Information and Frontiers: Roman Foreign Relations in Late Antiquity

The Roman empire of classical antiquity was a great power without any serious rivals. By contrast, the Roman empire of late antiquity faced another great power to the east, as well as increasingly troublesome barbarian tribes to the north. The ability of the empire to cope with these changed circumstances was affected in part by its access to reliable information and intelligence about these neighbours. This book offers the first systematic investigation of this dimension of late Roman foreign relations. Adopting a comparative framework, it examines the theme of information in Roman relations with Sasanian Persia to the east and with a variety of northern peoples - Goths, Franks, Huns, and others. It aims to assess how well-informed the empire was about these peoples, and to account for differences in the availability of information between east and north. This involves consideration of institutional features of the empire and levels of organisational complexity among these neighbours, as well as variations in the socio-cultural character of the relevant frontier regions and their effect on the interchange of people and information. As a result, the book deals with a wide range of subjects beyond the traditional confines of military/diplomatic history, from geographical and ethnographical knowledge and assumptions, to levels of urbanisation and the role of religious and economic factors, and thereby helps to place late Roman foreign relations in a much broader context.

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

INFORMATION AND FRONTIERS

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Cambridge Books Online © Cambridge University Press, 2009

INFORMATION AND FRONTIERS ROMAN FOREIGN RELATIONS IN LATE ANTIQUITY

A. D. LEE

S CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 IRP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Victoria 3166, Australia www. Cambridge. org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521392563 © Cambridge University Press 1993 First published 1993 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress cataloguing in publication data

Lee, A. D. Information and frontiers: Roman foreign relations in late antiquity / A. D. Lee. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN o 521 39256 x

1. Rome - Foreign relations - 284-620. 1. Title. DG312.144 1993 92-34199 CIP ISBN-13 978-0-521-39256-3 hardback ISBN-10 0-521-39256-X hardback

Transferred to digital printing 2005

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To my parents

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CONTENTS

Preface Chronological list of selected Roman emperors (early third to early seventh century) Chronological list of Sasanian kings (220S-628) Maps List of abbreviations Introduction Scope and aims Previous work Sources

page xi xiii xv xvi xx 1 1 4 5

PART i: CONTEXTS

1

The protagonists Sasanian Persia The empire's northern neighbours Roman resources for foreign relations

15 15 25 32

2

At the interface: the frontier regions The east The north

49 49 66

IX

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CONTENTS PART III INFORMATION AND UNCERTAINTY

3 Background knowledge and assumptions Geographical knowledge The role of environmental parameters Ethnographic knowledge

81 81 90 101

4

106 109 128 139

Strategic intelligence Strategic intelligence in relations with Persia Strategic intelligence in relations with northern peoples Conclusion Appendix: Chronological catalogue of Roman-Persian invasions (230-628)

143

PART in: SOURCES OF INFORMATION

5

6

Diffusion of information Information diffusion in pre-industrial societies and in late antiquity Informal channels

147 149 161

Information-gathering Embassies Spies Conclusion

166 166 170 182

Select bibliography

185

Index of sources

193

General index

200

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PREFACE

THE preface is traditionally the place where one offers a justification for the writing of a book. In this case, however, the question was not whether the subject was one worth writing about, but rather whether it was feasible, given the limitations of the available sources. The role of information in Roman foreign relations during late antiquity is a field of enquiry whose importance should be self-evident, yet, perhaps because of the apparent dearth of relevant material, it has not previously been investigated in a systematic manner. I hope to have shown that greater progress can be made than might otherwise have been thought possible, even if many pertinent questions have had to be left without satisfactory answers. It will be readily apparent from the footnotes how much this book owes to the labours of numerous late Roman and early Byzantine scholars, especially in recent decades and in the elucidation of the literary sources. I have endeavoured to acquaint myself with as much of the relevant modern literature as possible, but in so vast a field I am bound to have overlooked items; some publications have appeared too late for me to use, notably the volume on Byzantine Diplomacy edited by Simon Franklin and Jonathon Shepard which includes a number of papers dealing with late antiquity. Various debts for help with specific problems are acknowledged at the appropriate points in the body of the study, but it is a pleasure to be able at last to thank here a number of people who have played particularly important parts in bringing this project to completion. Rosamond McKitterick has given sane advice and consistent encouragement throughout, and John Matthews cheerfully allowed himself to become a regular point of reference, especially on eastern matters. Earlier versions of the whole or parts have also benefited greatly from the constructive criticism of Averil Cameron, Peter Garnsey, Keith Hopkins and Jonathon Shepard. Larry Epstein and Jonathon Shepard kindly agreed to read the final typescript, and their detailed comments have been xi

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Xll

PREFACE

of inestimable value. Finally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to Robert Browning for his interest in and support of my work. Two institutions have given generous financial assistance without which this research could not have been undertaken - the Association of Commonwealth Universities, through the award of a Commonwealth Overseas Scholarship, and Trinity College, Cambridge, through electing me to a Research Fellowship. I am very grateful to both bodies. Access to the resources of the University Library, Cambridge, has been of fundamental importance, and I would especially like to thank the staff in the Reading Room and the West Room for their ever-courteous help. The faculty libraries in Classics, History, and Oriental Studies have provided valuable supplementary services. On a more personal note, I am especially grateful to my wife Anna for her patient support and loving encouragement, particularly during the past eighteen months. I would also like to thank my aunt Ruth for her lively interest and help in my academic endeavours over the years. Finally, this book is dedicated to my parents - one small way of saying thank you for so much.

