Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands

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HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF EUROPE Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. Portugal, by Douglas L. Wheeler. 1993. Out of print. See No. 40. 2. Turkey, by Metin Heper. 1994. Out of print. See No. 38. 3. Poland, by George Sanford and Adriana Gozdecka-Sanford. 1994. Out of print. See No. 41. 4. Germany, by Wayne C. Thompson, Susan L. Thompson, and Juliet S. Thompson. 1994 5. Greece, by Thanos M. Veremis and Mark Dragoumis. 1995 6. Cyprus, by Stavros Panteli. 1995 7. Sweden, by Irene Scobbie. 1995. Out of print. See No. 48. 8. Finland, by George Maude. 1995. Out of print. See No. 49. 9. Croatia, by Robert Stallaerts and Jeannine Laurens. 1995. Out of print. See No. 39. 10. Malta, by Warren G. Berg. 1995 11. Spain, by Angel Smith. 1996 12. Albania, by Raymond Hutchings. 1996. Out of print. See No. 42. 13. Slovenia, by Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj and Carole Rogel. 1996. Out of print. See No. 56. 14. Luxembourg, by Harry C. Barteau. 1996 15. Romania, by Kurt W. Treptow and Marcel Popa. 1996 16. Bulgaria, by Raymond Detrez. 1997. Out of print. See No. 46. 17. United Kingdom: Volume 1, England and the United Kingdom; Volume 2, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, by Kenneth J. Panton and Keith A. Cowlard. 1997; 1998 18. Hungary, by Steven Béla Várdy. 1997 19. Latvia, by Andrejs Plakans. 1997 20. Ireland, by Colin Thomas and Avril Thomas. 1997 21. Lithuania, by Saulius Suziedelis. 1997 22. Macedonia, by Valentina Georgieva and Sasha Konechni. 1998 23. The Czech State, by Jiri Hochman. 1998 24. Iceland, by Gu∂mundur Hálfdanarson. 1997 25. Bosnia and Herzegovina, by Ante Cuvalo. 1997 26. Russia, by Boris Raymond and Paul Duffy. 1998 27. Gypsies (Romanies), by Donald Kenrick. 1998 28. Belarus, by Jan Zaprudnik. 1998 29. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, by Zeljan Suster. 1999 30. France, by Gino Raymond. 1998 31. Slovakia, by Stanislav J. Kirschbaum. 1998. Out of print. See No. 47. 32. Netherlands, by Arend H. Huussen Jr. 1998. Out of print. See No. 55.

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33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

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Denmark, by Alastair H. Thomas and Stewart P. Oakley. 1998 Modern Italy, by Mark F. Gilbert and K. Robert Nilsson. 1998 Belgium, by Robert Stallaerts. 1999 Austria, by Paula Sutter Fichtner. 1999 Republic of Moldova, by Andrei Brezianu. 2000. Out of print. See No. 52. Turkey, 2nd edition, by Metin Heper. 2002 Republic of Croatia, 2nd edition, by Robert Stallaerts. 2003 Portugal, 2nd edition, by Douglas L. Wheeler. 2002 Poland, 2nd edition, by George Sanford. 2003 Albania, New edition, by Robert Elsie. 2004 Estonia, by Toivo Miljan. 2004 Kosova, by Robert Elsie. 2004 Ukraine, by Zenon E. Kohut, Bohdan Y. Nebesio, and Myroslav Yurkevich. 2005 Bulgaria, 2nd edition, by Raymond Detrez. 2006 Slovakia, 2nd edition, by Stanislav J. Kirschbaum. 2006 Sweden, 2nd edition, by Irene Scobbie. 2006 Finland, 2nd edition, by George Maude. 2007 Georgia, by Alexander Mikaberidze. 2007 Belgium, 2nd edition, by Robert Stallaerts. 2007 Moldova, 2nd edition, by Andrei Brezianu and Vlad Spânu. 2007 Switzerland, by Leo Schelbert. 2007 Contemporary Germany, by Derek Lewis with Ulrike Zitzlsperger. 2007 Netherlands, 2nd edition, by Joop W. Koopmans and Arend H. Huussen Jr. 2007 Slovenia, 2nd edition, by Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj and Carole Rogel. 2007

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Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands Second Edition

Joop W. Koopmans Arend H. Huussen Jr.

Historical Dictionaries of Europe, No. 55

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Plymouth, UK 2007

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SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright © 2007 by Joop W. Koopmans and Arend H. Huussen Jr. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Koopmans, Joop W. Historical dictionary of the Netherlands / Joop W. Koopmans, Arend H. Huussen Jr. — 2nd ed. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of Europe ; no. 55) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-5627-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8108-5627-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Netherlands—History—Dictionaries. 2. Netherlands—Chronology. I. Huussen, A. H. II. Title. DH101.H88 2007 949.2003—dc22 2006102309

⬁ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

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Contents

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff

vii

Preface

ix

Acronyms and Abbreviations

xi

Maps

xvii

Chronology

xxi

Introduction

xlv

THE DICTIONARY

1

Appendixes A Heads of State since 1806

257

B Prime Ministers since 1945

259

C Governments since 1945

261

D Provinces and Capitals

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Bibliography

265

About the Authors

323

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Editor’s Foreword

Small though it is, the Netherlands is one of the most dynamic and productive countries in the world and thus has had an incomparably larger impact than size alone might suggest. Some of this was in the field of action—agitating for independence, fighting for its rights, dominating the seas, creating a far-flung colonial empire. Some was mercantile and straightforward business, from the Middle Ages to the present day. But the Netherlands has also made its mark in the arts, generating more than its share of painters, musicians, and writers. Its thinkers, whether in the area of philosophy, religion, or economics, were also prominent. Yet even quite ordinary Dutch have contributed to a mood of individualism and innovation that permitted them to follow new paths and launch new experiments. This willingness to differ and to seek alternatives is still there and will be more important than ever in the future. This new Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands brings the story up to date. It begins before there even was a Netherlands and reviews the various transformations and permutations of the political organization, a process that probably still is not concluded. It focuses on outstanding persons, men and women of action, culture, and thought. It describes the parties, companies, and institutions they shaped. There is also mention of important places and events. All this helps reveal the special atmosphere in which the Dutch were immersed and that makes them different from others and also frequently different from one another. This presentation is made through the many entries in the dictionary, an extensive introduction, and a concise chronology. The bibliography offers a broad range of sources for further information. This second edition was written by Joop W. Koopmans, building on the first edition by Arend H. Huussen Jr. Dr. Koopmans is a lecturer of early modern history at the University of Groningen with a particular interest in the press, politics, and political assemblies in early modern vii

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EDITOR’S FOREWORD

Netherlands, on which he has written extensively. Dr. Huussen is emeritus professor of modern history at the University of Groningen. His specialization is the history of law, but he has also written on culture and the arts, among other things. Their combined experience and knowledge are compressed in Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands, which is an excellent introduction for newcomers and a useful reminder for those of us who have long been intrigued by this remarkable country. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

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Preface

Although the last eight years are just a short period in the long history of the Netherlands, many facts and figures have changed in these years around the turn of the century. It is obvious that several well-known people pass away each year, of course, while other persons appear on the scene, that political and other careers are continued or broken, new laws and systems are introduced, population data change, large companies merge or disappear, and so on. Yet, I was amazed how many changes have taken place in such a short period of time and how many details were not correct anymore. Therefore, a great number of entries of the first edition of Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands, which was published in 1998, had to be updated and expanded, and also many new entries could be written. Moreover, recent historical research and new opinions about old topics led to several changes in existing entries concerning the older periods of Dutch history. In the meantime, I adapted all entries to the current style of the series, which has led to, for example, more visible cross-references. The first edition of this dictionary was composed by Arend H. Huussen Jr. I would like to thank him very much for suggesting my name to the general editor of this series, Jon Woronoff, to make an updated and extended version. I am also grateful that I received a free hand from Professor Huussen to revise his edition. Huussen’s name, however, is still on the cover of this new version. It should be clear that this is really more than a mark of honor. The basis of this new edition remains Huussen’s work, and I have kept much of his introductory texts and many of his entries intact. Yet, now I am responsible for all the remaining mistakes, which are inevitable in a publication of this kind. In the first edition, Huussen focused mainly on the political and diplomatic history of the Netherlands since the late Middle Ages. He also included entries about its colonial, cultural, and intellectual history. ix

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I was asked to continue on this path, but also to broaden the social, economic, and cultural scope as far as possible within the limits of this new volume, which is still not intended as a comprehensive encyclopedia. All entries remain short—which is often more complicated than writing long stories—in order to maintain quick reference. I hope that the English-reading users of this new edition will profit from the extensions and get a better understanding of the Dutch history and people. The Internet has been very helpful in finding and verifying all kinds of facts, names, and circumstances. Nearly all authorities, provinces, cities, and for-profit and nonprofit organizations, companies, and enterprises keep their own websites nowadays, and a lot of them present reliable facts. Certainly, not all websites are reliable, but there is plenty of reference material on hand in cyberspace. Moreover, historians of my generation still appreciate the “old-fashioned” printed reference works and literature. Topical figures and statistical information in this version correspond with the situation at the beginning of 2006. Other information, including the bibliography, was, as far as possible, updated until July 2006. The results of the November 2006 parliamentary elections were included in the final revision, and the bibliography was also extended with a short list of websites coming from some authoritative historical organizations and research institutes in the Netherlands.

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

ABN AMRO AKU AKZO ANV ARP AVRO Benelux BLEU BPM BZN C&A CDA CEDLA

CHU CIDI CNV COBRA

Algemene Bank Nederland–Amsterdamsche– Rotterdamsche Bank Algemene Kunstzijde Unie Merger of AKU and KZO Algemeen Nederlandsch Verbond (General Netherlands Union) Antirevolutionaire Partij (Antirevolutionary Party) Algemene Vereniging Radio Omroep (General Society Radio Broadcasting Corporation) België-Nederland-Luxemburg (BelgiumNetherlands-Luxembourg Association) Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij (Batavian Petroleum Company) Band Zonder Naam (Band without a Name) Clemens and August Brenninkmeijer Christen Democratisch Appèl (Christian Democratic Appeal) Centrum voor Studie en Documentatie voor LatijnsAmerika (Center for Latin American Research and Documentation) Christelijk-Historische Unie (Christian Historical Union) Centrum Informatie en Documentatie Israel (Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel) Christelijk Nationaal Vakverbond (Christian National Trade Union) Copenhagen-Brussels-Amsterdam

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CPB CPH CPN CU D66 DAF DS’70 DSM EC ECSC EEC EO EP EU EURATOM EUROPOL EVP FNP FNV GL GPV HEMA

IKV

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COC

IISG

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Cultuur- en Ontspanningscentrum (Center for Culture and Entertainment) Centraal Planbureau (Central Planning Bureau) Communistische Partij Holland (Communist Party of Holland) Communistische Partij Nederland (Communist Party of the Netherlands) Christen Unie (Christian Union) Democraten 1966 (Democrats 1966) Van Doorne’s Automobiel Fabriek (Van Doorne’s Automobile Factory) Democratisch Socialisten 1970 (Democratic Socialists 1970) Dutch State’s Mines European Commission; European Community European Coal and Steel Community European Economic Community Evangelische Omroep (Evangelical Broadcasting Corporation) European Parliament European Union European Atomic Energy Commission European Police Office Evangelische Volkspartij (Evangelical People’s Party) Fryske Nasjonale Partij (Frisian National Party) Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging (Federation Dutch Labor Movement) GroenLinks (Green Left) Gereformeerd Politiek Verbond (Reformed Political Union) Hollandsche Eenheidsprijzen Maatschappij Amsterdam (Dutch Standard Pricing Company Amsterdam) Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (International Institute of Social History) Interkerkelijk Vredesberaad (Interdenominational Peace Forum)

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ING KBB KLM KNAW KNPM KPN KRO KVP KZO LPF NAM NAS NATO NCPN NCRV NCW NHM NIOD NKV NMB NOS NOVIB

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Internationale Nederlanden Groep Koninklijke Bijenkorf Beheer Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij (Royal Dutch Airlines) Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences) Koninklijke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschappij (Royal Dutch Petroleum Company) Koninklijke PTT Nederland (Royal Postal Services in the Netherlands) Katholieke Radio Omroep (Catholic Radio Corporation) Katholieke Volkspartij (Catholic People’s Party) Koninklijke Zout-Organon (Royal Salt-Organon) Lijst Pim Fortuyn (List Pim Fortuyn) Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij (Dutch Oil Company) Nationaal Arbeids Secretariaat (National Labor Secretariat) North Atlantic Treaty Organization Nieuwe Communistische Partij Nederland (New Communist Party [of the] Netherlands) Nederlandse Christelijke Radio Vereniging (Dutch Christian Radio Society) Nederlands Christelijk Werkgeversverbond (Dutch Christian Employers Association) Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij (Netherlands Trade Corporation) Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie (Netherlands Institute for War Documentation) Nederlands Katholiek Vakverbond (Netherlands Catholic Trade Union) Nederlandse Middenstands Bank (Dutch Small and Medium Enterprise Bank) Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (Dutch Broadcasting Foundation) Nederlandse Organisatie voor Internationale Bijstand (Dutch Organization for International Assistance)

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NU NVV NZAV OMA OPEC OSCE PKN PPR PSP PTT PvdA PVV RABO RIOD RKSP RKVP

RSP RTL SBS SDAP SDB

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NRC NS NSB

RPF

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Nieuwe Rotterdamse Courant Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railway System) Nationaal Socialistische Beweging (National Socialist Movement) Nederlandsche Unie (Netherlands Union) Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen (Netherlands Association of Trade Unions) Nederlandsch Zuid-Afrikaansche Vereniging (Netherlands South African Society) Office for Metropolitan Architecture Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (Protestant Church in the Netherlands) Politieke Partij Radicalen (Radical Political Party) Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij (Pacifist Socialist Party) Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie, en Telefonie (Post, Telegraph, and Telephone State Company) Partij van de Arbeid (Labor Party) Partij voor de Vrijheid (Party for Freedom) Raiffeisen-Boerenleenbank Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie Rooms-Katholieke Staats Partij (Roman Catholic State Party) Rooms-Katholieke Volkspartij (Roman Catholic People’s Party) Reformatorisch Politieke Federatie (Reforming Political Federation) Revolutionair-Socialistische Partij (Revolutionary Socialist Party) Radio Télévision Luxembourg / Radio Télé Luxemburg Scandinavian Broadcasting System Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (Socialist Democratic Labor Party) Sociaal Democratische Bond (Socialist Democratic Union)

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

SDP SER SGP SHV SP TNT TPG TROS UN UNDP UNESCO V&D VARA VAT VDB VNU VOB VOC VOO VPRO

VVD WIC

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Sociaal-Democratische Partij (Socialist Democratic Party) Sociaal-Economische Raad (Social-Economic Council) Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij (Politically [Orthodox] Reformed Party) Steenkolen Handels Vereniging (Coal Trade Association) Socialistische Partij (Socialist Party) Thomas Nationwide Transport TNT Post Group Televisie en Radio Omroep Stichting (Television and Radio Broadcasting Foundation) United Nations United Nations Development Program United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Vroom and Dreesmann Vereniging voor Arbeiders Radio Amateurs (Corporation for Workers Radio Amateurs) Value-added tax Vrijzinnig-Democratische Bond (League of Free Democrats) Verenigde Nederlandse Uitgeversbedrijven (United Dutch Publishing Companies) Vereniging van Openbare Bibliotheken (Society of Public Libraries) Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (East India Company) Veronica Omroep Organisatie (Veronica Broadcasting Organization) Vrijzinnig Protestantsche Radio Omroep (Freethinking Protestant Radio Corporation) originally; now an abbreviation without meaning Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy) West-Indische Compagnie (West India Company)

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Map 1.

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The Low Countries about 1550

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Map 2.

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The Dutch Republic about 1650

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The Netherlands in 2000

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Prehistory, Roman Times, and Early Medieval History 5300–1550 B.C. Neolithic period; arrival of the first farmers. 1400–750 B.C. Bronze Age; use and trade of copper and bronze tools. 750–57 B.C. Iron Age. 300 B.C. The rising sea level leads to the construction of terps (dwelling mounds). After 300 B.C.

Germanic tribes are pushed south of the Rhine River.

Conquest by the Romans under Julius Caesar.

57 B.C.

A.D. 28–68

Consolidation of the Rhine boundary.

69 Uprising of the Batavians against the Roman occupants, led by Gaius Julius Civilis. 235 Invasion of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes (including the Franks). 406

End of Roman authority in Gaul.

690–695 c. 700

Christianization by Willibrord, bishop of Utrecht.

Frisian king Redbad fights against the Frankish Empire.

754 5 June: Missionary Bonifatius is murdered by the Frisians. 754–925

Carolingian Empire.

765 Missionary Lebuinus (among the Saxons) erects a church in Deventer. c. 790

First version of the Lex Frisionum. xxi

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800 25 December: Charlemagne is crowned Holy Roman emperor in Rome. 834–1007

Invasions by the Vikings (Norsemen).

843 10 August: Partition of the Carolingian Empire at Verdun, with the “Netherlands” becoming part of the middle empire under Emperor Lotharius.

Seignories and Sovereigns until the Reformation (11th century–c. 1520) 925–1076 Disintegration of Lorraine into autonomous states, including Utrecht, Flanders, Brabant, and Holland. 1306 13 June: Amsterdam is granted urban statutes. 1345 26 September: Count William IV of Holland loses the battle of Stavoren/Warns against the Frisians. c. 1350–1490 Hook and Cod Wars in Holland, a power struggle mostly between cities and nobles. c. 1350–1500 Frisia. 1419–1477

Factionalism between Schieringers and Vetkopers in

Burgundian period.

1428 3 July: Countess Jacqueline (Jacoba) of Bavaria and Holland recognizes the overlordship of Duke Philip “the Good” of Burgundy. 1433 12 April: Jacqueline of Bavaria renounces her sovereignty in Holland, Zeeland, and Hainault. 1455 13 September: David, bastard of Burgundy, becomes bishop of Utrecht. 1464 9 January: First meeting of the States General, at Bruges (Flanders). 1467 15 June: Charles the Bold becomes Duke of Burgundy. 1473 June–July: Gelderland recognizes Charles the Bold as overlord. 8 December: Establishment of the Parliament of Malines.

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1477 5 January: Mary of Burgundy accedes to power upon the death of Charles the Bold. 11 February: The “Great Privilege” is granted and regional power increases. 1482 27 March: Mary of Burgundy dies and her husband, Maximilian I of Habsburg, becomes regent of the Burgundian territories until 1494. 1486 16 February: Maximilian is elected “Roman king” of the German empire. 1492 Uprising of the “Kaas- en Broodvolk” of peasants in Holland because of economic problems and taxation. 1494 Philip the Handsome, son of Maximilian of Habsburg and Mary of Burgundy, resumes rule of the Burgundian territories until 1506. 1498 30 April: Albrecht III of Saxony becomes governor of Frisia, which spells the end of the “Frisian freedom.” 1500 Birth of Charles V, son of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Castile. 1506 25 September: Philip dies, and Maximilian again becomes regent, this time for Charles. 1506–1543 The House of Habsburg gradually acquires the “Seventeen Netherlands.” 1507 18 March: Margaret of Austria (Savoy) takes over as governor of the Netherlands until 1 December 1530. 1515

5 January: Charles V becomes lord of the Netherlands.

1519 23 October: Charles V is crowned as Holy Roman (German) emperor.

Reformation Troubles and Centralization (c. 1520–1566) 1523 1 July: Two Antwerp followers of Martin Luther are burned at the stake in Brussels. 1531 3 January: Mary of Hungary becomes governor (at the request of Charles V) through 25 October 1555. 1 October: Reorganization of

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the central government through the establishment of the collateral councils (e.g., the Council of State) in Brussels. 1534 February: Dutch radical Anabaptists occupy the city of Münster (Westphalia), holding it until June 1535. 1535 10 May: Failed attack on Amsterdam by the radical Anabaptists. 1548 26 June: The Seventeen Netherlands (the present Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the north of France) are united by the Habsburgs into the “Burgundian Kreits.” 1550 29 April: Strict edict against the Protestants. 1555 25 October: Philip II, who would become king of Spain in 1556, succeeds Charles V as lord of the Netherlands. 1559 12 May: New ecclesiastical organization. 25 August: Philip II departs for Spain and Margaret of Parma takes over as governor. 1562 May: League of Dutch noblemen protests against the role of “foreign” advisors of the king. 1564 13 March: Advisor Cardinal Granvelle leaves the Netherlands after he is dismissed. 1565 31 January–30 April: Journey of the Count of Egmond to Spain in order to move Philip II to another policy; the king, however, maintains his strict policy against the Protestant “heretics,” in his letters from Segovia (15 October). The First Decades of the Dutch Revolt (1566–1588) 1566 5 April: Petition of about 400 noblemen against the Inquisition to Margaret of Parma in Brussels. 10 August: Start of the Iconoclastic Fury in Flanders. 1566–1568 Resistance of the lower nobility and the Calvinists against the Spanish policy of centralization and the persecution of heretics. 1567 22 April: Stadtholder William of Orange leaves the Netherlands to organize resistance out of Germany. 22 August: Arrival of the Duke of Alba’s army in Brussels; he becomes governor.

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1568 Historical starting year of the Dutch Revolt (or Eighty Years’ War) against Spain. 23 May: Louis of Nassau defeats Spanish army near Heiligerlee (Groningen). 5 June: The counts of Egmond and Horn are decapitated in Brussels. 21 July: Louis of Nassau is defeated by the Spanish near Jemmingen (now Jemgum, Eastern Frisia). 1569

Strong protests against Alba’s tax reform proposals.

1570 1 November: All Saints’ Day flood causes thousands of deaths and enormous damage. 1572 1 April: Capture of the city of Brielle by the “sea beggars.” 9 July: Sea beggars hang 19 Roman Catholic clerics, the “Martyrs of Gorcum.” 19 July: Meeting of the revolting States of Holland at Dordrecht. 1573 13 July: The city of Haarlem is seized by the Spanish army. 8 October: Spanish siege of Alkmaar fails. 28 November: Don Luis Requesens becomes governor until 5 March 1576. 1574 14 April: Louis and Henry of Nassau are killed in the battle at the Mokerheide. 3 October: Spanish siege of Leiden fails. 1575 8 February: Prince William of Orange, leader of the Revolt, in the name of the king gives Leiden a university; it is the second university in the Netherlands after Louvain. 1576 3 November: Don Juan of Austria takes over as governor. 8 November: “Pacification” of Ghent, an attempt to bring peace in the struggle over the issue of religious pluralism. 1577 24 July: Don Juan occupies the citadel of Namen, marking resumption of the war. 8 December: Archduke Matthias, brother of Holy Roman emperor Rudolph II, is named governor on behalf of the revolting part of the States General. 1578 1 October: Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, becomes governor. 1579 6 January: Union of Atrecht (present Arras in France) of the southern provinces. 23 January: Union of Utrecht of the revolting provinces in the north; this treaty would function as the constitutional basis for the future Republic of the Seven United Provinces.

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1580 15 March: Philip II places William of Orange under a ban. 19 September: Francis of Anjou becomes lord of the Netherlands with limited sovereignty in the Treaty of Plessis-les-Tours; his government is not successful. 1581 22 July: The States General of the north renounces Philip II as its lord and sovereign (Acte van Verlatinge). 1584 10 July: Prince William of Orange is murdered at Delft. 1584–1585 Bruges.

Parma recaptures towns in the south such as Ghent and

1585 17 August: Parma retakes Antwerp, whereupon the States General closes off the Scheldt River and the harbor of Antwerp. 22 August: Queen Elizabeth I of England supports the revolting Netherlands in the Treaty of Nonsuch. 14 November: Prince Maurice of Nassau becomes stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland until 23 April 1625. 20 December: Arrival in Vlissingen of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester; he becomes governor of the northern Netherlands on behalf of Queen Elizabeth. 1586 16 March: Johan van Oldenbarnevelt becomes grand pensionary of Holland, serving until 29 August 1618. 1587 16 December: Leicester leaves the Netherlands definitively.

The Dutch Republic until Westphalia (1588–1648) 1588 July–August: The mission of the Spanish Armada (fleet) fails. 1590 4 March: Prince Maurice of Nassau retakes Breda (and several other cities in the following years). 1594 25 January: Franciscus Gomarus is called to be professor of theology at the University of Leiden. 23 July: The city of Groningen is recaptured by Prince Maurice and his cousin, count William Louis, stadtholder of Frisia; the union of the territory of the Seven United Provinces nearly completed. 1595 1 April: First voyage of the Dutch (with Cornelis de Houtman) embarks to the East Indies (eventually to occupy the sultanate of Bantam on Java), returning 11 August 1597.

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1596 10 May: Voyage of Willem Barentsz and others to the Arctic and other places departs; Barentsz and others winter on Novaya Zemlya and return on 1 November 1597. 1597 24 January: Maurice defeats the Spanish army in battle near Turnhout. 1598 1 May: Second voyage of the Dutch (with Jacob van Neck) to the East Indies, completed on 19 July 1599. 6 May: Philip II gives the (Southern) Netherlands as dowry to his daughter Isabella and her husband Albert of Austria. 1600 June–July: Maurice of Nassau leads a campaign against the pirates in Dunkirk. 2 July: Maurice wins the battle of Nieuwpoort (now in Belgium). 1602 20 March: Foundation of the United East India Company (VOC). 1603 8 May: Jakob Arminius becomes professor of theology at the University of Leiden. 1609 9 April: Twelve Years’ Truce in the war with Spain begins, lasting until 21 April 1621. 24 August: Establishment of a trading post in Japan at Hirado. 1610 14 January: Remonstrantie of the followers of Professor Arminius. 1611 11 March: The States of Holland receive the ContraRemonstrantie by the followers of Professor Gomarus. 1614

27 January: Foundation of the Nordic Company.

1617 23 July: Maurice joins sides with the followers of Gomarus. 1618 29 August: Arminian leaders such as Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius are arrested. 13 November: Calvinistic synod convenes at Dordrecht through 29 May 1619. 1619 13 May: Oldenbarnevelt is sentenced to death and beheaded for high treason. 1620 31 May: Death of Count William Louis of Nassau; Count Ernst Casimir of Nassau becomes stadtholder in Frisia (and from 1625 in Groningen and Drenthe) until 2 June 1632.

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1621 22 March: Grotius (who had been sentenced to life imprisonment) escapes from the castle of Loevestein. 21 April: Resumption of the war with Spain. 3 June: Foundation of the West India Company. 1624–1662

Occupation of Formosa (Taiwan).

1625 23 April: Prince Frederick Henry of Orange becomes stadtholder in Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel until his death on 14 March 1647. 1626 4 May: Peter Minuit buys the island of Manhattan from the Manhattan Indians. 1628 8–9 September: Adm. Piet Hein captures a Spanish silver fleet in the Caribbean at the Bay of Matanzas, Cuba. 1629 14 September: Recapture of the city of ’s-Hertogenbosch (capital of the Generaliteitsland and future province of Northern Brabant). 1632 23 August: Recapture of the city of Maastricht (capital of the future province of Limburg). 1636–1654

Occupation of Brazil.

