n . 1

5

7

F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 3 f , cf. C r a n f i e l d , 2 9 8 . G u n d r y , 4 8 5 , a r g u e s a g a i n s t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of these versions since t h e y a r e n o t pre-Christian. But given that M a r k freely modifies the L X X w h e n it s u i t s , a s G u n d r y h i m s e l f i m p l i e s w h e n h e a r g u e s t h a t M a r k ' s €£ou6€VTi9fj 'is a n o n - S e p t u a g i n t a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o d t T T o 6 o K i u a a 0 ^ v a i ' (cf. a l s o p p . 6 1 f , 1 3 0 , a n d 1 8 6 a b o v e for e x a m p l e s of this practice) at least the later versions p r o v i d e s o m e indication of translat i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e L X X is a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y e a r l i e r t h a n t h e N T a n d a l l o w a n c e o u g h t t o b e m a d e f o r t h e s e m a n t i c shifts o f t h e k i n d d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r ; s e e e s p e c i a l l y C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 4 8 , fn. 5 7 , a b o v e . Cf. S a n t o s , Expanded, 2 3 ; H o o k e r , Servant, 9 4 . S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 61ff, a n d C h a p t e r 7, p p . 186ff, a b o v e . 1

5

8

1

5

9

OT

Setting

of Jesus'

having Hebrew counterparts

Suffering:

in t h e M T .

263

Mark 9:12

(Is this y e t a n o t h e r c a s e o f

diachronic semantic variation?) In A m o s 6:6 it renders the Niphal o f nbn, 'to b e weak, s i c k ' a n d thus 'to b e in pain, to suffer', a n d in E s t h e r 9:26 it t r a n s l a t e s w r n f c (what they ' s a w ' , i.e. experienced). Both Zechariah 11:5 and Ezekiel 16:5 h a v e it for Q a l forms of ^ftn, 'to h a v e c o m p a s s i o n ' , w h i l e Daniel

11:17 seems to have

T h e o d o t i o n ' s Kai ou

mistakenly

Trapau,€ii/T|).

used

it for ifovn

Kb) ( c f .

160

O f the a b o v e e x a m p l e s , while Esther reflects m o r e the original m e a n i n g of 'experience something', only the Septuagintal use o f

Traaxw

in A m o s 6:6

corresponds to the sense found in the M a r k a n passage. T h e fact is that the L X X uses a w i d e range o f words, and s o m e in greater n u m b e r s than rraaxco, to render t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e s e m a n t i c range o f n^n. T h e y are, in order o f frequency:

dppoxjTea), ttov€0),

and UXTJV a u T o u .

S e c o n d , and m o r e importantly, at the

climax of the w h o l e section—it is immediately followed b y the concluding granting-of-sight miracle—verse 4 5 b introduces at last the reason for the passion: ...

X u T p o v dv-rl TTOXXOJV.

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , M a r k 10:45b

functions as the final e x p l a n a t o r y c a p s t o n e to M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .

1 8 6

This, it m i g h t b e noted, is entirely congruent with the literary function o f I s a i a h 5 3 w i t h i n I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 w h i c h , as h a s a l r e a d y b e e n indicates the w a y in which Israel's I N E is to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . (iv) Mark

suggested,

187

10:45 and Isaiah 53

In the light o f the above, one might b e forgiven for e x p e c t i n g to find in M a r k 10:45 an allusion to Isaiah 53 since the latter not only links suffering with redemption of o t h e r s

1 8 8

but apparently indicates the w a y in w h i c h

the hopes o f the I N E are fully to b e realised. H o w e v e r , as observed earlier, a n u m b e r o f scholars have demonstrated that an Isaiah 53 allusion is not as straightforward

as might b e s u p p o s e d .

189

A l t h o u g h this ground has

b e e n well w o r k e d over, in the light o f the a b o v e it s e e m s w o r t h w h i l e to

1

8

4

See C h a p t e r 5 , p. 1 2 4 , above. 185 p g H o o k e r , Jesus, 7 5 , w h o c o r r e c t l y s t r e s s e s t h e n e e d f o r c o n t e x t b u t t h e n r e s t r i c t s it m e r e l y t o t h e i m m e d i a t e p e r i c o p e , v v . 42ff. It is a l s o , t h e r e f o r e , m o r e t h a n a ' t o p i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n ' , pace, F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 1 7 . a

1

8

6

1

8

8

1

8

9

c

e

e

T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a p p e a r s t o u n d e r l i e t h e u s e o f 6 € i in M k 8:31 (cf. 9 : 1 2 ; 1 4 : 2 1 , 4 9 ; a l s o B a y e r , Predictions, 2 0 1 f f ) — i n l i t e r a r y t e r m s 8:31 a n d 1 0 : 4 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n t r o d u c e a n d c o n c l u d e t h e ' p a s s i o n / s u f f e r i n g ' m o t i f in t h e ' W a y ' s e c t i o n a n d m a y t h e r e f o r e b e u n d e r s t o o d as interpreting each other. 187 A g a i n s e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d p r e v i o u s l y in C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e r e l e v a n t s e c t i o n s o f Isa 5 3 b e l o w . T y p i c a l l y B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' ; H o o k e r , Jesus, 74ff; G r i m m , 2 3 5 - 4 6 .

Mark

reassess the arguments. into two u n i t s

1 9 0

10:45 and Isaiah

271

53

Since m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s tend to b r e a k the verse

w e will tackle it accordingly.

W i t h regard to verse 4 5 a , 6 uloc;

TOU

dv9pojTrou

OUK TJXGCV

6iaKovr)6fjvai

dXXd 6 i a K o v f j a a i , it w a s formerly held that the service envisaged alluded to that o f the 'servant'.

H o w e v e r , it has since been argued that although

the root 12V is rendered in the LXX b y a great variety o f G r e e k w o r d s — particularly SoOXoc; and

SOUXCUCJ

in Isaiah 40-55, while ualg

is preferred o f

the 'servant'—6iaKovea) is not a m o n g them. In fact, 6iaKov€a> is u n k n o w n in the LXX and although used in the N T it is urged that it there concerns domestic s e r v i c e .

1 9 1

Further, Peter S t u h l m a c h e r h a s argued that rather

than e m a n a t i n g from the ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , S i a K o v c a ) d e r i v e s entirely from an earlier w o r d p l a y o n the roots rntti/tthtti

192

and this in 'unmistak 193

able c o n t r a s t ' to the 'ruling S o M ' tradition in D a n i e l 7 and 1

Enoch.

A n d in a n y c a s e , as H o o k e r h a s pointed out, in Isaiah the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' service is directed toward G o d whereas in M a r k others are in v i e w . Clearly, the syntax o f the sentence itself is prima facie

1 9 4

e v i d e n c e that the

service motif stands in contrast to expectations of a ruling S o M — a l t h o u g h it should b e noted that Daniel 7:13-14 reads X a T p e u o j (Theod.) or (Orig.).

1 9 5

6OUX€UCJ

B u t this raises the m o r e fundamental question: h o w is o n e to

explain the predication o f 'ministering' to an otherwise exalted and ruling SoM?

W h i l e there is an implication o f suffering in Daniel 7, the idea o f

self-giving service is n o t present.

C . K . B a r r e t t argued that the oirdXXa

contrast in 10:45 arises out of the 'circumstances of the ministry o f J e s u s ' w h o as the S o M n e v e r t h e l e s s c o m e s in ' h u m i l i t y to s e r v e ' .

1 9 6

B u t this

view fails to take seriously the thorough-going O T b a c k g r o u n d to M a r k ' s g o s p e l ( n o t a b l y l : 2 f ) a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' selfunderstanding

in 9:12 w h i c h together s u g g e s t that the d u a l c o n c e p t o f

suffering-service is derived from the O T . Perhaps a w a r e o f this, Barrett 1

9

0

1 9 1

1

9

2

1

9

4

1

9

5

1

9

6

S e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e in fn. 1 4 3 . H o o k e r , Servant,

7 4 ; cf. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 4 .

P r o p o s e d b y D e l i t z s c h , HebNT, a n d D a l m a n , Jesus-Jeshua, 1 1 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; cf. Emerton, 'Aramaic'. 193 ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 1 ; cf. D n 7 : 1 0 ; 1 Enoch 4 5 : 3 - 4 ; 6 1 : 8 - 9 ; 6 2 : 2 . C i t i n g T h e i s o h n , Richter, 15ff, o n t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f 1 Enoch 4 6 : l f o n D n 7 : 9 - 1 0 , 1 3 - 1 4 . H o o k e r , Servant, 74f, 1 8 5 n 6 ; f o l l o w e d , a p p a r e n t l y , b y G u n d r y , 5 9 1 . S t u h l m a c h e r ' s o t h e r r e f e r e n c e s , 1 Enoch 4 5 : 3 - 4 ; 6 1 : 8 - 9 ; a n d 6 2 : 2 ( ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 1 ) a r e , a s f a r a s I a m a w a r e , n o t e x t a n t in G r e e k . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 9 , a p p a r e n t l y r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e ' l i t e r a r y i n f l u e n c e ' (i.e. I s a 5 3 ) t h e o r y o f J a c k s o n a n d L a k e , Beginnings, 1.1, 3 8 1 - 9 2 .

272

The

New Exodus

Way

also notes that the concept o f ' s e r v i c e ' is found in m a n y other places in the O T and lists n u m e r o u s O T characters as e x a m p l e s . H o w e v e r , these figures a r e all h i s t o r i c a l (i.e. n o n - e s c h a t o l o g i c a l ) a n d t h e y are ' a l l d e s c r i b e d as God's

servants' (my e m p h a s i s ) .

1 9 7

In o t h e r w o r d s , his e x a m p l e s d o not

b e l o n g to t h e s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s future h o p e s , n o r d o t h e y e x e m p l i f y service o f t h e kind m e n t i o n e d here: a 'suffering' service directed toward 'the m a n y ' (i.e. not G o d ) and, anticipating verse 4 5 b , characterised b y dying. M o r e o v e r , M a r k h a s clearly established a c o n t e x t in w h i c h his story o f J e s u s and particularly his ' W a y ' section is to b e understood. Chapters

o f this b o o k h a v e sought

to s h o w

that

T h e preceding

this context, not

s u r p r i s i n g l y in v i e w o f the role o f i d e o l o g y in s h a p i n g c o m m u n i t y selfunderstanding, is the Isaianic h o p e o f a N e w E x o d u s . In addition, the I N E rubric affords

a considerable degree of consanguinity within

Mark.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , if w e are to take M a r k ' s context seriously, then in relation to M a r k 10:45 w e n e e d to ask if there are a n y O T figures w h o are associated with the biblical expectation of a N E deliverance and w h o could be described as w i l l i n g l y a s s u m i n g the position o f suffering ' s e r v i c e ' t o w a r d others?

( W e already k n o w the ' s e r v i c e ' includes suffering a n d e v e n death

b e c a u s e o f M a r k 9:12 and the three passion predictions.) Everything s o far points p r i m a r i l y to the Isaianic 'servant' o f chapter 5 3 (and chapter 5 0 ) . But

1 9 8

H o o k e r a n d Barrett d e n y a n Isaiah 5 3 b a c k g r o u n d b e c a u s e the termi

nology a n d the recipients o f the service differ: Isaiah 5 3 has the 6 o u \ - stem, but Mark

SiaKoveco,

a n d in Isaiah 5 3 the 'servant' serves G o d b u t in M a r k

the service is directed towards others. T h e two objections are related. First, t h e c a t e g o r i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t y p e s o f s e r v i c e is m o r e apparent than real. T h e LXX states that the 'servant' also serves the ' m a n y ' (53:11: €u 6 o u \ € u o v T a

TTOAXOIC;),

o b e d i e n c e to G o d ( 1 4 : 3 6 ) .

1 9 9

w h i l e in M a r k J e s u s ' d e a t h is a l s o in

T h e 'servant' in Isaiah is primarily described

in terms o f his relationship to Y a h w e h b e c a u s e that is the v e r y m a t t e r at issue w i t h J a c o b - I s r a e l . T h e nation o u g h t to b e Y a h w e h ' s servant b u t has failed miserably and h e n c e the need for a faithful 'servant' o f Y a h w e h . But this, as Isaiah 53:11 (LXX)

1 9 7

indicates, is scarcely intended to i m p l y that the

Ibid. C f . W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 5 . O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f i n t e g r a t i n g v a r i o u s t h e m e s f r o m t h e different ' S o n g s ' , a n d o n a s p e c t s o f t h e v a r i o u s ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s b e i n g s e e n b y s o m e J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s a s e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d m e s s i a n i c , s e e fn. 8 6 . Cf. F r a n c e , 'Servant', 34n40. 1 9 8

1 9 9

Mark

'servant'

offers

no

10:45 and Isaiah

service to others.

273

53

After

all, this

'servant'

is

c o m m i s s i o n e d not o n l y to restore Jacob-Israel but also to b e a light to the nations (e.g. Isa 4 2 : l b - 4 , 6bf; 49:6, 8 b , 9a; 5 3 : 1 2 ) .

2 0 0

T h e two types of service

are s i m p l y different facets o f the o n e reality: to b e Y a h w e h ' s ' s e r v a n t ' m e a n s 'to serve the m a n y ' . This leads to the matter o f terminology.

In the N T

SiaKoveco

is not in

fact restricted solely to strictly domestic service (cf. Matt 25:42ff) and e v e n here in M a r k 10 the context concerns political domination (vv. 37, 42) with Jesus having m o r e in m i n d than merely serving at table (v. 4 5 b ) . to the point, as Barrett rightly notes,

6iaKov€0)

2 0 1

More

and its c o g n a t e s a p p e a r

either not at all or only rarely (and late?) in the L X X (e.g. 1 M a c e 11:58; 4 Mace 9 : 1 7 ) .

2 0 2

B u t then h o w d o e s o n e e x p l a i n the t e r m ' s

relatively

' s u d d e n ' and widespread use in the N T ? It appears that either the

6ouX-

or

6iaKov-

stem, or both, had b y N T times u n d e r g o n e a semantic shift w i t h

6IO:KOV-

taking o v e r s o m e o f the former's functions.

the possibility that b y N T times

SiaKovcw

This e v i d e n c e raises

w a s a viable, and in s o m e cases

perhaps even a preferable, rendering of the L X X ' s 6 o u X € u ' a ) .

2 0 3

R e t u r n i n g to M a r k 10:45, the Semitic parallelism b e t w e e n M a r k 10:43 and 4 4 m e r e l y tells us w h a t w e h a v e already suspected: 6ouXoc;

6IO:KOVOC;

are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d a n d m i g h t in s o m e c a s e s b e r e g a r d e d

synonyms.

2 0 4

But w h y then

6iaKov€cj

strophe o f v e r s e 4 3 .

as

in verse 4 5 ? Higgins suggested that

it w a s influenced b y v e r s e 43 s u c h that 2 0 5

and

SiaKovfiaai

e c h o e s the p r i m a r y

If so, then the choice could h a v e b e e n determined

b y s o m e sort o f ' s a n d w i c h ' motif

(6iaKovoc;

- SoOXoc; -

6iaKovea))

and, what-

200 W a t t s , 'Consolation', 5 0 - 5 6 , a n d the literature cited therein. In r e g a r d to the t e x t s c i t e d , it n e e d s t o b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t first c e n t u r y r e a d e r s w o u l d n o t b e e n g a g e d in a c r i t i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t e x t , a s is t h e c a s e in, e.g.. N o r t h , Suffering. S e e B e y e r , TDNT, 2.82ff, 8 8 - 8 9 . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 4 ; cf. H o o k e r , Servant, 7 4 . H i s c a s e w o u l d b e s t r o n g e r if t h e 6 i a K o v s t e m h a d b e e n w i d e l y u s e d in t h e L X X b u t n o t in t h e s o - c a l l e d S e r v a n t S o n g s . M a r k ' s c h o i c e could then with m o r e w a r r a n t b e read as a m o v e a w a y from the Isaianic 'servant'. T h a t S y m m a c h u s t a k e s n e i t h e r o p t i o n b u t u s e s AotTpcuo) in I s a 5 3 : 1 1 o n l y u n d e r l i n e s the fact t h a t s e m a n t i c fields w e r e i n d e e d shifting (cf. J e r 8:2 in A c t s 7 : 4 2 ) . T h e r e a s o n / s f o r t h i s is / a r e difficult t o d i s c e r n . I n a d d i t i o n t o d i a c h r o n i c f a c t o r s , t h e r e m i g h t a l s o h a v e b e e n s y n c h r o n i c c o n c e r n s , s u c h a s c u l t u r a l issues. E . g . t h e L X X w a s p r i m a r i l y for J e w s for w h o m t h e i d e a o f s u b j u g a t i o n in 6 0 0 X 0 ? m i g h t h a v e b e e n a c c e p t a b l e (in r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g s ) , w h e r e a s for G e n t i l e s e i t h e r s u c h c o n n o t a t i o n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n l e s s a c c e p t a b l e o r , p e r h a p s m o r e likely, 6 i a K o v o s o f f e r e d a m o r e n u a n c e d s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e , cf. B e y e r , TDNT, 2 . 8 1 , f o l l o w e d b y W e i s e r , EDNT, 1.302:2. 2 0 1

2 0 2

2 0 3

,

2 0 4

2 0 5

>

F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 4 . O n s y n o n y m s s e e , S i l v a , Biblical, Son, 4 2 .

120-29.

274

The New

Exodus

Way

ever the literary purpose, M a r k ' s 6 i a K o v € c j would b e of less significance in d i s a l l o w i n g an Isaiah 53 allusion. certain.

W h i l e p o s s i b l e , this p r o p o s a l is not

A n o t h e r r e a s o n m i g h t arise from the b a l a n c e d a c t i v e - p a s s i v e

syntax o f t h e sentence which in the case o f the passive e l e m e n t naturally excludes the use of

6OUX€UOJ

since it does not form the p a s s i v e .

206

If so, the

argument from different terminology again falls to the ground. H o w e v e r , there is one further consideration.

Although

6I<XKOV€G)

and

SouXfcucj (and their substantives) are near s y n o n y m s (or at least contigu ous),

2 0 7

there appears to b e a tendency in the N T to use o n e or the other to

e m p h a s i s e different aspects o f the s a m e individual's service. For example, Paul largely uses the

stem w h e n h e is e m p h a s i s i n g his ' s e r v i c e ' in

6iaKov

Christ oriented towards others, but uses 6ouX- w h e n discussing his 'service' oriented t o w a r d C h r i s t .

2 0 8

Granted this is a trend and not a fixed rule, it

nevertheless suggests that different terms can b e used o f the s a m e service depending on what facet o f that service is in view. M a r k 10:45's

6iaKov€0)

might reflect this tendency and thus constitute a m o r e n u a n c e d allusion to the 'servant' w h i c h e m p h a s i s e s that aspect o f his general ' s e r v i c e ' toward G o d that results specifically in service toward others as per Isaiah 53:11. In turning to the second section, verse 45b, X u T p o v dvT\

TTOXXCJV,

KOC!

6o0vai

TT\V

v

ty\*x*\

«UTOU

the q u e s t i o n o f linguistic parallels m u s t again b e

p r e c e d e d b y that o f the origin o f the central idea.

O n c e m o r e M a r k 9:12

forces us b a c k , n o t to the M a c c a b e a n m a r t y r s or to G r a e c o - R o m a n or rabbinical b a c k g r o u n d s but to the O T . W h e r e in the O T is there any such general c o n c e p t o f a ' s e r v i n g ' figure, in an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l context, w h o gives his life for 'the m a n y ' ?

It is immediately obvious that the notion o f

suffering, e v e n to the point o f death, b e c a u s e o f (or for) o t h e r s ' sins and specifically as a m e a n s to their restoration, is not a c o m m o n o n e in the O T . 2

0

6

2

0

7

2

0

8

H i g g i n s , Sow, 4 2 n l ; B A G D , 2 0 5 .

S e e o n t h i s t e r m i n o l o g y , a g a i n , S i l v a , Biblical, 1 2 0 - 2 9 . R e s p e c t i v e l y e.g. R o m 13:4; 15:8; 2 C o r 3:6; 5 : 1 8 (cf. 1 T i m 4 : 6 ) , a n d R o m 1 4 : 1 8 ; 1 6 : 1 8 ; a n d 1 T h e s s 1:9 (cf. P a u l ' s s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n s in R o m 1:1; P h i l 1:1; e t c . ) . S e e f u r t h e r G a l 4 : 8 ; M t 6:24 (par.); A c t s 20:19. T h e only possible e x c e p t i o n s m i g h t b e 2 C o r 11:23 a n d 2 C o r 4:5 ( b u t e v e n h e r e this is 'for J e s u s ' s a k e ' ; cf. 1 C o r 9 : 1 9 ) b u t t h e l a t t e r is c l e a r l y r h e t o r i c a l (cf. G a l 1:10), w h i l e t h e f o r m e r s e e m s b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s c o m p a r i n g h a r d s h i p s e n d u r e d in o r d e r t o m i n i s t e r t o t h e C o r i n t h i a n s ; cf. B A G D , ad loc. O f S t u h l m a c h e r ' s r e f e r e n c e s in J o s e p h u s , Ant. 1 8 . 2 8 0 r e p r e s e n t s a p a g a n ' s v i e w o f J e w i s h s e r v i c e t o t h e L a w ; in 1 0 . 7 2 ' s e r v i c e ' is n o t e d a s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e p e o p l e ; in 5 . 3 4 4 S a m u e l ' s ' s e r v i c e o f G o d ' is a m b i g u o u s ; a n d 8 . 3 5 4 d e s c r i b e s t h e s e r v i c e o f E l i s h a t o Elijah. H o w e v e r , it m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t e.g. J o h n 1 2 : 2 6 c o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e t r e n d is n o t u n i f o r m , a n d t h e r e a r e t i m e s w h e n b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e of t h e g e n i t i v e ( e . g . o b j e c t i v e o r s u b j e c t i v e ) it is difficult t o tell.

Mark

10:45 and Isaiah

275

53

In fact, Isaiah 5 3 , g r a n t e d that certain e l e m e n t s o f its interpretation are problematic, is the foremost c o n t e n d e r .

209

T h e I N E context o f M a r k and

the strong likelihood of an Isaiah 5 3 b a c k g r o u n d to b o t h M a r k 9:12 and the passion predictions m a k e an allusion to it here even m o r e likely. A s Barrett recognises, it is a b s u r d to d e n y a m e a s u r e o f between 6o0vai

TT\V

i\i\ix?\v

auTou

qualifies this b y noting that iWS3

and Isaiah 53:12.

parallelism

But he i m m e d i a t e l y

Hli?n is u n i q u e in the O T and that

2 0 9 w h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, has a r g u e d at length and with s o m e vigour that vicarious s u f f e r i n g is n o t in v i e w in I s a 5 3 , cf. O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' ; W i l l i a m s , Death, 1 0 7 - 1 1 . His c a s e — a n d m a n y of his p o i n t s a r e w e l l m a d e — i s t o o detailed t o discuss a t length h e r e . Nevertheless, s o m e points m a y be noted. A) W . places considerable weight on the supposi tion t h a t t h e e x i l e s a r e p r e s e n t l y s u f f e r i n g for their sins, a n d s o t h e ' s e r v a n t ' c a n n o t b e s a i d t o suffer in t h e i r p l a c e ( e . g . 3 0 , 5 8 , 6 1 , e t c . ) . T h i s a s s u m e s t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' s u f f e r i n g is r e l a t e d t o I s r a e l ' s p r e - e x i l i c iniquities. B u t if I s a 4 0 : 1 - 2 a n n o u n c e s Y a h w e h ' s f o r g i v e n e s s o f the past, then as I h a v e a r g u e d (Watts, 'Consolation') the fundamental problem facing Israel n o w is h e r p r e s e n t o b d u r a c y (e.g. I s a 42:18ff; 4 8 : 1 - 1 6 ) w h i c h h a s n o t o n l y c a u s e d h e r t o reject Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t o f s a l v a t i o n b u t a l s o p r o l o n g s h e r suffering (e.g. Isa 5 6 - 6 6 ) . It is o n a c c o u n t o f this p r e s e n t t r a n s g r e s s i o n t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' suffers; cf. B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT, 27. B) a s all a g r e e , in a d d i t i o n t o o u r i m p e r f e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f H e b r e w t e n s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s r e g a r d s p o e t r y , m a n y o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n s in this c h a p t e r a r e u n i q u e a n d q u i t e difficult, n o t least the all-important 53:10a. T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e w r i t e r , e v e n if u s i n g o l d e r terminology, might be seeking to give expression to n e w ideas—something that W . refuses t o c o u n t e n a n c e . E . g . o n t h e b a s i s o f 5 9 : 1 6 a n d 1 S a m 1 7 , W . r e j e c t s t h e i d e a t h a t iras* i n 5 3 : 1 2 c c o u l d m e a n t o i n t e r v e n e b y d y i n g o r b e i n g h u m i l i a t e d , s i n c e it ' w o u l d n o t c o n v e y t o t h o s e w h o h e a r d it t h e i d e a o f a m a n w h o o b t a i n e d d e l i v e r a n c e f o r h i s p e o p l e n o t b y v i c t o r y o v e r t h e e n e m y b u t b y b e i n g h i m s e l f d e f e a t e d a n d w o u n d e d o r killed', 7 3 . B u t this is p r e c i s e l y t h e p o i n t . T h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e s p e a k e r s is e x a c t l y s u c h t h a t t h e i r s a l v a t i o n h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d in a n u t t e r l y u n e x p e c t e d w a y , i.e. t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d ' d e a t h ' o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , h i s ' d e a t h ' is n o t t h e e n d , h e is ' r e s u r r e c t e d ' — j u s t a s I s r a e l w i l l b e if s h e a d h e r e s t o Y a h w e h ' s w o r d (cf. E z e k 3 7 ) . W h a t if Y a h w e h ' s m e t h o d o f a c h i e v i n g h i s v i c t o r y in 5 9 : 1 6 e n t a i l s h i s u s i n g t h e ' d e a t h ' o f h i s ' s e r v a n t ' ? A f t e r a l l , t h e i d e a s o f sacrifice a n d Y a h w e h ' s v i c t o r y w e r e a l r e a d y integral to Israel's deliverance in the E x o d u s o n w h i c h p a t t e r n I s a i a h 4 0 - 5 5 is p r e d i c a t e d , cf. E x 3 2 : 3 0 . C ) t h i s l e a d s t o W . ' s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e a d m i t t e d l y difficult u s e o f DfflHt in I s a 5 3 : 1 0 a c o u l d b e v i c a r i o u s b e c a u s e t h e J e w s f o u n d t h e i d e a o f ' h u m a n s a c r i f i c e ' u n t h i n k a b l e , a n d t h a t t h e e f f i c a c y o f a n DE?K w a s in a n y c a s e q u i t e l i m i t e d a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s i n s t h a t l e d t o t h e e x i l e ( 6 5 ) . B u t is I s a 5 3 s p e a k i n g a b o u t h u m a n sacrifice a n y m o r e t h a n , s a y , 2 M a c e 7:37f; 4 M a c e 6:27ff, 1 7 : 2 2 ; 1 8 : 4 ( i n d e e d , o n e m i g h t w e l l a s k w h e r e t h e i d e a s e x p r e s s e d in M a c c a b e e s o r i g i n a t e d ; cf. e.g. F i s h b a n e , Biblical, 4 9 3 , on the probable influence of Isa 5 3 o n Dn); m. Sanh. 6:2; Lev. Rab. 2 0 : 7 ; o r Sipre Dt. 3 3 3 ? O r is it s i m p l y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' i n n o c e n t s u f f e r i n g w a s a c c e p t e d b y Y a h w e h a s (i.e. in t h e p l a c e of) a n 'DfflH'? W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s o f a n D2m, a g a i n it is n o t e v i d e n t t h a t ' h i g h h a n d e d ' p r e - e x i l i c s i n s a r e in v i e w a n d in a n y c a s e a h u m a n D2?K g o e s far b e y o n d a n y t h i n g p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n . O n e p o i n t is a g r e e d : t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is suffering n o t for h i s o w n sins, b u t b e c a u s e o f t h o s e o f o t h e r s . B u t is t h i s in a n y w a y r e l a t e d t o J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s s a l v a t i o n ? W . , 1 2 6 , o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e ' s p e a k e r s in I s a . 5 3 : 4 - 6 t h u s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a v e b e e n r e s t o r e d t o a full s t a t e o f w e l l - b e i n g in c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s u n d e r g o n e b y t h e S e r v a n t ' . T h e ' s e r v a n t ' s ' s u f f e r i n g s a n d d e l i v e r a n c e a r e i n s t r u m e n t a l in t h e s p e a k e r s ' s a l v a t i o n a n d restoration. A g a i n s u c h a v i e w is c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h a t m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r w h e r e I s a 5 3 d e s c r i b e s t h e w a y in w h i c h J a c o b - I s r a e l is t o e x p e r i e n c e h e r ' r e s u r r e c t i o n ' .

276

The New

Exodus

Way

1

rn/2 ? 'is generally excised b y editors on metrical g r o u n d s ' .

2 1 0

However,

Barrett's c a v e a t s are hardly telling. W h a t e v e r the preferences o f m o d e r n editors, there is n o textual e v i d e n c e for an alternative r e a d i n g and it is clear that the G r e e k versions and Tg. Isaiah reflect the M T . It is, therefore, exceedingly doubtful if M a r k or his audience w o u l d have b e e n meditating o n an excised text. A s for uniqueness, this in itself is of n o c o n s e q u e n c e — w h a t else d o e s one call singularly new ideas, and h o w does understanding g r o w w i t h o u t n e w ideas?—except p e r h a p s to m a k e the idea e v e n m o r e striking a n d therefore allusions to it m o r e readily r e c o g n i s e d . 6o0vai

TTJV

ÛXTJV

auTou

Further,

constitutes a close parallel to a n o t h e r

Isaianic expression itt?S3 ... •'•ton ( 5 3 : 1 0 ) .

211

unique

M o r e importantly, this phrase

does not o c c u r alone. It is not merely the giving o f a life, b u t rather giving o n e ' s life as a XuTpov

dvTi

TTOXXGSV

that Jesus has in view.

Barrett h a s argued that not only is XuTpov never found in the L X X as a sacrificial term, b e i n g instead concerned with c o m p e n s a t i o n , but there is n o evidence that XuTpov and DgJM were ever c o n n e c t e d .

212

Barrett proposes

that the idea o f the H e b r e w root 1 D D lies behind J e s u s ' u s e of X u T p o v .

2 1 3

H e cites rabbinic e x a m p l e s (b. Qidd. 3 1 b ; m. Sank. 2 . 1 ; Est. Rab. 13a; m. Neg. 2.1) and suggests that behind these conventional expressions o f piety lies the e x a m p l e o f the martyrs (2 Mace. 7:37f; 4 Mace 6:27ff; 17:22; 1 8 : 4 ) ,

214

and

earlier still the offer o f M o s e s (Ex 32:30) w h ic h in later rabbinic tradition concerning M o s e s ' subsequent death (Dt 34:5-8) is seen as an atonement for the sin o f the golden calf or that at Peor (cf. b. Sota 1 4 a ) . o f devotion w h i c h informs M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 .

2 1 5

It is this concept

2 1 6

But, again, the difficulty with the M a c c a b e a n martyrs is that they lie outside M a r k ' s O T .

2

1

0

2

1

1

2

1

2

2

1

3

T h e case o f M o s e s is m o r e interesting.

H e r e is an

' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 5 . F o r H o o k e r , 2 4 8 , ' t h e s e w o r d s m e a n little m o r e t h a n . . . "he g a v e u p t h e g h o s t ' " . T r u e , b u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this o b s e r v a t i o n is u n c l e a r , s i n c e w h a t m a t t e r s is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n c l u s t e r s o f s e m a n t e m e s , n o t t h e m e a n i n g o f single e l e m e n t s . F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 4 , c i t i n g t h e V u l g a t e ' s e v e n c l o s e r r e n d e r i n g ; M o o , Passion, 122ff. B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , d o e s n o t d i s c u s s this possibility. ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 5f. Cf. M k 1 0 : 4 5 in D e l i t z s c h , HebNT. ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 12f; cf. L o h s e , Martyrer, 38-112. ' R a n s o m ' , 22f; s e e J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4 . 8 5 4 ; cf. P i p e r , ' U n c h a n g i n g ' , 1 9 . B a r r e t t , ' R a n s o m ' ; cf. L o h s e , Martyrer, 113-203, according to w h o m the application of Isa 5 3 to Christ's d e a t h w a s m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h Jewish m a r t y r o l o g y ; see Hengel, Atonement, 60ff, b u t a l s o h i s c a u t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e r i g h t e o u s s u f f e r e r a n d m a r t y r - p r o p h e t motifs. 2

1

4

2

1

5

2

1

6

Mark

10:45 and Isaiah

277

53

E x o d u s setting w h e r e salvation is jeopardised b y the people's rebellion and M o s e s , to rectify the situation, offers to m a k e ' a t o n e m e n t ' for t h e m .

2 1 7

G i v e n Barrett's rejection o f Isaiah 5 3 , largely b e c a u s e o f the absence o f sufficiently c l o s e linguistic parallels, his s u g g e s t i o n is s u r p r i s i n g

since

aside from the v e r b — M a r k has the noun—there are n o linguistic points o f contact w i t h E x o d u s 3 2 .

E v e n this c o n n e c t i o n is p r o b l e m a t i c , h o w e v e r ,

since a l t h o u g h the s u b s t a n t i v e "133 is rendered in the L X X b y X u T p o v , it appears that the verb 1 3 3 w a s not translated b y X u T p d o ) .

2 1 8

Further, it is

not clear that M o s e s offers his life to facilitate idolatrous Israel's continued Exodus journey.

T h e r e is an e l e m e n t o f b a r g a i n i n g — i f y o u will n o t

forgive then b l o t m e out o f y o u r b o o k — b u t this could easily b e identifi cation instead o f substitution. thrust o f M a r k 9:12 and 10:45.

E x o d u s 32:30ff hardly explains the explicit O n the other hand, the story m i g h t h a v e

inspired a trajectory o f reflection for another p r o p h e t w h o w a s likewise struggling with the p r o b l e m o f an idolatrous Jacob-Israel on the threshold of a later E x o d u s .

2 1 9

The strong Isaianic colouring of the

passion

predictions and M a r k 9:12 point us again to this very situation. U n l i k e Barrett, H o o k e r is a w a r e o f the significant p l a c e o f XuTpoo) Isaiah.

A l t h o u g h it generally renders

in

(a similar relationship o b t a i n s

b e t w e e n XuTpov / XuTpa>aic; and n*?K2) it is primarily related to the original E x o d u s (Ex 6:6; 15:16; D e u t 7:8; 9:26; Isa 43:1; M i c 6:4), to the long-awaited return from E x i l e (Isa 5 2 : 3 ; 62:12; M i c 4 : 1 0 ; J e r 15:21; 3 8 ( 3 1 ) : 1 1 ) , and is especially used for the N E activity o f Y a h w e h in Isaiah (35:9; 41:14; 4 3 : 1 , 1 4 ; 44:22-24; 5 2 : 3 ; 62:12; 6 3 : 9 ; cf. r n s in 5 1 : 1 1 ) .

2 2 0

But, although granting the

existence o f ' c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e to justify the linking o f XuTpov with ... the e x p e c t e d r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel b y Y a h w e h ' , this c a n n o t b e e x t e n d e d to

2

1

7

S e e f u r t h e r , C h i l d s , Exodus, 5 7 1 ; D u r h a m , Exodus, 4 3 2 f . 1 c o u l d d i s c o v e r n o i n s t a n c e in H a t c h a n d R e d p a t h , 2 . 8 9 0 . O n M o s e s a n d t h e ' s e r v a n t ' , cf. B e n t z e n , Messias, 64ff, c i t e d in D a v i e s , Sermon, 117i; von W a l d o w , ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 8 4 ; W o o d s , 'Jesus', 22f, 4 8 , citing L a m p e , 'Holy'; a n d n o w e s p e c i a l l y t h e d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' , 129ff. T h e r e is a l s o t h e s t r o n g O T t r a d i t i o n a s c r i b i n g t h e title ' s e r v a n t o f G o d ' t o M o s e s ( e . g . E x 1 4 : 3 1 ; N u 12:7f; i n J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 5 . 6 6 3 , cf. 6 8 1 ) . C o n c e r n i n g t h e l a t e r r a b b i n i c m a t e r i a l s c i t e d a b o v e o n D t 3 4 : 5 - 8 , it is difficult t o tell w h e t h e r this t h e o l o g i s i n g o n M o s e s ' d e a t h is a r e s p o n s e e i t h e r t o C h r i s t i a n i t y o r t h e d e m i s e o f t h e T e m p l e (i.e. a n a l o g o u s t o t h e r i s e o f A q e d a h t h e o l o g y , Davies a n d Chilton, ' A q e d a h ' ) o r a r e a n i n d e p e n d e n t reflection o n E x 3 2 . W h a t e v e r the c a s e , t h e biblical m a t e r i a l s n o w h e r e s u g g e s t t h a t M o s e s ' d e a t h is s o u n d e r s t o o d . 2 1 8

2

1

9

2 2 0

Son, 1 4 4 ; a l s o R i n g g r e n , TDOT,

2.354f.

278

The New

the ' s e r v a n t ' o f w h o m

and m s

Exodus

Way

are not u s e d .

2 2 1

H o o k e r , therefore,

denies any connection in either thought or language b e t w e e n Isaiah 53 and M a r k 10:45, except p e r h a p s for very

probably

an

TTOXU'C;.

Aramaism

B u t e v e n this is dubious since it is

reflecting

universalism than Isaiah 53 in p a r t i c u l a r .

222

more

a

general

Isaianic

Likewise for Barrett, not only

is the c o n c e p t c o m m o n in the O T b u t Isaiah 53:1 I f is at m o s t ' o n l y o n e e x a m p l e , t h o u g h an o u t s t a n d i n g e x a m p l e ' o f the p e r v a s i v e O T t h e m e o f the O n e for the M a n y .

2 2 3

H o o k e r is c o r r e c t in n o t i n g that

and m s

are n o t u s e d o f the

'servant', b u t is this really a p r o b l e m ? W h i l e Y a h w e h is a l m o s t invariably the subject o f the v e r b — h e will r e d e e m his p e o p l e 'how?'.

2 2 4

— t h e q u e s t i o n is

A s w e h a v e already m e n t i o n e d o n several o c c a s i o n s , the literary

structure o f Isaiah 52-54 strongly suggests that Y a h w e h ' s I N E redemption o f Israel is i n t i m a t e l y related to t h e ' d e a t h ' o f his ' s e r v a n t ' 'for the many'.

2 2 5

In Isaiah 52:1-10 Zion is instructed to bestir and prepare herself,

a n d in 5 2 : 1 1 - 1 2 , u s i n g l a n g u a g e r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e first E x o d u s , the c a p t i v e s are e x h o r t e d to d e p a r t .

2 2 6

T h e n in chapter 54 there is the dual

picture o f Y a h w e h ' s reconciled wife and an e n l a r g e d and dazzling Zion rejoicing o v e r the r e t u r n o f h e r c h i l d r e n .

2 2 7

T h u s the c o n t e n t o f the

p r o c l a m a t i o n s m o v e from deliverance out o f b o n d a g e to the p r o m i s e o f tranquillity in restored Zion. T h e question is, w h a t is it that facilitates the shift from o n e s c e n e to the other?

T h a t Isaiah 5 3 sits b e t w e e n the t w o

suggests that the suffering o f the 'servant' is integral to this transition. In spite o f the well-attested E x o d u s i m a g e r y p e r v a d i n g Isaiah 4 0 - 5 5 , C e r e s k o o b s e r v e s that little w o r k h a d b e e n d o n e on its influence in the 'Servant

Songs'.

2 2 8

H e then d e m o n s t r a t e s that the d e s c r i p t i o n o f the

' s e r v a n t ' s ' suffering in Isaiah 52:13 - 53:12 is not only heavily indebted to the stories o f Israel's pre-Exodus affliction before deliverance, but also to 2

2

1

Servant, 76ff; cf. P r o c k s c h , B i i s c h e l , TDNT, 4 . 3 2 8 - 5 6 ; H i l l , Greek, 5 8 - 8 0 . Pace B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 7, t h e t h e m e o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l r a n s o m o f I s r a e l is n o t s o w i d e s p r e a d a s t o p r e c l u d e a n I s a i a n i c b a c k g r o u n d ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 0 0 , fn. 5 5 , a b o v e ) . 2

2

2

2

2

3

2

2

4

2

2

5

2

2

6

2

2

7

2

2

8

H o o k e r , Servant, 7 8 f . B a r r e t t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 7; S u h l , 1 1 9 .

In o n l y t w o o u t o f s e v e n t e e n o c c u r r e n c e s of in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 is t h e s u b j e c t n o t c l e a r l y Y a h w e h . HID o c c u r s o n l y o n c e b u t h e r e t o o Y a h w e h a p p e a r s t o b e t h e subject. O n c e m o r e . C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 5 , a b o v e . W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, 2 4 8 ; M e l u g i n , Formation, 164-67; Ceresko, 'Rhetorical', 4 8 . S a w y e r , Isaiah, 1 5 0 f f ; W e s t e r m a n n , Isaiah, ad loc. Ibid. B u t s e e n o w H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' .

Mark

279

10:45 and Isaiah 5 3

,

the language o f D e u t e r o n o m y 2 8 s covenant curse.

In fact, the former is

the basis o f the latter such that Israel's unfaithfulness will cause her to b e afflicted with the p l a g u e s of E g y p t .

'Infidelity involves a reversal o f the

exodus and o f the A b r a h a m i c p r o m i s e ' .

229

A s w e h a v e seen, Jacob-Israel in Isaiah 40-55 is indeed rebellious (e.g. 45:9-13; 4 8 : l - 2 2 )

2 3 0

E x o d u s (cf. 5 2 : 4 ) .

and it is not difficult to see the exile as a reversal of the In this setting, C e r e s k o c o n c l u d e s that t h e ' S o n g ...

describes the S e r v a n t b e a r i n g in his o w n person the effect o f these [i.e. D e u t e r o n o m y ' s ] c u r s e s ' a n d ' h e thus effects the " h e a l i n g " his p e o p l e require ( 5 3 : 5 d ) ' .

2 3 1

C o n s e q u e n t l y , b e c a u s e o f the servant's bearing o f the

Israel's guilt, 'the w h o l e p e o p l e is n o w free to enjoy the great gift—the land'.

2 3 2

H o w then d o e s Y a h w e h redeem Israel, effecting the m o v e from

Isaiah 5 2 to 5 4 ? B y c a u s i n g his 'servant' to b e a r the c o v e n a n t curse 'for many'.

It is i m m e d i a t e l y following this section that w e also find the first

m e n t i o n o f plural ' s e r v a n t s ' (Isa 5 4 : 1 7 ) ;

2 3 3

apparently

anticipating

the

success of his mission (cf. Isa 49:6). Here then is a picture o f Jerusalem and her people r e s t o r e d .

234

F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e H o o k e r is correct to relate r e d e m p t i v e activity o n Israel's behalf.

XuTpov

to Y a h w e h ' s

B u t in the light o f the a b o v e this

hardly excludes Isaiah 5 3 in M a r k 10:45. O n the contrary, since Isaiah 5 3 apparently

relates h o w Y a h w e h will effect his r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel, it

makes perfect sense for M a r k ' s J e s u s to describe his death as a

XuTpov

when

speaking o f its purpose if h e believes that Y a h w e h has purposed his death as the m e a n s o f r e d e m p t i o n for 'the m a n y ' . TfoXXcjv,

2

2

9

2

3

0

2

3

1

2

3

Consequently, Mark's

OLVTI

although clearly not a citation, is not inappropriate as an allusion

B l e n k i n s o p p , ' D e u t e r o n o m y ' , 1 0 6 , c i t e d in ibid., 5 0 . See p p . 2 4 1 - 4 7 a b o v e .

Ibid., 5 0 a n d 5 3 ; cf. n o w H u g e n b e r g e r , ' S e r v a n t ' , 1 3 6 - 3 8 . C l i f f o r d , ' I s a i a h ' , 5 7 3 , c i t e d i n C e r e s k o , ' R h e t o r i c a l ' , 5 4 . Tg. Isa's m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s a 5 3 f u r t h e r s u p p o r t s this c a u s a l link; cf. C h i l t o n ' s n o t e s , A r B , l l : 1 0 3 f f . Watts, 'Consolation', 5 5 . D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' , 1 1 1 ; cf. C l i f f o r d , Persuading, 1 8 1 ; a n d M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 6 9 , for w h o m ' 5 2 , 1 3 - 5 3 , 1 2 is a n i m p o r t a n t b r i d g e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n in c h a p t e r s 5 4 a n d 5 5 ' . S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 8 5 - 8 7 , n o t e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n I s a 5 2 , 5 3 , a n d 5 4 , b u t r e a d s Y a h w e h ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t t o J e r u s a l e m in I s a 5 2 a s a fait accompli w h e r e a s t h e p r o m i s e d r e s t o r a t i o n is n o t a c t u a l l y d e s c r i b e d u n t i l I s a 5 4 , s e e M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 6 4 . Tg. Isa a l s o s e e m s t o u n d e r s t a n d I s a 5 2 - 5 4 in this w a y w h e n it p r e s e n t s t h e M e s s i a h in 52:13ff a s t h e o n e w h o r e a l i s e s Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e s o f 5 2 : 1 - 1 2 r e s u l t i n g in t h e s i t u a t i o n in 5 4 : l f f ; cf. 5 2 : 1 2 w i t h 5 2 : 1 3 ; 5 3 : 8 , 1 0 . S e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n J e r u s a l e m ' s r e s t o r a t i o n in C h a p t e r 9 . 2

2

3

3

2

3

4

280

The

New

Exodus

Way

to Isaiah 53:1 I f a n d g i v e n the c o n t e x t u a l m a r k e r s t h e r e s e e m s little justification to look e l s e w h e r e .

235

W e r n e r G r i m m , however, has recently argued along s o m e w h a t similar lines but sees Isaiah 4 3 as the primary b a c k g r o u n d . be

TTOXX&V

and in a n y case

root not found in Isaiah 5 3 .

2 3 7

'XuTpov

TTape6d9T|,

TT|V

ipuxTi'v

identisch', a

so dafi m a n w e g e n des d v r l

allein keinen Einflufi ... wird a n n e h m e n

Since 6 o 0 v a i nnn I S D ,

ist mit d e m hebr.

Isaiah 53:12 L X X 'fehlt hier das " L o s e g e l d "

u n d heifit e s nicht 6 o 0 v a i sondern TTOXXWV

Isaiah 5 3 could not

nor 0*212 is equivalent to

the p r i m a r y b a c k g r o u n d since neither wnb

dvTi

236

konnen'.

is best rendered b y

p3

and

2 3 8

XuTpov

dvji

by

G r i m m argues that the closest parallels are in Isaiah 43:3f w h e r e

Y a h w e h a n n o u n c e s to Israel, T give (Tina) Egypt as your r a n s o m

(^|"IS5),

Ethiopia and Sheba in exchange for you C^nnn), ... people in return for you C^nnn) and nations for your life (^tttoj n n n ) ' . in, for e x a m p l e , Mek. 21:30; Ex. Rab. 11:2;

2 3 9

Isaiah 43:3f is appealed to

and Sipre Dt. 333 o n 32:43, whi ch

portray the nations b e i n g cast into G e h e n n a in Israel's p l a c e .

2 4 0

The SoM

could either correspond to or derive from D"JN (43:4c), while the antithesis p e r h a p s reflects Y a h w e h ' s rebuke in 4 3 : 2 3 f f .

241

G r i m m posits, therefore,

that Isaiah 43:3f is the p r i m a r y influence o n M a r k 10:45, a l t h o u g h affirms an Isaiah 5 3 allusion in M a r k ' s T T O X X C 3 V .

2 4 2

he

T h u s , J e s u s takes the

nations' p l a c e as Y a h w e h ' s ' r a n s o m ' for Israel, while the Isaiah 5 3 allusion indicates that the nations are also included in this redemption. A l t h o u g h o n e m i g h t query his linking the S o M w i t h DTK, G r i m m ' s w o r k is certainly insightful. M a r k ' s 6 o 0 v a i glance constitutes a remarkable echo o f context of ^"JSD

TX\V i l w x f j v « U T O 0 X u T p o v

at first

S 3 nnn (v. 4 d ) , particularly in the

*nn3 (v. 3c) and "?pnnn ... ]HK (v. 4 c ) and given the language

of E x o d u s 21:23 and 30:12 ( M T and L X X ) .

2 4 3

G r i m m also cites b.

Berakoth

2 3 5

Cf. S t u h l m a c h e r , ' V i c a r i o u s l y ' , 2 4 , f u r t h e r a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s is p r e s e n t e d a s t h e S o n of M a n w h o i n s t e a d o f b e i n g s e r v e d b y t h e n a t i o n s ( D n 7 ) g i v e s h i s life in t h e i r p l a c e f o r t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f Israel. 2 3

° 231-77; cited approvingly by Stuhlmacher, 'Vicariously', 2 3 , although he grants a greater influence to Isa 5 3 t h a n G r i m m . 235. 2 3 7

2 3 8

236. R e a d i n g D1K in», cf. l Q I s a ; l Q I s a pace W e s t e r m a n n , 1 1 4 . °245f. " 253, 3 0 2 . 236f. A g a i n , see also S t u h l m a c h e r , 'Vicariously', 2 4 . R e s p e c t i v e l y , ti§3 nnn # 9 5 nnna a n d 1033 tin* 13113; a n d S w a c i ijiuxT)v dvTi 6CJ<J€I XuTpa rr\g i\i\)X*\S a i u o O .

2 3 9

a

b

2 4

2 4 1

2 4 2

2 4 3

and

t|njxfjs-

Mark

10:45 and Isaiah

281

53

62b and Tg. Isaiah 43:2 w h i c h further suggest that ^WB3 nnn implies death for the s u b s t i t u t e .

244

His position, however, requires important caveats.

First, while it is true that

is an acceptable rendering o f the root

XuTpov

1BD, it is not the only alternative. In Isaiah, the root 1BD occurs six times, two o f these in chapters 40-55: Y ! ? ? in 43:3 (the only n o m i n a l form) and r n s 3 in 47:11. H o w e v e r , on not one of these six occasions does either the L X X or the later G r e e k versions use

XuTpov

or

XuTpdoj.

Instead,

XuTpdo)

m o s t c o m m o n l y translates ^Ka (seven o c c a s i o n s in Isa 4 0 - 5 5 ) w h i l e the only occurrence o f

XuTpov

in these chapters is for

the Isaianic context, the connection b e t w e e n

TTtfc

XuTpov

(45:13). In terms o f

and 1 B 3 is s o m e w h a t

tenuous, let alone as strong as G r i m m suggests. S e c o n d , in Isaiah 4 3 it is Y a h w e h w h o ' g i v e s ' , w h e r e a s in M a r k 10:45 the S o M gives himself.

It

m i g h t b e this shift o f subject rather than an allusion to Isaiah 4 3 that explains the c h a n g e from TTap€6d6ri to 6 o 0 v a i . Third, G r i m m argues that in the context o f a 'Heilstod eines messianischen M e n s c h e n ' , is sufficient to indicate an Isaiah 53 allusion.

TTOXXCJV

threefold repetition o f D'Q"! in Isaiah 5 3 : l l f serves to locate M a r k ' s g i v e n the ' H e i l s t o d '

context,

2 4 5

TT|V IJJUXTJV

auTou?

2

4

6

TTOXXCJV

then s u r e l y the s a m e a p p l i e s to t h e

threefold o c c u r r e n c e o f 1WB3 in verses 10-12—the s a m e three as and M a r k ' s

alone

B u t as K i m notes, if t h e

TTOXXCJV—

Fourth, the idea o f g i v i n g o n e ' s life,

SoOvai T T | V i|iuxTiv, is still clearer in Isaiah 5 3 which stresses the 'death' for 'the m a n y ' o f the one w h o 'serves' (53:11 and

BavaToc;

in vv. 8, 9 , 1 2 ; L X X ) .

T h e n there is the issue o f the preceding M a r k a n context. T h e passion predictions and 9:12 are heavily dependent on Isaiah 5 3 (and 5 0 ) . It would b e m o r e than passing strange if M a r k 10:45, which w e have argued belongs to the c l i m a x o f the ' W a y ' section, should s u d d e n l y initiate a c o m p l e t e shift a w a y from what h a s otherwise provided an important horizon.

interpretative

A t the s a m e time, given the c o n g r u e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p a s s i o n

predictions and M a r k 10:45, the concept of an 'individual' w h o 'suffers' is m u c h m o r e developed in Isaiah 53—in Isaiah 43 the nations (pi.) are given and there is n o explicit m e n t i o n o f the n a t i o n s ' suffering o r

2

4

4

2

4

5

2

4

7

dying.

2 4 7

Ibid., 2 4 8 . G r i m m , 2 3 6 f ; cf. J e r e m i a s , TDNT, 4 . 5 4 0 - 4 6 ; N o r t h , Suffering, 1 2 7 ; L i n d a r s , Son, 8 1 ; D a l m a n , Studies, 1 7 1 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 6 . 2 4 6 "'Son'", 5 3 f . A s w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d earlier, K i m a l s o n o t e s t h a t in Isa 4 3 Y a h w e h is t h e o n e w h o g i v e s , w h e r e a s in M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 t h e S o M g i v e s himself. Ber. 5:5 n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , K i m , '"Son"', 5 4 ; pace, G r i m m , 2 5 3 .

282

The New

Finally, although compensation

much

(AuTpov)

Exodus

Way

has been made

of the distinction

between

and penitential offering (DWK), it is noteworthy that

the literalistic Aquilla uses

AuTpoxjic;

to translate

in Leviticus 5:18 and

2 5 (cf. 7:1). W h i l e this ought not b e overplayed, it is indicative of at least o n e later translational tradition that did not r e c o g n i s e a major difference b e t w e e n the two w o r d s .

G i v e n w h a t w e h a v e already s e e n in t e r m s o f

d i a c h r o n i c s e m a n t i c shifts, t h i s data s h o u l d at least e n c o u r a g e s o m e tempering o f otherwise absolute c l a i m s .

2 4 8

So then, w h i l e G r i m m correctly notes the relevance o f Isaiah 43:3f, the factors a b o v e s t r o n g l y c o u n t e r his a r g u m e n t s for an a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e reference in 10:45.

I f there is a link b e t w e e n Isaiah 5 3 a n d 4 3 it is m o r e

probable that M a r k ' s J e s u s sees the former as a fuller d e v e l o p m e n t o f the ideas suggested in the latter (cf. 'service', 'death', 'for m a n y ' ) b u t this time p e r h a p s w i t h a m o r e positive o u t l o o k for the nations w h o m J e s u s m i g h t h a v e i n c l u d e d in the a m b i g u o u s ' m a n y ' .

2 4 9

(Both the literary structure

a n d extent o f the material suggests that Isaiah 5 3 is m o r e significant than Isaiah 43.) T h e n e x u s b e t w e e n the t w o texts is thus captured b y

AuTpov

s u c h that J e s u s , w h o as S o M m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d to j u d g e the nations, instead has c o m e to serve not only Israel b u t also t h e m . H e does so b y taking their p l a c e through his obedient suffering and death at the h a n d s of b o t h and so effects Y a h w e h ' s N E redemption of b o t h .