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CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SELECTED ROMAN EMPERORS (EARLY THIRD TO EARLY SEVENTH CENTURY AD)

For purposes of orientation, this list presents the chronological details of emperors mentioned in this study; the frequent overlapping of dates is due to the common late Roman practice of having co-emperors. Severus Alexander (222-3 5) Maximinus Thrax (235-8) GordianUI (238-44) Aemilianus (253) Valerian (253-60) Gallienus (253-68) Aurelian (270-5) Probus (276-82) Cams (282-3) Diocletian (284-305) Galerius (305-11) Constantine (306-37) Constantius II (337-61) Constans (337-50) Julian (361-3) Valentinian I (364-75) Valens (364-78) Gratian (375-83) Theodosius I (379-95) Arcadius (395-408) Honorius (395—423) Theodosius II (408-50) Valentinian III (425-55) Marcian (450—7) Leo I (457-74) xm

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XIV

ROMAN EMPERORS

Zeno (474-91) Anastasius (491-518) Justin I (518-27) Justinian (527-65) Justin II (565-78) Tiberius II (578-82) Maurice (582-602) Phocas (602-10) Heraclius (610-41)

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CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF SASANIAN KINGS (220S-628)

Ardashir I (226?-24i?) Shapur I (241-272?) Hormizd Ardashir (272-3) Vahram I (273-6) Vahram II (276-93) Vahram III (293) Narseh (293-302) Hormizd II (302-9) Shapur II (309-79) Ardashir II (379-83) Shapur III (383-8) Vahram IV (388-99) Yazdgerd I (399-420) Vahram V (420-39) Yazdgerd II (439-57) Hormizd III (457-9) Peroz (459-84) Valash (484-8) Kavad (488-531) Zamasp (496-8) Khusro I (531-79) Hormizd IV (579-90) Vahram Chobin (590-1) Khusro II (590-628)

xv

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BLACK

SEA

^Constantinople" Ancyra A N ATOLi A Caesarea

INDIAN OCEAN

Map 1 The Middle East in late antiquity

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6 100 miles Land over 1000 metres CAPPADOCIA

Antioch

Hierapohs^ tn

SYRIAN DESERT

Map 2 Northern Mesopotamia and adjacent regions

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Vindobona"^ (Vienna)

Carnuntum

300km 200milf

Hatvan Brigetio Aquincumf '" H j -pest> J •^ *(CamponaJ

Land over 1000 metres

MOLDAVIA

[Intercisa Novioduhum •Pietroasa Mursa Sirmium

f

Singidunum (Belgrade)

ZTomi

VViminacium srgum^ Margum ^IVIai

•X Iron Gates

I 2 5 Caucasus, 23, 41, 50n, 76, 95, n o , 116, 124, 127, 177 Celer (magister offkiorum), 43

Celerius (general), 92 Celts, 68-70 Censorius (envoy), 46 Cepha, 53 Cernjachov culture, see Sintana de Mures,/Cernjachov culture Chamavi, 27, 67n Charietto (general), 137 China, 29, 61, 62 Christianity, Christians in Armenia, 50 Chalcedonian, 58 Monophysite, 59, 115 Nestorian, 58, 83 among northern peoples, 28, 74-6 in Persia, 51-2, 5 m, 56-60, iO3n, 157: interaction with Roman Christians, 56-60, iO3n; monasticism, 56; persecution of, 58, 60, 158, i69n theological schools, 58-9 Circesium, 53, 94, 95, n 8 n circulation of information, see information, diffusion of cities, see settlement density; settlement size Clematius (agens in rebus), 172-3 climate, as constraint on campaigning, 90-6, 100 coinage absence of indigenous among northern peoples, 28 Persian, 17 Roman, in barbaricum, 72—3 Comentiolus (brother of Phocas), 124 Comentiolus (general), I27n, 132, 138, 14m comes commerciorum, 63-4 comes domesticorum, 77 comes formarum, 85n comes sacrarum largitionum, 42-3 consistory, 3, 40, 43 Constans (emperor, 337-50), 122, 152 Constantianus (envoy), 45n, 46 Constantina, 53, 126, 164 Constantine (emperor, 306-37), 23, 34, 70, 100, 122 letter to Shapur II, 37 planned Persian campaign, 113, 119, 148 and Sarmatians, 137, 181 Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (emperor, 913-59), 8, 167 Constantinople, 36, 37, 38, 57n, 59, 107, 171 as administrative centre, 3 5 foreign envoys in, 41, 102, i n , 167, 168-9 foundation as indication of strategic priorities, 3 as Persian objective, 23 Persian-Avar siege, 31, 124 plague, 122-3 university, 85

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GENERAL INDEX Constantius II (emperor, 337—61), 7511, 95, 122 and Alamanni, 131, 152 and Persia: attempt to forestall Persian aggression, 106-7; battle of Singara, 126; exchange of letters with Shapur II, 21, 37, 106; siege of Bezabde, 93 religious tensions with brother, 122 and Sarmatians, 98, 106-8, 130, 181-2 and usurper Magnentius, 122, 152 Corduene, 65 Cosmas Indicopleustes (writer), 83 couriers Persian, 16, i63n Roman, i63n, 172 special use by Julian in Gaul, 152 Ctesiphon, 52, 59, 60 as administrative centre, 6, 16 capture by Romans, 25, 93, 93n, 119 court and palace, 47, 148, 176-7 as departure point for Persian expeditions, 152

market, 176—7 Roman envoys in, 167-8 as Roman military objective, 25, 87—9, 114 routes to, from Roman empire, 62, 87-9 size, 18, 157 cursus publicus, see couriers, R o m a n

Cyrus (Achaemenid king), 21 Dacia, 66, 90, 158 Dacia ripensis, 99n Dalmatia, 46 Daniel of Sinope (envoy), 167 Danube river {see also northern frontier), 3, 7, 26 bend, 98, 99, 181 crossed by large numbers when not frozen, 96 crossed by boat, 98-9 crossing-points, 70-1, 96, 99 delta, 98 Iron Gates, 99, 131 physical character in antiquity and possibility of fords, 97—8 propensity to freeze, 95 Roman fleet, 99 spring flooding, 96, 98 Dara, 20, 64n, 164 battle of, 92, 115-16 capture by Persians, 118 as strategic Roman fortress, 23, 53, 95, n o Darius III (Achaemenid king), 21, 22n Dastagerd, 93 decision-making in consistory, 40, difficulties of investigating in late Roman context, 2-3 influence of unspoken assumptions on, 81