1637 First edition of the Statenbijbel (Bible translation by order of the States General). 10 October: Recapture of the city of Breda. 1639 21 October: Second armada is defeated by Adm. Maarten Tromp near Duins (The Downs). 1640 23 July: Prince William Frederick of Nassau becomes stadtholder of Frisia (and of Groningen after 1650) until 31 October 1664. 1641 June: The VOC’s trading post in Japan is moved from Hirado to Deshima. 12 May: Prince William II of Orange weds Mary, the daughter of King Charles I of England. 1642 Rembrandt completes his Night Watch. 14 August: Voyage of Abel Tasman leaves from Batavia, transiting to Van Diemens Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand before returning on 15 June 1643. 1645

Support for Sweden in its struggle with Denmark.

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1647 8 May: Inauguration of William II of Orange as stadtholder of Holland; he is also stadtholder of Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland until his death on 6 November 1650. 1648 30 January: Peace Treaty of Münster (part of the Peace of Westphalia) gives international recognition of the Dutch Republic as an independent state. The Expansion of the Dutch Republic (1648–1713) 1650 May–November: Disagreement between Prince William II and the States General. 3 August: William’s attack on Amsterdam fails. 6 November: William suddenly dies, beginning the first period without a stadtholder in Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland (until 1672). 1651 18 January–21 August: Great Assembly of the States General meets to discuss the future of the Republic. 1652 6 April: Foundation by Jan van Riebeeck of the castle at the Cape of Good Hope. 6 July: First Anglo-Dutch War at sea erupts, lasting until 15 April 1654. 1653 30 July: Johan de Witt becomes grand pensionary of Holland, serving until 4 August 1672. 1658

Occupation of Ceylon (modern-day Sri Lanka).

1664 30 August: Forced by an English fleet, Peter Stuyvesant surrenders New Netherland. 1665 4 March: Second Anglo-Dutch War at sea begins. 1667 31 July: Treaty of Breda ends the Second Anglo-Dutch War; England keeps New Netherland, the Republic keeps Surinam. 1668 23 January: Triple Alliance between England, Sweden, and the Republic. 2 May: Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between France and Spain halts French territorial expansion to the north. 1672 June: War with France, England, Münster, and Cologne. 2 July: Prince William III becomes stadtholder of Zeeland, and afterward also

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of Holland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland, through 1702. 20 August: Johan de Witt is lynched in The Hague. 1674 19 February: Treaty of Westminster with England, Münster, and Cologne. 1678 10 August: Treaty of Nijmegen with France. 1685 18 October: Revocation of the toleration Edict of Nantes by French king Louis XIV; many French Protestants (Huguenots) find refuge in the Dutch Republic. 1688 26 November: War breaks out with France, continuing until 1697. 1689 21 April: Prince William III and his wife Mary become king and queen of England, ruling until their deaths in 1702 and 1694, respectively. 1697 20 September: Peace treaty of Ryswick with France. 1698–1700 Treaties with Spain on the partition of the Southern Netherlands. 1702 19 March: Second period without a stadtholder in Holland (and for many years also in Zeeland, Utrecht, Overijssel, Gelderland, and Groningen) begins, lasting until 28 April 1747. 15 May: Outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession. 1713 11 April: Treaty of Utrecht with France ends the War of the Spanish Succession.

The Dutch Republic in Decline (1713–1795) 1715 15 November: Barrier Treaty with Austria on garrisons of the Dutch Republic in the Southern (Austrian) Netherlands. 1717 4 January: Triple Alliance between Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic. 1727 17 July: Simon van Slingelandt begins his time as grand pensionary of Holland, continuing until 7 December 1736.

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1740 16 December: Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession. 1747 April: Popular movements in favor of the House of Orange. 17 April: French invasion. 28 April–16 May: Prince William IV of Orange becomes stadtholder in all the provinces of the Republic until his death in 1751. 1748 September–October: Uprising of the democratic Doelist Movement, but the oligarchy remains. 18 October: Peace of Aixla-Chapelle ends the War of the Austrian Succession. 1751 22 October: Prince William V is the new stadtholder at age 3; his mother Anna, Princess of Hanover, serves as governor until her death on 12 January 1759 (from 1759, the governor is the Duke of Brunswick-Wolffenbuttel). 1756 29 August: Seven Years’ War commences, through 10 February 1763; the Dutch Republic remains neutral. 1763 25 July: Amsterdam Stock Exchange goes through a financial crisis as a result of the war. 1766 8 March: William V reaches his majority and takes control as hereditary stadtholder of the Seven Provinces. 1780–1787 Period of the Patriots. 20 December 1780–20 May 1784: Fourth Anglo-Dutch War at sea, concluded with the Treaty of Paris. 1781 26 September: Publication of the pamphlet “Aan het Volk van Nederland” (To the people of the Netherlands) by Joan Derk van der Capellen. 1784 16 November: Foundation of the Maatschappij tot Nut van ’t Algemeen (Society for the Benefit of the Common Man). 1785 4 September: After riots, Stadtholder William V leaves the province of Holland. 1787 28 June: Wilhelmina of Prussia, wife of William V, tries to return to Holland in vain; she is stopped at Goejanverwellesluis. September–October: Prussian military intervention against the Patriots; William V is restored to power and returns to Holland; prosecution of the Patriots.

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Revolution in France; Dutch refugee Patriots participate.

1791 31 December: Liquidation of the West India Company. 1794 December: Invasion by French revolutionary armies through January 1795.

The Batavian-French Period (1795–1813) 1795 18 January: William V of Orange escapes to England; Patriots assume power. 16 May: Peace treaty between the Batavian Republic and France. 1796 1 March: First meeting of the elected National Assembly of the Batavian People as successor to the States General. 1797 11 October: The British almost destroy the Batavian navy in the battle near Kamperduin. 1798 22 January: Radical democratic coup d’état. 23 April: Promulgation of the first national constitution (since the 1579 Union of Utrecht). 12 June: Coup d’état by moderates under Gen. Herman Daendels. 1799 June–October: Invasion by British and Russian armies in the North of Holland fails. 31 December: Liquidation of the East India Company; the colonies are now governed by the state (Batavian Republic). 1801 19 September: New coup d’état under French pressure; new federalist constitution. 1802 25 March: Peace of Amiens (France) with Britain; the occupied colonies are to be returned, except Ceylon. 1803 18 May: War again with Britain results in loss of the colonies. 1805 29 April: Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck takes over as head of state with the title of grand pensionary, remaining in office until 4 June 1806. 1806 3 April: Act on primary education. 9 April: Death of the last stadtholder, William V, in Brunswick. 5 June: Kingdom of Holland is

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proclaimed under King Louis Napoléon, brother of the French emperor Napoléon I, until 1 July 1810. 1807 28 January: Herman Daendels becomes governor of Java (East Indies). 1808 4 May: Establishment of the Royal Institute (later Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences) and Royal Library. 1809 May–June: Proclamation of Dutch civil and penal codes. 1810 9 July: Annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by the French Empire, lasting until November 1813.

The Enlarged Kingdom of the Netherlands and Its Prelude (1813–1839) 1813 November: Liberation by the Allied armies. 2 December: Prince William, son of the last stadtholder, William V of Orange, is acclaimed sovereign. 1814 1 March: Treaty of Chaumant brings merger of the northern provinces of the old Dutch Republic and the Southern Netherlands (Belgium) into one state; Luxembourg remains apart. 16 March: Prince William accepts the title of king of the Netherlands as William I. 25 March: Foundation of the Bank of the Netherlands. 6 April: Abdication of Napoléon I; the last French troops leave the country. June: Abolition of the slave trade. 18 September: Congress of Vienna convenes through 9 June 1815. 1815 18 June: Battle of Waterloo (Belgium), final defeat of Napoléon. 24 August: New constitution instituted; States General become bicameral. 1823 8 October: Netherlands Steamboat Company founded by Gerhard Roentgen. 1824 29 March: Foundation of the Netherlands Trade Corporation (NHM). 1828 Combined Liberal–Roman Catholic political resistance to the autocratic reign of William I in the southern part of the country.

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1830–1839

Revolt of the Belgians.

1830 25 August: Start of the Belgian Revolution after the performance of the opera La Muette de Portici in Brussels on the birthday of King William. 18 November: Declaration of Belgian independence. 24 November: The House of Orange-Nassau is excluded from the Belgian throne. 1831 January: International conference in London about the secession of Belgium. 7 February: Proclamation of the Belgian constitution. 2–12 August: Ten Days’ Campaign against the Belgians fails. October: William rejects London articles concerning the Belgian secession. 1834 13 October: Split in the Protestant church caused by the secession of the orthodox reformed members. 1838 1 October: Date of commencement of new Dutch codes of law. 1839 19 April: Treaty of London brings recognition of Belgium as an independent state. 20 September: First railway in the (northern) Netherlands (Amsterdam–Haarlem).

Neutrality and Constitutional Reform (1840–1918) 1840 7 October: Abdication of William I in favor of his son, William II; constitutional reform promotes ministerial responsibility. 1845–1847 Failure of potato harvest and food riots. 1848 3 November: Constitutional reform in a liberal direction as pushed by Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. 1849 17 March: Death of William II and accession of King William III. 1853 April: Protestant protests (April Movement) against restoration of the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy. 1857 13 August: Reform of primary education. 1859 Abolition of slavery in the Dutch East Indies. 1863 Abolition of slavery in the Dutch West Indies.

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1866 1 June: Foundation the first national trade union, the Algemeene Nederlandsche Typographenbond. September–October: Responsible government, after political crisis. 1868 23 July: Roman Catholic bishops reject the public (religious) “neutral” school education. 1869 1 July: Abolition of special tax on newspapers (dagbladzegel). 30 August: Foundation of a Dutch branch of the first International Workers Association (Nederlandsch Werklieden Verbond). 1871 20 April: Aletta Jacobs is the first female to be admitted to a Dutch university (Groningen). 1873–c. 1914

Aceh War.

1874 19 September: First factory act (prohibition of child labor under age 12). 1876 1 November: North Sea Canal is opened. 1878 Agrarian crisis; immigration of farmers to the United States and Canada. 3 August: Resistance in religious circles against new legislation on primary education (address to the king). 1879 3 April: Foundation of the first political party, the Calvinist Anti-Revolutionary Party, by Abraham Kuyper. 1880 20 October: Foundation of the Free (Calvinist) University at Amsterdam by Kuyper. 1881 1 June: First local telephone network in Amsterdam. 1882 12 February: Foundation meeting of Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis’s socialist party Sociaal Democratische Bond (from local departments in existence in 1881). 1886 8 February: New secession among the orthodox Calvinists known as “Reformed Churches of the Netherlands” led by Kuyper. 1887 4 January: Start of official inquiry into the working conditions of factory laborers. 30 December: Constitutional reform allows limited extension of (census) suffrage.

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1889 September: Primary Education Act gives equal state subsidies for public “neutral” and for religious schools. 1890 14 November: Regency of Queen Emma. 23 November: Death of William III; crown passes to his young daughter, Queen Wilhelmina, with Queen Emma as regent until her majority in 1898, with Wilhelmina to rule until 1948. 1891 15 May: Foundation of the first Philips lightbulb factory in Eindhoven. 1893 27 August: Foundation of a socialist trade union, the Nationaal Arbeids Secretariaat. 1893–1894 ployment.

International economic crisis causes widespread unem-

1894 26 August: Foundation of the Socialist Democratic Labor Party (SDAP) by Pieter Jelles Troelstra. 1896 19 June: Parliament (Second Chamber) accepts further extension of census suffrage. 1898 2 July: General personal military service is introduced. 1899 18 May–29 July: First International Peace Conference at The Hague. 1900 7 July: Introduction of compulsory education. 1901 17 March: Foundation of a radical liberal party, the VrijzinnigDemocratische Bond. 11 July: Coalition cabinet of the religious political parties takes power, under Abraham Kuyper as prime minister, until 17 August 1905. 1902

Dutch mediation in the Anglo-Boer War in southern Africa.

1903 January–April: Railway employees go on strike. 9 April: Legislation prohibits civil service personnel from participation in strikes. 1904 15 October: Foundation of a Roman Catholic political party, the Algemeene Bond van RK-kiesverenigingen (after 1926, known as the Rooms-Katholieke Staats Partij), based on the 1896 program of Hermanus Schaepman.

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1905 30 July: Federation of Dutch Socialist Trade Unions (NVV) established. 1907 15 February: Foundation of the Royal Shell Group. 15 June–18 October: Second International Peace Conference at The Hague. 1908 May–December: Conflict with Venezuela over the island of Curaçao. 9 July: Foundation of the Protestant political party Christelijk-Historische Unie, led by Alexander de Savornin Lohman. 1909 13 May: Foundation of the Protestant Christian National Trade Union (CNV). 1910–1912

Agitation for universal suffrage.

1911–1913

Labor legislation.

1914 Arrival of roughly a million refugees from Belgium (occupied by the Germans). 1914–1918

World War I; Dutch proclaim neutrality.

1917 June–July: Food riots in Amsterdam. December: Constitutional reform with introduction of universal (male) suffrage and financial equality for public and religious primary and secondary education.

Interwar Period and Depression (1918–1940) 1918 24 April: Foundation of an orthodox Calvinist political party (Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij) by Dr. Gerrit H. Kersten. 20 September: Foundation of the Hoogovens at IJmuiden. 10 November: Political asylum granted to German emperor Wilhelm II. 11–18 November: Socialist revolution led by Troelstra fails. 1919 9 August: Introduction of universal (male and female) suffrage. 6 November: First Dutch radio broadcast by pioneer Hanso Schotanus à Steringa Idzerda. 1920

10 January: The Netherlands joins the League of Nations.

1922 2 May: Introduction of the 81⁄2-hour workday. 22 July: First session of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, which had

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received its seat there in 1921. 29 December: Constitutional reform offers the possibility of self-government for the colonies. 1923 23 January: Foundation of the Verbond van Actualisten, one of the first fascist parties. 1 September: Opening of the Roman Catholic University at Nijmegen (now Radboud University). 1924 16 April: First radio broadcast through rediffusion. 1 October–24 November: First flight from Holland to the Netherlands East Indies. 1925 11 November: Vatican crisis about the Dutch embassy (“Night of Kersten”). 1926 30 December: Introduction of road tax. 1929 2 September: Foundation of Unilever. 24 October: Financial crisis erupts after the first crash of the New York Stock Exchange. 1931 14 December: Foundation of the National Socialist Party in Holland (NSB). 1932 28 May: Completion of the dam closing off the Zuiderzee (now IJsselmeer) from the North Sea. 1933 4–10 February: Socialist mutiny on the cruiser The Seven Provinces. 1934 4 April: Establishment of a state-subsidized fund (Werkfonds) to combat unemployment during the Great Depression. 4 July: Riots in the Amsterdam city district of De Jordaan. 1936–1939

Dutch volunteers participate in the Spanish Civil War.

World War II (1940–1945) 1940 10 May: Occupation by the Nazi German Army; Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch government go into exile in London. 14 May: Bombing of Rotterdam. 15 May: Capitulation of the Dutch Army is signed by Gen. H. G. Winkelman. 24 July: Manifesto of the Nederlandsche Unie (Netherlands Union).

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1941 25–26 February: February strike (mainly in Amsterdam) prompted by Nazi German anti-Jewish legislation. 7 December: War in the Pacific starts; the Netherlands’ government in exile declares war on Japan. 1942 27–28 February: Battle of the Java Sea lost by Allied forces; Japan occupies the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia). 8 March: Surrender of the Dutch Army on Java. 1943 29 April–3 May: General strike because Nazi Germany intends to take all Dutch troops into captivity. 1944 September: First step to the Benelux Treaty. 17 September: Strike by railway employees begins, leading to famine (“Hunger Winter”) in Holland’s great cities through May 1945. 17–26 September: Allied Operation Market Garden (near Arnhem) against Nazi Germany fails. September–October: Liberation of the southern part of the Netherlands. 2 October: Nazis retaliate against a Dutch Resistance assault with deportation of the male population of Putten (Gelderland). 1945 5 May: Nazi German surrender, celebrated as Liberation Day. 25 June: Schermerhorn-Drees cabinet takes power. 15 August: Japanese surrender in the East Indies. 17 August: Proclamation of the free Republic of Indonesia under Sukarno.

The Postwar Period (1946–2006) 1946 9 February: Foundation of a new socialist democrat party, the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA). 14–24 April: Conference at the Hoge Veluwe (Gelderland) about the future of Indonesia. 1947 21 July–5 August: First Action of armed police forces to suppress the Indonesian nationalist movement. 1948 1 January: Benelux becomes an economic union. 24 January: Foundation of a new liberal party, the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD). 6 September: Reign of Queen Juliana begins with the abdication of her mother, Queen Wilhelmina; Juliana rules until 1980. 19 December: Second Action of police against the Indonesian nationalist movement, through 5 January 1949.

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1949 4 April: Dutch participation in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) begins. 27 December: Transfer of sovereignty of Indonesia. 1951 20 March: Arrival of first South Moluccans in the Netherlands. 2 October: First Dutch television broadcast. 1952 21 May: Opening of the Amsterdam–Rhine canal. 10 August: The Netherlands becomes a member of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). 1953 1 February: Storm disaster in Zeeland leaves some 1,800 people drowned. 1954 30 May: Roman Catholic bishops write a “commandement” discouraging Catholic participation in non-Catholic civil life. 15 December: “Statute” of the Kingdom (new constitution for the relationship between the Netherlands, Surinam, and the Antilles) is signed by the queen. 1956 13 February: Indonesia terminates the special union with the Netherlands. 11 May: Frisian is made the second official language of the Netherlands. 1957 1 January: Introduction of Old Age Pensions Law and married women achieve full legal capacity. 6 December: Expulsion of Dutch people from Indonesia. 1958 1 January: Membership in the European Economic Community (EEC) and European Atomic Energy Commission (EURATOM). 1958–1959 Foundation of the Boerenpartij (Farmers’ Party, an agrarian political protest party). 1959 29 May: Enormous natural gas reserves are found near Slochteren (Groningen). 1963 1 May: The Dutch part of New Guinea is transferred to Indonesia. 1965 25 May: First pamphlet of the urban protest movement Provo is distributed. 1966 10 March: Marriage of Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus. 15 March: Parliament accepts the closure of the Limburg coal mines.

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13–14 June: Riots by construction workers in Amsterdam. 15 September: Foundation of the new progressive political party Democraten 1966 (D66). 1969 16–20 May: Occupation of the Maagdenhuis at the University of Amsterdam. 1971 1 October: Joseph Luns, ex-foreign minister, becomes secretary-general of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) with his term lasting until 25 June 1984. 1972 11 March: Voting age lowered to 18 years in the constitution. 1973 17 October: Start of oil boycott by Arab Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) members, which causes the First Oil Crisis. 1975 25 November: Independence of Surinam. 2–14 December: South Moluccans hijack a train near Wijster (Drenthe) as part of their struggle for a free South Moluccan Republic. 1976 1 January: Foundation of the Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging (FNV, Federation Dutch Labor Movement) (combining the Socialist Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen and the Catholic Nederlands Katholiek Vakverbond). 11 December: The Christian political parties Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP), Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP), and Christelijk-Historische Unie (CHU) decide to form a federation, the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA), for the next elections. 1977 23 May–11 June: South Moluccans hijack a train near De Punt (Drenthe) and take hostages at a primary school in Bovensmilde (Drenthe). 1978 13–14 March: Last violent South Moluccan hostage-taking in the provincial government building in Assen. 1978–1980

Second Oil Crisis.

1980 30 April: Beatrix becomes queen with the abdication of Queen Juliana. 11 October: The Christian Democrats change the CDA from a federation into one party. 18 December: Parliament (Second Chamber) accepts an abortion law.

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1981 21 November: Demonstration in Amsterdam by some 400,000 people against the stationing of cruise missiles in the Netherlands. 1983 17 February: Constitutional reform adds a list of human rights. 29 October: Another mass demonstration by about 550,000 people in The Hague against the stationing of cruise missiles in the country. 1985 14 June: Schengen Treaty is signed by the Netherlands, Germany, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg to bring about the abolition of mutual border checks. 1 November: Government decides to field North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) cruise missiles within three years (decision eventually superseded by the end of the Cold War). 1986 1 January: Aruba receives status aparte within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 1989 May–June: Foundation of a new political party GroenLinks (Green Left), including the old Communist Party, among others. 1991 11 February: Foundation of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization in The Hague. 1992 7 February: Treaty of Maastricht is signed, permitting the free circulation of persons and labor in the countries of the European Union as of 1 November 1993. 4 October: An El Al Boeing 747 crashes in the Bijlmer district of Amsterdam (43 killed, many wounded). 1994 22 August: New political coalition cabinet of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), Democraten 1966 (D66), and Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) is announced. 1995 21 April: Controversial construction of a west–east railroad (Betuwelijn) for the transport of goods to Germany accepted by Parliament. 1997 16–17 June: Treaty of Amsterdam (allowing the admission of East European, former Soviet bloc countries into the European Union) is approved by the European Commission. 11 July: Dutch peacekeepers witness the deportation of Muslims by Bosnian Serbs near Srebrenica.

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1998 3 August: Continuation of the coalition cabinet of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), Democraten 1966 (D66), and Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD). 1999 1 January: Introduction of the euro as a unit of exchange alongside the guilder. 19 May: The 1998 coalition cabinet falls when the Senate rejects the introduction of a corrective referendum. 8 June: The same coalition cabinet continues in power. 2000 13 May: Fireworks tragedy in Enschede kills 23, wounds many more, and destroys the district. 2001 1 January: Fire guts a Volendam pub in Northern Holland frequented by many young people (14 dead, about 150 wounded). 21 March: Start of foot-and-mouth disease crisis in the Netherlands, lasting for months. 1 April: First official gay marriages take place in Amsterdam. 2002 1 January: Abolition of the Dutch guilder and introduction of euro bills and coins in the Netherlands (and 11 other European Union (EU) countries). 1 April: New euthanasia legislation comes into force. 16 April: Fall of the 1998 coalition cabinet after parliamentary debate about the Srebrenica report. 6 May: Politician Pim Fortuijn is murdered by Volkert van der Graaf. 15 May: Elections to the Second Chamber bring a tremendous shift in the composition of the Parliament. 22 July–16 October: New political coalition cabinet of the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA), Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD), and List Pim Fortuyn (LPF). 2003 22 January: New parliamentary elections to the Second Chamber result in a big List Pim Fortun (LPF) loss. 27 May: Democraten 1966 (D66) replaces the LPF in the coalition cabinet with Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) and Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD). 2004 1 May: Merger of the two biggest Reformed Churches and the Lutheran Church into the Protestantse Kerk in Nederland. 2 November: Filmmaker and publicist Theo van Gogh is murdered by the Dutch Muslim Mohammed Bouyeri. 2005 1 June: Dutch majority rejects the European constitution in consultative referendum. 5 December: Trial begins against the Hofstad

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Network, a Dutch Muslim group, mostly of North African descent, continuing through 10 March 2006. 2006 3 February: Government decides to send new Dutch peacekeeping troops to southern Afghanistan, after stormy political debates. 16 May: Ayaan Hirsi Ali leaves the Parliament because of problems concerning her naturalization. 29 June: Fall of the 2003 coalition cabinet after Democraten 1966 (D66) leaves the government because of dissatisfaction with Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) minister Rita Verdonk’s policy in the case of Hirsi Ali. 7 July: Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) and VVD form a minority government to operate until snap elections in November. 22 November: The Socialist Party becomes the third biggest party in Parliament, after the Christian Democrats and the Social Democrats, and the conservative anti-Muslim Party for Freedom enters the Parliament with nine seats (out of 150). 2007 22 February: Start of new coalition government with Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA), Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), and Christian Union.

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Introduction

The Netherlands is located in the northwestern corner of the European continent, along the North Sea. The country borders on Germany in the east and Belgium in the south. The territory of the present Dutch state— since 1839 the Kingdom of the Netherlands, without Belgium, which became an independent state in the 1830s—encompasses an area of 41,526 square kilometers (16,033 square miles), of which 35,054 square kilometers (13,475 square miles) is land. Six islands in the Caribbean also belong to the Kingdom: Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saba, St. Eustatius, and part of St. Martin (St. Maarten). The last five will form the Netherlands Antilles until December 2008. The Netherlands or, as it is frequently but erroneously called, Holland, is a flat land with many bodies of water and rivers. Although there are dunes along the seacoast and hilly counties in the east and southeast, its essential character is a polder landscape. During the last four centuries many parts of the land were reclaimed from former lakes and parts of the IJsselmeer. The climate is moderately rainy, with mainly mild temperatures. The country’s population increased from 2.6 million inhabitants in 1830 (not including Belgium) to about 16.3 million at present. Many people live in the urbanized western part of the Netherlands, the socalled Randstad (or conurbation). Southern Holland is the province with the highest population density: 1,227 inhabitants per square kilometer (472 per square mile). The mean number for the whole country is 484 per square kilometer of land (186 per square mile) in 2006. The large delta of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, Scheldt, IJssel, and others—a region later known as the Low Countries—was a place of human settlement even in prehistoric times. Artifacts have been excavated from the Older Paleolithic period, and some traces left by fishing and hunting peoples (a boat near Pesse, province of Drenthe) were found xlv

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that date from the Mesolithic period, about 6000 B.C. Many artifacts, especially pottery, have been found as remnants of agriculture in the Neolithic period (until about 1550 B.C.). The greater part of this region was conquered by the Roman general Julius Caesar, who subjugated most of the German tribes. The Rhine became an important borderline along which the Roman Empire built many fortifications. Centuries of Roman presence left many material traces: sculpture, jewelry, coins, tombs, and even some texts written on wax tablets or tiles. Moreover, some Roman authors left descriptions of the peoples in these regions (e.g., Caesar himself and Publius Cornelius Tacitus). During the fourth century A.D., Roman authority dwindled in these northern borderlands of the empire, and Germanic tribes again took possession of the region. Some of them assimilated to the Roman (Latin) culture, as in Gaul (later France). Others preserved more of their original Germanic character. Thus a kind of linguistic frontier developed between the Roman and Germanic languages—a dividing line that persists even in the present day in Belgium among French- and Dutchor German-speaking people. The members of most tribes in the (later) Low Countries became farmers and settled down in villages near the sea, living on artificial hills called terps. Along the rivers, a few trade settlements continued from the Roman times or were newly founded. In the eastern and southern parts of the future Netherlands, extensive landownership became common practice. Most inhabitants became part of the domains of large landowners who exercised seigniorial authority. Christianity was slow in penetrating the northwestern regions of Europe. The pagan Frisian king Redbad struggled against the Christian Franks in the beginning of the eighth century, and in 754, pagan Frisians killed the missionary Bonifatius. After the political unification (c. 800) by the first emperor of the Carolingian Empire, Charlemagne, the Roman Catholic Church began to play a central role: as spiritual guide, as cultural mediator (transmitting much of the classical Roman heritage by using Latin as its lingua franca and copying the old texts), and as an economic force. The monasteries often functioned as large landowners. After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire in the ninth century, local lords, including bishops and abbots, acquired more political power. From their ranks stem the members of noble families. Some of

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them founded a hereditary powerbase as regional counts or dukes. The feudal relationship with the German emperor became weak and nominal. As a result of the continuous armed struggles for hegemony, a number of political entities came into being during the later Middle Ages, among them Flanders, Brabant, Zeeland, Holland, Utrecht (seat of the archbishop), and Gelderland. A very important phenomenon was the urbanization of the coastal provinces, in particular Flanders and, later, Holland. The autonomous cities, with their own statutes and free inhabitants, became powerful political, economic, and cultural factors in the development of the Low Countries. During the 15th century, however, it seemed that all these counties would be swallowed up in the mainstream of medieval political development. Powerful “national” monarchies were founded in England, Denmark, France, and Spain. It was the dukes of Burgundy (later part of France) who, through clever matrimonial policy and military power, succeeded in expanding their domain gradually to the north; Philip the Good of Burgundy (1419–1467), for example, incorporated Holland and Zeeland into his possessions in 1428. After the death of Philip’s granddaughter Mary of Burgundy in 1482, her husband Maximilian of Habsburg became ruler of the greater part of the Low Countries. His grandson Charles V, lord of the Netherlands since 1515 and German (Holy Roman) emperor from 1519, managed to unite the “Seventeen Netherlands” into a loose federation in 1548–1549. Maximilian and Charles carried on the unifying policy of their Burgundian predecessors. Neither became “king” of the Netherlands, because they felt compelled to recognize most of the local and regional privileges or “liberties” of their new subjects, but these new Habsburg rulers did undertake several unifying measures. To begin with, government was established in a central capital, Brussels. A member of the Habsburg family acted as governor in the name of the emperor. Central councils of advisors on political and financial matters assisted the governor. A court of appeals in civil cases had already been established in the city of Malines (1473, 1504). Unification of law was one of the means by which more cohesion and eventually integration could be achieved. This would be reached by the declaration of new statutes and laws that would apply to the whole territory of the Netherlands, by making an inventory of regional laws, and by codifying the often unwritten local customary laws.