2 5 0

That the

nations s h o u l d b e p r o m i n e n t h e r e is understandable, not o n l y given the immediate context in w h i c h the rulers o f these nations are b e i n g discussed (Mark 10:42f) but also perhaps in the light o f Isaiah 56:7 in M a r k 11:17. Finally, this integration o f S o M and 'servant' motifs h a s b e e n criticised for b e i n g t o o ' e l a b o r a t e ' a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y

2

4

8

2

4

9

2

5

0

j o i n i n g ' t h e title o f an

S e e a l s o K e l l e r m a n , TDOT, 1.433f, o n L e v 5 . T h i s m i g h t offer s l i g h t s u p p o r t t o t h o s e s c h o l a r s s u c h a s J e r e m i a s , Servant, 1 0 0 ; H i g g i n s , Son, 4 5 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 3 5 ; B D B , 7 9 f ; d e V a u x , 2 . 4 1 8 - 2 1 ; M o o , Passion, 1 2 5 ; for w h o m M a r k ' s Aurpov a v r i s h o u l d n o t b e c o n s t r u e d a s fundamentally distinct f r o m Isaiah 53:10b. G r i m m , ibid., 2 5 4 ; K i m , "'Sow'", 5 6 - 5 8 ; S c h e d e , ' F r a g e n ' ; b u t o n t h e l a t t e r s e e , W e r n e r , ' F r a g e ' . O n t h e n a t i o n s in I s a i a h , v a n W i n k l e , ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' . I s a 5 3 m i g h t reflect a m o r e n u a n c e d v i e w o f t h e n a t i o n s in t h e light o f I s a 4 9 : 6 a n d p e r h a p s 4 5 : 2 2 ; cf. I s a 52:14f. K i m , '"Son"', 5 5 - 5 7 , s u g g e s t s t h a t G r i m m ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n in p o i n t i n g o u t I s a i a h 4 3 : 3 f w a s t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s v e r y link, w h i c h , f o r K i m , is b a s e d o n t h e ' m a t e r i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' o f 1QD a n d D2?K ( K i m ' s p r o p o s a l m a y offer s o m e c o n f i r m a t i o n for t h e v i e w e x p r e s s e d h e r e w h i c h w a s f o r m e d b e f o r e b e i n g a w a r e o f h i s p o s i t i o n ) ; cf. S t u h l m a c h e r , 'Righteousness', 40-43; Beale, 'Reconciliation', 5 5 6 .

Mark

10:45 and Isaiah

283

53

apocalyptic figure ... to the sufferings o f a prophetic o n e ' .

2 5 1

Although

such a distinction b e t w e e n 'apocalyptic' and 'prophetic' appears something of an a n a c h r o n i s m , it does, h o w e v e r , raise the question o f the fusing o f ideas and for completeness should b e addressed. Apart from the questions canvassed above concerning the sufficiency o f Daniel 7 alone as background to M a r k 10:45, it m a y b e asked if this merging is s o

improbable,

e s p e c i a l l y in

view

of evidence

suggesting

the

c o n t e m p o r a r y integration o f the S o M m o t i f with several aspects o f t h e Isaianic 'servant'.

H Q M e l c h 2:18 describes the bearer o f good tidings (Isa

52:7) as 'the Anointed O n e ' ( cf. Isa 61:1; 4 2 : 1 ) w h i c h p o i n t the text b r e a k s off.

2 5 2

' o f w h o m Daniel said ...', at

Although J . Milik and Geza Vermes

p r o p o s e a reference to D a n i e l 9 : 2 5 ,

2 5 3

William Horbury suggests

Daniel 2:34f or 7:13 w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e .

254

that

Considering the importance

of the Similitudes o f 1 Enoch in the d i s c u s s i o n ,

255

the pervasive influence

of 'servant' imagery o n its description o f the S o M is s i g n i f i c a n t .

256

Thus,

'the term "the Elect O n e " points ... unequivocally to the elect Servant o f Second Isaiah' (e.g. 48:4-6 cf. Isa 42:6; 49:2-7; 60:10; 6 1 : l f ; and 1 En 62:1; cf. 49:lff).

2 5 7

T h e constant humiliation o f the kings and the mighty (46:4; 62:3;

62:1-9; cf. 4 6 : 6 ; 48:6) is also reminiscent o f Isaiah 49:7 and 5 2 : 1 4 f .

2 5 8

Not

only will h e slay the wicked with the sword o f his m o u t h (62:2; cf. Isa 49:2; 51:16), but h e will b e the light o f the Gentiles (48:4 cf. Isa 42:6; 49:6; also M k 13:10).

2 5 9

A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, b u t less direct, is the later d i s c u s s i o n

c o n c e r n i n g the t i m e o f M e s s i a h ' s return in b. Sanhedrin

2

5

2

^

2

5

9 8 a w h e r e for

1

H o o k e r , Servant, 9 6 , in r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , e.g. 8 : 3 1 ; 9 : 1 2 , 3 1 1 0 : 3 3 . B u t t h e a r g u m e n t a p p l i e s h e r e . A l t h o u g h H o o k e r ' s c o n c e r n is w i t h w h e t h e r J e s u s w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e c o n n e c t i o n , o n e m a y a s k w h y n o t J e s u s if M a r k d o e s s o ( s e e b e l o w ) ? It is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t in t h e final f o r m o f t h e g o s p e l s S o M h a s b o t h D a n i e l 7 a n d m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s , e.g. P e r r i n , ' C r e a t i v e ' ; W a l k e r , ' Q u e s t i o n ' ; M u l l e r , Ausdruck. On the possibility of p r e - C h r i s t i a n m e s s i a n i c c o n n o t a t i o n s for the S o M motif, see H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' . O n t h e u s e o f t h e S o M i d e a in M a r k , s e e e.g. H o o k e r , Son; T o d t , Son, 2 7 9 f ; P e r r i n , ' C r e a t i v e ' ; S e i t z , ' F u t u r e ' ; C o p p e n s , ' L o g i a ' ; L i n d a r s , Son, 6 0 - 8 4 , 1 0 1 - 1 4 ; a n d f o r s u r v e y s of the larger debate. Walker, 'Recent'; D o n a h u e , 'Recent'. 2

3

2

5

4

2

5

5

2

5

6

Enoch, 2

5

7

2

5

8

2

5

9

Fitzmyer, 'Further', 4 0 . 'Mm', 97ff, 1 0 8 a n d DSSE, 3 0 1 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 'Messianic', 42. O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f d a t e . C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 , a b o v e . J e r e m i a s , Servant, 5 8 f f ; C o p p e n s , Fz7s, 1 3 4 f ; T h e i s o h n , Richter, 1 8 1 - 2 5 2 . H o o k e r , Son, 3 3 - 4 8 , o m i t s a n y m e n t i o n o f t h e s e p a r a l l e l s . B l a c k , Enoch, 1 8 9 . Cf. W a t t s , ' M e a n i n g ' . O n this f u s i n g , s e e a g a i n C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 5 , fn. 1 7 0 , a b o v e .

114-25; Black,

284

The New

Exodus

Way

e x a m p l e Isaiah 59:20; 59:16; 48:11 and 60:22 are cited alongside Daniel 7:13 as pertinent to the issue. Later still, Isaiah 52:13; 4 2 : 1 , together with Daniel 7:13f, are applied to a messianic figure in Midr. Psalms 2:9. M o r e o v e r , as noted earlier, H o o k e r readily affirms that the background to J e s u s ' ministry is ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c '

260

— i t is the identification o f J e s u s

w i t h the ' s e r v a n t ' that she rejects—and therefore, given the S o M selfdesignation, conception

t h e r e is a l r e a d y a fusion o f an I s a i a n i c (i.e. p r o p h e t i c ) of Jesus' ministry

apocalyptic) in particular.

in g e n e r a l

and

t h e S o M figure

(i.e.

If M a r k presents J e s u s using a combination o f

various i m a g e s and actions appropriate to the Y a h w e h - C r e a t o r - W a r r i o r , the Isaianic 'servant-deliverer', and the S o M (not to mention the influence of several other O T f i g u r e s ) ,

261

is it so elaborate that the suffering element,

instead o f deriving from Daniel 7, should also c o m e from o n e or t w o o f Isaiah's 'servant' texts where it is far m o r e p r o m i n e n t ? (v)

Concluding

262

Considerations

It w o u l d appear, then, that those w h o reject an Isaiah 5 3 influence on M a r k 10:45 tend to d o so on the b a s i s o f assessing isolated w o r d s or phrases.

2 6 3

W h e n taken in isolation, it is true, n o n e of the elements point

unquestionably to Isaiah 5 3 . But M a r k has not given us individual w o r d s w i t h o u t a context.

W e h a v e consistently argued for a constant, u n d e r -

girding I N E motif for Mark.

A n d , without wishing to overstate the case,

M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section with its three-fold passion predictions s h o w s clear signs o f intentional structure.

W h e n the w h o l e is taken as M a r k put it

together, it is difficult to see h o w o n e could d e n y that there are m o r e

2

6

0

2

6

1

2

6

3

Servant,

6 6 , 6 7 f , 7 3 , cf. 9 5 ; Mark,

2 4 9 ; cf. G r i m m , passim;

S c h u r m a n n , Reich, 2 4 0 .

S e e e s p e c i a l l y , F r a n c e , Jesus, 4 3 - 5 0 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 . 262 ' W e n n m a n a b e r i m Z e n t r u m d e r V e r k u n d i g u n g J e s u s A b h a n g i g k e i t v o n D t j e s n a c h w e i s e n k a n n , w a r u m d a n n n i c h t a u c h in d e n G o t t e s k n e c h t s l i e d e r n ? ' , S c h u r m a n n , Reich, 2 4 0 , w i t h c a u t i o n s , 2 4 1 - 3 ; cf. L i n d a r s , Son, 8 2 . H o r b u r y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 2 - 4 7 , a r g u e s t h a t m e s s i a n i c e x e g e s i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d v a r i o u s t e x t s in c r e a t i v e w a y s ; o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f J e s u s h i m s e l f b e i n g t h e o r i g i n a t o r , cf. D o d d , According, 1 0 9 f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 59. A s d o e s H o o k e r ' s a r g u m e n t , cf. J e r e m i a s , 'Jesus', 1 4 2 f ; F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 36f. C a s e y ' s d i s m i s s a l . Son, 2 0 6 , o f a n I s a 5 3 a l l u s i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f its d i s s i m i l a r i t y t o ' c o n t e m p o r a r y Jewish exegesis' s e e m to p r e s u m e that neither Jesus n o r the early Christians w e r e capable of i n d e p e n d e n t t h o u g h t ; a r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g a s s u m p t i o n for a m o v e m e n t c o n f e s s i n g a c r u c i f i e d M e s s i a h , cf. G r i m m , 6 5 . O n a possible e s c h a t o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I s a 5 3 i n v o l v i n g a s a v i o u r - f i g u r e w h o ' a c h i e v e s a t o n e m e n t for all t h e s o n s o f h i s r a c e ' , w h o ' t e a c h e s t h e w i l l o f G o d ' , w h o s e w o r d ' w o r k s t o t h e e n d s o f t h e e a r t h ' , a n d w h o a l s o a p p a r e n t l y b o t h suffers a t t h e h a n d s o f h i s e n e m i e s a n d is i n v o l v e d in ' s o r r o w s ' (...*? "pDfcOQl a n d ... r D ' S l o n "HH; cf. I s a 5 3 : 4 ) , s e e S t a r c k y , ' e t a p e s ' , 4 9 2 ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 58.

Concluding

285

Considerations

explicit parallels, c o n c e p t u a l l y and verbally, with the ' s e r v a n t ' figure o f Isaiah 53 than with a n y similar grouping o f characteristics ascribed to any other O T figure in a given p a s s a g e .

264

This is surely the case with the S o M

in Daniel 7 w h o s e o n l y explicit connection with M a r k 10:45 appears to b e in the title; the ideas o f bringing Israel's deliverance through his suffering for

the m a n y h a v i n g to b e m o r e or less i m p l i e d or i m p o r t e d as b o t h

Barrett's and Hooker's constructions illustrate.

265

A n d as w e have seen,

e v e n those w h o are least w a r m to the ' s e r v a n t ' idea nevertheless a d m i t that J e s u s ' predictions o f his passion 'correspond broadly' to Isaiah 5 3 .

2 6 6

O n the other hand, the argument for the primary influence o f Isaiah 5 3 o n J e s u s ' p r e d i c t i o n s o f his suffering and death o u g h t not b e taken as e x c l u d i n g a role for D a n i e l 7 or other p a s s a g e s .

As already

suggested

several times earlier in this b o o k , there is a strong c a s e for J e s u s b e i n g presented as 'true Israel'. This being so. H o o k e r ' s suggestion that the term SoM serves to identify J e s u s as 'the one true Israelite w h o is able to accept the mission and destiny o f his p e o p l e ' is to b e a f f i r m e d .

267

M y concern is

that this identification should not exclude other O T patterns. In the e n d , M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' interpretation o f his

suffering

appears to reflect an integration o f Isaiah 40-55's prophecies of h o w Israel's salvation w a s to b e effected. Y a h w e h ' s redemptive I N E (cf. X u T p o ) 9 T f a € a 9 € in Isa 52:3 LXX) s e e m s to b e accomplished b y the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' suffering and death w h i c h is accepted not o n l y as a reparation and 'guilt offering' for 'diseased' Israel (Dtitt; Isa 5 3 ) ,

2 6 8

but also as a substitute for the nations w h o

w e r e to b e Israel's ' L o s e g e l d ' (Isa 4 3 ) .

2 6 9

Interestingly, such an innovative

2 6 4

Cf. e.g. K u m m e l , Promise, 7 3 , w h o rejects a n y i d e a o f ' s e r v a n t ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s in J e s u s . ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 9 - 1 5 ; a n d Son, 2 7 - 3 0 , 1 4 0 - 4 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; b u t s e e t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f F r a n c e , ' S e r v a n t ' , 47ff; H i g g i n s , Son, 4 1 - 5 0 ; C a s e y , Son, 2 0 5 f . H o o k e r , Servant, 9 5 , cf. 7 4 f . Son, 1 9 3 . 2 6 5

2 6 6

2 6 7

2 6 8

Is t h e r e a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r i e s t l y r e q u i r e m e n t f o r l e p e r s in L e v 1 4 : 2 5 a n d I s r a e l ' s ' l e p r o u s ' w o u n d s in I s a l:5f, w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e i n g b o r n e b y t h e ' s e r v a n t ' in 5 3 : 4 - 6 ? J e r e m i a s Servant, 6 2 f , d i s c u s s e s A q u i l l a ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f INE b y a<j>T)ii€vov ( s o J e r o m e ) , cf. V u l g a t e : quasi leprosum a n d b. Sank. 9 8 b w h e r e t h e w o u n d s a r e t h o s e o f a l e p e r . T h e w h o l e i s s u e o f sacrifice is v e r y c o m p l e x , s e e M i l g r o m , Cult, a n d Leviticus-, a n d K i u c h i , Offering. 2 6 9

Cf. L i n d a r s , Son, 7 8 , w h o r e g a r d s X u T p o v a s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i v e ' in t h a t ' t h e r a n s o m i d e a is a l e g i t i m a t e w a y o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e p r o p h e c y a s a w h o l e ' . T i t 2 : 1 4 r e l a t e s C h r i s t ' s d e a t h t o b o t h r e d e m p t i o n a n d c l e a n s i n g (CSGJKCV COCUTOV i ' v a X u T p c o a T j T a i . . . KOI Ka9apiaxi) i n the c o n t e x t o f h i s h a v i n g a X a o v T i e p i o u a i o v ; t h e l a t t e r p h r a s e b e i n g u s e d in E x 1 9 : 5 L X X o f G o d ' s i n t e n t i o n f o r h i s p e o p l e in t h e first E x o d u s , cf. D t 1 4 : 2 ; 7 : 6 ; E x 2 3 : 2 2 . F u r t h e r , t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w o u l d b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h m y p r o p o s a l in ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' in t h a t a l t h o u g h

286

The New

Exodus

Way

a n d c r e a t i v e h e r m e n e u t i c is n o t dissimilar to that in M a r k 3:27 w h e r e M a r k ' s J e s u s interprets his e x o r c i s m s in t e r m s o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s activities o n Israel's b e h a l f (Isa 49:24ff).

It is w o r t h noting the substantial

similarities b e t w e e n these two passages. B o t h s t a t e m e n t s p l a y a major role in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' selfu n d e r s t a n d i n g and b o t h occur at the climactic m o m e n t s in their respective sections.

2 7 0

In b o t h cases this self-understanding is crucial to interpreting

central features o f those sections: J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s and his passion.

Both

s t a t e m e n t s a p p e a r o n J e s u s ' lips, a n d b o t h e x h i b i t the s a m e a l l u s i v e character.

2 7 1

A n d as noted, both provide e v i d e n c e o f a similar, innovative

hermeneutic. H o o k e r ' s observation on M a r k 3:27 is, therefore, apposite: A l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o v e r b a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e G r e e k t e x t a n d t h e L X X v e r s i o n o f I s a i a h 4 9 . 2 4 f . , t h e s i m i l a r i t y in m e a n i n g is s o g r e a t t h a t t h e r e is little d o u b t t h a t J e s u s h a d t h i s p a s s a g e in m i n d w h e n h e s p o k e t h e s e w o r d s ; n o r is t h e r e a n y c o m p a r a b l e p i c t u r e e l s e w h e r e in t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t

2 7 2

I s u b m i t that the application of t h e s e criteria to M a r k 10:45 s h o u l d result in a s i m i l a r verdict c o n c e r n i n g the influence o f I s a i a h 5 3 .

The

p e r v a s i v e i m p r e s s o f that text on M a r k 9:12 a n d the passion predictions o n l y serves to reinforce the suggestion. R e t u r n i n g to M a r k 10:45 in its i m m e d i a t e context, w h i l e the disciples are arguing about status and power, J e s u s explains that this is not w h a t his present capacity as S o M entails. This is not to deny a 'cloud-riding' role to the S o M b u t for M a r k ' s J e s u s this is future (13:26; 14:62). ' c o m i n g ' (note the

rjXScv)

is, instead,

SiaKovfiaai.

His present

S o while Stuhlmacher is

right in insisting that the i m m e d i a t e contrast is with the S o M ' s expected role,

2 7 3

I w o u l d u r g e that the underlying and ultimately crucial presup-

positional shift that facilitates the contrast finds its impetus in the linking of the c o n c e r n s o f Daniel 7 and Isaiah 5 3 and 4 3 with Israel's deliverance. D a n i e l 7, w i t h its S o M s y m b o l i s m , o n l y deals w i t h the fact o f suffering Israel's vindication a n d exaltation—that is, her return from Exile.

It does

Y a h w e h offers t o g i v e t h e n a t i o n s o n Israel's b e h a l f , h e r r e b e l l i o u s r e s p o n s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t n o t m e r e l y r e d e m p t i o n b u t e x p i a t i o n o f g u i l t is r e q u i r e d ; t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a c c o m p l i s h e s b o t h . 2

7

0

2

7

1

S e e C h a p t e r 5 , a n d in a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r g u m e n t s a b o v e , H e n g e l , Atonement, 4 2 . F r a n c e , 'Servant', 2 9 , following Taylor, 'Origin', 1 6 3 , r e g a r d s t h e allusive c h a r a c t e r o f M a r k 1 0 : 4 5 a s e v i d e n c e o f its a u t h e n t i c i t y ; cf. L i n d a r s , Apologetic, 77-79. Servant, 7 3 . B a r r e t t ' s c o m m e n t , ' B a c k g r o u n d ' , 8 , t h a t if t h e s a y i n g d e r i v e s f r o m I s a 5 3 t h e n t o s a y h e c o m e s t o s e r v e w o u l d b e ' a little p r e c i o u s ' is p e c u l i a r . A f t e r all t h e ' s e r v i c e ' i n M a r k is n o t b e i n g p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' b u t o f t h e S o M . 2

7

2

2

7

3

Jesus

and the Son of

not explain h o w this will c o m e about.

287

David

Isaiah 40-55, which also deals with

the return from Exile, provides the explanatory ' h o w ' in Isaiah 53 and 4 3 . Suffering Israel's salvation and vindication, as 'one like a son o f man', is to b e brought about b y the redemptive suffering service of the true 'servant' Israel of Isaiah. But this is not just for Israel; the nations will also benefit. For M a r k , true Israel, and therefore the o n e truly like a S o M , is n o n e other than J e s u s . A t the s a m e time, J e s u s ' unconventional messianic selfunderstanding—that h e is to die as a ransom for many—is consistent with the m i s u n d e r s t o o d

c a r e e r o f the ' s e r v a n t ' o f Isaiah 5 3 w h o s e rejection,

suffering, a n d d e a t h 'for' the sin o f ' m a n y ' b e c o m e s Y a h w e h ' s e q u a l l y unexpected m e a n s o f effecting Israel's N E . c) Jesus and the Son of

2 7 4

David

G i v e n the t h e m e o f m e s s i a h s h i p t h r o u g h o u t the ' W a y ' , s o m e c o m m e n t should b e m a d e on M a r k ' s attitude to J e s u s as ' S o n o f D a v i d ' .

In M a r k

10:46-52 it has b e e n observed that although Jesus does not overtly reject Bartimaeus' confession h e does not explicitly affirm it. This has led s o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s to see in J e s u s ' lack of affirmation his tacit rejection o f Davidic

messiahship.

2 7 5

H o w e v e r , s i n c e this a r g u m e n t

is o n l y b y

implication all are agreed that it is necessary to go e l s e w h e r e for firmer evidence, and proponents o f this view go to M k 12:35-37 which, according to Paul A c h t e m e i e r , clearly s h o w s that the Christ, that is J e s u s , is not o f Davidic d e s c e n t .

276

Several points can b e m a d e in response. reading o f M a r k 12 is self-evident.

First, it is not clear that this

A s an interrogative o f manner, TTO6€V

does not necessarily imply a negative a n s w e r , 2

7

4

2

7

5

2 7 7

while

TTCJC;

m a y seek an

T h e d e a t h o f C h r i s t in t h e N T is r e l a t e d t o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e w a y of entering into God's presence, themselves key c o m p o n e n t s of the N E , E p h 2:13-19; H e b 4 : 1 6 ; 1 P e t 3 : 1 8 ; cf. B e a l e , ' R e c o n c i l i a t i o n ' , e s p e c . 5 7 8 f f ; H e n g e l , Atonement, 52; S t u h l m a c h e r , ' " P e a c e " ' , 187ff. K e l b e r , 9 6 ; A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' ; s u r v e y s in S c h n e i d e r , ' D a v i d s s o h n f r a g e ' ; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 5 2 - 5 9 ; a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n in M a t e r a , Kingship, 84-89. 7

6

* A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 3 0 ; cf. B u l t m a n n , History, 136f; L o h m e y e r , 2 6 2 ; v a n Iersel, 'Fils', 1 2 1 f ; K e l b e r , 9 6 . C h i l t o n , 'Reflections', 1 0 1 , h a s J e s u s p r e s u p p o s e s o n o f D a v i d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t ' d e n i e s t h i s is a m e s s i a n i c c l a i m ' ; cf. S u h l , 9 3 f ; F i t z m y e r , ' T r a d i t i o n ' ; L o v e s t a m , 'Fils'. A c h t e m e i e r s e e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 1 a s a d i s c i p l e s h i p s t o r y a n d n o t a n i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e e n t r y . B u t w h y c a n n o t b o t h i n t e r e s t s b e in v i e w ? S e e a l s o M a t e r a , ibid., 6 8 , a n d 8 7 f , w h e r e t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t i n d i c a t e s t h e i s s u e is c o r r e c t e d n o t r e j e c t e d m e s s i a h s h i p . T h e r e m i g h t b e a s e n s e o f i n c r e d u l i t y in M k 8 : 4 , b u t in M k 6:2; M t 1 3 : 2 7 , 5 4 ; 2 1 : 2 5 ; L k 1:43 it is u s e d o f a n u n s e t t l i n g o r s u r p r i s i n g fact t h a t r e q u i r e s e x p l a n a t i o n . C f . L N , 2 . 7 8 9 : 89.86; BAGD, 732. 2

7

7

288

The New

explanation.

2 7 8

Exodus

Way

J e s u s could simply b e discomforting the scribes b y posing

t h e m an a p p a r e n t contradiction—hence, p r e s u m a b l y , the c r o w d ' s g l e e . G i v e n the w i d e s p r e a d

e x p e c t a t i o n o f a D a v i d i c M e s s i a h , if J e s u s

2 7 9

was

d e n y i n g that the Christ w a s D a v i d ' s S o n the c r o w d ' s response w o u l d b e difficult to e x p l a i n .

O n the contrary, then, there is no d e n i a l that the

C h r i s t is t h e S o n o f D a v i d , o n l y that h e c a n n o t m e r e l y b e ' s o n ' ;

2 8 0

an

assertion that is particularly appropriate considering the p e r i c o p e ' s place m e n t at t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f J e s u s ' J e r u s a l e m c o n t r o v e r s i e s a n d

as

an

introduction to his denunciation o f the scribes. S e c o n d , the C a e s a r e a Philippi c o n f e s s i o n , l i n k e d as it is with

the

preceding healing, is rightly understood as parallel to this pericope, and there J e s u s accepts P e t e r ' s messianic c o n f e s s i o n .

281

A s s u m i n g that M a r k

12:35 suggests that for Peter and Bartimaeus mbg A a u i 6 and synonymous,

2 8 2

XpiaToc;

were

the ' W a y ' b e g i n s w i t h a s e c o n d - b e s t r e c o g n i t i o n o f

messiahship and similarly ends with a confession of ' S o n o f D a v i d '

2 8 3

and

the c r o w d ' s messianic acclaim ( l l : l f f ) , b u t in the meantime establishes that the M e s s i a h m u s t die.

Therefore, a l t h o u g h M a r k ' s J e s u s d o e s not use

t h e s e titles o f h i m s e l f , and a l t h o u g h

they m i g h t not b e M a r k ' s

most

important Christological designations, h e n o m o r e has J e s u s rejecting ' S o n of D a v i d ' than he does 'Messiah'.

2

7

8

2

7

9

2

8

0

Cf. M t 1 2 : 2 9 w h e r e t h e e x c e p t i o n c l a u s e s t a t e s t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e o t h e r w i s e u n e x p e c t e d c a n t a k e p l a c e ; a l s o e.g. M t 2 1 : 2 0 ; 2 2 : 1 2 , 4 3 ; J n 4 : 9 ; 9 : 1 0 ; e t c . , B A G D , 7 3 2 . In M k 1 2 t h e q u e s t i o n is left u n a n s w e r e d b u t this is a l o n g w a y f r o m a d e n i a l . It is t h e c o n t e x t , n o t t h e p a r t i c l e , t h a t is d e t e r m i n a t i v e . F i t z m y e r , T r a d i t i o n ' , 123f; L a n e , 4 3 6 n 6 2 ; a n d K i n g s b u r y , 1 0 9 , correctly n o t e the h a g g a d i c c h a r a c t e r o f J e s u s ' q u e s t i o n . A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 4 1 n 3 9 c i t e s Barn. 1 2 : 1 0 11 a s a s i m i l a r ' d e n i a l ' , b u t this d e a l s w i t h t h e c h a r g e t h a t if J e s u s is t h e C h r i s t t h e n h e c a n n o t b e S o n o f G o d s i n c e t h e C h r i s t is t h e S o n o f D a v i d . T h e r e s p o n s e is t h a t e v e n D a v i d calls his s o n , ' L o r d ' , h e n c e J e s u s is b o t h S o n o f D a v i d a n d S o n o f G o d . E . g . L a n e , 4 3 7 ; B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 64ff; R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 4 2 ; H u r t a r d o , 1 9 2 ; cf. P e s c h , 2 . 2 5 1 ; G n i l k a , 2 . 1 7 1 f ; D a u b e , ' E a r l i e s t ' , 1 8 2 . K e l b e r , 9 5 n 2 4 , c i t e s a n i m p r e s s i v e a r r a y o f s c h o l a r s w h o s e e J e s u s rejecting D a v i d i c s o n s h i p in f a v o u r o f s o n s h i p o f G o d . 8 1

^ R o b b i n s , ' B a r t i m a e u s ' , 2 2 7 ; cf. H o o k e r , Message, 6 3 ; B e s t , Following, 140. A c h t e m e i e r , ' D i s c i p l e s h i p ' , 1 3 1 , a l t h o u g h c i t i n g R o b b i n s , i g n o r e s this i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f the context. 2

8

2

2

8

3

Cf. a l s o Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 3 ; a n d t h e r a b b i s in b. Sanh. 9 8 a ( A D 1 1 0 ) ; y. Ta 'anith 4 . 8 , 6 8 d ( A D 1 3 0 ) ; b. Sanh. 9 7 a ( A D 1 5 0 ) ; a l s o B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 1 6 - 2 4 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 8.484-86; F i t z m y e r , ' T r a d i t i o n ' , 115ff. Cf. H o o k e r , Mark, 2 5 3 . C h i l t o n , 'Reflections', 1 0 1 , s e e s J e s u s ' h e a l i n g a f f i r m i n g 'Son o f D a v i d ' in t h e S o l o m o n i c s e n s e (cf. C h a p t e r 6 , p . 1 6 8 , fn. 1 6 2 ) ; b u t s e e M a r c u s , 151f.

Jesus

and the Son of

289

David

Third, appeals to missed opportunities to stress J e s u s ' Davidic heritage (2:23-27; 6:1-3) a m o u n t to second-guessing M a r k ,

2 8 4

and arguments that a

positive interpretation requires d r a w i n g on other N T e v i d e n c e (e.g. M t 22:42-45; R o m l:3f) cuts both w a y s .

2 8 5

It could equally b e that M a r k is not

m o r e explicit b e c a u s e h e never expected any o f his readers to doubt for a m o m e n t that J e s u s is the Davidic Messiah.

But then, h a v i n g disallowed

the importing of other N T evidence, Achtemeier's assessment of the 'unusual a m b i g u i t y ' o f 11:9-10 itself d e p e n d s primarily on a c o m p a r i s o n with

Matthew.

2 8 6

B u t M a t t h e w is frequently m o r e explicit than M a r k

(witness his fulfilment f o r m u l a e ) , and h e n c e w h e n A c h t e m e i e r asserts that M a r k ' w o u l d surely have followed the procedure of M a t t h e w ' — o n e is tempted to ask w h o is writing M a r k ' s gospel, Mark or Matthew? O n the other h a n d , the point o f the c r o w d ' s unusual expression, 'the kingdom o f our father D a v i d ' seems precisely to s h o w that they, like Peter earlier, are thinking in terms o f traditional military-political categories. Achtemeier

also

misconstrues

pappouvi

2 8 7

w h i c h is i n s t e a d to b e

understood within the context o f the ' w i s d o m ' imagery and J e s u s ' teaching which has dominated the ' W a y ' section: Jesus, messianic 'servant' and S o n of D a v i d , o n the w a y to his death as a r a n s o m for m a n y , is the w i s e Teacher w h o gives 'sight'.

Further, if our understanding o f the messianic

confession b e i n g a prerequisite to true N E 'sight' is correct, then the t w o healing miracles not only set the scene for J e s u s ' S o n of David debate and his rejection in Jerusalem, but also poignantly reveal the inadequacy of the 'blind' c r o w d ' s confession w h o see Jesus solely in terms of the 'r| cpxojicvri paaiXeia

TOU

TTotTpos" T\\L&V

A a u i 6 ' (11:10) and do not follow 'in the w a y ' .

2 8 8

Finally, there is the matter o f M a r k ' s opening O T citation and o f the imagery associated w i t h the rending of the h e a v e n s and the voice, with the Beelzebul controversy, and with the sea-walkings. T h e implication in these cases tending t o w a r d identifying J e s u s as the S o n o f G o d . suggest, is w h a t M a r k 12:35-37 is driving at.

2

8

4

2

8

5

2

8

6

2

8

7

2

8

8

A c h t e m e i e r , 'Discipleship', 130. A c h t e m e i e r , ibid.; cf. K e l b e r , 9 6 . Ibid., 1 3 0 . Ibid., 1 3 1 ; S u h l , 9 3 . Robbins, 'Bartimaeus', 227, 240.

This, I

J e s u s is not simpliciter

the

290

The New

Exodus

Way

messianic S o n o f David w h o m the scribes, and n o doubt m a n y others, are expecting. H e is also David's L o r d .

2 8 9

IV. Conclusion A l t h o u g h the v o i c e from h e a v e n reveals J e s u s ' identity and the unclean spirits r e c o g n i s e h i m , for his p e o p l e Israel things are less clear. J e s u s is variously r e g a r d e d as an extraordinarily authoritative teacher, a w o n d e r worker, a prophet, a family m e m b e r w h o is b e s i d e himself, or an exorcist w h o is in l e a g u e w i t h B e e l z e b u l . T h e question insistently p u s h e s itself forward: w h o is this?

This, too, is the matter w h i c h the disciples m u s t

resolve. Peter's confession that Jesus is the Christ might well b e imperfect, b u t it p r o v i d e s , for M a r k , the b a s i s u p o n w h i c h J e s u s ' d e a t h c a n b e portrayed as the effective means of the I N E . T h i s is n o t to d e n y that M a r k ' s ' W a y ' s e c t i o n has a p a r a d i g m a t i c function

in

instructing

the

church

on

the

N e v e r t h e l e s s , the I N E motif s e e m s p r e d o m i n a n t .

life

of

discipleship.

O n this interpretation,

M a r k has placed the great majority of his miracles within the first section to d e m o n s t r a t e that the I N E is being inaugurated in Jesus.

H o w e v e r , he

also appears to b e interested in s h o w i n g that participation in the miracles of

the m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' - D e l i v e r e r cum

Yahweh-Warrior does

not

necessarily imply participation in the I N E . W h a t matters is u n d e r s t a n d ing, and h e r e even the disciples are blind, failing to discern the significance of w h a t transpires (8:14-21). point.

P e t e r ' s confession surely m a r k s a turning-

B u t it is only a 'men-as-trees-walking' confession. T h e o n e thing

that sets the disciples apart is not that they immediately u n d e r s t a n d , but instead w h e n called they follow, even though hardly comprehending. A c c o r d i n g l y , j u s t as I s a i a h ' s ' s e r v a n t ' t e a c h e r w o u l d

through

his

ministry effect Israel's N E , so too in Mark. Jesus the teacher opens the eyes of the ' b l i n d ' by instructing them in the ' W a y ' o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , even though they like Israel of old are slow to see. In Isaiah the c l i m a x lies in the unexpected suffering o f the 'servant'. In M a r k , everything hinges on a S o M - M e s s i a h w h o is, against all expectation, to b e rejected and crucified.

2

8

9

Cf. B u r g e r , Davidssohn, 64ff; K i n g s b u r y , 1 1 2 . S e e n o w a l s o G u n d r y ' s r e s p o n s e , 721ff, a n d the m o r e n u a n c e d a p p r o a c h o f M a r c u s , 1 4 2 - 4 5 a n d 1 5 1 - 5 2 .

Excursus:

Misplaced

Miracles?

2 9 1

In this I s a i a n i c N E , as J o e l M a r c u s c o r r e c t l y o b s e r v e s , J e s u s g o e s to Jerusalem not to launch a w a r o f conquest b y killing his e n e m i e s but b y being k i l l e d .

290

Not b y taking others' lives, but b y giving his. This is not a

denial o f the p r o p h e s i e d c o m i n g o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , o n l y a radical inversion o f it. It might well b e that this, ultimately, is the content o f the 'secret' w h i c h is s p o k e n o f in the Parables Chapter; and is p e r h a p s the M a r k a n equivalent o f Paul's jiuaTtfpiov

TOO 9 € O 0

(1

Cor

2:1;

cf.

1

Cor

1:18-

25).

In Isaiah the N E ' w a y ' leads to a n e w enthronement of Y a h w e h as K i n g in gloriously restored J e r u s a l e m w h i c h then b e c o m e s the centre o f t h e nations' pilgrimage for teaching and worship in his presence.

W e might

h a v e expected s o m e t h i n g similar except that M a r k has already

sounded

several notes of caution: Malachi's warning

opening

sentence, J o h n as Elijah redivivus

is c i t e d in t h e

is rejected, i m p r i s o n e d , a n d e x e c u t e d ,

and J e s u s h i m s e l f h a s m e t with hostility and censure. A s w e shall see in Chapter 9 , matters turn out rather differently from Israel's expectation.

Excursus:

Misplaced

Miracles?

It h a s often b e e n r e m a r k e d that the healing o f the possessed b o y and o f blind B a r t i m a e u s are the only t w o healing stories that occur outside t h e first

section.

2 9 1

G i v e n M a r k ' s interest in m i r a c l e s a n d h i s o b v i o u s

redactional activity, a n y treatment seeking to explain the significance o f miracles for M a r k m u s t account for this particular p h e n o m e n o n .

I have

already s u g g e s t e d that the ' d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e ' distribution o f m i r a c l e s is integral to M a r k ' s I N E h e r m e n e u t i c .

H i s first s e c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s

Y a h w e h ' s d e l i v e r i n g o f h i s p e o p l e from b o n d a g e a n d

to

appropriately

contains the vast majority of J e s u s ' miracles. B u t h o w are these apparent departures from his N E framework to b e explained? T h e answers will again d e p e n d on the degree o f skill one attributes to M a r k . Either M a r k w a s unconcerned with consistency, in w h i c h case the N E s c h e m a still r e m a i n s largely intact, or, as a n u m b e r o f scholars h a v e argued, M a r k although not to b e overdrawn as a literary giant did intend

2

9

0

2

9

1

Way,

36.

E.g. B r o w n , 'Miracles', 1 6 8 ; Best, 'Miracles', 5 4 2 ; Robbins, 'Bartimaeus', 2 2 5 ; a n d a s

n o t e d in C h a p t e r 6 , a b o v e .

292

The New

Exodus

Way

to c o m m u n i c a t e s o m e t h i n g b y his p l a c e m e n t o f these miracles. It is to the various proposals along the latter line that w e n o w turn. T h e m o s t influential explanation, at least in the case o f the d e m o n i s e d b o y , is that o f a p o l e m i c against a 'divine m a n ' Christology, illustrated b y t h e d i s c i p l e s ' failure to a c c o m p l i s h a m i r a c l e . implies

that

discipleship,

the 2 9 3

two

miracles concern

2 9 2

Mark's

Alternatively, Best growing

focus

on

while others have seen evidence of an increasingly

difficult battle against the d e m o n i c .

2 9 4

O f these suggestions, the first and

last do not e x p l a i n B a r t i m a e u s w h e r e a s Best at least p r o v i d e s a rationale for both.

H e does n o t explain, h o w e v e r , w h y M a r k includes only these

t w o miracles. D o e s an I N E m o d e l provide a m o r e satisfactory account? In the light o f the preceding discussion, M a r k ' s inclusion o f only t w o healings o f the blind, and these t w o in particular, are explained as integral to the w i s d o m t h e m e s o f his ' W a y ' section (cf. Isa 42:16). A s in the case of the feedings, a l t h o u g h M a r k generally adheres to the I N E s c h e m a h e is willing to adapt the pattern in order to m a k e a m o r e important point.

But

w h a t about the b o y ? T h i s s t o r y h a s p o s e d s e v e r e difficulties for c o m m e n t a t o r s w i t h generally agreed solution yet proposed.

no

W h a t w e h a v e in general terms is

a m o m e n t o f glory o n the m o u n t a i n , an i n t e r l u d e d u r i n g the d e s c e n t c o n c e r n i n g J e s u s a n d Elijah, a n d finally the failure o f t h e ' f a i t h l e s s ' disciples to deal with the demonic.

W h a t m a k e s this

particularly

interesting is that 9:14-29 is A ) the o n l y e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e

demonic

outside o f the first section (intriguingly an aXaXov K O I KO)(|>6V nvcOjia, cf. Ps 115:5f M T ) , B ) the o n l y i n s t a n c e in the g o s p e l w h e r e the disciples are directly i n v o l v e d in a specific healing, and, C ) they fail (cf. 6:7-13).

Why

then h a s M a r k i n c l u d e d it, and w h a t is his point, e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n the disciples' earlier success (Mk 6:7-13; cf. c K p a X X o ) in 6:13 and 9:18)? A s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y a n u m b e r o f c o m m e n t a t o r s are c o n v i n c e d that M a r k ' s transfiguration account has M o s e s ' experience on Sinai in view (Ex 24:16).

2

9

2

2 9 5

C o n s e q u e n t l y , in t e r m s o f the following confrontation s c e n e ,

See e.g. K o e s t e r , 'Jesus'; K e c k , 'Christology'; A c h t e m e i e r , 'Origin'; Kelber; D o n a h u e , Trial; e t c . S o m e s c h o l a r s , h o w e v e r , n e v e r a c c e p t e d t h i s v i e w , e.g. S c h u l z , Stunde; B u r k i l l , ' D u a l i s m ' ; s e e f u r t h e r , D o w d , Prayer, 15ff. 'Miracles', 544f. E . g . S e r g e a n t , Lion, 5 7 f . S e e t h e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 5 , p p . 1 2 6 f . 2

9

3

2

9

4

2

9

5

Excursus:

Misplaced

293

Miracles?

several scholars see a reflection o f the descent o f M o s e s from Sinai and his s u b s e q u e n t confrontation w i t h idolatrous Israel ( E x 3 2 ) . detected in y e v e a amo-Toc; the influence o f G o d ' s Klage (especially Dt 32:20 L X X , cf. M t 17:17; Lk 9 : 4 1 ) .

2 9 7

2 9 6

Others have

against his p e o p l e

N o t surprisingly another

suggestion reads the incident in terms o f the continued and exasperating failure o f disciples to ' u n d e r s t a n d ' .

298

Finally, s o m e see in J e s u s ' use o f

d v € ' x o | i a i an allusion to Y a h w e h ' s 'bearing' his idolatrous people in Isaiah 46:4 (cf. Isa 4 0 : 1 1 ) .

299

U n d e r an I N E rubric all of these observations prove constructive. First, in the p a r a d i g m a t i c first E x o d u s , M o s e s ' e x p e r i e n c e on Sinai (Ex 24) is intimately linked with his descent to encounter a faithless p e o p l e (Ex 3 2 ) . Here in M a r k , J e s u s ' transfiguration on the mountain is likewise followed b y a confrontation w i t h his faithless disciples w h o are then r ebuked for being a yevea

ot TTKJTOC;.

In t e r m s o f the s e c o n d and third proposals, this

designation is linked with Israel's idolatry (cf. L X X D t 32:20 and 32:16f, 2 1 , probably w i t h the g o l d e n calf incident o f E x 3 2 in m i n d ) and, given the continuity b e t w e e n in M a r k b e t w e e n idolatry (and its demonic expression) and

failure to u n d e r s t a n d , t h e r e b u k e sits w e l l w i t h

d e m o n i s a t i o n a n d J e s u s ' frustrated

q u e s t i o n s o f his

disciples in M a r k 8:17f (cf. D t 3 2 : 6 , 2 8 ) .

3 0 0

the motif o f

uncomprehending

A n d turning to the fourth

suggestion, similar t h e m e s recur in the disputation introduced b y Isaiah 46:4 ( d v € x o | i a i , L X X ) .

T h e r e , in the setting o f the a n n o u n c e m e n t o f a

s e c o n d E x o d u s , Y a h w e h restates his superiority o v e r the idols (vv. 5 - 6 ) , expresses his frustration with the nation's faithless inability to learn from their past experiences (vv. 8, 12), and yet affirms his c o m m i t m e n t to effect the N E salvation in spite o f the nation's obduracy (vv. lOf, 1 3 ) .

3 0 1

Finally,

in the light o f the a b o v e discussion on the possible influence o f E x o d u s 3 2 2 9 6 vv. 9 - 1 3 n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , pace B e s t , ' M i r a c l e s ' , 5 4 4 . It m i g h t b e t h a t M a r k ' s s u b s e q u e n t p l a c e m e n t o f a n e x t e n d e d t e a c h i n g s e c t i o n ( B e s t , Following, 7 5 - 1 3 3 ) , w h i l e still i n t e g r a t e d w i t h h i s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' j o u r n e y a n d t h e p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , is a l s o p a r t o f a N e w Sinai p a t t e r n : J e s u s a s t h e g r e a t e r - t h a n - M o s e s g i v e s i n s t r u c t i o n s for t h e N e w I s r a e l . R e c o g n i s i n g first E x o d u s p a r a l l e l s d o e s n o t d a m a g e t h e t h e s i s s i n c e I s a i a h ' s N E d e r i v e s f r o m Israel's f o u n d i n g m o m e n t a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n w h y M a r k c o u l d n o t i n t e g r a t e t h e m e s f r o m b o t h t o m a k e h i s p o i n t , e s p e c i a l l y if t h e r e is a M o s e s - ' s e r v a n t ' c o n n e c t i o n . 2

9

7

2

9

8

2

9

9

3

0

0

3

0

1

G n i l k a , 1 . 4 7 ; P e s c h , 1.90; H o o k e r , 2 2 3 .

L a n e , 3 2 9 , c i t i n g E b l i n g , Messiasgeheimnis, 1 7 2 - 7 8 ; S c h e n k e , W under 3 2 4 f , 3 4 5 ; B e s t , Following, 6 6 , s e e s i n s t e a d a failure t o a c t . M a r t i n , 1 0 9 , f o l l o w i n g T o d t , Son, 1 7 9 . T h e r e f o r e , pace B e s t , Following, 6 7 , t h e r e b u k e m i g h t n o t b e 'pointless'. S c h o o r s , Saviour, 2 7 3 f f , 150ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 131ff.

erzahlungen,

294

The New

Exodus

Way

on Isaiah 5 3 , an E x o d u s 3 2 motif here in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section w o u l d not b e out o f place: in the first Exodus an idolatrous and u n c o m p r e h e n d i n g Israel needed s o m e o n e to intercede, so too here in the second. All four s u g g e s t i o n s can, therefore, b e integrated if M a r k 9:14-29 is understood

as a continuing

portrayal

of Jesus'

faithfulness

confronted with the d i s c i p l e s ' i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n and failure—even

when when

o n the I N E ' W a y ' — a faithfulness m o d e l l e d on Y a h w e h ' s faithfulness in t h e face o f I s r a e l ' s failure in b o t h the first E x o d u s a n d

its I s a i a n i c

counterpart. If this analysis o f the two sight miracles and the e x o r c i s m o f the deaf and d u m b spirit is correct, then in accordance with the N E s c h e m a , M a r k places all o f J e s u s ' healing miracles and e x o r c i s m s in the first section, but h e m a k e s e x c e p t i o n s o f these, and o n l y these, b e c a u s e o f their didactic contribution to the overall p u r p o s e of his ' W a y ' s e c t i o n .

3

0

2

T h e ' c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e ' will b e a d d r e s s e d in C h a p t e r 9 .

302

Chapter 9: Isaiah's Promise ... and Malachi's Threat: Part 2 Arrival in Jerusalem Jesus'

arrival

in Jerusalem

the Isaianic overshadowed Mark theme

brings

by official together

of judicial

the other

hand,

bears

NE in that

little

resemblance

the initial

hostility.

the logical

blinding—the

In this final

outcome Temple

the Isaianic

popular

section

of Malachi's

and its hierarchs

NE is ultimately

'servant'

to the expectations euphoria

effected

is

of his

threat

of

quickly Gospel,

and

are 'cursed'. through

Isaiah's On Jesus'

death.

I. Introduction A l t h o u g h the Isaianic N E reaches its culmination in the joyful reception and e n t h r o n e m e n t o f Y a h w e h in a gloriously restored J e r u s a l e m , M a r k ' s story c o n c l u d e s s o m e w h a t differently.

J e s u s ' cursory visit to the T e m p l e

and his refusal to stay in the city overnight is unsettling e n o u g h , b u t the n e x t d a y s e e s the t e n s i o n w h i c h h a s b e e n b u i l d i n g

throughout

the

previous sections finally erupt as, in his first major action on reaching the city, J e s u s ' c l e a n s e s ' the T e m p l e (11:15-19).

T h i s act, a c c o m p a n i e d b y the

disturbing c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree (11:12-14), his p r o b i n g q u e s t i o n a b o u t J o h n (11:20-33), and the p r o v o c a t i v e parable o f the tenants (12:1-12), sets the tone for an i n c r e a s i n g l y a c r i m o n i o u s and ultimately d e a d l y conflict w i t h the J e w i s h authorities.

After e m e r g i n g victorious from a series o f

confrontations (12:13-40 [41-44]), J e s u s announces the T e m p l e ' s destruction (13:1-37), interprets his death as initiating a covenant (14:24), a n d is tried, sentenced, and e x e c u t e d (15:1-47). Finally, in a remarkably brief passage, M a r k s u b s e q u e n t l y i n f o r m s us that J e s u s w a s r a i s e d from the

dead,

apparently c o n c l u d i n g with the unusual statement that the first witnesses told n o b o d y for they w e r e seized with fear and a m a z e m e n t (16:8).

1

1

,

O n t h e t h e m a t i c u n i t y o f t h i s m a t e r i a l , s e e e.g. t h e o v e r v i e w in H o o k e r , T r a d i t i o n s , 8 - 1 1 ; cf. a l s o D o n a h u e , Trial, 115ff.

296

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

T h e aim o f this Chapter is to investigate h o w m u c h of M a r k ' s carefully crafted final section is consistent with an I N E p a r a d i g m .

After dealing

with J e s u s ' entry, w e will e x a m i n e the i m a g e r y o f the cursing o f the figtree, the u s e o f Isaiah 56:7 and J e r e m i a h 7:11 in M a r k 11:17, a n d

the

allusion to Isaiah 5 : l f f in M a r k 12:1-9 within the context o f J e s u s and the T e m p l e . Given the argument o f the previous Chapter on the influence of Isaiah 53 on the passion predictions and M a r k 10:45, w e will weigh the case for echoes o f Isaiah 5 3 in the w o r d s o f institution, and J e s u s ' subsequent passion.

Finally, w e will offer o n e or t w o very brief c o m m e n t s as to h o w

the end of M a r k ' s Gospel might also relate to the I N E . It will b e argued, in general terms, that the p r o m i s e and the w a r n i n g inherent

in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g

citation and

which have been

present

throughout the narrative are finally b r o u g h t to their respective climaxes. M o r e particularly, M a r k ' s recounting o f J e s u s ' 'triumphal' and 'messianic' entry, his declaration o f what the T e m p l e ought to have b e c o m e (Isa 56:7), a n d his e x p l a n a t i o n o f his d e a t h (Isa 5 3 ) are all at h o m e w i t h i n framework

o f the

I N E fulfilment.

On

the other

hand,

the

Malachi's

threatened 'cursing o f the land' c o m e s to the fore in the j u d g e m e n t o f the fig-tree and the recitation o f J e r e m i a h ' s famous utterance o n the T e m p l e .

II. The 'Triumphal' Entry a) The INE Expectation

of Yahweh's

Return

T h e hope of the Isaianic N E culminates in the glorious return o f Y a h w e h to a restored J e r u s a l e m .

J u s t as w o r s h i p p i n g Y a h w e h at Sinai w a s the

guarantee and sign o f the prototypal first E x o d u s (Ex 3:12), the goal o f the I N E is the enthronement of Y a h w e h in a restored Z i o n - J e r u s a l e m .

2

2

Hence

S c h o o r s , Saviour, 2 4 3 ; cf. D u r h a m , Exodus, xxiff. Sinai is s u b s u m e d in M o u n t Z i o n , a n d t h e N e w E x o d u s r e a c h e s its c u l m i n a t i o n in t h e a r r i v a l o f Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e in J e r u s a l e m . M u i l e n b u r g , T s a i a h ' , e n t i t l e s Isa 4 0 - 4 8 , ' T h e i m m i n e n t c o m i n g o f G o d ' , cf. a l s o S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 183; Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 306f; a n d Dumbrell, 'Purpose'. A s n o t e d earlier, Preufi, Deuterojesaja, 4 5 , m a k e s the point e m p h a t i c a l l y (as d o e s Kilian, 'Strasse') w h e n h e s a y s t h a t the 'Ziel d e s n e u e n E x o d u s ist n i c h t d a s L a n d a l l g e m e i n , s o n d e r n ist d e r Z i o n , u n d e s ist n i c h t p r i m a r d a s V o l k , s o n d e r n J a h w e selber, d e r j e t z d o r t h i n , s o dafi v o n d e r R i i c k k e h r d e s V o l k e s d a n n n u r als d e r F o l g e u n d B e g l e i t e r s c h e i n u n g d e r R i i c k k e h r J a h w e s ' .

INE

Expectation

of Yahweh'

s

297

Return

the declaration: 'your G o d reigns!' (52:7; cf. 41:21; 43:15; 44:6; and E x 1 5 : 1 8 ) . Consequently,

c o n c e r n for J e r u s a l e m , t h e Z i o n o f Y a h w e h ,

3

appears

i m m e d i a t e l y in the p r o l o g u e (40:1-11) w h e r e as n o t e d e a r l i e r the city appears in the inclusio passages o f verses 1-2 and 9 - 1 1 .

4

P r e v i o u s l y , in I s a i a h 6, the p r o p h e t h a d seen Y a h w e h as the L o r d enthroned in h i s T e m p l e - p a l a c e in J e r u s a l e m .

O m i n o u s l y set in the t i m e

of K i n g U z z i a h ' s death, this portent p r e p a r e s us for the o u t c o m e o f t h e imminent

clash of two

imperiums

(7:lff):

the heavenly

a w e s o m e j u d g e , a n d t h e corrupt D a v i d i c m o n a r c h y .

5

King,

now

Confronted

with

p i o u s unbelief, Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d c o m i n g — I m m a n u e l (7:14)—can o n l y m e a n d e v a s t a t i n g j u d g e m e n t (7:17) a n d this, as w e h a v e a l s o s e e n , is particularly focussed o n Jerusalem (3:1, 26; cf. 6:11-13). B u t as in j u d g e m e n t , so in redemption.

6

J e r u s a l e m - Z i o n , as the u r b a n

s y m b o l for Israel, is again central. In the prologue the w o r d o f comfort in 4 0 : I f f c u l m i n a t e s w i t h w h a t s e e m s to b e a m e s s e n g e r a n n o u n c i n g n e w s to J e r u s a l e m (40:9f, L X X ; £\jayye\iC6\i£vog

7

(bis)),

and

good then

throughout Isaiah 40-55 and up to the closing scenes o f chapters 65-66 there is a t e n d e n c y to focus o n J e r u s a l e m - Z i o n ' s restoration. pivotal in Y a h w e h ' s plans (cf. 2 : l f f ) .

T h e city is clearly

8

T h u s , a l t h o u g h C y r u s and Y a h w e h ' s ' b l i n d and d e a f ' s e r v a n t ' J a c o b Israel are the focus o f the polemical chapters 40-48 (but see 44:26; 45:13), in the largely p r o c l a m a t i o n - o f - s a l v a t i o n s e c t i o n (49-55) the r e s t o r a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m — a n d the role o f the enigmatic 'servant'—is clearly to the f o r e .

9

Z i o n ' s waste places will b e c o m e like Eden as Y a h w e h effects a n e w creation 1 0

(51:3, cf. 4 1 : 1 7 - 2 0 ) . 3

n

Chapter 5 4 comprises something of a c l i m a x with its

C f . E z e k 2 0 : 3 3 w h e r e Y a h w e h will r e i g n a s K i n g in t h e N e w E x o d u s .