203

Demetrius (envoy), 38 Dengizich (Hun ruler), 130-1 deserters, 35n, 65-6 Deutz, ioon, i8on Devil's Dyke, 181 diffusion of information, see information, diffusion of Diocletian (emperor, 284-305), 34, 62, 70, H i , 179 Dionysius (writer), 83-4 diplomacy (see also envoys; Roman-Persian relations; and 'embassies' under individual peoples) as delaying tactic, 106-7, I($4n development of systematic approach by Romans, 40, 47-8, 173 embassies as evidence for informationmovement, 9, 113—14 gifts, 31,41,43, 72-3, 137 letters, 37-8, 113 personnel, 40-8 in preventing war, 113-14, 130-1, 131 protocol, 20, 104, i n , 123, 167-8, 169-70 reports on negotiations, 38-9 scale of diplomatic traffic (east vs. north), 169-70 subsidies, 43, 72-3, 74, i69n treaties by oath, 36-7 treaty documents, 35-7, 39 disinformation, 116—17, H7n Diyala river, 18, 156 documents, see records Dorotheus (general), 116, 147, 172 doruphoroi, 172-3

Dura shield map, 85 dux, duces in east, 53—4 on lower Danube, 107 of Mesopotamia, 165, 178 of Scythia, 75 Dwin, 64-5 Dyrrhachium, 38 eastern frontier (see also Arabs; Armenia; Mesopotamia, northern; Roman-Persian relations), 49-66 character of Roman defences, 54, 124 climatic constraints on timing of invasions, 90-4, 123, 125 cross-frontier traffic, 54-66: Christians, 56-60; clergy, 149; Jews, 60-1; merchants, 61-5; others, 65-6 cultural character, 49—52 frequency of diplomatic traffic, 169-70 invasion routes, 94-5, 113, 114, 125 invasions distinguished from raids, 112, 120-1 level of interaction across, 66, 89, 104

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GENERAL INDEX

easternfrontier(cont.) linguistic situation, 50-1 military dispositions of Romans, 53-4 movement across, 54—6 questioning of travellers, n o , i n , 164-5 stability, 141, 183-4 topography, 94-5 Edessa, 93, n o , I22n arms factory, 53 bishop of, 60 inn on route to, I56n 'School of the Persians', 58 shrines, 57 siege by Persians (544), 123 wealth of merchants, 62—3 education Jewish academies, 60 medical, Roman and Persian, 59 Roman, 83-5 theological, in Roman empire and Persia, 58-9 Egeria (pilgrim), 55 Egypt, 4, 34, 56, 59, 77n, 124 Elisha (Persian catholicos), 59 Elpidius (envoy), 46 embassies, see diplomacy; envoys; RomanPersian relations; and 'embassies' under individual peoples Engers, ioon, i8on envoys (see also diplomacy; Roman-Persian relations; and 'embassies' under individual peoples) clergy as, 46, 60, iO4n controls on movements, 167-8 as information-gatherers, i n , 147, 166-70 physicians as, 45n, 46, 104 Roman: criteria for selection, 44-7; increasing specialisation during late antiquity, 46-7; as observers of other societies, 102, 168 Epigenes (envoy), 45n Eski Hendek, 93 n ethnographic knowledge, Roman examples of impact on foreign relations, 104-5 official interest in, 102, 168 of Persia better than of northern peoples, 103-5 stereotypes and chauvinism, 101 Eugenius (usurper), 133 Eumenius (orator), 84 Euphemius (magister qffidorum), 41

Euphratensis, 156 Euphrates river settlement density on central floodplains 18, 156 as travelling and invasion route, 87-8, 89, 94, 113, 114, 125

Eusebius (envoy), i69n Eusebius (magister qfficiorum), 42

Eustathius (envoy), 45n exploratores, 171-2, i8on

Feddersen Wierde, 160 Fels am Wagram, 181 Fertile Crescent, 50, 89, 154, 158, i83n fire signals, 15on Flogeln, 159-60 fords possibility of on Danube, 97-8 on Rhine, 96-7 forests, beyond northern frontier, 74, 87, 89-90, 90n fortifications on eastern frontier, 23, 53-4, n o , 124, 141 Gothic (absence of), 28n beyond northern frontier, 179-82 on northern frontier, 70, 99, 99n, 100, 181 Persian, 19, 20, 54 'Saxon shore', I38n on strata Diocletiana, $$n, 165

Franks (see also Germanic peoples; northern peoples), 3, 26, 68 knowledge of Roman moves, 133 military organisation, 29 political/administrative organisation, 27-9 raids in 350s, 133 Roman attacks on, 87, 100 in Roman military service, 76, 76n, 77, 100 settlement size, 26-7 socio-economic character, 26—7 Fritigil (Germanic queen), 75 frontiers (see also eastern frontier; northern frontier) cross-frontier traffic: and information diffusion, 10, 147, 150; Roman interest in questioning, 164-5 as regions of interaction, 5, chapter 2 passim and information movement, 5, 139, 152-3 fugitives Armenian, 111 Persian, 25, 65, i69n Roman, 178 Gabinius (Quadian ruler), 138 Galerius (emperor, 305-11), 25, 95, 126, 127 Gallienus (emperor, 253-68), 69, 133 Gaul, 6, 68, 82, 122 Alamannic invasions of, 89, 137-8, 152 settlement density in north, 161 Geiseric (Vandal ruler), 46 geographical knowledge, Roman deficiencies, 82-90 handbooks, 83-4 importance of roads and cities in conceptualisation, 85-7, 89-90

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GENERAL INDEX

205

itineraries, 85-6 maps, 84-6 of northern lands, 87 of Persia, 87-9 George (envoy), 38, 46 Gepids, 67, 98 Germanic peoples (see also Alamanni; Franks; Goths), 3, 26 lack of cities, 89 language, 67n, 69, I72n plurality of kingship, 27, 129 rank in Roman army, 76-7, 100, 131, 137 in Roman military service, 76—8, 130, 131 willingness to campaign in cold, 95 Ghassanids, 53, n 8 n gifts, 31,41,43,72-3, 137 Gordian III (emperor, 238—44), 93, 125 Goths (see also Germanic peoples; northern peoples) attack by Huns, 108, 136 in Balkans, 39, 132, 138 boating ability, 98 conversion to Christianity, 75n crossing of Danube in 376, 98 defeat by Stilicho, 138 embassies, 38, 39, 45n, 46-7 embassy to Khusro I, i n , 164 invasion of 259-60, 121 language, 28, 67n, I72n military organisation, 29 origins, 26 political/administrative organisation, 27-9 in Roman military service, 26, 77n settlement density, 158-60 settlement size, 26-7, 160-1 and Sintana de Mures/Cernjachov culture, 26, 158-60 socio-economic character, 26-7 threat to Danube frontier, 107, 128, 130 (365), 98 (386) trade with Romans, 71, 7 m, 72n Gratian (emperor, 375-83), 77, 132-3 gravity model (social), 150-2 Greek language, 35, 39, 50, 59, 66-7, 85n, i n , 164 Gregory (patriarch of Antioch), 117, 118 Gregory I (pope), 35-6 Greuthungi, 27 guides, Roman use of in northern lands, 87 Gundeshapur, 59 Gunzburg (Guntia), 96