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These centralizing policies were countered from several quarters. Opposition came from some levels of the nobility who felt isolated or excluded from power because of the growing number of “foreign” advisors to the governor—especially Spaniards during the reign of King Philip II of Spain, son of the German emperor Charles V and heir to the Netherlands (after 1555–1559). An important cause of resistance and disintegration were the edicts against the “heretics.” The persecution of Protestants (followers of Martin Luther and of John Calvin) and Jews (Marranos, or new-Christians) was fierce after the 1540s (in the 1530s the Anabaptists had been the most severely persecuted group of religious dissenters). The introduction of the Inquisition met with widespread disapproval in the Netherlands. While many noblemen protested to the governor and citizens bewailed taxation policies and the impending loss of their old privileges and liberties (autonomy), a violent iconoclastic movement broke out during the summer of 1566. Churches, sacred works of art, and monasteries were damaged. These grievances met with little understanding in government circles, especially in Madrid. The king adopted a hard-line policy and tried to suppress religious, political, and economically motivated resistance with military force. By the late 1560s the severe judicial and military measures taken by the new Spanish governor, the Duke of Alba, elicited armed resistance that was coordinated by one of Philip’s stadtholders, William, Count of Nassau and Prince of Orange. A long civil war, the so-called Revolt, broke out in 1568, later acquiring the name the Eighty Years’ War because it did not end until 1648 with the Treaty of Münster (Peace of Westphalia). During the 1580s, parts of the Netherlands succeeded, by military and political means, in establishing a lasting federation of seven former provinces, now autonomous states, in the north. The most important parts of Brabant and Flanders, however, were lost to the Spanish, which led to the decline of the harbor city of Antwerp. Although the Republic of the Seven United Provinces consisted of a territory that was a geographically complete entity by the end of the 1590s, war continued nonetheless. During the first half of the 17th century, parts of the “Southern” Netherlands were conquered and added to the Republic as territories with no autonomy, governed by the States General in The Hague, which was also the meeting place of the important States of Holland.

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Despite the war with Spain, the economy of the Republic began to flourish. Many Calvinists from Flanders and elsewhere migrated to the new Protestant state, stimulating society with their initiative, knowledge, and networks. The cities of Holland—Amsterdam foremost— particularly profited from this vigorous influx of Calvinists and Jews. Soon economic forces were strengthened by merging, at the initiative of Holland’s grand pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, several commercial companies into one United East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC). After 1602 the VOC also became a political and strategic weapon in the struggle against Spain and Portugal—especially because the northern passage to Asia’s riches turned out to be an illusion (as shown by the voyage of Willem Barentsz in 1596). The juridical genius of Hugo Grotius was instrumental in legitimizing the claims of the States General (e.g., freedom of the seas, the Republic’s entitlement to war booty) in its struggle with Spanish and Portuguese rivals in Asia and the Americas. The young republic was not free from conflicts and controversies. Although the leading political elite was Calvinistic and the privileged church was also Calvinist, many inhabitants were still Roman Catholics or adherents of the many Protestant dissenting groups and sects (Lutherans, Mennonites, Arminians, Quakers, etc.). The Union of Utrecht (1579), which became a kind of fundamental law, guaranteed freedom of conscience, and consequently non-Calvinist denominations were tolerated (including the Jews), although they were not authorized to hold higher offices. The predominantly Catholic provinces Northern Brabant and Limburg had no votes in the States General—just like the poor province of Drenthe. This situation lasted in principle until 1795 when the political emancipation of non-Calvinist citizens was declared. A religious controversy with strong political overtones broke out in the first decades of the 17th century. Orthodox Calvinism was challenged by the theology of Jakob Arminius, whose ideas on human free will and predestination differed from the teachings of Calvin. The followers of Arminius petitioned the authorities to grant them the right to establish their own congregations. This so-called Remonstrantie met with fierce opposition from the orthodox Calvinist clergy, and the authorities were forced to take sides. In the end, the orthodox succeeded in convening a National Synod, in 1619 in the city of Dordrecht. A year earlier, some of the Arminians who occupied important political posts,

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including Grotius and Oldenbarnevelt, were arrested and tried by an extraordinary court on the accusation of high treason: their policy was alleged to be directed at delivering their country into Spanish hands again. The period 1609–1621 constituted the Twelve Years’ Truce, which was opposed by many orthodox believers, as well as by strategists such as the stadtholders Prince Maurice of Orange and his cousin Count William Louis. After 1619 the Arminians, or Remonstranten, were isolated and politically eliminated. They formed a separate church, which has since been tolerated on the same terms as other Protestant dissenters, after a period of persecution. Grotius, who escaped from prison—he had been sentenced to life imprisonment—never obtained permission to return to his native country. During the international peace negotiations, a new crisis broke out. Stadtholder William II of Orange attempted by military force to compel his opponents, the regents of the big cities, to give up part of their political power. William’s attack on Amsterdam in 1650, however, failed. After the sudden death of the prince the same year, the regents, who were opposed to the concentration of more power in the hands of a quasi-hereditary stadtholder—a kind of king—decided not to appoint a new official and to exclude William II’s posthumously born son, William III, from this office. Their oligarchic concept of the “true liberty” best suited their particularistic view of the state’s interests. Only the northern provinces had a stadtholder, from the House of NassauDietz. Between 1650 and 1672 Johan de Witt served his masters, the States of Holland, as grand pensionary. In practice he gave direction to the foreign policy of the Republic. Inevitably the Republic’s expansion in world trade and its often-aggressive policy provoked resistance from new rivals, especially England and France. Three Anglo-Dutch Wars were fought at sea (1652–1654, 1665–1667, and 1672–1674), the last of which left the Republic seriously weakened. In 1672, de Witt’s policy of neutrality and balance of power collapsed under the joint pressure of England, France, and the bishops of Münster and Cologne. De Witt was lynched by a mob in The Hague, and the States of Holland appointed the young William III as stadtholder (political and military leader). War with France lasted until 1678, and even then, the peace treaty of Nijmegen was no more than a truce. The French king, Louis XIV, had

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no intention of stopping his expansionist policy, which aimed at conquering more parts of the Spanish—later Austrian—Southern Netherlands. He succeeded during his long reign in annexing several cities and counties, including Dutch-speaking lands. Meanwhile, the Golden Age was unfolding its splendor. During the previous three-quarters of a century, Dutch commercial and colonial activities had yielded rich harvests. The Republic’s economy was stimulated and diversified. Of course, the agrarian sector continued, but above all the towns in the highly urbanized province of Holland were productive, with textile industries, breweries, shipyards, and so on. Fishing, including whaling, was also an important economic activity. Economic prosperity undoubtedly stimulated cultural, artistic, and intellectual activity and creativity. Although a court life comparable to that of the European kings was virtually nonexistent, the rich and powerful city patricians and landed gentry acted as patrons and buyers of the many works of art. Many painters, not only those with the sublime quality of Rembrandt and Vermeer but also men and women such as Jan Steen, Frans Hals, and Judith Leyster, had devoted followers. New churches, town halls, mansions in the city, and country houses were built by architects such as Hendrick de Keyzer and Jacob van Campen. Music, especially for the organ, was composed by Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck. Literature and historiography were represented by Joost van den Vondel, Constantijn Huygens, Adriaen Bredero, and Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft. After 1575, when the University of Leiden was founded, several more academies, or universities, were established, for example, at Franeker, Groningen, Utrecht, and Harderwijk. Many famous scholars were appointed as professors, such as the jurists Johannes Voet and Antonius Matthaeus or scientists such as Herman Boerhaave. Although some academies temporarily possessed an institute for the education of engineers and surveyors, many scientists, such as Simon Stevin, Adriaen Leeghwater, and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, were employed outside the theory-oriented universities. The wealth, relative openmindedness, and toleration in the Republic attracted many foreigners, not only soldiers, sailors, servants, peddlers, and artisans but also philosophers such as Rene Descartes and John Locke. The 17th century closed with the Dutch stadtholder William III, married to Mary Stuart, succeeding his dethroned father-in-law, James II, as

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king of England in 1689. The continued warfare on the continent, against France in particular, exhausted the resources of the relatively thinly populated Republic. The strong monarchical tendencies of William III’s government did not fit the views of the still particularistic and oligarchic city patricians. In Holland and some other provinces, the States refrained from appointing a new stadtholder after the death of William III in 1702. The Nine Years’ War (1688–1697) and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) left the Republic impoverished or, at least, weakened. It was no longer capable of playing a prominent role in international relations. A conservative policy had taken the place of colonial expansionism, and this was not unsuccessful in the short run. The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) brought a new setback. Once more the French military threat had its repercussions on Dutch domestic political developments. In 1747 the Frisian stadtholder was appointed stadtholder by the States of Holland and other provinces, influenced by many local riots. William IV was the first to hold the office in all of the seven provinces. However, no more than his predecessor in 1672 did he intend to function as a people’s tribune. Among the city magistrates, he appointed new members, mostly his clients, but this did not alter the aristocratic and oligarchic essence of traditional republican government. Until the final decades of the 18th century, all efforts to reform the constitution and the machinery of the government failed; even the weighty projects of Grand Pensionary Simon van Slingelandt from the 1720s and 1730s were shelved. Research by modern economic historians has shown that the economic decline of the Republic during the 18th century was not serious in an absolute sense, but it was so when compared with the expanding economies of other European states. Undoubtedly there existed as yet flourishing business firms, and the high finance of Amsterdam remained a solid notion in Europe, but it is an undeniable fact that many traditional industries, such as textiles, declined. Many people were unemployed, and poverty could not be overlooked, even by contemporaries. The malaise is not “real” only because a third of the population of a city like Leiden, for example, lived on charity, but because it is reflected in the publications of contemporaries as well, such as in the Spectator periodicals, and in the numerous projects for recovery that were promoted, or only written about, by worried men.

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In a society in which the idea of “class” was deeply ingrained— everyone had to accept the place to which he had been born—and where the state lacked the instruments for a purposeful welfare policy, the poor were dependent on the charity of their church or community. Both in the towns and in the countryside, these institutions failed to dispel the causes of poverty. Experiments with enterprises subsidized by the city magistrates, such as for spinning, were economically unviable and were too obviously aimed at relieving the budget for poor relief to be effective socially or psychologically. The Age of Enlightenment had its effects on Dutch cultural and intellectual life. People with an open mind tried to reconcile new scientific discoveries with traditional religious dogma, of which the so-called physicotheology is a typical Dutch teleological blend. There was a public debate on secularization, tolerance, and reform in the country where many books by authors who were banned in France were printed and distributed. Rational reasoning seemed capable of dispelling much of the old frightening beliefs, now considered superstitions (e.g., witchcraft, sorcery, the devil). But even this age was not free of deep anxieties, as the judicial persecutions of “sodomites” demonstrate. The demand for more political participation could also be heard in the oligarchic, “bourgeois” Republic. The nonprivileged second-rate citizens, Roman Catholics but in particular the Protestant dissenters, including many well-to-do Mennonites and Lutherans, claimed civil rights and political influence. The American Revolution and especially the Declaration of Independence in 1776 served as inspiring models, for example, to Joan Derk van der Cappellen, who published anonymously his famous pamphlet Aan het Volk van Nederland [To the People of the Netherlands] in 1781. The writings of Richard Price and Thomas Paine were also translated and widely read. Again a war with Britain served as a catalyst for internal tensions and dissatisfaction. The stadtholder and his clients were in favor of an amicable policy toward Britain, whereas the groups who called themselves Patriots championed the cause of the American rebels. They found support from the French, as the traditional rivals (even in Canada!) of the British. This Fourth Anglo-Dutch War at sea broke out in 1780 as a result of these international political controversies but also because many Dutch merchants systematically disregarded British regulations that forbade trade with the American rebels. Although Admiral Zoutman

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was hailed as a hero, the battle near Kamperduin was in fact a disaster. The Dutch fleet was eliminated, and a British blockade left little room for the merchant navy. The international humiliation and the domestic malaise intensified political tensions. Patricians and oligarchic local governments were divided. The Patriots accused the members of the Orange party of mismanagement at all political and social levels. The core of their criticism, however, was directed against the oligarchic and particularistic system of government. The Patriots advocated more or less universal values: the fundamental rights of men. The power struggle lasted until September 1787, when the Prussian king sent an army to the Republic to help his sister and her husband, Stadtholder William V, to regain their position and influence. In the opinion of their opponents, most Patriots had usurped power by ousting, occasionally by armed force, the Orangists from their traditional seats in government (among the city magistrates, in the provincial state assemblies, and in the States General). Many Patriots fled to the Southern (Austrian) Netherlands and the north of France to escape the revenge of their opponents. The restoration of the Orange party was accompanied by a political purge, but the new government proved incapable of reforming the most serious and obvious defects in the working of the state’s machinery. Not even the far-reaching consequences of the French Revolution after 1789 could get the Dutch hereditary stadtholder and his advisors to listen to the as yet modest political demands of their subjects. It was virtually impossible for the Dutch Republic to recover lost ground on the international scene. French troops invaded its territory in January 1795, having already occupied the Austrian Netherlands during the Coalition War. William V fled to England, never to return (he died in 1806). The Patriots, including the returning refugees of 1787, seized power, but their task of reforming the Dutch government was really a difficult one. On the local and provincial levels, elected provisional representatives took power. The States General acted as an institution for more than a year. In 1795 it produced a Dutch version of the famous French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Negotiations between the former provincial states on the new foundations of the state government were difficult. The agreement on an elected National Assembly did not solve the dispute about the extent to

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which federal organization should be replaced by national—that is, central and hierarchical—institutions and government. The controversy over maintaining the traditional federalist structure of the state was sharpened by the problem of the eventual amalgamation of the provincial debts, of which the debt of Holland was by far the largest. In the end, on 1 March 1796, a National Assembly elected by universal (male) suffrage convened in The Hague. Its most significant task was to draft a constitution for the Batavian Republic. After two drafts had been rejected, the third was accepted only after a coup of radical Unitarians and a purge of the registers of enfranchised citizens in 1798. A few weeks after the declaration of the national constitution (the first since the Union of Utrecht in 1579) in May 1798, the radicals were ousted from power by a second coup of moderates. New constitutions followed in quick succession in 1801 and 1805, more or less under French pressure, until in 1806 a puppet kingdom was established under Louis Napoléon, a brother of the French emperor Napoléon Bonaparte. Meanwhile political controversies prevented the scheduled quick drafting of Dutch national codes of law planned in 1796. Dependency on a greedy “friendly” ally obstructed domestic, social, and economic development. The war in Europe deprived the Republic of the contact with—and the eventual profits from—its colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Most of its colonies (e.g., the Cape and the Indies) were occupied by Britain. After 1806 a blockade at sea, and the closing of the border as a consequence of Napoléon’s so-called Continental Blockade, cut most merchants off from their overseas trade. Agriculture was the only sector that profited from these obstructive measures. In 1810, the French emperor decided to annex the small “independent” Kingdom of Holland (the successor of the Batavian Republic). This réunion de la République à l’Empire, as the French, with a perfect sense of understatement, put it, was undoubtedly the most distressing phase in Dutch national history—comparable only to the German occupation during World War II, with the important difference that in 1810 no one lifted a finger. After the military defeats of Napoléon in 1813, foreign armies once more invaded the territory of the former Republic; Russians, Prussians, and British liberated the Netherlands in fact, although not in theory, because in several cities last-minute provisional magistrates were established, just in time to avoid the stigma of absolute idleness, to take

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power from the retreating and fleeing French soldiers and officials. They were happily capable of keeping public order and of negotiating with the victorious generals. At the same time, a provisional national government was proclaimed at The Hague, where a triumvirate made preparations for the return of the son of the late William V as sovereign prince. The international peace conference held in Vienna determined the formation of a new state, which included the strategically important estuaries of the rivers Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt as a strong barrier against eventual French expansionist inclinations. The former Austrian Netherlands were united with the territory of the former Dutch Republic in a monarchy under King William I of Orange. Most of its old colonies, however, remained in the possession of victorious Britain. Only the East Indies, the Gold Coast, and some territories in the Caribbean (including Surinam) were returned. King William I ruled as a paternalistic, enlightened despot. The constitution of 1815 included a new Parliament, named the States General as of old, with two chambers. The influence of the partially elected membership was severely restricted. The king could feel free to appoint and dismiss his ministers as he chose. William owed his epithet “merchant-king” to the many initiatives he took to stimulate trade and industries. Despite his undeniable qualities, however, the king did not succeed in merging the two parts of his newly created kingdom of the Netherlands. Not only were there contrasts in religion (Protestant vs. Roman Catholic), in language (Dutch-Flemish vs. French), and in economic development (agrarian/commercial vs. agrarian/industrial) but also in “national” consciousness. Two centuries of autonomous development was not easy to bridge. In the 1820s, clerical and liberal opposition united to force the government into making concessions of more freedom in its policy toward the church and its educational institutions and toward the press. Although some compromises were reached, the population was still highly dissatisfied. The revolts that broke out in many European countries in 1830 against oligarchic, conservative, and sometimes oppressive governments (e.g., in Russian-occupied Poland) also had their repercussions in the Southern Netherlands. In Brussels a revolt broke out that developed into a revolution. International pressure prevented a military victory by government

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troops over the insurgents. In 1831, the revolutionary provisional government in Brussels proclaimed a monarchy for Belgium. King William I stubbornly refused to recognize the de facto situation, which was backed by major powers such as Britain and France. The status quo policy until 1839, which included only an armistice, cost the North a fair amount of its prosperity, and the king most of his popularity. After the abdication of the king in 1840, his son and successor William II had to deal with considerable financial and political problems. In Parliament the liberals were gaining influence but were not successful until 1848 when the king, swayed by the revolution in France, accepted constitutional reform. The foundations for the liberal constitution were laid mainly by Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, who became one of the most influential politicians in the decades to come. The new constitution granted Parliament more control over state finances. It recognized the citizen’s right of free speech, association, and assembly and created more opportunities for political participation—albeit of a still very limited number of citizens—not only on a national but also provincial and local levels. One of the main political issues was responsible government. This could only be realized after 1868, however, when the conservative King William III (R. 1849–1890) was made to relinquish the privilege of appointing and dismissing ministers at his own discretion: The will of the parliamentary majority had triumphed. Other main issues during his long reign were the extension of suffrage, the emergence of confessional political parties, and the struggle for state-subsidized secular and confessional school education. A characteristic development in Dutch society is the so-called process of pillarization (verzuiling). The emancipation of Roman Catholics, of Calvinist Protestants, and of socialist workers and intellectuals materialized not only into separate political parties (after the 1870s) but also into their own social organizations (trade unions and associations of all kinds) and schools. Until the 1970s the different elites in the pillars (zuilen) were able to negotiate solutions for problems in political and social areas. One of the most important was the pacification of the struggle for the confessional school. This solution had come within reach after the monopoly of the liberals was terminated at the end of the 19th century and governments of varying coalitions had taken over power, in which the religious parties played a dominant role.

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Following the mid-19th century, the Netherlands slowly became an industrialized country that profited not only from its possessions in the East Indies (thanks to the so-called cultuurstelsel) but also from its commercial activities, favorable geographical situation (for transport), and new industrial activities. Modern capitalism was accompanied by its usual social problems: proletarianization, social inequality, and labor protest. Through skillful articulation and effective collective action, the employers and the political elites were gradually compelled to accept legal measures that attenuated the often-miserable situation of agrarian and industrial wage workers and guaranteed laborers their social rights and security, including the eight-hour workday, 48-hour (and later 40hour) workweek, and so on. Social development in the Netherlands never reached the extremes of hostility and bitterness that characterized the conditions of the working classes in some other countries. The communists remained a marginal phenomenon in Dutch political life. Even the leader of the Social Democratic Party, Pieter Jelles Troelstra, dramatically overrated the revolutionary disposition of the masses when he “proclaimed” the revolution in November 1918, the month of socialist and communist agitations and revolutions in Germany and Russia. Externally the Netherlands was confronted by two world wars, with internal repercussions. During World War I (1914–1918), the belligerents were barely prepared to recognize Dutch neutrality. The “total war,” with submarines and mines, caused considerable damage to the Dutch merchant fleet and other economic interests. One of the lasting effects of the wartime economy was the rapidly growing influence of government and bureaucracy on Dutch social and economic life—a tendency that had already begun in the 1880s with the waning influence of political liberalism. Gradually the Netherlands became more intensively part of an intricate international economic and cultural web. Because of its lack of minerals (except coal and the more recently discovered natural gas), Dutch industrial activities had to rely to a large extent on services, import and export, and transit. European artistic trends found their Dutch representatives in literature, painting, and architecture, among them Herman Gorter, Jan Toorop, Piet Mondriaan, and Hendrik Berlage. Besides the problem of overcoming the consequences of World War I and of the Great Depression, the Dutch had to cope with the “colonial

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question.” After the late 19th century, the policy of outright exploitation was replaced by the more ethical promotion of slowly increased selfgovernment in the last major colony, the Netherlands East Indies. The nationalists there, however, were impatient with the benevolent but slow patriarchal government. Their leader, Sukarno, seized his opportunity in the last months of World War II, when the Japanese, who had occupied the Indies and brought nearly all the European inhabitants in humiliating and often fatal conditions into the concentration camps, were defeated by the Allied armies. An independent Republic of Indonesia was proclaimed, which the Dutch government was obliged to recognize in 1949 under international pressure (from the United States and the United Nations) after failing to defeat the nationalists with armed force. In 1963, Indonesia also occupied New Guinea. South Moluccans, who had been brought “temporarily” from the Indonesian archipelago to the Netherlands during the 1950s, formed another colonial heritage. They kidnapped trains and took possession of public buildings during the 1970s to demand the establishment of their own independent republic, but in vain. Meanwhile, domestic policy in the interwar years had been pursued under the menace of the giant neighbor, Nazi Germany. The Netherlands was occupied by the German military, without a declaration of war, in May 1940. Losses during the war (1939–1945) were enormous in material, economic, and human terms (damage to infrastructure, and hundreds of thousands of people killed as soldiers, hostages, or victims of concentration or extermination camps). The persecution of the Jews and other minorities and the phenomenon of “collaboration” left deep mental wounds. Retribution and reconstruction took many years in a period that demanded adjustments to a radical new constellation of international relations. Being a beneficiary of the U.S. Marshall Plan and as a member of the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Dutch foreign policy had to comply with the wishes of the major Western democratic states, especially during the Cold War period, until 1989. The Netherlands’ last colonies, in the West Indies, were to be granted independence (Surinam in 1975) or given a special status (Netherlands Antilles; status aparte for Aruba in 1986) in the constitution. At the end of 2008, all Dutch isles in the Caribbean will receive a separate position.

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Although for a while postwar politics resumed its traditional pillarized shape, the Dutch economy recovered remarkably well. The welfare state was guided by cabinets of varying coalitions of the religious, socialist, and liberal parties. Then the old political order was suddenly challenged by protests from unexpected quarters: university and high school students. They demanded, and quickly got, more democratic procedures for decision making in their institutions. Christian churches at the same time lost members in large numbers. Yet these convulsive movements of democratization and secularization did not fundamentally change the political system. As elsewhere in the Western world, bureaucracy has won out. The role of the state was never so extensive that it could not be countered recently in some respects by a process of privatization of some state tasks or institutions. Another feature of great significance in the long run is the enthusiastic Dutch participation in the process of gradual European economic, and recently political, integration. The Netherlands had already accepted closer cooperation with Belgium and Luxembourg through the Benelux Treaty (1948, 1958), and it soon took a further step as a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), of which it was an active member. Over the years from 1957 on, it cooperated in the transition from the EEC to the European Community (EC) and then the European Union (EU). It also participated in numerous other European bodies, including the Western European Union and the Council of Europe. And it cooperated with the United States through NATO. Furthermore, the Netherlands has participated in several UN peacekeeping operations, of which, however, the mission in former Yugoslavia ended traumatically in 1995. Dutch “blue helmets” did not or could not prevent the deportation of thousands of Muslims by Bosnian Serbs, who murdered them brutally. After a lengthy investigation, the second Wim Kok cabinet took political responsibility for the Dutch part in the state of affairs and resigned in 2002. During the last decades, Dutch society has been undergoing its own transformation. The national identity and self-consciousness, the feeling of having a mission in the world and a sense of national historical pride, has slowly eroded through decolonization and immigration and has been replaced by a self-image in which tolerance, (Christian) secularization, and permissiveness in sexuality and drug use stand out. Parliamentary elections showed that the political landscape can change very

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fast, because many people do not feel attached to their traditional political parties anymore. This led to new political relationships, and in 1994 to the rather unique situation that Socialists and Liberals formed a coalition government, with the Christian Democrats in the opposition role. As a result, new legislation on touchy subjects, such as euthanasia and same-sex civil weddings, became possible. This is occurring in a country that, with its roughly 16.3 million inhabitants, is one of the most densely populated in the world. According to part of the population, the Dutch government has permitted too many requests of asylum in the last decades. They have argued that multiculturalism and lack of integration by foreigners, especially by Muslim groups, could disturb society too much. After 2000, Pim Fortuijn became the spokesman for this political outlook. He put forward general feelings of dissatisfaction and proclaimed a gap between the political establishment and society. His fast political rise, however, was cut short when he was murdered in 2002. Two years later, the killing of Theo van Gogh, who had criticized Islam as a backward religion, caused a new shock. A decline of tolerance and public trust could be observed, and Dutch society appeared to be drifting. Moreover, a period of increase in prices—after the introduction of the euro in 2002—and economic stagnation caused pessimism. These circumstances partially explain the Dutch rejection of the European constitution in the 2005 referendum, although the government had already signed this new treaty the previous year. Parliamentary elections at the end of 2006 showed once again that floating voters and topical issues can change power relations between political parties very fast. Nonetheless, despite many trials and tribulations, there has been real progress, particularly since World War II. And the Dutch have perhaps done a better job of coming to terms with their limitations than many others in the world.