4

K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 23-66, see C h a p t e r 3, p. 7 8 , above. Dumbrell, 'Worship', 2; a n d Liebreich, 'Position', w h e r e Isa 6 contrasts K i n g Y a h w e h with the kings of Isa 7-8. 5

6

S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 , a n d C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 213ff, a b o v e . T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p h r a s e q^tin"; rnto^Q is u n c l e a r . T h e L X X t a k e s it a s ' m e s s e n g e r t o J e r u s a l e m ' , cf. Tg. Isa; s e e W a t t s , Isaiah, 2 . 8 2 . 7

8

D u m b r e l l , ' P u r p o s e ' ; R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 305ff; a n d C l e m e n t s , ' U n i t y ' , 1 2 8 . O n t h i s W a t t s , ' C o n s o l a t i o n ' , 4 9 , 5 6 f , c i t i n g M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 2 6 ; H e s s l e r , Gott, 82ff; M e l u g i n , Formation, 8 5 , w h o s e e s t h i s p r e f i g u r e d in I s a 4 0 : 1 - 1 1 ; K i e s o w , Exodustexte, 1 6 3 ; a n d W i l c o x a n d P a t o n - W i l l i a m s , ' S e r v a n t ' , 82ff. Isa 41:17ff refers to the land n o t the desert crossing, as per v a n d e r M e r w e , Pentateuchtradisies, 5 1 - 5 7 , c i t e d in B e u k e n , 'MlSPAT ', 2 0 . S c h o o r s , Saviour, 3 0 0 , s e e s o n l y a v a g u e i m p l i c a t i o n o f r e d e m p t i o n a s n e w c r e a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g R e n d t o r f f ' s o b s e r v a t i o n ( ' S t e l l u n g ' ) t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n t e r m i n o l o g y is p r i m a r i l y c o n f i n e d t o d i s p u t a t i o n s o r s a l v a t i o n o r a c l e s w h e r e it s e r v e s o t h e r p u r p o s e s . H o w e v e r , 9

1

0

1 1

298

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

picture o f glorious Z i o n (52:7-9; 54:1 I f ) , n o w re-established in righteous ness, k n o w i n g divine protection and vindication, and w h o s e accusers will all be overthrown (54:14ff),

12

while 55:1-5 concludes with w h a t Spykerboer

suggests is an invitation to return to the N e w J e r u s a l e m .

13

The summons

in Isaiah 5 2 to the exiles to prepare to depart also recalls Isaiah 35 w h e r e t h e r e d e e m e d , w a l k i n g a l o n g the ' w a y o f h o l i n e s s ' , e n t e r Z i o n ' w i t h singing' and, crowned with Dîi? nrafo, are overtaken b y nn&fcn ]1toto (v. 10). In facing the delay of the N E (Isa 56-66), the restoration o f J e r u s a l e m Zion is e v e n m o r e clearly the focal p o i n t . daughter) Zion is s u m m o n e d to a r i s e

15

14

In 60:1 ( p r e s u m a b l y prostrate

for the glory o f Y a h w e h is about to

d a w n u p o n her (cf. 4 : 5 ) . Explaining w h a t this entails involves a series o f salvation proclamations ( 6 0 - 6 2 ) ,

1 6

arguably the p i n n a c l e o f the b o o k .

1 7

F r o m the first, the imagery of light (60:1, 3 , 1 9 ; 62:2) stands in stark contrast to the present g l o o m and darkness (59:9ff; cf. 9:lff).

T h e description o f the

city's splendour (60:17f; cf. 5 4 : l l f ) is only outshone b y h e r spiritual glory w i t h its e m p h a s i s o n ' p e a c e , righteousness, salvation, and climactically, praise' (60:17ff)—again in stark contrast to the present (59:9, 1 1 , 1 6 f ) .

18

A

n e w d e v e l o p m e n t h e r e is the attribution o f characteristics o f Y a h w e h — light and r i g h t e o u s n e s s — t o Israel and J e r u s a l e m (58:8; 60:17, 2 1 ; 61:10; 62:2).

1 9

O n c e destroyed b y foreigners, J e r u s a l e m will n o w b e rebuilt b y

them (60:10). N o longer forsaken she will not only enjoy the fruits o f her labour (62:8; 65:21 ff) b u t she will b e nourished b y the wealth o f the nations (60:15ff).

S o c o m p r e h e n s i v e is this transformation o f the desolation (e.g.

64:10f) that the w h o l e is c r o w n e d in an e d e n i c description o f the n e w creation (65:17f).

N o t only is marvellous longevity seen as the n o r m for

her inhabitants, but, as in 40-55, there will b e a miraculous increase in the

w h e n c o n s i d e r e d in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e C h a o s k a m p f / w a r r i o r i m a g e r y a n d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e first E x o d u s a s a c r e a t i o n e v e n t , a n d g i v e n t h a t b o t h a r e i n p r o c l a m a t i o n s , S t u h l m e u l l e r ' s a s s e s s m e n t . Creative, is t o b e p r e f e r r e d ; a l s o v o n W a l d o w , ' M e s s a g e ' , 2 7 7 . 1

2

1

3

1

4

Clements, 'Beyond', 108. 'Invitation'. Often seen as a w i s d o m invitation, the t w o m a y not b e m u t u a l l y exclu s i v e , g i v e n t h e link b e t w e e n a c c e p t i n g Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m a n d t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f J e r u s a l e m . S e e fn. 8 . M u i l e n b u r g ; cf. 5 0 : 1 ; 51:17ff; 5 2 : l f e t c . See W e s t e r m a n n , 352f. C h a r p e n t i e r , Jeunesse, 7 9 - 8 0 ; W e s t e r m a n n , 2 9 6 - 3 0 8 ; G o t t w a l d , Hebrew, 308; Polan, Ways, 14-15. 1 5

1

6

1

7

1

8

1 9

M u i l e n b u r g , ad loc; cf. B o n n a r d , ad loc. Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 3 1 3 .

INE

Expectation

of Yahweh's

299

Return

n u m b e r s and strength o f her people (60:22; cf. 54:lff). Not surprisingly, this creation of a n e w J e r u s a l e m is greeted by great j o y ( 6 5 : 1 8 ) .

20

A s the final l a m e n t reveals, all this is predicated on Y a h w e h ' s presence (63:7-64:ll).

2 1

J e r u s a l e m ' s restoration is primarily a matter o f the return

of Y a h w e h ' s glorious p r e s e n c e w h i c h is b o t h the goal o f the N E and the hallmark o f the restoration; h e n c e the s a m e kind o f self-designation w h i c h in 40:9f and 35:4 characterised the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h a p p e a r s in 6 2 : 1 1 .

2 2

W h e r e a s in the earlier chapters o f Isaiah Y a h w e h ' s glory w a s the stimulus for J e r u s a l e m ' s j u d g e m e n t , here it b e c o m e s the chief attribute o f r e d e e m e d Zion and her inhabitants (cf. 60:7, 9, 13, 19; 61:3) and so m u c h so that the e n t i r e city s e e m s to b e c o m e o n e a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g T e m p l e to Y a h w e h (60:1-3; cf. 2:2ff; 4:5f).

A l t h o u g h the s u n and m o o n a p p a r e n t l y r e m a i n ,

Y a h w e h h i m s e l f will b e the c i t y ' s light (60:19f).

It is this to w h i c h the

n a t i o n s are d r a w n (62:2; cf. 2:1-5) and w h i c h c a u s e s r i g h t e o u s n e s s a n d praise to spring up a m o n g them (61:11; 62:lf, 7): praise and j o y again being the m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the p e o p l e s ' r e s p o n s e t o Y a h w e h ' s s a v i n g intervention (56:7; 60:5, 6, 2 0 ; 61:2f, 7 , 1 0 , 1 1 ; 66:18ff). G i v e n the p r e c e d i n g discussion o f Isaiah 5 3 and M a r k 10:45, o n e also notes the centrality o f the XuTpov-XuTpoo) w o r d g r o u p .

The most promi

nent motif in this respect is that o f the ' r e d e e m e r ' - ^ K a ) m a r r i a g e w h e r e J e r u s a l e m , the o n c e c h i l d l e s s a n d rejected b r i d e , is n o w m i r a c u l o u s l y fruitful due to the restored marital love o f Y a h w e h ( 5 4 : 1 - 1 0 ) . Jerusalem had

23

p l a y e d t h e h a r l o t (cf. 1 2 : 2 1 ) , h e r h u s b a n d

j u d g e m e n t o f h e r w a s a matter o f discipline not divorce ( 5 4 : 4 f ; 3).

2 5

Although Yahweh's 24

cf. 5 0 : 1 -

So although forsaken for a time, s h e will b e s a v e d b y Y a h w e h , h e r

loving kinsman spouse, and

o n c e - b a r r e n J e r u s a l e m is p o r t r a y e d

as

rejoicing o v e r h e r m y r i a d d e s c e n d a n t s (44:4; 49:19ff; 5 4 : 1 - 3 ; cf. 4 9 : 2 5 ; alluding p e r h a p s to the p a t r i a r c h a l p r o m i s e s ) . 2

0

2

1

A n d this in contrast to

S e e O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion, 4 8 ; a n d R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 2 9 9 . S o F i s c h e r o n 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : 1 1 , ' D a s P r o b l e m d e r K l a g e n d e n ist d i e g e b r o c h e n e n B e z i e h u n g z u J H W H ' , Wo?, 2 5 4 . Cf. E x 33:15ff. R e n d t o r f f , ' K o m p o s i t i o n ' , 3 0 1 ; s e e C h a p t e r 3 , p . 8 0 , fn. 1 4 8 , a b o v e . S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 1 0 3 f , 115ff. K r u p p , Verhaltnis, w h o discusses role of the m a r r i a g e b o n d in c o v e n a n t a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g , s e e s it a s b o t h t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r chs. 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d the highlight of the c o m i n g of Y a h w e h , s u c h that ch. 5 4 forms the goal t o which the whole moves. v a n d e r M e r w e , ' E c h o e s ' ; cf. H o s 1-3; J e r 2 - 3 . M e l u g i n , Formation, 1 5 6 ; a l t h o u g h d i v o r c e is n o t a n u n c o m m o n m e t a p h o r o f p u n i s h m e n t for i d o l a t r y , J e r 3:8; H o s 2:4. 2

2

2

3

2

4

2

5

300

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

p r o u d 'daughter B a b y l o n ' w h o will b e childless and w i d o w e d (47:8f). It is not surprising, then, that

-language also appears in connection with the

m o m e n t o u s chapters 60-62, both in terms o f Y a h w e h ' s advent as W a r r i o r (59:20; 63:4) and in the crowning designation o f Y a h w e h ' s people (62:12). G i v e n , t o o , the role o f the 'servant' in effecting J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s r e d e m p tion, s o m e c o m m e n t o n his relationship to J e r u s a l e m is

appropriate.

26

T h e idea o f ' c o m f o r t ' for J e r u s a l e m is key to the o p e n i n g p r o c l a m a t i o n o f 40:1 and recurs in 5 1 : 3 , 12; 52:9; and 5 4 : 1 1 , all in 49-55 and thus probably related to the action o f the 'servant'.

Indeed, in 49:13 the i n s t a l l a t i o n

27

of

the 'servant' is seen as Y a h w e h comforting his p e o p l e and his suffering in 53 apparently effects J e r u s a l e m ' s restoration.

T h a t ' c o m f o r t ' is picked up

again in 5 7 : 1 8 in conjunction with N E imagery (cf. 5 7 : 1 4 f )

28

and reiterated

in 66:13 w h e r e Y a h w e h comforts his p e o p l e in restored J e r u s a l e m under lines its i m p o r t a n c e .

29

Since in 56-66, the a n n o u n c e m e n t (and

inaugura

tion?) o f comfort, release, sight ( L X X ) , etc. is the task o f the individual in 61:1-3, it is w o r t h e x a m i n i n g his relationship with the earlier 'servant'. T h e similarities b e t w e e n this figure and the preceding ' s e r v a n t ' p o e m s h a v e long b e e n noted: the s a m e m o n o l o g u e style, similar l a n g u a g e , the anointing w i t h the Spirit o f Y a h w e h (cf. 42:1), the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f liberty to the captives (cf. 4 9 : 6 ) , v e n g e a n c e (cf. 4 9 : 8 ) .

2

6

3 1

3 0

and (perhaps) the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f the day of

O n the other h a n d , there are differences: there

O n t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h i s i s s u e , s e e n o w S t e c k , Gottesknecht, chapter, 173-207.

especially his last

7

^ W i l l i a m s o n , ' C o n c e p t ' , 1 4 6 f ; cf. M e l u g i n , Formation, 70f; v a n d e r M e r w e , Pentateuchtradisies ( c i t e d i n S p y k e r b o e r , Structure, 52). 28 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 2 7 , citing Z i m m e r l i suggests that the ' w a y ' l a n g u a g e h e r e takes o n a m o r e paraenetical sense. Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 2 9 9 . W e s t e r m a n n ' s p r o p o s a l t h a t this r e f e r s n o t t o t h e c a p t i v e s b u t t o i m p r i s o n e d d e b t o r s ( 5 8 : 6 ) h a s s o m e m e r i t . B u t in v i e w o f t h e p o s t p o n e d N E b a c k g r o u n d , o f 59:9ff, t h e i m a g e r y in 4 0 - 5 5 , a n d t h e n a t u r e o f ' d e l i v e r a n c e ' t h r o u g h o u t , t h e r e m a y a l s o b e a w i d e r r e f e r e n t . 2

9

3

0

3

1

C a n n o n , ' I s a i a h ' , s e e s it o f a p i e c e w i t h t h e m , cf. H a n s o n , Dawn, 65ff; K o c h , 'Gottesgeist'; Michel, 'Eigenart'; Z i m m e r l i , '"Gnadenjahr"' (the latter s u g g e s t s that 61:lff r e p r e s e n t s t h e earliest i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the ' s e r v a n t ' s o n g s , ' S p r a c h e ' , 69ff; S c h r e i n e r , ' B u c h ' , 1 5 7 ) ; cf. C h e y n e ; D r i v e r ; M e t t i n g e r , Farewell, 1 0 ; a n d S m a r t . D e l i t z s c h , 6 2 0 , n o t e s the following similarities: e n d o w m e n t with the Spirit of Y a h w e h (42:1), Y a h w e h h a s sent h i m a n d w i t h h i m h i s S p i r i t ( 4 8 : 1 6 ? ) , h e c o m f o r t s t h e w e a r y ( 5 0 : 4 ; cf. 4 2 : 3 ) , a n d t h e deliverance mentioned here does not seem a mere prophetic announcement but an a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y i n i t i a t e s , a n d is i n t e g r a l t o , l i b e r a t i o n ( v v . 3 , 4f; cf. 4 2 : 7 ; 49:9). W h y b r a y , 239f, a l s o n o t e s the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n v. 2 a n d 4 9 : 6 . A c h t e m e i e r , Community, n o t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s : v . 1, 4 2 : 1 , 7; v . 2 , 4 9 : 8 , 1 3 ; v. 3 , 4 2 : 1 3 ; v . 4 , 4 9 : 8 ; v. 5 , 4 9 : 9 ; a n d v . 11 ( ? ) w i t h 4 9 : 1 8 ; a l t h o u g h s h e s e e s t h e ' s e r v a n t ' a s t h e c o m m u n i t y .

INE

Expectation

of Yahweh'

s

301

Return

appears to b e n o specific c o n n e c t i o n with the nations, there is n o hint o f suffering or rejection, and the p h r a s e o l o g y TIN m m leled.

32

ntin

(61:1) is unparal

W h o , then, are w e intended to see as the speaker?

F o r m a n y c o m m e n t a t o r s it is the author o f this section, w h o e v e r he is u n d e r s t o o d to b e , w h i l e o t h e r s s e e an i n d i v i d u a l i s a t i o n o f the faithful c o m m u n i t y (interestingly, b o t h options are also p r o p o s e d for the earlier servant s o n g s ) .

3 3

O n the literary reading taken here, several o f the older

c o m m e n t a t o r s ' o b s e r v a t i o n s are w o r t h y o f attention.

T h i s k i n d o f self-

34

disclosure characterised earlier 'servant' p a s s a g e s — t h a t the 'servant' title does not appear is not overly problematic as it is also absent from 50:4-9. In addition, if chapters 5 6 - 6 6 represent the reconfiguration o f the N E h o p e and given that the picture o f restored Zion in chapters 60-62 is its heart, it w o u l d b e fitting that the final a n n o u n c e m e n t has a ' s e r v a n t ' figure at its c e n t r e , e s p e c i a l l y g i v e n w h a t a p p e a r s to b e the function o f the o t h e r 'servant' p a s s a g e s in regard to the I N E .

3 5

T h i s w o u l d support the natural

reading of " t o (61:1) as reflecting the concerns o f 40:9 and 5 2 : 7 .

36

While a

'mission' to the nations is not apparent—neither is it m e n t i o n e d in t w o o f the earlier ' s o n g s ' (Isa 5 0 and 53)—it is not entirely absent h e r e .

From a

literary perspective, if the restoration of J e r u s a l e m forms the centre, then the c o m i n g o f the n a t i o n s c o m p r i s e the b o o k e n d s (56:3-8; 66:18ff).

This

structure s u g g e s t s that J e r s u a l e m ' s restoration inaugurates, or is at least integral to, the m o v e m e n t o f t h o s e from the o u t e r r e g i o n s t o w a r d centre.

3 7

the

T h e r e f e r e n c e in the t w o W a r r i o r p a s s a g e s to Y a h w e h ' s

a s t o n i s h m e n t (DBti) that JnDfc f»» (59:16) o r l t b

... ^ i o

y*)

(63:5),

stresses both his intimate c o n n e c t i o n with the figure o f 61:Iff a n d Israel's total incapacity. M u c h as in the case o f the 'servant' p o e m s o f 40-55, there is t h e s a m e m a r k e d c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n the p a r l o u s c o n d i t i o n o f I s r a e l N o r t h ' s final r e a s o n , Suffering, 1 3 8 f , for e x c l u d i n g 6 1 : I f f — c h s . 6 0 - 6 2 a r e n o t a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of D e u t e r o - I s a i a h — i s , in v i e w o f his a d m i s s i o n o f t h e ' u n d o u b t e d similarities', tacit s u p p o r t for its i n c l u s i o n o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e l i t e r a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n h e r e . ^ W h y b r a y , Isaiah, ad loc. H a n s o n , Dawn, 6 6 ; Smart, 2 5 9 ; Achtemeier sees a 'Levitical-prophetic Servant community'. D e l i t z s c h ; cf. M u i l e n b u r g , w h o s e e s t h e p r o p h e t h e r e n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t e s , 'it is s u r e l y a p r o f o u n d a n d i m p r e s s i v e m i s s i o n t h a t is g i v e n t o h i m : h e is t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l p r o p h e t in a s u p e r l a t i v e d e g r e e . ' W h y b r a y n o t e s t h e t e n s i o n b e t w e e n s u c h a lofty s e l f - d e s i g n a t i o n a n d yet restricted function w h e n c o m p a r e d t o the earlier prophets. 2

3

3

3

4

3

5

3

6

3

7

Cf. A c h t e m e i e r , 89ff; a n d B e u k e n , ' S e r v a n t ' . Pace W e s t e r m a n n , 3 6 5 f . Pace B o n n a r d , Isaie, 4 1 6 n 2 ; cf. A c h t e m e i e r , 1 4 7 f .

302

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

throughout 56-66 and the figure in 61:1-3. A n d just as the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' role in 52-54 is linked to the democratisation o f the promises to David (55:3), introducing the first reference to plural 'servants' in 40-55, so also h e r e .

38

Admittedly the issue is difficult but the similarities with the preceding songs (cf. 4 2 : 1 ; 49:9) can hardly have b e e n accidental. Within the confines of the b o o k it s e e m s most natural to take the speaker as the s a m e kind o f figure e n v i s a g e d in the earlier ' s o n g s ' but with the prophetic dimension emphasised (Tg. Isa 61:1 reads 'the prophet'; cf. 1 K g s 19:16; Ps 1 0 5 : 1 5 ) .

39

On

b a l a n c e , 6 1 : l f f a p p e a r s to describe a ' s e r v a n t ' figure w h o is intimately related to the I N E restoration, certainly b y w a y o f its p r o c l a m a t i o n and most probably also its inauguration.

At the s a m e time, in the two Warrior

passages o f 59:15-21 and 63:1-6 there is considerable e m p h a s i s on Y a h w e h seeing that there is n o n e to help, taking the initiative and himself c o m i n g to Jerusalem's aid. From this perspective then, the restoration o f J e r u s a l e m is a matter o f Y a h w e h c o m i n g as Warrior, but also involving a h u m a n agent (usually 40

understood b y later interpreters as a messianic figure; so Tg. Isaiah ,

and

41

cf. e.g. Pss of Sol, given its I N E i m a g e r y ) . F i n a l l y , t h e r e is o n e c r i t i c a l d i s t i n g u i s h i n g salvation d e s c r i b e d in these later chapters.

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f the

It is n o l o n g e r a s s u m e d to

include Israel as a whole. Just prior to the conclusion o f the book, w e have Y a h w e h ' s r e s p o n s e to the p r e c e d i n g l a m e n t s (65:Iff): h e h a s a l l o w e d himself to b e found b y those w h o w e r e not seeking him—the phrase ^jan 4 2

'jan as w e h a v e seen has strong connections with the N E o f 4 0 - 5 5 — b u t they did n o t respond (65:2ff).

43

So, in contrast to 40-55 w h e r e salvation was

offered to the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , the threat implicit in, for e x a m p l e , chapter 4 8 has developed into a definite cleavage b e t w e e n the faithful and the w i c k e d .

4 4

Y a h w e h n o w also has an ironic w o r d o f ' c o m f o r t ' for his

enemies (57:6; 66:5; cf. 1:24). Isaiah 65:13-16 is exemplary o f this decisive rift 3

8

3

9

4

0

4

1

4

2

B e u k e n , ' M a i n ' , 8 1 - 8 5 , n o t i n g t h a t 1 3 1 ) in 5 6 - 6 6 is a l w a y s p l u r a l , ( s e e f u r t h e r b e l o w ) . Cf. E m m e r s o n , Isaiah, 4 2 .

S e e a g a i n t h e r o l e o f t h e M e s s i a h in s e v e r a l e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa 4 2 : I f f ; 5 2 : 1 3 f ; a n d 53:10ff; a l s o C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 . E . g . Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 1 , 3 2 . In t h e light o f Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 1 , cf. I s a 4 2 : l f f ; 4 9 : l f f , e t c . ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 3 1 ; cf. I s a 5 5 : 5 ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 4 ; cf. I s a 4 9 : 2 ; 2 7 b ; Pss. Sol. 1 7 : 2 7 ; cf. I s a 5 4 : 1 3 ; Pss. Sol. 17:30; cf. I s a 4 5 : 1 4 ; 4 9 : 2 2 . S e e a l s o S c h i i p p h a u s , Psalmen, 124ff a n d 1 1 5 . Also Rendtorff, 'Komposition', 3 0 1 . O n t h e l i t e r a r y u n i t y o f this s e c t i o n , W e b s t e r , ' R h e t o r i c ' . W e s t e r m a n n , 301f, 330f, 399f. 4

3

4

4

INE

Expectation

of Yahweh's

with its fivefold c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n

"HZii?

303

Return

and the i d o l a t r o u s .

45

E v e n the

m e n t i o n o f the v o i c e o f Y a h w e h ' s retribution in the ^D^n in Isaiah 6 6 : 6 s u g g e s t s the j u d g e m e n t m o t i f that w a s earlier associated w i t h the t e m p l e in I s a i a h 6, a n d a g a i n the r e c i p i e n t s a p p e a r to b e faithless I s r a e l i t e s .

46

Several observations are in order. First, in v i e w o f t h e interest in the e a r l y c h a p t e r s o n idolatry, it is significant that not o n l y d o the w o r d s of j u d g e m e n t in 56-66 consistently follow accounts of idolatry (57:13, cf. vv. 1-12; 65:6f, cf. vv. 1-5; 65:12a, 13-15, cf. v. l l f ; 66:4, cf. vv. 3 , 1 7 ) , b u t idolatry is almost exclusively g i v e n as the reason for j u d g e m e n t .

T h e relationship b e t w e e n b l i n d n e s s / d e a f n e s s a n d

idolatry is implicit in the fact that it is in precisely these c o n t e x t s that the language o f deafness occurs (65:12; 6 6 : 4 ) .

47

S e c o n d , t h e t e r m ^1.2 V h i g h l i g h t s an i n t e r e s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t .

In

chapters 40-55 the application o f the ' s e r v a n t ' designation w a s apparently r e d u c e d to a n individual, the ' s e r v a n t ' par excellence. H o w e v e r , after the c o m p l e t i o n o f his activity, the plural reappears and s e e m s to b e related to those w h o are the beneficiaries o f his activity (miT ^2V, In chapters 5 6 - 6 6 this trend c o n t i n u e s .

49

o n c e only, 5 4 : 1 7 ) .

48

W h i l e the term ' s e r v a n t s ' in 63:17

m a y recall Israel's earlier election, it could also look forward to those w h o will b e r e d e e m e d in the now-deferred N e w E x o d u s and indeed ' s e r v a n t s ' is used thereafter solely in this latter sense (65:8, 9 , 1 3 - 1 5 (5 x ' s ) ; 66:14).

What

is particularly n o t e w o r t h y , if I a m correct in reading the "ni? t e r m i n o l o g y in this w a y , is that, for the first t i m e in the entire b o o k , i n d e e d in t h e introduction o f 56-66, foreigners are described as ministering to Y a h w e h as his D ' l M (56:6; cf. v. 8; see b e l o w ) .

50

In c o n c l u s i o n then, the I N E restoration o f J e r u s a l e m is c l o s e l y linked with the return of Y a h w e h himself and ' s e r v a n t ' , w h o in l a t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n u n d e r s t o o d in m e s s i a n i c terms.

the career o f an

enigmatic

is s o m e t i m e s a n d o n l y in p a r t

At the s a m e time, t h e r e is an bifurcation

in national Israel with Y a h w e h distinguishing b e t w e e n his ' s e r v a n t s ' , w h o

4

5

S e e B e u k e n , ' M a i n ' , 7 8 f ; A c h t e m e i e r , 122ff.

4

6

4

7

Pace W e s t e r m a n n ; cf. W h y b r a y . P e r h a p s a l s o cf. 5 6 : 1 2 a n d 6 5 : 1 1 . S o e.g. N o r t h , cf. W e s t e r m a n n . S o n o w also Beuken, 'Main'. See also W e s t e r m a n n , 3 1 2 ; A c h t e m e i e r , 35f.

4

8

4

9

5

0

304

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

n o w apparently include foreigners, and those w h o although natural born h a v e apostatised. b) Jesus'

Entry

into

Jerusalem

T h e healing o f blind Bartimaeus, replete with the messianic connotations of his plea for help, is intended b y M a r k not o n l y to c o n c l u d e his ' W a y ' section b y recalling Peter's 'trees-as-men-walking' confession but also to set the scene for J e s u s ' carefully orchestrated entry into J e r u s a l e m .

51

In this

respect D a v i d C a t c h p o l e n o t e s the repetition o f 66dc; t e r m i n o l o g y ( M k 10:46, 5 2 ; 11:8), o f the Davidic acclamation (10:47f; 11:10), o f the reference to i j i a p T i o v (10:50; l l : 7 f ) , of the p r o m i n e n c e o f the salvation t h e m e (10:52; 11:9), and o f the linking o f acclamation with the act o f following (10:52; 11:9).

52

That M a r k devotes as m u c h space as h e does to a detailed chronicle

of what at first s e e m s immaterial detail ought to alert us to its significance. At the s a m e time this section is part o f a larger, double i n t e r c a l a t i o n : Jesus' identity a n d authority: 'triumphal' e n t r y (Ps 118:25f)

53

(11:1-11)

C u r s i n g o f t h e fig-tree

(11:12-14)

I n c i d e n t ( ' c l e a n s i n g ' ? ) in t h e T e m p l e (Isa 5 6 : 7 / J e r 7 : 1 1 )

(11:15-19)

W i t h e r e d fig-tree, a n d m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g

(11: 20-25)

Jesus' identity a n d authority: authority questioned, response in t h e v i n e y a r d p a r a b l e a n d s t o n e s a y i n g ( P s 118:22f)

(11:26 - 1 2 : 1 2 )

Similarly, F . J . Matera had earlier suggested that M a r k frames this material in three w a y s : the S o n of David issue (11:10, [cf. 10:47f]; 12:35f), the double quotation o f Psalm 118 ( l l : 9 f ; 12:10f), and references to the M o u n t of Olives (11:1; 1 3 : 3 ) .

54

M a r k , therefore, s e e m s to regard this section as forming a

unified w h o l e w h i c h deals in s o m e w a y with the relationship b e t w e e n the c o m i n g o f J e s u s a n d the T e m p l e and, o n c e again, the k e y issues are his identity a n d authority (11:28; cf. the p r o g r a m m a t i c r e s p o n s e to the first miracle:

5

1

5

2

TI

€cmv

TOOTO;

6i6axf|

Koavf| K G T '

eôuaiav, 1:27).

55

C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 321ff. G u n d r y , 6 3 4 f , w h o a l l o w s n o s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o b u t s e e s 1 0 : 4 6 - 5 2 o n l y a s b e i n g i n t e g r a l t o J e s u s ' p r e c e d i n g m i n i s t r y , r e g a r d s 11:1 Iff 'as an uneventful e n t r y b y a private pilgrim', 6 3 5 . This h a r d l y s e e m s the plain m e a n i n g of 11:8-10. 'Entry', 3 1 9 . W h i l e not wishing to overstate the connections, G u n d r y ' s dismissal of them, 634, seems hasty. Cf. H o o k e r , 2 6 1 , b u t w i t h 1 2 : 1 - 1 2 a d d e d . Kingship, 68f. S e e C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 227ff, a b o v e . 5

3

5

4

5

5

Jesus'

Entry

into

305

Jerusalem

In terms o f general b a c k g r o u n d , C a t c h p o l e and B r e n t K i n m a n h a v e both d r a w n attention to the i m p o r t a n c e o f the entries o f visiting digni taries in the ancient w o r l d .

56

C a t c h p o l e notes the basic features o f such

entries w h e r e i n J e r u s a l e m w a s involved: they are often the c o n s e q u e n c e of having w o n a great victory and having already achieved considerable status,

involve

a 'formal

and

ceremonial

entry',

entail

greetings,

acclamations, and invocations o f G o d , peak in a visit to the T e m p l e , and e m b r a c e s o m e sort of cultic activity. J e s u s ' entry clearly shares a n u m b e r o f these standard t r a i t s .

57

In addition, granted M a r k ' s interest in the O T as Rahmen

for his gospel

and the thorough-going O T language of the acclamation ( l l : 9 f ) , w e should p e r h a p s also look for possible O T antecedents; but as K i n m a n points out celebratory e n t r a n c e s into J e r u s a l e m are n o t c o m m o n l y detailed in t h e OT.

5 8

Nevertheless, w i t h o u t m i n i m i s i n g the substantial a g r e e m e n t w i t h

features of c o n t e m p o r a r y entries, the O T parallels suggests that M a r k also intends J e s u s ' entry to b e understood particularly in the light o f 'royal' (to use K i n m a n ' s terminology, 1 K g s 1; cf. Zech 9:9-10), and possibly 'coming o f the ark' (2 S a m 6 ) , arrivals. First, in terms of the 'royal' category, the accent on ' S o n o f D a v i d ' in the preceding Bartimaeus pericope and the k i n g d o m language (cf. rj cpxoucvri p a a i X c i a TOU TraTpoc;

fjucjv Aaui6, M k 11:10) stress its 'regal' n a t u r e .

59

Jesus

also rides u p o n a animal rather than walks (cf. 1 K g s 1:33, 3 8 ; Z e c h 9 : 9 ) ,

60

he is hailed as king ( M k 11:10; 1 K g s 1:34, 39; Zech 9:9), the attendant chorus

5

6

K i n m a n , Entry, 2 5 - 6 5 , f r o m w h o s e w o r k — a l t h o u g h it is c o n c e r n e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h L u k e — a n u m b e r o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s a r e d r a w n . S e e a l s o t h e b r i e f e r s u m m a r i e s in Catchpole's earlier article, 'Entry', 3 1 9 - 2 1 , w h e r e h e notes v a r i o u s parallels with the a r r i v a l s o f A l e x a n d e r in J o s . Ant. 1 1 . 3 2 5 - 3 9 , 3 4 2 - 4 5 ; A p o l l o n i u s in 2 M a c e 4 : 2 1 f ; J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 4 : 1 9 - 2 5 ; 5 : 4 5 - 5 4 ; J o s . Ant. 1 2 . 3 1 2 , 3 4 8 f ; J o n a t h a n M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 1 0 : 8 6 ; S i m o n M a c c a b a e u s , 1 M a c e 1 3 : 4 3 - 4 8 , 4 9 - 5 1 ; A n t i g o n u s , B.J. 1.73f; Ant. 1 3 . 3 0 4 - 6 ; e t c . , a n d n o w Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 59ff; C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 470ff, c i t i n g a l s o P e t e r s o n , ' E i n h o l u n g ' . 5

7

5

8

5

9

6

0

C a t c h p o l e , ibid., 3 2 1 ; cf. K i n m a n , Entry, K i n m a n , Entry, 4 8 - 6 5 .

9 1 - 1 2 2 ; a n d Duff, ' M a r c h ' .

S e e a l s o M a t e r a , Kingship, 7 0 - 7 4 . G u n d r y ' s c l a i m , 6 2 6 , t h a t M a r k is u n i n t e r e s t e d in J e s u s ' k i n g s h i p s i n c e h e fails t o q u o t e Z e c h 9:9 ( M t d o e s ) a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e a m b i g u i t y o f T T C S A O S " , is difficult t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h h i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t J e s u s is a c t i n g ' m e s s i a n i c a l l y b y c a r r y i n g o u t Z e c h 9 : 9 ' , 6 3 3 . W h i l e M a r k m a y n o t w i s h t o e m p h a s i s e t h e fact, t h e p a r a l l e l s h e r e o f f e r e d s u g g e s t t h a t a k i n g s h i p m o t i f is n o t far a w a y . R a t h e r t h a n r e p u d i a t e t h e i d e a of J e s u s a s I s r a e l ' s k i n g , M a r k a n C h r i s t o l o g y r e c a s t s I s r a e l ' s i d e a l o f k i n g s h i p . Mark's TTCJXOS', while perhaps indicating 'horse' to a R o m a n audience (so G u n d r y , 6 2 6 ) , is a n o t u n c o m m o n P a l e s t i n i a n t e r m for a d o n k e y c o l t a n d M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e c o u l d h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r e n o u g h w i t h t h e s t o r y t o r e c o g n i s e w h a t a n i m a l w a s in v i e w , M i c h e l , ' F r a g e ' .

306

Isaiah's

Promise

...

from t h o s e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e 118:26),

6 2

Malachi's

61

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

has messianic o v e r t o n e s ( M k l l : 9 f ; cf. Ps

a n d the c o v e r i n g o f the p a t h with g a r m e n t s recalls J e h u ' s

acclamation (cf. 2 K g s 9 : 1 2 - 1 3 ) .

63

T h e detailed account o f J e s u s ' prepara

tions, in particular the thorough instructions, and the subsequent recital of t h e i r fulfilment

not only suggests

their import

but

thereby

invites

c o m p a r i s o n with the pattern o f D a v i d ' s preparations for S o l o m o n (1 K g s 1:33, 38). O f course, M a r k has twice informed us that Jesus has accepted the designation ' S o n o f D a v i d ' . A n d as, for example, Psalms

of Solomon

17:21-

22, 30-33 m a k e s clear—granted this is a royal task in the O T (e.g. 2 K g s 12; 2 3 ) 6 4 — t h e c o m i n g o f the Davidic King sits alongside an expectation o f the p u r g i n g o f J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is in effect w h a t J e s u s signals in the outer court o f the T e m p l e (see b e l o w ) . the d y y a p c i a

conventions

6 6

6 5

In addition, there are s u c h features as

and, d e p e n d i n g o n the extent to w h i c h the

later written sources reflect earlier traditions, similarities with the 'colt' o f the m e s s i a n i c a l l y interpreted oracle o f G e n e s i s 4 9 : 1 0 - 1 2 heighten the royal and messianic character o f the e v e n t .

68

6 7

which

further

T a k e n together

this data suggests that M a r k intentionally presents J e s u s ' c o m i n g in 'royal', and almost certainly, 'messianic' terms which are then picked up in J e s u s ' 6

1

It is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e s i z e o f t h e c r o w d i n v o l v e d . M a r k u s e s t h e t e r m s T T O X X O I a n d a X X o i , b u t d o e s n o t u s e o x X o s T T X C I O T O S , a s h e d o e s in e.g. M k 4:1. O n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s i z e o f J e s u s ' e n t r y v e r s u s t h a t o f P i l a t e , s e e K i n m a n , Entry, 1 5 9 - 7 2 . 1

2

£ W e r n e r , " ' H o s a n n a ' " , c i t i n g e.g. b. Pesah 1 1 7 b ; y. Meg. 2 . 1 ; L o h s e , TDNT, 9.682-84, c i t i n g Midr. Ps. 1 1 8 : 2 2 ; S c h n e i d e r , TDNT, 2 . 6 6 7 - 7 1 ; J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 257ff; Str-B, 1 . 8 4 5 - 5 0 . A l t h o u g h m u c h o f t h e e v i d e n c e is q u i t e l a t e , s e e B u r g e r , Jesus, 4 8 , it is w i d e s p r e a d w h i c h s u g g e s t s a n e a r l y o r i g i n , C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 3 f f , c i t i n g a l s o Tg. Pss 1 1 8 . O n t h e probable m e a n i n g of 'Hosanna', see Fitzmyer, 'Interpretation'. 6

3

6

4

6

5

6

6

6

7

6

8

C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 2 f , in c i t i n g t h e c a s e o f t h e y o u n g e r C a t o ( P l u t a r c h , Cato Minor xii. I ) w h o ' w a s a c c o r d e d s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t . . . b y h i s t r o o p s ' s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y o v e r t o n e s w o u l d s u i t a m e s s i a n i c l e a d e r . B u r k i l l , 'Strain', 3 4 , a n d K i n m a n , Entry, 9 5 , a l s o s u g g e s t t h e ' M o u n t o f O l i v e s ' s e t t i n g ( Z e c h 1 4 : 1 - 5 ; cf. 2 S a m 1 5 : 3 0 ) ; b u t s e e G u n d r y ' s criticisms, 6 3 3 . J e r e m i a s , Jesus, 4 1 - 4 4 . M a r c u s , 1 3 8 ; D a v e n p o r t , '"Anointed"', 6 8 ; Hamilton, 'Temple', 370ff; also Kee, Community, 1 2 6 , w h e r e h e c i t e s t h e u s e o f t h e c l e a n s i n g m o t i f in I s a 5 6 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a D a v i d i c k i n g a t Q u m r a n in 4 Q F l o r a n d 4 Q P B l e s s , b u t I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o s u b s t a n t i a t e his claims; see Seeley, 'Act', 277. I m p r e s s m e n t , w h i l e p e r m i t t e d for o t h e r s , w a s v e r y m u c h a ' r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e ' , Stauffer, ' M e s s i a s ' , 8 5 ; D e r r e t t , ' P a l m ' . T h e 6 Kiipios p r o b a b l y m e a n s n o m o r e t h a n o n e w h o is a ' l e g i t i m a t e c l a i m a n t ' . J u d g e , NDIEC, 1.43. O n t h e m e s s i a n i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f G e n 4 9 : 1 0 f f (e.g. Tg. Onq.', Tg. Ps.-J.; Tg. Neof.; cf. 4 Q P B l e s s ) a n d its c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Z e c h 9 : 9 , B l e n k i n s o p p , ' O r a c l e ' ; M a t e r a , Kingship, 71ff; cf. P e s c h , 2 . 1 7 9 . Pace K e l b e r , 'Kingdom, 94ff, w h o h a s M a r k rejecting t h e a c c l a m a t i o n ; s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in e.g. C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 6 ; a n d T e l f o r d , Barren, 2 5 1 - 6 9 .

Jesus'

Entry

into

307

Jerusalem

anointing (14:3), the repeated s t a t e m e n t s d u r i n g the trial (15:2, 9, 1 2 ) , P i l a t e ' s e p i g r a p h y o n the c r o s s (15:26), a n d the m o c k e r y o f the J e w s (15:32).

69

T h a t M a r k records that 'those going before and after' offered a

m e s s i a n i c a c c l a m a t i o n h a r d l y m e a n s h e rejects t h e n o t i o n o f J e s u s as Messiah. A s i d e from indicating h o w Jesus should h a v e been received, it is also an ironic indication that the c r o w d , w h o has not b e e n privy to J e s u s ' p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s o r e n s u i n g teaching, is n o further a d v a n c e d in its p e r c e p t i o n o f w h a t this e n t a i l s t h a n w a s P e t e r w h e n h e offered

his

confession at the beginning of the ' W a y ' . But w h a t o f the idea o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g h i m s e l f which is so crucial to the INE? K i n m a n has suggested s o m e parallels with the ' c o m i n g o f the ark' model w h i c h has both 'royal'—'the Lord is K i n g ' (cf. Ps 24:8; Isa 43:15; Zeph

3:15)—and 'military'

associations, but

representative o f Y a h w e h ' s kingly p r e s e n c e .

70

is first

and

foremost

H e points out that M a r k ' s

interest in J e s u s ' preparation for his entry is not only reminiscent o f those for S o l o m o n b u t also for the c o m i n g of the ark to J e r u s a l e m in 2 S a m u e l 6—'each b e i n g a royal w e l c o m e o f a s o r t ' .

71

In this case 'the concern for the

transport o f J e s u s , the king, could b e seen as analogous to the preparations m a d e for the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h , the king, symbolically in the a r k ' .

72

In

this r e s p e c t , K i n m a n n o t e s the ' n e w n e s s ' o f the w a g o n ( 2 S a m 6 : 3 ) , s u g g e s t i n g it is set a s i d e for s a c r e d p u r p o s e s , c o m p a r i n g it w i t h

the

' u n u s e d ' colt. G r a n t e d that w h e n c o m p a r t e d to L u k e ' s treatment o f this c o n n e c t i o n , M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n is not q u i t e as o b v i o u s .

7 3

Still, given

M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s to date, the expression 'in the n a m e o f the L o r d ' almost certainly m e a n s 'with authority to act on b e h a l f o f the L o r d ' and therefore J e s u s is at the very least Y a h w e h ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .

74

C a n w e say m o r e ? W e have already suggested that M a r k ' s introductory sentence and J e s u s - a s - Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f imply that J e s u s is in s o m e 6

9

7

0

7

1

O n t h e k i n g s h i p o f J e s u s in t h e p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e , s e e e s p e c i a l l y M a t e r a , Kingship. S e e h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e O T p a t t e r n , ibid., 5 8 - 6 0 . Ibid., 9 1 . Ibid., 9 2 . Ibid., lOlf. H o w e v e r , in t h e l i g h t o f J e s u s ' j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m , it is i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e L X X o f 1 S a m 6 : 1 9 t h e s o n s o f J e c h o n i a h d i e b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t rejoice a t t h e r e t u r n o f t h e a r k , cf. P s 68:lff. 7

2

7

3

7

4

G u n d r y , 6 3 1 . Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 5 9 f , o b s e r v e s t h a t o n o c c a s i o n G r a e c o - R o m a n e n t r i e s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in e p i p h a n i c t e r m s t a k i n g o n t h e a s p e c t o f t h e e n t r a n c e o f a d e i t y . G i v e n t h e O T e c h o e s , h o w e v e r , it is d o u b t f u l if M a r k i n t e n d e d h i s a c c o u n t t o b e r e a d p r i m a r i l y in t h i s light.

308

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

w a y uniquely to b e identified with the very presence of Y a h w e h , that is, h e is the S o n o f G o d .

T h e motifs in M a r k l l : l f f w o u l d c e r t a i n l y n o t b e

antithetical to the O T idea o f a ' d i v i n e ' e n t r y .

75

Further, as C a t c h p o l e

pointed out, these entries often c a m e as a celebratory c o n s e q u e n c e o f a victory already achieved. Is this the case for M a r k ? Catchpole, in rejecting R e i m a r u s ' o p i n i o n that J e s u s h a s in m i n d a ' s e c u l a r k i n g d o m ' , points to 'the presupposed victory that is clearly gained b y healings, o f w h i c h M a r k 10:46-52 is intended as a typical e x a m p l e ' .

76

A s s u m i n g an I N E paradigm,

this is certainly the case in that J e s u s ' healings testify to Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g 'in strength' o n b e h a l f o f his p e o p l e .

77

It is even m o r e so, however, if o n e

reads the e n t r y in the light o f M a r k ' s constant and e m p h a t i c portrayal o f J e s u s as the o n e w h o has defeated the d e m o n i c (3:22-27; cf. 1:21-8; 5:1-20; 7:24-30; 9:14-29; also 3:15; 6:7-13; and 1:34, 3 9 ; 3 : 1 0 f ) . would

78

This connection

o n l y b e r e i n f o r c e d i f t h e ' e n t r y ' g e n r e led o n e to e x p e c t the

possibility o f an earlier victory. A l o n g s i m i l a r lines, Paul Duff has recently argued o n the b a s i s o f a putative Z e c h a r i a h 14 b a c k g r o u n d to M a r k 11:1-23 and again

understood

within the Graeco-Roman genre o f 'entries' that M a r k presents J e s u s as the D i v i n e W a r r i o r (of Z e c h a r i a h ) w h o c o m e s to J e r u s a l e m a n d p u r g e s T e m p l e , a m o n g other things, o f its t r a d e r s .

79

the

Granted that the idea o f the

Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f is p i v o t a l , a p a r t from t h e c o n c e p t u a l i d e a o f 8 0

e x p e l l i n g t h e t r a d e r s w h i c h m a y reflect Z e c h a r i a h 1 4 : 2 1 b — a l t h o u g h M a r k ' s J e s u s ejects not just the sellers but also the buyers—there is in fact very little else of Zechariah 14 echoed h e r e .

81

Starting out at the M o u n t of

O l i v e s ( M k 11:1) m a y just possibly b e an allusion to Z e c h a r i a h 14:4, but then, M a r k 11:23 notwithstanding, there is nothing that corresponds to the predicted cataclysmic results (Zech 4:4b, 6-8). That all the c o o k i n g pots in J e r u s a l e m will b e h o l y (Zech 14:21) differs from J e s u s ' interdicting those

7

5

7

6

7

7

7

8

7

9

8

0

8

1

S e e K i n m a n , Entry, ' E n t r y ' , 322ff.

5 9 f , c i t i n g L X X P s s 2 3 : 7 - 1 0 ; 46:6ff; 67:24ff; 131:7f.

S e e C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 170ff, a b o v e . See again Chapter 6, pp. 152-60, 163-64, 166-69. ' M a r c h ' , 6 5 n n 4 2 a n d 4 4 , c i t i n g in s u p p o r t o f a Z e c h 1 4 h o r i z o n , E v a n s , 'Galilee'; R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; S c h w e i z e r , Mark, 2 3 1 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' ; M a l b o n , Narrative, 121-24; and Catchpole, 'Entry'. R e c e n t l y , Tilly, ' K a n a a n a n e r ' , in e x a m i n i n g t h e T a r g u m s h a s s h o w n t h a t can a l s o r e f e r t o ' b e t r u g e r i s c h e n ' a n d ' s o z i a l d i s q u a l i f i z i e r t e H a n d l e r ' , 35f. B u t w h e t h e r this is w h a t J e s u s i m p l i e s b y X ^ a T a i is a n o t h e r m a t t e r ( s e e b e l o w ) . S e e Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 6 .

Jesus'

carrying a vessel (Mk 1 1 : 1 6 ) , reference

to

Yahweh's

unambiguously so.

Entry

82

into

309

Jerusalem

a n d a l t h o u g h Z e c h a r i a h 14:5b m i g h t b e a

procession

to

Jerusalem

it

is

not

in

fact

Nevertheless, given Mark's earlier presentation of

J e s u s , it w o u l d a p p e a r that w e h a v e h e r e t h e e n t r y o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s ' D i v i n e W a r r i o r ' into J e r u s a l e m .

83

In the s a m e vein, the exultant praise o f

the ' m a n y ' is entirely in keeping with the j o y and praise w h i c h a c c o m p a n y Y a h w e h ' s restorational c o m i n g to Zion in the I N E . G i v e n t h e foregoing a n d o u r a r g u m e n t for the c o r r e l a t i o n o f M a r k ' s ' W a y ' with the I N E , it is p o s s i b l e that there are also e c h o e s o f the j o y o u s p r o c e s s i o n o f Y a h w e h a n d h i s p e o p l e to Z i o n in I s a i a h 3 5 .

Although

displaying b u t few direct linguistic parallels (e.g. 'blind', ' w a y ' ) , there are a number

of interesting conceptual correspondences: A ) the coming o f

Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e in J e s u s , the S o n o f G o d and Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r w i t h v e n g e a n c e ' t o s a v e ' ( l l : 9 f ; Isa 35:4), B) the blind m a n is e n c o u r a g e d (10:49; cf. Isa 35:4), receives his sight (10:52; cf. Isa 35:5), and is thus ' s a v e d ' (10:52; cf. Isa 35:4), C ) they are o n the ' W a y ' (10:52; cf. 4 6 ; Isa 35:8), D ) t h e y e n t e r Z i o n with j o y (11:1, 8f; cf. Isa 3 5 : 1 0 ) , a n d E ) d e c l a r e t h e p r a i s e s o f G o d (11:10b, (hoavva

kv TOIC; u i | n a T o i c ; ; cf. Isa 35:2, TO UIÔC; TOU 6 € 0 \ J ) .

What

s e e m to h a v e h e r e in t h e c e l e b r a t o r y ' e n t r y ' o f t h e S o n o f G o d

we

and

victorious W a r r i o r a c c o m p a n i e d b y his ' h e a l e d ' p e o p l e into J e r u s a l e m is the M a r k a n equivalent o f the c l i m a x o f the I N E . H o w e v e r , M a r k h a s a l r e a d y a d u m b r a t e d o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s that all is n o t w e l l .

K i n m a n ' s o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e d i s c u s s i o n is to

s h o w , in t e r m s o f b o t h the general 'entry' and m o r e particular ' r o y a l ' a n d 'messianic' genres, the significance o f Jesus not being m e t b y city officials o r leading citizens n o r b e i n g escorted b a c k to the city. S u c h a response, or lack thereof, to J e s u s ' T i a p o u a i a c a n o n l y b e interpreted as an intentional a n d blatant affront.

84

T h a t their first meeting, w h e n at last the authorities d o

appear, is o n e o f confrontation ( M k 11:27-33) only heightens the insult a n d h e l p s explain t h e severity o f J e s u s ' r e s p o n s e in the p a r a b l e o f the tenants (Mark 12:1-12).

In k e e p i n g w i t h I s a i a h ' s p r o m i s e d I N E a n d M a l a c h i ' s

w a r n i n g , I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' - d e l i v e r e r and S o n o f G o d h a s at last 8

2

8

3

8

4

A s Duff recognises, 'March', 5 6 , telling against Roth's suggestion, 'Cleansing', 177f; see B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 77f. T h e integration, o r at least blurring, of roles of the Divine W a r r i o r a n d the Messiah c a n b e s e e n in e.g. 4 E z r a 1 3 : 1 - 3 , cf. v. 3 7 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 7 n 5 5 . K i n m a n , ibid., 1 2 1 .

310

Isaiah's

c o m e to Z i o n .

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

B u t in a s t u n n i n g r e v e r s a l o f t h e I N E h o p e , official

Jerusalem h a s in a m o s t pointed m a n n e r not w e l c o m e d h i m . W h a t might transpire w h e n h e 'suddenly c o m e s to his T e m p l e ' is not a h a p p y thought.

85

III. Jesus and the Temple a)

Introduction

O n c e a g a i n the t h e m e s o f the I N E e x p e c t a t i o n a n d the a n c i e n t formal 'entry' g e n r e coincide. A standard feature o f the formal ' e n t r y ' is that the processional entrance is followed b y a ceremonial visit to a temple; M a r k ' s a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' T e m p l e visit is therefore true to t y p e .

8 6

Duff's article

offers an additional insightful nuance. T o offer sacrifice or to participate in s o m e sort o f cultic activity a m o u n t e d to an ' a c t o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n ' , ' p r o v i d e d t h e c o n q u e r o r the religious l e g i t i m a t i o n to r u l e ' .

8 7

and

In M a r k ,

h o w e v e r , w e hear nothing o f a regular cultic activity but instead o f J e s u s ' condemnation of present practice.

H e r e his p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as

D a v i d ' s S o n r e s o n a t e s with the a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f T e m p l e c l e a n s i n g (again, Pss. Sol. 1 7 ) . Similarly, at the c u l m i n a t i o n o f the I N E , Y a h w e h is greatly c o n c e r n e d with the restoration o f 'his h o u s e ' (56:5, 7; 60:7; cf. M k 11:17).

In v i e w o f the implications o f M a r k ' s introductory

appeal to M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , it is not h a r d see in J e s u s , as T. A. Burkill suggests, 'the Lord o f the temple and the God-sent guardian o f its s a n c t i t y ' .

88

Mark's

account o f J e s u s ' visiting the T e m p l e and looking around s e e m s intended to set the stage for his actions o n the next d a y .

89

H e also twice mentions

that J e s u s does not remain in J e r u s a l e m (11:11b, 1 9 ) , a w i t h d r a w a l w h i c h m a y indicate the messianic K i n g ' s awareness, o n the basis o f his s n u b b e d entry, that h e is u n w e l c o m e in his o w n c i t y .

8

5

8

6

90

A l t h o u g h of s o m e relevance, since they d o not immediately involve allusions to I s a i a h (e.g. I s a 5 6 in t h e T e m p l e ) o r M a l a c h i ( t h e ' c u r s i n g ' ) , w e will n o t b e e x a m i n i n g t h e c l a i m s o f t h e f a l s e w i t n e s s e s a t t h e trial, 1 4 : 5 8 , n o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e v e i l b e i n g t o r n , 1 5 : 3 8 . O n t h i s s e e e.g. D o n a h u e , Kingship, 1 0 3 - 3 8 , 201ff; J u e l , Messiah, 1 1 7 - 2 2 5 ; L u h r m a n n , ' Z e r s t o r u n g ' ; M a t e r a , Kingship, 137ff; V o g t l e , ' T e m p e l w o r t e ' ; a n d K i m , ' T e m p l e ' . E.g. A r c h e l a u s ' 'royal' entry into Jerusalem w a s also followed b y a procession to the T e m p l e , J o s . Ant. 1 7 . 1 9 4 f f , C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 1 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 60ff. 'March', 62. 'Strain', 37. Lane, 398; Gundry, 635. 8

7

8

8

8

9

9

0

Pesch, 2.187, s u g g e s t s lack of a c c o m m o d a t i o n .

The

Fig-Tree

and

the

311

Temple

In terms o f M a r k ' s literary technique, it is c o m m o n l y accepted that the i n t e r c a l a t i o n o f the c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree and t h e T e m p l e - ' i n c i d e n t ' reflects his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m e t h o d o f i n d i c a t i n g that the p a s s a g e s

are

mutually interpretive and s y m b o l i s e the e n d o f the cultic practice in the T e m p l e , a n d e v e n its p h y s i c a l destruction (cf. 1 3 : 2 ) . recently been questioned examined.

9 2

91

This has more

o n v a r i o u s g r o u n d s a n d w i l l n e e d to b e

A related issue is the apparent contradiction b e t w e e n the

clear statements in M a r k c o n c e r n i n g the destruction o f the T e m p l e (e.g. 13:lff) and the s y m b o l i s m o f J e s u s ' action in the 'cleansing', or better still 93

'incident' (to u s e M . D . H o o k e r ' s non-prejudicial t e r m ) , w h i c h s e e m s not to signify destruction ( l l : 1 5 f )

9 4

Further, h o w is o n e to understand J e s u s '

aphoristic teaching in the outer court and his ' s t o n e ' saying at the end o f the 'wicked tenants' parable? b) The Fig-Tree

and the

Temple

J e s u s ' cursing the fig-tree has generated a good deal o f discussion as W . R. Telford's e x t e n s i v e s u r v e y s h o w s .