Heraclius (emperor, 610-41), 120, 14m measures to ensure secrecy, 174 overthrow of Phocas, 123-4 Persian campaigns, 93, 124, 125, 127 Heraclius (father of emperor), 92 Hermogenes (magister offidorum), 46, 115 Herodian (historian) on Persian logistics, 19 on Sasanian aims, 21-2 Herodotus (historian), 82n, 101, 103 Hierapolis, 57 Himyarites, 39, 46, 47, 102, 168 Hira, 52, 59 historiography, classicising avoidance of technical terms, 171 characteristics in late antiquity, 6, 37 conventions in digressions, 82, 101-2 on enemy numbers, 120, 128-9 genuine ethnographic information in, 103 Hodde, 160 holy men, diffusion of their reputation, 57, 149, i62n Honorius (emperor, 395-423), 148 Hormizd (brother of Vahram II), 125 Hormizd (4th c. Persian prince), 24, 65, 88 Hormizd IV (Persian king, 579-90), 24, i n , 120, 148 hostages, 67 Hsiung-nu, 29 Huns (see also nomads; northern peoples), 3, 8 ability to exploit Roman handicaps, 133—4 ability at sieges, 31-2 attack on Goths, 29, 108 Caucasian, 116-17 differences from Germanic peoples, 29-31 embassies, 38, 46, 67, 102, 130-1, 169, 178-9 invasions, 66, 96, 133-5 lack of urbanisation, 32 language, 67 military organisation, 31-2 nomadic character, 26 origins, 29 political/administrative organisation, 30-1, 32 prowess as cavalry, 3, 30 in Roman military service, 78 socio-economic character, 30 subject peoples, 29, 30, 135 use of simple boats, 98 Hypatius (envoy), 38

Hadrian's Wall, 179 Hariobaudes (officer), 130, 172—3, 178 Hatra, 51, 52 Hatvan, 181-2

Iberia, 24, 65, 116, 174 Illus (usurper), n o n India, 57, 61, 62, 65, 83n indigenae (army units), 53, 165 information (see also background knowledge; disinformation; strategic intelligence)

Helion (tnagister ojficiorum), 43

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GENERAL INDEX

information (cont) a determinant of political power, i diffusion of: factors influencing, 149-54; about holy men, 57, 149, i62n; through human movement and interaction, 10, 147, 150-3; in late antiquity, 147-9, 152-3; and settlement density, 151, 152; and social gravity model, 150-1; speed, 153, 163 gathering of (see also envoys; spies): through bribery, 177; by direct observation, 168, 174; by indirect methods, 175-6; through outposts in northern lands, 179-82 movement via informal channels, 135, chapter 5 passim 'newsworthiness', 153, 154-5 as reduction of uncertainty, 2, 90 Ingenuus (usurper), 133 intelligence, see information interpreters, 41, 48n, 51, 5m, 66-7, m , 164 invasions, distinguished from raids, 112, 120-1 (east), 128-9 (north) Irbil, 157 Iron Gates, 99, 131 Isaunans, n o , 122 Isdigousnas (Persian envoy), 167 Isho'yahb (Persian bishop), 148-9 Isidore of Charax (writer), 88 Italy, 7, 68, 75, 113, 133, 138 itineraries, 85-6 James Baradeus (Monophysite bishop), 59 Jebel Sinjar, 59, 94 Jerusalem, 56, 57, 60 Jews along Fertile Crescent, 51 motives for travel across eastern frontier, 60-1 in Persia, 18, 19, 51, 56, 60-1, 157 in Roman empire, 51 John (magister qfficiorum), 43

John (son of Rufinus), 47 John of Epiphania (historian), 8-9, 118 John of Telia (Monophysite cleric), 59 John Philoponus (philosopher), 83 Joseph (Persian catholicos), 59 Joshua Stylites, Ps.authorship of Chronicle, n o envoys as source, n o , 115 Jovinus (general), 137-8 Julian (emperor, 361—3) in Alamannia, 133 attempt to establish fort in barbaricum, 180 attitudes to Goths and to Persians, 20 battle of Strasbourg (357), 96, 99n detention of Alamannic envoy, 167, i82n in Gaul, 67n, 130, 131-2, 133, 152, 172, 178 Persian expedition, 25, 92, 94, 119, 137,

157: aims, 24; reasons for failure, 87-8; strategy, 87-8, 113, 125; withdrawal from Ctesiphon, 88-9 relations with Constantius II, 37n, 77 Julian (us) (envoy), 39, 46, 47, 102 Julius Honorius (writer), 83—4 Junius Soranus (officer), 75 Justin I (emperor, 518-27), 46 Justin II (emperor, 565-78), 67n and Persia: threats, 25; invasion (572-3), 95, m ; disregard of information (573), 117 reception of Turk envoys, 102, 168 Justinian (emperor, 527—65), 8, 37, 39, 46, 122, 136, 141 and cursus publicus, i6$n

disbanding of spies?, I74n and fortifications on lower Danube, ioon and Khusro I, 37, 38, 113 and Samaritans, n o , 164 and Visigoths in Spain, 36, 162 welcome of fugitive Persian prince, 25 Juthungi, 27, 67n, 137 Jutland, 160 Kaiserstuhl, 180 Karka de Beth Selok (Kirkuk), 88n, 157 kataskopoi (see also spies), 170-4