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THE DICTIONARY

–A– AALBERSE, PETRUS JOSEPHUS MATTHEUS (“PIET”) (1871–1948). Jurist and politician. Aalberse was a member of Parliament for the Rooms-Katholieke Staats Partij (RKSP, Roman Catholic State Party) and served as minister of labor affairs and of trade and industry (1918–1925). He wrote treatises on social and economic issues. ABN AMRO. In 1991, the Algemene Bank Nederland (ABN) merged with the Amsterdamsche-Rotterdamsche Bank (AMRO), forming ABN AMRO. This enterprise has become one of the largest banks in Europe, with branches all over the world. Its main operations are banking, insurance, and property management and leasing. ABN’s roots go back to the Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij (NHM) of 1824. The Rotterdamsche Bank was founded in 1863, and the Amsterdamsche Bank in 1871; a merger between the two into AMRO, put on hold in 1939 because of the threat of war, was not achieved until 1964. Recently, ABN AMRO has had troubles in the United States because the bank was involved in matters of fraud. ABORTION. Termination of pregnancies was debated intensively in the Netherlands during the 1960s and 1970s, when the practice of abortions started illegally in special clinics. The feminist group Dolle Mina in particular fought for legalization. Several Christian groups, on the other hand, reacted by standing up for the unborn child. In 1980–1981, during the first Dries van Agt cabinet, the Dutch Parliament accepted—with a very small majority—the legalization of abortion until the 24th week of a pregnancy. The rate of abortions, 1

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however, remained relatively low, as a result of adequate information and birth control. From 2001, the Dutch nonprofit organization Women on Waves shocked traditionally antiabortion countries such as Ireland, Poland, and Portugal by sailing from their coasts to international waters with its mobile clinic for advice and abortion. ACEH (ATJEH) WAR. The Treaty of Sumatra of 1871 between Great Britain and the Netherlands relieved the latter of its obligation under an 1824 treaty of the same name to respect the independence of the Sultanate of Aceh in the north of Sumatra in the Indonesian archipelago. Aceh piracy caused the Dutch government to abandon its traditional policy of noninterference in Indonesian internal affairs. Beginning in 1873, several military expeditions were sent against Aceh, of which the sole immediate result was the occupation of its capital, Kutaradja (now Banda Aceh). Only in 1912, after brutal military actions, was resistance broken. In 1918, Aceh was granted its own civil administration. The famous Leiden professor of Islamic studies Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje and Johannes van Heutsz played important roles as advisors of the government in the process of pacification in Aceh. ADMIRALTY. During the 17th and 18th centuries, military defense at sea was organized by five boards of admiralty established at Amsterdam, Hoorn, Enkhuizen, Middelburg, and Dokkum (since 1645 at Harlingen). The tasks of the admiralties were to maintain, under the supervision of the States General, a navy for the safety of trade at sea, for instance, by levying taxes on imported merchandise (convooi-en licentgelden), and to exercise jurisdiction in disputes on prices. Since the Batavian Revolution of 1795, one Committee for the Navy, the precursor of the Ministry of War, substituted for the five boards. AFSLUITDIJK. See ZUIDERZEE. AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (c. 1443–1485). Humanist. Born Roelof Huijsman at Baflo, in the province of Groningen, he studied at the University of Louvain and elsewhere. With the learned Wessel Gansfort, Agricola was one of the members of the humanist Ad-

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uard circle, organized by the abbot of the monastery of Aduard, near the city of Groningen. He served this city as a teacher after 1480 and worked as professor in Heidelberg, where he died in 1485. Agricola was held in high esteem by Erasmus, Philipp Melanchton, and others because of his knowledge of Greek and his scholarship in dialectics and rhetoric. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture has been one of the most important means of subsistence since prehistoric times. During the Middle Ages, agriculture was mainly organized by large landowners, including monasteries, or by colonists who turned wastelands into cultivated farms, for instance, in the borderland between the provinces of Holland and Utrecht. In the later Middle Ages, serfdom disappeared in most parts of western Europe. Agriculture became mostly a smallscale enterprise in the Netherlands, farmers being owners or tenants. During the 19th century, agriculture was a prospering sector of economic activities, particularly in the coastal provinces, apart from a severe agricultural crisis in 1878; other production, cooperation, and specializing countered this crisis. In the last decades of this century, the farms in the sandy areas of the country transformed from a socalled peasant economy to a more profitable commercial economy. In the 20th century, the number of farms has steadily decreased, although new land was reclaimed in the IJsselmeer. Yet, through intensive cultivation, economies of scale, and modern techniques, some sectors such as the production of cheese, vegetables, and flowers have survived or prospered. Dairy farming also remained a highly developed branch. Nevertheless, the agricultural sector has not ceased shrinking, dropping from about 300,000 farms in 1968 to around 145,000 in 1980 and about 81,000 in 2005. Now using about 54 percent of the Dutch soil, it represents about 2 percent of gross national product. The proportion of people working in agriculture diminished from about 17 percent in 1950 to just 1 percent of the present labor force. This decline has probably been eased by policies of the European Union (EU) and its predecessors. The issuing of rules, for instance, to decrease milk and dung surpluses, has made farming a more complicated activity recently. Furthermore, swine fever (1997), foot-and-mouth disease (2001), and fowl pest (2003) had to be controlled. Yet, the Netherlands is still one of world’s greatest exporters

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of agricultural products. Dutch forestry, however, is only a marginal industry, because woodland is scarce and mostly used for recreational purposes. See also FISHING; WAGENINGEN. AGT, DRIES (ANDREAS ANTONIUS MARIA) VAN (1931– ). Politician. After studying law at the Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University), van Agt worked as a solicitor in the Ministry of Justice. In 1968, he was appointed professor of criminal law at the University of Nijmegen. He later became president of the scientific department of the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party). Van Agt became minister of justice in 1971; during this period, issues had to be resolved regarding abortion legislation and the release of German war criminals. As leader of the new religious party Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA), van Agt served as prime minister in three cabinets from 1977 to 1982. He subsequently functioned as ambassador of the European Union (EU) to Japan (1987) and the United States (1990). Since 1995, he has been a member of several councils and committees, for example, as president of the advisory body of the International Forum for Justice and Peace, which works for the cause of the Palestinians. He is also visiting professor of the University of Kyoto in Japan. AHOLD. Royal Ahold’s origins date from the 19th century, when it started as Albert Heijn’s grocery store in Oostzaan, Northern Holland. The family concern went public in 1948 and became the largest supermarket chain in the Netherlands. After the transformation into Ahold in 1973, it developed into one of the world’s largest supermarket operators and retail companies. In 2003, Ahold had serious troubles because its American subsidiary, US Foodservice, caused an accounting scandal. Ahold is headquartered in Zaandam, Northern Holland. AIR FRANCE–KLM. See KLM. AITZEMA, LIEUWE VAN (1600–1669). Historian. Born in the city of Dokkum, van Aitzema studied at the Academy of Franeker, in his native province of Frisia. During his grand tour in Europe, he earned his degree in law at the University of Orléans in France. He settled as

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a solicitor in The Hague, where after 1629 he served some foreign powers as their diplomatic agent (especially the German Hansa towns of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lübeck). Van Aitzema made many journeys to European courts, during which he amassed much documentation. His scholarship in diplomacy and diplomatic history was invested in a lavishly documented history of the foreign relations of the Republic, published in 14 volumes between 1657 and 1671. Because of his custom of communicating more or less confidential state papers to diplomats of other countries (especially England), van Aitzema was later accused of treason. In Dutch historiography, he became a controversial personality. A recent study about his political theory is Gees van der Plaat’s 2003 Eendracht als opdracht: Lieuwe van Aitzema’s bijdrage aan het publieke debat in de zeventiendeeeuwse Republiek [Union as a Task: Lieuwe van Aitzema’s Contribution to the Public Debate in the 17th-Century Republic]. AKZO NOBEL. The international concern that resulted in 1994 from a merger of the Dutch AKZO and the Swedish Nobel firm. AKZO’s roots go back to the 19th century with the Algemene Kunstzijde Unie (AKU), manufacturer of synthetic fibers, and the Koninklijke ZoutOrganon (KZO), manufacturer of salt and chemical products (including medicine), which joined as AKZO in 1969. Akzo Nobel is manufacturer of pharmaceuticals, coatings, and chemicals. In 1998, it acquired Courtaulds, a leading chemical company in high-tech industrial coatings and fibers. The company is headquartered in Arnhem, has activities in more than 80 countries, and employs about 61,000 people. See also FENTENER VAN VLISSINGEN. ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF (1507– 1582). Spanish commander-in-chief sent by King Philip II to put down the Revolt in the Netherlands in 1567. The following year he was also appointed governor. Alba tried with all military and judicial means to suppress dissent and revolt and to further centralize government in the Netherlands. He introduced a general tax, the tenth penny (tiende penning), which became a new incentive for revolt. In 1573, he was recalled by the king. In contemporary reports and in Protestant historiography, the name of Alba has long remained synonymous with atrocious tyranny.

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ALFRINK, BERNARDUS JOHANNES (1900–1987). Professor, archbishop, and cardinal. As professor, Alfrink lectured on exegesis of the Old Testament and Hebrew at the Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University) from 1945 until 1951. Then he became titular archbishop of Tyana and coadjutor of Cardinal Johannes de Jong (1885–1955), archbishop of Utrecht. After de Jong passed away, Alfrink became the next Utrecht archbishop, which he remained until 1975. He was raised to the rank of cardinal in 1960. Alfrink played an important role during the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). In this period, many Dutch Roman Catholics criticized or left their church. Alfrink participated in three conclaves (1963 and twice in 1978). ALGEMEEN NEDERLANDSCH VERBOND (ANV; GENERAL NETHERLANDS UNION). In 1895, Hippoliet Meert (1865–1924), a Belgian teacher from Brussels, founded the General Netherlands Union. The ANV moved its offices to Holland on 1 May 1898. Its objectives are the consolidation of public spirit among Dutchspeaking peoples and the promotion of the Dutch language. One of the most famous propagators of the so-called great-Netherlandic ideal was Pieter Geyl, professor of history in Utrecht. The periodical of the ANV is Neerlandia, published since 1896. ALI, AYAAN HIRSI. See HIRSI ALI (MAGAN), AYAAN (1969– ). ALMERE. Young, very fast-growing city in the province of Flevoland, with about 180,000 inhabitants. Its first houses were built in 1976. In the first decades, Almere functioned mainly as an Amsterdam suburb. However, the city has increasingly created its own economic, educational, and cultural infrastructure. The name Almere, which means “lake,” was first used in Roman times for the mass of water that became known as the Zuiderzee. AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. The 1763–1776 revolt of the American colonists against the British crown made a deep impression in the Dutch Republic. The treatises of Joseph Priestley, Thomas Paine, and others were translated. The Declaration of Inde-

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pendence inspired many so-called Patriots. The Dutch Republic was one of the first European states to recognize the American federation, John Adams being the first ambassador. AMERSFOORT. This city, with rights from 1259, in the province of Utrecht, was named after the Amer River (now the Eems). It grew around the original episcopal court. During the Republic, the city was known for its textile industry and tobacco cultivation. The Orangist part of the States of Utrecht gathered here in 1786–1787. After a period of decline, the city recovered after the 1880s, when it became connected to the railway system. During World War II, a concentration camp was located near Amersfoort. The town’s wellpreserved historic center is famous for its high medieval church tower (98 meters/320 feet), old wall-houses (the Muurhuizen), and the Koppelpoort, a land and water gate. At present, the city has about 120,000 inhabitants. The new district Kattenbroek is attractive for its modern architecture. AMSBERG, CLAUS VON. See CLAUS GEORGE WILLEM OTTO FREDERIK GEERT VAN AMSBERG (1926–2002). AMSTERDAM. Capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1814. The town came into being around an artificial dam in the river Amstel about 1275. Via the IJ River, the harbor kept an open connection to the Zuiderzee (now the IJsselmeer). Amsterdam rose to riches and power in the 17th century, when its population was estimated at 220,000. The merchants of the town, where the board of the East India Company had its seat, became an important political factor. Despite some economic stagnation during the 18th century, Amsterdam once more became a powerful center of enterprise, industry, banking, and harbor activities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although only approximately 745,000 people now live in the city itself, many others earn their living there or are otherwise dependent on it. Amsterdam has several famous museums (e.g., the Rijksmuseum, Van Gogh Museum, Stedelijk Museum, Anne Frank House, and the Rembrandt House), the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, and two universities.

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AMSTERDAM SCHOOL. During the years 1910–1925 an artistic movement in architecture blossomed in Amsterdam, inspired by European Expressionism (Bauhaus, Weimar) and Frank Lloyd Wright. Its leading architects, Michel de Klerk (1884–1923) and Pieter Lodewijk Kramer (1881–1961), proclaimed individualistic and l’art pour l’art principles against the most famous architect, Hendrik Berlage. Danish influences can clearly be seen in the work of the Amsterdam School, for example, in the elegant spires and small stained-glass windows. ANABAPTISTS. One of the Protestant movements striving for the reformation of the Christian church. One of its characteristics was the rejection of the baptism of newborn children. A radical branch that adhered to social communism became notorious when, under the direction of Jan Matthijsz (d. 1535) and Jan Beuckelsz of Leiden (c. 1510–1536), it forcibly seized power in the German city of Münster (1534–1535), hoping to bring about the arrival of God’s kingdom on Earth. Their revolution ended in a violent and bloody defeat. Menno Simons (1496–1561) reorganized the remnants of Anabaptism into a peaceful fraternity. During the 18th and 19th centuries, several Anabaptist families, known as Mennonites (after Menno Simons), immigrated to Russia and North America. ANARCHISM. A collective term that encompasses several individualistic, antiauthoritarian, and libertarian political and social movements. One of the most famous spokesmen for anarchism in the Netherlands was Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis in his old age. One of the branches, the Christian anarchists, were inspired by the ideals of the Russian Count Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). Anarchist tendencies are still present in the squatting movement. ANDRIESSEN, FRANS (FRANSISCUS HENRICUS JOHANNES JOZEF) (1929– ). Politician. Frans Andriessen studied law at the University of Utrecht and became a specialist in public housing problems. As a member of the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party), Andriessen was elected to Parliament in 1967. After 10 years, he was appointed minister of finance in the first cabinet of Prime Minister Dries van Agt. In the European Commis-

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sion of the European Union (EU), Andriessen served under Gaston Thorn (1981–1985) and then under Jacques Delors (1985–1992). He was a member of many councils and committees, and, since 1990, has been an unpaid professor of European integration at the University of Utrecht. ANNA PAVLONA (PAULOWNA) ROMANOV (1795–1865). Queen of the Netherlands. She was the daughter of Tsar Paul I (1796–1801) and sister of Tsar Alexander I (1801–1825). In 1816, she married William, the son of King William I, who succeeded his father as King William II in 1840. The Anna Paulownapolder in Northern Holland bears her name. ANNEXATION (OF 1810). After the enforced abdication of Louis Napoléon, the Kingdom of Holland was “reunited with France,” as Emperor Napoléon I put it, in July 1810. As a province of France, it was governed by Charles François Lebrun, Duke of Plaisance. French administration, courts, and codes of law were introduced. Many Dutch collaborated more or less voluntarily with the occupiers. After the Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), Allied forces in November 1813 liberated the Netherlands, which became an independent monarchy under William I. ANTHEM OF THE NETHERLANDS. See “WILHELMUS.” ANTILLES. See NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. ANTIREVOLUTIONAIRE PARTIJ (ARP; ANTI-REVOLUTIONARY PARTY). One of the first modern political parties, founded in 1877 by theologian and statesman Abraham Kuyper, who wrote its political program and remained its head until 1920. Its principles, formulated by Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, were inspired by orthodox Protestantism and by the rejection of the ideas and ideals of the French Revolution. Kuyper postulated an antithesis between Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and non-Christian political principles in society. These principles marked the process of the so-called pillarization of political and social life in the Netherlands until the middle of the 20th century.

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In 1973, the ARP merged with the Protestant Christelijk-Historische Unie (CHU, Christian Historical Union) and the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) into the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA, Christian Democratic Appeal). ANTITHESIS (ANTITHESE). See ANTIREVOLUTIONAIRE PARTIJ (ARP). ANTWERP. The (now Belgian) city of Antwerp was endowed with autonomy by the Duke of Brabant in the 12th century. Because of its advantageous location on the river Scheldt, the town was already an important center of trade and commercial activities in the Middle Ages. During the 16th century, Antwerp was the main center of finance and commerce in western Europe, where merchants from several countries such as England, Spain, and Portugal had branches and storehouses. During the Revolt of the Netherlands against their sovereign, King Philip II, Antwerp became rebellious, but the city remained part of the Spanish Southern Netherlands because it was reconquered by Alexander Farnese, Prince (later Duke) of Parma (1545–1592). After 1585, when the Republic of the Seven United Provinces maintained an effective blockade of the Scheldt, Antwerp fell into decline and its prominent position was assumed by Amsterdam. APELDOORN. Currently, with about 137,000 inhabitants, the biggest city on the Veluwe, the northern part of the province of Gelderland. It remained a village until the 19th century, although high water quality had led to a prosperous paper industry there. At the end of the 17th century, Apeldoorn became one of the residences of the OrangeNassau family. The new palace Het Loo, with gardens by Daniel Marot (1661–1752), was built for Stadtholder William III in 1685–1686. Wilhelmina chose it as her residence in 1948–1962; afterward, it was turned into a museum dedicated to the family. Other attractions in Apeldoorn are the modern art museum CODA, the Dutch police museum, the Orpheus Theater, and the Apenheul primate zoo. APPEL, KAREL. See COBRA.

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ARCHITECTURE. Although Dutch architects have been influenced by classical styles and international trends since the Middle Ages, they have developed their own ideas and designed and popularized their own products. Dutch Renaissance architecture, for instance, was exported to Scandinavian cities. The fragmented political character of the country during the period of the Republic, however, did not lead to huge buildings. The stadtholders could build only small palaces, and the presence of several religious denominations meant relatively small churches. Rich merchants and regents, on the other hand, commissioned architects (e.g., Lieven de Key [1560–1627] and Hendrick de Keyser) to build large (step-roofed, Dutch gable, and neck-gable) houses and public buildings, such as the highly admired Amsterdam City Hall (by Jacob van Campen). Neoclassical buildings were characteristic of the 19th century, for example, those by Petrus Cuypers. New techniques and materials, combined with the need of other types of buildings, produced a renewal in the 20th century. Hendrik Berlage was one of the first architects to explore a new rational style. His colleagues from the Amsterdam School, on the other hand, chose the form as their basic principle. They designed several residential areas. Rotterdam houses the Netherlands Architecture Institute, in a striking building by architect Jo Coenen (1949– ) from 1993. Some other famous Dutch architects from the last century have been Marinus Jan Granpré Molière (1883–1972), Willem Dudok, Gerrit Rietveld, Jacobus Oud, and Rem Koolhaas. See also LAUWERIKS, JOHANNES LUDOVICUS MATHEUS (1864–1932); POST, PIETER (1608–1669). ARCHIVES. Since the mid-19th century, record keeping by state institutions has been organized on both central and communal levels. The Act concerning Archives (Archiefwet, 1995) obliges central and provincial authorities to transfer their archives in a well-ordered state to the public records office (originally Algemeen Rijksarchief; as of 2002, called Nationaal Archief) in The Hague or to a provincial records office. Under similar obligations are the communal authorities and the boards of the waterschappen, public bodies that are responsible for dikes, rivers, and water treatment. Most government documents can be consulted without official permission after 20 years. For consulting more recent documents, people can make an

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appeal to the Wet Openbaarheid van Bestuur, the 1980 act that regulates the public nature of the Dutch government. One of the pioneers in organizing the state archives was historian Reinier Bakhuizen van den Brink. Recently, several provincial and communal archives have merged, in some cases with other documentary institutions as well. Another trend is the availability of archives inventories on the Internet. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. ARMINIANS. See ARMINIUS, JACOBUS HARMENSZ (1560–1609). ARMINIUS, JACOBUS HARMENSZ (1560–1609). Born in the small town of Oudewater, Arminius studied theology in Leiden, Geneva, and Basel. After serving from 1588 as a Protestant minister in Amsterdam, he was appointed professor of theology at the University of Leiden. His colleague Franciscus Gomarus became a strong opponent of Arminius’s interpretations of the dogma of John Calvin. Among other things, Arminius questioned the correctness of the doctrine of predestination. The controversy between Arminius and Gomarus led to discord among the Calvinists. The orthodox branch succeeded in expelling the Arminians (or Remonstrants) from the Calvinist church during the national synod of Dordrecht (1618–1619). Some political leaders who accepted Arminius’s doctrines, such as Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and Hugo Grotius, were persecuted. ARMY. During the Dutch Revolt against Spain, the armies consisted mainly of mercenaries. In times of war, they were recruited for service in the naval fleet and in the army; during peacetime, most were dismissed, with a civil militia retained to keep order. Conscription was introduced in the 19th century. The Dutch armies were also active in the colonies, especially the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia). Defense in Europe was relatively weak, but was somewhat strengthened by the Dutch foreign policy of neutrality—which was effective only in World War I. Fortified cities with permanent garrisons on the borders of the country, for example, Bourtange, Grol (Groenlo), Coevorden, and Maastricht, and many other fortifications, had become obsolete by the middle of the 19th century; most were demolished. Since 1945, the army has gradually been integrated into the forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In

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the last few decades, Dutch troops have participated in United Nations (UN) and NATO peacekeeping missions, for instance, in Lebanon, the former Yugoslavia, Afghanistan, and Iraq. Women have been present in the army since World War II, until 1982 in a special division. In 2005, a yearly Veterans Day was introduced on 29 June, the birthday of Prince Bernhard. See also FORTRESSES; SREBRENICA TRAGEDY. ARNHEM. Medieval town on the Rhine River and capital of the province of Gelderland. Arnhem has a population of about 142,000. Several big companies and industries have located in this city, such as the Postbank and Akzo Nobel. Some institutions of higher professional education (for music and the arts, for instance) are located there as well. Following a plan of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery in World War II, a major operation code-named Market Garden was undertaken to break through the German military positions in central Holland. The airborne landing in September 1944 near Arnhem, under command of Maj. Gen. Roy Urquhart, however, did not succeed. The city is also well known for its Open Air Museum, founded in 1918, which displays many historic farms and houses from all parts of the Netherlands. ARTS. See ARCHITECTURE; CINEMA; CLASSICAL MUSIC; DANCE; JAZZ MUSIC; MUSIC; ORGAN MUSIC; PAINTING; POP MUSIC; THEATER. ARUBA. One of the three Leeward (Benedenwindse) or “ABC” Islands of the Netherlands Antilles, with a separate status within the Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1986. Every six years, the Dutch sovereign appoints a governor. Aruba has its own cabinet. Its Parliament (with 21 members), however, possesses the real power. Most of the 100,000 or so inhabitants live in the capital Oranjestad. Although the official language is Dutch, most of them speak their own Papiamento, which is a pidgin language. Aruba was discovered by the Spanish in 1499 and became a Dutch colonial possession in 1636. Tourism—Aruba has beautiful beaches—has made the isle very prosperous in recent decades. The Aruban currency, the florin, is related to the U.S. dollar, just like the Antillean guilder. See also STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS.

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ASIENTO. Privilege granted by the Spanish government that gave the holder a monopoly in the trade of African slaves to Spanish America. Dutch merchants were entitled to asiento several times during the 16th and 17th centuries. ASSEN. The city of Assen, currently with about 62,000 inhabitants, was founded in the 13th century as a small village near a monastery. During the period of the Dutch Republic, Assen became the seat of the government of the province of Drenthe, and with the new constitution of 1814, it became the official capital of this province. As an administrative center, it also houses a court of justice and a record office. The provincial museum has a spectacular collection of prehistoric and archaeological objects and a fine collection of paintings from the turn of the 20th century. Assen is also the seat of the Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij (NAM, Dutch Oil Company), founded in 1947, now a possession of Shell and ExxonMobil (50 percent each). Since 1925, the city holds an annual international Tourist Trophy (TT) motorcycle race. ASSER, TOBIAS MICHAEL CAREL (1838–1913). Jurist. After finishing his study of law in Amsterdam and Leiden, Asser became professor of civil law (1862–1877) and of commercial and international law (1877–1893) at the University of Amsterdam. In 1893, he was appointed a member of the Council of State, an important constitutional body that advised on all bills introduced in Parliament. Asser was one of the founders of the Revue de Droit International et de Législation Comparée (1869) and the Institut de Droit International (1873). In 1892, he presided over the conferences on international private law (first held at The Hague). In 1911, Asser was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and in the same year he became a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

–B– BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN BRINK, REINIER CORNELIS (1810–1865). Historian and archivist. Bakhuizen studied classics at Leiden University. His main interests focused on contemporary lit-

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erature and the early history of the Dutch Republic during the Revolt against Spain and the Eighty Years’ War. He was one of the founders of the famous critical periodical De Gids [The Guide] in 1837. In 1854, Bakhuizen was appointed director of the Dutch Public Record Office at The Hague. He became one of the founders of a more modern, accessible system of archives. BALKENENDE, JAN PETER (1956– ). Politician. After studying history and law at the Free University of Amsterdam, Balkenende worked at the bureau of the Academic Council and the research institute of the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA). From 1993 until 2002, he was part-time professor of Christian-Social thinking at the Free University. In 1998, he was elected to Parliament, and in 2001, he became leader of the CDA. In 2002, Balkenende was appointed prime minister. His first cabinet was an unstable coalition with the liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) and the populist Lijst Pim Fortuyn (LPF); his second, beginning in 2003, combined the VVD and the social-liberals of Democraten 1966 (D66); and his third, since July 2006, was a minority government with the VVD alone after D66 left the coalition due to the handling of the issue of the Ayaan Hirsi Ali’s citizenship. In 2007, Balkenende formed his fourth coalition cabinet, this time with the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA) and the Christen Unie (CU). BALTIC TRADE. Trade around the Baltic Sea has been important since the Middle Ages, when Hansa was a major power. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Dutch contacts with Baltic countries and cities (e.g., Danzig) were intensive. Dutch merchants and artisans were active in many towns, for instance, in Gothenburg, Sweden, and St. Petersburg, Russia. Entrepreneurs such as Louis de Geer and Balthasar de Moucheron (1552–1630) ran mines and factories in the Scandinavian countries and in Russia. Trade with Russia (Muscovy) flourished. Dutch ships also sailed to the seaport of Archangelsk in the north, although St. Petersburg on the Baltic Sea became the main destination of Dutch merchants after the beginning of the 18th century. Later in that century, linen traders from Twente in the province of Overijssel, especially from Vriezenveen, made an annual journey by wagon to Moscow to sell their products. Some

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Amsterdam entrepreneurs (such as the Marselis family) operated ironworks in Russia. At the end of the 18th century, the Baltic trade declined as a result of increasing competition and wars in Europe and the end of Amsterdam as an important staples market. BANKING. Because of the numerous different coins and currencies in the Dutch trade center of Amsterdam, an exchange bank was founded in 1609. Its aim was to facilitate payments by providing a kind of bill of exchange based on the deposit of specie. In effect, a kind of money transfer (giro) was created. It was only at the end of the 18th century that the Amsterdam Wisselbank began giving some long-term loans (credit). That bank was liquidated in 1820, but by then a national bank had been founded: the Nederlandsche Bank (1814). During the 19th century, many private banks were established, most of which have merged in recent years. Nonetheless, there are still several major Dutch banks, such as ABN AMRO, ING Group (a merger of Nationale Nederlanden and NMB Postbank in 1991), and RABObank (a cooperative bank formed by the merger of the Raiffeisenbank and the Boerenleenbank in 1972). NMB Postbank itself was a merger, in 1989, of the Nederlandse Middenstands Bank (NMB) and the Postbank. BARENTSZ, WILLEM (c. 1550–1597). Cartographer and explorer. In collaboration with Petrus Plancius (1552–1622), Barentsz published a description and atlas of the Mediterranean Sea. During 1594–1597, he participated in three expeditions to find a passage to India through Arctic seas. Although the hypothesis put forward by Plancius about an open Arctic sea proved to be false, Barentsz and Jacob van Heemskerck discovered Novaya Zemlya, where they stayed during the winter of 1596–1597. Remnants of their stay in the Behouden Huis were excavated during English, Dutch, and Russian archaeological expeditions in the 1870s and the 1980s. BATAAFSCHE PETROLEUM MAATSCHAPPIJ (BPM; BATAVIAN PETROLEUM COMPANY). See SHELL. BATAVIA (JAKARTA). In 1618–1619, Governor-General Jan Pietersz Coen founded a new fortress and a city near the old Jaca-

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tra on the island of Java in the Netherlands East Indies. He called them Batavia, after the Germanic tribe of Batavi that inhabited the regions bordering the Rhine River during the Roman occupation of western Europe. Batavia became the capital of the colonial empire that the Dutch founded in Asia. Since 1949, Jakarta has been the capital of the independent state of Indonesia. BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. In the National Assembly that convened after the Batavian Revolution in March 1796, political opinions differed on the extent to which the state should be national and unitary. The Federalists, Unitarians, and Moderates held different views about provincial powers (financially and economically), the Unitarians supporting a strong, central, and national government. After a coup by the democratic left wing of the Unitarians, a constitution was proclaimed in May 1798 (replacing the 1579 Union of Utrecht), in which the ideas of the Unitarians had triumphed—not without strong pressure from the French government. After the extremists were dislodged in June 1798, the constitution was moderately implemented. It was only after the promulgation of a more decentralizing, less democratic constitution in 1801, however, that parts of a national legislation on education and so on could be adopted. In 1806, under pressure by the French emperor Napoléon I, the Batavian Republic accepted his brother Louis Napoléon as king of Holland, under whose government the codification of law bore fruit. BATAVIAN REVOLUTION. The conquering French revolutionary army and the Patriots, returning from exile, inaugurated the Batavian Revolution, which in 1795 brought an end to the federal political structure of the old Republic (which had been in place since 1581) and its oligarchic governmental system of regents and stadtholders. The States General were replaced in 1796 by a National Assembly, which consisted of representatives elected by universal (male) suffrage. BATH, BERNARD SLICHER VAN. See SLICHER VAN BATH, BERNARD (1910–2004).