9 5

M a n y scholars h a v e understood its

relationship to the T e m p l e incident as a mutually interpretative c o m p l e x such that the cursing o f the tree bespeaks the T e m p l e ' s future.

However,

R. H. G u n d r y h a s recently devoted a entire subsection o f his c o m m e n t a r y to challenging this near-consensus, and particularly Telford, w h o s e m o n o graph has largely shaped present day d e b a t e .

96

G u n d r y ' s primary points,

w h i c h m a y s e r v e as a c o n v e n i e n t s u m m a r y o f t h e major (and

9

1

9

2

some

S e e e.g. D o b s c h u t z , ' E r z a h l e r k u n s t ' ; D o n a h u e , Christ, 5 8 - 6 3 ; A c h t e m e i e r , 2 3 - 2 6 ; T e l f o r d , Barren, in s u m m a r y , 161ff; B u r k i l l , 'Strain', 3 8 ; S c h n e l l b a c h e r , ' T h e o l o g y ' ; K e l b e r , 9 7 - 1 0 2 ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' ; E d w a r d s , ' S a n d w i c h e s ' ; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 239ff; a n d e s p e c i a l l y n o w S h e p h e r d , Sandwich, 2 0 9 f f . D o w d , Prayer, 3 9 , n o t e s t h a t t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e fig tree g o e s back to Victor of Antioch's sixth cent, c o m m e n t a r y o n M a r k . E . g . R a i s a n e n , 2 4 f ( c i t i n g W e r n e r , Einflufi,

a n d D s c h u l n i g g , Sprache),

and Gundry,

671ff. 9

3

9

4

9

5

9

6

' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 7. This h a s e n g e n d e r e d considerable debate concerning Jesus' historical intention. O u r c o n c e r n is w i t h h o w M a r k p r e s e n t s t h e i d e a . Barren, 1 - 3 8 . S p e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s c o n t i n u e t o a p p e a r , m o s t r e c e n t l y i n c l u d i n g e.g. a s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a p p r o a c h in O a k m a n , ' C u r s i n g ' ; K r a u s e , ' N a r r a t e d ' , w h o a r g u e s f o r H o s 9:10-17 as the basic horizon; a n d the midrashic approach of Buchanan, 'Withering' (on M t ) w h o sees an evolutionary process beginning with Ps 1 through Jer 17, Ezek 47, a n d Z e c h 14. S e e G u n d r y , 6 7 1 - 8 2 ; a n d a l s o D o w d , Prayer, 7 2 - 7 5 . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , G u n d r y c i t e s D o w d in s u p p o r t o f h i s c a s e , b u t fails t o m e n t i o n h e r a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e fig t r e e i n c i d e n t b o t h t e a c h e s a b o u t faith a n d s y m b o l i s e s j u d g e m e n t o n J e r u s a l e m , Prayer, 5 5 .

312

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

m i n o r ) difficulties, are as f o l l o w s .

97

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

A ) W h i l e fruitlessness, fig-trees, and

figs are u n d o u b t e d l y c o m m o n J e w i s h m e t a p h o r s , M a r k ' s n e e d to explain J e w i s h practices in 7:2-4 'contradicts the argumentative presupposition that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e w a s steeped in J e w i s h l o r e ' .

9 8

B) O T prophetic actions

arose out o f an intention to c o m m u n i c a t e , not out o f hunger, and did not entail the miraculous. C ) In the six O T e x a m p l e s cited b y T e l f o r d ,

99

the fig-

tree does n o t represent the T e m p l e b u t Israel, and even if o n e allows the T e m p l e to r e p r e s e n t Israel, M a r k ' s u s e o f the fig-tree i m a g e d o e s not c o r r e s p o n d to O T usages.

D ) M a r k ' s text does not a d m i t o f a s y m b o l i c

interpretation, since only a failure to h a v e b o r n e fruit constitutes religious sterility and J e s u s is not looking for fruit. not correspond

to t h e d e s t r u c t i v e

E ) T h e events in the T e m p l e do

implications of the cursing.

For

e x a m p l e , J e s u s d o e s not s e e k to stop sacrifices in the i n n e r court, b u t i n s t e a d s i m p l y p r e v e n t s c o m m e r c i a l traffic in the o u t e r m o s t

court.

1 0 0

F ) Telford's attempts to excise 11:24-25 being unconvincing, the second half o f the fig-tree story teaches the p o w e r o f p r a y e r and i n d i c a t e s that the w h o l e a c c o u n t does not c o n c e r n the T e m p l e . G ) Finally, ( a l t h o u g h from this a u t h o r ' s p e r s p e c t i v e not c r u c i a l ) , 'this m o u n t a i n ' c a n n o t m e a n the Temple mount. T h e array is impressive, but to b o r r o w G u n d r y ' s question, h o w well do these arguments practices

1 0 1

hold up?

A ) Mark

7:2-4 deals

with

extra-Torah

and implies nothing as to the familiarity o f M a r k ' s audience

with O T imagery.

In fact, M a r k ' s frequent appeal to the O T s u g g e s t s

otherwise. O n the other hand, Telford has recently produced an extensive o v e r v i e w o f G r a e c o - R o m a n v i e w s o f fig-trees w h e r e i n h e n o t e s

that

several revered fig-trees w e r e associated with R o m e , the withering o f o n e of which w a s regarded as an o m i n o u s p o r t e n t .

102

O n these latter grounds

alone, the significance o f J e s u s ' action for the city could easily have b e e n divined.

B ) W h a t e v e r J e s u s ' original m o t i v a t i o n in a p p r o a c h i n g the fig-

tree, there is n o t h i n g to disallow h i m s u b s e q u e n t l y m a k i n g a prophetic point if h e s o desired. G u n d r y ' s o w n argument assumes as m u c h w h e n h e 9

7

F o r a t h o r o u g h s u r v e y of the issues raised over the past 1 5 0 years, again Telford, 1-38. Ibid., 6 7 2 .

Barren, 9

8

9

9

1

0

0

1 0 1

1

0

2

Barren, 1 4 2 - 5 6 ; n a m e l y , J e r 8:13; I s a 2 8 : 3 - 4 ; H o s 9 : 1 0 , 1 6 ; M i c 7:1; J o e l 1 : 7 , 1 2 . Following Hamilton, Temple'. S e e G u n d r y ' s d i s c u s s i o n , 3 5 8 f , a n d for c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l . B o o t h , Purity, 1 5 5 - 2 1 6 . 'More', 299f.

The

Fig-Tree

and

the

313

Temple

states that the w h o l e e v e n t a r o s e out o f J e s u s ' h u n g e r , and only later resulted in a discourse on faith. S e c o n d , there is no logical necessity that non-miraculous O T prophetic s y m b o l i s m must b e determinative for J e s u s ' actions.

C ) G r a n t e d the i m p o r t a n c e o f the T e m p l e for J e r u s a l e m , a n d

J e r u s a l e m for Israel—Jerusalem b e i n g s o m e t h i n g o f a s y n e c d o c h e for t h e nation—it is difficult to see w h y the fig-tree as a symbol for Israel could not also be used

to s y m b o l i s e t h e

Temple and

its

establishment.

1 0 3

F u r t h e r m o r e , T e l f o r d p r o d u c e s n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s that link h o r t i c u l tural i m a g e r y o f Israel flourishing, the ' m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' , and the proper operation of the T e m p l e and c u l t u s .

104

With regard to h o w M a r k ' s

J e s u s uses the fig-tree s y m b o l o v e r against the diverse u s a g e s in the O T (which diversity itself a n s w e r s G u n d r y ' s objection), it is context

that sets

up the referent—in M a r k at least the T e m p l e establishment—just as is the case in the various O T passages. G u n d r y later happily allows that M a r k 12:1-12 is b a s e d on Isaiah 5:lff e v e n though 'Jesus shifts the e m p h a s i s ' b y omitting the kind o f p r o d u c e the vine gives and, b y introducing instead tenant farmers, m a k i n g the point not the destruction o f the v i n e y a r d b u t the tenants. D ) H o w e v e r w e h a n d l e the difficulty o f J e s u s ' expectation o f the t r e e ,

1 0 5

e v e n allowing that 'not the season . . . ' indicates that J e s u s w a s

looking for b u d s not f i g s , b u t d o e s n o t find it.

106

the issue remains that J e s u s expects something

E i t h e r w a y , the s y m b o l i s m o f an

outwardly

productive plant that fails to m e e t the expectations it generates is retained. ( D e p e n d i n g o n the p r e c i s e t i m e o f year, n o b u d s m a y w e l l indicate n o future figs.) E ) T h e lack o f correspondence b e t w e e n the ' c u r s i n g ' and the 'cleansing' has already b e e n noted as a significant consideration. This will be dealt with in m o r e detail b e l o w , but suffice to say here that they m a y not b e as m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e as is s o m e t i m e s s u g g e s t e d a n d , g i v e n o u r

1

0

3

S e e D o w d , Prayer, 3 9 , w h o n o t e s t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t r e e s a n d t e m p l e s i n t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . V o n K i e n l e , ' F i e g e n b a u m ' , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e fig t r e e r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p a r t o f t h e T e m p l e c r o w d w h i c h fails t o r e s p o n d t o J e s u s . W h i l e t h e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n is r i g h t — o b v i o u s l y n o t e v e r y I s r a e l i t e is c o n d e m n e d — M a r k ' s c o n c e r n s e e m s m o r e g e n e r a l , i.e. t h e passing of the old religious establishment a n d the reconstitution of the n e w . 104 T e l f o r d , Barren, 1 4 0 f . T h e t e x t s a r e c i t e d b e l o w in t h e s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e ' m o u n t a i n ' in M k 1 1 : 2 2 ; s e e a l s o F e l d m a n , Parables, 151ff. 1 0 5 A g a i n s e e T e l f o r d , Barren, natives, 673f. 1

0

6

1-38; a n d G u n d r y ' s brief r e v i e w of m o r e recent alter

G u n d r y , 6 3 6 , c i t i n g . B a c o n , DCG, 217; a n d Carrington, 237.

1 . 5 9 3 ; C h r i s t i e , Palestine,

118-20; Bishop,

Jesus,

314

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

argument to date regarding contextual awareness o f O T texts, the Jeremiah 7 quotation could w e l l imply judgement. Point F ) is m o r e substantial.

T h e s e c o n d part o f the story is indeed

developed into a lesson on faith (vv. 22-25) and, b e c a u s e w e are concerned 107

w i t h the text as it stands, v e r s e s 2 4 - 2 5 m u s t b e e x p l a i n e d in

situ.

(Incidentally, that G u n d r y s e e m s to regard the defining influence o f verses 22-25 as the most powerful element of his case almost implies that without t h e m Telford's position would b e quite strong.) T h e matter turns o n o n e crucial issue: is the m e a n i n g of the fig-tree incident necessarily determined b y the t e a c h i n g o n m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith? mountain-moving

material

Regardless of how

is u n d e r s t o o d ,

determinative link safely b e assumed?

can

such

a

the

rigorously

In spite o f G u n d r y ' s and Telford's

agreement o n this point, I think not. M a r k ' s J e s u s seems to m e to b e quite adept at c h a n g i n g tack if the situation offers a rationale for doing s o .

1 0 8

T h e famous twists and turns o f the 'salt-sayings' crux of 9:49-50 appear to b e the result o f a l i n k a g e forged solely o n the b a s i s o f their c o m m o n t e r m i n o l o g y and related if shifting t h e m e s .

1 0 9

Similarly, the disciples'

forgetting b r e a d leads to a w a r n i n g about the leaven o f H e r o d and the Pharisees, w h i c h then turns into a rebuke over hardness o f heart (8:14-21). J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g o n t h e disciples' relationship to o n e a n o t h e r in 10:35-44 b e c o m e s t h e o c c a s i o n to g i v e the p u r p o s e b e h i n d his d e a t h ( 1 0 : 4 5 ) . P e r h a p s , t o o , this t e n d e n c y is reflected in the w a y M a r k ' s J e s u s often c o m b i n e s t w o O T texts in u n u s u a l w a y s .

1 1 0

N o w these are clearly not

w e l l - f l a g g e d , n i c e l y p a c e d , s c h o l a r l y d i s c u s s i o n s , b u t n e i t h e r are they entirely unrelated, irrational lurches.

A n d w h i l e in terms o f m e c h a n i c a l

issues s u c h as the n u m b e r or b a l a n c e o f w o r d s or verses n o n e o f these e x a m p l e s c o r r e s p o n d precisely to M a r k 11 or e v e n to each other, they do, nevertheless, m a k e the point. It seems, then, not only possible but even typical that o n e kind of action or teaching b y the M a r k a n J e s u s can give rise to instruction o n another p e r h a p s initially unrelated topic but w h i c h on reflection reveals a greater 1

0

7

1

0

8

1

0

9

1

1

0

R e d a c t i o n a l i n s e r t i o n o r n o , a s T e l f o r d h i m s e l f s e e m s t o a p p r e c i a t e , Barren,

49.

T h i s is n o t s o m u c h a q u e s t i o n o f r e d a c t i o n , b u t i n s t e a d o f w h a t M a r k , a n d p e r h a p s his audience, w a s h a p p y to regard as acceptable continuity. E . g . L a n e , 3 5 0 ; a n d a l o n g s i m i l a r lines, G u n d r y h i m s e l f , 5 1 5 . W h e t h e r M a r k p u t t h e s e s a y i n g s t o g e t h e r o r n o t is i m m a t e r i a l a t t h i s p o i n t s i n c e h e p r e s e n t s t h e m a s J e s u s ' words. Again, Kee, 'Function'.

The

continuity.

Fig-Tree

and the

315

Temple

A n d , unless o n e holds that J e s u s w a s seeking out b u d l e s s b u t

leafy fig-trees s o h e c o u l d c u r s e t h e m as an o p p o r t u n i t y

to teach o n

m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith, c h a n g i n g tack is exactly w h a t h e does here.

This

data suggests that the teaching on 'faith' (11:22-25) does not determine the m e a n i n g o f t h e fig-tree c u r s i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e it d o e s n o t rule metaphorical or s y m b o l i c significance for the fig-tree i n c i d e n t .

111

out

Granted

this, G u n d r y ' s demurrals based on the identity o f the ' m o u n t a i n ' ( G ) are n o longer directly relevant, although they will b e considered later w h e n w e discuss M a r k l l : 2 2 f f . Accordingly, Telford's arguments based o n O T and later use o f fig-tree imagery

1 1 2

and

his recognition of the supporting

intentional ' s a n d w i c h ' s t r u c t u r e

113

role of M a r k ' s

remain intact. Furthermore, w e w o u l d

s u g g e s t that a d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t c a n b e found in t h e M a r k a n matrix o f M a l a c h i i m a g e r y .

114

thorough-going

His opening Malachi 3:1 citation, as

Telford notes (see b e l o w ) , implicitly warns o f 'the L o r d ' s s u d d e n coming to his T e m p l e ' .

T h i s is n o t an i n a p p r o p r i a t e a c c o u n t o f J e s u s ' arrival in

Jerusalem, if 'suddenly'

is t a k e n to stress the n e e d for

preparedness,

particularly in light o f the leaders' absence at his T r a p o u a i a .

115

A n d it is

p e r h a p s e v e n m o r e s o seeing that J e s u s ' activity in J e r u s a l e m is centred o n the T e m p l e

1 1 6

and that h e takes the initiative against his opposition 'in an

unprecedented fashion' (11:15-18; 12:1-12, 3 8 - 4 0 ) .

1 1 7

M o r e o v e r , M a r k ' s o p e n i n g p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J o h n s u g g e s t s that h e is M a l a c h i ' s Elijah ( 1 : 6 ) .

1 1 8

Granted M a l a c h i ' s linking 'the c o m i n g L o r d ' and

Elijah, it is n o t e w o r t h y that M a r k frequently links J e s u s w i t h J o h n .

Not

only is J o h n ' s i m p r i s o n m e n t the catalyst for J e s u s ' b e g i n n i n g his ministry (1:14a; cf. 1:5 a n d 3:7f) b u t e v e n in his death J o h n is still, o m i n o u s l y b o t h 1

1

1

D o w d , Prayer, 3 7 - 5 5 , a p p e a l i n g t o r a b b i n i c c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e e f f i c a c y o f p r a y e r i n t h e f a c e o f t h e T e m p l e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n , t h i n k s t h a t b o t h fig t r e e p a n e l s c o m b i n e j u d g m e n t o n t h e T e m p l e a n d , a s a n a t u r a l c o r r e l a t i v e ( f o r a J e w ? ) , t h e e f f i c a c y o f p r a y e r . It is n o t c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e o f p r a y e r per se is t h e i s s u e f o r M a r k . Barren, 128-204. 1

1

2

1

1

3

Ibid., 4 8 . T o p o i n t o u t t h e s a n d w i c h s t r u c t u r e is n o t t h e r e b y n e c e s s a r i l y a r e j e c t i o n o f h i s t o r y , b u t o n l y t o n o t e t h a t M a r k c o u l d h a v e c h o s e n n o t t o i n c l u d e t h e s t o r y o r t o d o s o in a n o t h e r w a y . M a r k ' s s e t t i n g , a l t h o u g h s o m e w h a t s i m i l a r t o M a t t h e w 2 1 : 2 1 , is d i s t i n c t f r o m t h a t o f t h e o t h e r G o s p e l s ( M t 17:19f; L k 1 7 : 5 - 6 ) . 1

1

4

1

1

5

1

1

6

1

1

7

1

1

8

S e e C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 58ff, 8 7 ; a n d C h a p t e r 7, p p . 1 8 4 f , fh. 3 , a b o v e . S e e C h a p t e r 7 , p . 1 8 5 , fn. 4 , a b o v e . J u e l , Messiah, 127ff; H o o k e r , T r a d i t i o n s ' , 7ff. Burkill, 'Strain', 3 1 , 3 9 . S e e e a r l i e r . C h a p t e r 3 , p . 5 9 , fn. 3 8 ; C h a p t e r 7, p . 1 8 9 , fn. 3 .

316

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

for J e s u s a n d Israel, functioning as J e s u s ' forerunner

( 6 : 1 4 - 2 9 ; 9:9-13).

Further, ' E l i j a h ' w a s to prepare the w a y , lest Y a h w e h at his ' c u r s e ' the land ( M a i 3:21 M T ) .

appearing

G i v e n the p e r v a s i v e t h e m e o f J o h n ' s

rejection, t h e s y m b o l i s m o f J e s u s ' c u r s i n g the fig-tree t a k e s o n greater significance.

F i n a l l y , in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the T e m p l e incident, J o h n is

m e n t i o n e d again—pointedly recorded, n o t i m m e d i a t e l y after the T e m p l e s c e n e itself, b u t after the intercalated fig-tree incident ( 1 1 : 2 7 - 3 3 ) — a n d is thereby directly connected with J e s u s ' authority to do and say w h a t h e does (again see b e l o w ) . Mark's presuppositional

u s e o f the M a l a c h i c o n t e x t s e e m s e v i d e n t .

J e s u s ' action, as the Lord w h o after the long delay o f his I N E appearance now suddenly

c o m e s to his T e m p l e , is p r e d i c a t e d

on the

authorities' failure to hear 'Elijah' (11:31; cf. 1:4, 14; 9 : 1 3 ) .

1 1 9

religious All o f this

strongly s u g g e s t s that J e s u s ' cursing o f the fig-tree, w h a t e v e r its other m e a n i n g / s , in M a r k ' s present setting carries considerable s y m b o l i c freight. A s a result, in v i e w o f our a r g u m e n t for the p r o g r a m m a t i c character o f l:2f, w e a g r e e with Telford's almost passing c o m m e n t that M a r k intends that the c u r s i n g o f the fig-tree s h o u l d b e r e a d in light o f M a l a c h i ' s prophecy: Elijah t h e p r o p h e t had b e e n s e n t b e f o r e t h e g r e a t a n d t e r r i b l e d a y o f t h e L o r d ( M a i . 4 . 5 ; cf. M k . 9 . 1 2 ) b u t t h e y h a d d o n e t o h i m w h a t e v e r t h e y p l e a s e d ( M k . 9 . 1 3 ) ! Therefore the Lord w o u l d c o m e and smite the land with a curse (Mai. 4.5) a n d the b l o w had b e e n s t r u c k a g a i n s t t h e b a r r e n f i g - t r e e !

1 2 0

In light o f this i m a g e r y there is a p o s s i b l e further c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Isaiah, n a m e l y , the last great l a m e n t w h i c h w e h a v e a l e a d y a r g u e d is

1

1

9

Cf. S h a e , ' Q u e s t i o n ' , 2 3 ; M a r t i n , 6 7 f ; b u t pace H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 8 f , w h o s u g g e s t s t h a t 1 1 : 3 0 i n d i c a t e s J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y is e q u i v a l e n t t o J o h n ' s , i.e. h e t o o is a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l Elijah. B o w m a n , 2 2 1 f , c i t e s Midr. Cant. 2 . 1 3 , w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h a r e f e r e n c e t o C a n t 2 : 1 1 - 1 3 , o n t h e fig t r e e p u t t i n g f o r t h its figs a n d t h e n s t a t e s t h a t t h e s e c o n d E x o d u s is e x p e c t e d t o t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g . U s i n g this a s b a c k g r o u n d . B o w m a n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c u r s i n g o f t h e fig t r e e is a d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t ' t h e J e w i s h v i e w o f t h e n e w E x o d u s . . . is n o t t o b e ' . G r a n t e d t h e l a t e n e s s o f t h e s o u r c e , a less g e n e r a l a n d m o r e p r e c i s e i m p l i c a t i o n s e e m s r a t h e r t h a t t h e p r e s e n t T e m p l e e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i l l n o l o n g e r h a v e a p a r t in t h e N E . 120 Barren, 1 6 3 ; cf. H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 8 ; B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 3 9 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 8 ; C l a r k , ' I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' ; pace G a s t o n , Stone, 8 3 . B a r r e t t ' s o b s e r v a t i o n , ' H o u s e ' , 2 0 (cf. L i n d a r s ' c o m m e n t . Apologetic, 1 0 8 ) t h a t t h e M a l a c h i p r o p h e c y 'is s o m a n i f e s t l y a p p r o p r i a t e ' t h a t its o m i s s i o n is s u r p r i s i n g , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e a d e r is p e r h a p s e x p e c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d it s o . O n t h e c u r s i n g o f g r o u n d ( G n 3 : 1 7 ) a n d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t r e e s ( E x 9 : 2 5 ; P s 1 0 5 : 3 3 ; J o n a h 4:6f) b e i n g a c t s o f Y a h w e h , s e e B l a c k b u r n , Theios, 1 9 6 f .

The

Fig-Tree

and the

317

Temple

significant for M a r k (1:10; 3:28ff; p e r h a p s 5:25-34; a n d e v e n 4:1 - 5 : 4 3 ) .

1 2 1

Again, Isaiah 56-66 appears to b e addressing Israel's situation after it failed through unbelief and rejection o f Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m in his c h o i c e o f agent (i.e. C y r u s ) to participate in the full h o p e s o f the I N E .

1 2 2

N o w facing the

aftermath, these chapters describe the nation's awful circumstances. T h e i r sanctuary

1 2 3

h a s b e e n b u r n e d and trodden d o w n b y their e n e m i e s (63:18;

64:12 M T ) a n d Z i o n - J e r u s a l e m a n d their cities h a v e b e c o m e like deserts (64:9 M T ) . 40:7

1 2 5

1 2 4

T h e y h a v e withered like a leaf

^ 3 , 64:5 M T ; cf. 1:30;

) , and n o t only d o A b r a h a m and Israel (the patriarch) not recognise

t h e m (63:16) b u t t h e y h a v e b e c o m e as if Y a h w e h , ' o u r father' (cf. first Exodus, Ex 4:22) and 'our redeemer', had never called t h e m (63:16, 1 9 ) .

1 2 6

It

is possible that as desolation a n d b e i n g withered w e r e the results o f the first refusal to a c c e p t Y a h w e h ' s ' w i s e ' c h o i c e o f a deliverer, n o w in the fulfilment o f the I N E w h e n there h a s again b e e n a failure to repent a n d Y a h w e h ' s ' w i s e ' choice has again b e e n rejected, desolation and withering is again the result.

(The objection that the desolation w a s there prior to the

a n n o u n c e m e n t o f the I N E does not detract from the s y m b o l i s m . ) B u t the language of b e i n g withered also points to another option. R. A . Cantrell has suggested that the imagery o f Y a h w e h seeking figs on his fig tree is found Jeremiah's

famous

in J e r e m i a h 8:13, a text n o t far r e m o v e d Temple

sermon

from

which

Jesus draws

from his

subsequent p r o n o u n c e m e n t in the outer court (cf. J e r 7:11 in M k 1 1 : 1 7 ) .

1 2 7

T h e question o f the literary structure o f this section o f J e r e m i a h is w i d e open

1 2 8

and the interpretation o f the text in question, all are a g r e e d , is

particularly difficult.

129

T h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s e s l a m e n t the c o r r u p t i o n o f

people, prophet, and priest (vv. 10-12); the latter echoing o f the concerns o f the T e m p l e s e r m o n a n d not unrelated to J e s u s ' critique o f the activities in

1

2

1

1

2

2

1

2

4

1

2

6

1

2

7

1

2

8

1

2

9

S e e r e s p e c t i v e l y . C h a p t e r 4 , p p . 1 0 2 - 8 ; C h a p t e r 6 , p p . 1 5 0 - 5 1 ; p . 1 7 2 , fn. 1 8 0 ; a n d p . 1 7 6 , fn. 2 0 3 . O n c e again. Watts, 'Consolation'. 123 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 9 8 .

Cf. also Schnellbacher, 'Theology', 1 0 4 . 125 W e s t e r m a n n , 3 9 6 . O n the E x o d u s i m a g e r y here, Achtemeier, 113f. Cantrell, 'Cursed'. T h o m p s o n , 2 9 7 , r e g a r d s 8:4 - 1 0 : 2 5 a s a m i s c e l l a n e o u s c o l l e c t i o n f o l l o w i n g d i r e c t l y o n f r o m t h e T e m p l e s e r m o n , cf. C r a i g i e , et al, 1 2 9 . M c K a n e , 1 8 7 , s e e m s c o n t e n t t o a d d r e s s t h e t e x t in s m a l l u n i t s w i t h o u t a s k i n g w h y t h e b o o k e v e n t u a l l y f o u n d t h e f o r m it d i d . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in H o l l a d a y , 2 8 3 - 8 6 .

318

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

t h e outer c o u r t (see b e l o w ) .

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

In verse 13 the b a s i c options are w h e t h e r

A ) Y a h w e h w a s seeking a harvest (a positive sense, cf. Isa 5:Iff) but found the vine a n d the fig tree e m p t y and the leaves withered, and thus ensures j u d g e m e n t (v. 1 2 b ;

1 3 0

or B) b e c a u s e h e found t h e m e m p t y Y a h w e h will

cause the leaves to w i t h e r ;

131

or C ) b e c a u s e o f their sin Y a h w e h w a s going

to harvest t h e m as a n act o f final destruction, so that there will b e neither grapes n o r figs, and the leaves will b e w i t h e r e d .

132

A l t h o u g h the second

alternative might b e closest to J e s u s ' action, all three readily exhibit points of contact. O n this basis, Cantrell suggests that J e s u s ' cursing o f the fig-tree is a dramatic invocation o f these verses, symbolising the j u d g e m e n t that w a s to fall o n account o f the parlous state o f the T e m p l e (Jer 7:11). This m a y raise a question about the necessity o f Telford's appeal to Malachi 3:lff, but it n e e d not.

If, for M a r k , M a l a c h i serves to relate J o h n

the Baptist and Jesus b y providing the larger context of J e s u s ' c o m i n g to the T e m p l e a n d the r e a s o n for a c u r s e in g e n e r a l ( 3 : 1 , 2 4 M T ) , t h e n the J e r e m i a h b a c k g r o u n d establishes b o t h the particular basis o n w h i c h the curse is applied and the antecedent o f J e s u s ' prophetic s y m b o l i s m (Jer 7:11; cf. 8:13). O n c e again M a r k ' s J e s u s brings together several O T perspectives to m a k e his point. c) Jesus (i)

and the Temple

Incident

Introduction

In v i e w o f o u r p r i m a r y interest in whether or not M a r k is operating with an I N E paradigm, J e s u s ' use o f Isaiah 56:7 will b e our first concern. A g a i n w e note the presence o f a combined 'citation' w h i c h suggests something o f the importance o f this scene for M a r k .

1 3 3

There is also a certain ambiguity

to J e s u s ' action w h i c h , granted our reading o f the cursing o f the fig-tree, raises questions as to the overall coherence o f M a r k ' s presentation. This is especially s o if the T e m p l e incident is to b e interpreted as a reforming act and not o n e o f j u d g e m e n t .

O u r second concern, then, will b e to e x a m i n e

t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' a c t i o n a n d to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or n o t it contradicts the cursing o f the fig-tree.

1

3

0

T h o m p s o n , 301f.

1

3

1

1

3

2

1

3

3

C r a i g i e , et al. M c K a n e , 1 8 9 ; H o l l a d a y , 2 8 3 f ; cf. L X X a n d Tg. Jer. Kee, 'Function', 173.

The INE and the

(ii) The INE and the

319

Nations

Temple

Before turning to the explicit u s e o f Isaiah 5 6 s o m e brief c o m m e n t s on the role o f t h e T e m p l e in t h e I N E a r e in order.

Given the considerable

emphasis o n the return o f Y a h w e h ' s presence in the I N E , it is remarkable that there are s o few references to the restoration o f the T e m p l e in Isaiah 40-55.

Isaiah 44:28 m a k e s the clearest statement w h e n it u n e q u i v o c a l l y

p r o m i s e s the T e m p l e ' s rebuilding.

T h e return o f t h e sacred vessels is

m e n t i o n e d in Isaiah 5 2 : 1 1 , b u t h e r e the concern is apparently primarily o n e o f purity a n d h o l i n e s s .

134

In almost direct contrast, w h e n o n e m o v e s into chapters 55-66 o n e o f the signal aspects o f their portrayal o f Y a h w e h ' s return is their interest in the restoration o f t h e T e m p l e (TP?: 5 6 : 5 , 7; 60:7; ^£1}

Dip&: 60:13; cf.

^"ip'in, 56:7; 57:13). N o t only s o , but in a striking indication o f a radical inclusiveness, participation in worship is affirmed b o t h for the e u n u c h s

1 3 5

and those foreigners w h o h a v e joined themselves to Y a h w e h (56:2-7; cf. Isa 2:2-3), e v e n to the p o i n t w h e r e the latter apparently p a r t a k e in priestly service ( 6 6 : 1 9 f f ) .

136

O n the other hand, it is noteworthy that t h e only time

the t e r m ^D^n a p p e a r s , as in 1-39, is in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Y a h w e h ' s judgement o n the apostates a m o n g his people ( 6 6 : 6 ) . (Hi) The INE and the

137

Nations

T h e m e n t i o n o f foreigners in Isaiah 56:7 o p e n s u p a p a n d o r a ' s b o x o f s e e m i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s o n t h e role o f t h e nations in t h e I N E . T h i s is largely d u e to t w o apparently mutually exclusive features.

O n the o n e

h a n d , there a r e clear denunciations o f the nations. T h e y are presented as foolish idolaters (40:15ff; 44:9-20) n o w under j u d g e m e n t ( 4 1 : l l f , 15f; 49:24ff; 51:7f, 1 2 , 21ff; cf. 43:3f).

T h i s is particularly so in t h e c a s e o f arrogant

d a u g h t e r B a b y l o n (43:14; 46:lff; 4 7 : 1 - 1 5 ) .

1 3 8

T h e nations c o m e in abject

surrender (45:14), b e a r i n g the exiles upon their shoulders a n d licking t h e

134 W e s t e r m a n n , 2 5 2 f , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s i l e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e t e m p l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t the criteria for Y a h w e h ' s p r e s e n c e a r e t o d o with holiness, faithfulness, a n d p u r i t y of t h e p e o p l e , n o t t h e c u l t u s p e r s e ; cf. S t u h l m u e l l e r , ' T r a n s i t i o n s ' , 8 n 2 9 . 3 5

* P e r h a p s t h o s e , m e n t i o n e d in 3 9 : 7 , w h o h a d a c c e p t e d t h i s c o n d i t i o n o n e n t e r i n g official e m p l o y m e n t in e x i l e , cf. W h y b r a y , 1 9 8 . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n p p . 321ff, b e l o w . 1

3

6

1

3

7

T h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s e e n e m i e s is d i s p u t e d . W e s t e r m a n n , 4 1 9 , is c o n v i n c e d t h e y a r e foreign nations, w h e r e a s for A c h t e m e i e r , 142f, they a r e a p o s t a t e J e w s . T h e c o n t e x t s e e m s t o s u p p o r t the latter. * O n this i m a g e r y in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e b o o k , s e e E r l a n d s s o n , Burden, 1 3 5 - 4 2 . 3 8

320

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

d u s t off the feet o f their conquerors (49:22f).

in

Jerusalem

A c c o r d i n g to 5 2 : 1 , theKfta]

b^V will not b e permitted into Jerusalem. Just as Jacob-Israel's j u d g e m e n t o c c a s i o n e d the n a t i o n ' s victories, so her d e l i v e r a n c e b r i n g s about their defeat.

It is largely o n the b a s i s o f this b e l l i c o s e m a t e r i a l that several

scholars h a v e denied any 'universalistic' tendencies in these c h a p t e r s . O n the o t h e r h a n d , there are texts w h i c h indicate a different W h i l e 40:5; 42:10ff; 4 4 : 5 ;

1 4 0

and 4 5 : 6

V a n W i n k l e has demonstrated that

1 4 1

142

future.

are a m b i g u o u s in this regard, D . W . in 51:5, w h e r e the nations wait for

Yahweh's salvation, means 'to wait with eagerness' and negative c o n n o t a t i o n s .

139

never

has

H e further s h o w s that the D?1a liK and DV rr"|3

language is soteriological (cf. 49:6; 5 1 : 4 f ) ,

143

and h e n c e Y a h w e h ' s invitation

to the n a t i o n s that t h e y turn to h i m and b e s a v e d ( 4 5 : 2 2 ) .

1 4 4

Following

G . F . O e h l e r , V a n W i n k l e c o n c l u d e s that the v i s i o n s o f s a l v a t i o n

and

s u b m i s s i o n s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d in that the attitude s e e m s to b e o n e o f salvation y e t not equality, 'This rule (i.e. Y a h w e h ' s ) is both that for w h i c h the n a t i o n s w a i t e x p e c t a n t l y a n d to w h i c h they m u s t s u b m i t ' .

1 4 5

This

m o r e positive e l e m e n t m a y not b e so surprising if it is r e m e m b e r e d that it is the p a g a n C y r u s w h o is mentioned as the agent o f B a b y l o n ' s defeat and Israel's deliverance (44:24; cf. 45:7; 41:2ff, 2 5 ) . V a n W i n k l e ' s proposal m a y also find s u p p o r t if n o ^ S is s y n o n y m o u s with rrnKfl (cf. 37:32), in w h i c h c a s e 45:20 d e s c r i b e s a r e m n a n t from the n a t i o n s w h o are s u m m o n e d to turn to Y a h w e h . If so, this equivalence suggests another w a y o f resolving

1

3

9

1

4

1

1

4

2

1

4

3

E . g . S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' ; S c h o o r s , Saviour; a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' . 140 W e s t e r m a n n , a n d S t u h l m u e l l e r , Creative, 129ff, s e e t h i s a s r e f e r r i n g t o p r o s e l y t e s . Snaith, 'Study', 154-65, tends to see p a s s a g e s that m i g h t otherwise be taken as p o s i t i v e l y r e f e r r i n g t o t h e n a t i o n s a s s p e a k i n g o f t h e J e w i s h e x i l e s a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s ; cf. S c h o o r s , Saviour, 302f. D a vies, 'Destiny', m a y a s s u m e t o o m u c h in i n t e r p r e t i n g the l a n g u a g e o f ' s e e i n g ' a n d ' k n o w i n g ' in e.g. 4 1 : 2 0 ( ? ) ; 4 9 : 7 in a salvific light. O n 5 2 : 1 5 f s e e Watts, 'Meaning'. ' R e l a t i o n s h i p ' , 4 4 7 f ; a s i m i l a r c a s e c a n b e m a d e for m p , cf. 4 0 : 3 1 a n d 4 9 : 2 3 .

Ibid., 4 5 2 f f ; A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 3 5 7 ; pace S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' , 1 5 7 , a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o C a l l e d ' , 97ff; cf. a l s o H o l l e n b e r g , ' N a t i o n a l i s m ' , w h o a r g u e s t h a t D ^ l in 5 2 : 1 5 a n d 5 3 : 1 2 r e f e r s t o t h e n a t i o n s . L i n d a r s , ' T i d i n g s ' , 485ff, a r g u e s t h a t t h e m e s s a g e t o t h e n a t i o n s is n o t s u b s e q u e n t t o , b u t o n e a n d t h e s a m e w i t h , t h e m e s s a g e t o t h e exiles. -1

* S n a i t h , ' S t u d y ' , 1 8 5 , d e c l a r e s t h a t pKÔBK ?? d o e s n o t m e a n G e n t i l e s , c i t i n g 43:5f. H o w e v e r , t h e c o n t e x t ( a trial s p e e c h against the n a t i o n s ) implies t h e c o n t r a r y , a n d e l s e w h e r e t h e e x p r e s s i o n a p p e a r s s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e n a t i o n s , s e e 5 2 : 1 0 ; cf. Z e c h 9:10; M i c 5:3; D t 3 3 : 1 7 ; a n d P s s 2:8; 22:28f; 72:8; e t c . 1 4

1

4

5

Ibid., 4 5 7 . D a v i e s , ' D e s t i n y ' , 1 3 f , s e e s i n s t e a d a n i r r e d u c i b l e d i v e r s i t y d e r i v i n g f r o m a redactional m e n t a l i t y that s a w the text as a 'billboard o n w h i c h different political p a r t i e s o r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s d a u b their s l o g a n s ' .

The INE and the

321

Nations

the tension. It could b e that the remnant hermeneutic used o f Israel, w h o h a d b e c o m e like the n a t i o n s a n d w a s t h u s u n d e r j u d g e m e n t , is a l s o a p p l i e d to the n a t i o n s .

J u s t as Y a h w e h offers to h e a l the b r u i s e s h e

inflicted on rebellious Israel (53:4f cf. 30:26; 1:5), so too the ' s u r v i v o r s ' o f the nations are invited to turn to h i m and b e saved (45:20-22). I n a s m u c h as the s a l v a t i o n a n d r i g h t e o u s n e s s for w h i c h the n a t i o n s wait is an expression o f Y a h w e h ' s justice (51:4f), it is n o t e w o r t h y that the revelation o f Y a h w e h ' s OSWft is w h a t unites the b u l k o f 4 0 - 5 5 with the v a r i o u s ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' w h i c h t h e m s e l v e s present n e w insights into its true nature.

In the s o n g s Y a h w e h ' s justice includes light for the nations

and so m e a n s not only deliverance for Jacob-Israel, b u t also, b y the s h o w ing forth of his glory, light and salvation for the w h o l e w o r l d .

1 4 6

Similar kinds of t h e m e s are found in Isaiah 56-66 w h i c h also preserves both the particularism and universalism o f 4 0 - 5 5 .

1 4 7

O n the o n e hand, the

nations are j u d g e d (59:18f; 63:3f; 66:16, 24) and c o m e in subjection to Israel (59:18; 60:10, 14; 61:5f) with any nation that refuses b e i n g destroyed (60:12; cf. 41:1 Iff).

O n the o t h e r h a n d , in p e r h a p s the h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n o f

universalism in the b o o k and using l a n g u a g e w h i c h is quite r e m a r k a b l e given the place o f ' s e r v a n t s ' terminology throughout these c h a p t e r s ,

148

the

survivors o f the nations not only c o m e to Zion to worship (66:19; cf. 45:2025; and 60:3, 6ff; cf. 2:1-4; 4:2-6; 42:6; 49:6; and 62:2f), but are even described as Y a h w e h ' s • ' H ? ^ ( 5 6 : 6 f ) . Wtovn'tt 66:19.

n'wrrrra ( 5 6 : 7 ) .

1 4 9

1 5 0

T h e T e m p l e , therefore, is to b e c o m e a E v e n m o r e striking is the related text o f

A l t h o u g h n o t o r i o u s l y difficult, the a n t e c e d e n t o f on in verse 19

seems to b e the nations in verse 1 8

1 5 1

and, therefore, indicates that s o m e o f

these foreigners will b e c o m e priests and Levites. This suggests that there will n o longer b e a distinction b e t w e e n the natural-born and the proselyte (66:21).

1 5 2

T h i s does not, h o w e v e r , release the Gentiles ' o f their task o f

assuring the return o f the scattered J e w s to their h o m e l a n d ' (60:4, 9; cf.

1

4

6

1

4

7

1

5

0

1

5

2

Z i m m e r l i a n d J e r e m i a s , TWNT, 5 . 6 6 8 f ; = TDNT, 5.668ff; B e u k e n , Muilenburg, 659. 1 4 8 A g a i n , see n o w especially B e u k e n , 'Main'. 1 4 9 W e s t e r m a n n ; W h y b r a y ; Smart; Blenkinsopp, 'Second'.

'MISPAT'.

In this c o n t e x t , it is difficult t o d e t e r m i n e if t h e i r m i n i s t r y t o J e r u s a l e m ( 6 0 : 5 - 1 1 ) is w i l l i n g o r n o t , a l t h o u g h 6 0 : 1 2 s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e is a n e l e m e n t o f t h r e a t i n v o l v e d , a t l e a s t to those w h o refuse to serve. 151 Westermann; Whybray. A c h t e m e i e r , 124f.

322

Isaiah's

43:5).

1 5 3

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

B u t it m a y b e that these D'D^B will do so b y declaring Y a h w e h ' s

glory a m o n g the nations (66:19).

Indeed, this could b e the w a y in which

the glory o f Y a h w e h ' s work in Zion is 'seen' b y the n a t i o n s .

154

In s u m , w h i l e t h e r e is n o d o u b t a m e s s a g e o f j u d g e m e n t for the nations, t h e r e is also an offer o f salvation.

N o t only s o , b u t the m o r e

inclusive p a s s a g e s suggest the b r e a k i n g d o w n o f distinctions such that e v e n foreigners m a y serve as priests as Y a h w e h ' s T e m p l e b e c o m e s ' a house of prayer for all nations'. (iv) Jesus,

Isaiah

56:7, and the

Temple

H a v i n g c u r s e d the fig-tree, J e s u s enters the T e m p l e or at least the outer court and drives out various groups.

In v i e w o f the action a n d

J e r e m i a h allusion, the Isaiah 5 6 c i t a t i o n

1 5 5

the

is c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d

as

m e r e l y returning this court to its intended role as a place w h e r e Gentiles may pray u n h i n d e r e d .

1 5 6

This scenario is possible, but as C. K. Barrett

noted s o m e time ago and our immediately preceding discussion confirms s o m e t h i n g m o r e is in v i e w in Isaiah 5 6 .

1 5 7

T h e e v i d e n c e to date for a

M a r k a n I N E h e r m e n e u t i c , the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l slant g i v e n b y the KXTjSrfacTai,

1 5 8

and the dative of benefit,

increases o n e ' s doubts.

ndaiv

TOIC; c ' O v c a i v ,

future 1 5 9

only

Further, the nature of the circumstances—at best

they w o u l d h a v e constituted only a t e m p o r a r y disruption—and M a r k ' s

1

5

3

1

5

4

1

5

5

1

5

6

1

5

7

1

5

8

1

5

9

Whybray, 291.

Cf. C o n r a d ' s a n a l y s i s of I s r a e l ' s r o l e in t h e N e w E x o d u s , ' O r a c l e s ' . A p a r t f r o m a s l i g h t c h a n g e o f w o r d o r d e r , t h e f o r m is a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l t o I s a 5 6 : 7 L X X , w i t h t h e 'for all n a t i o n s ' d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g it f r o m I s a 6 0 : 7 , L X X o r 1 M a c e 7:3. O n t h e v a r i a t i o n s in w o r d i n g , w h i c h a r e n o t o f g r e a t significance, s e e G u n d r y , Use, 19f. E . g . T a y l o r ; L a g r a n g e ; L a n e ; K e e , Community, 1 1 5 , although h e notes that M a r k c o n t r a s t s his inclusivist c o m m u n i t y w i t h the e x c l u s i v i s t o n e of t h e T e m p l e ; Roloff, Kerygma, 9 7 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; G n i l k a ; D a v i e s , Gospel, 350f; Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 56; H u r t a d o ; H o o k e r . Both G u n d r y , 6 4 4 , w h o sees here merely a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of Jesus' authority, a n d surprisingly G r i m m , 197f, barely a d d r e s s the significance of the Isaiah text. 'House', 15, w h e r e he asserts that the Temple never served such a function, and therefore Jesus' action c a n n o t be construed as safeguarding Gentiles' present rights of w o r s h i p . O t h e r s w h o s e e a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n i n c l u d e L i g h t f o o t , Message, 63; G a s t o n , Stone, 8 4 , w h e r e J e s u s h a s in m i n d a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t e m p l e ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 9 ; P e s c h , 2 . 1 9 9 ; cf. K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f , w h o e n v i s a g e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e T e m p l e a n d its r e p l a c e m e n t w i t h M a r k ' s c o m m u n i t y . L o h m e y e r , ' R e i n i n g u n g ' , 2 6 1 ; H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 9 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 102f. Pace W e l l h a u s e n , 9 0 , a n d K i l p a t r i c k , Studies, 157, on the basis of the immediate c o n t e x t in b o t h Isa 5 6 : 7 a n d 6 0 : 7 ( L X X ) , a n d a l s o F r a n c e , Use, 9 3 , s i n c e this p h r a s e i n d i c a t e s t h a t for M a r k it is n o t m e r e l y 'a h o u s e o f p r a y e r ' v e r s u s 'a d e n o f t h i e v e s ' ( s e e b e l o w ) .

Jesus,

Isaiah 56:7, and the

323

Temple

intercalation with the symbolic cursing o f the fig-tree, suggest this too is an acted p a r a b l e .

160

So what does M a r k ' s Jesus intend, at least as far as his use o f Isaiah 56:7 is c o n c e r n e d ?

E . L o h m e y e r h a s noted the w a y in w h i c h J e s u s ' actions,

b e g i n n i n g w i t h the ' u n c l e a n ' spirit in C a p e r n a u m ( M k 1:24), h a v e o n m a n y o c c a s i o n s b e e n to deal w i t h u n c l e a n n e s s either b y r e m o v i n g t h e s t i g m a or redefining the t e r m s , all o f w h i c h are i n c l u s i v e rather t h a n e x c l u s i v e in o r i e n t a t i o n .

161

It is significant, too, that J e s u s ' action is n o t

directed against the inner, m o r e sacred areas o f the T e m p l e proper.

What

he 'cleanses' is the outer court (or JVDn "in, b u t c o m m o n l y k n o w n in t h e literature b y its m o r e m o d e r n title, the ' C o u r t o f t h e G e n t i l e s ' ) .

1 6 2

That

b u s i n e s s w a s c o n d u c t e d there w i t h o u t a n y record in extant s o u r c e s o f s e r i o u s o p p o s i t i o n to its location (apart from the a c c o u n t in q u e s t i o n ) suggests that this area w a s regarded in s o m e w a y as less ' h o l y ' . space which Jesus defines as a 'house of p r a y e r ' .

1 6 3

It is this

164

T h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f this s t a t e m e n t are not i m m e d i a t e l y apparent unless several points are considered. First, the p h r a s e ' h o u s e o f prayer' although being for all nations in Isaiah 56:7 also appears later in 1 M a c c a b e e s 7:37, w h e r e it is explicitly delimited b y ' T O ? Xac$ a o u ' , n a m e l y , Israel. T h e point here is not that the Gentiles w e r e n o t to h a v e a place to pray, but that the T e m p l e w a s not really for them. A s Lloyd G a s t o n states, 'that the Gentiles m a y enter the outer court is occasionally mentioned, b u t o n l y in the n e g a t i v e sense: t h e y m a y n o t pass the soreg courts u n d e r p e n a l t y o f d e a t h ' .

1 6 5

into the inner

S e c o n d , w h e n o n e e x a m i n e s w h a t is

m e a n t b y the designation in Isaiah 56:7 and 60:7 (LXX), it clearly has to d o 1 6 0

G a s t o n , Stone, 8 4 ; cf. S a n d e r s , Jesus, 7 0 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' ; H o o k e r , 2 6 5 . Lord, 24ff; c i t i n g a l s o , t h e l e p e r , 1 : 4 0 - 4 5 ; t h e f o r g i v e n e s s o f sins, 2:lff; t h e c a l l i n g o f Levi, 2:13-17; the w o m a n w i t h the flow of blood, 5:24b-34; a n d the parable o n defilement, 7:15. O n e m a y a l s o n o t e h e r e t h a t t h e ' w a y ' o f t h e I N E is a l s o c a l l e d in I s a 3 5 : 8 t h e ' W a y o f H o l i n e s s ' , in w h i c h c a s e L o h m e y e r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t J e s u s ' a c t i o n s a r e a i m e d a t o p e n i n g u p this h o l y ' w a y ' t o all. 1 6 1

1 6 2

1

6

S e e G a s t o n , Stone,

87n2.

3

A l t h o u g h C h i l t o n , Temple, 107, emphasises the area's holiness, a distinction a p p a r e n t l y r e m a i n e d , cf. 1 0 4 - 9 , a s t h e l a c k o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e s c r i t i c i s i n g t h i s i n n o v a t i o n for i m p u g n i n g t h e T e m p l e ' s h o l i n e s s i m p l i e s . H i s e x a m p l e s o f J e w i s h o u t r a g e a t R o m a n i n s e n s i t i v i t i e s , e.g. J o s . B . J . 2 . 2 2 4 - 2 7 ; Ant. 2 0 . 1 0 6 - 1 2 , d o n o t r e a l l y a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e o f a differentiation in p e r c e i v e d holiness. Cf. Roth, 'Cleansing', 1 7 8 , w h e r e Z e c h 14:21 m a y h a v e p r o v i d e d justification for the exclusion of Gentiles f r o m the inner courts. 4

^

L o h m e y e r , ibid., 3 9 . Stone, 8 7 , c i t i n g J o s . B.J. 5 . 1 9 4 ; 6 . 1 2 4 f ; Ant. prohibition, Bickerman, 'Warning'. 1

6

5

15.417; a n d A c t s 21:26ff; a n d o n t h e

324

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

w i t h the v e r y heart o f T e m p l e practice, not just the periphery, since both instances mention offerings and sacrifices (cf. 1 K g s 8 : 2 8 f f )

1 6 6

If this is s o , t h e n the M a r k a n J e s u s , as I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c king and inaugurator o f the I N E , is neither as m a n y h a v e a s s u m e d m e r e l y protect ing the s o m e w h a t m i n i m a l access of Gentiles to the h o u s e o f G o d , n o r is h e against the profanation simpliciter

o f the T e m p l e ,

1 6 7

nor is h e m a k i n g a

statement a b o u t the eschatological replacement o f the T e m p l e . the Lord o f the T e m p l e its final g o a l .

1 6 9

1 6 8

Instead,

h a v i n g arrived, n o w orients the T e m p l e toward

A n d this is n o t so m u c h that t h e G e n t i l e s w o u l d b e

p e r m i t t e d into t h e i n n e r c o u r t s ( a l t h o u g h it m a y i m p l y as m u c h , s e e below),

1 7 0

b u t rather that the 'Court o f the Gentiles' w a s to b e considered

not just a s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t an equally sacred s p a c e .

1 7 1

B y implication,

given the inclusive theology o f Isaiah 56-66, this indicates that the time is at h a n d w h e n even Gentiles can belong to the ' k i n g d o m of priests' (cf. 12:9; 15:39; cf. 13:27; Isa 66:18f; Z e c h 14:16; M a i 1 : 1 1 ) .

1 7 2

A s to w h e t h e r the

m e n t i o n o f ' p r a y e r ' constitutes a n implicit critique o f sacrifices, pointing forward to the t i m e w h e n his death w o u l d m a k e t h e m u n n e c e s s a r y , M a r k ' s account offers n o o b s e r v a t i o n .

1 7 3

174

L i k e w i s e , there is n o further c o m m e n t in t h e larger c o n t e x t a b o u t Gentiles per se. T h u s , although the statement is certainly c o n s o n a n t with a n I N E p e r s p e c t i v e o n the n a t i o n s , c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the M a r k a n J e s u s ' h e s i t a n c y to actually i n a u g u r a t e a ' m i s s i o n to the G e n t i l e s ' ( M k 7:27), nothing m o r e is d o n e to elucidate this brief but pregnant declaration.

1

6

6

1

6

7

1

6

8

1

6

9

A l s o G a s t o n , Stone, ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 83f.

On

87, a n d t h e e a r l i e r l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; s e e B a u c k h a m ,

E . g , F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; T a y l o r , 4 6 3 . E . g . G a s t o n , ibid., 8 8 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f ; G n i l k a ; S t o c k , Method, 2 9 8 ; E r n s t . S e v e r a l c o m m e n t a t o r s d e n y a M a i 3 a l l u s i o n h e r e , e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 8 2 ; a n d B a r r e t t , ' H o u s e ' , 2 0 , w h o is s u r p r i s e d a t its o m i s s i o n . B u t g i v e n t h a t t h e f r a m i n g fig t r e e s t o r y h a s a l r e a d y a l l u d e d t o it, a n d t h i s w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r M a l a c h i m a t r i x o f t h e b o o k , n o f u r t h e r a l l u s i o n is n e c e s s a r y . Pace B o r g , Conflict, 171-77. B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration', 83f, m a k e s the connection b e t w e e n sacrifice a n d p r a y e r , b u t t h e n g o e s o n to see this m e r e l y a s a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t the p r i m a c y of p r a y e r , w h i c h m i s s e s t h e p o i n t o f 'for all n a t i o n s ' in b o t h I s a 5 6 a n d M a r k . T h a t p r a y e r m a y t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e d e f u n c t T e m p l e is p o s s i b l e , s e e D o w d , Prayer, 3 7 - 5 5 , b u t p r o b a b l y n o t M a r k ' s i m m e d i a t e c o n c e r n h e r e s i n c e it p u t s ' m y h o u s e ' o v e r a g a i n s t ' a p l a c e o f p r a y e r ' . 1

7

0

1

7

1

1

7

2

1

7

3

1

7

4

L o h m e y e r , ibid., 4 0 . H o o k e r , 2 6 5 , a l s o s e e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n e s c h a t o l o g i c a l dimension to the action. A s e.g. in S c h w e i z e r , 2 3 3 S e e L i g h t f o o t , Message, 6 3 ; T a y l o r , 4 6 3 .

Jesus,

Jeremiah

7:11,

and the

325

Temple

the other h a n d , set in contrast to Isaiah 5 6 ' s future h o p e is J e s u s ' indict ment of the enterprise's current role as a 'den o f thieves'—a critique w h o s e m o m e n t is h e i g h t e n e d b y the preceding cursing of the f i g - t r e e .

175

It is to

this less encouraging aspect o f J e s u s ' statement that w e n o w turn. (v) Jesus,

Jeremiah

7:11, and the

Temple

While scholarly consensus is agreed that the cursing o f the fig-tree implies j u d g e m e n t , the M a r k a n J e s u s ' action in the T e m p l e is m o r e a m b i g u o u s and h a s e n g e n d e r e d a spirited d e b a t e . therefore

'reformation'

'disruption' point?