Kavad (Persian king, 488—531), 37, 47, 120 negotiation with Samaritan rebels, n o , 164 threatens Romans, n o , i69n war of 502-5, 91, 92, 95, n o , 115, 119 Kavad (Persian prince), 25 Kayanians, 21-2 Khabour river, 94, 94n khagan (Avar ruler), 31, 67n, 131, 132, 138, 104-5 Khusro I (Persian king, 531-79), 35, 37, 47, 49 administrative reforms, 16-17 attempt to dissuade Justin II from war, 113-14 demand to share Vandal booty, i n fears about Roman-Turk alliance, 25 information on Roman success against Vandals and Goths, i n , 168 invasions: of 540, 22, 25, 92, 94, 12m, 141; of 541, 23, 24, 116, 119, 174, 177; of 573, 94, 94n, 141, 152; of 576, 117-18, 119, 123 irrigation projects, 18 military reforms, 19 news of death, received by Romans, i n , 148, 155 and peace of 532, i n , 113 Persarmenian revolt against, m , 119 preference for Roman physicians, 5On, 59, 104 prohibition on kings campaigning, 120-1 siege of Edessa (544), 123

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GENERAL INDEX Khusro II (Persian king, 590-628), 37, 38 campaigns in early 7th c , 22, 123-4 flight and restoration, 92, 114, 138-9 reaction to Heraclius' invasion (627), 93-4, 125 Khuzistan, i8n Kirkuk, see Karka de Beth Selok Kotrigur Huns, 98, 136 Laguatan, 4 Lakhmids, 52 languages Alamannic, 130, 173 Aramaic, 50-1 Armenian, 50 Avar, 67 Celtic, 68-70 Gepid, 67 Germanic, 67n, 69, I72n Gothic, I72n Greek, 35, 39, 50, 59, 66—7, 85n, i n , 164 Hunnic, 67 Latin, 28, 66, 67n, 68, 8sn Persian, 35, 57n Syriac, 50, 67-8, 111, 154, 164, 165 Lazica, 23-4, 78n, 116-17, 119, 174 Lebanon, 91, 105 legions, 53 (/ Parthica Nisibena, II Parthica)

Leo (emperor, 457~74), 65 Leo (envoy), U5n limes Sarmatiae, 181-2

Limigantes, 130, 182 limitanei, 41, 53 literacy among Germanic peoples, 28 among Huns, 30-1 and information diffusion, 150 among northern peoples, 36-7, 150 logistical organisation Avars, 32 Germanic peoples, 29 among northern peoples, 29, 31-2, 128 Persian, 19—20 Roman, 32-3 slowness of Roman and Persian preparations, 29, 32 water supplies, 94, 100 magister tnititum, 76, 120, 129, 132, 137 in Armenia, 54 in the east, 115, 164 magister qffidorum, 36n, 47, 137, I74n criteria for appointment, 42—3 interpreters under, 41, 67 involvement in foreign relations, 41-2, 47 period in office, 43—4 responsibilities, 41—2 Magnentius (usurper), 122, 136, 152

207

Mai'acarire, 118 Malchus (hermit), 54-5, 165 Mallobaudes (Frankish ruler), 77 Manichaeism, 59 Mannheim-Necherau, ioon, i8on maps (see also geographical knowledge; Peutinger Table), 84-6 Mar Aba (Persian catholicos), 59 Mar Job (Persian saint), 64 Mar Makika (Persian cleric), 56 Mar Pethion (Persian martyr), 158 Marcellinus (usurper), 46 Marcian (emperor, 450-7), 41, 78n, i69n Marcomanni, 27n, 7 m, 75 markets around Antioch, 155 at Artaxata, 62, 64 at Batnae, 62 at Callinicum, 62 at Ctesiphon, 176-7 as disseminators of information, 175-7 at Dwin, 64—5 as focus for information-gathering, 175—7 Hun request for, 71 n at Nisibis, 62-4 Martialis (magister qfficiorum), 41

Martyropolis, 57, 93, 95, 123, 149 Marutha (bishop), 46, i69n Maurice (emperor, 582—602), 8, 36 as a general, 92, 125, 126, 152, 178 restoration of Khusro II, 114 revolt against, 9, 100 see also Strategikon

Maximinus Thrax (emperor, 235—8), 71, 121 Melitene, 53 Menander Protector sources, 8, 112 strengths and limitations as historian, 8 merchants, 28, 57, 67, 75n in the east, 61—5 as informal channels for information, 162-3 prejudice against, 163 reliability of information, 162-3 Mermeroes (Persian general), 177 Mesopotamia, northern (Beth Arabaye), 10, 124, 125 absence of continuous lines of fortifications, 54 climatic regime, 90-4 Roman army in, 53-4 settlement density, 155-6 strategic importance in Roman-Persian relations, 22, 25, 49-50 topography, 94-5 trade through, 62 as travelling and invasion route, 87-8, 94—5, 113, 114 Miles (Persian bishop), 56

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GENERAL INDEX

military organisation Germanic peoples, 29 Huns and Avars, 31-2 Persian, 18-20 Roman, 32-3 military treatises Persian, icjn Roman, 10, 175 see also Strategikon

missionaries lack of among northern peoples, 75-6 Manichaean, 59 Monophysite, 59 Moesia, 75n, 138 Moldavia, 28n, 158-60 Monocarton, 123 Monophysites, 59, 115 mons FHms, 180

Mosul, 91, 95 Mundhir (Arab ruler), 46, 125, I25n Mursa, 152 Musonianus, see Strategius Musonianus Nabataeans, 51, 52 Naqsh-i Rustam, 22 Narseh (Persian king, 293-302), 17, 23, 126 Narses (general), 123, 14m Nestorians, 58, 83 news, see information; rumour Newton, Isaac, 151 Nicaea, council of (325), 60 Nicomedia, 82n Nineveh, 93, 148 Nischava river, 96 Nisibis, 59 bishop of, 117-18 capture by Persians (238), 121 as Persian fortress, 20, 54n, 118 reception-point for Roman envoys to Persia, 88n, 167 as Roman fortress, 53 siege and relief of (573), 94n, i n , 117 sieges by Shapur II (three), 122 strategic location, 95 surrender to Persians (363), 53, 58 as trading centre, 62-3 Nobades, 4, 36n nomads (see also Avars; Huns) Arab, 51 demography, i29n and Germanic peoples, 29-32 military organisation, 31-2 and political centralisation, 30 and problems of state-formation, 30 socio-economic character, 30 and urbanisation, 30-2, 161 Nomus (envoy), 38 Nonnosus (envoy), 39, 47, 102, 105, 168