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BAYLE, PIERRE (1647–1706). Philosopher. Bayle studied theology and philosophy in Toulouse and Geneva and was appointed professor at the Protestant academy at Sedan in his native country France. After King Louis XIV closed this academy, Bayle, like so many other persecuted Protestants, left the country and settled in Rotterdam. He was appointed professor of philosophy at the local athenaeum, but was dismissed in 1693 after a conflict with his fanatic Calvinist colleague and fellow townsman Pierre Jurieu (1637–1713). During his “refuge,” Bayle published many treatises that were critical of superstitious and irrational beliefs. He was a firm precursor of the Enlightenment and his Dictionnaire historique et critique (in several editions from 1697) won him international fame. BAZEL, KAREL PETRUS CORNELIS DE (1869–1923). Architect. Following his studies at the Academy of Arts in The Hague, De Bazel became a designer with architects Petrus Cuypers and Johannes Lauweriks in Amsterdam. As a decorative artist, he grew more and more interested in architecture. After joining the Theosophic Society, De Bazel and Lauweriks both left the bureau of the Roman Catholic Cuypers. De Bazel became a teacher at Haarlem. Besides designing interiors and furniture, he executed several monumental buildings in Amsterdam and The Hague. His design for an international metropolis in the dunes near The Hague—although never carried out—attracted international attention. BEATRIX (1938– ). Queen of the Netherlands. Beatrix succeeded her mother Juliana in 1980. In 1966, she married Claus von Amsberg. They have three sons, of whom the eldest is Willem-Alexander. The morganatic marriage of the crown princess met resistance and provoked a minor constitutional crisis, which, however, had no lasting effect. Dutch republicanism remains weak. The queen lives in a small palace near The Hague. Although the constitutional role of the monarchy is at present limited, the queen—who is very popular— has an important influence during the preliminary consultations with the political party leaders that precede the formation of a new government after the parliamentary elections. In 1996, Beatrix was awarded the prestigious International Charlemagne Prize (Karl-

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spreis) of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen, Germany), for stimulating European peace and integration. BEECKMAN, ISAAC (1588–1637). Self-taught scientist. Beeckman earned his doctor’s degree at the University of Caen in France. He served several Latin schools (at Utrecht, Rotterdam, and Dordrecht) as conrector. After a discussion with René Descartes, who lived in the Republic from 1628 to 1649, Beeckman studied the fundamental problems in physics and astronomy, such as inertia, which also occupied Galileo Galilei and his contemporaries. Beeckman’s journals were discovered and edited only in the 20th century (Journal tenu de 1604 à 1634, ed. C. de Waard, in four vols.). BEEL, LOUIS JOZEF MARIA (1902–1977). Politician and statesman. After his studies of law at the Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University), Beel made a career in the civil service. After World War II, Beel was one of the founders of the new Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) and was minister of the interior in 1945–1946 and 1951–1956. During the period 1946–1948, he served the government as prime minister in the cabinet that had to solve the problems with Indonesia. In 1949, Beel became extraordinary professor of public administration in the University of Nijmegen (until 1952). He led a second (interim) cabinet in 1958–1959. Beel played an important role in Dutch domestic politics until 1972, with great authority, for example as vice president of the Council of State. BEGUINE. During the 13th century, a movement spread across Europe consisting of pious women and widows who led a chaste life in small communities. In the Low Countries, the women often lived together in a beguinage (begijnhof); many of these can still be found in Dutch and Flemish towns although most are no longer inhabited by Beguines. BEKKER, BALTHASAR (1634–1698). Theologian, Calvinist minister in Amsterdam, rationalist, and follower of René Descartes. Bekker studied in Groningen and Franeker. In 1691, he published a

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lengthy tract, De betoverde wereld [The World Bewitched], in which he condemned the belief in the power of witches and the devil as superstition. Because of his heterodox views, he was suspended by the Provincial Synod, but the burgomasters of Amsterdam supported him. BELGIAN REVOLT (REVOLUTION). After the defeat of Napoléon, the Congress of Vienna decided in 1814 that the former Austrian or Southern Netherlands (occupied by French revolutionary armies in 1795) would be attached to the new Kingdom of the Netherlands as a barrier against French expansionism. King William I tried in vain to integrate his new subjects into a new political and sociocultural entity. The contrast between North and South remained, however, for example, between Protestant merchants and Roman Catholic industrialists. In 1830, the year of the revolutions, clericalists and liberals united against William’s autocratic government. The rebellion in Brussels received support in other parts of the French- and Flemish-speaking country. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (1790–1865) was proclaimed king of the Belgians. Military actions against the insurgents (1830–1831) were unsuccessful owing to a lack of international support (especially from France and Great Britain) for the Dutch king. Although William had to accept the status quo, he did not formally accept the independence of a Belgian kingdom until the 1839 Treaty of London. BELGIUM, RELATIONS WITH. Contacts between the Netherlands and Belgium are very close, especially with Flanders because of the common Dutch language. The 1946 cultural agreement, for instance, was the start of mutual consultations about spelling, since 1980 organized by the Nederlandse Taalunie (Dutch Language Union—as of 2004 also with Surinam). Since World War II, political and economic relations have also been intensified, within the frameworks of the Benelux (with Luxembourg) and the European Union (EU). Military cooperation is carried out through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In 1996, Belgium and the Netherlands merged their naval organizations. The diplomatic relations were not always so uncomplicated. First, it took some time before the Dutch really accepted the secession of

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1830 in the Belgian Revolt. During World War I, more than 33,000 Belgians who had fled to the Netherlands were interned according to international law. After the war, many Belgians were angry about the neutrality of the Netherlands and laid claim to Dutch ZeeuwsVlaanderen (province of Zeeland) and the Dutch province of Limburg. This resulted in disturbed negotiations over control of the River Scheldt and the construction of a good connection with the Rhine, which were delayed until the 1930s. Negotiations were pursued after World War II, as well. Recently, for example, a fast railway connection from Amsterdam to Brussels (and Paris) was negotiated. See also FOREIGN RELATIONS. BENELUX. An abbreviation for Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The term Benelux indicates the economic and political cooperation between the three countries that began during the last year of World War II, when a treaty was signed in which tariffs were made uniform. In 1948, an economic union was concluded, known as the Belgisch-Luxemburgse Economische Unie (BLEU, Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union). Ten years later, all three countries adopted a new union treaty in which a common committee of ministers was created, as well as an interparliamentary council, a board of arbitration, and a council of advisors on economic and social policy. To a large extent, unification within the framework of Benelux has been superseded by the wider developments in the European Union (EU). BERLAGE, HENDRIK PETRUS (1856–1934). Architect. After finishing his studies at the Polytechnic school in Zurich, Switzerland, Berlage became associated with the Amsterdam-based architectural firm of Theodorus Sanders (1847–1927). Around 1890, he abandoned the traditional neoclassical style, turning instead to a more sober style that, in his opinion, modern society required. Later he advocated monumental art that included the participation and cooperation of several kinds of artists. He built the famous Exchange or Beurs in Amsterdam, as well as bank buildings in Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht, and Jakarta, Indonesia. In 1913, he became associated with Rotterdam industrialist Anthony Kröller and his wife Helene Kröller-Müller, for whom he built several houses. The museum that he planned was in the end, however, the creation of the Belgian

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architect Henry van de Velde (1863–1957). Berlage also designed many housing areas. His plan for an international Beethoven House (1908) was not achieved. BERNHARD, PRINCE OF LIPPE-BIESTERFELD (1911–2004). Prince Bernhard studied law and became associated in 1936 with the I. G. Farben firm in Paris. In 1937, he married Juliana, the Dutch crown princess, daughter of Queen Wilhelmina. Bernhard pursued a career in the Dutch Army. After the German invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940 during World War II, the royal family went in exile to England and Canada. During the last phase of the war, the prince was appointed commander in chief of the Dutch Army, which participated with the Allied forces in the liberation of the Netherlands. After the war, Bernhard became inspector of the Dutch armed forces. The prince was active in many social, economic, and cultural functions, such as the Bilderberg conferences and the World Wildlife Fund. He became involved in the Lockheed corruption affair (1975–1976) from which the government concluded the prince had not acted in accordance with national interests. BEUNINGEN, DANIËL GEORGE VAN (1877–1955). Entrepreneur and managing director in Rotterdam. Van Beuningen inherited the Steenkolen Handels Vereniging (SHV, Coal Trade Association) from his father, who had become rich during World War I by trading coal between the combatant countries Great Britain and Germany. Daniël van Beuningen led SHV until 1941. He also directed other companies, such as a shipyard and a company operating tugboats. Furthermore, he was one of the financers of the Feyenoord soccer stadium (1937). In 1954, the Fentener van Vlissingen family took over SHV. After his death, Van Beuningen’s famous art collection went to the Boymans van Beuningen museum in Rotterdam in 1958, which is the reason the museum name was extended with his name. See also MANUFACTURING. BEVERVOORDE, ADRIAAN VAN (1819–1851). Journalist. During 1844–1845, van Bevervoorde was editor of the Journal de la Haye, which was regarded as an unofficial paper of the government. After his involuntary resignation, he became a fierce oppo-

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nent of government policies. Van Bevervoorde joined the small circle of radical democrats and edited several critical weeklies (Asmodée, Courrier Batave, De Burger). Although he did not live long enough to develop his views more systematically, his ideas can be seen as presocialist. BIESHEUVEL, BAREND WILLEM (1920–2001). Politician. Having studied law at the Free (Calvinist) University in Amsterdam, Biesheuvel served on the board of the Dutch Christian Federation of Farmers as secretary and later as president. In 1956, he was elected to Parliament for the orthodox Protestant Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP). Biesheuvel was prime minister from 1971 to 1973. He then retired from active politics, but has served several times as an expert advisor on committees (e.g., for privacy legislation). BIJENKORF. See DUDOK, WILLEM MARINUS (1884–1974); VENDEX KBB. BIJLMER DISASTER. On 4 October 1992, a cargo plane from the Israeli airline El Al crashed on the Bijlmer district of southeast Amsterdam. The accident caused 43 deaths, including the crew. Although many inhabitants wrestled with health problems, the authorities started medical research only in 1994. Rumors about a radioactive cargo were denied but in the end led to a parliamentary inquiry in 1999. Although the report criticized the government’s information supply, there were no political consequences, and many survivors and relatives were unsatisfied. BIJNKERSHOEK, CORNELIS VAN (1673–1743). Jurist. Van Bijnkershoek studied law at the Academy of Franeker in Frisia and was admitted as barrister at the Court of Holland. He published extensively on civil law and international law; some of his works were translated in French and English (for example, “On the Dominion of the Sea,” 1703). In 1704, he was appointed president of the High Court of Holland. Until his death, he kept a private journal on the cases under review in the court. These Observationes tumultuariae, a unique source for the understanding of court practice in the 18th century, have been published (five vols., 1923–1962).

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BILDERDIJK, WILLEM (1756–1831). Poet and historian. Bilderdijk studied law at Leiden University and acquired fame as the legal defender of certain Orangist agitators who were prosecuted by the new Patriot rulers in the 1780s. After the Restoration, Bilderdijk did not receive the post as professor that he thought he deserved. He lived in Leiden as an independent scholar, organizing collegia privatissima on Dutch history for interested young students. As a critic of rationalism, he influenced young men such as the Calvinists Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer and Isaac da Costa, who were to play an important role in Christian politics and cultural life. BLAEU, WILLEM JANSZ (1571–1638) AND JOAN (1596–1673). Father and son, cartographers and publishers in Amsterdam. The publishing house of Blaeu—once the greatest in the world—became famous because of its beautifully executed and printed maps and atlases in which it informed the readers about new geographic discoveries (e.g., Theatrum orbis terrarum, 1634–1635). Joan Blaeu’s Atlas maior was republished in 2005. BLANKERS-KOEN, FANNY (FRANCINA ELSJE) (1918–2004). Athlete. Blankers-Koen became famous when she won four gold medals at the 1948 Olympics in London, in the 100-meter and 200meter sprints, the 80-meter hurdles. and the 4 ⫻ 100-meter relay. In the next Olympics, at Helsinki in 1952, she was less successful due to injuries. She also won many European and Dutch titles. After her athletic career, Blankers-Koen headed the Dutch athletics team until 1968. In 1999, the International Association of Athletics Federations selected her as “female athlete of the 20th century.” BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (HERMANNUS) (1668–1738). Professor of medicine, botany, and chemistry at Leiden University. Boerhaave was famous for his clinical skills. He reorganized the academic training in medicine, and his lectures attracted many students from abroad. Among his numerous publications should be mentioned an index to the Leiden botanical garden, containing the description of several thousand plants, and the famous Institutiones medicae (1708), reprinted 15 times and translated into many languages.

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BOER WAR (ANGLO-BOER WARS). The struggle of the Boers in southern Africa against the British imperialist annexation of the Transvaal (1880–1902) caused waves of sympathy for the Afrikaner Boers in the Netherlands. The Dutch saw in them people of a related race and victims of ruthless British imperialism, which was also feared in Europe. In 1881, the Nederlandsch Zuid-Afrikaansche Vereniging (NZAV, Netherlands South African Society) was founded in Amsterdam with the goal of helping Afrikaners with financial and cultural aid and reinforcing the intellectual relations between the two peoples. The NZAV founded a library and information center in Amsterdam and publishes the monthly Zuid-Afrika. BOKKERIJDERS. Nickname of some of the gangs of thieves that crowded around the border regions of the Republic, the Southern (Austrian) Netherlands—now Belgium—and the German Empire. Especially during 1730–1775, many bands were active, some of which seem to have been organized as a kind of secret society. Many of their members were more or less respectable citizens in daily life. As a detailed study by the anthropologist Anton Blok has shown, the judicial authorities were unable to wipe out most of the gangs until the last decades of the 18th century. BOLKESTEIN, FRITS (FREDERIK) (1933– ). Politician and intellectual. After his various studies (mathematics, physics, philosophy, Greek, economy, law) in the United States, London, and Amsterdam, Bolkestein started his career in the Shell company in 1960, and by 1976 rose to be a member of the board of Shell chemistry in Paris. He left Shell the same year. In 1978, he entered the Parliament, becoming state secretary of international trade in 1982–1986 and defense minister in 1988–1989. As leader of the liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) from 1990 to 1998, he provoked the Dutch society with statements about desirable standards and immigration policy. From 1999 until 2004, Bolkestein was European Union commissioner for internal market, taxation, and customs union. Since then he has been part-time professor at the universities of Delft and Leiden. Bolkestein wrote many books and articles, including The Limits of Europe (2004) and a diary about his

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experiences as commissioner, Grensverkenningen: Dagboek van een eurocommissaris (2005). Under the pseudonym Niels Kobet, he also wrote the English play Floris, Count of Holland (1976). BONAIRE. The largest but least densely populated (about 13,000 inhabitants) of the three Leeward (Benedenwindse) Islands of the Netherlands Antilles, which the Dutch conquered in 1633. Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci had been the first Europeans who landed on Bonaire, in 1499. Just like Curaçao, Aruba, and the other Dutch isles in the Caribbean, it was governed by the West India Company during the early modern period. The main economic activities are salt production and tourism (scuba diving). The Bonaire dialect is called Papiamen. The local government—the authority, his deputies, and the island’s council of nine members—is located in the principal town Kralendijk. In 2004, the population voted for a direct constitutional relationship with the Netherlands, which will be realized in 2008. See also COLONIES; STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. BONIFATIUS. See CHRISTIANITY. BOOK TRADE. Since the middle of the 15th century, books have been printed, published, and sold in the northern Netherlands. During the period of the Republic in the 17th century, the publishing houses of Elsevier in Leiden and Blaeu in Amsterdam were famous. The Hague was famous as a center of publishing for French learned journals such as the Histoire des ouvrages des savants and the Bibliothèque universelle et historique. Because of the country’s relatively tolerant policies, books that could not be published abroad often appeared in the Netherlands, including books of Enlightenment scholars such as Voltaire against the ancien régime in France or elsewhere. Even today the book trade remains very vigorous, with books being published in many languages other than Dutch. BOSCH, JOHANNES VAN DEN (1780–1844). Officer and statesman. Van den Bosch took his leave from the army in the Netherlands East Indies in 1808 (then occupied by the British) and, after

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his return, became an advisor on colonial military affairs. In 1818, he was one of the driving forces behind the Maatschappij van Weldadigheid, a government-supported society founded to fight the problems of poverty, beggary, and vagrancy by hard labor in landed establishments (“colonies”) in the province of Drenthe. As governorgeneral of the East Indies, Van den Bosch became an ardent adherent of the cultuurstelsel, a system of taxation that compelled the population (especially of the island of Java) to pay in kind by cultivating 20 percent of their soil for the benefit of the government. Van den Bosch served King William I as a minister of colonies from 1834 to 1839 and was rewarded by being made a count. BRABANT. Noord-Brabant is a province of the Netherlands (with about 2,411,000 inhabitants) and a former duchy, which was incorporated by the dukes of Burgundy into their possessions during the 15th century. In the 1540s, the Duchy of Brabant was one of the 17 counties and duchies that were united by the German emperor Charles V (of the house of Habsburg, the heirs of the Burgundians). During the Revolt of the Netherlands against King Philip II of Spain, part of the duchy was conquered (Staats-Brabant) by the armies of the States General of the Dutch Republic. This part remained predominantly Roman Catholic. Before the Revolt, the important cities in Brabant were Antwerp and Brussels; in the present province of Noord-Brabant, the primary cities are ’s Hertogenbosch (the capital), Eindhoven, Breda, Tilburg, and Bergen op Zoom. The province has become more industrialized since the 19th century (textiles, electronics, cars). Yet Noord-Brabant also contains several national parks, including the Groote Peel and the wetland of the Biesbosch. BRANDSMA, TITUS (1881–1942). Roman Catholic priest who studied philosophy in Rome and became professor at Nijmegen University (now Radboud University) in 1923. He was ecclesiastical advisor of the Catholic press in the Netherlands. During the Nazi occupation in World War II, Brandsma became one of the inspirations of Roman Catholic resistance. He died in the Dachau concentration camp. In 1985, he was beatified by Rome.

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BRAZIL. This country along the Amazon River was discovered, colonized, and expanded by the Portuguese after 1500. From 1630 until 1654, the Dutch occupied Recife and Olinda. The governor, John Maurice, Count of Nassau-Siegen, transformed the region into a profitable colony, especially through sugar production. Jewish immigrants settled as merchants in Recife. Frans Post (c. 1612–1680) and Albert Eeckhout (c. 1610–1669) produced several paintings and drawings of the landscape and peoples of Brazil during these decades. BREDA. City in the province of Noord-Brabant. Founded in the 11th century, it was an important fortress during the Revolt, held and captured alternatively by the Dutch and the Spaniards. In 1637, it was finally occupied by the Republic. In 1667, a treaty of peace was negotiated in the city between diplomats of the Republic and the British, bringing an end to the Second Anglo-Dutch War at sea. The town, with about 137,000 inhabitants, now houses many industries, such as machinery, paint, and chocolate. It is the seat of several educational and religious institutions, including an academy of arts, a school for tourism, and a bishopric. BRETHREN (BROTHERS) OF THE COMMON LIFE. See ERASMUS OF ROTTERDAM (c. 1469–1536); GROOTE, GEERT (1340–1384). BRIELLE (DEN BRIEL). Small town of about 16,000 on the River Meuse in Southern Holland. Founded during the Middle Ages, it flourished because of its commerce and fishery, but fell into decline after the river silted up. It owes its fame partly to its secretary Jan Matthijssen, who wrote its laws and statutes in his private codification or rechtsboek (around 1430), but mostly because of a heroic historic event: in 1572, near the beginning of the Revolt, the sea beggars seized the town from the Spaniards. BRINK, REINIER CORNELIS BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN. See BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN BRINK, REINIER CORNELIS (1810–1865). BROEK, HANS (HENRI) VAN DEN (1936– ). Politician. After studying law, Broek served as a solicitor and worked for the ENKA

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company (which later merged into Akzo Nobel). In 1976, he was elected to Parliament for the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party). From 1981 to 1982, he was secretary of European affairs, and during 1982–1993, he served in government as minister of foreign affairs. After that, until 1999, he was a member of the European Commission (EC), the executive body of the European Union (EU) in Brussels. In 2005, he became minister of state. BROUWER, BERTUS (LUITZEN EGBERTUS JAN) (1881–1966). Mathematician and philosopher. Brouwer is considered the founder of mathematical intuitionism, which led to the rejection of parts of classical mathematics. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Amsterdam and occupied a professorship in this university until his retirement in 1951. One of his students was the chess player Max Euwe. Brouwer was a member of the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen (1914–1928) and founded the Compositio Mathematica in 1934. Brouwer held many lectures abroad. Because of his questionable attitude during World War II, he was suspended a few months after the liberation. His Collected Works was published in 1975–1976. BRUGMANS, HENDRIK (1906–1997). Politician and rector; son of historian Hajo Brugmans (1868–1939). Brugmans studied French literature in Amsterdam and Paris. In 1939, he became a Social Democratic member of Parliament, but only for a short period because of the outbreak of World War II. During the war, the Nazis interned him in the hostage camp Sint-Michielsgestel for a few years, as was done with many other Dutch leaders. After the war, Brugmans became a great stimulator of European integration. From 1950 until his retirement in 1972, he was rector of the European College in Bruges, Belgium. He was also cofounder and first president of the Union of European Federalists. In 1951, Brugmans was awarded the International Charlemagne Prize (Karlspreis) of the city of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen, Germany). He ended his career as a professor of French literature at the University of Louvain in Belgium. BRUNA, DICK (1927– ). Graphic designer, artist, and writer of children’s books. Instead of succeeding his father as one of the great

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Dutch publishers, Bruna preferred a creative life, partially for the benefit of the company. His best-known creation is the little rabbit Nijntje (first appearing in 1955), renamed Miffy for the English market. He also designed book covers, for instance, those for the Dutch thriller author Havank (pseudonym of Henricus Fredericus “Hans” van der Kallen [1904–1964] and then of Pieter Terpstra [1919–2006], continuing the stories) and Georges Simenon’s Maigret, which books he also translated into Dutch. Bruna was influenced by, among others, the French painter Henri Matisse and Piet Mondrian. In 2006, the Dick Bruna House was opened in Utrecht as a museum for little children. BRUSSELS. Capital of Belgium since its independence in 1831. During the 12th century, the city developed because of its favorable position at the crossroads of important trade lines between Cologne and Bruges. In the mid-14th century, it became the seat of the court of the dukes of Brabant, retaining that position during the reign of the dukes of Burgundy and the princes of Habsburg and their governors in the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1815, Brussels, together with The Hague, became one of the two capitals of the newly created Greater Kingdom of the Netherlands under King William I. BRUYN, CORNELIS DE (c. 1652–1727). Painter. De Bruyn was born in The Hague. From 1674 to 1693, he traveled extensively and stayed in Italy and in the Levant (Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt). His second extended journey (1701–1708) took him to Muscovy and Persia. De Bruyn published two travel accounts, lavishly illustrated with engravings after his own drawings; he was convinced of the accuracy of his own renderings—for example, of the cuneiform inscriptions on the ruins of Persepolis (Persia)—which was opposed to those of his predecessors such as Engelbert Kaempfer. His accounts were published in 1698 and 1714 (English translations in 1720, 1737, and 1759). BUBBLE COMPANIES. “Bubble companies” were created in the beginning of the 18th century as a consequence of a strong tendency toward speculation. Most of the new “companies” were not solid, and many went bankrupt in 1720. Earlier, in 1630,

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“tulipomania” had led to similar speculation in tulip bulbs. See also FLOWER CULTIVATION. BURGUNDIAN CIRCLE (BOURGONDISCHE KREITS). See CHARLES V OF HABSBURG (1500–1558). BURGUNDY. Independent duchy founded at the end of the 9th century and greatly enlarged in the 14th and 15th, especially during the reigns of John II and Philip the Good (1419–1467). Philip acquired, among others, the counties of Holland, Zeeland, and Luxembourg— nearly all the regions that would be integrated with the 17 counties and duchies as the Low Countries in 1549 by Emperor Charles V. Philip’s son, Charles the Bold (1433–1477), lost Burgundy to the French king, who incorporated the duchy into his realm. The other provinces were inherited by Charles’s daughter, Maria of Burgundy (1457–1482), who was married to Maximilian of Habsburg, the grandfather of Charles V. BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE (1522–1591). Diplomat and humanist. After his studies at the University of Louvain, he was appointed a member of several imperial embassies, including to England. In 1554, Busbecq was entrusted by the German emperor Ferdinand I with an embassy to Constantinople, which continued until 1562. Busbecq made some interesting discoveries, including the Monumentum Ancyranum or Res Gestae Divi Augusti, sent some indigenous plants to Europe such as the tulip, corresponded with many scholars, and brought many Greek manuscripts back with him to Europe. His fame rests above all upon his lively “Turkish Letters,” composed after his return from the court of Suleiman I, which contain among others several Krim-Gothic words. Busbecq’s contributions to several branches of science have recently been acknowledged. See also FLOWER CULTIVATION. BUSKEN HUET, CONRAD (1826–1886). Man of letters. After studying theology in Leiden, Busken Huet was active as minister of the Reformed (Walloon) Church at Haarlem. In 1862, he left the church and became a member of the editorial staff of the famous cultural periodical De Gids [The Guide, established in 1837] at the

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invitation of one of the founders, Ever(h)ardus Potgieter (1808– 1875). Because of two of his critical articles, Busken Huet and Potgieter left the liberal-minded board. In 1868, Busken Huet left for the Netherlands East Indies, where he became the editor of the daily Javabode and the Algemeen Dagblad van Nederlandsch Indie. In 1876, he returned to Europe and settled in Paris. Busken Huet published some popular cultural histories on the Netherlands (Het land van Rembrandt, 1882–1884; Het land van Rubens, 1879), many political essays of a conservative nature, and numerous critical essays on Dutch and European letters (collected as Litterarische fantasien en kritieken, 25 vols., 1881–1888). BUYS BALLOT, CHRISTOPHORUS HENRICUS DIEDERlCUS (1817–1890). Chemist and physicist. After studying mathematics and physics at Utrecht University, Buys Ballot became a lecturer in geology and mineralogy. In 1847, he was appointed professor of mathematics at the same university, and in 1867, he was appointed to the chair of physics. His main research was in the field of meteorology. In 1857, Buys Ballot formulated his “law,” a qualitative statement of the geostrophic wind equation. He also stimulated Dutch participation in the international expedition to the Arctic region in 1882–1883.