1 7 9

and

1 7 6

D o e s it i m p l y c l e a n s i n g a n d

(as p e r t h e c o m m o n d e s i g n a t i o n )

judgement?

1 7 8

1 7 7

or

O r is c h o o s i n g either o n e b e s i d e t h e

G i v e n the extensive n a t u r e of the material, our a i m s here are

modest, n a m e l y , to outline the m a i n options (and there are all m a n n e r o f m i n o r variations), to n o t e various p r o b l e m s , and to see if w e can m a k e sense of w h a t M a r k is doing. At first glance, the reforming or 'cleansing' idea is fairly obvious. J e s u s drives out the merchandisers in order that the outer court m i g h t return to its p r o p e r u s e . surprising

C o n s i d e r i n g h u m a n n a t u r e , it w o u l d n o t b e at all

if unscrupulous

vendors took advantage of their

market

position and h e n c e J e s u s ' allusion to J e r e m i a h 7. It used to b e countered that there w a s n o h a r d e v i d e n c e o f s u c h c h i c a n e r y , b u t t h e r e is n o w e n o u g h m a t e r i a l to s u g g e s t the strong p o s s i b i l i t y o f v a r i o u s levels o f corruption and unsavoury

1

7

5

1

7

6

1

7

7

1

7

8

1

7

9

1

8

0

activity.

1 8 0

R. B a u c k h a m offers a n u a n c e d

E . g . L a g r a n g e , 2 9 6 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 9 3 ; E m s t ; t e n d t o m a k e this t h e e x c l u s i v e p o i n t . E.g. T a y l o r ; H i e r s , 'Purification'; D o w d a , 'Cleansing', 231ff; T r o c m e , Formation, 1 0 5 n l ; P e s c h ; B i l e z i k i a n , Liberated, 8 9 ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' , 17ff; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 6 9 f , a l t h o u g h h e s e e m s t o s u g g e s t o t h e r w i s e in ' " C a v e " ' , 1 0 7 f ; C h i l t o n , Temple, 1 0 0 ; a n d G u n d r y , 645. T h e w o r d itself d o e s n o t a p p e a r in M a r k ' s a c c o u n t . E . g . S c h w e i z e r ; D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 1 4 ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 2 f ; G n i l k a ; D o w d , Prayer, 4 5 ; M y e r s , 3 0 1 ; G e d d a r t , Watchwords, 1 2 5 ; S a n d e r s , Jesus, 61ff; N e u s n e r , ' M o n e y - C h a n g e r s ' . L a n e , 4 0 7 , in v i e w of t h e fact t h a t J e s u s ' w o r d s c o m b i n e Isaiah a n d J e r e m i a h , r e g a r d s speculation o n this m a t t e r as 'irrelevant'. F o r o n e of the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e accounts, see E v a n s , 'Action', 256-69; also Bauckham, 'Demonstration'; Bockmuehl, 'Destruction', 15; Hooker, 264; a n d Eppstein, ' C l e a n s i n g ' , b u t n o t i n g E v a n s ' c r i t i c i s m s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 6 6 f ; cf. H a y w a r d , A r B 1 2 , Jeremiah, ad loc. S e e l e y , ' T e m p l e ' , h a s r e c e n t l y r e j e c t e d E v a n s ' d a t a , b u t A ) h e s e e m s t o r e q u i r e e v i d e n c e of a n o r d e r w h i c h m o s t h i s t o r i c a l s t u d y s i m p l y c a n n o t p r o v i d e , B) his o w n c a s e h a s n u m e r o u s h i s t o r i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , e.g. ' w o u l d p r o b a b l y ' , ' s e e m s u n l i k e l y ' , f o r w h i c h h e offers v e r y little c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e , a n d C ) h i s a s s u m p t i o n t h a t J e s u s ' a c t s m u s t a l w a y s b e transparently clear does not take into account the highly allusive a n d enigmatic nature of e.g. M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s ' t e a c h i n g .

326

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

approach w h e n h e sees. A ) J e s u s ' action as constituting a wholesale attack o n the fundamental

concept o f a T e m p l e tax, B ) the explicit m e n t i o n of

doves alludes to the abuse o f the poor (citing Ker. 1:7), and C ) the vessels a n d other a n i m a l s refer to establishment profit t a k i n g .

181

O n this view,

the place h a d b e c o m e a 'den o f thieves' and so J e r e m i a h 7 is m o r e than apt.

1 8 2

N o t only s o , but s i n c e the c o m m e r c i a l interests are u n d e r the

auspices o f the T e m p l e hierarchs the implications for them are not hard to see.

It m u s t b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that J e s u s does not actually attack the

sacrificial s y s t e m i t s e l f , Temple

proper.

1 8 4

183

in fact he keeps well a w a y from the heart o f the

F u r t h e r , w e h a v e n o e v i d e n c e o f m e s s i a n i c or

prophetic figures c o m i n g to destroy the Temple, but 'cleansing' is c o m m o n 1 8 5

enough.

Finally, it w o u l d m a k e little sense to s p e a k o f the T e m p l e

b e c o m i n g a place o f prayer (Isa 56:7) if it is already u n d e r sentence.

One

m i g h t also n o t e h e r e that the parable o f the w i c k e d tenants is not told against the T e m p l e but those in charge. Those taking the j u d g e m e n t or disruption v i e w would argue that there are several p r o b l e m s with the cleansing position.

Neusner maintains that

J e s u s ' h i n d e r i n g the sale o f sacrificial items in effect ' s h u t s d o w n ' the system.

1 8 6

According to Sheqalim

1:3 the m o n e y - c h a n g e r s w e r e essential

for the collection o f the half-shekel T e m p l e t a x ,

1 8 7

which funds w e r e used

for the m a i n t e n a n c e o f the p u b l i c daily w h o l e offerings w h i c h a t o n e m e n t for the nation's sin (t. Sheqal. b u y i n g a n d selling sacrificial a n i m a l s

1

8

1

1

8

2

made

1:6). T h e s a m e applies to those 1 8 8

H o w e v e r , it is not clear that

'Demonstration', 75-81. Catchpole, 'Entry', 3 3 3 , suggests Zech as the primary background but Mark's XnaTai is n e v e r u s e d in t h e L X X o r a n y o f t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n s t o r e n d e r Z e c h a r i a h ' s Cf. a l s o R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; f o l l o w e d b y G a s t o n , Stone, 8 6 ; Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 65ff, c i t i n g G r a n t , ' C o m i n g ' ; see also the discussion o n p. 3 0 8 above, a n d pp. 333f, below. 183 p j ^ Messiah, 1 3 4 , 12:33 only highlights the point at issue h e r e in the ' c l e a n s i n g ' : s a c r i f i c e w i t h o u t o b e d i e n c e is w o r t h l e s s . C h i l t o n , Temple, a r g u e s t h a t J e s u s is e n g a g e d in a d i s p u t e a b o u t t h e p u r i t y o f a n i m a l s , b u t s e e t h e r e s p o n s e o f E v a n s , 'Jesus'. 184 g e e e.g. G a s t o n , Stone, 8 8 ; T a y l o r ; L i g h t f o o t , Message, 6 3 . a

1

8

5

c

e

u

e

S a n d e r s , Jesus, 8 9 f ; E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 2 4 9 - 5 6 ; cf. G a s t o n , Stone, 1 0 2 - 1 2 . 186 ' M o n e y - c h a n g e r s ' ; cf. S a n d e r s , Jesus, 6 6 ; M y e r s ; a l s o E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 5 ; a n d F o r d , ' M o n e y ' , w h o , c i t i n g Ker. 1 7 : 1 5 ; 1 8 : 2 ; 2 6 : 2 ; m a k e s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g b u t f i n a l l y u n c o n v i n c i n g p r o p o s a l t h a t G K C O O S ' ( V . 1 5 ) refers t o m o n e y - c o n t a i n e r s u s e d t o t r a n s f e r f u n d s t o t h e T e m p l e d e p o s i t s cf. J o s . B.J. 6 . 2 8 1 . N e u s n e r , ibid., 2 9 0 , offers t h e i n g e n i o u s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e o v e r - t u r n i n g o f t h e m o n e y - c h a n g e r ' s ' t a b l e ' signifies J e s u s ' i n t e n t i o n t o s e t u p a n o t h e r 'table', that of the Eucharist. See B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration'. Cf. E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 3 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 7 5 . 1

8

7

1

8

8

Jesus,

Jeremiah

7:11,

and the

327

Temple

expelling the sales from the o u t e r court constitutes a crippling attack o n the sacrificial s y s t e m . markets,

1 8 9

N o t o n l y is there s o m e e v i d e n c e for c o m p e t i n g

b u t if J e s u s w a n t e d to attack the idea of sacrifices per se t h e n

this s e e m s a particularly indirect w a y o f d o i n g s o .

1 9 0

A t the s a m e t i m e ,

b a s e d on the e v i d e n c e cited above, the T e m p l e hierarchy w a s v e r y probably i n v o l v e d to s o m e c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t in t h e b u s i n e s s d e a l i n g s .

Jesus'

action w o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e c o n s t i t u t e d at the v e r y least a n i n d i r e c t criticism of t h e m ,

1 9 1

as t h e i r r e s p o n s e a n d the s u b s e q u e n t

' c o n t r o v e r s i e s ' in M a r k l l : 2 7 f f s u g g e s t s .

1 9 2

series o f

B u t J e s u s c h a r g e is not, a s

m i g h t initially b e thought, m e r e l y directed at pecuniary malpractice; that is if w e take the J e r e m i a h 7 allusion s e r i o u s l y .

193

T h e e x p r e s s i o n QTTTfXaiov XrjaTCJv c o m e s

from

Jeremiah's

famous

' T e m p l e S e r m o n ' (cf. 7:2b-15) w h i c h addresses the p e o p l e ' s foolish m i s c o n c e p t i o n that t h e y c a n c o m m i t all m a n n e r o f sin a n d t h e n ' f l e e ' to t h e T e m p l e like a b r i g a n d to his c a v e , h o p i n g to e s c a p e the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f their actions t h r o u g h participation in the c u l t .

1 9 4

B u t , b e c a u s e they h a v e

disdained Y a h w e h ' s w a r n i n g s and persisted in following the c o u n s e l s o f their

rebellious hearts

( v v . 1 3 , 24ff),

their

significance t h a n ' d o m e s t i c m e a l s ' (v. 2 1 )

1 9 5

sacrifices have

no

more

and are therefore r e j e c t e d .

A s a result, j u d g e m e n t is irrevocable ( w . 13f, 16ff, 2 0 )

1 9 7

1 9 6

and the T e m p l e is

to suffer a fate similar to that o f the Shiloh shrine (v. 1 4 ) . Since there h a s b e e n n o obedience, neither will there b e sacrifices. M. D. Hooker, recognising the appropriateness

o f J e r e m i a h 7:1 I f f ,

s u b m i t s that the p r o p h e t also offers h o p e (7:5-7) and s o J e s u s ' s t a t e m e n t o u g h t not b e taken as indicating irrevocable j u d g e m e n t .

1 9 8

But, the verses

w h i c h offer h o p e p r e c e d e those from w h i c h J e s u s ' allusion is d r a w n .

On

the o t h e r h a n d , v e r s e 11 leads directly t h r o u g h a series o f c o n n e c t i v e s 1

8

9

Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 5 5 - 5 6 , a l t h o u g h his theory concerning the recent institution o f a m a r k e t in t h e T e m p l e h a s n o t b e e n w i d e l y a c c e p t e d ; s e e E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , 265ff. 1

9

0

1

9

1

1

9

2

1

9

3

1

9

4

1

9

5

1

9

6

1

9

7

1

9

8

S e e l e y , ' A c t ' , 2 6 7 ; cf. C h i l t o n , Temple, HOf. G u n d r y , 6 4 5 , s e e m s t o u n d e r p l a y this. B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 4 2 , n o t e s t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n this s e r i e s o f c o n t r o v e r s i e s a n d those at the beginning of the gospel. Both lead to climactic confrontations. T h e a l l u s i o n t o J e r 7 is o n t h e b a s i s o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e T e m p l e (ntn rP3, M T ; 6 O I K O ? Hou, L X X ) a s a av^kaiov X T J C F T W V ( S O L X X ; 0 ^ 1 3 mi>Dn, M T ) . Bright, 5 6 ; M c K a n e , 1 6 3 . Carroll, 2 1 5 . Thompson, 287. V v . 5 - 7 a p p e a r t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a v a i n h o p e , cf. v. 2 7 . 'Traditions', 18.

328

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

(v. 12: K3"0*p ' 9 ; v. 13: ]2l nrun) to the m e s s a g e o f j u d g e m e n t (vv. 14-20). T h i s literary progression suggests that 7:1 I f f is a response to the p e o p l e ' s refusal to listen, and therefore that j u d g m e n t is i n e s c a p a b l e .

199

David C a t c h p o l e rejects this reading since it 'scarcely does justice to the situation described in verses 1 5 f of M a r k l l .

2 0 0

But does it not? Although

J o s e p h u s frequently describes the Zealots as X r j a T a i and M a r k 15:27 uses t h e w o r d to m e a n ' i n s u r r e c t i o n i s t ' ,

201

it is s o m e t i m e s a r g u e d that the

b e h a v i o u r envisaged in M a r k 11:15 implies the sense o f a c o m m o n violent thief.

2 0 2

If taken in this latter sense, then as B a u c k h a m argues, it is the

rapacious b e h a v i o u r o f the priestly aristocracy that is at issue: 'they treat the temple ... as a b a s e from which they go out on m a r a u d i n g raids and to w h i c h t h e y r e t u r n w i t h their l o o t ' .

2 0 3

F o r B a u c k h a m , it is this v e r y

attitude, as in J e r e m i a h , that occasions their j u d g m e n t . Perhaps.

But within the larger M a r k a n s c h e m a J o s e p h u s ' usage m a k e s

excellent s e n s e , first, o f J e s u s ' conflict w i t h the authorities, particularly t h o s e from J e r u s a l e m , s e c o n d , o f M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s as b o t h messianic King and nationalist

Yahweh-Warrior, and

connotations

of the

term.

third,

given

First, there

are

the

highly

significant

similarities b e t w e e n M a r k ' s characterisation o f the J e r u s a l e m authorities and the attitudes displayed b y the general p o p u l a c e a n d / o r ruling class in J e r e m i a h 7.

B o t h are portrayed as refusing to listen, as w a l k i n g in the

stubbornness o f their o w n foolish counsels, and as confusing cultic practice w i t h true o b e d i e n c e ( w h a t e v e r else m i g h t b e said about their b u s i n e s s dealings a n d t h u g g e r y

204

) . In M a r k ' s case, this equates to opposing G o d ' s 205

present purposes in Jesus and so inviting j u d g e m e n t (Mk 4 and 7).

Both

in I s a i a h 6, a n d n o w a l s o in the J e r e m i a h 7 a l l u s i o n w h i c h is so appropriate to the T e m p l e setting, this j u d g m e n t entails the destruction of

1

9

9

E . g . M c K a n e , 1 6 3 ; cf. C r a i g i e , et al, 1 2 2 ; T h o m p s o n , 2 8 2 , w h o s e e s this a s a r e s p o n s e t o n o t h e a r i n g . Cf. J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 3 f . 2

0

0

2

0

1

2

0

2

2

0

3

2

0

4

2

0

5

' E n t r y ' , 3 3 4 ; a n d e.g. E p p s t e i n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 4 3 ; S e e l e y , ' A c t ' , 2 6 7 .

R e n g s t o r f f , TDNT, 'Act', 2 6 9 .

4 . 2 5 7 - 6 2 ; R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' ; B u c h a n a n , ' B r i g a n d s ' ; cf. S e e l e y ,

S o e.g. J o s e p h u s ' d e r o g a t o r y u s a g e is a s s u m e d t o i m p l y a c o m m o n b r i g a n d , P e s c h , 2 . 1 9 9 ; B a u c k h a m , ' D e m o n s t r a t i o n ' , 8 4 ; G u n d r y , 6 4 4 ; cf. K e e , Community, 1 5 0 . Ibid. C f . J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 3 , a l t h o u g h h e a r g u e s that the p h r a s e 'den of thieves' i t s e l f 'is i n a p p r o p r i a t e ' . B a u c k h a m , 'Demonstration', 84; Evans, 'Action', 2 5 9 ; Bockmuehl, 'Destruction', 15. Interestingly, t h e leaders' d e s i r e to d e s t r o y Jesus (v. 1 8 ) also e c h o e s J e r e m i a h ' s experience (26:4-8).

Jesus,

Jeremiah

7:11,

and the

329

Temple

Jerusalem. It should also b e noted that J e s u s ' allusion to the O T undercuts the not u n c o m m o n objection that there w a s n o p o p u l a r e x p e c t a t i o n o f a M e s s i a h w h o destroys the T e m p l e . T h a t Peter has already fallen foul o f a s s u m i n g that J e s u s ' m e s s i a h s h i p c o n f o r m e d to p u b l i c e x p e c t a t i o n ( M k 8:31-33)

2 0 6

s h o u l d alert us to the fact that the M a r k a n J e s u s d r a w s h i s

m o d e l from his o w n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the O T , not p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n s nor those o f c o n t e m p o r a r y or subsequent J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e .

207

Second, the stakes are clearly raised w h e n all of this is put in the larger context o f the M a r k a n J e s u s w h o proclaims the reign o f G o d (l:14f), w h o functions as its inaugurating e m i s s a r y a n d messianic king, a n d w h o also in a unique w a y is closely associated with the presence o f Y a h w e h himself, n a m e l y as G o d ' s Son. T o reject h i m can only b e treasonous rebellion. T h i s is n o w h e r e s o c l e a r as in J e s u s ' ' t r i u m p h a l ' e n t r y , w h e n , as the k i n g c o m i n g to his o w n city, h e is pointedly s n u b b e d b y these v e r y leaders o f Jerusalem.

A n d if t h e T e m p l e , the n e x t i n s t i t u t i o n to b e v i s i t e d , is

understood

as Y a h w e h ' s o w n ' p a l a c e ' , t h e n their q u e s t i o n i n g o f h i s

authority (11:28) is e v e n m o r e offensive; let alone their plot to kill h i m (11:18), h a t c h e d e v e n w h i l e t h e S o n o f G o d is in his o w n

'house'.

2 0 8

'Insurrectionists' are exactly what they are. Third, it is the use o f Ana-nfc; w h i c h m a k e s t h e p o i n t at i s s u e ' t h e nationalist o c c u p a t i o n o f the h o u s e that w a s i n t e n d e d for i n t e r n a t i o n a l use';

2 0 9

and this is precisely w h a t the Isaiah 5 6 allusion suggests.

These

insurrectionists h a v e put their nationalist a g e n d a s ahead o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E intention that his h o u s e b e a place o f prayer for all nations. O n these twin bases, that A ) J e s u s ' action w a s both an implicit attack o n the T e m p l e h i e r a r c h s a n d a c h a l l e n g e to their a u t h o r i t y a n d B ) h i s J e r e m i a h a l l u s i o n in v i e w o f its i m m e d i a t e context constitutes a not-soveiled threat o f d e s t r u c t i o n , it is not difficult to s e e w h y i m m e d i a t e l y following in 11:18 M a r k informs us that they plot his d e a t h .

2

0

6

2

0

7

2

0

8

2 1 0

F r o m the

E v e n m o r e s o if J e s u s ' a c t i o n s a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o b e p a r a b l e s . In t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d in E v a n s , ' A c t i o n ' , b o t h J e r 7 a n d E z e k p r e s u p p o s e d e s t r u c t i o n . S e e f u r t h e r B o c k m u e h l , ' D e s t r u c t i o n ' , 12ff; a n d E v a n s , 'Jesus'. D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 1 4 , o b s e r v e s t h a t j u s t a s J e s u s ' ' b y p a s s i n g o f t h e J e w i s h c u l t a n d r i t u a l in h i s h e a l i n g s a n d t e a c h i n g s ' i n s t i g a t e d a c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e o u t c o m e t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s p l o t h i s d e a t h in 3 : 6 , s o t o o h e r e . B a r r e t t , ' H o u s e ' , 1 7 ; cf. R o t h , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 1 7 6 f . Cf. E v a n s , 'Jesus', 105ff, a n d t h e s t o r y o f J e s u s , s o n o f A n a n i a s ; J o s . B.J. 6 . 3 0 0 - 9 . 2

0

9

2

1

0

330

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

M a r k a n s t a n d p o i n t , J e s u s h a s a l r e a d y a c c e p t e d s o m e form o f m e s s i a n i c acclamation, and n o w threatens both their authority and their existence. R e t u r n i n g to the juxtaposition of Isaiah 5 6 and J e r e m i a h 7, the o n e sets the s t a n d a r d for w h a t the T e m p l e should h a v e b e c o m e in the I N E , a place of prayer for all nations, w h i l e the other s h o w s w h a t it has in fact b e c o m e , a 'refuge o f insurrectionists'. If the rebels will not allow the T e m p l e to b e a h o u s e o f p r a y e r for all nations, neither will it b e p e r m i t t e d to r e m a i n a refuge for t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y o p p o s e d G o d ' s I N E p u r p o s e s in Jesus.

2 1 1

W h i l e J e s u s ' w o r d s m a y i n c i d e n t a l l y r e v e a l t h e futility o f a

sacrificial s y s t e m u n d e r these c o n d i t i o n s (as w a s the c a s e w i t h J e r e m i a h a n d Isaiah; cf. 1 2 : 3 3 ) ,

2 1 2

d e s t r u c t i o n (cf. 1 5 : 3 8 ) .

2 1 3

they m o r e clearly p o r t e n d the T e m p l e ' s c o m i n g P e r h a p s , then, J e s u s ' disruption o f the institu

tional p r o c e d u r e s a d u m b r a t e a greater a n d m o r e p e r m a n e n t disruption to c o m e . A s indicated b y the ensuing parable of the w i c k e d tenants, G o d after p r o l o n g e d sufferance and m a n y emissaries will not long restrain his anger a g a i n s t t h e r e b e l s ( M k 12:1-12).

Are we perhaps hearing the voice of

Y a h w e h in the T e m p l e dealing r e c o m p e n s e to his e n e m i e s (Isa 66:6)? It is e s s e n t i a l to state at this point, as M a r k 12 e m p h a s i s e s , that the central thrust o f the material is directed against the J e r u s a l e m leadership and Temple h i e r a r c h y .

214

T h e general populace, as w e argued concerning

M a r k 4 , s t a n d in the balance. W h a t will h a p p e n to the p e o p l e d e p e n d s on t h e i r r e s p o n s e to t h e i r K i n g — t h u s t h e i r c l a m o u r in M a r k 1 5 : 6 - 1 5 is ominous

indeed.

2 1 5

A n interesting adjunct to this interpretation is the M a r k a n detail o f the a T i p a 6 a c ; - b e a r i n g c r o w d so c l o s e to J e s u s ' cleansing action. W h e n J u d a s a n d S i m o n M a c c a b a e u s h a d c o m e to J e r u s a l e m their a i m w a s to c l e a n s e a n d r e d e d i c a t e the T e m p l e a n d o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s they w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y branch-carrying followers (1 M a c e 4:36; 2 M a c e 10:7; and 1 M a c e 1 3 : 5 1 ) .

216

4

T h e i m a g e o f the p a l m a n d the inscription ]VX n^KJ ? are also found o n

2

1

1

T h e G r e a t S a n h e d r i n m e t r e g u l a r l y in t h e C h a m b e r o f H e w n S t o n e in t h e T e m p l e , cf. E p p s t e i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , 5 0 f . cf. L o h m e y e r , Lord, 4 7 . It is o n l y o n this b a s i s t h a t J u e l ' s s u g g e s t i o n , Messiah, 1 3 4 , o f a n o p p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n l i o u s e o f p r a y e r ' a n d sacrificial c u l t is t o b e a f f i r m e d . 213^See e.g. B e s t , Temptation, xlif. S o a l s o J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 1 . See also Marcus, 128f. F a r m e r , Maccabees, 1 3 6 f , 1 5 5 f ; c i t e d in K i n m a n , Entry, 1 1 6 ; cf. C a t c h p o l e , ' E n t r y ' , 3 2 0 . C o a k l e y , ' M e s s i a n i c ' , 4 7 2 , r e g a r d s M a r k ' s OTifiddas a s d e f y i n g e x p l a n a t i o n . 2

1

4

2

1

5

2

1

6

Jesus,

Jeremiah

7:11,

and the

331

Temple

coins p r o d u c e d d u r i n g the first J e w i s h r e v o l t .

217

( O n e might b e forgiven

for pointing out again the importance o f this term, ^fcO, in describing the hope

of the 219

oTifiddag

INE.)

2 1 8

B e a r i n g in m i n d

the

differences—here

the

are laid d o w n , not carried, and the specific w o r d ' p a l m ' is not

used, although one m a y inquire w h a t the people thought they w e r e doing in s t r e w i n g

t h e p a t h in this w a y

(cf. J n 1 2 : 1 3 ) — n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e

acclamation o f the c r o w d suggests that they understood the entry in terms of s u c h a ' d e l i v e r a n c e ' m o d e l .

2 2 0

A n d , indeed, as w i t h the M a c c a b e a n

entries, the 'cleansing' o f the T e m p l e is the focal point. F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , J e s u s , fresh from his victories as the Y a h w e h Warrior in p u r g i n g the land of the demonic, c o m e s as the messianic K i n g to effect the c o n s u m m a t i o n in Jerusalem. T h e irony, o f course, is that the c l e a n s i n g / e x p u l s i o n is directed n o t against the R o m a n s b u t against the present T e m p l e authorities and their functionaries and operatives, w h o m Jesus apparently regards as the true insurrectionists. Jerusalem has indeed b e e n t h r o w n into t u m u l t as Y a h w e h ' s voice is heard 'dealing

retribution

to his e n e m i e s ' (Isa 66:6, R S V ) . T h e fig-tree has been cursed, and recalling M a r k ' s use o f Malachi, Telford observes: ' T h e Lord w h o m they sought had suddenly c o m e to his T e m p l e (cf. Mai. 3.1 and M k . 1.2) but had c o n d e m n e d rather than restored i t ! '

2 2 1

W. W. Watty, however,

rejects the M a l a c h i i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

because

A ) J e s u s does not c o m e suddenly but prefaces his action with a public entry ( l l r l f f ) and a n inspection o f the T e m p l e (11:11), B ) the v e n d o r s not the priests are driven out, and C ) there is no explicit reference to M a l a c h i .

2 2 2

In response, ' s u d d e n n e s s ' has also to do with the ' u n e x p e c t e d ' and J e s u s '

2

1

7

2

1

8

2

1

9

2

2

0

2

2

1

2

2

2

E a r l i e r a t t r i b u t e d b y R e i f e n b e r g , Ancient, to the Maccabees, the evidence n o w s u g g e s t s t h e first r e v o l t ; s e e H e n g e l , Zealots, 117. F a r m e r , 'Palm', 6 3 , cites Reifenberg, Ancient, 37, w h o n o t e s t h a t t h e p a l m is 'first a n d f o r e m o s t ' t h e s y m b o l o f t h e 'feast o f tabernacles w h i c h so manifestly expresses the joy of deliverance'. S e e e.g. t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f M k 1 0 : 4 5 , C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 278ff; a l s o H e n g e l , Zealots, 1 1 8 , w h o s e e s e s p e c i a l l y I s a 5 2 : 1 , w i t h its p i c t u r e o f Y a h w e h a s r e d e e m e r , a s e x p r e s s i n g t h e k e r n e l o f J e w i s h h o p e s , a t e x t w h i c h w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l i t e r a r y f u n c t i o n o f Isa 5 3 . B A G D , 7 6 8 , a n d B S , 3 . 2 7 6 b , s u g g e s t s o m e t h i n g like 'leafy b r a n c h e s ' . G u n d r y ' s c o m m e n t , 6 2 9 , t h a t M a r k s a y s ' n o t h i n g a b o u t b r a n c h e s o f a n y kind', a s s u m e s t o o m u c h . O n the messianic e x p e c t a t i o n s for a ' w a r h e r o ' Son of D a v i d , see H e n g e l , Zealots, 298ff, a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n . Barren, 1 6 3 ; cf. fn. 1 2 0 . 'Jesus', 2 3 5 f ; t a k e n u p b y G u n d r y , 6 4 3 .

332

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

actions w e r e apparently t h a t ,

2 2 3

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

and, there is n o n e e d for explicit reference

if other indicators m a k e the allusion clear. But W a t t y is correct concerning the vendors.

H o w e v e r , this m a y b e a c c o m m o d a t e d if J e s u s ' symbolic and

proleptic act is understood in m o r e general terms, indirectly reflecting on those w h o permitted them to operate in the first place. M o r e to the p o i n t , does n o t M a l a c h i s p e a k o f p u r g i n g , rather t h a n destruction?

2 2 4

Y e s , ... and no. W h i l e it is true that M a l a c h i 3 envisages

purging, t h e p u r p o s e o f Elijah's c o m i n g is so that Y a h w e h will not curse the land, w h i c h is the language o f destruction. In the end, as it w a s in the p r o p h e t s a n d as J e s u s ' implied in M a r k 4 , the p u r g i n g is to b e effected b y m e a n s o f j u d g m e n t (cf. Isa 6:11-13). d) Which

Mountain?

The Meaning

of the Mountain-Moving

Saying

N u m e r o u s scholars h a v e c o m m e n t e d o n w h a t they feel to b e the a b r u p t a p p e a r a n c e o f the ' m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g ' s a y i n g in M a r k 11:22-25. preceding discussion we have already argued

that such

In the

'disjointed'

materials a r e not u n c o m m o n in the teaching style o f the M a r k a n J e s u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , in v i e w o f the fig-tree s y m b o l i s m , a c o m m o n r e s p o n s e has b e e n to read this saying as an eschatological statement referring either to the M o u n t o f O l i v e s

2 2 5

or the T e m p l e M o u n t .

2 2 6

The first option takes the demonstrative to refer to the M o u n t o f Olives a n d s e e s Z e c h a r i a h 14:4's description o f the e a r t h - s h a t t e r i n g (literally) c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the M e s s i a h ' s arrival as the i n t e r p r e t i v e frame.

For

T. W . M a n s o n , this 'striking b a c k g r o u n d ' e x p l a i n s the s a y i n g ' s M a r k a n location.

2 2 7

R. M . G r a n t , p o i n t i n g out n u m b e r s o f p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n

Z e c h a r i a h 9-14 a n d M a r k l l ,

2 2 8

suggested that since the H e b r e w ' t o the

w e s t ' (nw, Z e c h 14:4) m e a n s 'to the s e a ' M a r k 11:23 alludes to Zechariah's

2

2

3

2

2

4

2

2

5

2

2

6

2

2

7

2

2

8

D a u b e , Sudden, 74i; cf. N e u s n e r , ' M o n e y - c h a n g e r s ' , 2 8 9 . It is a l s o h i s first s u b s t a n tial a c t o n a r r i v i n g in J e r u s a l e m , H i e r s , ' P u r i f i c a t i o n ' , 8 2 . H o o k e r , 'Traditions', 8, sees a connection with the p r o l o g u e b u t denies that the M a l a c h i t e x t is in v i e w s i n c e M a r k s p e a k s o f d e s t r u c t i o n n o t c l e a n s i n g . Message, 8 3 . E . g . M a n s o n , Messiah, 2 9 f , 3 9 f ; G r a n t , ' C o m i n g ' , 3 0 0 ; E v a n s , ' G a l i l e e ' , 7; S m i t h , ' F i g s ' , 3 2 2 ; cf. H u r t a d o , 1 8 4 . A n u m b e r o f s c h o l a r s , n o t l i s t e d h e r e , a l s o s e e J e s u s a s indicating the M o u n t of Olives but without a n y eschatological implications. E . g . A b b o t t , Fourfold, 5 . 2 0 8 ; D o d d , Parables, 6 3 n l ; L i g h t f o o t , Message, 78; Gaston, Stone, 4 5 4 ; C a r r i n g t o n , 2 4 2 f ; M c K e l v e y , Temple, 6 5 n 3 ; T e l f o r d , Barren, 95-127; Trocme, Formation, 1 0 5 f ; K e l b e r , Kingdom, 1 0 3 f ; H o o k e r , ' T r a d i t i o n s ' ; B r o a d h e a d , ' M o u n t a i n ' . M a n s o n , ibid., 3 0 . ' C o m i n g ' , 298ff. E . g . v. 1: Z e c h 9 : 9 ; 1 4 : 4 ; v . 2: 9 : 9 ; v v . 8 - 1 0 : 1 4 : 1 6 - 1 9 ; v . 1 1 : 1 4 : 5 ; v. 1 3 : cf. 1 4 : 8 ; v. 1 4 : 14:4; v. 1 5 : 1 4 : 2 1 ; v. 1 6 : 1 4 : 2 0 ; v. 1 7 : 1 4 : 1 6 ; v. 2 3 : 1 4 : 4 .

Which

eschatological t u r m o i l .

Mountain?

229

The Mountain-Moving

333

Saying

C. F . E v a n s , following Wright, noted additional

parallels and argued that M a r k 11:23 is 'not a general exhortation to faith, but a precise injunction ... to see that this is the period o f the last days, and that Jerusalem is being j u d g e d ' .

2 3 0

N o t all o f t h e s e p a r a l l e l s are c o n v i n c i n g , yet t h e r e are e n o u g h s u g g e s t that Z e c h a r i a h p l a y s an influential role.

to

But does Mark's Jesus

h a v e in m i n d the specifically e s c h a t o l o g i c a l t r e m o r s o f the M o u n t o f Olives?

P r o b a b l y not.

In Zechariah, the setting is Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to

r e s c u e his p e o p l e , w h i c h w o u l d certainly fit the o v e r a l l I N E thrust o f M a r k , b u t the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t o f M a r k 11:23 is o n e o f w a r n i n g imminent judgement on the Temple establishment.

and

Second, allowing

that this might b e eschatological imagery (but see Zech 14:5), the M o u n t o f O l i v e s is in fact ' d i v i d e d ' , w h i c h s o u n d s like a t h e o p h a n y o f Y a h w e h ' s descent rather than j u d g e m e n t (e.g. E x 19:16ff). cast into the sea s u g g e s t s total r e m o v a l

2 3 1

O n the other h a n d , b e i n g

and, since the sea represents

chaos (e.g. Pss 18:16; 32:6; 46:2; 6 9 : 1 , 14; J o b 7:12; 26:12), e v o k e s images o f judgement

and

obliteration.

2 3 2

T h i r d , S h a r y n D o w d a r g u e s that it is

inconceivable that the messianic dislocations should b e d e p e n d e n t o n just a n y b o d y ' s e x e r c i s e o f faith (11:23a: og a v ) .

2 3 3

T h e c a s e for a s y m b o l i c

eschatological reference to the M o u n t o f Olives is not strong. M o r e c o m m o n l y , 'this m o u n t a i n ' is understood to refer to the T e m p l e Mount.

T e l f o r d , w h o s e w o r k is g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d

exposition, has argued the case e x t e n s i v e l y .

234

as t h e

standard

First, since M a r k has placed

this material here, Telford argues that it m u s t b e related to the foregoing and, therefore, m u s t s o m e h o w b e connected to the fig-tree and T e m p l e .

2 3 5

Next, turning to the O T , h e notes that 'the mountain o f the L o r d ' is a well k n o w n designation for the place w h e r e Y a h w e h will 'plant' his p e o p l e so

2

2

9

2

3

0

2

3

1

Miracle, 167. E v a n s , 'Galilee', 7, cf. 5ff, c i t i n g e.g. Z e c h 9:11 in t h e w o r d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n , M k 1 4 : 2 4 ; a n d Z e c h 1 3 : 7 in t h e s m i t i n g o f t h e s h e p h e r d , M k 14:27. M a r s h a l l , Faith, 1 6 8 , n o t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n m o v i n g n o r t h a n d s o u t h a n d being cast into the sea. * C f . e.g. M k 5 : 1 3 a n d 9 : 4 2 , M a u s e r , 1 2 6 ; S c h n e l l b a c h e r , ' T e m p l e ' , 1 0 4 ; M a r s h a l l , Faith, 168f; pace G u n d r y , 6 7 8 , w h o fails t o r e a l i s e A ) t h e E x o d u s b a c k g r o u n d , a n d t h e r e f o r e j u d g m e n t c o n n o t a t i o n s , o f M k 5 : 3 1 , a n d B) t h a t M k 9 : 4 2 is still a n a c t o f t e r r i b l e j u d g m e n t , if only to heighten the seriousness of the alternative. 3 2

2

3

3

2

3

4

2

3

5

Prayer, 7 3 f . Barren. S e e e.g. ibid., 4 9 , u p o n w h i c h t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r k is p r e d i c a t e d .

334

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

that they might flourish (espec. E x 15:17; Ps 78:54; Ezek 17:22f; Isa 2:2; = Mic 4 : 1 ; cf. Isa 27:6), although 'cultic aberration' results in j u d g e m e n t against both fig and vine (e.g. Jer 5:17; 8:13; H o s 2:12; 9 : 1 0 , 1 6 ; A m o s 4:9). M u c h the s a m e relationship obtains for rabbinic l i t e r a t u r e . in

the

OT

and

later

literature

236

There is already, then,

a conjunction

of Temple

Mount,

h o r t i c u l t u r a l i m a g e r y ( i n c l u d i n g the fig-tree), w i t h b l e s s i n g s e e n as flourishing,

and j u d g m e n t as withering.

This w o u l d fit w i t h M a r k w h e r e

although the fig-tree is clearly flourishing, the signs o f fruitfulness to c o m e are utterly absent. Telford also cites rabbinic texts w h e r e 'the m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' is apparently shortened to 'this m o u n t a i n ' and as such refers to the T e m p l e (b. Pesah 8 7 b , and b. Git. 5 6 b ) ,

2 3 7

and notes a discussion in b. Baba

Bathra

3b-4b w h i c h s p e a k s o f m o v i n g m o u n t a i n s in the context o f theoretically d e s t r o y i n g the T e m p l e in o r d e r to b u i l d a n e w o n e .

2 3 8

Finally, it is a

feature o f the ' M e s s i a n i c A g e ' that all obstacles to G o d ' s returning people will b e r e m o v e d , particularly mountains (Isa 40:4; 45:2; 49:11; cf. 6 4 : l - 3 ) .

2 3 9

O n this basis, the oddity o f M a r k l l : 2 2 f f being so closely attached to the preceding can b e explained. Its function is to announce ... . . . t h a t ' t h e m o v i n g o f m o u n t a i n s ' e x p e c t e d in t h e l a s t d a y s w a s n o w t a k i n g p l a c e . I n d e e d , a b o u t t o b e r e m o v e d w a s t h e m o u n t a i n par excellence,

the T e m p l e Mount.

T h e T e m p l e , k n o w n t o J e w i s h p e o p l e as 'the m o u n t a i n of the h o u s e ' o r 'this m o u n t a i n ' w a s n o t to b e elevated, a s expected, b u t cast d o w n ! A s R. E . D o w d a states: " T h e t e m p l e is t h e m o u n t a i n o u s o b s t a c l e w h i c h is t o v a n i s h b e f o r e t h e faith o f t h e gospel movement. interests,

T h e t e m p l e s y s t e m w i t h its c o r r u p t c l e r i c a l i s m a n d v e s t e d

is t o b e r e m o v e d i n t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l e r a , w h i c h is n o w

experienced."

being

2 4 0

D o e s this interpretation fare any better? G u n d r y think s o .

2 4 1

Neither S h a r y n D o w d , n o r

For D o w d , A ) the rabbinic designations are too late

and Telford h a s not demonstrated that 'this m o u n t a i n ' w o u l d h a v e b e e n u n d e r s t o o d as a reference to the T e m p l e b y M a r k ' s readers, and in fact Telford is u n a b l e to a d d u c e a n y a n c i e n t interpretation (unlike fig-tree cursing) to support this view. In terms o f m o v i n g mountains, B ) 'in Isa 2:2 2

3

6

2

3

7

Ibid., 1 3 4 - 4 1 . Ibid., 1 7 0 n 6 5 . Ibid., 1 1 2 . Ibid., 1 1 6 , c i t i n g D e r r e t t , ' F i g t r e e s ' , 2 5 3 ; cf. H a h n , ' W o r t ' , 1 5 7 . Ibid., 1 1 9 , c i t i n g D o w d a , ' C l e a n s i n g ' , p . 2 5 0 ; c f . M a r s h a l l , Faith, Schnellbacher, 'Temple'. R e s p e c t i v e l y , Prayer, 72f; Mark, 6 7 7 . 2

3

8

2

3

9

2

4

2

4

0

1

168f; and

Which

Mountain?

The Mountain-Moving

335

Saying

and M i c 4:1, "the m o u n t a i n o f the house o f the L o r d " will b e established

in

the M e s s i a n i c a g e , n o t r e m o v e d ' , C ) the m o u n t a i n s in Isaiah (40:4f; 45:2) are levelled, not r e m o v e d or cast into the sea, D ) in Z e c h a r i a h 4:6-10 the ' m o u n t a i n will b e levelled so that the T e m p l e can b e restored', Bathra

E ) b. Baba

3b is n o t about r e m o v i n g the T e m p l e b u t about solving impossible

legal difficulties, a n d , finally, F ) the d e m o n s t r a t i v e clearly refers to t h e Mount of O l i v e s .

2 4 2

Considering D o w d ' s concerns before going on to Gundry, A ) granted the late date o f the rabbinical material, she is correct in that 'this m o u n t a i n ' o n its o w n is n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y

a r e f e r e n c e to t h e T e m p l e

Mount.

2 4 3

However, it d o e s occur hard on the heels o f what appears to b e a stunning reversal o f e s c h a t o l o g i c a l expectation for the ' h o u s e o n the m o u n t a i n o f the L o r d ' , and this m i g h t b e a contextual hint. A n d as Donald J u e l notes, in Tg. Isaiah

5:lff,

a passage that provides the imagery for the parable o f the

tenants in M a r k 12:lff, Israel is given an inheritance D l

(5:1b).

244

On

the other h a n d , that n o ancient interpreter s a w it this w a y is significant, but m a y in fact say m o r e about M a r k ' s interpreters' horizons than M a r k . G i v e n that the text occurs e l s e w h e r e without a T e m p l e setting (Mt 17:1920; 1 C o r 13:2), it is quite possible that ancient interpreters might h a v e read their M a r k through the e y e s o f Paul, or m o r e likely M a t t h e w , as did their scribes.

245

M o v i n g n o w to points E ) and F ) . D o w d is correct with regard to

E ) that, b a s e d o n the rabbinic u s a g e Telford h i m s e l f cites, t h e m e t a p h o r concerns s o l v i n g i m p o s s i b l e legal p r o b l e m s , not r e m o v i n g T e m p l e s .

On

the other hand, F ) h a v i n g stood o n the M o u n t o f Olives and looked across at the T e m p l e Mount, I see n o reason w h y o n e pointing at it could not use the demonstrative 'this'. A s to points C ) and D ) , granted the l a n g u a g e is 'levelled',

the

fundamental

concept

is o b v i o u s l y

the

removal

of

mountainous obstacles.

T h e l a n g u a g e o f c a s t i n g into the s e a m e r e l y

expresses the s a m e idea.

But, and this is the crucial connection, granted

the negative connotations noted a b o v e o f the sea as c h a o s and b e i n g cast into it as an act o f j u d g m e n t — w h i c h , b y the w a y , is consistent with the w i t h e r e d fig-tree a n d M a r k 1 3 : 2 — ' c a s t i n g into the s e a ' o n l y s e r v e s to 2

4

2

2

4

3

Prayer,

72f.

T h e l a n g u a g e is in f a c t i n d e t e r m i n a t e , cf. S c h m i t h a l s , 2 1 4 . Messiah, 136f. O n the well k n o w n p h e n o m e n o n of scribes harmonising the texts of M a r k a n d L u k e to M a t t h e w ; s e e A l a n d , Text, 2 9 0 f ; M e t z g e r , Text, 1 9 7 . 2

4

4

2

4

5

336

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

h e i g h t e n t h e i r o n y o f the e x t r a o r d i n a r y reversal o f p r o p h e c i e s s u c h as t h o s e m e n t i o n e d in B ) . T h a t is to s a y , r e m o v a l is not antithetical to establishment w h e n w h a t is r e m o v e d is a corrupt system in order that the n e w m i g h t b e established in its stead. H e r e w e h a v e yet another e x a m p l e o f M a r k ' s J e s u s b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r t w o ideas to m a k e a powerful point, n a m e l y , the idea o f the r e m o v a l of m o u n t a i n o u s objects, w i t h the idea o f the sea as t h e place o f c h a o s a n d j u d g m e n t .

A n d all this allusively, and

w i t h considerable irony, applied to M o u n t Zion. G u n d r y , likewise rejects Telford's interpretation o n the basis o f a series o f putative 'failures', s o m e o f w h i c h are similar to D o w d ' s concerns. W e d i s c u s s o n l y t h o s e n o t a d d r e s s e d a b o v e , viz.

Telford's 'failure' A ) 'to

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the T e m p l e and the m o u n t o n w h i c h it s t a n d s ' ,

2 4 6

B ) to realise that the M o u n t m u s t r e m a i n as the site o f the T e m p l e ruin (13:2), C ) 'to d e m o n s t r a t e ' that the destruction o f the T e m p l e is to h a p p e n as the result o f the disciples' faith, and finally, D ) to account for that fact that M a r k n o w h e r e e l s e uses ' m o u n t a i n ' to refer to the T e m p l e site. In response. A ) if J e r u s a l e m can b e a s y n e c d o c h e for Israel, then, given T e l f o r d ' s e x a m p l e s , it s e e m s s o m e w h a t p e d a n t i c to d e n y that mountain'

c o u l d refer to w h a t is o n t h e m o u n t a i n , a n d

'this

a g a i n , the

i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t b o t h in t e r m s o f s y m b o l i s m a n d l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t s t h e T e m p l e M o u n t . B ) is o n l y o f c o n c e r n o n a literal r e a d i n g w h i c h n o b o d y , as far as I can tell, is proposing. T a k i n g D ) next, that M a r k n o w h e r e else uses the term in this w a y hardly disqualifies h i m from doing so n o w — u n l e s s h e is not p e r m i t t e d a u n i q u e u s e o f a t e r m (but cf. e.g. ayioc; in a title for J e s u s only in 1:24).

Finally, C ) is o f c o u r s e the issue.

First, t w o points. In this case, 'demonstration' is an impossibly unrealistic d e m a n d for either position (e.g. note the ambiguity o f the demonstrative). A ' g o o d l i k e l i h o o d ' is m o r e reasonable.

S e c o n d , it is not clear from the

a b o v e q u o t e that Telford m e a n s that the disciples will effect the actual p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f the T e m p l e t h r o u g h t h e i r p r a y e r , as

Gundry

suggests. O n the contrary, s u p p o s e o n e allows an underlying eschatologi cal (or apocalyptic) s y m b o l i s m . T h e n , j u s t as J e s u s c o m e s to a rebellious J e r u s a l e m — c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a corrupt T e m p l e s y s t e m (cf. M a i 3:5; 1:6 2:16 2

4

6

2

4

7

2 4 7

) w i t h w h o s e m a s t e r s h e h a s b e e n in c o n s t a n t c o n f l i c t — a n d

677. See earlier. C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 6 8 a n d 70.

Which

Mountain?

The Mountain-Moving

337

Saying

adumbrates j u d g e m e n t b y cursing the fig-tree (cf. Mai 3:lf, 21 M T ) , is it not possible that his disciples, b y their prayerful faith, might see the ' r e m o v a l ' of this ' o b s t a c l e ' that is s t a n d i n g in the w a y not o n l y o f the L o r d ' s I N E c o m i n g but o f the c S v c a i v c o m i n g to h i m (Isa 56:7 in M k 11:17a; and also e.g. Acts 4:1-31; 13:44-50)? N e v e r t h e l e s s , D o w d is surely correct in her intention to regain w h a t s e e m s to b e the p r i m a r y point o f the p a s s a g e .

It is difficult from this

distance to k n o w w h e t h e r Jesus m e a n t his w o r d s to apply quite literally to physical them

2 4 8

mountains—as

early

tradition

suggests

some people

took

— o r metaphorically, as for e x a m p l e in M a r k 10:43-47. If the latter,

then w e have graphic hyperbole, not to b e taken literally but understood as a m e m o r a b l e w a y o f s a y i n g that all things are possible to those w h o h a v e faith.

2 4 9

In a n y c a s e , as D o w d points out, the e a r l y c h u r c h t o o k it as

referring to the p o w e r o f faith (1 C o r 13:2; M t 17:19-20; 21:21; L k 1 7 : 2 - 8 ) .

250

W h a t e v e r t h e m e r i t s o f an e s c h a t o l o g i c a l s y m b o l i c reading, it s e e m s a m i s t a k e to m a k e this p r e d o m i n a n t appears to b e the straightforward

o v e r , or e v e n e x c l u s i v e of,

what

reading: believing p r a y e r c a n a c h i e v e

even the impossible. S o w h a t a b o u t the s y m b o l i c reading? forward.

T h e solution s e e m s straight

J u s t as D o w d is content to allow a dual function to the first fig-

tree incident, is it n o t also p o s s i b l e for the s e c o n d , w i t h the included?

mountain

M a r k already s e e m s to do something like this with his healing-

of-the-blind miracles w h i c h not only demonstrate that J e s u s is Israel's I N E healer b u t also s a y s o m e t h i n g , using typical w i s d o m i m a g e r y , about the n e e d to s e e t h i n g s in G o d ' s w a y .

W h a t if M a r k h a s r e c o r d e d

the

' m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g ' here precisely because it too has a dual function? Y e s , believing prayer can effect the

dSuvaTov,

a n d , m o r e o v e r , e v e n deal w i t h

such formidable obstacles to the I N E gospel as an e n t r e n c h e d ,

powerful,

unrepentant, and hostile religious establishment (again espec. A c t s 4:1-31). Even this k£o\)oia

2

4

8

2

4

9

2

5

0

OIKOC;,

taken o v e r as it is b y strong men, will b e subject to the

of a stronger o n e (cf. 3:27, and 3:3).

S e e t h e a c c o u n t in D o w d , Prayer, 7 4 , o f o n e St. G r e g o r y T h a u m a t u r g u s , w h o r e p u t e d l y d e m o n s t r a t e d p r e c i s e l y t h i s k i n d o f faith. E . g . T a y l o r a n d N i n e h a m w h o s e e it e n t i r e l y a s m e t a p h o r , a n d e.g. L a g r a n g e , G r u n d m a n n , C r a n f i e l d , L a n e , w h o , g i v e n t h a t t h e fig t r e e is literal a n d o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , s e e it a s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e M o u n t o f O l i v e s b u t w i t h m e t a p h o r i c a l intent. Prayer, 7 4 .

338

Isaiah's

e) The Question

Promise

About

... Malachi's

Jesus'

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

Authority

W e have already alluded to the importance o f this event. N o t only does it close off t h e fig-tree-Temple intercalation, b u t it serves to lead into the crucial p a r a b l e o f the w i c k e d tenants. J e r u s a l e m authorities in full array.

J e s u s is a p p r o a c h e d b y I s r a e l ' s

Here, for the first time since M a r k 4

and 7, those w h o o u g h t to h a v e w e l c o m e d h i m appear, b u t belatedly and yet

a g a i n to confront h i m .

appropriate

In w h a t s e e m s o n the s u r f a c e to b e an

e x e r c i s e o f t h e i r lawful p r e r o g a t i v e , t h e y q u e s t i o n

c o n c e r n i n g his itovoia

'to do these t h i n g s ' ,

2 5 1

him

which almost certainly

refers to the preceding T e m p l e 'incident' (cf. 1 1 : 1 8 ) .

252

The k e y issue here as far as this b o o k is c o n c e r n e d is J e s u s ' response. H e neither p e r f o r m s a m i r a c l e , as h e did at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the first s e q u e n c e o f controversies (2:5-12), nor engages in a theological debate, as w h e n t h o s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s w e r e finally c o n c l u d e d (3:23-30; cf. 7:6-13). Instead, h e asks a question about J o h n ' s baptism: did it c o m e from heaven or from m a n ?

C o m m e n t a t o r s generally c o n s t r u e this link w i t h J o h n in

t e r m s o f J o h n ' s G o d - g i v e n a u t h o r i t y , t a k i n g J e s u s to i m p l y that h i s authority t o o c o m e s from the s a m e source. T h u s , the leaders' unbelieving r e s p o n s e to J o h n is w h a t e n s u r e s their rejection o f J e s u s ; w h i c h in a general s e n s e is t r u e .

2 5 3

G u n d r y takes a different tack in contending that

the issue is J o h n ' s testimony which pointed to Jesus as the 'stronger one': if they had b e l i e v e d J o h n they w o u l d h a v e accepted J e s u s .

2 5 4

Similarly, it

m a y refer to J o h n ' s affirmation o f J e s u s ' as the messianic 'Spirit-baptizer' (1:8). But w h a t has this to do with J o h n ' s baptism in particular? It is w i d e l y agreed that ' b a p t i s m ' is a s y n e c d o c h e for J o h n ' s ministry; h o w is this to b e understood?

H o o k e r m a k e s the tentative suggestion that

s i n c e M a r k links J o h n with M a l a c h i 3 : 1 , J e s u s is M a l a c h i ' s L o r d o f the T e m p l e a n d h e n c e his a u t h o r i t y . T e m p l e ' s L o r d (cf. M k 12:1-12).

255

This s e e m s right, J e s u s is indeed the

C a n w e b e more specific?

2 5 1

' E £ o u a i a is m e n t i o n e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s ( 1 : 2 2 , 2 7 ) w h i c h w e h a v e s u g g e s t e d w e r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r m o t i f , a n d h i s c l a i m t o f o r g i v e sin ( 2 : 1 0 ) . ^ L o h m e y e r , Lord, 4 3 ; L a n e ; P e s c h ; S h a e , ' Q u e s t i o n ' , 2 2 . 5 2

253 T a y l o r ; S c h w e i z e r ; L a n e ; H u r t a d o ; G n i l k a ; E r n s t ; H o o k e r . 2 5 4

2

5

5

Gundry, 658. Mark, 2 7 2 .

The

Vineyard

and

the Wicked

339

Tenants

J e s u s ' a c t i o n in t h e T e m p l e is n o t o n l y a m a t t e r o f a c t i n g in a n authoritative w a y .

N o r is it s i m p l y a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t r e f o r m i n g t h e

T e m p l e . It specifically presages judgement. they w a n t to kill h i m .

This is, w e w o u l d urge, w h y

After all, M a r k presents t h e m as e x p e r t s in the

Scriptures w h o p r e s u m a b l y well understood the implications o f J e r e m i a h 7. O n this v i e w , in keeping with J o h n ' s preaching ( M k 1:4) and thus the thrust of Malachi w h i c h w a s primarily concerned with priestly abuses and infidelities,

256

the authorities o u g h t to h a v e repented in preparation for

the Lord o f the T e m p l e ' s delayed I N E coming (cf. Isa 40:3). Their failure to do so, that is, to submit to J o h n ' s 'baptism o f repentance', a m o u n t e d to a refusal to prepare t h e m s e l v e s .

257

A n d so, as Telford rightly maintains, the

L o r d o f the T e m p l e h a s c o m e , cursed the fig-tree (•"|.n, cf. M a i 3:24 M T ) , and announced sentence Qer 7:11; cf. Jer 25:3-11; Isa 43:28; and M k 12:2-5, 9 ) . This is w h y J e s u s points to J o h n ' s baptism: their refusal to prepare through repentance is the grounds for his a n n o u n c e m e n t of j u d g m e n t . S o the authorities reason a m o n g themselves (vv. 31-32).