Noricum, 75n, 133 northern frontier (see also Danube river; Rhine river), 66-77 breached during 3rd c , 133-4 climatic regime, 95-6 cross-frontier traffic: Christians, 74-6; merchants, 67, 71-4; service in Roman army, 76-8 cultural character, 66—70 ease of movement across, 70-1 frequency of diplomatic traffic, 169-70 frozenriversprovide easy crossing, 95 instability, 141-2, 183-4 invasions: distinguished from raids, 128—9; routes, 96-9; in 6th c. and early 7th c , 136; timing, 95-6 linguistic situation, 66-70 motives for movement across, 71-8 Roman defences, 70, 181 Roman outposts beyond, 179-82 scope for spies beyond, 178-9 northern Mesopotamia, see Mesopotamia, northern northern peoples (see also Alamanni; Avars; Franks; Germanic peoples; Goths; Huns; nomads; Quadi; Sarmatians) conversion to Christianity, 74-5 demography, 128—9, I3^ invasions: logistical constraints, 128; role of information in success of, 142; weaknesses of'domino' model, 135-6 settled in Roman empire, 67-8, 77-8 notarii, see secretaries, Roman Novae, 99 Nymphius (Batman) river, 126 Olympiodorus (historian), 102 organisational complexity advantages and disadvantages of, 29, 32 among northern peoples, 3, 27-9, 30-2, 33 Roman and Persian, 3, 15-20, 32-3 Osrhoene, 51, 52 outposts, beyond northern frontier, 179-82 Palestine, 51, 56, 60, n o , 115, 124, 141, 156 Palmyra, 51, 52, 62 Pannonia, 138, 152 Quadi invasion of (374), 133 settlement density, 161 as source of slaves, 71 Parthians (Arsacids), 21, 23, 52, 139 bureacracy, 17 irrigation schemes, 16 logistical organisation, 19 no campaigning in winter, 93 overthrow not anticipated by Romans, 108, io8n overthrown by Sasanians, 3, 15, 108

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GENERAL I N D E X settlement density, 156 weak centralisation, 18 Passion ofSt Saba, ion, 75, 128 Patricius (general), 92 Paulinus (magister qfficiorum), 42

Pelagius (envoy), 46 Peroz (Persian king, 459—84), 47, i69n Persarmenia, see Armenia, Persian Persia (see also Roman-Persian relations; Sasanians; Zoroastrianism) agricultural production, 157 aims towards Roman empire, 21-5 army: ability to build bridges, 96; arsenal, chief of, 17; campaign preparations as signal of intentions, 32, 112-18, 168; difficulties campaigning in cold, 91-3; logistics, 19—20; organisation, 18—19; periods when king not in personal command, 120-1 centralising bureaucracy, evolution of, 15-18 Christianity in, 51-2, 56-60, 158 cities, 17-18, 89, 156-7 embassies, see Roman—Persian relations enemies on other frontiers, 106, n o , 125, I72n fortifications, 19, 20 infrastructure of roads, 89—90, 158 irrigation schemes, 16, 18, 87, 157 languages, 35, 50-1, 57n minting, royal control of, 17 negotiations, n o (Samaritans), i n (Goths) nobility, 15—19, 177 organisational complexity, 3, 15—20 population growth, 157 Royal Road, 88, 158 scribes, 17, 177 spies, 170, I77n threat to late Roman empire, 3, 20, 32 trade: with Far East and Russia, 61; with Romans, 61-2; royal encouragement of, 61 Persian Gulf, 83 Persis (Persian province), 15 Peter (general), 131 Peter the Patrician (as envoy/magister officiorum), 36n, 39, 42, 43—4, 45, 46, 167 Peutinger Table, 4n, 85-6, 90 Philippicus (general), 118, 123, 126 Phlegetius (magister qfficiorum), 43

Phocas (emperor, 602-10), 9, 123—4, 14m Phylarchus (envoy), 46 physicians, 45n, 46, 59, 104 pilgrims Christian, 55: from Persia, 56-7, 57n, 149; small numbers from north, 74—5, 75—6 as informal channels for information, 162 Jewish, 60-1

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plague 5th c , 133 6th c , 122-3, 125 settlement density and spread of, 151 Postumus (usurper), 133 Priscus (general), 9, 131, 132 Priscus of Panium as historian, 8 participation in embassy to Attila, 8, 39, 71, 87, 102, 168, 178—9 prisoners northern, 67 ransom of, 72—3 Roman: among Avars, 96; among Huns, 31, 96; among northern peoples, 28, 67, 75; in Persia, 17, 25, 51, 12m, 125 Probus (senator), 138 Procopius (usurper), 87, 107, 137, 168, 171, 174 Procopius of Caesarea attitude to Belisarius, 7, 105, 116, 173 career, 7, 116, ii7n as historian: description of Slavs, 103; relative neglect of Danube frontier, 128; Secret History, 7, ii7n, i63n, I74n; sources, 7, i n , 116, ii7n ; on spies, 170, 173; strengths and limitations, 7 mission to Syracuse, 162, 172 protector domesticus, 6, j6n, 172

Quadi, 33, 70 invasion of 374, 96, 138 resistance to Roman attempts to build fort, 180 Rabban Haia (Persian cleric), 56 Radagaisus (barbarian leader), 138 Raetia, 99, 133, 137 raids, distinguished from invasions, 112, 120-1 (east), 128-9 (north) Reccared (Visigothic ruler), 35-6 records daybooks, 37 diplomatic, 5, 33-40: letters, 37-8; preservation of, 36-9; reports of negotiations, 38-9; treaties, 35-7 intelligence reports, 5-6, 107 military, 35n, 178 Persian, 23n, 177 see also literacy; secretaries Red Sea, 62 Res Gestae Divi Saporis, see Shapur I, trilingual

inscription Rhesaena, 92 Rhine river (see also northern frontier), 3, 26 crossed by large numbers when not frozen, 96 crossing-points, 70-1, 96-7