–C– C&A. European chain of cloth stores, founded in the Netherlands by the brothers Brenninkmeijer: Clemens (1818–1902) and August (1819–1892)—hence C&A. They were two German hawkers who opened a textile factory in 1841 and a store 20 years later in the Frisian city of Sneek. In 1911, when C&A already had 10 branches in the Netherlands, the company began opening outlets abroad. By 2006, C&A had more than a thousand branches spread over 13 European countries. The stores in Great Britain, however, had to be closed in 2002, after a presence there for 80 years. The Brenninkmeijer family is one of the richest families in the Netherlands. CABARET. Many Dutch cabaret artists reached a large audience in the 20th century, through theater tours and performances on radio and

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television. The couple Snip en Snap (Willy Walden [1905–2003] and Piet Muyselaar [1899–1978]), for example, attracted full houses for several decades and produced popular radio programs. Wim Kan (1911–1983), Toon Hermans (1916–2000), and Wim Sonneveld (1917–1974) are considered the leading Dutch comedians of the 20th century. Many younger colleagues, however, reached their own audiences, such as Jasperina de Jong (1938– ), Freek de Jonge (1944– ), the couple Koot en Bie (Kees van Kooten [1941– ] and Wim de Bie [1939– ]), Youp van ’t Hek (1954– ), Karin Bloemen (1960– ), and Paul de Leeuw (1962– ). It is obvious that most Dutch cabaret artists have been popular only in their own language area. A few exceptions are Rudi Carrell (1934–2006) and Herman van Veen (1945– ), who also became popular in Germany, especially Carrell. Popular Frisian cabaret performers have included Tetman de Vries (1915– 1988) and Rients Gratama (1932– ). CADASTRE (KADASTER). In 1811, Napoléon Bonaparte ordered the foundation of a state organization for the registration of landed property in his Dutch départements, in order to levy fair taxes on land. King William I subsequently continued the preparations for such an institute, which had to enhance the legal security of real estate, too. The Dutch cadastre finally started in 1832. Since 1838, it has also registered mortgages, and later on, ships and airplanes as well. In 1994, the cadastre was privatized. CALENDAR. Among the Dutch provinces, Zeeland and Holland were the first to introduce the Gregorian calendar, in 1582–1583. The other provinces kept the Julian calendar, which was less accurate with regard to leap years, until 1700–1701. This explains the difference between “old” and “new” style sources during the period of the Dutch Republic. CALS, JO (JOSEPH MARIA LAURENS THEO) (1914–1971). Politician. After studying law at the Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University), Cals worked as a solicitor. In 1948, he was elected to Parliament for the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party). In 1950, he became secretary of education in the government, and from 1952 until 1963, he was

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minister of education, arts, and sciences. Under his direction, an overall reconstruction of the system of education was prepared, including the 1961 Act on Higher Education and the 1963 Mammoth Act on Primary and Secondary Education. After a two-year term in Parliament, in 1965, he became the prime minister of a short-lived cabinet (lasting only until 1966). From 1967, he was a member of the governmental committee presided over by jurist Andreas Matthias (“André”) Donner (1918–1992) that prepared a lengthy report on constitutional reform in 1971. CALVINISM. A theological doctrine notable for its concept of predestination developed by the French reformer John Calvin (1509–1564). It has been very influential in Protestant circles in the Netherlands. During the Dutch Revolt, the Calvinist church became the stateprivileged church. Many other denominations (Roman Catholics, Anabaptists, Lutherans, Arminians, etc.) were only tolerated. Its adherents became second-rate citizens in the Republic, until 1796 when the National Assembly declared the separation of church and state. CAMPEN, JACOB VAN (1595–1657). Classicist architect and painter. Van Campen studied architecture in Italy. He built houses on the Keizersgracht in Amsterdam, the Mauritshouse (in collaboration with Pieter Post), and the house of Constantijn Huygens in The Hague, among other buildings. Stadtholder Frederick Henry commissioned the restoration of his palaces in The Hague (Noordeinde, Huis ten Bosch) and Honselaarsdijk. Van Campen also built the famous City Hall (now Royal Palace) in Amsterdam and the New Church in Haarlem. CAMPENDONK, HEINRICH (1889–1957). Painter. Born in Krefeld, Germany, Campendonk studied at the School of Decorative Arts there with his teacher Jan Thorn Prikker. In 1911, at the invitation of Franz Marc, he joined the Blaue Reiter, the circle of Expressionist painters (with Wassily Kandinsky, among others). He participated in the Erste Deutsche Herbstsalon, organized in 1913 by art dealer Herwarth Walden in Berlin. In 1922, Campendonk returned to Krefeld and from that time on, occupied teaching posts in Essen and

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Dusseldorf. When in 1933 his work was declared entartete Kunst (degenerate art) by the Nazis, he immigrated to Belgium. In 1935, he was appointed teacher at the Academy of Arts in Amsterdam. Campendonk’s works include woodcuts and monumental stained-glass windows. CAMPHUYS, JOHANNES (1634–1695). Merchant. In 1653, Camphuys went to the Netherlands East Indies, where, from 1684 to 1691, he served as governor-general. He promoted scientific research and encouraged scholars such as Engelbert Kaempfer and Georg Eberhard Rumphius. Camphuys wrote a treatise on the Kingdom of Jakatra conquered by Jan Pietersz Coen, which was published by the historian of the Dutch East India Company, François Valentijn. CANISIUS, ST. PETRUS (1521–1597). Jesuit priest; his Dutch name was Pieter Kanis. After studying theology and canon law in Cologne and Louvain, in 1543 he became the first Dutch member of the Society of Jesus and devoted himself to the Counter-Reformation. His popular catechism Summa doctrina Christianae (1555) was translated into many languages. Canisius worked in Vienna, Augsburg (Germany), and Fribourg (Switzerland) and traveled a lot as preacher and teacher. He was canonized in 1925. CAPE COLONY. Founded in 1652 under the direction of Jan van Riebeeck as a small settlement of the Dutch East India Company for the benefit of eastbound ships, the Cape Colony expanded in the late 18th century to the north and east of South Africa. Since then, further expansion by traders, hunters, missionaries, and Boers along its boundaries was a constant feature of the Cape Colony. In 1795, as a result of the Batavian Revolution and the alliance between the new Batavian Republic and France, the Cape was occupied by the British. Following a short Batavian interval (1803–1806), Great Britain again occupied the colony, which remained in its possession after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Cultural and religious repression and the abolition of slavery compelled the Boers to trek and leave the colony in quest of an independent existence. The Dutchspeaking Boers founded the new republics of the Orange Free State

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(now the province of Free State) and Transvaal (abolished as a province in 1994); Natal (now KwaZulu Natal) was established as a British settlement. After the Boer War of 1899–1902, the four regions were united under the British crown. Meanwhile, part of the Dutch-speaking people had developed a language of its own, Afrikaans, which in 1925 was recognized as one of the two official languages (with English) of the Union of South Africa. It is now the mother tongue of 6 million people (and 10 million secondary speakers) in South Africa. CAPELLEN TOT DEN POL, JOAN (JOHAN) DERK VAN DER (1741–1784). Politician. Van der Capellen became an ardent opponent of the oligarchic political system under the leadership of Stadtholder William V of Orange. In 1781, he anonymously published his Aan het Volk van Nederland [To the People of the Netherlands], in which he pleaded, referring to the U.S. Declaration of Independence, for the armament and self-defense of the citizens and especially for a democratic form of government. Van der Capellen became the inspiring leader of the Patriot movement, which based itself on the enlightened theory of the sovereignty of the people. CARON, FRANÇOIS (c. 1600–1673). Soldier and merchant. Caron went to the Netherlands East Indies, where he organized the commercial relations with Japan at Deshima. In 1643, he defeated the Portuguese in Ceylon, and the next year, he served as Dutch governor in Formosa (Taiwan). From 1647 to 1652, he was director general of commercial relations in Batavia (Jakarta). After 1664, he was in the service of the French East India Company. Caron published a book on Japan and Thailand in 1648 (its English edition, Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam, was published in 1663). CARTOGRAPHY. Cartography was stimulated by the need to visualize the newly discovered parts of the world in a graphic form. European expansion, especially by sea, strategic military aims, and even administrative and judicial needs encouraged the manufacture of an increasing number of maps. New techniques of observation augmented the precision of cartographic representation. During the 16th and 17th centuries, many mathematicians and geographers con-

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tributed to the growth of cartography and the publishing of maps and atlases, among them Jacob van Deventer (1505–1575), Gemma Frisius (1508–1555), Gerard Mercator, Abraham Ortelius (1527– 1598), Petrus Plancius (1552–1622), the Hondius (e.g., Jodocus [1563–1612]), the Blaeus, and others. CASTELEYN, ABRAHAM (c. 1628–1681). Journalist and city printer. During the 1650s, Casteleyn started two newspapers in his city of Haarlem, of which his Oprechte Haerlemsche Courant (Sincere Haarlem Newspaper) became known all over Europe. His widow and offspring continued the company until 1737, when it was sold to Izaak (1681–1761) and Johannes (1708–1780) Enschedé. Their company printed newspapers until the mid-20th century and is also known, since 1814, as a printer of banknotes, such as the present euro, and of valuable documents. See also CURRENCY; PRESS. CASTLES. See FORTRESSES. CATHOLICISM. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. CATHOLIC PEOPLE’S PARTY. See KATHOLIEKE VOLKSPARTIJ (KVP). CATS, JACOB (1577–1660). Poet, pensionary (legal advisor) of the cities of Middelburg and Dordrecht, and grand pensionary (1636–1651) of the States of Holland. Cats was a prolific writer of lengthy moralizing and didactic poems and of emblematic works. Many of them were very popular, especially his Houwelyck [Marriage, 1625]; Spieghel van den ouden ende nieuwen Tijdt [Mirror of Old and Recent Days, 1632]; and Trou-Ringh [Wedding Ring, 1637]. His autobiographical poem Twee-en tachtig-jaerigh leven [My Life in 82 Years] was not published until 1700. CENSORSHIP. During the period of the Republic in the 17th and 18th centuries, censorship of the press was in the hands of local and regional authorities. The States General issued only a few edicts against libelous and other offensive printings. Because of the diversity of local authorities, widespread preventive censorship was not

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very effective. Hence, many books that were forbidden in England or France were easily printed and distributed in the Republic. During the first half of the 19th century, censorship, based on the new penal code and some special laws, was relatively lenient. Since the ratification of the democratic constitution of 1848, freedom of the press has been guaranteed. The limits of defamation, especially of the king and public authorities, were occasionally tightly restricted (as in the case of the Socialist leader Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis in 1885), but in general, censorship has not been very aggressive. See also MEETER, EILLERT (1818–1862). CENTRAAL PLANBUREAU (CPB; CENTRAL PLANNING BUREAU). Founded in 1945 as a division of the Dutch department of economic affairs, the CPB’s main task became the study of the Dutch economy. The bureau has prepared independent annual forecasts for the next year and the coming five years. The CPB’s prognoses have been important information for the government, the Parliament, the Dutch political parties, and employers and trade unions as well. Jan Tinbergen (from 1945 to 1955) and Gerrit Zalm (from 1989 to 1994) were two of the CPB’s directors, Zalm before he became minister of finance in the first Wim Kok cabinet and leader of the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD). CEYLON (SRI LANKA). After the colonization of this island south of India by the Portuguese in the beginning of the 16th century, the Dutch took over in 1658. They dominated the coastal regions but maintained a good relationship with the inland kingdom of Kandy. Following the Batavian Revolution and the Dutch alliance with France, the British conquered the colony, and the Batavian Republic was forced to relinquish this possession at the Peace of Amiens in 1802. Nonetheless, Roman-Dutch law remained influential in Ceylon. CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE (KAMERS VAN KOOPHANDEL). Currently, the Netherlands has 21 Chambers of Commerce, but that number is to be reduced to 12. As of 1921, these organizations have dealt with the obligatory registration of all companies, foundations, and societies in the Netherlands—since 1997 in one

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commercial register, the Handelsregister. Their other tasks are supervision and business advice. The present chambers have Dutch predecessors in the 18th century, such as the College van Kooplieden (Board of Merchants) in Zeeland (1720) and the Comité van Koophandel en Zeevaert, Fabrieqen en Trafieken (Committee of Commerce and Seagoing, Factories, and Processing Industries) in Amsterdam and Rotterdam (1795). The first Chamber of Commerce was opened in Rotterdam in 1803, under pressure of the French. King William I confirmed their existence in 1815. CHAMBERS OF RHETORIC (REDERIJKERSKAMERS). These urban societies of amateurs in literature and dramatic theater were organized as guilds and held annual contests in recitation and urban festivities. They reached their heyday in the 16th century. Most were trivial in nature, yet because some of their members were religiously inclined toward the new ideas of the Reformation, city authorities grew suspicious of the chambers of rhetoric and some of their members were executed as heretics. During the Republic, the dogmatic Calvinists did not appreciate the chambers. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. CHARLES V OF HABSBURG (1500–1558). Lord of the Netherlands (1506–1555), Holy Roman emperor, and king of Spain. He was a son of Philip the Handsome, who died in 1506, and Joanna of Castile and was the grandson of Maximilian of Habsburg, who served as regent until Charles was declared of age in 1515. He fought many wars against France and supported the Counter-Reformation. Charles centralized the government of the Low Countries in 1531, with the creation of three so-called collateral councils: the Council of State, the Financial Council, and the Secret Council. These bodies assisted the governor-general in Brussels. He punished his birth city Ghent in 1540, after a long period of uprisings. Charles completed the unification of the Low Countries in 1543, when he conquered Guelders (Gelderland). The unity of the Netherlands was further assured by the establishment of the Burgundian Circle in 1548 and the Pragmatic Sanction in 1549, which meant that all the Netherlands should be handed over as a whole. Charles’s rule was not fully successful. He provoked considerable resistance because of his severe policy against

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the “heretic” Lutherans and Anabaptists, and he left his son Philip II an outdated tax system. Philip was a son from Charles’s marriage with Isabella of Portugal. Margaret of Parma and John of Austria (1547–1578)—a hero in the sea battle of Lepanto against the Turks (1571), but a loser during the Dutch Revolt—were his illegitimate children who played important roles in the government of the Netherlands. CHRISTEN DEMOCRATISCH APPÈL (CDA; CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC APPEAL). This political party emerged in 1973– 1980 as a fusion of the traditional Roman Catholic party Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP) and the two major orthodox Protestant parties: the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP) and the Christelijk-Historische Unie (CHU), founded by Alexander de Savornin Lohman in 1908. The Catholic economist Petrus Antonius Josephus Maria (“Piet”) Steenkamp (1925– ) was one of its major architects. Because of the process of secularization in Dutch society, the share of the electorate that voted for religious parties had diminished dramatically during the 1950s and 1960s. However, as a new party, the CDA proved to be attractive to many people, not only to Christians. Because the party operates in the political center, it is a suitable coalition partner for Liberals and Socialists as well. Only during the period 1994–2002— after a great loss of votes in the 1994 elections—did the CDA not participate in the government. In 2002, the CDA became the biggest party in the Parliament again. This position was continued after the November 2006 elections, although the number of seats decreased from 44 to 41 (out of 150). Some well-known CDA leaders have included Dries van Agt, Ruud Lubbers, Jaap de Hoop Scheffer, and Jan Peter Balkenende. In the European Parliament (EP), the CDA participates in the European People’s Party. CHRISTEN UNIE (CU; CHRISTIAN UNION). A small, dogmatic Christian political party formed in 2001–2004 out of two related parties: the Gereformeerd Politiek Verbond (GPV, Reformed Political Union) and the Reformatorisch Politieke Federatie (RPF, Reforming Political Federation). Although the CU has progressive views on economic and environmental issues, it is a conservative party with regard to issues such as abortion, homosexual marriage, and eu-

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thanasia. Since 2002, André Rouvoet (1962– ) has led the party very successfully in Parliament. In the 2006 elections, the party’s number of seats in Parliament doubled, from three to six (out of 150). In 2007, the CU participated in the fourth Jan Peter Balkenende cabinet. The CU belongs to the Independence and Democracy group in the European Parliament (EP) and cooperates with other Christian parties in the European Christian Political Movement. The GPV was founded in 1948, as a branch of the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP), and had its first member in Parliament in 1963. Two of its prominent leaders were journalist Pieter (“Piet”) Jongeling (1909–1985) and Gerrit Jan Schutte (1939– ). Their party was strongly connected with a group of Reformed churches—the socalled Gereformeerde Kerken Vrijgemaakt—which had left the Reformed (gereformeerde) church of Abraham Kuyper in 1944. Christians from other churches with similar political ideas to the GPV’s had to operate in other Christian parties, which is one of the reasons the RPF was founded in 1975. Meindert Leerling (1936– ) was the RPF’s leader from 1981 until 1994. A merger with the GPV became possible after this party declared itself open to all denominations of Protestants in 1993. The GPV and RPF have also cooperated with a third Calvinist and more fundamentalist party, which is currently the oldest party in the Dutch Parliament: the Staatkundig Gereformeerde Partij (SGP, Politically Reformed Party), founded in 1918 by clergyman Gerrit Hendrik Kersten (1882–1948). His name is still known in Dutch parliamentary history because his amendment to abolish the Dutch embassy in the Vatican led to the fall of the first Hendrikus Colijn cabinet in 1925. A merger of the SGP with the CU is still impossible because the SGP does not fully accept the political participation of women. In 2005, the Dutch court forced the state to stop subsidizing the SGP on this ground. Bastiaan Johannis (“Bas”) van der Vlies (1942– ) has led the SGP in Parliament since 1986. CHRISTIANITY. In the early Middle Ages, Christianity was propagated by missionaries from England. One of the first was Willibrord, who preached among the Frisians. His most famous comissionary was Bonifatius, born about 672 in Wessex and later archbishop of Mainz, Germany. Bonifatius was murdered during one of his

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missionary campaigns near Dokkum, Frisia, in 754. Utrecht became the administrative center of the church, from where the spiritual and secular affairs were managed in the (future) Low Countries. During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic church played a dominant role in education and the transmission of culture. Many learned clergymen became advisors to counts and dukes in Brabant, Flanders, Holland, and elsewhere. Every village and town had its church building. Several Roman and Gothic cathedrals were built, for instance, in Utrecht and ’s Hertogenbosch. An important aspect of medieval religious life was the many monastic orders, some of which concentrated their monasteries in cities, such as the mendicant orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans. The Reformation divided Christianity once again. Martin Luther and John Calvin had many followers among the Catholic population of the Low Countries. Smaller groups were the Anabaptists and the Remonstrants. The Protestant dissenters, the Roman Catholics, and the Jews were tolerated during the period of the Dutch Republic until 1796, when the separation between state and church was promulgated. New Protestant sects developed during the 19th and 20th centuries. Pluriformity is a characteristic of Dutch religious life. Since the process of secularization during the 20th century and the immigration of foreign people, other religions such as Islam and Hinduism have also been represented. About 40 percent of the inhabitants are at present not affiliated with any religious community. See also ARMINIUS, JACOBUS HARMENSZ (1560–1609); CALVINISM; FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF; LUTHERANS. CINEMA. After the American Andrew Rawson Jennings opened the first Dutch cinema in Amsterdam in 1916, many others followed. One of the most beautiful cinemas in the Netherlands is the Art Deco–style Tuschinski Theater, opened in Amsterdam in 1921 by Abraham Icek Tuschinski (1886–1942) and still in use. Particularly during the interwar period, still without television as an alternative, going to the cinema was popular. A well-known part of this was the Polygoon newsreel, which presented all kinds of news items from 1922 until 1986. Currently, Pathé is the largest film company in the Netherlands. The country’s biggest movie festival is the International Film Festival Rotterdam

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(yearly since 1972). Dutch cinemas have mainly screened foreign movies, because the supply of the native film industry has always been small. Some Dutch filmmakers who have become successful abroad include the communist Joris Ivens (1898–1989), Bert Haanstra (1916–1997), and Paul Verhoeven (1938– ). See also GOGH, THEO VAN (1957–2004); HAUER, RUTGER (1944– ). CITY COUNCIL. During the Middle Ages most cities in what would become the Low Countries were governed by representatives of a duke or count. These representatives were gradually divided into two groups: one that was concerned with the dispensation of justice, and the other, consisting of the board of burgomasters, with general administration, often asking the advice of the richest citizens. This custom was the origin of the vroedschap (or rijkdom), which was a semirepresentative body (by co-optation). This oligarchic trend came to an end with the Batavian Revolution of 1795. From that time on, members of the city council were elected democratically. CIVILIS, GAIUS JULIUS (fl. first century A.D.). Leader of a revolt of the Batavi against the Roman occupiers in A.D. 69. The Batavians, Frisians, and some German tribes besieged the Roman army camp near Xanten, Germany. After the intervention of the Roman general Quintus Petillius Cerialis, the alliance of the Romans and the Batavians was restored, according to the Roman historian Tacitus. In the young Republic of the Seven United Provinces, the historical revolt of the Batavian Gaius Julius Civilis was popular. Rembrandt drew from this subject for his famous painting The Oath of the Batavians. CLASSICAL MUSIC. Many Dutch orchestras and choirs, both professional and amateur, have performed various styles and genres of classical music. The Netherlands, however, did not produce many great composers. During the 19th century, the Dutch audience mostly listened to works of Germans. The admired composer Johann Wilhelm Wilms (1772–1847) set the Dutch anthem “Wien Neêrlands Bloed” to music. Dutch composer Johannes Verhulst (1816–1891), a pupil of Felix Mendelssohn, wrote various songs and orchestral music and became well known abroad, too. Two other 19th-century Dutch composers were Julius Röntgen and Alphons Diepenbrock.

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As a conductor, Willem Mengelberg put his mark on Amsterdam’s Concertgebouw Orchestra for half a century (1895–1945). Peter van Anrooy (1879–1954) composed the still popular Piet Hein Rhapsodie (1901) and served as conductor of the Residentie Orkest (The Hague’s philharmonic) from 1917 until 1935. Composer Willem Pijper also became known as a scathing music critic. Other talented Dutch composers of the 20th century included Simeon ten Holt (1923– ), Peter Schat (1935–2003), and Louis Andriessen (1939– ). Sopranos Gré Brouwenstijn (1915–1999), Cristina Deutekom (1931– ), and Elly Ameling (1933– ) and mezzo-soprano Jard van Nes (1948– ) were famous performers of classical songs and opera. Bernard Haitink (1929– ) received international fame as a conductor, and violinist Jaap van Zweden (1960– ) has already proved to be a promising conductor of several Dutch orchestras. The Nederlands Blazers Ensemble of wind instruments, which was formed by soloists from the most important Dutch symphony orchestras in 1959, has performed all around the world. The Amsterdam Concertgebouw, opened in 1888, is still considered as one of the best concert halls in the world. The Netherlands has about 10 conservatories. See also ORGAN MUSIC; THEATER; “WILHELMUS.” CLASSICISM. The imitation of classical examples can be found not only in Renaissance Italy but also in 17th-century Dutch painting, literature, and architecture (e.g., that of Jacob van Campen). In the late 18th century, one of the most famous classicist writers in the Dutch Republic was the philosopher and aesthetician Franciscus Hemsterhuis. CLAUS GEORGE WILLEM OTTO FREDERIK GEERT VAN AMSBERG (CLAUS VON AMSBERG) (1926–2002). Diplomat, prince of the Netherlands, and husband of Queen Beatrix. Although their marriage in 1966, with the memory of World War II still in mind, encountered resistance because Prince Claus was of German origin, he was fully accepted by the Dutch people in a short time. Before his marriage, he had studied law in Hamburg and worked for the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Caribbean and Africa. As prince consort, most of his attention went to development coopera-

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tion and the problems of poor countries. He advised the government for many years in this field. Due to his illnesses since 1982, Prince Claus could not function anymore as he had wished, but he persevered, for instance, during the presentations of the Prince Claus Prize, an annual cultural award since 1996. CLERCQ, WILLEM DE (1795–1844). Writer and merchant in Amsterdam. De Clercq was a member of the orthodox Protestant Réveil movement and a friend of the Romantic poets Willem Bilderdijk and Isaac da Costa. In 1824, he published a treatise on the influence of foreign literature on Dutch literature. A journal of his travels to St. Petersburg in 1816 was posthumously published in 1962, as was a small part of his extensive Dagboek [Journals] in 1869, edited by A. Pierson. CLERGY. During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic clergy was represented in the States of some provinces. However, they were forced to leave these assemblies in the provinces that became Protestant during the Revolt. Although the Dutch Republic was a Protestant confederation of seven sovereign provinces, the Calvinist clergy, unlike the clergy and nobility in France or England, was not a separate political class. COAT OF ARMS OF THE NETHERLANDS. See NATIONAL SYMBOLS. COBRA. An artists’ movement (from the abbreviation for Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam) founded in 1948 in Paris. Three Dutch painters participated: Karel Appel (1921–2006), Corneille (pseudonym of Cornelis Guillaume van Beverloo) (1922– ), and Constant (professional name of Constant A. Nieuwenhuys) (1920–2005). The Cobra school propagated a spontaneous, experimental mode of painting inspired by the naïveté of children’s drawings and popular art. It was a reaction against the theories and aestheticism of surrealism. The group published a review, Cobra, and a series of booklets. The Cobra Museum of Modern Art—designed by architect Wim Gerhard Quist (1930– )—is located in Amstelveen (Northern Holland).