O n c e again,

w i s e in their o w n conceits, they cleverly extricate themselves b y replying, with extraordinarily wonderful

irony ( p e r h a p s s o m e o f t h e finest in

M a r k ' s Gospel), that they do not know. Quite so. T h e wheels o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 and Isaiah 2 9 in M a r k 7 h a v e c o m e full circle.

H o w little they

' k n o w ' , in the midst o f their 'perception', will soon b e revealed. In c o n c l u s i o n , if w e c o n s i d e r all this w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e 'entry' genre, and considering M a r k ' s cumulative presentation o f J e s u s as representative true Israel, messianic 'servant', S o n o f David, S o n o f M a n , and

even Yahweh-Warrior and

S o n o f G o d , t h e n to c o n f r o n t

him

concerning his authority is in effect to deny h i m the act o f appropriation and to refuse h i m the right to rule. This is nothing if not m u t i n y . f) The Parable

of the Vineyard

and the Wicked

258

Tenants

F o l l o w i n g h a r d o n the h e e l s o f the f i g - t r e e / T e m p l e ' i n c i d e n t ' a n d t h e ensuing seditious confrontation o v e r his authority (11:18 suggests that this w o u l d hardly b e a polite request), M a r k ' s J e s u s p r e s s e s the j u d g e m e n t 2

5

6

2

5

7

See C h a p t e r 3 , p. 6 8 , above. O n t h e p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this s e e C h a p t e r 4 , p . 1 0 4 , fn. 7 2 . 2 5 8 Duff, ' M a r c h ' , 6 1 f, c i t e s t h e e x a m p l e o f A l e x a n d e r , w h o w h e n r e f u s e d t h i s r e q u e s t b y t h e T y r i a n s , l a i d s i e g e t o t h e i r c i t y . Is it p o s s i b l e t h a t a s i m i l a r i d e a is i n v i e w h e r e ? T h e J e r u s a l e m a u t h o r i t i e s ' r e f u s a l t o s u b m i t will l e a d t o t h e i r c i t y c o m i n g ' u n d e r s i e g e ' , cf. M k 13.

340

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

theme, b y taking up the initiative in the vineyard p a r a b l e . well-known rabbinic i m a g e ,

2 6 0

version o w e s m u c h to Isaiah 5 . is c o n s i d e r a b l e ,

262

259

Although a

it is generally accepted that the M a r k a n

2 6 1

T h e amount o f literature o f this passage

b u t again our concerns are limited to its present M a r k a n

form a n d s e t t i n g , a n d to its g e n e r a l significance in t e r m s o f an I N E hermeneutic. (i) The Isaiah

Context

A piece o f considerable literary merit, the so-called V i n e y a r d S o n g (5:1-7) brings to a c l i m a x Y a h w e h ' s inauguration o f his lawsuit against his people a n d a p p e a r s j u s t p r i o r to his a p p e a r a n c e as s u z e r a i n in t h e T e m p l e (6:lff).

2 6 3

A l t h o u g h the form and genre o f the p o e m has b e e n debated at

length—which probably reflects the need in the original setting initially to conceal the true significance o f the parable so as to e n g a g e the listeners—it h a s b e e n suggested that it is a 'Liebslied' w h e r e b y the 'best m a n ' sings on behalf o f his w r o n g e d friend, the aggrieved ' b r i d e g r o o m ' .

264

T h e majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s hold that after a brief introduction the s o n g p r o p e r c o n t a i n s four e l e m e n t s : the o w n e r ' s tender a n d

thorough

provision for his vineyard is contrasted with its obnoxious harvest (vv. l b 2 ) , an a p p e a l for a verdict b a s e d o n the disparity b e t w e e n the o w n e r ' s u n i m p e a c h a b l e faithfulness and the v i n e y a r d ' s inexcusable failure (vv. 34 ) , a declaration o f the verdict (vv. 5-6), and finally an interpretation: the vineyard

is t h e

nation

righteousness (v. 7 ) .

and

the

sought-after

fruit

is j u s t i c e

and

2 6 5

However, G. A . Y e e , supported b y G. T. Sheppard, has recently offered a m o r e n u a n c e d interpretation, b a s e d o n a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e form o f D e u t e r o n o m y 3 2 , contending that the structure is best analysed along the

2

5

9

Burkill, 'Strain', 4 0 . 2 6 0 F e l d m a n , Parables, 1 2 8 - 3 5 ; J e r e m i a s , Parables, Y o u n e , Jesus, 298ff; S t e m , 'Rabbinic'. 2

6

1

2

6

2

2

6

3

2

6

4

2

6

5

8 8 ; S n o d g r a s s , Tenants,

22ff; cf.

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e m a j o r c o m m e n t a r i e s , J e r e m i a s , Parables, 7 0 ; J u e l , Messiah, 1 3 6 f ; C h i l t o n , Galilean, 11 Iff; a n d S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 47ff, w h e r e h i s d i s c u s s i o n p r e s u p p o s e s a s much. S e e t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y b y S n o d g r a s s , Tenants; a l s o Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 2 - 3 1 6 . M u c h o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n o n p a r a b l e s , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r this o n e , h a s u n t i l r e c e n t l y b e e n h a m s t r u n g b y Jiilicher's u n d e r s t a n d a b l y r e d u c t i o n i s t r e a c t i o n t o e a r l i e r e x c e s s i v e a l l e g o r i s i n g . F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e l i t e r a r y s t r u c t u r e , s e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 188ff, a b o v e . O n t h e j u d i c i a l n a t u r e o f Isa 5:1-7, see Y e e , ' S t u d y ' , 3 3 - 3 6 . Wildberger, 164; Clements, 57. C l e m e n t s , 5 8 ; K a i s e r , 5 9 ; cf. W h e d b e e , Isaiah, 4 4 .

The

Isaiah

lines o f a modified juridical p a r a b l e ,

341

Context

266

consisting of A ) a parable (vv. l b - 2 ) ,

B ) call for j u d g m e n t (v. 3 ) , C ) recital o f G o d ' s b e n e v o l e n t a c t i o n s (v. 4 a ) , D ) i n d i c t m e n t (v. 4 b ) , E ) s e n t e n c e (vv. 5-6); and F ) , interpretation (v. 7 ) .

2 6 7

T h e m a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n o f this analysis is that it h i g h l i g h t s the c e n t r a l point o f the form w h i c h is to lure the hearers into p a s s i n g j u d g m e n t o n themselves (cf. N a t h a n ' s parable to David in 2 S a m 1 2 : 1 - 1 0 ) .

268

T h e v i n e y a r d i m a g e r y h a s o c c u r r e d earlier, in 3 : l l f , w h e r e Y a h w e h takes his stand in court against the elders and leaders o f his people: 'it is y o u w h o h a v e r u i n e d m y v i n e y a r d . . . ' (3:11-15, L X X ; cf. Tg. Isa). previously

discussed,

2 6 9

this is in k e e p i n g w i t h the c o n s i s t e n t Isaianic

c r i t i q u e o f t h e r e b e l l i o u s J e r u s a l e m i t e l e a d e r s h i p (cf. 1:2; 2 8 ) . however,

the

vineyard

As

signifies

the

whole

people

Here,

including

the

l e a d e r s h i p , w h o t o g e t h e r are the elect o f G o d a n d recipients o f all t h e privileges pertaining t h e r e t o . his vineyard

is i m a g e r y

2 7 0

used

Y a h w e h ' s planting o f and p r o v i s i o n for in P s a l m 8 0 : 9 - 1 9

( M T ) to describe,

interestingly e n o u g h , Israel's deliverance in the E x o d u s and h i s provision of the land in the c o n q u e s t (see J e r 2:21 w h i c h s e e m s to d r a w o n Isa 5 — Y a h w e h p l a n t s pl.W g r a p e s — a n d also recalls Sinai w h e r e Y a h w e h g a v e Israel birth, w . 26-28; cf. Dt 32:10-14, 3 7

2 7 1

) . O n c e again the importance o f

the founding m o m e n t is evident. T h e story itself is quite straightforward, expressing Y a h w e h ' s complaint against his faithless p e o p l e .

2 7 2

In spite o f h e r s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to

Y a h w e h , the nation h a s not r e s p o n d e d in kind.

Y a h w e h , w h o has d o n e

everything possible for his people, c a m e seeking justice and righteousness b u t f o u n d o n l y b l o o d s h e d a n d t h e c r y o f suffering r i s i n g from

the

oppressed. H e calls for a decision, although h e himself gives it. N o d o u b t the hearers w o u l d agree until they realise that they are, ironically, j u d g i n g themselves.

2

6

F i n a l l y , in k e e p i n g w i t h the j u r i d i c a l form, o n c e the self-

6

'Study' a n d 'More' respectively, following the critique of Willis, 'Study'. See also S i m o n , ' P o o r ' , 2 2 0 f , w h o c i t e s five e x a m p l e s : 2 S a m 1 2 : 1 - 1 4 ; 1 4 : 1 - 2 0 ; 1 K g s 2 0 : 3 5 - 4 3 ; I s a 5 : 1 - 7 , a n d Jer 3:1-5 (?). 2

6

7

2

6

8

2

6

9

2

7

0

Y e e , 'Study'; Sheppard, 'More'. Y e e , 'Study', 38f, w h o also discusses the close parallels b e t w e e n the t w o . C h a p t e r 7, p p . 189ff, a b o v e . S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 7 5 , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n . 2 7 1 y e e , ' S t u d y ' , 31ff, s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s o n g ' b e s t u d i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t s ' o f D t 3 2 ; cf. H o l l a d a y , 1 0 4 f ; C r a i g i e , et al, 3 7 ; T h o m p s o n , 1 8 0 ; a n d C a r r o l l , 1 3 1 . 2 7 2 w h e d b e e , Isaiah,

4 7 ; Y e e , 'Study'; Clements, 5 5 .

342

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

j u d g m e n t h a s o c c u r r e d , the last verse b r i n g s the d e n o u e m e n t : the failed vineyard is the hearers themselves. (ii)

The Parable

in

273

Mark

H a v i n g b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y the T e m p l e authorities, J e s u s r e s p o n d s b y m e a n s o f a n a p a p o X T i — a term last used b y J e s u s in his previous meeting with the J e r u s a l e m authorities' emissaries in M a r k 7. In fact, o n all three occasions w h e r e J e s u s has b e e n confronted b y authorities from J e r u s a l e m (3:22ff, 7:14ff, and here), his response has been in p a r a b l e s .

274

W h e r e a s the

first parable-rejoinder represented the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a series o f contro versies (2:lff) this o n e initiates another ( 1 2 : 1 3 - 4 0 ) .

275

Although using the imagery o f the 'vineyard s o n g ' in Isaiah 5, there is a change o f emphasis. N o longer is the concern about the quality o f the fruit n o r is the v i n e y a r d en toto to b e destroyed, b u t rather the tenants.

In

m a k i n g this distinction b e t w e e n p e o p l e and leaders J e s u s appears to b e influenced b y Isaiah 3:1 Iff (cf. LXX, Tg. Isa). Based on standard O T imagery, a n u m b e r o f the referents are generally a g r e e d .

2 7 6

T h e vineyard is Israel

(Jer 2 : 2 1 ; H o s 10:1), the o w n e r is G o d himself, and the servants are the prophets (cf. 60OX01 in e.g. J e r 7:25; 25:4; A m o s 3:7; Zech 1:6). Based o n rabbinic parallels (e.g. Ex. Rab. 30.17; 15.19), K. R. S n o d g r a s s m a i n t a i n s that 'while

the story w a s b e i n g t o l d ' the tenants w o u l d h a v e

b e e n m o r e likely understood as either the earlier Canaanites or the present R o m a n forces o f o c c u p a t i o n and the servants w h o w e r e killed Israel's leaders s u c h as J u d a s M a c c a b a e u s .

277

Apart from the question o f whether

M a r k ' s hearers w o u l d have so understood it, given A ) that in the vineyard imagery o f Isaiah 3 : l l f f (LXX; cf. Tg. Isa) the national leadership is in view, B ) that v a r i o u s J e w i s h traditions u n d e r s t o o d the t o w e r a n d the vat in Isaiah 5 to refer to the T e m p l e and the altar (e.g. Tg. Isa 5:1b; 4 Q 5 0 0

2 7 8

),

2 7 9

2 7 3

T h e m o s t r e c e n t t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s p a r a b l e in t h e G o s p e l s is t h a t o f S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, t o w h o s e w o r k w e will c o n s t a n t l y refer. 2 7 4

S e e C h a p t e r 7, p . 2 2 4 , a b o v e . B u r k i l l , ' S t r a i n ' , 4 2 ; cf. T e l f o r d , Barren, 4 8 . G u n d r y , 6 6 5 , m e n t i o n s p o s s i b l e , if n o t entirely convincing, parallels b e t w e e n the t w o g r o u p s of controversies. Cf. E v a n s , ' V i n e y a r d ' , 8 4 f ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 761; K i n g s b u r y , 1 1 5 . S n o d g r a s s ' i d e n t i fication o f t h e v i n e y a r d a s t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f G o d ' s p e o p l e , o n t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e i d e n t i t y o f I s r a e l a s a n a t i o n c a n n o t b e t r a n s f e r r e d , fails t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e i s s u e c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p (cf. L k 2 2 : 3 0 ) . Tenants, 77i, 2 3 f . See B a u m g a r t e n , 'Vineyard'. S e e a l s o t. Me'il. 1:16; t. Sukk 3:15; cf. 1 Enoch 8 9 : 5 6 - 7 3 ; Barn. 1 6 : 1 - 5 . 2 7 5

2 7 6

2 7 7

2 7 8

2 7 9

The

Parable

in

343

Mark

C ) that the J e w i s h authorities such as the Sanhedrin m e t there r e g u l a r l y ,

280

a n d D ) the i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t , it s e e m s clear that the t e n a n t s are the Temple authorities.

281

O n the other h a n d , if S n o d g r a s s is right, then the surprise w o u l d h a v e b e e n even greater in that the expected C a n a a n i t e o r R o m a n ' t e n a n t s ' turn out to b e Israel's leaders. This sits well with the earlier suggestion that the behaviour o f the c r o w d at J e s u s ' entrance recalled aspects of the M a c c a b e a n entries. This time, h o w e v e r , it is not the R o m a n s b u t the present T e m p l e incumbents w h o are to b e r e m o v e d . Further, in our discussion o f the d e e p e r significance o f J e s u s ' casting out o f d e m o n s , w e h a v e already suggested that part o f M a r k ' s concern is to s h o w that Israel's p r o b l e m is not the R o m a n s but the idolatrous-demonic within (cf. J e s u s ' first m i r a c l e w h i c h w a s the casting out o f an ' u n c l e a n ' spirit in a S y n a g o g u e , 1:21-28; and the d r o w n i n g o f L e g i o n in 5 : l - 2 0 ) .

2 8 2

G r a n t e d the Isaianic link b e t w e e n idolatry a n d false w i s d o m , it is n o t surprising that J e s u s ' actions are directed not against the R o m a n s b u t the i d o l a t r o u s , a n d e v e n d e m o n i c , c h a r a c t e r o f the ' w i s d o m ' that rejects Y a h w e h ' s purposes. In the l i g h t o f M a r k ' s i n t e r e s t in J o h n as M a l a c h i ' s Elijah,

the

astounding ' p a t i e n c e ' o f the o w n e r in the repeated sacrifice o f his servants a n d the e q u a l l y astonishing a r r o g a n c e o f the tenants m a k e s g o o d s e n s e . This, for M a r k ' s J e s u s , is w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d constantly and n o w finally e v e n to M a l a c h i ' s Elijah, n a m e l y , J o h n ( 9 : 1 3 ) .

2 8 3

What may have been

surprising is the o w n e r ' s reasoning in sending his son: if the tenants h a d not respected his servants, w h y should they the s o n ?

2 8 4

( A n d herein the

hearers accurately assess t h e m s e l v e s ) . Further, this idea o f obtaining the vineyard b y m u r d e r i n g the heir has been criticised since, it is claimed, it is not a legal p o s s i b i l i t y .

285

B u t not o n l y d o e s the similarity w i t h A h a b ' s

2

8

0

Eppstein, 'Cleansing', 50f.

2

8

1

2

8

2

Pace P e s c h , 2 . 2 2 0 f o r w h o m t h e y r e p r e s e n t I s r a e l ' s ' H a l s s t a r r i g k e i t ' . C h a p t e r 6, p p . 163f, above.

2

8

3

2

8

4

2

8

5

O n v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s o n t h e n a t i o n ' s t r e a t m e n t o f its p r o p h e t s , s e e S n o d g r a s s , Tenants, 79f, w h o c i t e s Pesiq. R. 2 6 a n d S c h o e p s , ' P r o p h e t e n m o r d e ' ; a l s o S t e c k , Israel. O n it b e i n g t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e n a t i o n w h o w e r e l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , G u n d r y , 6 8 9 . Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 8 . C a r l s t o n , Parables, 1 8 4 f ; b u t s e e Y o u n g , Jesus, 2 8 2 f , w h o a r g u e s t h a t , s i n c e y€o>pyoi' p r o b a b l y r e n d e r s DônK, t h e t e n a n t s e n v i s a g e d h e r e c o u l d t a k e o v e r t h e l a n d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n h e i r . H o w e v e r , h i s e v i d e n c e , Sipre Dt § 3 1 2 , a p p e a r s a m b i g u o u s s i n c e t h e o w n e r c a n still g i v e t h e p r o p e r t y t o o t h e r s .

344

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

m u r d e r of N a b o t h put the tenants in the worst possible light (1 K g s 21:1-19, cf.

eKXTipovourjaac;/

v. 19; 2 K g s 9:25f), but if their plan is utterly unrealistic,

it o n l y a c c e n t u a t e s their indescribable folly.

E v e r y o n e k n o w s w h a t an

o w n e r w o u l d do to the tenants in s u c h a situation.

How much more

foolish their actions and perilous their plight w h e n the o w n e r is G o d ? In spite o f the occasional d o u b t as to w h e t h e r the son is J e s u s ,

2 8 6

h e is

undoubtedly so for M a r k , since A ) w e already k n o w that Jesus is G o d ' s u i o v a y a i r r i T o v (1:11; 9:7), B ) M a r k has constantly signalled the i m p e n d i n g death of only o n e figure, J e s u s , (how h e dies is not the point o f the parable but m e r e l y reflects its inner narrative w o r l d ) , C ) the i m m e d i a t e context has already informed us o f the intentions o f the T e m p l e hierarchs (11:18; cf. 3:6; 12:12), and finally D ) the combination o f M a r k ' s presentation o f J e s u s as the m e s s i a n i c K i n g a n d the motif o f the ' e n t r y ' g e n r e c o m b i n e to m a k e h i m the true h e i r .

2 8 7

T h e p a r a b l e , then, a n n o u n c e s that b e c a u s e the J e w i s h l e a d e r s h a v e neither rendered Y a h w e h his proper due n o r respected the heir to w h o m the

vineyard

ultimately

belongs

2 8 8

they will be destroyed and

oversight o f the v i n e y a r d g i v e n to others.

the

T h e i m p o r t a n t point, as the

majority o f c o m m e n t a t o r s a g r e e , is that the p a r a b l e is a l m o s t totally negative and, in keeping with the appeal to Isaiah 6 and 29 in M a r k 4 and 7, directed primarily against the J e w i s h authorities, not I s r a e l .

289

H e r e too

the theme o f M a l a c h i ' s threatened j u d g m e n t is continued. A l t h o u g h the use o f the P s a l m s in M a r k is not part o f o u r i m m e d i a t e concern, a brief w o r d about P s a l m 118:22-23 is in order since it functions as

286 M i l a v e c , ' I d e n t i t y ' , h a s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e last ' o n e ' is n o t u n a m b i g u o u s l y J e s u s b e c a u s e ' h e i r ' is n o t a k n o w n t i t l e f o r t h e M e s s i a h , ' l a s t ' d o e s n o t fit J e w i s h E l i j a h e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d t h e s o n is m u r d e r e d b y t h e t e n a n t s a n d ' c a s t o u t ' w h e r e a s J e s u s is e x e c u t e d b y t h e R o m a n s a n d b u r i e d ( o n t h i s l a s t p o i n t s o a l s o W e d e r , Gleichnisse, 1 4 9 n l l ; cf. R o b i n s o n , ' W i c k e d ' , 4 4 9 ) . B u t M i l a v e c fails t o p l a c e t h e s e t e r m s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p a r a b l e . ' H e i r ' s i m p l y m e a n s t h e o n e w h o h a s u l t i m a t e c l a i m a n d a u t h o r i t y , w h i c h is e x a c t l y w h a t t h e i s s u e h a s b e e n s i n c e J e s u s a r r i v e d in J e r u s a l e m ; 'last' is in k e e p i n g w i t h M k 3 : 2 8 f w h e r e J e s u s is I s r a e l ' s final a n d o n l y o p t i o n ; a n d o n 'killed a n d c a s t o u t ' s e e p o i n t (B) b e l o w . T h a t I s r a e l is n o t t o b e d e s t r o y e d is q u i t e t r u e , a f t e r all t h e ' t w e l v e ' a r e t h e n e w leaders (3:13-19). 2

8

7

2

8

8

2

8

9

S e e a l s o S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 8 0 - 8 7 . It is i m p o r t a n t n o t t o p u s h t h e i m a g e r y t o o , t h e p o i n t is o w n e r s h i p a n d w h a t is d u e t o t h e o w n e r s , n o t i s s u e s a b o u t w h e n t h e h e i r will inherit. S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 8 7 - 9 5 ; T r o c m e , 2 0 7 f , a n d l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d t h e r e i n ; cf. C o r n e t t e , 'Vignerons'. A l t h o u g h h e recognises the primacy of the Jewish leaders, Kingsbury's view, 1 1 5 , t h a t t h i s is a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t t h e ' c h u r c h ' a s s u m i n g I s r a e l ' s p l a c e n e e d s c l a r i f i c a t i o n .

The

the ' c a p s t o n e '

2 9 0

Parable

in

345

Mark

to the story. N u m e r o u s c o m m e n t a t o r s feel the c i t a t i o n

291

to b e i n c o n g r u o u s s i n c e the p a r a b l e c o n c e r n s the p u n i s h m e n t o f the tenants while the 'citation' concerns the exaltation, probably, o f the s o n .

2 9 2

H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r o f factors indicate that it is well-placed. First, as w e h a v e a r g u e d , this sort o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n is typical o f the M a r k a n J e s u s ' teaching style, and reflects his technique o f citing together two previously unrelated texts at crucial junctures in his argument, in this case Isaiah 5 : l f and P s a l m 1 1 8 .

2 9 3

H e h a s already done something similar in the T e m p l e

(Isa 5 6 and J e r 7). S e c o n d , j u r i d i c a l p a r a b l e s w o r k b y d e l a y i n g t h e m o m e n t o f selfidentification until the hearers h a v e passed j u d g m e n t .

This is c o m m o n l y

followed b y a clarification or interpretation, as for e x a m p l e , N a t h a n ' s ' Y o u are the man!' (2 S a m 12:7; cf. Isa 5:7). J e s u s ' citation o f Psalm 118 functions analogously.

2 9 4

Third, the passion predictions constantly s p e a k o f J e s u s '

death and his s u b s e q u e n t rising again.

T h e p s a l m is appropriate to t h e

theme of reversal and subsequent vindication (cf. aTTo6oKi|iaCa) in 8 : 3 1 ) .

2 9 5

This is e v e n m o r e so in the light o f its messianic u s e in the ' e n t r y ' s c e n e (11:9), with w h i c h it forms a neat inclusio.

Fourth, if M a t t h e w Black is

right about a possible ' w o r d play' o n p / p a / D ^ T D , then this w o u l d indicate its appropriateness h e r e .

2 9 6

Finally, the term 'builders' is s o m e t i m e s used

in Q u m r a n ( C D 4:19-20; 8:12, cf. v. 3) and rabbinic literature (e.g. b.

Shabb.

114a; b. Ber. 64a; Tg. Pss 118:22-29) to m e a n 'scholars' or 'religious leaders', and thus serves to tie in the verse to the preceding (cf. Acts 4 : 1 1 ) .

2 9 7

A s to the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the p s a l m , the e v i d e n c e is a m b i g u o u s .

2 9 8

Suffice to s a y that in rabbinic w o r k s , the reversal m o t i f w a s applied to A b r a h a m , J a c o b , Israel, an unidentified figure, and D a v i d , and although there is n o certain e v i d e n c e o f messianic application it does s e e m to h a v e 2

9

0

2

9

1

2

9

2

2

9

3

2

9

4

2

9

5

2

9

6

2

9

7

2

9

8

T h e m e a n i n g o f K€<J>a\fiv yuviag is d i s p u t e d . J e r e m i a s , 'K€aAf|' a n d ' E c k s t e i n ' , a n d D e r r e t t , '"Stone"', a r g u e f o r ' c a p s t o n e ' , w h i l e for M c K e l v e y , Temple, 1 9 4 - 2 0 4 , it m e a n s f o u n dational 'cornerstone'. O n t h e i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s in w o r d i n g , s e e G u n d r y , Use, 2 0 . E . g . N i n e h a m ; S u h l , 1 4 1 ; D o n a h u e , Trial, 1 2 4 ; C a r l s t o n , Parables, M a r c u s , 1 1 2 ; cf. T a y l o r . S e e a l s o G u n d r y ' s a r g u m e n t s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , 6 9 0 .

190; Hooker;

See again Kee, 'Function', 176. S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 9 6 f . S o a l s o S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 1 0 0 ; S t r - B , 1 . 8 7 5 - 7 6 . 'Christological', 12. D e r r e t t , ' " S t o n e " ' ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 9 6 , c i t i n g S t r - B , 1 . 8 7 6 ; M a r c u s , 1 2 4 f . Cf. t h e P a u l i n e i m a g e r y in 1 C o r 3 : 1 0 - 1 7 w h e r e C h r i s t i a n t e a c h e r s a l s o b u i l d G o d ' s t e m p l e . S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n s in D e r r e t t , '"Stone"'; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 99ff; M a r c u s , 114f.

346

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

b e e n understood eschatologically. In the light o f the messianic overtones of the i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g v e r s e s (118:25f) as u s e d in 1 1 : 9 , M a r k probably m e a n s that these verses here should recall that acclamation and likewise b e messianically construed (cf. Acts 4:11; 1 Pet 2:7).

In any case, the

i m m e d i a t e point s e e m s clear: the son-stone w h o w a s killed-rejected b y the tenants-builders will b e vindicated b y G o d and m a d e the K€aXr|v ya)viae; of the people of G o d ' s future hopes. T a k i n g the i m a g e r y further, J . R. D o n a h u e c o n t e n d s that the ' s t o n e ' i m a g e r y , in the l i g h t o f the p r e c e d i n g a n t i - T e m p l e m a t e r i a l a n d

the

thematic unity o f these chapters as w h o l e , suggests m o r e specifically that J e s u s is to b e either the capstone or foundation stone o f the n e w T e m p l e that will replace the old (cf. 1 Pet 2 : 4 - 7 ) .

2 9 9

T h e charges b r o u g h t against

Jesus at his trial m a y lend support to this possibility (14:58; cf. 15:29, 3 8 ) , as d o a l s o p e r h a p s the e c h o e s o f T e m p l e , s t o n e , o i K o 6 o j i a i OIKOSOÔUVTCC;),

13:lf.

3 0 1

and

TTOTCITTOC;

3 0 0

(cf. o i

(cf. S a u j i a a T t f ; s e e B A G D , 6 9 5 ) in M a r k

T h i s w o u l d suggest a progression t h r o u g h these materials from

J e s u s as t h e messianic K i n g c o m e to 'cleanse the T e m p l e ' (11:1-11), to the o n e w h o a n n o u n c e s the p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t ' s d e m i s e ( 1 1 : 1 2 - 2 5 ) , and finally to its eventual replacement b a s e d on h i m s e l f (11:26 - 1 2 : 1 2 ) .

If so,

then w e m a y h a v e here intimations that the M a r k a n J e s u s sees h i m s e l f as the one w h o fulfils the N E h o p e o f Isaiah 2:2 and 56:7 (cf. 1 1 : 1 6 ) . The

302

h i e r a r c h s ' r e s p o n s e to this declaration o f J e s u s ' a s c e n d a n c y and

their final d e m i s e , is to seek his arrest (12:12). A c c o r d i n g to H. Raisanen, 303

the leaders' perception contradicts Mark's so-called

Parabeltheorie.

H o w e v e r , as argued earlier, this fails to do justice to M a r k ' s sophistication either in t e r m s o f his view o f parables or his fine i r o n y .

3 0 4

T h e point is

that o n t h e o n e o c c a s i o n w h e n M a r k ' s informs us that t h e J e r u s a l e m authorities ' p e r c e i v e ' that the parable is told against them, it is their very 'perception' that sets in train their o w n demise. T o reject J e s u s and to seek to destroy h i m results in the destruction of the T e m p l e . Y e s , they h a v e ' u n d e r s t o o d ' the p a r a b l e , m u c h like A h a z u n d e r s t o o d Isaiah. 2 9 9

3 0 0

3 0 1

B u t they

Trial, 1 2 2 - 2 7 ; cf. M a r c u s , 1 1 9 - 2 2 . S e e f u r t h e r D o n a h u e , ibid., 1 0 3 - 3 8 .

M a r c u s , 120f. S e e a l s o M a r c u s , 1 2 1 , a l t h o u g h h e s e e m s t o g o t o o f a r in r e a d i n g ' o t h e r s ' ( 1 2 : 9 ) t o e i t h e r m e a n o r i n c l u d e G e n t i l e s . T h i s is n o t e v i d e n t in t h e t e x t . 303 "Messianic", 8 8 ; cf. L a m b r e c h t , Astonished, 1 3 2 ; S n o d g r a s s , ibid., 7 3 ; G u n d r y , 6 9 1 . S e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 206ff, a b o v e . 3 0 2

3 0 4

The

Parable

in

347

Mark

h a v e refused to accept that it is also the truth before which they must yield. This, after all, is w h a t g e n u i n e w i s d o m is about. Isaianic p a r a d i g m

a r e two-fold.

T h e parallels with the

First, Isaiah 5 is a j u r i d i c a l p a r a b l e

designed to lure the hearers into j u d g i n g themselves, and that is e x a c t l y w h a t is happening here. A n d second, in keeping with M a r k ' s use o f Isaiah 6 and 2 9 , just as Y a h w e h used the Jerusalem leadership's reliance on their o w n w i s d o m to lead t h e m into judgment, so also here. Finally, the p a r a b l e leads into an second series o f confrontations and questions w h i c h , as H o o k e r h a s suggested, are generally related to the preceding matter o f J e s u s ' a u t h o r i t y .

305

T h e 'taxes' question put b y s o m e o f

the Herodians and the Pharisees not only highlights their failure to give to G o d that w h i c h is d u e h i m (loyalty to his Son; cf. 3:6), b u t p e r h a p s adumbrates the J e r u s a l e m leadership's greater loyalty to C a e s a r in getting J e s u s e x e c u t e d as a n insurrectionist.

The Sadducees' question on the

resurrection resonates with the M a r k a n t h e m e of the ultimate vindication of J e s u s (the m u r d e r e d ' s o n ' and rejected stone), while k e e p i n g the great c o m m a n d m e n t s — l o v e G o d ( w h o m in J e s u s they h a v e n o t ) a n d

your

n e i g h b o u r ( i n c l u d i n g the n a t i o n s ) — a r e truly w o r t h m o r e t h a n all t h e sacrifices in the T e m p l e (cf. Isa 56:7 and J e r 7:11 in M k 11:17). T h e last o f the controversies, n o w initiated b y J e s u s , deals again with J e s u s ' messiahship; a principle t h e m e for M a r k .

3 0 6

B y starting with P s a l m

110's affirmation o f lordship, and couching the question in terms o f b e i n g D a v i d ' s son, J e s u s highlights the ambiguity of D a v i d ' s s t a t e m e n t .

307

Since

in M a r k ' s account e v e r y o n e s e e m s agreed that the M e s s i a h is D a v i d ' s son, the question w o u l d h a v e at first perplexed.

But if the s e c o n d line w a s

agreed, p e r h a p s it w a s the first line of the syllogistic question that n e e d e d thought.

What does David mean by Lord?

What does Jesus mean?

Exactly.

H e is n o t m e r e l y D a v i d ' s m e s s i a n i c S o n , b u t a l s o his ( a n d

therefore their) Lord (cf. 11:10) and once again w e return to the question o f

3

0

5

3

0

6

3

0

7

T r a d i t i o n s ' , 9f. D e w e y , Debate, 1 5 6 - 6 3 , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e J e r u s a l e m c o n f l i c t s t o r i e s c o u n t e r b a l a n c e 2:1 - 3:6; b u t s e e S m i t h , ' O p p o n e n t s ' , 1 7 5 f . D a u b e , ' E a r l i e s t ' , 180ff, p r o p o s e s that t h e y c o r r e s p o n d to a rabbinical classification of four questions closely related t o P a s s o v e r Haggadah, viz. q u e s t i o n s o f w i s d o m : a b o u t p o i n t s o f l a w ; q u e s t i o n s o f v u l g a r i t y : m o c k i n g q u e s t i o n s u s u a l l y a b o u t r e s u r r e c t i o n ; q u e s t i o n s o f t h e p r o p e r w a y o f t h e land: a b o u t p i e t y ; a n d q u e s t i o n s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : a b o u t a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s in S c r i p t u r e . O n G u n d r y ' s r e a d i n g , 7 1 8 , J e s u s is m e r e l y e n g a g e d in p o i n t - s c o r i n g , a n d d i s p l a y s a r i g i d i t y a n d p l o d d i n g l i t e r a l i s m t h a t is f o r e i g n t o h i s o w n u s e o f S c r i p t u r e e l s e w h e r e . M a t t 2 2 : 4 5 clarifies t h e i n t e n t b u t l o o s e s t h e i m p a c t o f t h e d e s t a b i l i s i n g l o g i c .

348

Isaiah's

authority.

3 0 8

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

S o then, at the conclusion o f J e s u s ' verbal conflict with the

J e r u s a l e m authorities, M a r k here brings together the two k e y c o m p o n e n t s of J e s u s ' identity: h e is both Messiah and Lord. F o l l o w i n g h a r d o n the h e e l s o f the defeated silence o f the T e m p l e authorities, c o m e s t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n o f the s c r i b e s ' insincere piety.

As

Israel's teachers they h a v e constantly b e e n h e a d i n g up J e s u s ' opposition (2:6, 1 1 ; 3:22; 7:1, 5; 9:14; 11:18; cf. 1:22) so the j u d g e m e n t l a n g u a g e here probably serves as a final condemnation o f the kind o f 'building' activities in which they have b e e n engaged. Blind and deaf to Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m but m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y refusing to follow a p a t h n o t o f their o w n u n d e r standing, they are n o longer fit to b e Y a h w e h ' s servants and are Israel in n a m e only (cf. Isa 4 8 : l f ) .

T h e results o f 'building' in such a w a y are then

openly revealed in M a r k 13 w h e r e Jesus begins with an explicit statement of w h a t to this point has only b e e n expressed parabolically or implicitly, namely, the c o m i n g destruction o f the T e m p l e (13:lf). g)

Conclusion

T h e I N E e n v i s a g e d the c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h , the victorious deliverer o f his people to a liberated and soon-to-be gloriously restored Jerusalem. A n d on the surface, J e s u s , as m e s s i a n i c S o n o f G o d and Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , does indeed c o m e on the I N E way, accompanied b y the 'blind' and in procession with rejoicing crowds. So identified, Jesus bears the appropriate authority. H o w e v e r , the absence o f any official w e l c o m e d r a w s attention to the other m a i n M a r k a n n a r r a t i v e plot: t h e u n p r e p a r e d n e s s and h o s t i l i t y o f the nation's leaders. Consequently, w e are confronted not with signs o f escha tological blessing, but instead, in keeping with M a l a c h i ' s threat, the cursing of the fig-tree.

This along with the 'cleansing' incident constitutes J e s u s '

c l i m a c t i c c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h his o p p o n e n t s a n d signifies t h e c o m i n g destruction o f the T e m p l e . M a r k ' s account o f J e s u s ' use o f Isaiah 5 6 and Jeremiah 7 provides the rationale. W h e r e a s in the I N E the T e m p l e should h a v e b e c o m e a ' h o u s e o f prayer for all nations', the institution had instead engendered a false security and b e c o m e a 'den o f thieves' for an obdurate, nationalistic, and hostile leadership. A s in Jeremiah, such practice w a s not only m e a n i n g l e s s b u t subject to judgement.

At this point, the m u c h cited

a b s e n c e o f m a t e r i a l describing a m e s s i a n i c figure w h o will d e s t r o y the

3

0

8

C h a p t e r 8, p p . 288ff, a b o v e .

349

Introduction

T e m p l e is to s o m e extent irrelevant.

T h e M a r k a n J e s u s ' is n o t c o m i n g to

the T e m p l e m e r e l y as M e s s i a h — h i s multifaceted p r e s e n t a t i o n o f J e s u s n e e d s m o r e to b e taken into account—but o n the b a s i s o f M a l a c h i , a n d Isaiah's Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , also as its Lord (cf. Isa 66:6). This is w h y J e s u s asks the religious establishment for their assessment o f J o h n . B e c a u s e o f their 'failure' (read 'refusal') to 'understand', M a l a c h i ' s p u r g i n g curse will b e applied, and this in the terms o f J e r e m i a h 7. In b o t h cases s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e s e v e r e than m e r e renovation is in view.

T h e parable o f the

tenants then c o m e s full circle to the issue o f J e s u s ' identity and authority. In spite o f the tenants m u r d e r o u s ' plans, their ' w i s d o m ' will lead to their o w n destruction, and the heir's vindication. A n d predicated o n Jesus, the true son and heir, a n e w leadership, and p r e s u m a b l y a n e w T e m p l e to wh i ch all nations will c o m e , will emerge to take the place of the old.

IV. The Words of Institution: Jesus' Death and Isaiah's Servant? a)

Introduction

In Chapter 8 w e argued that while not excluding the influence o f other O T t e x t s — M a r k ' s J e s u s characteristically c o m b i n e s ideas from several s u c h s o u r c e s — t h e p r i m a r y b a c k g r o u n d for J e s u s ' s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g coming death appears

m o s t l i k e l y to h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d

descriptions o f the sufferings o f the enigmatic Isaianic 'servant'.

of his

from

the

T h e aim

of this section is to s e e if there is any e v i d e n c e that the M a r k a n J e s u s understood his death in a similar w a y in this final part o f his gospel, and if so, to m a k e s o m e suggestions as to its significance. commentators

A s it is, n u m e r o u s

h a v e s e e n a n a l l u s i o n to I s a i a h 5 3 in t h e w o r d s o f

institution in M a r k 14:24, w h i c h also h a p p e n s to b e the only place in these last chapters w h e r e J e s u s offers a n y indication o f his p e r c e p t i o n o f his c o m i n g death. A n u m b e r o f other allusions to Isaiah 5 3 (and 50) have also been proposed, but here opinion b e c o m e s increasingly divided (see b e l o w ) . W e will therefore concentrate o n M a r k 14:24, and then offer s o m e brief observations o n several of the other candidate passages. B e f o r e d o i n g s o , h o w e v e r , it is i m p o r t a n t

to n o t e s o m e

features o f M a r k ' s accounts of J e s u s ' self-understanding. of h i s g o s p e l , a l t h o u g h M a r k frequently

cardinal

In the first section

m e n t i o n s t h e fact o f J e s u s '

350

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

exorcisms—they could even b e regarded as characteristic o f J e s u s ' activity herein—he has only one instance where some explanation of their significance is offered (3:27).

Likewise, in the ' W a y ' section w i t h its focus

o n J e s u s ' i m p e n d i n g p a s s i o n — a l s o p e r h a p s t h e c h i e f c o n c e r n o f the s e c t i o n as is s u g g e s t e d , for e x a m p l e , n o t o n l y b y the t h r e e s i m i l a r l y constructed predictions but also their careful p l a c e m e n t within the overall structure—there is again only o n e brief statement as to the import o f this future suffering (10:45). T h e s a m e pattern apparently applies in this final section.

A l t h o u g h m u c h material is d e v o t e d to the e v e n t s i m m e d i a t e l y

l e a d i n g u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g J e s u s ' death, only 14:24 g i v e s a n y specific indication o f its s i g n i f i c a n c e .

309

S e c o n d , in all t h r e e cases the e x p l a n a t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s e x h i b i t s o m e ' f o r m a l ' similarities.

T h e y are quite brief, a l m o s t to the p o i n t o f b e i n g

terse. T h e y are also characteristically highly allusive and, as w e have seen, the majority o f scholars have suggested s o m e sort o f O T b a c k g r o u n d e v e n if there has b e e n debate as to its precise nature. Third, M a r k s e e m s to h a v e placed these statements at crucial points in his developing narrative.

The

Beelzebul c o n t r o v e r s y stands at the j u n c t u r e o f the first series o f contro versies and the all-important parable materials. T h e r a n s o m saying c o m e s in the third and final passion prediction at the c l i m a x o f the ' W a y ' section. Likewise, the c u p s a y i n g is situated b e t w e e n the concatenated accounts o f Jesus' various pronouncements—again

in w o r d a n d in d e e d — o f t h e

Temple's destruction, and the narratives of the T e m p l e authorities' attempt to destroy h i m (i.e. J e s u s ' trial and execution). All t h i s a p p e a r s thoughtful d e s i g n . relative

3 1 0

infrequency

apparently

t o o c o n s i s t e n t to b e c o - i n c i d e n t a l a n d

suggests

W h y does M a r k do this? It is difficult to tell, but the of explanations—one

per

section—and

c a r e f u l p l a c e m e n t s u g g e s t that t h e y o u g h t

to be

their given

considerable weight. Consequently, although it represents o n l y o n e verse, M a r k 14:24 is m o r e than likely o f considerable importance. 3

0

9

3

1

0

It is difficult t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e s a y i n g in t h e T e m p l e i n c i d e n t s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d h e r e . Is J e s u s ' d e a t h t h e s o l e f o c u s , o r p e r h a p s a s o u r a n a l y s i s m i g h t s u g g e s t , is it t o b e c l o s e l y t i e d w i t h h i s p r o n o u n c e m e n t i n t h e T e m p l e ? If s o , a n d a l t h o u g h m e r e l y s p e c u l a t i o n , m i g h t it b e t h a t t w o k e y s a y i n g s , i.e. a b o u t t h e s t r o n g m a n a n d t h e r a n s o m , find t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f u l f i l m e n t in t h e T e m p l e m a t e r i a l ( 1 1 : 1 7 , s u m m a r i s i n g c h s . 1 1 - 1 3 ) a n d in J e s u i ' d e a t h ( 1 4 : 2 4 ; s u m m a r i s i n g c h s . 1 4 - 1 6 ) s u c h t h a t b o t h t h e t h e m e s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d s e c t i o n s c o m e t o g e t h e r in t h e final c l i m a c t i c s e c t i o n ? B e s t , Temptation, liii.

Mark

b) Mark

14:24: The Cup

14:24:

The Cup

351

Saying

Saying

In placing side b y side the preparations for the Pas s over and the J e w i s h authorities' preparations to seize Jesus 'kv 6 6 X O J ' , M a r k 14:1 continues the t h e m e of the parable o f the w i c k e d tenants.

(The intervening material o f

M a r k 13, wh i c h contains several allusions to Isaiah but is so c o m p l e x as to require its o w n additional C h a p t e r and so is not dealt with in this b o o k , could well b e intended to explain the eschatological implications o f J e s u s ' p r o n o u n c e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g the T e m p l e and its hierarchy.)

The nation's

leaders seek J e s u s ' death, but Y a h w e h will wondrously use their plans b o t h to j u d g e them and to effect his final I N E purposes. happens

during

the

feast

that

S e c o n d , that all o f this

recalls Israel's

founding

moment

deliverance only heightens the irony, and e v e n m o r e so if, as is indicated b y later tradition, this w a s the night on which Israel's next deliverance w a s expected to take p l a c e .

3 1 1

Furthermore, for M a r k the meal at w h i c h these

w o r d s are s p o k e n is itself the P a s s o v e r m e a l ( 1 4 : 1 2 - 1 6 ) .

312

The Exodus-

N e w Exodus paradigm could hardly b e clearer. T h e s t a t e m e n t in question h a s c o m m o n l y b e e n treated in t w o parts: TOUTO

€anv

TO ai\id

\iov

Tfjc;

SiaSTiKTis' and

TO €KXUVV6|1€VOV

tmcp

TTOXXCJV.

It is almost universally agreed that the first half alludes to E x o d u s 2 4 : 8 .

3 1 3

If so, then w e note at the outset that once again there is a combination o f different motifs (i.e. iconic augmentation).

T h e events at Sinai (Ex 24:3-8)

are recalled within the context o f a Passover meal.

Passover, o f c o u r s e ,

r e m e m b e r s the night w h e n Y a h w e h r e d e e m e d his p e o p l e from b o n d a g e . But what is the significance of Exodus 24 and w h y add it here? It generally agreed that E x o d u s 24:8 describes part of the blood ritual at the foot o f M o u n t Sinai (cf. E x 20:18-21) w h e r e , after setting up t w e l v e stones representative o f the tribes o f Israel (v. 4 ) , M o s e s takes half o f the blood o f the sacrifices and ' d a s h e s ' ( p i t ) it u p o n the altar (v. 6) and, after 3

1

1

3

1

2

3

1

3

C h a p t e r 2 , p . 3 9 , fn. 2 9 . O n t h e p o s s i b l e m e s s i a n i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e b r e a d s a y i n g , s e e D a u b e , Cometh; a n d C a r m i c h a e l , ' E u c h a r i s t ' . S e e f u r t h e r e.g. J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, P a s s o v e r context, see Pesch, 'Gospel,' 139-48.

16ff. O n t h e c o h e r e n c e o f v v . 1 2 - 2 6 w i t h i n a

T h e t w o v a r i a n t s — t h e a d d i t i o n o f Kaivfjs" a n d c l ? afyeoxv a j i a p n o i v — a r e b e s t s e e n a s a s s i m i l a t i o n s t o M t a n d / o r l a t e r t r a d i t i o n ; o n t h e t e x t u a l i s s u e s , s e e G u n d r y , Use, 57ff. S o m e s e e a l s o a n e c h o o f Z e c h 9 : 1 1 w h i c h m a y h a v e t h e E x o d u s in v i e w (cf. Tg.), a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r e m e m b r a n c e o f t h e E x 2 4 c o v e n a n t ; cf. T a y l o r ; H o o k e r , Servant, 82; and M a r c u s , 157, o n the basis of the possessive p r o n o u n b u t which m a y simply indicate that Jesus is s p e a k i n g o f h i s b l o o d . H o w e v e r , M a r k is c l o s e r t o E x 2 4 : 8 ; e.g. F r a n c e , Jesus, 6 6 . L a t e r J u d a i s m u n d e r s t o o d rP"D • ! a l s o t o refer t o t h e rite o f c i r c u m c i s i o n , J e r e m i a s , ibid., 2 2 5 n n 4 , 5 .

352

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

reading from the b o o k of the covenant (v. 7 ) , ' d a s h e s ' ( p i t ) the other half u p o n the p e o p l e (v. 8 ) . All this is i m m e d i a t e l y followed b y a c o v e n a n t ratification m e a l on the mountain of G o d (vv. 9-11). F r o m the perspective of the B o o k o f E x o d u s , these e v e n t s signal the fulfilment o f Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d d e l i v e r a n c e w h e r e b y Israel is n o w able to 'sacrifier et servir Y H W H «sur cette m o n t a g n e » ' (cf. E x 3 : 1 2 ) ,

3 1 4

and m a r k the inauguration

of Y a h w e h ' s covenant with Israel as his n e w l y redeemed people. The

exact

significance

of

the

rite

itself

has

been

debated.

3 1 5

E. W . Nicholson, h o w e v e r , has cogently argued that its point is to c o n v e y holiness a n d thus s e r v e s to constitute Israel, in the l a n g u a g e o f E x o d u s 19:6, 'as Y a h w e h ' s " k i n g d o m of priests and a holy nation" (cf. Isa. lxi 6 ) ' .

3 1 6

T h a t the s a m e kind o f procedure is followed in Leviticus 8, w h e r e during the sanctification o f the priests b l o o d is placed on t h e m (vv. 23f) and the r e m a i n d e r ' d a s h e d ' o n the altar ( p l T , v. 2 4 b ) , l e n d s further s u p p o r t to N i c h o l s o n ' s suggestion.

A l o n g similar lines, R. S. Hendel in his treatment

of the social function o f sacrifice suggests that the w h o l e E x o d u s event can b e seen as ' a n elaborate rite of p a s s a g e ' w h e r e b y Turner's tripartite s c h e m e of separation, limen, and r e a g g r e g a t i o n is e n u n c i a t e d in I s r a e l ' s e s c a p e from E g y p t , her e n c o u n t e r with Y a h w e h , and j o u r n e y h o m e w a r d (i.e. to the promised

land).

3 1 7

In this m o d e l , the c e r e m o n y o f E x o d u s 24:3-8

b e c o m e s p a r t o f the m e a n s b y w h i c h Israel's ' n e w religious and social identity is a r t i c u l a t e d ' thereby c o n s e c r a t i n g h e r to Y a h w e h as his o n e p e o p l e — h e n c e the t w e l v e s t o n e s .

3 1 8

In terms o f M a r k , just as the first E x o d u s entailed a journey followed b y the 'blood o f the c o v e n a n t ' (and a meal) at the ' m o u n t a i n o f G o d ' , so too M a r k ' s J e s u s at the e n d of the ' W a y ' j o u r n e y s p e a k s o f the b l o o d o f the c o v e n a n t (in the c o n t e x t o f a meal) in J e r u s a l e m , that is, M o u n t Z i o n .

3 1 9

Perhaps it is coincidence, but o n e also notes that just as the twelve stones

3

1

4

3

1

5

3

1

6

3

1

7

S c h e n k e r , 'Sacrifices', 4 9 1 . S e e e.g. t h e m o r e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s in K u t s c h , ' " B u n d e s b l u t " ' ; N i c h o l s o n , 'Ritual'; H e n d e l , 'Sacrifice'; a n d S c h e n k e r , 'Sacrifices'. 'Ritual', 8 6 . 'Sacrifice', 3 7 5 . A l t h o u g h r e c o g n i s i n g that 'aspects of T u r n e r ' s t h e o r y h a v e b e e n criticised', H e n d e l a r g u e s that his 'discussion n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n t step t o w a r d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the ritual s y m b o l i s m of E x 24,3-8'. 3

1

8

3

1

9

Ibid., 3 7 6 . A a l e n , ' O p f e r m a h l ' , 149ff, n o t e s t h a t E x 2 4 is t h e o n l y p l a c e in t h e O T w h e r e t h e b l o o d of the c o v e n a n t a n d the eating of a m e a l a r e explicitly joined.

Mark

14:24:

The Cup

353

Saying

in E x o d u s 2 4 represent all Israel w h o s e leaders s u b s e q u e n t l y a s c e n d the holy m o u n t a i n to eat in Y a h w e h ' s presence, so M a r k particularly records that 'the T w e l v e ' , w h o m h e apparently v i e w s as Israel's n e w leadership (3:13-19), are with J e s u s at this c o v e n a n t m o m e n t (14:17; cf. v. 2 0 ) .

3 2 0

Be

that as it m a y , the E x o d u s allusion s e e m s to imply that J e s u s ' death not only i n a u g u r a t e s a c o v e n a n t b u t also articulates, if not a n e w c o v e n a n t people, at least a n e w identity for them. Several data point in this direction. First, E x o d u s 24 is itself precisely about this w i t h the b l o o d rite establishing the ' n e w religious and social identity' o f the n e w l y r e d e e m e d people as Y a h w e h ' s k i n g d o m o f priests, a holy people. S e c o n d , w e h a v e earlier suggested that J e s u s ' choosing of the T w e l v e (3:13-19) a n d h i s r e s p o n s e to his family (3:20-30) indicates that b e i n g a m e m b e r o f true Israel is predicated, not o n o n e ' s nationality o r filial ties, b u t o n o n e ' s response to J e s u s .

3 2 1

This implies a redefinition o f

w h a t it m e a n s to b e Israel. T h i r d , w e h a v e already seen h o w L o h m e y e r viewed

many

of Jesus'

actions either

as r e m o v i n g

the

stigma of

u n c l e a n n e s s or redefining u n c l e a n n e s s / h o l i n e s s in an inclusive m a n n e r , again indicating a redefinition o f G o d ' s people.

At the s a m e time, J e s u s '

p r o n o u n c e m e n t in the T e m p l e implies that G e n t i l e s too are n o w to b e included in n e w w a y s a m o n g G o d ' s p e o p l e .

3 2 2

W h e n seen in this light, an

appeal to E x o d u s 24 only underlines the point that M a r k ' s J e s u s is about the reconstitution of Israel. D o e s this h a v e a n y connection with the I N E ? Clearly so, first, in terms of the general E x o d u s / N e w E x o d u s pattern. After all, the Passover recalled Israel's r e d e m p t i o n — a n d thereby p r o v i d e d w h a t w e h a v e s e e n is a k e y motif in the I N E , n a m e l y , ^KlfcT

m m — a n d this so that s h e m i g h t b e

constituted as G o d ' s p e o p l e at the M o u n t o f G o d .

S e c o n d , as w e h a v e

o b s e r v e d a b o v e , the I N E also e n v i s a g e s a radical redefinition o f Israel w h i c h not o n l y s e e s a b i f u r c a t i o n w i t h i n the n a t i o n b u t a l s o offers unprecedented opportunities for Gentiles. Indeed, the only other place in the prophetic corpus w h e r e as part of the eschatological vision the nation is described in l a n g u a g e r e m i n i s c e n t of E x o d u s 19:6 is in the c r o w n i n g

3

2

0

3

2

1

3

2

2

Cf. M y h r e , ' P a k t e n s ' . S e e C h a p t e r 7, p p . 185ff, a b o v e . See also Gnilka, 2.246.

354

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

declaration o f Isaiah 61:6 0*O£n m r r *?n5 n n n ) .

323

in

Jerusalem

T h e goal o f the I N E , as

w i t h its precursor, is thus the reconstitution o f G o d ' s priestly people, and this as suggested a b o v e also involves, at its most inclusive, a priestly role for Gentile proselytes (66:19). Third, integral to this reconstitution is Y a h w e h ' s promised ^pibtt? IV"n that cn»n

(54:10), which is likened both to that o f the days o f Noah (56:9-

17; cf. 54:11-17) and to the Davidic rbiD n n ? (55:3). the M o s a i c c o v e n a n t

is n o t m e n t i o n e d ,

B e c a u s e a renewal o f

particularly

in v i e w o f t h e

formative influence o f the E x o d u s traditions, it is often a s s u m e d that it is thereby e s c h e w e d ; analyses

raises

exclusion.

3 2 5

3 2 4

a l t h o u g h P. M . H o e p e r s ' a n d B . C . O l l e n b u r g e r ' s

questions

as to the validity

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e fundamental

of such

a categorical

characteristic o f this n e w

c o v e n a n t , t o w h i c h t h e N o a h i c a n d D a v i d i c o n e s testify a n d w h i c h is perhaps w h y the specific mention o f a renewal o f the Mosaic covenant is absent ( b u t cf. 48:17ff), is c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d to b e its everlasting, unilateral, a n d unconditional nature. H e n c e Israel's salvation is described as a D*tf7to nwtin (45:17, 51:8) and her joy as a D*7to nn&fo ( 5 1 : 1 1 ) .