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GENERAL INDEX

Rhineriver(cont.) fords, 96-7 modern changes in physical character, 97 physical character in antiquity, 97 propensity to freeze, 95, 97 Roman fleet, 99 Riwardashir, 64 roads, importance of in Roman conceptualisation of landscape, 86-7, 89-90 Roman—Alamannic relations, see Alamanni, embassies, gifts, etc. Roman-Arab relations, see Arabs, embassies, raids, etc. Roman-Avar relations, see Avars, embassies, invasions, etc. Roman—Goth relations, see Goths, embassies, trade, etc. Roman—Hun relations, see Huns, embassies, invasions, etc. Roman—Persian relations commercial agreements, 62-3, 64, i69n diplomatic protocol, 20, 25, 104, i n , 123, 148, 167—8, 169—70 embassies, 45n, 46-7, 65, 106-7, II0 > IIl> 113-14, 115, 148, 168-9, 178 envoys: Christians/clergy as, 46, 60, iO4n; physicians, 104 exchanges of letters, 37, 113 during 5th c , 8, i69n during 590s, 137-8 frequency of diplomatic traffic, 169-70 impact of strategic intelligence on, 139-41 issues: defence of Caucasus, 109-10; northern Mesopotamia, 22, 25; Vandal booty, i n mutual respect, 20, 25, 103-4, 170 mutual suspicion, 20, 23-5, 140-1 negotiations, 111-12 (582), 38 (590s) peace: initiative (mid-350s), 106-7; of 298/9, 36n, 62; of 363, 36, 58; of 422 and 441, i69n; of 505, 36n; of 532, 36n, i n , 113; of 561/2, 24, 35, 39, 62-3, 64, 103 restoration of Khusro II, 9, 92, 95, 138-9 role of Arab allies, 52—3 stability of, 141, 169, 183-4 strategic importance of northern Mesopotamia in, 22, 25, 49—50 strategic intelligence in, 106-28, 139—42 territorial ambitions, 21-5, 140-1 warfare (see also Julian, Persian expedition): in 230s, 121, 125; in 240s, 93; in 250s, 94; in 280s, 125; in 290s, 95, 126, I27n; Constantine's planned invasion, 113, 119, 148; during reign of Constantius II, 91-2, 95, 122, 126, 147, 168, 172; in 370s, 92, 126; in 5th c , 64, 95, 122, 125, 133; of

502-5, 91, 92-3, 95, n o , 115, 119; in 520s, 92, 126; in 530s, 92, 93, 94, 95, 115-16, 119, 125, 147—8, 172; in 540s, 92, 94, 95, 105, 113, 116, 122, 123, 141, 174; in 570s, 94, 95, 123, 125, 126, I27n, 141, 152; in 580s, 92, 94, 95, 118, 119, 123, 126, I27n, 152; in early 7th c , 93—4, 95, 123-4, 127, 141, 174 Roman-Sarmatian relations, see Sarmatians Roman-Turk relations, see Turks Roman-Visigothic relations, see Visigoths Romania, 158-9 Rome, 36 Royal Road, Persian, 88, 158 Rufinus (envoy), 46-7, 115 rumour and gossip, 106, 117, 153, 154, 171, 174 Ruse, 97n, 99 Saba (Gothic martyr), 75 Sabinianus (general), 108 Sabirs, 123 Salih, 53 Salii, 27 Samaritans, n o , 164 Sandlich (Hun ruler), 37, 67n Sansalas (Gothic cleric), 75 Sarmatians, 70 absence of cities, 89 invasions, 98, 137, 138 and the limes Sarmatiae, 181-2

Roman outpost on territory, 181-2 as source of slaves, 71 threat to Danube frontier (358), 106-8, 118-19, 130,181-2

use of boats, 98 'wasteland', 90 Sasanians (see also Persia; Roman-Persian relations) ignorance of Achaemenids, 21-2 origins in Persis, 15 overthrow of Parthians, 3, 15, 108 Satala, 53, n 6 n Savariver,96 Saverne, 96 Saxons, 69, I38n Scandinavia, 26 scouts, 171-2, I79n, 180 scutarius, 77, 132, 135, 162, 182 Scythia, 75, 99n Scythopolis, 84 Sebokhth (Persian envoy), 113-14 secretaries (see also Persia, scribes) Roman (notarii), 34, 39-40, 177—8 use by Huns, 31 Septimius Severus (emperor, 193-211), 25, 93, 93n Sergius (envoy), 45n, 46

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GENERAL I N D E X settlement density in Anatolia, 124 in Armenia, 156 and information diffusion, 151, 152 beyond northern frontier, 158—61 in northern Mesopotamia, 155-6 in northern Roman provinces, 161 in Persia, 18, 156-8 and spread of disease, 151 in Syria, 155 settlement size Anbar, 157 Antioch, 155 Ctesiphon, 18, 157 among Germanic peoples, 26-7, 159-61 in northern lands, 159—60 (west), 160-1 (east) in Persia, 18, 27, I56n, 160 and population size, 159 Severus Alexander (emperor, 222-35), 88, 125 Shapur I (Persian king, 241-72?), 22, 125 campaigns, 23, 121, 12m court, 17 foundation of cities, 18 trilingual inscription, 16-17, 22n, 50, I22n Shapur II (Persian king, 309-79), 22 attempt to forestall Julian's expedition, 113 campaigns, 6, 91-2, 94, 106, 122, 147 court, 17 exchange of letters with Constantius II, 21, 37 foundation of cities, 18 territorial demands, 21, 106 siege-warfare Germanic peoples, 29, 137 Huns and Avars, 31-2 Persians, 20 Silvanus (envoy), 47 Silvanus (general), 77 Simeon (Monophysite bishop), 59 Simeon Stylites (ascetic), 57, 149 Sinai, 56 Singara, 126 Sintana de Mures/Cernjachov culture, 26, 28n, 158-60 Sirmium, 66, 107, 130, 138 Sittas (general), 116, 147, 172 skoulkatores, 172

slaves, 28, 71—2, 74, 162 Slavs, 9, 96, 98, 103, 112, 131, 132 social gravity model, 150-2 Solachon, 126 Sophanene, 95 Spectatus (envoy), 168 speculators (see also spies), 106, 171-4