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COCCEJUS (KOCH), JOHANNES (1603–1669). Theologian and orientalist. Born in the city of Bremen, Germany, Coccejus was one of the many German immigrants in the Dutch Republic. He studied Hebrew and theology in Hamburg, Franeker, and other cities. At the Academy of Franeker, he was appointed professor of oriental languages in 1636 and of theology in 1642. After 1650, he was professor of theology at the University of Leiden. Because of his more lenient interpretation of Calvinist doctrine, a controversy arose with his colleague from the University of Utrecht, Gijsbert Voet, a controversy with political overtones, because the Dutch regents generally supported Coccejus. CODIFICATION OF LAW. During the period of the Dutch Republic and the Batavian Republic (1581–1806), laws were enacted by the central government (the States General) or by provincial or local authorities. Many statutes were promulgated in the form of placards and published by private jurists or were printed in charter books. The centralizing policy of the Habsburg lords, who proclaimed as late as 1570 the large-scale and influential Criminal Ordinances, was then discontinued. Only after the declaration of the constitution of the unitary Batavian Republic (1798) was a commission, under the chairmanship of Prof. Henrik Constantijn Cras (1739–1820), established to be in charge of the compiling of national codes of law. After a long period of preparation, some codes were finally introduced under the Kingdom of Holland (partially modeled after the new French codes): a code of private law and a penal code (1809). The code on judicial organization was still not sanctioned. After the annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by the French Empire, Napoléon replaced the codes of 1809 with the five French codes, which were still in effect after the restoration of an independent Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1813. King William I ordered a new committee to draft national codes, under the chairmanship of Prof. Joan Melchior Kemper (1776–1824). This order caused a deep controversy with the Belgian members of the committee, who favored the maintenance of the French legislation. After the secession of Belgium in 1830, some new Dutch national codes were promulgated in 1838, but a penal code was brought into effect only in 1886. In 1945, Eduard Maurits Meijers was charged with a recodification of Dutch civil law. The new

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code has been in effect in parts since 1970–1992. In 2003, the law of inheritance part was renewed. COEHOORN, MENNO, BARON OF (1641–1704). Soldier and military engineer. Coehoorn participated in the wars against France and rose quickly in rank. His interest in the construction of fortifications led to a first publication in 1682: Versterckinge des vijff-hoecks met alle sijne buyten-werken. After that, he was asked to improve many Dutch fortifications. His chief work, Nieuwe vestingbouw, op een natte of lage horisont (1685), was translated into English [The New Method of Fortification, 1705], French, and German. During the War of the League of Augsburg (1689–1697), he was commissioned to the rank of lieutenant general and became inspector-general of the Dutch fortresses. Coehoorn had his last great successes during the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713), in Bonn (Germany) and Huy (Southern Netherlands). His French equal was Sébastien le Prestre, lord of Vauban. Coehoorn’s impressive memorial lies in the Frisian village of Wijckel (Wikel). Many of his fortifications were demolished in the 19th century. Since 1932, the Menno van Coehoorn Foundation has sought the conservation of the remaining ones. COEN, JAN PIETERSZ (1587–1629). Merchant in the service of the Dutch East India Company. In 1619, Coen established Dutch rule on Java at Jacatra (Batavia; now Jakarta, capital of Indonesia) during the struggles with the neighboring sultanate of Bantam and the rival colonizers, the English. In 1621, he undertook a punitive expedition against the inhabitants of the Banda Islands because of their negligence in observing trade agreements. During his second term as governor-general of Netherlands East Indies, he died in Batavia. COHEN, DAVID (1882–1967). Professor of ancient history at the University of Amsterdam. Cohen played a crucial role during the 1930s in the committee for the promotion of the interests of the Jews, especially of the Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany, and during the German occupation of the Netherlands (1940–1945) in the Jewish Council. In particular, his role in this latter council, which was made to heed the Germans, was bitterly criticized after the war. Cohen

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wrote on Greek papyrology, on the notariat in ancient Egypt, and on the Jewish refugees in the Netherlands. COINAGE. See CURRENCY. COLIJN, HENDRIKUS (1869–1944). Orthodox Protestant politician. After having distinguished himself as a soldier, Colijn was appointed in 1905 as an assistant to the governor-general of the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), Johannes van Heutsz. In the civil service, Colijn became an expert in colonial policy, and when he returned home he got involved in domestic politics. In 1910, he was appointed minister of defense. In 1914, Colijn accepted the post of director of the Batavian Petroleum Company, and in 1920, he became a member of the board of directors of the Royal Dutch Shell Group. Two years later, Colijn returned to domestic politics as a member of Parliament and leader of the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP) (founded by Abraham Kuyper). He also accepted the post of editor of the daily newspaper De Standaard. In 1923, he was appointed minister of financial affairs. After serving on several boards (e.g., the council on the impoldering of the Zuiderzee), Colijn became prime minister in 1933 at a critical phase in politics during the Depression. In spite of cutbacks in expenses, it proved impossible to balance the budget. In the end, Colijn’s last cabinet fell in June 1939 over a disagreement about the budget. After the German occupation of the Netherlands, Colijn criticized the departure of Queen Wilhelmina and the government to London. Although he initially seemed to accept the German supremacy in Europe (as in his pamphlet “Op de grens van twee werelden” [At the Crossing Point of Two Worlds] in summer 1940), Colijn later disapproved of the Nazi totalitarian policy. He was banished to a village in Thüringen, Germany. See also CHRISTEN UNIE (CU). COLLABORATION. The crime of voluntarily joining a hostile army during wartime or giving assistance to the enemy was introduced in the statute books—and sanctioned with the death penalty—by the Dutch government in exile in London during World War II. After the war, tens of thousands of persons accused of some kind of collaboration were arrested and tried by special tribunals and courts.

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COLONIES. The Dutch overseas empire comprised a network of trade centers that in some cases developed into colonies where European emigrants settled. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the colonies were controlled by the Dutch East India Company and West India Company. The main establishments were in Cape Town, South Africa; Batavia (Jakarta), Indonesia; Malabar, India; Deshima, Japan; New Amsterdam (New York); Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles; and Surinam. After the Napoleonic wars, the Netherlands ceded several colonies to England (e.g., the Cape Colony and Ceylon). The Netherlands East Indies became an economically and emotionally important Dutch colony, especially after its pacification in the Aceh War of 1873–1914. The process of decolonization was accelerated by the Japanese occupation of the East Indies during World War II. Indonesia became independent in 1949, after two unsuccessful military operations against the nationalists led by Sukarno, who became the first president of the new federal state. Dutch New Guinea (Irian Jaya) was annexed to Indonesia in 1963, and the Portuguese (eastern) part of Timor in 1976 (since 2002 an independent state). Surinam became independent in 1975. All that remains of the once far-flung empire are six islands in the Caribbean. COMMUNISM. In 1909, the Marxist wing was expelled from the revisionist Socialist Democratic Party (SDP). Under the direction of David Wijnkoop (1876–1941), the new political party adopted the name of the Communistische Partij Holland (Communist Party of Holland) in 1918. Some of its members were internationally famous in the Marxist movement, such as astronomer Anthonie Pannekoek and the syndicalist Henk Sneevliet. During the 1937 elections, the Communists won only three seats (out of 100) in Parliament, but after World War II, this number rose to 10 in 1946. Later, however, a decline set in, until in 1986 the renamed Communistische Partij Nederland (CPN) lost its representation in Parliament. The last success of the CPN had been its share in the “Stop the neutron bomb” campaign in the late 1970s, with a demonstration of some 50,000 people and a petition with 1.2 million signatures in 1978. In 1989, the party merged with other progressive parties into a new party, GroenLinks (GL, Green Left). Since 1992, only a new small Communist Party

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lives on, particularly in the eastern part of the province of Groningen, the Nieuwe Communistische Partij Nederland (NCPN). Author Theun Uilke de Vries (1907–2005) remained a Marxist until his death. One of his hundred or so novels was Het meisje met het rode haar (1956), which dealt with the Communist resistance fighter Jannetje Johanna (“Hannie”) Schaft (1920–1945), who was executed by the Nazis. See also SOCIALISTISCHE PARTIJ. CONSCRIPTION. Military service was introduced during the Batavian-French period (1795–1813) and was maintained after the restoration of national independence in 1814. Following the Belgian Revolt in 1830, selection for military service was determined by lot. Replacement was allowed until 1898, when personal military service was introduced. In 1909, the rule of only one son conscripted per family was introduced, later raised to two sons. Women were excluded. In 1923, a law on exemption from military service on grounds of conscience was passed. The conscription system was abolished in 1996 and was replaced by a professional army. CONSTANT (A. NIEUWENHUYS). See COBRA. CONSTITUTION. After the Union of Utrecht (Unie van Utrecht, 1579), it was not until 1798 that a modern written constitution was adopted in the recently formed Batavian Republic. The French constitutions served as a model. Parliament was divided into two chambers. The constitution provided for a strong executive and had a centralizing tendency. Separation between church and state, proclaimed in 1796, was maintained, as was the Declaration of Fundamental Rights of 1795. All men were considered equal in the eyes of the law, but the right to vote was granted only to financially solvent males 20 years of age and older. Later, the tendency toward decentralization after 1801 and new forms of government required new constitutions (under Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck in 1805 and King Louis Napoléon in 1806). The constitution for the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815 provided rules for a strong personal monarchy. Parliament, the States General, was at that time divided into two chambers with rather limited powers, the members of the First Chamber being appointed for

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life by the king, and those of the Second Chamber being elected by the provincial States. The Second Chamber had the right to introduce bills, although its budgetary power was limited because the normal budget was voted for 10 years. Revisions of the constitution after 1840 tended to enlarge the influence of Parliament over the executive, with the right to vote gradually extended. The constitutional revision of the revolutionary year 1848 marked a Liberal victory over autocracy: the Second Chamber was endowed with the rights of amendment of bills and parliamentary inquiry, and the budget was to be passed every year. Since 1868, the monarchy has been parliamentarily constitutional in practice; the monarch dismisses a minister or cabinet that has no majority in Parliament. The personal and political rights of the citizens have been extended over time, granting the right to associate, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press and banning all kinds of discrimination. In 1917 and 1919, universal suffrage was introduced for men and women, respectively (age 23 and older). The constitution’s text has been adapted and modernized several times, in 1983 quite fundamentally; the death penalty was constitutionally forbidden then. The last revision dates from 2002. COORNHERT, DIRCK VOLCKERTSZ (1522–1590). Poet, theologian, and engraver. As a layman, Coornhert passionately took part in the polemics between Roman Catholics and Protestants. In a period of religious struggles, he defended religious toleration in the vein of Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563), stressing the importance of freedom of conscience and demonstrating the path of virtue. Coornhert wrote many comedies, religious tracts, and Dutch translations of classical authors (Homer, Cicero, Seneca, Boethius). His treatise on the best way to check crime (Boeventucht, 1587) inspired a modern movement for the reform of criminal law to adopt his name: Coornhert-Liga (1971). CORNEILLE (PSEUDONYM OF CORNELIS GUILLAUME VAN BEVERLOO). See COBRA. CORNELISSEN, CHRISTIAAN (CHRISTIANUS GERARDUS) (1864–1942). Socialist and syndicalist theorist. Cornelissen was an

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active propagandist for the Socialist Democratic Union (Sociaal Democratische Bond, SDB) of Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis and wrote under the pseudonym “Clemens” in the newspaper Recht voor Allen (Justice for All). He supported the antiparliamentarian faction and preferred trade unionist associations, about which he wrote extensively in French (e.g., Le communisme révolutionnaire, 1896). After a conflict with Domela, he left the Netherlands for France in 1898. Cornelissen attended the International Socialist Congresses and was a contributor to several syndicalist periodicals, including Voix du Peuple and Les Temps Nouveaux. His major works include the Traité générale de la science économique. CORRUPTION. Modern opinions on unfair practices in government and business did not always apply to earlier centuries. Venality of offices and the giving of presents to more powerful persons (bribery) was the accepted practice. The idea that these practices were unjust, that is, not in the common interest of people who were equal under the law, grew slowly. However, the need to distinguish the expression of respect from corrupt practices can be recognized in early legal restrictive regulations. Modern law punishes the use of slush funds, but the judiciary has to define the limits of what is legally and morally acceptable. One of the famous cases in the Netherlands was the socalled Lockheed Affair (1975–1976), in which Prince Bernhard was said to have been involved, in relation to the purchase of new airplanes from that corporation by the Dutch Army. More recent examples of corruption are the trade in stock shares by insider dealing and the building industry’s malversations in public contracts. CORUS. A merger of Royal Hoogovens and British Steel in 1999, now one of the world’s largest steel and aluminum producers, with branches in 17 countries. The Dutch part was founded in IJmuiden (near Amsterdam) in 1918, intended as a supplier to Dutch industries. In 1924, the first blast furnace for iron ore went into production for crude steel. At first, the steel products were rolled into sheets. As of 1950, steel was also produced in the form of rods and fibers. A contract for cooperation with the German firm Hoesch AG (with the new entity renamed Estel), signed in 1972, was terminated 10 years later. Corus has about 12,000 employees in the Netherlands, 9,500 in

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IJmuiden alone. At the end of 2006, Corus was involved in a takeover struggle with India’s Tata Steel and Brazil’s CSN as interested parties. In 2007, Tata Steel made the highest bid in a secret auction. See also MANUFACTURING. COSTA, ISAAC DA (1798–1860). Originating from a Sephardic Jewish family, da Costa was converted in 1822 to Calvinism. He had studied law and arts and earned his doctor’s degree at the University of Leiden in 1821. Like his tutor Willem Bilderdijk, he became a fervent opponent of unbelief and revolution. He wrote numerous lengthy poems, many of which were inspired by Dutch national sentiment, on historical subjects. Da Costa, who edited several journals, also wrote historical and theological treatises. He was a member of the Protestant Réveil movement. COSTA, URIEL DA (1585–1640). A Jewish scholar from Hamburg, Germany, where he was excommunicated because of his heterodox ideas. Da Costa settled in Amsterdam and there got into trouble again with the rabbis and the Portuguese community, who upheld the ban (cherem) for disseminating his belief that the human soul is not eternal. In the end, he retracted his deviant ideas and committed suicide. With Baruch Spinoza and Juan de Prado (c. 1615–c. 1670), da Costa was one of the few individuals to be excommunicated by the Jewish community in the 17th century. COUNCIL OF STATE (RAAD VAN STATE). Originally, one of the three collateral councils created in 1531 by Emperor Charles V to assist his government in the Netherlands. After the Dutch Revolt, a council of state was instituted in the northern provinces of the Netherlands, but had very limited responsibilities: organization and financing of the army, and taxation in the occupied parts of the southern provinces (the Generaliteitslanden). After the creation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, the Council of State became, as was usual in other monarchies, an advisory body to the government with an increasingly judicial prerogative. COUNCIL OF TROUBLES (RAAD VAN BEROERTEN). After the Protestant uprisings and the Iconoclastic Fury in 1566–1567, the

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military governor of the Netherlands, the Duke of Alba, created a special court to try the suspects: the so-called Council of Troubles (1567–1576). It was nicknamed the Bloody Council because people accused the judges of ruthlessly condemning many persons to death. Modern scholarship has estimated the number of convictions between 1568 and 1573 to be some 7,000. COUNTER-REFORMATION. See JESUITS; REFORMATION. COUNTIES. During the Middle Ages, when central imperial power became weak, counts and dukes in the borderlands of the empire loosened their feudal bonds with the German emperor and became more or less sovereign lords. After the 11th and 12th centuries, the duchies of Brabant and Gelderland and the counties of Flanders, Holland, Hainault, and Zeeland became autonomous political units. They formed the nucleus of the territories that were gradually united by the Burgundian dukes and the German emperors of the House of Habsburg during the 15th and 16th centuries. In 1548, Emperor Charles V united the 17 counties and duchies of the Netherlands in a political unit known as the Burgundian Kreits. COURT, PIETER DE LA (1618–1685). Author and textile manufacturer in Leiden. De la Court wrote several political treatises, together with his brother Jan (d. 1660), promoting a strong antimonarchical and republican point of view. He made an appeal for economic liberalism and capitalism, advocating an extreme economic policy of particularism that favored the rich province of Holland. It has been suggested that Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt was a coauthor of some of the de la Court writings. CRIMINAL ORDINANCES. Statutes proclaimed in 1570 by King Philip II of Spain in the Netherlands as an attempt to create more uniformity in criminal law and procedures by codification of law. Although the Criminal Ordinances were not accepted in the rebellious northern provinces, they had great authority in criminal practice in many parts of the later Dutch Republic. As late as 1792, Prof. Bavius Voorda (1729–1799) of the University of Leiden published a new edition of the ordinances together with a learned commentary.

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CRUIJFF, JOHAN (1947– ). Soccer player and coach. Cruijff debuted in the Dutch professional competition in 1964 for Ajax (Amsterdam) and played for almost 20 years, on six teams, including Barcelona and Feyenoord (Rotterdam). He became world famous and is regarded as the best European football player of the 20th century. As a coach, Cruijff served two clubs: Ajax and Barcelona. In 1997, he started the Johan Cruijff Foundation to support sports for children with and without handicaps all over the world. CRUTZEN, PAUL J. (1933– ). Dutch chemist who did research in Stockholm and Colorado and lectured at Oxford. Crutzen received his doctorate in meteorology at the University of Stockholm in 1973, and in 1980 became head of the Department of Atmospheric Chemistry at the Max Planck Institute in Mainz, Germany. In 1995, Crutzen won the Nobel Prize for chemistry, along with American chemists Mario J. Molina and Franck Sherwood Rowland. See also SCIENCE. CULTUUR- EN ONTSPANNINGSCENTRUM (COC; CENTER FOR CULTURE AND ENTERTAINMENT). See HOMOSEXUALITY. CULTUURSTELSEL. Cultivation system in the Netherlands East Indies (especially Java) initiated by Governor-General Johannes van den Bosch in 1820. It was based on the following measures: Instead of delivering one-fifth of the total harvest to the government, the village (dessah) was obliged to till 20 percent of the land with a profitable product (for the European market) assigned by the government and to pay its harvest as taxation. No rent was due for this land, and the government assumed responsibility for the risk of crop failure. In practice, this system was rather oppressive as officials would often demand more than 20 percent, or would collect rent anyway. Former East Indian officer Eduard Douwes Dekker (pseudonym Multatuli) wrote a denunciation of this system (Max Havelaar, 1860), which was gradually abolished by the Dutch Parliament and government in the 1860s. CURAÇAO (Papiamento KÒRSOU). The most populous of the three Leeward (Benedenwindse) Islands of the Netherlands Antilles, with

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some 150,000 inhabitants. The Dutch occupied the island in 1634, after a period of Spanish domination. Curaçao became important for the Dutch because of its salt production and as a slave trading center. The English conquered the island twice during the Napoleonic era. Slavery was abolished on Curaçao in 1863. The island has had limited selfgovernment within the framework of the Netherlands Antilles since 1954. Its capital, Willemstad, contains beautiful government buildings and old colonial houses, though some of them were destroyed during the worker’s rising in 1969. The old city was named a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage city in 1997. The current economy rests on tourism (mainly via Hato International Airport and cruise ships), oil refining, and banking activities. Papiamento is the native language of most of the inhabitants, although Dutch is still used as the official language and is taught in schools. After Aruba obtained a separate status within the kingdom in 1986, discussions about the position of Curaçao were intensified. In 2005, the majority voted for the option of becoming an independent part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, just as St. Maarten had done earlier. This option will probably be implemented in December 2008. See also STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. CURRENCY. During the Middle Ages and the Republic, many local and regional authorities issued their own coinage. It was only during the French occupation (1806–1813) that more uniformity was introduced and many of the older species were canceled. The guilder (florijn)—with subdivisions of 1 cent, 5 cents (stuiver), 10 cents (dubbeltje), and 25 cents (kwartje)—was used until 2002. The present currency is the European Union’s common currency, the euro. CUYPERS, PETRUS JOSEPHUS HUBERTUS (1827–1921). Architect. After finishing his studies at the Academy for Architecture in Antwerp, Belgium, Cuypers was entrusted with the restoration of several Roman Catholic churches. His was a rather radical neoGothic style, inspired by the French architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814–1879). Cuypers became a famous and successful architect active in Mainz, Germany, and Amsterdam (designing the Rijksmuseum building there) and built churches in several other places as well.

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–D– DAENDELS, HERMAN WILLEM (1762–1818). Statesman and general. Daendels joined the party of the so-called Patriots, which tried, in the 1780s, to reform the constitution of the Republic. After the Patriots’ failure and the restoration of the Orangist regents in 1787, Daendels sought refuge in France. In 1794, he joined the revolutionary army of Gen. Jean-Charles Pichegru that overran the old Dutch Republic. In 1798, Daendels took part in the radical coup that installed a government that strove for a democratic military constitution in the Batavian Republic. King Louis Napoléon in 1807 appointed Daendels as governor-general to defend the Netherlands East Indies against the British. One of his projects was the construction of a new strategic postal route on Java. After the Restoration in 1815, King William I appointed Daendels governor of the Dutch Castle of St. George d’Elmina on the Gold Coast (now Ghana), where he died. DAF (TRUCKS). Automotive factory founded in 1932 by brothers Hubert Jozef (1900–1972) and Wilhelmus Antonius Vincentius (1906– 1978) van Doorne in Eindhoven, the city of Philips Electronics. In 1949, the company’s name was changed from Van Doorne’s Aanhangwagen Fabriek (Van Doorne’s Trailer Factory) into Van Doorne’s Automobiel Fabriek (Van Doorne’s Automobile Factory), both with the abbreviation DAF. The enterprise specialized in trucks, buses, and trailers, but also introduced private cars, especially models with the variomatic, an automatic gear change system (in production 1958). The Swedish company Volvo bought DAF’s passenger car division in 1975. After a bankruptcy in 1993, the company continued as DAF Trucks. Since 1996, DAF has belonged to the U.S.-based international truck manufacturer PACCAR. DANCE. Although several religious authorities looked upon dance as a profane activity in former centuries, many international dance styles (from ballroom dance to break dancing) have become popular and are practiced by large numbers of people in the Netherlands. This also applies to Dutch ballet, which has attracted thousands of viewers.The professional Nederlands Dans Theater (Dutch Dance

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Theater) in The Hague was formed in 1959 and became famous all over the world because it broke away from more traditional ballet. In particular, choreographers Hans van Manen (1932– ), the Czech Jirí Kilián, and the Englishman Paul Lightfoot introduced new forms of dance. Other Dutch companies include the National Ballet in Amsterdam, with choreographer and author Rudi van Dantzig (1933– ) as its director from 1969 until 1991, the Scapino Ballet in Rotterdam, and Introdans in Arnhem. See also JAZZ MUSIC; POP MUSIC. DATHENUS (DATHEN), PETRUS (1531–1588). Former monk who converted to Calvinism. Born Pieter Daten (or Daeten or Daets), he served, among other places, in a community of Dutch refugees in Frankenthal, Germany, where he created a new translation of the Psalms (used until the end of the 18th century) and translated the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. From 1570 to 1576, he was minister at the court of the Protestant Elector Palatine Frederick III. After a brief stay in the Low Countries, during which he criticized the tolerant religious policy of William I of Orange, he again retired to Germany. DE. For surnames beginning with the particle “de,” see the root name (e.g., for DE JONG, see JONG). DEATH PENALTY. Capital punishment was part of the Dutch criminal justice administration until the late 19th century. Criticism of the death penalty—and of torture and corporal punishment in general— during the Enlightenment led to a gradual humanization of criminal justice; branding as corporal punishment was abolished in 1854, and the death penalty was abolished in 1870. In military penal law, the death penalty is still in the statute books for cases of treason and desertion in wartime. During World War II, the death penalty was reintroduced for war crimes and collaboration with the German Occupation. Between 1944 and 1947, several executions of persons condemned by military tribunals took place. Queen Juliana, however, postponed the signing of death sentences of war criminals during the 1950s, and some of them were reprieved. The death penalty was forbidden by the constitution in 1983.