326

With these characteristics in view, it s e e m s significant that not only is the ' d e a t h ' o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' linked to I s r a e l ' s d e l i v e r a n c e s u c h that it apparently occasions the e m e r g e n c e o f other 'servants o f Y a h w e h ' (54:17), 3

2

3

3

2

4

3

2

5

3

2

6

A c h t e m e i e r , Community, 9 0 . Itself i n a c o n t e x t o f a n i n v i t a t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n Y a h w e h ' s c o v e n a n t , S w e e n e y , Isaiah, 9 0 . Cf. Rost, 'Sinaibund'. A n d e r s o n , 'Covenant', 3 4 2 , observes that Isa 4 0 - 5 5 d r a w s deeply from Israel's historic traditions yet s e e m s h a r d l y t o m e n t i o n Sinai o r the condi t i o n a l p r o m i s e s o f t h e c o v e n a n t . M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h r a r e l y r e f e r r e d t o i n first s e c t i o n ( S a n d e r s , Torah, 5 6 f ; V r i e z e n , ' E s s e n t i a l s ' , 128ff), a r e m o r e a p p a r e n t i n c h s . 4 0 f f a n d suggest that t h e p r o p h e t mediates (as d i d M o s e s ) b e t w e e n people a n d G o d (Evans, 'Use', 9 3 n 5 ) . T h e s a m e r o l e c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e ' s e r v a n t ' , e.g. I s a 4 2 : 6 ; 4 9 : 8 . H o e p e r s , Bund, h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e D a v i d i c c o v e n a n t s h o u l d n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s a l t o g e t h e r n e w a n d d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e Sinaitic o n e b u t is i n s t e a d t h e s a m e c o v e n a n t w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l e n a b l e m e n t f o r t h e h o u s e o f D a v i d . If this is t h e c a s e , t h e n it m a y b e m i s t a k e n t o s e t E x o d u s a n d D a v i d / Z i o n t r a d i t i o n s in o p p o s i t i o n . O l l e n b u r g e r , Zion, 152ff, h a s a l s o criticised this t o o - e a s y distinction b e t w e e n J e r u s a l e m a n d M o s a i c t r a d i t i o n s o n o t h e r g r o u n d s . A l s o G u n n e w e g , 'Sinaibund', 3 4 0 ; A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 344ff; K r a u s , Worship, 1 8 8 - 2 0 0 ; H a m e r , Grace, 147ff. A n d e r s o n , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 342ff, 3 4 8 , w h e r e i n I s a 4 0 - 5 5 I s r a e l ' s f u t u r e s a l v a t i o n is n o t ' c o n t i n g e n t o n t h e r e n e w a l o f t h e M o s a i c c o v e n a n t in t h e p r e s e n t ' . I n r e l a t i n g t h e E x o d u s a n d C o v e n a n t traditions, the p r o p h e t 'adopts- the unconditional c o v e n a n t with David, t h o u g h s e p a r a t i n g it f r o m t h e c o n d i t i o n a l M o s a i c c o v e n a n t w i t h w h i c h it h a d b e e n b o u n d f r o m t h e v e r y first; a n d h e a d o p t s t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l c o v e n a n t w i t h D a v i d , t h o u g h s e p a r a t i n g it f r o m the u n h a p p y h i s t o r y of t h e D a v i d i c d y n a s t y a n d transferring its p r o m i s e s o f g r a c e t o the p e o p l e ' , 3 5 7 ; M c C a r t h y , ' C o v e n a n t ' , 236ff. T h e i m m i n e n t c o v e n a n t is o f s u c h a n o r d e r t h a t o n l y t h e N o a c h i c c o v e n a n t is c o m p a r a b l e , M u i l e n b u r g , ' I s a i a h ' , 6 3 7 .

Mark

14:24:

The Cup

355

Saying

that is, Israel's reconstitution, b u t on two occasions w e are informed that the 'servant' is also to b e D?1a TiK and DP n n a (Isa 42:6; 49:6, 8 ) .

3 2 7

W h a t is

m e a n t b y t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s is n o t entirely clear, but, as w e h a v e n o t e d a b o v e . V a n W i n k l e h a s s h o w n that the l a n g u a g e links t h e motifs o f salvation for the nations with that of covenant. This is so at least for Israel (cf. J e r 31:31-33), if not, given the use o f OV in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g context (Isa 42:5), the nations also (cf. Isa 2:2-4; 1 9 : 2 3 f ) .

328

In light o f the

discussion o f E x o d u s 2 4 above and the I N E h o p e of a n e w covenant, such a role for the 'servant' w o u l d not b e unexpected, especially if he is construed in s o m e w a y as a n e w M o s e s .

3 2 9

T h e crucial point, h o w e v e r , is that the Isaianic ' s e r v a n t ' is explicitly c o n n e c t e d w i t h the N E a n d c o v e n a n t ,

3 3 0

a n d furthermore is the o n l y

figure associated with the h o p e o f a N E s o conceived in the O T . If M a r k ' s J e s u s is construed within the context of the I N E then the natural precursor to

his

covenant-inaugurating

'servant'.

3 3 1

role

would

be

that

of the

Isaianic

J e s u s ' u s e o f covenant-inaugurating l a n g u a g e in the context

of his forthcoming death only strengthens the conceptual connection with the 'servant' w h o s e 'death', w e h a v e already argued, is s o m e h o w central to the N E . That M a r k ' s J e s u s should choose to m a k e such a heavily freighted declaration o n Passover, w h e r e b y his violent death itself d u r i n g P a s s o v e r will b e the i n s t r u m e n t a l m e a n s o f the c o v e n a n t a l b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w l y defined Israel, is entirely fitting. Nevertheless, a l t h o u g h H o o k e r regards the idea o f SiaGrfKr) as t h e 'greatest similarity' b e t w e e n M a r k 14:24 and 'the thought o f the prophet', she argues that the concept of J e s u s as 'the leader w h o w a s to b e a covenant to his p e o p l e ' (cf. Isa 42:6 and 49:8) is 'clearly only a secondary o n e in this

3

2

7

3

2

8

3

2

9

3

3

0

3

3

1

Duhm's original demarcation of the so-called Servant Songs has been m u c h debated. T h e y a r e h e r e delimited a s follows: 42:1-7(9); 49:1-9; 50:4-9; a n d 52:13 - 53:12. B u t cf. e.g. M e t t i n g e r , ' F a r e w e l l ' , w h o i n c l u d e s 4 9 : 8 - 1 3 a n d 4 2 : 1 8 - 2 5 ; N o r t h , Suffering, 132ff, w h o e.g. l i m i t s t h e first ' s o n g ' t o v v . 1 - 4 ; a n d O r l i n s k y , ' S o - C a l l e d ' , 17ff, w h o a r g u e s against the unity of 52:13 - 53:12. A l t h o u g h QV is c o m m o n l y u s e d o f I s r a e l — f r e q u e n t l y w i t h a p r o n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e s u f f i x — i n t h e ' s o n g ' f r o m w h i c h t h e p h r a s e is t a k e n OV is a p p a r e n t l y u s e d o f h u m a n i t y i n g e n e r a l (cf. 4 0 : 7 ; p l u r a l in 4 9 : 2 2 ; 51:4f); s e e W e s t e r m a n n , 9 9 f , a n d t h e n u m e r o u s c o m m e n tators listed there. S e e t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d a b o v e in C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 7 7 f a n d fn. 2 1 9 . F r a n c e f a v o u r a b l y c i t e s C u l l m a n n , Christology, 55, w h o regards covenant-making a s ' o n e o f t h e t w o " e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " o f t h e S e r v a n t ' , Jesus, 1 2 2 . A l s o e.g. W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 5 .

356

Isaiah's

passage'.

3 3 2

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

Further, 'the complete absence of the idea of blood-shedding

from b o t h I s a . 4 2 . 6 a n d 4 9 . 8, as w e l l as from

the S e r v a n t S o n g s

t h e m s e l v e s ' m a k e s ' a n y connection b e t w e e n these passages and the w o r d s of Jesus ... extremely u n l i k e l y ' .

333

In r e s p o n s e to the first objection, ' s e c o n d a r y ' does not m e a n 'invalid', since surely function and identity are related. In the light o f b o t h M a r k ' s INE hermeneutic—Hooker

freely a d m i t s the g e n e r a l D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c

b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y

334

— a n d the p r e c e d i n g discussion o n the

role o f the ' s e r v a n t ' in the I N E , what other interpretive p a r a d i g m might we propose?

A s w e h a v e argued a b o v e , only the figure o f the Isaianic

(Moses-like?) ' s e r v a n t ' c o m b i n e s the roles o f effecting t h e N E , b e i n g a covenant, a n d ' d y i n g ' for others.

A n explicit identification m a y n o t b e

m a d e in M a r k , b u t it s e e m s v e r y m u c h to b e the u n d e r l y i n g foundational a s s u m p t i o n .

' t h e idea o f b l o o d - s h e d d i n g ' passages.

335

and

T h i s leads to H o o k e r ' s s e c o n d objection that

However, if dx\ia

is c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t from t h e

€KX€cj

'servant'

merely m e a n s 'bloodshed', that is, the

taking o f life (see b e l o w ) , and since this on the basis o f O T usage is often associated w i t h violent and unjust death (e.g LXX: 2 K g s 21:16; 24:4; Ps 13:3, 79:10; Prov 1:16; and 6:17), then surely the 'idea' is present, if not in Isaiah 4 2 and 4 9 , then certainly in t h e suffering and ' d e a t h ' o f t h e i n n o c e n t 'servant' as described in Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . T h e s e c o n d phrase,

T O C K X U V V O J A C V O V UTT€P TTOXAGJV,

describes both h o w

this c o v e n a n t is to b e effected and on w h o s e behalf. M a n y scholars h a v e seen here a n allusion to Isaiah 5 3 , if n o t o n account o f the ' p o u r e d out' since €KX€0) is never used of r n y in the L X X ,

3

3

2

Servant, 8 2 ; s o a l s o B e s t , Temptation, t h e O T t o b e l i n k e d w i t h o n e figure. 3

3

3

3

3

4

3 3 6

then usually in terms o f the

1 4 6 , for w h o m ' c o v e n a n t ' is t o o w i d e a t e r m in

Ibid.; a n d a l s o B e s t , ibid. A g a i n , Servant, 6 6 , 6 7 f , 7 3 , cf. 9 5 . 335 w h i l e true w i t h r e g a r d to those texts that specifically m e n t i o n c o v e n a n t (42:lff; 49:Iff), this a r g u m e n t a s s u m e s that M a r k ' s J e s u s c o u l d n o t h a v e related the 'servant' figure of Isa 42:Iff a n d 49:Iff to that of Isa 5 3 , with the latter explaining h o w the former w e r e to o c c u r . B u t if t h e t r a d i t i o n in s o m e e d i t i o n s o f Tg. Isa c a n s e e t h e M e s s i a h m e n t i o n e d in b o t h ( a g a i n C h a p t e r 3 , p . 1 1 5 , fn. 1 3 7 ) , t h e n , g i v e n t h e c r e a t i v i t y o f M a r k ' s J e s u s , it is n o t i m p o s sible t h a t h e t o o s a w s o m e link b e t w e e n t h e m , e v e n if t h e m a j o r i t y o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s d i d n o t ( a l s o C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 4 4 , fn. 8 6 ) . T h e i s s u e o f t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o v e r a g a i n s t c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g will b e d e a l t w i t h in C h a p t e r 1 0 b e l o w . 3 3 6 p e s c h , 2 . 3 5 9 , (cf. W h y b r a y , fn. 3 4 0 , b e l o w ) w h o d e n i e s t h a t it c o n s t i t u t e s a n a l l u s i o n t o I s a 5 3 : 1 2 , w h e r e a s G u n d r y , Use, 5 9 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 ; a n d M o o , Passion, 1 3 1 , a s s e r t t h a t CKXC'U) e x a c t l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o r r a .

Mark

14:24:

The Cup

357

Saying

reference to 'the m a n y ' based o n its frequent appearance in 53:1 I f . as in the c a s e o f M a r k 10:45 b o t h H o o k e r and G r i m m h a v e separate challenges to this i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

3 3 7

But

mounted

338

H o o k e r raises two objections. First, p o u r i n g out b l o o d ( D l

/ dx\ia

€KX€co) s i m p l y m e a n s ' b l o o d s h e d ' (i.e. 'to take life', e.g. G n 9:6; Dt 19:10; Is 59:7; Ezek 22:3-12; Prov 1:16; Ps 106:38; but see b e l o w )

3 3 9

a n d therefore

' a p p e a r s to h a v e n o c o n n e c t i o n ' with Isaiah 53:12 w h e r e 'the S e r v a n t is 1

laid b a r e to d e a t h ' (iWsi m i } ? r r y j n ) .

3 4 0

Second, having

denied

or

m i n i m i s e d a n y o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h I s a i a h 5 3 , t h e r e f e r e n c e to t h e ' m a n y ' is alone insufficient to establish an Isaiah 53 a l l u s i o n .

341

O n the first point, at a c o n c e p t u a l level and g i v e n the

previously

mentioned connotations o f violence and injustice, it is difficult to see any s u b s t a n t i a l difference b e t w e e n ' b l o o d s h e d ' a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e innocent 'servant' w h o is at least under the threat o f death, and probably worse.

M o r e o v e r , m y n is 'a strange and mysterious m e t a p h o r ' o f w h i c h

' p o u r out' is a valid rendering, and in either case, M a r k ' s ' p o u r e d o u t ' ' b l o o d ' is hardly to b e differentiated from Isaiah 5 3 ' s 'laid b a r e ' 'his soul to d e a t h ' , as the latter's context m a k e s c l e a r . 3

3

3 4 2

W i t h regard to H o o k e r ' s

7

Cf. W o l f f , Jesaja, 6 6 ; M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 1 8 ; L o h s e , Martyrer, 1 2 4 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 ; L a n e ; G r i m m , 2 9 7 ; G n i l k a ; M o o , Passion, 1 3 0 f ; G u n d r y , 8 3 2 ; M a r c u s , 1 8 7 ; o n t h e b a s i s o f ' t h e many', espec. Pesch, 2.358. 3

3

8

3

3

9

3

4

0

Suhl, 1 1 4 - 2 0 , i n g e n i o u s l y p r o p o s e s a g n o s t i c o r i g i n . A l s o L o h s e , Martyrer, 1 2 5 ; F r a n c e , Jesus, 122; G r i m m , 2 9 7 . Servant, 8 2 ; a l s o P e s c h , 2 . 3 5 8 , (cf. Abendmahl, 9 4 ) , w h o sees the expression as s y n o n y m o u s w i t h 6 o u v a i T T | V ^ U X T I V in 1 0 : 4 5 . A g a i n , W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, 104f, h a s q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r t h e a c t u a l d e a t h o f t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is in v i e w . H e a r g u e s t h a t w h i l e ' p o u r o u t ' o r ' e m p t y ' m o s t n a t u r a l l y s u g g e s t d e a t h , P s 1 4 1 : 8 , w h i c h is t h e o n l y o t h e r p l a c e w h e r e mi? h a s tfS3 a s d i r e c t o b j e c t , m e a n s ' t o l e a v e d e f e n c e l e s s ' , i.e. 'lay b a r e ' , cf. P s 1 3 7 : 7 . T h u s I s a 5 3 : 1 2 s h o u l d r e a d ' h e left h i m s e l f d e f e n c e l e s s t o t h e d e a t h ' ( o r ' t o t h e u t t e r m o s t ' ) ; i.e. e n t i r e l y ' a t t h e m e r c y o f h i s e n e m i e s o r p e r s e c u t o r s ' . B u t s i n c e t h e c o n t e x t s o f b o t h p s a l m s i m p l y t h a t w h a t is b e i n g r i s k e d is i n j u r y o r d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n , w h y s h o u l d I s a 5 3 : 1 2 a d d nya*? s i n c e o n W h y b r a y ' s r e a d i n g it c o n t r i b u t e s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n w h a t m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y b e i n f e r r e d ? In v i e w o f t h e a b s e n c e o f in p a r a l l e l e x a m p l e s , its p r e s e n c e h e r e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e d e f e n c e l e s s n e s s w a s m a i n t a i n e d e v e n 'to t h e p o i n t o f d e a t h ' . H o w e v e r , e v e n if o n e a c c e p t s W h y b r a y ' s r e a d i n g , i.e. t h e ' s e r v a n t ' is w i l l i n g t o o b e y e v e n if it m e a n s d e a t h b u t d o e s n o t in fact d i e , t h a t M a r k ' s J e s u s r e n d e r s h i m s e l f ' d e f e n c e l e s s ' e v e n to actual d e a t h , h a r d l y disqualifies the parallel. T h e L X X a n d the Greek v e r s i o n s a p p e a r to u n d e r s t a n d that the 'servant' dies. 3

4

1

3

4

2

Ibid. F r a n c e , Jesus, 1 2 2 . L a t e r , in 2 4 4 n l 8 , h e c i t e s I s a 3 2 : 1 5 w h e r e t h e s i n g l e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e N i p h a l — d e s c r i b e d a s t h e p a s s i v e o f t h e H i p h i l 2 u n d e r w h i c h c a t e g o r y I s a 5 3 : 1 2 is listed, B D B , 7 8 8 — c l e a r l y m e a n s ' p o u r o u t ' . T h e T a r g u m ' s "lOD, ' t o s u r r e n d e r , d e l i v e r ' , m a y b e a n a t t e m p t t o r e n d e r t h e s e n s e o f 'to l a y b a r e ' (cf. P s 137:7; 1 4 1 : 8 ) w h i l e t h e L X X ' s a n d t h e G r e e k v e r s i o n s ' , -napcSdGTi, is m o r e i n t e r p r e t i v e .

358

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

s e c o n d objection, it is to b e questioned w h e t h e r all w e h a v e is a solitary reference to 'the m a n y ' . H o o k e r freely admits the point of the passage to b e that J e s u s ' death establishes a new covenant between G o d and 'many'

3 4 3

the

s u c h that it is ' t h e r e d e m p t i v e act w h i c h b r i n g s the n e w

c o m m u n i t y o f G o d ' s p e o p l e into b e i n g ' ,

3 4 4

and, as noted earlier, that the

general b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' ministry is ' D e u t e r o - I s a i a n i c ' . O n c e again, M a r k 9:12's linking o f J e s u s ' death to the O T and the contextual correspon d e n c e s outlined a b o v e considerably reduce the r a n g e o f options: w h o else within the I N E h o r i z o n ' d i e s ' for the benefit of the ' m a n y ' a n d brings 'the n e w c o m m u n i t y o f G o d ' s people into b e i n g ' , if not the 'servant'? W e r n e r G r i m m , n o t i n g M a r k 14:24's linguistic s i m i l a r i t y to M a t t h e w 23:35's

u a v al\ia

6iKaiov cKxuvvdjicvov,

also argues that ' b l o o d . . . p o u r e d

o u t ' is n o t sacrificial l a n g u a g e b u t m e a n s m e r e l y d e a t h , a l t h o u g h

the

covenant language in the context of a meal probably refers to E x o d u s 2 4 .

3 4 5

In terms o f Isaiah 5 3 , while there is a conceptual parallel—Jeremias is right in seeing

TTOXXCJV

as a reference to Isaiah 53:12—the preposition

utrep

finds

n o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e c a u s e 5 3 : 1 2 b ' s nnn is ' e i n d e u t i g konjunctional u n d nicht prapositional v e r w e n d e t ' and ••Q-D.

346

UTTCP TTOXXCJV

is distinct from D ^ l * ? and

Instead, the constructions ^ n n n . . . y } M Tina and ^Tinn ... )m, (Isa

43:3a, b , 4) suggest that nnn can b e a shortened form o f nnn l © 5 . Since in Isaiah 43:3

LXX,

is rendered b y 10:45's

w h i c h stands behind M a r k 10:45's ime'p,

then M a r k 14:24's

(XuTpov) (XVTI TTOXXCJV.

Thus

XuTpov dvTi TTOXXCJV,

uTT€p T T O X X C J V

UTTC'P

nnn

is s i m p l y a parallel to

again reflects I s a i a h 4 3 : 3 f n o t

3 4

53:12. 7

In a\\ia of

the light o f G r i m m ' s first assertion, it is o f s o m e interest that does in fact o c c u r in sacrificial contexts in the LXX

€KX€CJ

particularly as part

the ritual w h i c h b o t h 'sanctifies' the altar a n d ' m a k e s a t o n e m e n t ' for it

(vbv

inunj^l, L e v 8:15; cf. E x 24:6) and as s u c h is integral to acts o f

consecration o f priests (Ex 29:12; L e v 8:15) and o f Israel (cf. E x 24:8), and of atonement as effected b y the sin offering (e.g. L e v 4:7, 18, 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 4 , for the priests and for I s r a e l ) .

3 4 3

3 4 4

3 4 5

3 4 6

3 4 7

3 4 8

Servant, 8 2 . Mark, 3 4 3 . Verkundigung,

348

It is possible, given the allusion to E x o d u s 2 4 and

297.

Ibid., 297, 2 9 8 . Ibid. S e e a l s o M o o , Passion,

130;

c i t i n g T o d t , Son, 2 0 4 f .

Mark

14:24:

the modifying prepositional p h r a s e has sacrificial o v e r t o n e s ,

3 4 9

The Cup

359

Saying

u - r r e p TTOAXG3V

which D . J . Moo argues

that J e s u s ' c o n c e p t o f ' p o u r e d

out b l o o d '

functions as a m e t o n y m y for an act of consecration and atonement (cf. Tgs. Onq.

and Yer.

o n E x 24:7-8 w h i c h s e e m to indicate that this p a r t i c u l a r

consecrating sacrifice w a s also a t o n i n g ) .

350

A n d even if not so specific, the

P a s s o v e r m e a l context and the language o f ' c o v e n a n t ' and ' b l o o d ' s e e m s clearly to i m p l y the idea o f sacrifice. Again, the only figure w h o is related to the I N E and w h o is in any w a y connected with sacrificial language is the Isaianic 'servant'.

E v e n if the u n i q u e expression in 53:10 is difficult, the

fact remains that he is described in terms o f an DttiN, the purpose of w h i c h is to m a k e a t o n e m e n t for sin (e.g. L e v 5:6f, 15-19; e s p e c . 7:lff w h i c h also entails the act o f b l o o d b e i n g ' d a s h e d ' [ p i t ] u p o n the altar; cf. E x 2 4 : 6 - 8 ) .

351

A l l o w i n g for the c o m p l e x i t y o f the sacrificial s y s t e m and t h e a l l u s i v e nature of J e s u s ' statement,

which

m a y y e t a g a i n reflect a

creative

c o m b i n a t i o n o f older ideas, the c o m m o n cluster o f motifs s u g g e s t s that s o m e t h i n g a l o n g t h e s e lines is in v i e w in M a r k 1 4 : 2 4 .

3 5 2

Nonetheless,

e v e n if the e x p r e s s i o n refers o n l y to violent death, the a r g u m e n t s

put

forward u n d e r the p r e v i o u s discussion o f M a r k 10:45 still apply h e r e .

3 5 3

N a m e l y , as G r i m m apparently recognises, the idea o f 'death' ' o n b e h a l f o f others' is far clearer in Isaiah 53 than in Isaiah 4 3 . A n d this e v e n m o r e so in the light o f the ' c o v e n a n t ' l a n g u a g e w h i c h in the I N E is p r i m a r i l y associated with the 'servant'. R e g a r d i n g t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , it m a y b e a d d e d in s u p p o r t o f G r i m m ' s position that Isaiah 43:3f is the only place in the b o o k w h e r e

imcp

is used with anything like the sense of M a r k 14:24 (cf. Dt 24:16, the o n l y place in the T o r a h , b u t h e r e translating by; par. 2 K g s 14:6 a n d 2 C h r o n 25:4). Not only so, b u t Isaiah 43:3f is the only occurrence of

uTT€p

for nnn in

the L X X — d v T i is u n q u e s t i o n a b l y the regular rendering o f nnn w h e n the latter has the sense o f exchange, that is, 'in the place o f .

3

4

9

Passion, 1 3 1 , a s it c e r t a i n l y d o e s in t h e N T , s e e B A G D , 8 3 8 ; cf. L X X : 1 E s d r 8 : 6 3 ; 2 M a c e 1:26; 3 : 3 2 . E . g . P e s c h , Ahendmahl, 95f. S e e f u r t h e r t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 8 , p p . 2 7 5 f , fn. 2 0 9 . See e.g. H a a g , 'Opfer'; M e y e r , ' E x p i a t i o n ' , w h o sees a c o v e n a n t sacrifice a n d e x p i a t o r y offering. A s w i t h w i t h E x 2 4 a t o n i n g b l o o d a s a c o v e n a n t s i g n is h e r e l i n k e d w i t h a meal, Myhre, 'Paktens'. C h a p t e r 8, p p . 281ff, a b o v e . 3

5

0

3

5

1

3

5

2

3

5

3

360

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

But h o w realistic is it to base an explicit allusion to Isaiah 43:3f solely on its unusual u s e o f a single and very c o m m o n N T preposition?

Grimm

seems to suggest that Isaiah 4 3 is already in view due to M a r k 10:45. But, it can

b e c o u n t e r e d , o n the basis o f that s a m e text, and the three

passion

predictions, and M a r k 9:12, that Isaiah 5 3 is m o r e so. Allusions also tend to b e established on the basis o f a cluster o f linguistic a n d / o r conceptual similarities.

T h e o n l y point o f contact with Isaiah 4 3 is the preposition;

there are n o linguistic parallels with 'death' or 'the m a n y ' , nor is it easy to see h o w Isaiah 4 3 relates to the idea of covenant inauguration ( M k 14:24a). Further, that nnn c a n b e a shortened form o f nnn I3i> is b a s e d on Isaiah 43:3a, b a n d only w o r k s there b e c a u s e the c o m p l e t e expression occurs in the i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g stichos.

N o such c o m p l e t e line appears in

M a r k 14 and therefore it is hardly evident that unc'p stands for nnn O n the other hand, if u n c p is taken at face value and not as an attempt to render either o f the prepositions b or 3 (Isa 53:11), then the integration of the motifs o f the 'death' of an individual, the 'on behalf o f , and 'the m a n y ' is far m o r e congruent with the actions o f the 'servant' in Isaiah 53 w h o s e 'death' is m o r e than adequately summarised as being 'on b e h a l f or 'for the benefit' ' o f the m a n y ' . It h a s a l s o b e e n o b s e r v e d that Q u m r a n u s e d ' t h e m a n y ' as a selfreferent, w h i c h implies, in keeping perhaps with their self-designatory use of Isaiah 4 0 : 3 , that they are the true covenant c o m m u n i t y , that is, faithful Israel.

3 5 4

T h i s could well b e its m e a n i n g here, w h i c h w o u l d fit with the

E x o d u s 24 allusion and with those w o r d s and actions o f Jesus elsewhere in Mark

which

community.

3 5 5

indicate

that

he

is t h e

locus

of the

new

covenant

T h e 'servant' having already been associated with the idea

of covenant facilitates the conceptual link between M a r k 14:24a and 2 4 b . So then, on this reading, w h e r e a s M a r k 10:45's d v i i reflect the thought o f Isaiah 4 3 , it seems that

urrep

TTOXXCJV

TTOXXCJV

might

in M a r k 14:24

o w e s m o r e to the influence of Isaiah 5 3 . W e h a v e so far largely focussed only o n M a r k 14:24 itself, but as w e h a v e seen w i t h M a r k 10:45 m e r e l y e x a m i n i n g isolated p h r a s e s or w o r d s without regard to larger contexts is b o t h artificial and poor m e t h o d .

We

354 W e r n e r , ' F r a g e ' , c i t i n g t h e n u m e r o u s o c c u r r e n c e s in 1 Q S 6 - 7 . See S c h e d e , ' F r a g e n ' ; Gnilka, 2 . 2 4 5 , w h o cites Isa 4 2 : 6 ; 49:7f, a n d the discussion of v a r i o u s J e w i s h t r a d i t i o n s in J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 2 7 f f ; cf. C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 8 2 , fn. 2 4 9 , above. 3 5 5

Mark

14:24:

The Cup

361

Saying

h a v e already a r g u e d that M a r k ' s overarching I N E h e r m e n e u t i c p r o v i d e s us with indications as to the larger b a c k g r o u n d within w h i c h these data are to b e interpreted.

M o r e precisely, h o w e v e r , w e h a v e also argued that

the p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s , in k e e p i n g with w h a t 'is w r i t t e n ' ( M a r k 9:12), point primarily to the sufferings associated with t w o ' s e r v a n t ' p a s s a g e s , n a m e l y , Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . W e w o u l d expect the s a m e horizon here.

And

indeed, the clear e c h o e s o f M a r k 10:45 which m a n y scholars h a v e noted in M a r k 14:24—H. M . Wolff sees 10:45 as the 'Selbstvertretung' a n d 14:24 as the ' F r u c h t '

356

— s t r o n g l y suggest that s o m e sort of c o m m o n interpretative

framework is a s s u m e d .

3 5 7

It w o u l d appear, then, that w e should at least

begin with Isaiah 5 0 and 53 as interpretive frames for subsequent material, only going e l s e w h e r e if they fail to elucidate the texts at h a n d or if, o n linguistic or conceptual grounds, they are clearly inapplicable. o n c e an I N E f r a m e w o r k

is a s s u m e d

However,

a n d in the c a s e o f M a r k 1 4 : 2 4

particularly the career and role o f the enigmatic 'servant' as described in Isaiah 50 and 5 3 , not only do w e see a good degree o f coherence with other M a r k a n themes, but it also m a k e s considerable sense o f the passage. In the light o f the preceding discussion, and since the Passover recalled the old E x o d u s and almost certainly in the first century looked forward to the N e w , it is hardly surprising that M a r k 14:24 combines motifs associated with Israel's past and future deliverances. First, the allusion to E x o d u s 2 4 ' s covenant-inaugurating

'blood'

at

Sinai,

which

appears

to

include

a t o n e m e n t for a n d the c o n s e c r a t i o n o f Israel, c a p t u r e s the h e a r t o f the Exodus/Passover

event

whereby

the

nation

becomes God's

newly

constituted people. B u t if this is in the past, the Isaiah 53 c o m p o n e n t looks forward.

T h e 'servant' is not only the one figure associated with the N e w

E x o d u s t h e m e s o f c o v e n a n t and the future reconstitution o f G o d ' s people, but Isaiah 5 3 in particular is intimately related to the I N E ' s m o v e m e n t o f Israel from b o n d a g e (Isa 5 2 ) to a gloriously restored Jerusalem (Isa 54) with its description o f ' s e r v a n t s ' ( p l u r a l ) .

358

M o r e o v e r , the 'servant' is the only

figure w h o s e ' d e a t h ' is s o m e h o w c o n n e c t e d with this future event.

All

this suggests that M a r k ' s J e s u s sees his death on Passover as effecting the

3

5

6

3

5

7

3

5

8

Jesaja,

64ff.

Cf. e.g. L a n e , 5 0 7 ; G r i m m , 2 9 7 ; G n i l k a , 2 . 2 4 2 ; M a r c u s , 1 8 7 . A s in C h a p t e r 8 , p . 2 7 9 , a n d this C h a p t e r , p . 3 0 3 a b o v e .

362

Isaiah's

Promise

...

Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

I N E ' s p r o m i s e d c o v e n a n t a l reconstitution o f ' t r u e ' Israel a n d as s u c h marks her 'rite of passage' from bondage to the presence of G o d . Finally, o n c e a g a i n there are hints o f the operation o f an i nnovat i ve hermeneutic that takes up and combines several distinct motifs (cf. e.g. the p r o l o g u e w h i c h s e e m s to present J e s u s as M e s s i a h , true Israel, a n d yet closely identifies h i m with Y a h w e h ' s very presence, and 10:45 w h e r e h e is b o t h S o M and 'servant'). T h e reference to his c o m i n g death in the setting of a P a s s o v e r meal m a y suggest, although this is o p e n to s o m e question, that M a r k ' s Jesus s e e s himself in terms o f the Passover l a m b and thus as the o n e w h o s e d e a t h inaugurates Israel's deliverance (cf. 1 C o r 5 : 7 f ) .

3 5 9

M o r e likely perhaps, the imagery of E x o d u s 2 4 indicates that the M a r k a n Jesus sees his death as analogous to the sacrifice at the foot o f Sinai whi ch both constituted and consecrated Israel in her n e w identity. Lastly, perhaps itself reflecting on M o s e s ' offer in E x o d u s 32:30ff, the allusion to Isaiah 53 suggests that he is also to b e seen as the Dtitt w h ic h deals with Israel's guilt and is s o m e h o w related to effecting the I N E . c) Other Possible

Allusions

to Isaiah 50 and 53

In addition to Isaiah 53 in M a r k 14:24, o t h e r p o s s i b l e allusions to the suffering o f the I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' in the p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e h a v e b e e n proposed.

For e x a m p l e , N A

2 6

suggests Isaiah 53:7 in 14:49 and 14:61, and

53:12 in 15:27. K e e grants first place to Isaiah 50:6 in M a r k 14:65, then sees allusions to Isaiah 53:12 in 14:21 (possible), 53:5 (Tg. Isa) in 14:58, 53:7 in 14:60 (possible), 53:6 (LXX) in 15:15, 50:2f in 15:33, 53:9 in 15:43 and 4 6 , and finally suggests the 'influence' o f 53:3-5 in 1 4 : 6 5 .

3 6 0

Surprisingly, h e does

not mention Isaiah 53:12 in M a r k 14:24. M o o discusses 53:3 in 14:8, 53:7 in 14:61, 50:7 and 53:7 in 14:65 and 15:19, 53:7 in 15:5, and 53:12 in 15:27. finds favourably for all except M a r k 14:8 and 1 5 : 2 7 .

361

He

O b v i o u s l y there is

m o r e debate about s o m e o f these proposed allusions than others—Hooker and A. Suhl, for example, would question most if not all o f these supposed parallels—and it is not our intention to e x a m i n e e v e r y c a s e .

A few o f

these texts do, however, seem to confirm the presence o f the larger pattern

3

5

9

3

6

0

3

6

1

Cf. J e r e m i a s , Eucharistic, 2 2 0 - 2 4 ; b u t s e e M a r s h a l l ' s c r i t i c i s m s . Supper, 87ff. 'Function', 169-71. Passion, 1 2 7 - 7 2 . M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , s u g g e s t s far m o r e possibilities; a n d s e e n o w a l s o M a r c u s , 1 8 6 - 9 6 . O f t h e s e . M o o ' s w o r k is t h e m o s t d e t a i l e d .

Other

Possible

Allusions

to Isaiah 50 and

363

53

already suggested b y M a r k 9:12, the passion predictions, M a r k 10:45, a n d the 'cup saying'. P r o b a b l y the clearest case is the 'spitting' and ' s l a p p i n g ' in 14:65 (cf. 15:19). M o o h a s pointed out that €|ITTTUOJ and its c o g n a t e n o u n is found only three times in the L X X ( N u m 12:14, Dt 25:9, Isa 50:6) and that p a m a j i a is m e n t i o n e d in the L X X only in Isaiah 50:6 and the verb o n l y in H o s e a 11:4 and J u d g e s 16:25 (in B ) .

3 6 2

O f these references, again given M a r k 9:12's

'it is written', only Isaiah 50:6 offers a genuine parallel. W h i l e H o o k e r allows that these passages 'quite evidently e c h o w o r d s in the L X X v e r s i o n o f Isa. 5 0 . 6 ' , she doubts an intentional c o n n e c t i o n since the writer ' w o u l d surely h a v e kept m o r e closely to the o r i g i n a l ' . w h y should h e ?

3 6 3

But

H o o k e r ' s p o i n t might b e tenable if M a r k ' s a i m w a s to

d r a w direct attention to e a c h and every parallel. But w h a t if M a r k , having already established an O T context, chose instead to stay with the narrative, expecting that his audience w o u l d notice the allusions, especially given his preceding material? After all, as Joel M a r c u s has observed, if M a r k 14:65 is read in the light o f 10:34, then these t w o p a s s a g e s together ' c o n t a i n the three essential e l e m e n t s o f Isa. 5 0 : 6 ' .

3 6 4

It is difficult then, given influence

of Isaiah 5 3 o n the passion predictions, not to see in 14:65 an allusion to the suffering o f the 'servant'. T h e ' s i l e n c e ' o f J e s u s (14:61; 15:5) h a s b e e n r e c o g n i s e d as a definite M a r k a n p a t t e r n and h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d as an allusion to Isaiah 5 3 .

3 6 5

H o w e v e r , H o o k e r a r g u e s that A ) the ' s i l e n c e ' is o n l y partial since h e answers P i l a t e ,

3 6 6

B ) if M a r k h a d intended an allusion to t h e 'suffering

servant' it w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e explicit, C ) there is ' n o indication' that J e s u s ' w a s 'consciously acting in accordance with that p i c t u r e ' ,

367

and D ) it

is ' i n c o n c e i v a b l e that (Jesus) ... s h o u l d n o w w r a n g l e w i t h his a c c u s e r s ' since all along h e 'is prepared to a n s w e r an h o n e s t question b u t ignores partisan a s s e r t i o n s ' .

3

6

2

3

6

3

3

6

4

368

Passion, 8 8 a n d 1 3 9 ; s e e M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 11. Servant, 9 0 f . Way, 1 9 0 . 3 6 5 M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 9 ; H o o k e r , Servant, 8 8 f ; M o o , Passion, 5 1 4 , w h o sees this a s a later insertion. Servant, 8 9 . Ibid., 8 8 f . Ibid., 8 9 . 3

6

3

6

6

7

3

6

8

148ff; cf. H a e n c h e n ,

Weg,

364

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

T a k i n g A ) first, e v e n g i v e n o c c a s i o n a l ' l a p s e s ' , the ' s i l e n c e ' m o t i f a p p e a r s intentional a n d still n e e d s to b e explained. (On the other h a n d , it could p e r h a p s b e a r g u e d that in Isaiah the ' s i l e n c e ' is closely related to the perversion o f justice (53:7, 8 )

3 6 9

and thus J e s u s ' silence is o n l y in r e s p o n s e

to false accusations.) Turning next to D ) , J e s u s ' actions in several instances would indicate otherwise.

In M a r k 7:6ff the M a r k a n J e s u s d e s c r i b e s his

q u e s t i o n e r s as ' h y p o c r i t e s ' w h i c h h a r d l y s u g g e s t s that h e r e g a r d s their question as 'honest'.

Similarly, in 12:13ff it is e v i d e n t that h e r e c o g n i s e s

their attempt at e n t r a p m e n t as hypocrisy (v. 15), b u t still e n g a g e s in debate. J e s u s ' s i l e n c e is to b e explained o n o t h e r g r o u n d s .

Any assessment of B )

necessarily involves a subjective j u d g e m e n t as to w h a t constitutes a ' c l e a r ' allusion a n d this i n c l u d e s an a s s u m p t i o n o f h o w m u c h e m p h a s i s M a r k o u g h t to h a v e p u t o n an i n t e n d e d a l l u s i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , if for t h e

m o m e n t w e h o l d the objection in a b e y a n c e , w h a t o f C ) , w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s the matter o f the larger context? O n the basis of the preceding a r g u m e n t of this b o o k a n d particularly in light of M a r k ' s accounts of J e s u s ' o w n w o r d s in 9:12, the p a s s i o n predictions, the ' r a n s o m ' s a y i n g (10:45), a n d the ' c u p ' s a y i n g (14:24), w e w o u l d u r g e to the c o n t r a r y that there is c o n s i d e r a b l e indication

that

if

any

OT

pattern

informed

the

Markan

Jesus'

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s suffering a n d d e a t h , it w a s that o f t h e I s a i a n i c 'servant'.

S i n c e t h e ' s i l e n c e ' m o t i f a p p e a r s intentional a n d c o h e r e s w e l l

w i t h I s a i a h 5 3 , t h e r e s e e m s little o b j e c t i v e r e a s o n to d e n y that it t o o derives from the description o f the 'servant'. O t h e r parallels h a v e b e e n proposed: for e x a m p l e , the m o t i f o f e x c h a n g e in the B a r a b b a s incident (cf. Isa 5 3 : 6 , 1 2 ) ,

3 7 0

the p r o m i n e n c e o f n a p a 6 i 6 a ) u i

t h r o u g h o u t (14:10f, 1 8 , 2 1 , 41f, 4 4 ; 15:1, 10, 1 5 ) ,

3 7 1

the a m a z e m e n t o f Pilate

(15:5; 9 a u i i a £ a ) , cf. Isa 52:15, L X X ; but not the M T ) , and p e r h a p s the implied awe of the centurion ( 1 5 : 3 9 ) .

3 7 2

T h e latter t w o s u g g e s t i o n s are l a r g e l y

u n c o n v i n c i n g s i n c e t h e r e s p o n s e s in M a r k a n d I s a i a h h a v e causes.

3 7 3

N o r d o either o f the former, in their o w n right, establish a link

with the Isaianic 'servant'.

3

6

9

H o w e v e r , if t h e p a s s i o n p r e d i c t i o n s

B o t h W e s t e r m a n n , 2 5 7 , a n d W h y b r a y , Thanksgiving, e n v i s a g e d h e r e is a trial. 3

7

0

3

7

1

3

7

2

3

7

3

different

are

118f, suggest that the context

So Gnilka, 2.303. M o o , Passion, 9 2 - 9 6 ; G n i l k a , ibid.; M a r c u s , 1 8 8 . M a u r e r , ' K n e c h t ' , 9 ; M o o , Passion, 148ff; a n d M a r c u s , 1 8 5 . S e e M o o , Passion, 1 4 8 n 2 .

'For

They

Were

365

Afraid

influenced b y Isaiah 5 3 — b o t h 9:31 and 10:33 use T r a p a 6 i 6 a ) | i i — a n d a r e intended

to set the c o n t e x t for the p a s s i o n n a r r a t i v e , t h e n it s e e m s

reasonable to s u p p o s e that M a r k intended Trapa6i6o)jii t h r o u g h o u t

this

section to b e read in their light and thus also to echo Isaiah 53:6 and 12. If the p r e c e d i n g a r g u m e n t s c o m m e n d t h e m s e l v e s , then, prima

facie,

they raise the possibility that J e s u s ' trial and execution, as a whole, is to b e read in the light o f Isaiah 5 0 and 5 3 . This m a y then, on the grounds o f consanguinity, s u g g e s t that s o m e o f the other allusions p r o p o s e d a b o v e , which b y themselves d o not immediately evoke these chapters, are to b e so understood. c)

B u t this is another matter and w e shall pursue it n o further.

Conclusion

W e argued in the previous Chapter that the n u m e r o u s references to J e s u s ' suffering and death in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section and particularly the r a n s o m saying in 10:45, w h e n read within the parameters established b y M a r k 9:12, appear to h a v e b e e n influenced primarily b y Isaiah 5 3 .

In spite o f s o m e

arguments to the contrary, the s a m e seems to apply to the cup saying and to other features in the passion narrative itself. If so, then o n the e v e o f the Passover, w h i c h both c o m m e m o r a t e d the first E x o d u s a n d in all probability looked forward to a n e w deliverance under the Messiah, and in the only place in this section where there is any indication o f the significance o f his c o m i n g death, M a r k ' s J e s u s creatively integrates Israel's founding m o m e n t — t h e covenantal formation o f G o d ' s p e o p l e at Sinai—with the prophetic h o p e o f the N E — t h e self-offering o f the Isaianic 'servant', itself p e r h a p s derived from M o s e s ' offer o n M o u n t Sinai. Thus the I N E in M a r k c o m e s to its climax, as in Isaiah, in the final 'self-offering' o f the 'servant', w h o is not only to b e a 'covenant' but w h o s e 'death' is s o m e h o w integral to facilitating the N E .

V. The Short

a) 'For they were afraid

Ending

of

Mark

...'

The s u d d e n and almost anti-climactic e n d i n g o f M a r k c o n t i n u e s to b e a source of fascination and has s p a w n e d a considerable literature.

Although

w e d o not intend entering this debate in any detail, w e will nevertheless briefly mention an interesting parallel with the message o f Isaiah 40-55.

366

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

G e n e r a l l y Isaiah 40-55 is seen as a n n o u n c i n g Israel's deliverance from exile, and this is b o r n e out b y the prologue and the content o f the various oracles, p r o c l a m a t i o n s , and h y m n s w h i c h a n n o u n c e , detail, a n d celebrate the nation's imminent s a l v a t i o n .

374

But, as w e h a v e a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e ,

there is also an on-going and increasingly polarised altercation b e t w e e n Y a h w e h a n d Jacob-Israel c o n c e r n i n g his p o w e r , his faithfulness, and his wisdom.

3 7 5

O n e o f the issues underlying this tension s e e m s to b e J a c o b -

Israel's fear as is evident in the constant refrain o f 'fear n o t ' as Y a h w e h e n c o u r a g e s his p e o p l e to trust h i m and to accept that their salvation is 37

near (Isa 40:9; 4 1 : 1 0 , 1 3 , 1 4 ; 43:1, 5; 44:2; 44:8; cf. 5 1 : 7 , 1 3 ; 54:4, 1 4 ) . * W e also argued that it w a s ultimately b e c a u s e o f Jacob-Israel's 'fear' a n d refusal to accept, to believe, a n d to act on the ' g o o d n e w s ' o f the prophet's m e s s a g e that the I N E w a s delayed. Apparently not m u c h had changed in M a l a c h i ' s day nor, if our reading is correct, in that o f the M a r k a n J e s u s . If w e are right in seeing M a r k ' s J e s u s as the o n e w h o inaugurates the long-awaited I N E it is p e r h a p s not surprising, as C h r i s M a r s h a l l h a s s h o w n , that the question o f 'faith and u n b e l i e f is a central issue for M a r k .

3 7 7

It figures p r o m i n e n t l y in J e s u s '

o p e n i n g invitation to repent a n d b e l i e v e ,

3 7 8

and also in the unbelief and

lack o f r e p e n t a n c e that characterises Israel's l e a d e r s h i p . too, r e s p o n d in a m i x t u r e o f 'faith' and ' f e a r ' .

3 8 0

379

T h e disciples,

In c o m m e n t i n g o n the

latter in M a r k 4:34 M a r s h a l l o b s e r v e s that ' w h e n b e l i e v e r s fail to act in faith, they are not merely "small in faith"; they are actually s u c c u m b i n g to

3

7

4

3

7

5

3

7

6

U s i n g t h e f o r m a l c a t e g o r i e s o f W e s t e r m a n n , ' H e i l s w o r t ' ; S c h o o r s , Saviour; a n d M e l u g i n , Formation; cf. H a r n e r , ' S a l v a t i o n ' ; a n d a l s o e.g. t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f S c h i i p p h a u s , 'Stellung'; v o n W a l d o w , ' M e a n i n g ' , 2 6 7 ; a n d e s p e c i a l l y C o n r a d , ' O r a c l e s ' . H o w e v e r , a s all p a r t i e s r e c o g n i s e , m a n y o f t h e t e x t s in I s a 4 0 - 5 5 d o n o t a d h e r e t o s t a n d a r d Gattungen, and t h u s e v e n C o n r a d m u s t a d m i t ' i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s ' i n h i s a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l . U l t i m a t e l y , it is n o t clear that C o n r a d h a s s o m u c h delineated different forms as d e t e c t e d the influence of older traditions o n their content. Watts, 'Consolation', 35-49. S e e a l s o e.g. 4 2 : 1 0 - 1 7 a n d 4 4 : 2 3 w h e r e Y a h w e h h i m s e l f c r i e s o u t a n d s u m m o n s creation to c r y aloud a n d sing songs of praise. Faith. 3

7

7

3

7

8

3

7

9

3

8

0

O n t h e l i t e r a r y f u n c t i o n o f 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , s e e e.g. M a r s h a l l , 36ff, w h o a l s o a r g u e s for a link b e t w e e n 1 : 1 4 - 1 5 a n d 1 6 : 7 - 8 , s e e 4 1 f . A s in C h a p t e r 7 a b o v e , a n d M a r s h a l l , ibid., 1 7 9 - 2 0 8 . C h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8 a b o v e , a n d M a r s h a l l , ibid., 2 0 8 - 2 5 .

Faith,

367

Conclusion

the p o w e r o f the

ytvda

Nevertheless, their

amoTog

that stands o p p o s e d to G o d ' s r u l e ' .

unbelief does not prevent

3 8 1

Jesus exercising his

authority, e v e n in the face o f w h a t appears to b e a d e m o n i c a l l y inspired onslaught.

J e s u s c a l m s t h e fearfully c h a o t i c sea j u s t as h e h e a l s t h e

d e m o n i s e d lad. If w e are o n the right track, this m a y e x p l a i n w h y M a r k ' s g o s p e l c o n c l u d e s rather abruptly with a statement about a 'fear' that results in silence.

A t the outset o f the I N E ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t , there is the u r g e n t

c o m m a n d to proclaim, to not hold back, to not b e afraid in announcing the ' g o o d n e w s ' (Isa 4 0 . 9 ;

3 8 2

cf. 52:7-9).

B u t in the e n d , it w a s 'fear' that

threatened the full realisation o f Y a h w e h ' s promised deliverance.

Perhaps

M a r k , recalling that t h e s e first w i t n e s s e s o f true I s r a e l ' s ' r e s u r r e c t i o n ' w h e r e silenced b y their fear, also has in mind the possibility that m e m b e r s of his audience might also b e tempted, out o f fear, to b e silent, to s u c c u m b to the unbelief o f the 'faithless generation'.

O n the other h a n d , M a r k h a s

already explained that it w a s in Galilee (cf. 16:7) that J e s u s prevailed over the p o w e r o f the watery deep (4:35ff), with all o f its deathly connotations, and this in spite o f the fear o f the disciples. Perhaps, then, in addition to the warning, there is also a w o r d o f encouragement to his audience. E v e n if they too h a v e b e e n tempted to b e silent, they need to recognise that J e s u s has still c o n q u e r e d .

A n d if, for M a r k , 'discipleship evidently involves a

c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e for the v i c t o r y o f faith o v e r u n b e l i e f '

3 8 3

(and w e

w o u l d add 'fear'), then m a y b e b e i n g reminded o f J e s u s ' great victory will provide the a d d e d strength and e n c o u r a g e m e n t they need to p r o c l a i m the gospel in the face of hostility and rejection.

VI. Conclusion C o r r e s p o n d i n g to the I N E h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to Z i o n , the last section o f M a r k b e g i n s with J e s u s ' victorious arrival at J e r u s a l e m as b o t h M e s s i a h and S o n o f G o d / Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r .

N o t u n e x p e c t e d l y g i v e n the

rising hostility in the first section, J e s u s ' entry is snubbed b y the J e r u s a l e m authorities. 3

8

1

3

8

2

3

8

3

Nevertheless, true b o t h to M a l a c h i and to the ancient ' e n t r y '

Ibid., 2 1 9 . S e e fn. 7 a b o v e . M a r s h a l l , ibid., 2 2 4 .

368

Isaiah's

Promise

... Malachi's

Threat:

Arrival

in

Jerusalem

genre, J e s u s next visits the T e m p l e both as its Lord and guardian, and as its deliverer u n d e r t a k i n g an act o f purification a n d appropriation.

O n the

o n e hand, the intercalatory cursing o f the fig-tree e c h o e s M a l a c h i ' s threat a n d a d u m b r a t e s the j u d g e m e n t e x p r e s s e d in J e s u s ' citation o f J e r e m i a h 7:11.

O n the other, b o t h the entry and ' c l e a n s i n g ' motifs c o h e r e with the

M a c c a b e a n entries, b u t this t i m e it is the insurrectionist T e m p l e hierarchs and not foreigners who are 'cleansed'.

S i m i l a r l y , the s a y i n g

about

m o u n t a i n - m o v i n g faith s e e m s to a d u m b r a t e the ultimate r e m o v a l o f the present T e m p l e establishment which, in its present form, constitutes such a f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e to the fulfilment o f the I N E .

O n a m o r e positive

note, the citation o f Isaiah 56:7 presages the fulfilment o f Isaiah's vision for the T e m p l e and g i v e n the ' o u t e r court' setting e c h o e s the I N E h o p e o f a m o r e inclusive role for Gentiles. W h e n challenged over his authority to d o these things, M a r k ' s J e s u s alludes to the authorities' rejection o f J o h n the B a p t i s t — M a l a c h i ' s Elijah—thereby e v o k i n g M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e . This leads directly into the Isaiah 5 derived parable o f the w i c k e d tenants parable w h i c h p r o n o u n c e s their demise (cf. M k 13). After d e a l i n g w i t h J e s u s ' threats to the p r e s e n t T e m p l e institution, M a r k t u r n s to the realisation o f the institutional threat to J e s u s , again interpreted within the INE horizon.

M a r k ' s story, after the e m p h a t i c

repetition o f the p a s s i o n predictions contained in the ' W a y ' section, n o w r e a c h e s it c l i m a x in an e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t of J e s u s ' suffering and death, m u c h o f t h e s u b s t a n c e a n d p u r p o s e o f w h i c h c o h e r e s w i t h that o f the Isaianic 'servant' w h o s e suffering and death provides the catalytic m o m e n t for the N E . In keeping with the two preceding sections, the M a r k a n J e s u s offers o n l y o n e b r i e f and h i g h l y a l l u s i v e s t a t e m e n t as to the c e n t r a l significance o f this final part, the 'cup saying' in M a r k 14:24. J e s u s ' death is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n the self-offering o f the M e s s i a h a n d t r u e ' s e r v a n t ' Israel (who is both S / s o n of G o d and S o M ) , b y w h i c h he effects a covenant for the p e o p l e (v. 24a, cf. E x 24:8; Isa 42:6; 49:6) and thus initiates the I N E for ' t h e m a n y ' (v. 2 4 b ; Isa 5 3 : l l f ) , b o t h J e w s a n d G e n t i l e s , w h o will n o w constitute the n e w people o f G o d . Finally, the u n d o u b t e d l y e n i g m a t i c short e n d i n g o f M a r k m a y s e r v e b o t h as stark r e m i n d e r o f the deblitating role that fear had o n c e played in the delay o f the N E , and as a warning against allowing it to d o so again.

Chapter 10: Conclusions While

not suggesting

nevertheless the Gospel

the INE as a whole.

that everything seems

in Mark

to provide

Whewell's

'theory

offer further

must fit

the best

the proposed

integrative

of consilience'

model,

paradigm and social

for theory

confirmation.

I. Observations W e b e g a n this study b y noting the current hiatus in M a r k a n research with regard to that ' a i m ... and ... perspective w h i c h gives coherence to all the features of the S e c o n d G o s p e l ' .

1

Rejecting the idea that n o such coherence

exists as both premature and a counsel of despair—Mark's literary achieve m e n t h a s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e e n n o t e d e v e n if o c c a s ional l y o v e r p l a y e d — o u r line o f research w a s prompted both b y the thorough-going influence o f the O T o n M a r k ' s w o r k and the idea that texts can function as indicators o f larger hermeneutical frameworks.

In the light o f the suggestive proposals

of C. H. D o d d and F r a n c i s F o u l k e s on the i m p r e s s o f the O T schauung

Weltan

on the N T , w e surveyed earlier analyses o n the O T ' s influence

on the Mark.