as administrative rank, 17m as scouts, 171 as spies, 171

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speed of Arab raiders, 52, i83n of army movements (slower the larger the army), 29 of campaign preparations, 29, 32, 127 of couriers, i63n of travel and information diffusion, 163 Speyer, 99 spies, 116-17, I27n, 147, 152-3, 170-82 arcani in Britain, 179 distinguished from scouts, 170-2 envoys as, 166-70 investigation of Persian affairs in mid-3 50s, 106, 172 loyalties, 173, 179 merchants as, 175 methods, 174-8 organisation, 170-4 paid by state, 170, 174 Persian, 170, I77n terminology, 170-2 use of disguise, 174 use of in north, 178-9 use of trade as pretext, 63, 175-7 Sponeck, 180 Sporacius (envoy), 45n Stara Planina, 16m state-formation northern peoples in process, 27 retarded in nomadic societies, 30 and urban settlement, 28-9 Stephanus Byzantinus (writer), 83-4 Stilicho (general), 76n, 96n, I33n, 138 Strasbourg, 96, 99n, I35n strata Diocletiana, 53, 54, 55n, 165

strategic intelligence acquired by envoys, 168-9 acquired through informal channels, 106 definition of, 2 about handicaps, 106, 108, 109-12, 132-6 about military preparations, 106-8, 112-18, 130-6 in Roman—northern relations, 107-9, 128-42 in Roman-Persian relations, 106-28, 139—42 Strategikon

attitude to Persians, 103—4 attributed to Maurice, 10 on Avar weaknesses, 104—5 residual influence of ethnic stereotypes, 102 strengths and limitations as source, 10 terminology for spies, 171-2 Strategius (deputy magister offidorum), 42, 46 Strategjus Musonianus (praetorian prefect), 106-7, 109, 112, 172-3 subsidies, 72—3, 74, i69n Suebi, 46 Summus (envoy), 47

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Sura, 53 surprise, 101, 119, 125, 138, 152-3 Symmachus (senator), 71 Syracuse, 162, 172 Syria, 91, 149 as Persian objective, 23 prosperity in late antiquity, 141, 155 settlement density, 155 Syriac language, 50, 67-8, 111, 154, 164, 165 as linguafrancain late antique east, 50, 154 literature, 10, 148 Syrian desert, 51, 52, 53, 94, i83n Tacitus (historian) conception of northern landscape, 89 merchants as source, 163 tactical intelligence, 171 contrasted with strategic intelligence, 2 Talmud, Babylonian, 18, 19, 176-7 Tamkhusro (Persian general), 24, 126, I27n Tanukh, 52 Taprobane (Sri Lanka), 83, 163 Taurus mountains, 49, 93, 95 taxation, 20, 32-3, 72 Telia, 92 terrae laeticae, 68

Tervingi, 27, 27n Tetricius (usurper), 134 Thannuris, 94n, 126 Theoderic the Amal (Gothic ruler), 38 Theoderic Strabo (Gothic ruler), 46 Theodora (empress), 176 Theodore (son of Peter the Patrician), 47 Theodoret of Cyrrhus (bishop), 60, 155 Theodosiopolis (Armenia), 53 Theodosius I (emperor, 379-95), 40, 7111 Theodosius II (emperor, 408-50), 41, 46, 58, 85, 133, I48n, i69n Theophylact Simocatta, 128 attitude to Philippicus, 118 sources, 8-9, 37, 118 strengths and limitations as historian, 8-9 Theudis (Visigothic king), 162 Thrace, 107, 130, 161, 164 Tiberius II (emperor, 578-82), 8, 37, i n , 178 Tigris river, 24, 95, 165 route along, 88n, 89, 157 settlement density to east of, 157 use in irrigation, 18 Timagenes of Alexandria (writer), 82 Tirg§or, 28n Tisza river, 181 Tomi, 138 Tornow-Borchelt, 160 Toxandria, 68 Trabzon, 53, 85n

trade eastern, 61-5: attempts to regulate, 62-4; leather, 62n; pearls and precious stones, 64; prosperity, 61-2; routes, 62; silk and spices, 61 northern, 71-4: amber, 74; archaeological evidence, 72—3; hides and clothing, 73; less lucrative than eastern, 74, 78; pottery and glass, 73; quantity of Roman goods in barbaricum, 74; slaves, 71-2, 74, 162 as occasion for spying, 63, 175 and other mechanisms by which goods circulate, 72-3 Trajan (emperor, 98-117), 24-5, 52, 88, 93n, 180-1

Trygetius (envoy), 46 Tur Abdin, 94-5, 118, 148 Turks, 25, 93 embassies, 38-9, 46, 102, 125, 168 Tzani, 122 Ukraine, 28n, 158-60 Uldin (Hun ruler), 133 Ulfila (Gothic bishop), 28 uncertainty greater scope for in relations with north than east, 141-2 information as reduction of, 2, 90 urbanisation, see settlement density; settlement size Ursacius (magister officiorum), 41, 42, 137

Ursicinus (general), 6, 106-7, J68 Utigur Huns, 37 Vadomarius (Alamannic king), 71 Vagabanta, 126 Vahram Chobin (Persian king, 590-1), 114 Vahram II (Persian king, 276-93), 125 Valash (Persian king, 484—8), non, i69n Valens (emperor, 364-78), 92, 107, 171 relations with Goths, 46, 7m, 72n, 96n, 132 Valentinian I (emperor, 364-75), 99, attempt to establish forts in barbarian territory, 180, 182 campaign against Quadi, 33, 132, 138 relations with Alamanni, 132, 137 Valentinus (envoy), 46 Valeria, 98, 138 Valerian (emperor, 253—60), 22-3, 22n, 133 Valerius (magister officiorum), 42, 43

Vandals, 4, 46, 133 Belisarius' expedition against, 7, i n , 155, 162, 172, 176 embassy to Visigoths, 162 Vibius Sequester (writer)y 83—4 Victor (envoy), 46 Viminacium, 71, 132, 181 Vindobona, 181

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GENERAL I N D E X Vindolanda, 6 Visigoths, 35-6, 162 Vitalianus (officer), 76n Vittigis (Gothic ruler), 60, i n Vorbasse, 160 Wallachia, 29 Whylen, ioon, i8on Wijster, 160 Yazdgerd I (Persian king, 399-420), i69n

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Yazdgerd II (Persian king, 439-57), 58, 122 Zabdicene, 65 Zacharias of Sura (envoy), 45n, 46, 112, 178 Zagros mountains, 88, 157 Zemarchus (envoy), 38-9, 102 Zeno (emperor, 474-91), 58, 11 on, i69n Zeugma, 98 Zoroastrianism in Persia, 15, 59, 103 in Roman empire, 51, 103

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