A l t h o u g h in m a n y places w e found that certain O T events

a p p e a r e d p a r a d i g m a t i c for particular e p i s o d e s within M a r k ' s story, w e concluded that former proposals o f larger overarching syntheses failed o n o n e or m o r e o f the following grounds: so c o m p l e x or subtle as to defy credibility, u n a b l e to integrate adequately M a r k a n structure a n d t h e m e s , reliant on q u e s t i o n a b l e or overly subtle O T allusions, a n d / o r failure to integrate the p r o p o s e d structural p a r a d i g m with the e m p h a s e s o f M a r k ' s a c t u a l O T c i t a t i o n s , in p a r t i c u l a r , his o p e n i n g a p p e a l to a

putative

quotation o f Isaiah. W e then e x a m i n e d the role o f ideology's schematised representation o f a group's

history

understanding.

in s t r u c t u r i n g

and

i n c u l c a t i n g that g r o u p ' s

self-

It w a s p r o p o s e d that while earlier attempts at analysing

M a r k ' s theological structure rightly discerned the i m p o r t a n c e o f Israel's

1

Kee, 'Recent', 3 5 3 .

370

Conclusions

f o u n d i n g m o m e n t , t h e y s i n g u l a r l y failed to a p p r e c i a t e the

prophetic

transformation o f the first E x o d u s into the future h o p e of a N e w E x o d u s . R e c o g n i s i n g that a p p l y i n g the findings o f m o d e r n social theory to an ancient d o c u m e n t runs the risk o f severe anachronism, there nevertheless seemed

s u f f i c i e n t prima

facie

e v i d e n c e to w a r r a n t e x a m i n i n g

t h r o u g h the lens o f this social heuristic.

Mark

It w a s h o p e d , in c o n c e i v i n g of

M a r k ' s O T citations and allusions as iconic indicators of his hermeneutical f r a m e w o r k , that a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l might be discovered.

underlying organising principle

W e are n o w in a position to offer the following

observations: 1. In k e e p i n g w i t h a n c i e n t literary p r a c t i c e , M a r k ' s

introductory

s e n t e n c e (1:1-3) i n d i c a t e s h i s G o s p e l ' s c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k .

After

e x a m i n i n g the O T b a c k g r o u n d s and s o m e t h i n g o f the social function o f the texts involved, w e proposed that M a r k ' s opening c o m p o s i t e citation is intended to e v o k e t w o different but closely related s c h e m a t a .

First, the

a p p e a l to Isaiah 4 0 e v i n c e s Israel's great h o p e o f Y a h w e h ' s c o m i n g to initiate h e r restorational N E .

S e c o n d , the allusion to M a l a c h i not only

recalls the delay o f this N E but also sounds an o m i n o u s note o f warning in that the nation m u s t b e prepared or else face p u r g i n g j u d g e m e n t .

(Since

Malachi is c o n c e r n e d with the delay o f the N E , it is in a s e n s e s u b s u m e d within the N E s c h e m a , although due to the n e w historical situation the focus is not so m u c h o n Y a h w e h ' s initial c o m i n g to B a b y l o n (Isa 40:lff) as o n his c o m i n g to J e r u s a l e m , cf. Isa 6 5 - 6 6 ) .

T h e s e twin t h e m e s o f the

fulfilment o f the delayed I N E promise and possible j u d g e m e n t d u e to lack of preparedness are fused in M a r k ' s opening citation and together s e e m to establish the basic thematic contours for his presentation o f Jesus. 2. T h e p r o l o g u e ' s innovative integration of motifs and allusions is not only consistent with b o t h of these schemata but elaborates them. In terms of the I N E , the content of evayyiXiov

(1:1, 14) concerns Y a h w e h ' s Warrior-

S h e p h e r d delivering activities o n Israel's behalf.

E c h o i n g the integration

o f E x o d u s motifs as found in Isaiah 6 3 : 7 - 6 4 : l l ' s lament o v e r the N E ' s d e l a y , t h e rent h e a v e n s a n d d e s c e n t o f the S p i r i t (1:10) s i g n a l s the b e g i n n i n g o f Y a h w e h ' s saving intervention.

In this setting, the allusions

in the divine attestation (1:11), particularly given the descent o f the Spirit, designate J e s u s as Israel's messianic-'servant' deliverer (cf. Ps 2:7 and Isa 42:1). Equally, the iconic augmentation o f the ' m y s o n ' language with the

371

Observations

E x o d u s e c h o e s o f p a s s i n g through the w a t e r and the s u b s e q u e n t j o u r n e y into the desert (1:10-12) p r e s e n t J e s u s as ' t r u e ' Israel (cf. E x 4 : 2 2 , w i t h ayaTTTiTos" indicating his unique Sonship, cf. G n 2 2 ) . T h e p a r a d i g m w h i c h appears to h a v e facilitated the c o n v e r g e n c e of these t w o identifications is also Isaianic. T h e a m b i g u i t y inherent in the e n i g m a t i c ' s e r v a n t ' motif— alluded to in the v o i c e and the descent of the Spirit (cf. Isa 42:1)—enables J e s u s to b e at o n c e true 'servant'-Israel and ' b l i n d - a n d - d e a f J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s m e s s i a n i c - ' s e r v a n t ' deliverer.

( O n e notes in passing that in spite of the

M a r k a n J e s u s ' t h o r o u g h - g o i n g u s e o f ' S o M ' t h e r e is n o t h i n g in t h e p r o l o g u e that particularly e v o k e s Daniel 7; p e r h a p s reflecting the e a r l y c h u r c h ' s n o n - u t i l i s a t i o n o f the term.)

F i n a l l y , the l a n g u a g e o f J e s u s '

p r o g r a m m a t i c a n n o u n c e m e n t (1:14-15) is not only consistent with an I N E hermeneutic, b u t there is s o m e suggestion that M a r k also construes J e s u s ' declaration in terms o f the ' m e s s e n g e r ' tradition of Isaiah 61:1. C o n c e r n i n g M a l a c h i ' s warning, M a r k ' s presentation of J o h n the Baptist (1:6) is c o n s o n a n t w i t h his b e i n g M a l a c h i ' s Elijah to w h o m Israel m u s t respond if s h e is to participate in the long-delayed N E . It hardly a u g u r s well that the b e g i n n i n g o f J e s u s ' preaching (1:14a and 14b) is i m m e d i a t e l y preceded b y the abrupt notification of J o h n ' s imprisonment. 3. T h e G o s p e l ' s b a s i c literary s t r u c t u r e is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the I N E schema. A survey o f a diverse range of literary analyses reveals two major ' b r e a k s ' in M a r k ' s narrative (8:21-27 and 10:45 - 1 1 : 1 ) w h i c h suggest that h e uses a three-part m a c r o - s t r u c t u r e .

T h e s e three s e c t i o n s m a y b e s u m

marised as describing A) J e s u s ' 'evangelistic' ministry o f powerful w o r d s and deeds in Galilee and b e y o n d , B) a journey with his 'blind' disciples iv TfJ 66c5, a n d C) a r r i v a l in J e r u s a l e m , w h i c h s t r u c t u r e d i s p l a y s

broad

parallels with the I N E s c h e m a o f A) Y a h w e h ' s deliverance and healing o f his exiled people, B) a j o u r n e y w h e r e 'blind' Israel is led along ' a w a y they do not k n o w ' , and C) arrival in Jerusalem. Likewise, the Malachi s c h e m a is reflected in A) M a r k ' s o p e n i n g account of an Elijah-like forerunner and his rejection, and B) the c o n c l u d i n g crisis precipitated b y J e s u s ' arrival in J e r u s a l e m w h i c h is characterised both b y the emphatic intercalation o f the cursing o f the fig-tree with the 'cleansing' and a preoccupation with the T e m p l e (cf. M a i 3:1, 2 4 , M T ) . 4. In M a r k ' s first section, his presentation of J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , healings, and s t o r m - s t i l l i n g / s e a - w a l k i n g recapitulate the images and actions associ-

372

Conclusions

ated w i t h Y a h w e h ' s I N E deliverance o f the exiles. T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f J e s u s ' m i r a c l e s in this section also accords with their distribution in the INE.

T h a t M a r k regards the e x o r c i s m s as the h a l l m a r k o f J e s u s ' m i g h t y

d e e d s is e v i d e n t in their frequent m e n t i o n a n d structural

prominence

(1:21-28, 3 4 , 3 9 ; 3:10f, 1 5 , 22ff; 5:1-20; 6:13; 7:24-30, 9:14-29). It is, therefore, n o t e w o r t h y that o n t h e o n e climactic o c c a s i o n w h e n the M a r k a n J e s u s c o m m e n t s o n their significance it is apparently in terms o f the Isaianic Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r (Isa 49:24f in M k 3:27). But whereas in Isaiah the captives w e r e in b o n d a g e to B a b y l o n w h o s e idols epitomised her p o w e r , in M a r k it is the u n c l e a n spirits / d e m o n s , u n d e r s t o o d to b e the p o w e r s b e h i n d the idols, w h o are the oppressors.

F r o m this standpoint, J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s are

the M a r k a n e q u i v a l e n t o f Y a h w e h ' s p r o m i s e d release o f the Isaian exile. A n d just as Y a h w e h in Isaiah appealed to the Chaoskampf

to d e m o n s t r a t e

his ability to effect the N E , so too M a r k ' s Exodus-like juxtaposition o f the storm-stilling and the d r o w n i n g o f the d e m o n i c legion d e m o n s t r a t e s not only J e s u s ' p o w e r to effect the I N E but also something o f his identity (4:35 5:20). J e s u s ' healings o f the blind, deaf, and lame likewise e c h o Y a h w e h ' s h e a l i n g o f t h e exiles in the I N E .

Finally, the feedings e v o k e Y a h w e h ' s

p r o v i s i o n for his p e o p l e in t h e E x o d u s a n d its Isaianic transformation (6:34-44; 8:1-10). Noting that w e might h a v e expected the feedings to occur in M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section, w e suggested that their ' d i s p l a c e m e n t ' indicates that

genuine

participation

in

the

INE requires

more

than

mere

involvement in the signs o f its presence. 5. A l o n g s i d e this, M a r k ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t i e s ' hostility t o w a r d J e s u s continues the threatening u n d e r c u r r e n t implicit in Malachi's warning.

After a s e r i e s o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n s

(2:1 - 3 : 6 ) , t h e

b l a s p h e m y w a r n i n g in the p i v o t a l B e e l z e b u l c o n t r o v e r s y (3:22-30) is r e m i n i s c e n t o f Isaiah 6 3 (cf. M k l:10f) and its r e c o u n t i n g o f rebellious Israel's 'grieving' the Spirit during the first Exodus. N o w , as then, Y a h w e h b e c o m e s their e n e m y (Isa 63:10 cf. M k 3:28f).

T h e i m m e d i a t e l y following

and programmatic material on the purpose o f the parables (4:1-34) cites the hardening text of Isaiah 6 (4:12) and, in d r a w i n g u p o n the terminology o f t h e Isaianic ' w i s d o m ' p o l e m i c , suggests that J e s u s ' rejection is similarly d u e to the self-reliant ' w i s d o m ' o f the Jerusalemite leadership.

The same

t h e m e continues in the only other place in the first t w o sections o f M a r k w h e r e J e s u s is confronted b y leaders 'from J e r u s a l e m ' (Isa 29:13 in M k 7:6f).

373

Observations

In keeping with the later chapters o f Isaiah (espec. Isa 65:1-15), a bifurcation is n o w b e i n g effected within Israel. T h o s e w h o a d h e r e to J e s u s ' teaching are 'insiders' and so ' t r u e ' m e m b e r s o f his family (and h e n c e also o f true Israel?; 4 : 1 1 , cf. 3:13-19, 2 0 - 2 1 , 31-35) while those leaders w h o h a v e ranged t h e m s e l v e s against h i m ( 4 : l l b - 2 3 ; cf. 3:22-30) are 'outsiders'.

In b e t w e e n

stand the vast and as-yet-undecided c r o w d s w h o s e fate d e p e n d s o n h o w 'carefully' they 'hear' ( 4 : 1 , 3 , 9 , 2 3 , 3 3 ) . 6. T u r n i n g to M a r k ' s s e c o n d section, his account o f J e s u s ' leading his 'blind' disciples along the ' W a y ' o f the suffering S o M parallels the action o f Y a h w e h a n d his t r u e ' s e r v a n t ' o n b e h a l f o f ' b l i n d ' J a c o b - I s r a e l in t h e s e c o n d part o f the I N E s c h e m a . involved

two

components,

J u s t as in the I N E the ' w a y ' o f r e t u r n

spatial—to

Jerusalem—and

sapiential—

accepting Y a h w e h ' s w i s d o m , so also in M a r k the ' W a y ' to J e r u s a l e m is a ' W a y ' of instruction, n a m e l y , that the M e s s i a h must suffer.

Arising from

the use o f Isaiah 6 in M a r k 4 , M a r k ' s ' b l i n d n e s s ' and 'deafness' l a n g u a g e i n v o k e s t h e I s a i a n i c ' w i s d o m ' p o l e m i c w h i c h , as amplified in the I N E materials, c o n c e r n s J a c o b - I s r a e l ' s inability to a c c e p t the n a t u r e o f Y a h w e h ' s p l a n for h e r deliverance.

unconventional

Symbolising the disciples'

condition (4:13, 4 1 ; 6:52; 7:18f; 8:14-21), M a r k ' s o n l y healing-of-the-blind miracles bracket his ' W a y ' section (8:22-26; 10:46-52) and thereby e v o k e the Isaianic picture o f Y a h w e h , through his 'servant', leading the ' b l i n d ' along a path they d o not k n o w (cf. Isa 42:16). Just as in Isaiah Y a h w e h ' s purposes w e r e ultimately to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h the astonishing c a r e e r o f a suffering 'servant', so in M a r k the three-fold passion predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34; cf. 9:12; Isa 5 3 , 5 0 ) e m p h a s i s e that the w a y o f w i s e Y a h w e h ' s N E deliverance finds it s u p r e m e expression in the ' W a y ' o f a crucified faithful 'servant' Israel-SoM-Messiah (also 10:45; cf. Isa 5 3 ) . 7. In M a r k ' s final section, the two s c h e m a t a introduced b y his o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e c o m e to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s .

The Malachi/Exodus

allusion, intimating the d a r k side o f Y a h w e h ' s I N E c o m i n g , projects t h e interpretive framework for M a r k ' s intercalation of J e s u s ' cursing of the fig tree and ' c l e a n s i n g ' o f the T e m p l e .

S i n c e the insurrectionist

leadership

h a d earlier rejected J o h n ' s preparatory b a p t i s m (1:14a; 11:30-33) it is n o t surprising that they should disregard the entry o f J e s u s , the T e m p l e ' s L o r d and their m e s s i a n i c k i n g , and question his authority (11:28; cf. 3:6, 2 2 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , the ' l a n d ' is cursed

(11:12-25) and the T e m p l e , intended to

374

Conclusions

b e a house o f prayer for all nations (Isa 56:7) but n o w a den o f thieves Qer 7:11), is placed under sentence of destruction (13:lff; cf. 11:23). At the s a m e t i m e and quite c o n f o u n d i n g the h i e r a r c h s '

murderous

intentions, J e s u s announces that they will b e deposed and that he himself will b e c o m e the ' c o r n e r s t o n e / c a p s t o n e ' o f a n e w building (12:1-11; a n e w Temple?).

And here the INE paradigm,

a l r e a d y e v i d e n t in J e s u s '

m e s s i a n i c e n t r y into the city in as m u c h as it e c h o e s the arrival o f the victorious Warrior-Shepherd

Y a h w e h in J e r u s a l e m , e m e r g e s

again.

Y a h w e h ' s deliverance o f his people will c o m e to pass but only through the suffering o f his 'servant' Messiah. J u s t as the self-offering o f the Isaianic 'servant', w h o w a s also to b e ' a c o v e n a n t for the p e o p l e ' , is integral to effecting Israel's I N E deliverance, so too M a r k ' s J e s u s at the climax o f his inauguration o f the I N E establishes through his death the n e w covenant for the n e w l y reconstituted people o f G o d (14:24, cf. E x 24:8 and Isa 42:6; 49:8; 53:10-12).

II. Assessment a)

Introduction

Obviously, the first concern is the validity o f each, or part thereof, o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s offered above.

T h e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g each observation, the

m o r e c o m p e l l i n g their c o m b i n e d effect.

If w e grant that these individual

observations are substantially correct, h o w is their overall c o h e r e n c e to b e interpreted? It m a y o f course b e argued that M a r k intends n o further significance than is contained in the face value of the w o r d s h e actually quotes, that he intends neither linkage b e t w e e n them nor any larger s c h e m a overall, and that all o f the a b o v e is m e r e l y the result o f reading too m u c h into the material a n d the o c c a s i o n a l h a p p y c o i n c i d e n c e . T h i s is, it is not to b e d e n i e d , a possibility.

O n the other h a n d , o n e m u s t ask at w h a t p o i n t

coincidences b e c o m e both so n u m e r o u s and so h a p p y as to suggest design. Perhaps these congruities, given that they appear in the o n e b o o k , and in this particular order, and with such comfortable collusion, are n o m o r e a matter o f h a p p e n s t a n c e than the appearance o f M a r k ' s G o s p e l itself. This, it m a y b e c o u n t e r e d is ' m e r e l y ' a matter o f personal j u d g e m e n t , b u t as

Argument

from

Philosophy

of

375

Science

M i c h a e l Polanyi has d e m o n s t r a t e d personal j u d g e m e n t is to a greater or lesser degree quite central to the acquisition of all growth in k n o w l e d g e ; and hardly to b e dismissively assigned a lesser epistemological status 'merely').

2

(viz.

B u t if p e r s o n a l j u d g e m e n t is the key, h o w t h e n are t h e s e

correlations to b e evaluated? b) The Argument In e v a l u a t i n g philosopher

from

the Philosophy

of

3

Science

the t r u t h v a l u e o f i n d u c t i o n s

to p o s s i b l e c a u s e s , the

of science William Whewell postulated

his theory of

Consilience: T h e Consilience of Inductions takes place w h e n a n Induction, obtained from one class of facts, coincides w i t h a n Induction, obtained f r o m a n o t h e r class. This Consilience is a test o f t h e t r u t h o f t h e T h e o r y in w h i c h it o c c u r s .

4

In other w o r d s , w h e n t w o chains o f inductive reasoning from

different

classes o f p h e n o m e n a lead to the s a m e 'conclusion', then a consilience o f inductions has occurred.

T h e greater the n u m b e r o f i n d u c t i o n s ,

the

greater the possibility that the theory is true. For example, on the basis o f the role of prologues in literary antiquity, w e 'induce' that the Isaianic N E is of importance for Mark. With regard to another class o f p h e n o m e n a , for e x a m p l e , literary structure, w e find that the overall literary structure o f M a r k also c o i n c i d e s w i t h an I N E s c h e m a .

O r , with regard to thematic

concerns, for e x a m p l e J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , w e find that M a r k in the crucial Beelzebul controversy records an allusion to Isaiah 49:24f w h i c h describes the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r ' s N E deliverance o f b o u n d Israel. of

these three chains of reasoning

from

T h e conjunction

t h r e e different

classes of

p h e n o m e n a c o n s t i t u t e s a c o n s i l i e n c e o f i n d u c t i o n s , and t h u s t e n d s to corroborate the theory. 1 suggest that in M a r k w e h a v e numerous classes o f p h e n o m e n a , A ) the function o f o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e s in literary antiquity, B ) the content o f the prologue, C ) M a r k ' s overall structural outline, D ) the relationship b e t w e e n certain sub-units of M a r k a n structure (e.g. 3:20ff, 4:lff and 4:35ff), E ) various allusions to O T motifs (e.g. l:9ff; 3:27; 10:45), F ) specific citations o f the O T (e.g. Isa 6:9f; 29:13; 56:7), and G ) various M a r k a n themes (these could count 2

3

S e e t h e o u t s t a n d i n g s u m m a t i o n o f h i s t h o u g h t in S c o t t ,

Everyman.

I a m indebted to m y f o r m e r fellow-student, n o w Dr. Steven M y e r , for d r a w i n g m y attention to this material. W h e w e l l , Philosophy, 4 6 9 . O n c o n s i l i e n c e in m o d e m p h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e : T h a g a r d , ' C r i t e r i a ' ; L a u d a n , ' C o n s i l i e n c e ' ; H e s s e , ' C o n s i l i e n c e ' ; cf. G o u l d , ' H o m o l o g y ' , 6 5 . 4

376

Conclusions

as s e p a r a t e c l a s s e s o f p h e n o m e n a b u t w e will l u m p t h e m t o g e t h e r ) , for e x a m p l e , J e s u s ' e x o r c i s m s , his healing miracles, the stilling o f the storm, J e s u s as teacher, J e s u s as ' M e s s i a h ' , J e s u s ' 'suffering' b e i n g described in l a n g u a g e b e s t e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s o f t h e I s a i a n i c ' s e r v a n t ' , a n d

the

i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f the ' b l i n d ' disciples b o t h prior to and within M a r k ' s ' W a y ' section.

A l l t h e s e different c l a s s e s o f p h e n o m e n a

e l u c i d a t e d in t e r m s in the I N E .

seem best

M o r e o v e r , the appeal to i m a g e r y from

M a l a c h i a l s o fits in that this b o o k itself likewise appears to a d d r e s s the delay of the I N E .

5

Again, the h a r m o n y o f this induction, from yet another

class o f data, w i t h the p r i m a r y theory further s t r e n g t h e n s the proposal. T h e h y p o t h e s i s o f an I N E framework (including the M a l a c h i subset), w e suggest, l e a d s to a greater d e g r e e o f c o n s i l i e n c e than a n y other literary t h e o r y yet p r o p o s e d for M a r k in that it e x p l a i n s a n d integrates a large n u m b e r o f previously separate classes o f recognised p h e n o m e n a . S e c o n d , W h e w e l l ' s s y s t e m also i m p l i e d a n o t h e r c o n t r o l l i n g criterion, that of 'simplicity'. T h e m o r e consilient a theory, the m o r e it explains and systematises.

6

Inherent in this idea is the restriction o f the n u m b e r of

auxiliary h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h are required to enable a given theory to fit the data. That is, a characteristic o f a theory's accuracy is that it leaves less that n e e d s to b e e x p l a i n e d b y o t h e r m e a n s .

F o r e x a m p l e , g i v e n the u s u a l

e x p e c t a t i o n o f the I N E — t h e M e s s i a h w o u l d b e w e l c o m e d — M a r k m u s t offer his o w n auxiliary hypothesis to explain J e s u s ' rejection (e.g. Isa 6 in Mk 4).

In o u r c a s e s u c h h y p o t h e s e s w o u l d i n c l u d e , for e x a m p l e , the

e x p l a n a t i o n s required for the feeding n a r r a t i v e s ' u n e x p e c t e d position, or those few m i r a c l e s that occur outside the first section. T h e s e h y p o t h e s e s are not

in t h e m s e l v e s n e g a t i v e , b u t

the fewer

required

the

more

c o m p r e h e n s i v e the m a i n theory is s h o w n to b e . A n I N E m o d e l , b e c a u s e it requires few auxiliary hypotheses, meets the criterion o f simplicity. Third, the final guideline advanced for theory selection is the principle of a n a l o g y .

7

This principle holds that if two p h e n o m e n a exhibit a range of

similar properties then comparable causes should h a v e c o m p a r a b l e effects. F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n a r g u e d that s i n c e artificial s e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s in c h a n g e s in a n i m a l m o r p h o l o g y so then m i g h t natural selection.

5

6

7

S e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n in C h a p t e r 3 , p p . 6 7 - 7 4 , a b o v e . See further especially T h a g a r d , 'Criteria'. T h a g a r d , ibid.

In o u r

Argument

from

Social

377

Science

c a s e , and as m a n y s c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d , if Israel u n d e r s t o o d

her

founding m o m e n t in terms o f an Exodus, so then might N e w Israel appeal to a N e w Exodus; as Israel's early documents reflect an Exodus ideology, so then might those o f N e w Israel assume a N e w E x o d u s perspective. C o n s e q u e n t l y , although these criteria b y the nature o f the case do n o t constitute ' p r o o f , nevertheless, high consilience, simplicity, a n d a n a l o g y together c o m p r i s e an argument o f considerable force that M a r k did indeed have in mind an Isaianic N E framework. c) The Argument

from

Social

Science

But even so, w h a t evidence is there that suggests not merely the possibility but the plausibility o f the existence o f such a conceptual framework?

The

criterion o f analogy raises again the previously discussed matter o f the role ideology.

It is w o r t h w h i l e t h e n briefly to r e v i e w t h e m a t e r i a l

from

C h a p t e r 2 , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e it c o n c e r n s that w h i c h is i m p l i c i t a n d assumed. T h e nature o f ideology is c o m p l e x b u t its essential function is to justify and explain a c o m m u n i t y ' s existence vis-a-vis other c o m m u n i t i e s .

8

Ideology provides the interpretive framework through which a given c o m m u n i t y b o t h u n d e r s t a n d s and shapes its internal relations, its history and its environment; that is, ideology provides a total w o r l d v i e w .

9

It is

not a proposition thought through, but an assumption thought from. A s w e s a w , recent studies h a v e highlighted the role o f a c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t in shaping its ideology, which in turn seeks to keep the founding m o m e n t alive. history

is r e t o l d

and

T h r o u g h ritual r e - e n a c t m e n t s a c o m m u n i t y ' s the

values

and

energies enshrined

in

that

c o m m u n i t y ' s founding m o m e n t are inculcated, thereby re-constituting the c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t s u c c e e d i n g generations.

Israel's E x o d u s and its

r e m e m b r a n c e in the Passover haggadah are exemplary. T h e great event is retold, v a l u e s e x p l a i n e d , and t h e n a t i o n ' s special identity r e i n f o r c e d . H o w e v e r , to facilitate this inculcation the re-enactment must b e simplified and s c h e m a t i s e d .

A t o o - c o m p l e x accounting, w h i l e satisfying scholars,

8

T h e ' v i s - a - v i s ' is i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e it e x p r e s s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e g i t i m a t i n g a n a s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o w e r , e.g. I s r a e l ' s E x o d u s i d e o l o g y justifies t h e i r h e g e m o n y over Canaanite land. Pace Geertz's cultural systematic, 'Ideology', a n d Seliger's e c u m e n i c a l a p p r o a c h . Ideology, w h i c h a r e t o o o m n i p r e s e n t , t h e r e b y r o b b i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f its c r i t i c a l e d g e . 9

A g a i n , t h i s is s i m p l i s t i c — r e a l i s t i c a l l y t h e r e is a c t u a l l y a h i e r a r c h y o f c o m p e t i n g a n d o v e r l a p p i n g i d e o l o g i e s — b u t m u s t suffice d u e t o s p a c e l i m i t a t i o n s .

378

Conclusions

w o u l d b e i n a c c e s s i b l e to t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y a n d t o o c u m b e r s o m e to function.

Its m e d i u m

is t h e s y m b o l a n d

l i n g u i s t i c — c o m p a c t a n d full o f m e a n i n g .

icon—whether visual

or

S i n c e it is r e i n f o r c e d from

youth, very little is required to invoke i d e o l o g y ' s interpretive framework. B y the s a m e token, ' u n t r a i n e d ' participants will often fail to m a k e the connections. G i v e n that the r e m e m b r a n c e of the past p r o v i d e s the c a t e g o r i e s for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the present and projecting the future, F o u l k e s and D o d d w e r e right in recognising that Israel understood its history in terms o f the consistent a n d repeated acts of G o d . A s noted earlier, this is especially true of the E x o d u s w h o s e influence on several p r o p h e t i c m o v e m e n t s in the N e w T e s t a m e n t era (e.g. T h e u d a s , the u n n a m e d prophet, and the w e a v e r J o n a t h a n ) a n d the r a b b i s is w e l l attested.

Numerous studies likewise

confirm the influence o f E x o d u s traditions o n the N T . This provided s o m e justification for the theories discussed in Chapter 1 w h i c h posited the E x o d u s as M a r k ' s guiding principle. T h e inadequacy of these studies w a s their failure to recognise that d u r i n g the exilic period the p r o p h e t s n o t only d r e w on the E x o d u s e x p e r i e n c e as a m o d e l for future deliverance (as social theory w o u l d lead us to expect), but transformed the earlier f o u n d i n g - m o m e n t i d e o l o g y into the future h o p e o f a n e w a n d greater Exodus. W h a t a r e t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for o u r t h e s i s , g i v e n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s offered above? First, social theory suggests that the existence of integrating conceptual

frameworks

are

integral

to

the

maintenance

of

any

c o m m u n i t y . S e c o n d , it almost axiomatic that M a r k should w i s h to present his account o f G o d ' s great act o f salvation in terms o f an Isaianic N E , not least s i n c e Isaiah is p e r h a p s the greatest p r o p h e t o f I s r a e l ' s restoration. M a r k ' s basic three-fold outline also displays the s i m p l e clarity inherent in ideological formulations. His unaffected 'allusive' and symbolic references to the i c o n s of I s r a e l ' s m e m o r y (e.g. Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r , s t o r m - s t i l l i n g , f e e d i n g s ) a r e a l s o p e r f e c t l y at h o m e w i t h o n e i m m e r s e d in I s r a e l ' s ideologically-shaped

recounting

of her

history.

That we

do

not

i m m e d i a t e l y recognise them is m o r e likely due to o u r b e i n g outsiders than M a r k a n ineptitude o r lack o f intention.

Social theory also explains h o w

M a r k ' s o p e n i n g s e n t e n c e could i n v o k e an I N E framework—the first line of L i n c o l n ' s G e t t y s b u r g a d d r e s s

f u n c t i o n s in m u c h t h e s a m e

way.

Mark's

Audience

and OT

379

Awareness

O n c e established as his fundamental hermeneutic, m o r e detailed parallels could be a d d e d as M a r k reflected on the significance o f J e s u s ' life in the light o f I N E expectations—a plausible epistemological d e v e l o p m e n t from a relatively s i m p l e idea to M a r k ' s c o m p l e x presentation can thereby b e postulated. Related to this is o n e final and important consideration.

When a

c o m m u n i t y divides o v e r an issue, a struggle m a y quickly d e v e l o p o v e r w h o are the true heirs to the m o r e s and ideals of the founding m o m e n t . W e m e n t i o n e d in this regard, for e x a m p l e , J e r o b o a m w h o set up golden calves declaring, ' T h e s e are the gods w h o brought y o u out o f Egypt', and Lincoln w h o appealed to the Founding Fathers. If a major issue in the N T is that o f self-definition in the light o f division o v e r w h i c h g r o u p c a n legitimately c l a i m to constitute faithful Israel, it is n o t surprising M a r k s h o u l d s e e k to s h o w t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f h i s s t or y w i t h prophetically transformed founding m o m e n t to m a k e his case.

that

Israel's T h e r e is

n o w even further consilience: inductions from the literary data and the expectation o f social theory also coincide. d) Mark's

Audience

and OT

Awareness

H a v i n g said all this, a c o m m o n question arises: what evidence do w e have that M a r k ' s a u d i e n c e

1 0

w o u l d h a v e u n d e r s t o o d t h e intention o f these

citations and allusions, particularly given the absence o f explicit p r o m i s e and fulfilment motifs s u c h as those found in M a t t h e w and, to a lesser extent, L u k e ?

C a n w e reasonably expect such a war enes s on the part o f

M a r k ' s readership? Again, as argued earlier, M a r k ' s frequent if not ubiquitous use o f O T texts and motifs, often at crucial points in his narrative, is prima

facie

evidence o f an intentionality w h i c h strongly suggests that h e a s s u m e d at least s o m e o f his audience were reasonably familiar with parts o f the O T .

1 1

O n e notes here the vastly different approach of the L u c a n Paul in Acts 17 c o m p a r e d to, for e x a m p l e , the S y n a g o g u e S e r m o n in A c t s 13 w i t h its thorough-going use o f O T themes.

That M a r k ' s G o s p e l appears m o r e in

k e e p i n g w i t h t h e latter s u g g e s t s that it too p r e s u p p o s e s a n

audience

containing s o m e J e w s or at the very least Gentile 'god-fearers' and that h e 1 0

O n the question of w h e t h e r the Evangelists write to particular communities, see n o w the unpublished paper b y Bauckham, 'Whom'. See C h a p t e r 4 , p. 9 4 , above. 1 1

380

Conclusions

could reasonably expect on the basis of their previous experience s o m e familiarity with the O T and its t h e m e s .

synagogue

12

It is hardly less probable that M a r k also intended fellow Christians to benefit from his w o r k .

Since the O T w a s no doubt from the very begin

n i n g the foundation o f b o t h their c a t e c h i s m and apologetic, it is surely r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t m o r e than a p a s s i n g a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h those O T materials w i t h w h i c h M a r k d e a l s .

13

Again, it s e e m s highly unlikely that

M a r k ' s G o s p e l appeared 'out of the b l u e ' like s o m e theological supernova. I n s t e a d , it m o r e likely represents a c o m p e n d i u m o f the t e a c h i n g with w h i c h his c o m m u n i t y w a s already au fait.

In other words, perhaps there

w a s not a great deal in M a r k ' s b o o k that w a s particularly n e w at all and that at least part o f his intended audience were just as likely to b e reading his gospel m a k i n g sure h e h a d it right as gaping in w o n d e r at his n e w insights.

In this respect w e recall C h r i s t o p h e r S t a n l e y ' s findings w h i c h

given the o b v i o u s w a y in w h i c h M a r k uses and adapts his texts suggests that he assumes s o m e degree of acquaintance with the O T source material.

14

Ultimately, h o w e v e r , the only hard data w e h a v e is the evidence o f the d o c u m e n t itself. O n the basis o f the arguments p r o p o u n d e d here—if they are j u d g e d successful—of c o n s i l i e n c e (i.e. overall c o h e r e n c e , simplicity, analogy) and the role o f ideology in shaping group consciousness, it w o u l d appear that M a r k ' s Gospel has been structured along the lines proposed. If so, I w o u l d urge that the m o s t natural conclusion is that M a r k produced his w o r k in this w a y on the assumption that he w o u l d b e understood. It is appropriate to ask, w h y then did not this understanding survive to the present? suffice.

A b r i e f r e s p o n s e , m o r e i n d i c a t i v e than c o m p l e t e , m u s t

O n the o n e h a n d , in s o m e respects it did survive: m a n y h a v e

noted the general Isaianic b a c k g r o u n d to J e s u s ' life and ministry. O n the other, clearly the overall structure and m a n y o f the details outlined here h a v e not b e e n carried over into the teaching tradition o f the church. This should not, h o w e v e r , b e regarded as surprising.

E v e n a cursory e x a m i

nation o f the history o f the interpretation o f J e s u s ' parables reveals h o w , with

1 2

1 3

1 4

t h e c h a n g i n g c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h from

O n t h e q u e s t i o n o f M a r k ' s r e a d e r s h i p , s e e e.g. M a r t i n , 61ff; H e n g e l , ' O r i g i n ' . Cf. D o d d , According; Lindars, Apologetic. See C h a p t e r 2, p p . 51f.

its

Response

to Earlier

381

Scholarship

J e w i s h roots to a G e n t i l e constituency, their interpretation reflected t h e literary

and

hermeneutical

context

of

the

prevailing

culture.

Consequently, the original force o f the parables dissipates relatively quickly within the h o r i z o n o f the Graeco-Roman w o r l d .

B y the s a m e token it is

not difficult to see h o w , as the c h u r c h b e c a m e increasingly G e n t i l e a n d found itself interacting m o r e and m o r e w i t h others from that milieu, t h e riches o f its J e w i s h roots w h i c h lay at the heart o f h e r Gospels should also c o m e gradually to b e misunderstood or neglected.

III. Conclusions a) In Response

to the Survey

of Recent

Scholarship

1. M a r k has not a b a n d o n e d Heilsgeschichte, 'indispensable presupposition'.

but o n the contrary it is his

G i v e n the contemporary interpretations o f

the O T materials he appeals to, and as h e offers n o clear indication o f h i s rejection o f t h e e s c h a t o l o g i c a l orientation o f those interpretations, it is affirmed that M a r k p r e s e n t s J e s u s in t e r m s o f the fulfilment o f I s r a e l ' s hopes for a N E , especially as described in the b o o k o f Isaiah. H i s Gospel is therefore to b e s e e n in continuity with G o d ' s historic d e a l i n g s w i t h h i s people, but n o w also including Gentiles qua Gentiles (cf. e.g. M k 7:19). 2. K e e ' s observations o n the M a r k a n tendency to conflate O T references and to place t h e m at critical points in his a r g u m e n t are to b e confirmed. A s p e c t s o f this t e n d e n c y are p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t in M a r k ' s o p e n i n g citation and in his accounts o f J e s u s ' use o f the O T , and as such reflects the literary conventions o f his day (cf. Stanley). 3. If this thesis is d e e m e d convincing, the w e a k n e s s o f earlier attempts to relate Israel's founding m o m e n t to that o f reconstituted Israel resides not in the deficiency o f their basic intuition, which w a s correct in essence, but rather in their failure to a p p r e h e n d the significance o f the prophetic transformation o f the past E x o d u s into the future h o p e o f the N E . 4. In the cases w e e x a m i n e d M a r k does appear to b e a w a r e o f the O T context, although w h a t w e m e a n b y 'context' m a y need modification (see 5 below).

In fact, in several p l a c e s s o m e familiarity w i t h the O T context

seems essential to understanding correctly M a r k ' s point (e.g. Isa 6 in M k 4 ) .

382

Conclusions

5. D o d d ' s conception of citations as pointers to 'text plots' m a y benefit from a m o r e n u a n c e d articulation.

A l t h o u g h p e r h a p s s o m e w h a t subtle,

the p e r s p e c t i v e o f social theory suggests that it is not o n l y the 'literary setting' per se which is in view—although it is clearly important—but also the u n d e r l y i n g ideological and, therefore, schematised representation of Israel's on-going 'story' which those texts not only record but also presume and with w h i c h they interact. motifs.

T h e s a m e applies to the N T ' s use o f O T

T h a t is, the citations or motifs themselves, b y m e a n s o f the 'text

plots' to w h i c h they point, function as s y m b o l s or icons and so provide a shorthand

method

o f referring

to w h o l e fields o f m e a n i n g

which

t h e m s e l v e s are l o c a t e d within the o n - g o i n g s c h e m a o f I s r a e l ' s ' s t o r y ' . Equally important, this 'story' seems best understood from the perspective of the larger on-going dynamic o f Israel's relationship with her G o d : A ) as Y a h w e h had acted to save his people in the past, so he does n o w , but B ) as his people in the light of their o w n w i s d o m had in the past frequently questioned Y a h w e h ' s methods a n d / o r agents o f salvation, so also now. b) In Relation

to the Thesis

Proper

1. T o t h e e x t e n t that e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v a t i o n listed a b o v e is accepted, either fully or in part, it offers its o w n s t a t e m e n t o f findings concerning M a r k ' s presentation. These will not b e reiterated here. 2. T h e g r e a t e r t h e n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s a c c e p t e d , the m o r e the criteria o f theory selection and the logic of social theory's understanding of the ideology will suggest that M a r k is operating with a consistent Isaianic N E framework. If so, the argument from social theory also suggests that it is M a r k ' s i d e o l o g i c a l l y - s h a p e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f I s r a e l ' s future

hopes

w h i c h p r o v i d e s the major structural c l u e to the s h a p e o f his g o s p e l . M a r k ' s selection, editorial arrangement, a n d / o r composition of pericopae, derives primarily

from

the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n

an I N E

fulfilment

framework and his understanding of J e s u s ' teaching and deeds, rejection b y the J e w i s h leadership, death, and resurrection. 3. It is often u r g e d that the p u r p o s e o f M a r k is to b e found in his t h e o l o g y rather than any historical c o n c e r n .

A l t h o u g h s u c h a radical

discontinuity implied is hardly sustainable t o d a y , wishes to s h o w in the broadest terms that:

1 5

C f . W r i g h t , People,

31-144.

15

w e propose that M a r k

In Relation

to the Thesis

383

Proper

a) J e s u s ' ministry w a s the inauguration o f the fulfilment of Isaiah's long-awaited N E developed in accordance with the observations a b o v e . b) J e s u s ' rejection, particularly by the Jewish leadership, is explained b y their ' b l i n d ' reliance on their o w n w i s d o m .

T h i s is not unforeseen

since they h a d already rejected John, M a l a c h i ' s Elijah, and in any c a s e such ' b l i n d n e s s ' h a s characteristically p l a g u e d the n a t i o n ' s leaders in the past.

B u t J e s u s h a d also b e e n misunderstood b y Israel in general.

This, too, is not as i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e as might initially b e s u p p o s e d , since even J e s u s ' closest followers were blinded

by

their

own

expectations to the full significance of his ministry. In a w o r d , M a r k is 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 writ large. 4 . H o w e v e r , p o s i t i n g the I N E h e r m e n e u t i c as the major c o n c e r n o f M a r k does not require that it w a s M a r k ' s only interest.

W e can h a p p i l y

accept that M a r k w a s influenced b y additional concerns. For instance, h e could equally use J e s u s ' teaching on the ' W a y ' to address the question o f suffering discipleship, and choose his selection o f J e s u s ' teaching, and e v e n m a k e use o f the d i s c i p l e s ' o b d u r a c y , for m o r e pastoral p u r p o s e s .

Such

aims can b e integrated within a larger I N E rubric w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g the overall thesis. 5. At the turn of the century, A . E . Garvie wrote: T h e Christian religion w a s s p o k e n of simply as the w a y , either b e c a u s e Christ c l a i m e d t o b e t h e W a y , o r b e c a u s e h e h a d s p o k e n o f t h e n a r r o w w a y u n t o life, o r l a s t l y b e c a u s e i n h i m w a s fulfilled t h e p r o p h e t i c s a y i n g s r e g a r d i n g t h e w a y ( I s a 3

1

4 0 ; Mai 3 ) .

1 6

S. V . M c C a s l a n d , affirming this suggestion, w e n t on to argue that 'the W a y ... as a designation of Christianity w a s derived from Isa 4 0 3 and that it is an abbreviated form o f "the w a y o f the L o r d ' " .

1 7

This b o o k w o u l d confirm

t h e s e v i e w s w i t h the a d d e d c o m m e n t that the ' W a y ' m a y w e l l b e a shorthand reference to the I N E w a y of Y a h w e h ' s eschatological salvation for his people (accomplished through a crucified M e s s i a h ) and that it also shares the ' w i s d o m ' connotations o f this language. 6. Finally, in regard to Christology. T h e primary d a t u m for M a r k s e e m s to b e that J e s u s is to b e u n d e r s t o o d as S / s o n o f G o d .

W h i l e not at all

d o w n - p l a y i n g M a r k ' s interest in J e s u s ' u n i q u e filial relationship to the

16 " ' W a y ' " , 2 3 0 . 1 7

Ibid.

384

Conclusions

Father, this language must first b e seen in terms o f Jesus being 'true Israel', w h o after all w a s intended to b e Y a h w e h ' s ' s o n ' (Ex 4:22) a n d in w h i c h category Israel's messianic kingship w a s likewise understood (Ps 2 ) . At the s a m e time, Israel w a s intended to b e Y a h w e h ' s faithful 'servant'. But since she had failed, a n e w 'servant' w a s to b e installed (Isa 4 2 , 4 9 ; cf. Tg. Isa), revealed n o w in J e s u s .

A n d given the ' s e r v a n t ' s ' role, J e s u s is not only

'true' Israel b u t also 'blind and d e a f Israel's messianic deliverer (Tg. Isa 4 2 ; Ps 2 ) . T h i s m u c h s e e m s established at the outset in M a r k ' s story ( M k 1:915).

A s s u c h J e s u s is also the 'genuinely h u m a n o n e ' , that is, ' o n e like a

Son of M a n ' , w h o truly bears the image o f G o d and w h o presides over the people o f G o d ' s vindication in their new-creational N e w E x o d u s (cf. D n 7). T h i s S o M a l s o e x e r c i s e s authority s u c h as has heretofore b e e n the sole p r e r o g a t i v e o f Y a h w e h h i m s e l f (forgiving sins, M k 2:10; s u b d u i n g the chaotic sea, M k 4:39-41). For Mark, there is clearly m o r e to J e s u s ' particular sonship than m e r e metaphor: his is indeed Y a h w e h ' s ' u n i q u e ' Son. W e h a v e also argued that the M a r k a n J e s u s apparently understood his death in t e r m s o f the Isaianic 'servant' in that his descriptions o f his future sufferings are d r a w n largely from the so-called ' S e r v a n t S o n g s ' , primarily Isaiah 5 3 b u t also 5 0 . This naturally raises questions as to the significance of this language, not only for Mark, w h o m a y h a v e understood one thing, b u t also for J e s u s , w h o m a y h a v e intended another.

It is possible that the

terminology is used s i m p l y b e c a u s e it most clearly and fully expresses the suffering o f a righteous figure, and w a s , after all, near to h a n d given that m u c h o f t h e M a r k a n J e s u s ' m i n i s t r y w a s s h a p e d b y reflection on the Isaianic expectation. H o w e v e r , such an interpretation d o e s not, w e h a v e argued, adequately take into account the strongly purposive nature of this suffering b o t h in Isaiah and in M a r k .

N o t only is the idea o f suffering

linked with N E deliverance solely, in the O T (cf. M k 9:12), in Isaiah, it is also a suffering that is clearly on b e h a l f o f others.

T h o s e w h o w i s h to

argue that o n l y the fact of the suffering is in view, need to s h o w w h y the M a r k a n J e s u s did not intend a direct link b e t w e e n the p u r p o s e w h i c h is clearly an i r r e d u c i b l e e l e m e n t o f his p e r c e p t i o n o f his d e a t h and

the

p u r p o s e implied in Isaianic texts from which, w e h a v e argued, h e almost certainly d r a w s his suffering language. I N E framework.

A n d this especially given M a r k ' s

It m a y b e argued that if this c o n n e c t i o n w a s intended

w h y w a s it not clearer?

B u t this e x p e c t a t i o n quite runs c o u n t e r to the

In Relation

to the Thesis

385

Proper

M a r k a n J e s u s w h o apparently delights in the oblique and the allusive and in 'dark s a y i n g s ' that w e r e anything but immediately obvious. Given the sheer evocative p o w e r inherent in the M a r k a n I N E pattern, the argument from lack of specificity is not only weak but is also out of character with the Markan Jesus. T h i s is n o t to s a y that M a r k ' s J e s u s s a w h i m s e l f as the 'Suffering Servant' o f m o d e r n invention, but on the other h a n d one should not rule o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y that in m e d i t a t i n g

o n the h o p e s o f t h e I N E h e

interpreted Y a h w e h ' s faithful 'servant' as integral to effecting the I N E — parts of Tg.

Isaiah

4 2 and 5 3 are linked w i t h the M e s s i a h and

these

traditions m a y well go b a c k to J e s u s ' day. Having so identified himself, it is not impossible that, p e r h a p s also under the influence o f a n e w exegesis of Daniel 7 (whereby the one like a son of m a n characterises Israel not only in her vindication but also in her suffering, cf. D n 3 and 6 ) , he thereby also b r o k e n e w g r o u n d in deriving primarily from Isaiah 5 3 the necessity o f o w n his suffering and death for the m a n y — w h i c h after all is the natural implication of his d r a w i n g his language primarily from this text. And this irrespective o f c o n t e m p o r a r y interpretations—Mark's J e s u s is hardly o n e w h o g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f b e i n g b e h o l d e n to t r a d i t i o n a l e x e g e s i s whether o f Daniel or Isaiah. W h a t the early c h u r c h (or e v e n M a r k ) did with this, and w h e t h e r or not they fully appreciated its implications, is a separate issue and cannot b e entered into here in any detail.

H o w e v e r , w e m a y at least c a n v a s the

question: if J e s u s did c o n c e i v e o f his death in this w a y , w h y w a s it not taken up earlier and m o r e clearly in the p r i m i t i v e c h u r c h ?

First, the

M a r k a n J e s u s ' sayings, and not only on this subject, are characteristically highly allusive and hardly immediately obvious.

A n y reservations as to

messianic suffering, and especially if no concept of an individual Isaianic 'servant' w a s current, would only have m a d e the easy interpretation of the passion predictions, et al, along such lines intrinsically unlikely.

Second,

the disciples in M a r k are regularly portrayed as failing to c o m p r e h e n d the m a n n e r in w h i c h J e s u s transforms O T h o p e s e v e n as h e fulfils t h e m . Irrespective o f the question of any polemical intent, this m a y b e evidence of a genuine bewilderment, not only a m o n g the disciples but the people at large ( M k 8:27-28).

It is not unrealistic to allow s o m e time for a fuller

386

Conclusions

appreciation o f these allusions to d e v e l o p .

18

Third, there is little evidence

to suggest that the c o n c e p t o f the ' s e r v a n t ' o f Isaiah as an

independent

eschatological or redemptive figure existed in Judaism—although as noted earlier parts o f these ' s o n g s ' appear to h a v e been interpreted messianically. E v e n if the disciples had m a d e the c o n n e c t i o n earlier, w h a t profit w a s there for p r i m i t i v e Christians to offer a " r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h ' s e r v a n t ' suffering" apologetic based on texts that w e r e not popularly so understood, let alone as requiring fulfilment? (It is significant that it is Justin Martyr, a Gentile and w h o therefore m a y b e less sensitive to this situation, w h o first clearly seeks to use Isaiah 53 in an apologetic sense.) This of course does not deal with catechetical or paraenetic materials (if w e can m a k e such a distinction). But h o w m u c h catechesis do w e have, in terms o f the life o f Jesus, outside the Gospels? In regard to w h a t w e might describe as p a r a e n e t i c writings, M . D . H o o k e r h a s a r g u e d that the only references to Isaiah 5 3 in primitive materials are concerned with 19

Christi.

imitatio

H o w e v e r , this argument cuts both w a y s . If an author's purpose

is to encourage Christians to stand firm in the face o f suffering, it is hardly surprising that they should s p e a k only o f the e x e m p l a r y m o d e l o f J e s u s w i t h o u t feeling the necessity to e x p o u n d on the ' p r o p h e t i c ' necessity or significance o f J e s u s ' death.

B u t e v e n so 1 P e t e r s u g g e s t s b y its v e r y

casualness that such an idea m a y not h a v e b e e n far a w a y (cf. Barn.

5:lf;

5:13 - 6:2). This is significant. W h a t e v e r else w e might say it is crucial not to gloss o v e r the entirely unaffected m a n n e r in w h i c h 1 P e t e r 2:22ff so easily articulates the 'full identification o f Jesus with the Servant in all its Christological s i g n i f i c a n c e ' .

20

It might b e the 'earliest definite p r o o f ' ,

21

but

the fact that it appears almost as an afterthought strongly suggests that not o n l y w a s t h e n o t i o n not n o v e l , it c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y b e a s s u m e d to b e c o m m o n c u r r e n c y at least a m o n g the intended audience o f the E p i s t l e .

22

W h a t m i g h t b e m o r e fruitful, and w h a t o f course cannot b e carried out

1 8

H o o k e r , Servant, 154ff, p r o p o s e s a s i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e b a s i s o f later reflection o n Jesus' ministry, but d o e s n o t allow that Jesus himself o r the primitive c h u r c h h a d m a d e the connection. 1 9

2 0

Ibid., 130ff; c i t i n g e.g. 1 Clem 16:1-7; Pol. Phil. 8:1-2; e t c .

T o u s e t h e w o r d s o f H o o k e r , ibid., 1 2 7 . Ibid. If t h e r e is s o m e t r u t h t o t h e link b e t w e e n M a r k a n d P e t e r , t h e n t h e f a c t t h a t it is 1 P e t e r w h o h a s this C h r i s t o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g m a y s u g g e s t t h a t M a r k ' s u s e o f I s a 5 3 w a s i n d e e d u n d e r s t o o d in this w a y . 2 1

2 2

Implications

and Suggestions

for Further

387

Research

here, is an analysis o f those passages where O T texts are cited to explain the n e c e s s i t y and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f J e s u s ' death, not in early a p o l o g e t i c or kerygmatic contexts since p r e s u m a b l y the J e w i s h context and theological milieu of the primitive church w o u l d have meant that an appeal to Isaiah 53 m a y not h a v e been terribly meaningful, but instead in catechesis.

IV. Implications and Suggestions for Further Research In c o n c l u s i o n , w e offer

s o m e v e r y b r i e f c o m m e n t s on t h e

possible

implications o f this study for further research. 1. A n I N E r e a d i n g p r o v e n a n c e for M a r k .

may provide additional

s u p p o r t for a R o m a n

O n e o f the major issues of R o m a n s appears to b e

national I s r a e l ' s rejection o f the fulfilment o f G o d ' s p r o m i s e s in J e s u s ( R o m 9-11): just h o w trustworthy is this gospel if the very people w h o s e history and covenant it fulfils reject i t ?

23

At the m o m e n t w h e n Paul turns

to face the issue squarely he draws on E x o d u s / n e w Exodus imagery (9:14ff, 24ff; 1 0 : 1 5 , 1 6 , 2 0 , 21; 1 1 : 3 4 ) . polemics

24

O n e also notes echoes o f Isaianic anti-wisdom

(e.g. 9:20, 3 3 ; 11:34; cf. Isa 29:16; 45:9; 4 0 : 1 3 ) .

25

In other w o r d s ,

P a u l ' s gospel o f 'faith in J e s u s ' is indeed the fulfilment of Israel's h o p e s , and yet, apart from a remnant, Israel has rejected it, choosing her own path instead. M a r k m a y b e addressing the s a m e problem. H e too presents Jesus and his s u m m o n s to b e l i e v e in terms of Israel's N e w E x o d u s hopes.

At

the s a m e time, h e also asserts that the reason for J e s u s ' rejection was the 'blindness' o f the nation's leadership to G o d ' s purposes, arguing that this too is in ' a c c o r d a n c e with the Scriptures'.

That the J e w i s h people b y and

large join in that rejection is not to b e wondered, since even J e s u s ' closest disciples did not understand. These similarities suggest that M a r k ' s Gospel (and p e r h a p s his a c c o u n t o f P e t e r ' s p r e a c h i n g w h i l e in R o m e if the tradition h o l d s true) a l s o a d d r e s s e s a s i m i l a r c o n c e r n , a n d perhaps, has in view a similar constituency.

therefore

H o w e v e r , since this issue in

all likelihood c o n c e r n e d the c h u r c h at large and not merely R o m e , s o m e care should b e taken.

23 W r i g h t , Messiah, 2 2 0 ; D u n n , Romans, 2.518ff. H a y s , Echoes, 66f. E v a n s , ' P a u l ' ; M a i l l o t , 'Essai'; cf. C h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7. 2 4

2 5

388

Conclusions

2. A s w e h a v e primarily restricted ourselves to Isaianic texts, there is r o o m for further research to e x a m i n e this proposal b y investigating the consilience o f M a r k ' s use o f other O T motifs and texts with the I N E theory. For e x a m p l e , in earlier w o r k s the role o f Zechariah w a s considered to b e important;

i f s o , w h a t m i g h t a p p e a l s to Z e c h a r i a h c o n t r i b u t e to this

approach? O r the Psalms? 3. In t e r m s o f C h r i s t o l o g y , g i v e n , for e x a m p l e , M a r k ' s

apparent

application o f the Y a h w e h - W a r r i o r motif to Jesus and his use o f Isaiah and M a l a c h i in his o p e n i n g sentence—both o f w h i c h s e e m to deal with the v e r y c o m i n g o f Y a h w e h himself—an interesting line o f e n d e a v o u r

might

b e to assess w h e t h e r or not a high Christology is already in place, perhaps even presupposed, at this early stage. 4. T h e focus o f this study has b e e n with M a r k as it presently stands. If an I N E hermeneutic h a s been convincingly argued, a further project could b e to seek to d i s c o v e r h o w m u c h o f this p e r s p e c t i v e g o e s b a c k to J e s u s himself.

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Biblical Interpretation and Christian Ethics (New Studies in Christian Ethics)

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

EXODUS

Exodus

Exodus

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Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

Exodus

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Exodus

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Isaiah's New Exodus in Mark (Biblical Studies Library)