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DECLARATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS. In January and March 1795, during the Batavian Revolution, the States of several provinces and the States General proclaimed a declaration of the rights of man and the citizen, after the French model. The list of basic rights was added as a preamble to the constitution of 1798. After the Restoration of 1813, no such declaration was incorporated in the constitution again until 1983. DEFENSE. The function of national defense was developed in connection with the process of state formation. During the Revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, previous strategies were outdated and had to be changed. The crucial strategic importance of fortified towns had become obvious. Stadtholders Prince Maurice and Count William Louis (Willem Lodewijk) and their military advisors, such as Simon Stevin, adapted their tactics; for example, Prince Frederick Henry, a successful military leader, earned the epithet Stedendwinger (“Conqueror of Towns”). During the 17th century, the navy became an important instrument in defending the mercantile interests of the Republic; several wars were fought at sea against the English rivals. The army and fleet consisted mostly of mercenaries who could be disbanded after the campaign. A professional army and military service were phenomena that did not appear until after the 18th century. Although a foreign policy of neutrality was successfully followed (until the German invasion in 1940), the Netherlands still required a solid army for its wars of “pacification” in the colonies, especially in the Netherlands East Indies (e.g., the Java War of 1825–1830 or the Aceh War of 1873–1914). Since 1949 the Dutch Army has been part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). See also DUTCH WATER LINE; FORTRESSES. DELFT. City in the province of Southern Holland on the Schie River, with about 96,000 inhabitants. Delft received its statute as an autonomous community from Count William II (1227–1256) in 1246. Until 1795, it was one of the voting towns in the States of Holland. Before he was murdered in the Prinsenhof (now a museum) in 1584, William I of Orange resided for some years in Delft. He was interred in the New Church, like many other members of the Orange-Nassau family after him. Piet Hein and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek were buried

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in the Old Church. In 1842, the precursor of the present University of Technology was founded, initially as a royal academy for the education of engineers. See also KEYSER, HENDRICK DE (1565–1621). DELTA-PLAN. Project consisting of the construction of dams and bridges in the Meuse and Scheldt estuaries. The plan itself was conceived during the 1930s, but construction began only after the storm tide and flood of 1953. After all, not all river mouths were yet closed with dams. The Eastern Scheldt got a storm surge barrier in 1986 to protect the saltwater environment. It is one of the most admired structures in the world, as is the Maeslant barrier (1997), a movable barrier that can close off the New Waterway near Rotterdam. The Wester Scheldt is still open. Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, however, can be reached by a tunnel since 2003. The Delta-Plan has opened the whole province of Zeeland and has shortened the Dutch coastline by 700 kilometers (435 miles). DEMOCRACY. As elsewhere in the West, democracy in the Netherlands has been slow in development. In 1796, the Batavian Republic created a National Assembly chosen by “universal” suffrage (of men not being paupers). After the Napoleonic occupation, the new monarchy was headed by a constitutional king, but parliamentary power was weak. It took several decades for responsible government to be accepted by King William III. As of 1870, modern political parties were established, and the right to vote was gradually extended. However, it was not until 1917–1919 that true universal suffrage for men and women was laid down in the constitution. DEMOCRATEN 1966 (D66; DEMOCRATS 1966). A political party founded in 1966 by people not satisfied with the decision-making process in politics and in Parliament, among them Henricus Antonius Franciscus Maria Oliva (“Hans”) van Mierlo (1931– ). Initially the party advocated a radical renewal of democracy in politics. The main constitutional wishes of D66 are the introduction of the referendum and the election (rather than appointment by the government) of the burgomasters. Its program is now in between the liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) and the Social Democratic Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA). D66 has participated in six coalitions and co-

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operated with the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA), PvdA, and VVD in different combinations. In 2006, the party left the coalition with the CDA and VVD because of dissatisfaction with the way in which VVD minister Maria Cornelia Frederika (“Rita”) Verdonk had settled the question about the nationality of Ayaan Hirsi Ali. The party had its greatest electoral success in 1994, gaining 24 out of 150 seats. In the 2006 elections, however, the party fell from six seats to just three. Prominent party members—besides van Mierlo, who was the party’s “face” most of the time—have included Johannes Petrus Adrianus (“Hans”) Gruyters (1931–2005), Laurens Jan Brinkhorst (1937– ), Prof. Jan Terlouw (1931– ), Dr. Else (“Els”) Borst-Eilers (1932– ), and Thomas Carolus (“Thom”) de Graaf (1957– ). Alexander Pechtold (1965– ) became the new party leader in 2006. In the European Parliament (EP), D66 is connected with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE), with the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR) as a subgroup. DEMOCRATISCH SOCIALISTEN 1970 (DS’70; DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISTS 1970). See DREES, WILLEM (1886–1988). DEMOGRAPHICS. The population of the Netherlands at the end of the 17th century was estimated at 2 million. By 1829, at the time of the first national census, this number had increased to 2.6 million. In 1950, it was 10.2 million; in 1970, 13.1 million; in 1990, 14.9 million; and in 2005, 16.4 million. In 2004, the mean life expectancy at birth was 76.9 years for men and 81.4 for women. Child mortality (0–5 years) is 1.0 per thousand. The mean age at marriage is 35.4 for men and 32.3 for women. Divorce rates rose from 2.2 per thousand in 1960 to 8.9 per thousand in 2004. DEN BOSCH. See ’S HERTOGENBOSCH. DEN HELDER. A small city (population 44,000) at the head of Northern Holland that has been known as the home base of the Dutch Navy. During the Napoleonic Wars, a navy harbor was built. English and Russian troops invaded the harbor in 1799, and then it was fortified under Napoléon. After the digging of the Noordhollands Kanaal (1819– 1825), Den Helder flourished as the outport of Amsterdam until the

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Noordzeekanaal (from Amsterdam to IJmuiden) was opened in 1876. World War II was another tragic episode in the city’s history. After several bombardments, the Germans decided to demolish it partially. A new center was built after the war. The present port is also used for offshore activities and for the ferry to the Wadden isle of Texel. DEN HAAG. See THE HAGUE. DEPRESSION. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the ensuing economic crisis also caused a depression in the Netherlands that lasted for several years; the 1930s are associated with the Depression. The government had to cope with the problem of 400,000 unemployed people. An economic policy had to be developed in which the government played an active role, namely, by adopting the “agrarian crisis policy” with subsidies, minimum prices, and other protective measures. Dissatisfaction with the functioning of democratic parliamentary institutions stimulated the growth of National Socialist, Fascist, and other totalitarian movements. See also NATIONAAL SOCIALISTISCHE BEWEGING (NSB). DESCARTES, RENÉ (RENATUS CARTESIUS) (1596–1650). French mathematician and philosopher. During his military service in the French army, Descartes met the Dutchman Isaac Beeckman. After some years in Paris, in the 1630s he moved to the Dutch Republic, where he wrote his famous Discourse on Method (1637). He left the Republic in 1649 for Sweden at the invitation of the learned Queen Christina. DESHIMA. Artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki, Japan, where a Dutch commercial factory was established in 1641 (having previously been founded in the city of Hirado). After the Tokugawa shogunate cut off Japan from contacts with the outside world, Dutch merchants and scientists acted as the only link with Western culture and science. Until Japan was forced to “open” in the 1850s, several famous men such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Isaac Titsingh, and Philipp Franz von Siebold visited Deshima; some even traveled to the imperial court in Edo (now Tokyo) and published about various aspects of Japanese society.

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DE STIJL. See DOESBURG, THEO VAN (1883–1931); MONDRIAN, PIET (1872–1944). DETERDING, HENRI WILHELM AUGUST (1866–1939). Financial expert. A capable administrator and manager, Deterding served the Netherlands Trade Corporation (Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij [NHM]) in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia). He then, in 1896, moved to the newly founded Royal Dutch Oil Company (Koninklijke Nederlandse Petroleum Maatschappij) and became its director in 1900, after the death of Jean-Baptiste August Kessler (1853–1900), the previous director. Seven years later, Royal Dutch and the Shell Group merged. Deterding aimed at compelling the American Standard Oil to balance production and sales. During the Depression of the 1930s, he tried to convince Dutch prime minister—and former director of the Batavian Petroleum Company (Bataafse Petroleum Maatschappij—Hendrikus Colijn to drop the gold standard and join the imperial sterling bloc. Deterding was also in favor of (Nazi) Germany joining the sterling bloc. As a patron, he presented some famous paintings to institutions, for example, The Street by Johannes Vermeer to the Rijksmuseum. He related his memoirs to Stanley Naylor (An International Oilman, 1934). DEVENTER. City on the River IJssel in the province of Overijssel with about 90,000 inhabitants. It was first documented in 965 and later became a member of the Hansa League together with its commercial neighboring cities Zwolle and Kampen. Geert Groote’s movement of the devotio moderna was influential in Deventer. Richard Paffraet’s and Jacob van Breda’s printing houses were founded in the city in 1477 and 1485, respectively. After the Dutch Revolt, the town declined. The old library of the Atheneum Illustre is now in the Deventer Public Library. DEVOTIO MODERNA. See GROOTE, GEERT (1340–1384); HUMANISM. DIEMEN, ANTHONY VAN (1593–1645). Merchant and government official. As a merchant from Amsterdam, van Diemen established

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himself in the recently conquered Dutch East Indies (at Batavia on Java). Thanks to the protection of Governor-General Jan Pietersz Coen, he was appointed to several high government posts. From 1636 until his death in 1645 (in Batavia), he himself served as governor-general. During Van Diemen’s administration, Abel Jansz Tasman, while exploring the “South Land,” discovered the island southeast of Australia that was initially called Van Diemen’s Land but was later known as Tasmania. DIEPENBROCK, ALPHONS (1862–1921). Composer and man of letters. Diepenbrock studied classics, and as a musician, he was selftaught. He tried to renew Roman Catholic church music. Most of his compositions are vocal, inspired by German Romanticism, Richard Wagner (1813–1883), and Giovanni da Palestrina (c. 1525–1594). Diepenbrock chose his texts from old Dutch literature, his contemporaries Jacques Perk (1859–1881) and Albert Verwey (1865–1937), and modern French symbolists. See also CLASSICAL MUSIC. DIVISIE-KRONIEK. Chronicle written by the monk Cornelius Aurelius of Gouda (c. 1460–1531) and published in Leiden in 1517. This work is a traditional history of the world and the Low Countries (especially Holland: Batavia, Insula Batavorum) in medieval style but influenced by humanist perspectives. Aurelius corresponded with Erasmus and other humanists. DOES, JOHAN VAN DER (JANUS DOUSA) (1545–1604). Politician; ambassador to England; librarian of the University of Leiden’s library in 1585; and editor of several historical books such as the medieval chronicle of Melis Stoke (13th century). Van der Does wrote a history of Holland in Latin, Bataviae Hollandiaeque Annales (1601), to which his son Janus Dousa Jr. (1571–1596), a neo-Latin poet, contributed. DOESBURG, THEO VAN (PSEUDONYM OF CHRISTIAN EMIL MARIE KUPPER) (1883–1931). Painter and architect. Van Doesburg founded the periodical De Stijl (1917–1931), in which he propagated his principles of neo-Plasticist art. Like his friend Piet Mondrian, he composed his paintings on geometrical and linear

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principles, but after 1924 added the diagonal (“elementarism”). During these years, van Doesburg advocated Dadaism in Holland, publishing under the pseudonym of I. K. Bonset. Together with Hans Arp (1887–1966), he decorated the restaurant l’Aubette in Strasbourg (1926–1928, destroyed 1938). The architect Jan Wils (1891–1972) was also involved in De Stijl; he designed the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium for the 1928 Games, for which he invented the first Olympic flame. DOLLE MINA. Name of a vociferous feminist group that acquired fame for its playful demonstrations for women’s rights (such as legal abortion) during the late 1960s, mainly in Amsterdam. The group was named after Mina Kruseman (1839–1922), a singer and feminist who was a friend of the famous Dutch writer Multatuli. DOMELA NIEUWENHUIS, FERDINAND (1846–1919). Socialist and anarchist politician. In 1879, Domela resigned as a minister of the Lutheran Church and became active in the Freethinkers movement. In 1881, he founded the Sociaal-Democratische Bond (Socialist Democratic Association). He was a charismatic propagandist of socialist ideas in speeches and in writing, especially in the newspaper Recht voor Allen (Justice for all). In 1888, he was the first Socialist to be elected to Parliament, holding office until 1891. During the 1890s, a crisis in the socialist movement between the democrats, who preferred fundamental changes in society by parliamentary means, and disappointed socialists, such as Domela who sympathized with anarchism, led to the secession of the Democratic Socialists. The Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Socialist Democratic Labor Party) was founded in 1894 by Pieter Jelles Troelstra and others. Domela played a role in the international socialist and anarchist movement. He corresponded with Friedrich Engels, Wilhelm Liebknecht, August Bebel, and Pyotr Kropotkin. He was a prolific publicist, his most important theoretical publication in French being Le socialisme en danger (1897). In Dutch, he wrote De Geschiedenis van het socialisme [The History of Socialism, 1901–1902] and his memoirs, Van Christen tot Anarchist [From Christian to Anarchist, 1910]. His Frisian surname was “Us Ferlosser” (Our Saviour).

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DOORBRAAK (BREAKTHROUGH). A Dutch term used in political circles after World War II. The persons concerned wished to achieve a breakthrough within the pillarized society by ending the dividing line between the Christian and non-Christian political parties, the so-called “antithesis” of Abraham Kuyper. This breakthrough was only partially achieved. The most visible result was the establishment of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labor Party). DORDRECHT. City near Rotterdam, with about 120,000 inhabitants. Dordrecht had municipal rights as early as 1220 and therefore is the oldest town of Holland. In 1572, the first free assembly of the States of Holland was held here, which meant the successful political start of the Revolt against King Philip II of Spain. Dordrecht is also well known because of the Calvinistic Synod of Dordrecht in 1618–1619. Although Rotterdam had surpassed Dordrecht by the 18th century, the city still has a minor sea harbor with shipbuilding and related industries. DOUSA, JANUS. See DOES, JOHAN VAN DER (1545–1604). DOUWES DEKKER, EDUARD. See MULTATULI. DREES, WILLEM (1886–1988). Politician. In 1904, Drees became an active member of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Labor Party). He not only served long terms as a representative in town and provincial councils (e.g., at The Hague) but also acquired practical experience as an alderman. After a career in local and provincial councils, he became a member of Parliament in 1933. Following World War II, Drees assumed the leadership of a movement that aimed at political renewal, and a new Labor Party (Partij van de Arbeid [PvdA]) was created. He became a member of the cabinet in 1945, and as minister of social welfare, he achieved fame for his legislation on pensions for elderly people. As prime minister, Drees was at the head of broad coalition cabinets supported by the Socialists and the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) until 1958, during the difficult postwar years of reconstruction and decolonization (Indonesia). In 1971, he resigned from the PvdA because of its radical left-wing orientation.

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Drees, who was one of the most popular and respected politicians of the 20th century, published his memoirs in several volumes (Van mei tot mei, 1958; Zestig jaar levenservaring, 1962; and Drees, neerslag van een werkzaam leven, ed. by Paul van ’t Veer, 1972). His son Willem Drees Jr. (1922–1998) was the leader of the moderate leftwing political party Democratisch Socialisten 1970 (DS’70, Democratic Socialists 1970), which had minor importance as one of the coalition parties in the Barend Biesheuvel cabinet (1971–1973). Within this government, the younger Drees was minister of transport and communications. DRENTHE. One of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands, with a current population of about 484,000. Evidence for prehistoric occupation goes all the way back to 12,000 B.C. The monolithic burial mounds (hunebedden) are particularly famous. During the Middle Ages, Drenthe was spiritually and secularly governed by the bishop of Utrecht. During the 16th century, the German emperor Charles V acquired sovereignty in the northern parts of the Netherlands, including the sparsely populated landscape of Drenthe. After its conquest during the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish king Philip II, Drenthe was incorporated into the Republic, but not on equal terms with the seven provinces that were represented in the States General. In 1796, representatives of Drenthe were finally admitted to the National Assembly. During the 19th century, the province, with Assen as its capital, remained a largely remote and inaccessible area. Gradually its agriculture was modernized and the province became more integrated in Dutch society. The last Dutch commercial peatery worked in Drenthe until the 1970s. Because of its unspoiled environment, Drenthe is a tourist attraction and a favorite vacation spot. Its main cities, in addition to the capital, are Emmen, Hoogeveen, and Meppel. Groningen Airport Eelde is located in Drenthe. DRIEMANSCHAP (TRIUMVIRATE). After Napoléon was defeated by the Coalition, a triumvirate temporarily ruled the occupied Netherlands during the power vacuum that the retreat of the French authorities had created; they were the counts Adam F. J. A. van der Duyn van Maasdam (1771–1848), Gijsbert van Hogendorp, and

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Leopold van Limburg Stirum (1758–1840). On 17 November 1813, they issued a proclamation stating “Holland is free” and announced the return of the House of Orange. In July 1940, after the German occupation in May, a triumvirate consisting of Johannes Linthorst Homan (1903–1986), Louis Einthoven (1896–1979), and Jan de Quay founded a new political movement, the Nederlandsche Unie (NU, Netherlands Union), which aimed at creating a new economic and social order through national cooperation. DRUGS. The use of drugs has spread in Dutch society during recent decades. Because of drug-related diseases and other side-effects, such as prostitution and criminal activities by addicts, the authorities were forced to develop a coherent policy. Bans on the use of drugs, however, appeared to be impracticable. Consequently the government’s attitude became quite pragmatic. Yet a distinction is still made between (really) illegal hard drugs (e.g., cocaine and heroin) and tolerated soft drugs (e.g., hashish and marijuana). It is acceptable to sell and buy only soft drugs and only for personal use. Neighboring countries, particularly France and Germany, have not accepted this policy easily. They feared “drugs tourism” from their own citizens in coffee shops in the Netherlands. They also criticized the illegal Dutch export of synthetic drugs and forced the Dutch government to combat the use of Dutch harbors as transit ports for drugs into Europe. They have become somewhat less skeptical, however, since the number of drug-related deaths in the Netherlands is one of the lowest in Europe and the number of hard drug addicts has stabilized, as a result of successful reduction programs. DSM (DUTCH STATE’S MINES). The DSM is a wide-ranging concern that originated in the Dutch Mines, a corporation founded in 1902 by the government for the exploitation of the Dutch coal mines. Since that activity was terminated in 1975, the organization has been producing, among other things, raw materials for synthetic fibers, fertilizers, and energy. The DSM group employs about 24,000 people worldwide. Its headquarters is in the city of Heerlen, Limburg.

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DUDOK, WILLEM MARINUS (1884–1974). Architect. After a short career in the army, Dudok became the city architect, first of Leiden in 1913 and then of Hilversum (Het Gooi, Northern Holland) in 1915. In his own studio, he designed many town districts and public buildings, such as the Hilversum city hall (c. 1930). In the Netherlands, Dudok also designed the Westerveld columbarium (the first Dutch crematory), the Bijenkorf department store in Rotterdam (destroyed during World War II), the so-called White Village for Philips Electronics employees in Eindhoven, the Afsluitdijk monument, some Hoogovens buildings in Velsen, the Amsterdam port warden’s building, and many Esso gas stations. His buildings abroad include a cinema in Calcutta, a cultural center in Baghdad, and a student house in Paris. His designs were related to the Amsterdam School and De Stijl. DUISENBERG, WIM (WILLEM FREDERIK) (1935–2005). Economist and politician. After studying economics and working at the University of Groningen, Duisenberg joined the staff of the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C., from 1966 to 1969. He was also chosen as an advisor of the board of directors of the Bank of the Netherlands. In 1970, Duisenberg was appointed professor of macroeconomics at the University of Amsterdam. From 1973 to 1977, he served in government as minister of finance. After three years vice presidency of RABObank Nederland, he became, in 1981, a member of the board of directors of the Bank of the Netherlands and, since 1982, president of that bank. In 1998, Duisenberg was appointed the first president of the European Bank, in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. During his term, the euro was successfully introduced. He resigned from this office in 2003. The Frisian Duisenberg also filled several commissionerships (e.g., Nutricia, Douwe Egberts, and KLM) and other tasks, such as the membership of the board of supervisors of the European Association for Banking History (1990–2005). See also EUROPEAN UNION (EU). DUNNING, ALBERT (1935–2005). Dutch musicologist who was professor at the University of Pavia, Italy. Dunning discovered that Count Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer (1692–1766), a director of the Dutch East India Company and ambassador, had composed the Sei

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concerti armonici, which had been attributed to Italian composer Carlo Ricciotti (1681–1756). Dunning’s main research concerns the work of Italian composer Pietro Antonio Locatelli (1695–1764). He also wrote a biography about German composer Joseph Smitt (1734–1791). See also CLASSICAL MUSIC. DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Dutch belongs to the Western Germanic section of the Indo-European family of languages. The language is spoken in the Netherlands, part of Belgium (Flanders), and a small part of northwestern France, as well as in the Netherlands Antilles and the former colony of Surinam. Cognate languages are especially Afrikaans (spoken in the Republic of South Africa) and Frisian (in the province of Frisia). The modern standard language developed from several dialects, the oldest surviving document being a text by Hendrik van Veldeke (c. 1170) written in the dialect of Limburg. The influence of the language spoken and written in the populous and rich province of Holland had a decisive influence on modern Dutch. Medieval Dutch literature was mainly poetry, but romances of chivalry were also written. An influential 13th-century author was Jacob van Maerlant. During the Renaissance, Chambers of Rhetoric stimulated literary activities. Pieter Cornelisz Hooft, Jacob Cats, Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero (1585–1618), Constantijn Huygens (1596–1687), and Joost van den Vondel (plays and poems) renewed the literature of the Dutch Golden Age with humanist ideas. Although the 18th century produced several talented authors (and many hacks), the century is considered a period of decline. Two exceptions were Elizabeth (“Betje”) Wolff (1738–1804) and Agatha (“Aagje”) Deken (1741–1804); together, they wrote the letter novel Historie van mejuffrouw Sara Burgerhart (1782). Another prominent writer, somewhat later, was Willem Bilderdijk. Typical books about Dutch 19th-century life were the Camera obscura (1839), written by the minister Nicolaas Beets (1814–1903), and Everhardus (or Everardus) Johannes Potgieter’s (1808–1875) Jan, Jannetje en hun jongste kind (1842), a glorification of the Dutch Golden Age. In the second half of the 19th century, Conrad Busken Huet and Multatuli criticized Dutch morals and opinions. Renewal also came from the Movement of the Eighty, which started the periodical De Nieuwe

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Gids [The New Guide] in 1885 (e.g., the editors Willem Kloos [1859–1938] and Albert Verwey [1865–1937]). Herman Gorter impressed with his poem Mei [May] in 1889. Some of the critical authors in the interbellum period were the literary men of the periodical Forum (1932–1935), Simon Vestdijk (1898–1971), Hendrik Marsman (1899–1940), Menno ter Braak (1902–1940), and Edgar du Perron (1899–1940). From the many postwar authors, Willem Frederik Hermans, Gerard Reve, Jan Wolkers, and Harry Mulish are considered among the finest, and Hella Serafia Haasse (1918– ) is famous for her historical novels. See also EFFEN, JUSTUS VAN (1684–1735); HADEWIJCH; HEINSIUS, DANIEL (1641–1720); SCHMIDT, ANNA MARIA GEERTRUIDA (1911–1995); THEATER. DUTCH REVOLT. See REVOLT. DUTCH WATER LINE (HOLLANDSE WATERLINIE). During the Dutch Revolt, the Dutch stadtholders used the flooding of land as a strategy against the enemy. In the 17th century, a defense project was realized with dikes, sluices, and fortifications to protect the province of Holland. Polders could be easily inundated. The first water line proved to be successful during the French attack of Louis XIV in the war of 1672. The system was modernized and shifted eastward in the province of Utrecht during the 19th century, the new Dutch water line. During World War II, the Dutch started their defense even further eastward, but they were forced to surrender before they could use the new water line. Another well-known defensive water line is the Stelling van Amsterdam, which was built during the period 1880–1920 (135 kilometers/84 miles around Amsterdam). The Stelling, which includes 42 fortifications, became a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1996. See also FORTRESSES.

–E– EASTERN FRISIA (German OSTFRIESLAND). This German region east of the Dutch province of Groningen has several historic

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bonds with the Netherlands. During the Middle Ages, representatives from all Frisian countries gathered here annually, near the present capital Aurich. This meeting was called the Upstalboom. In the 16th century, the Eastern Frisian harbor city of Emden was a port of refuge for many Dutch Calvinists. Consequently, many Eastern Frisian churches have remained Calvinistic and have used the Dutch language for centuries. Furthermore, the States General paid for Dutch garrisons in Emden (from 1595) and Leerort (from 1611) until 1744. Then, the Eastern Frisian dynasty of the Cirksenas died out and their land was incorporated in the Kingdom of Prussia. Between 1807 and 1810, Eastern Frisia was a département of the Kingdom of Holland. Finally, the Ems-Dollart region is one of the five European Union (EU) crossborder “Euregions” along the Dutch-German border, founded in 1977 in order to stimulate its economic and cultural development. EAST INDIA COMPANY. The Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC, United East India Company) was founded in 1602 to coordinate the commercial activities of Dutch merchants in the East Indies (Asia). Its charter, granted by the States General of the Republic, provided the VOC with a monopoly in the regions east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Strait of Magellan. Its board was divided into six chambers, of which Amsterdam, where shareholders had invested half of the capital, was the most important. The “17 Gentlemen” (Heren XVII) acted as directors. The VOC was granted a degree of autonomy that included the power to declare war, to enter into treaties, and to maintain a fleet and an army. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the VOC created a colonial empire with strongholds especially in the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), India, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape Colony. The company was liquidated in 1798. EAST INDIES. See NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. ECONOMY. The Dutch economy has been oriented toward the world for ages. Trade brought riches to a selected number of merchant families, particularly during the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century. Agriculture, fishing, and small industries were other important economic activities that employed the Dutch population. Yet, the Indus-

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trial Revolution did not start until the last decades of the 19th century, after new infrastructural projects such as railroads and canals were finished and obstructing local taxes had been abolished. A period of economic progress followed, with characteristics such as the increase of purchasing power, the coming of chains of shops and new firms, the boom in the diamond cutting and tobacco industries, and the fast growth of Rotterdam as a transit port. This development, however, was interrupted by World War I and stagnated because of the Depression of the 1930s. The Dutch crisis was more severe than in other European countries because the government refused to abandon the gold standard until 1936. During World War II, Nazi Germany damaged the Dutch economy considerably. About 60 percent of the transport system and 30 percent of the industrial base were destroyed. A black market flourished, and the Dutch financial position became critical. A period of reconstruction brought new economic growth after 1945. Monetary reform; harmonious consultations between government, employers, and employees about prices and wages; the Marshall Plan; and the budding economic cooperation with neighboring countries yielded their fruit. The average economic growth was almost 5 percent during the period from about 1950 to 1970, a pattern that was also visible in the other countries of the European Economic Community. Typically Dutch, however, were the high labor costs and consumer expenditures. New investments were hard to achieve. The international oil crises in 1973 and 1979 also worsened the competitive position of the Netherlands. Unemployment kept increasing in the 1980s, and hard measures, such as cutbacks on wages and benefits, and the ending of support to enterprises in difficulty and grants to cultural institutions, were necessary. Since the end of the 1980s, the Dutch economy has recovered. But growth figures have remained modest and international circumstances have had immediate repercussions. At present, most people (about three-quarters of the labor force) work in the service sector (including government). The remaining quarter is mostly employed in manufacturing and other industries, with just a few percent in agriculture. Current policies are geared to the development of a knowledge-based economy, which is oriented toward a highly developed information technology. See

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also BANKING; ENERGY; EUROPEAN UNION (EU); FLOWER CULTIVATION; PETROCHEMICALS; SHIPBUILDING. EDUCATION. School education became a task of the state government only in the more recent stage of Dutch history. It was traditionally regarded as a task for parents and members of the family in cooperation with church-subsidized institutions. In some cities, Latin schools were already founded by the late Middle Ages. The first university to be founded in the Northern Netherlands was in Leiden in 1575 (after Louvain in the South in 1425). During the old Republic, technical and commercial training remained largely a matter of inservice training. Primary school education has been organized on a national level only since the Batavian-French Period (Acts of 1801 and 1806). During the 19th century, several new national acts were introduced for university (1815, 1876), secondary school (gymnasium, advanced secondary; 1838), and primary school (1857) education. State subsidies for confessional education have only been granted after a long struggle between the liberal and the religious political parties (known as the “pacification” of 1917). Freedom of education (and of the founding of schools) has been enshrined in the constitution. Full education is compulsory for children from 5 to 16 years of age. The structure of the educational system is threefold. The first level is elementary school, for children from 4 to 12 years of age. The second standard is continued education for children from 12 to 16 to 18 years. It provides several types, from preparatory vocational education to gymnasium (Latin school). The third level is higher education, including professional training in hogescholen and scientific education at the universities, such as in Leiden, Groningen, Utrecht, and Amsterdam. Costs of education are at present less than 6 percent of gross national product, which is relatively low in western Europe. See also CALS, JOSEPH MARIA LAURENS THEO (1914–1971). EFFEN, JUSTUS VAN (1684–1735). Editor. Van Effen studied law and became a minor civil servant. However, he enjoyed greater renown as a man of letters. He edited several periodicals (in French), in which he criticized contemporary morals and abuses in an ironic vein. Van Effen was a typically mild, tolerant, and rationalist expo-

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nent of the Enlightenment. After the model of Joseph Addison’s and Richard Steele’s The Tatler and The Spectator, he introduced the “spectatorial” periodical in the Netherlands (De Hollandsche Spectator, 1731–1735). See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. EIGHTY YEARS’ WAR. See REVOLT. EINDHOVEN. City in the southeastern part of Northern Brabant. Eindhoven obtained municipal rights in 1232 from Duke Henry I of Brabant. Before 1629—during the Dutch Revolt—it changed hands between the Dutch and Spanish several times. The textile and tobacco industries, and in particular the Philips Electronics and DAF factories, caused an explosive growth of Eindhoven after 1900. During World War II, the historic center was severely damaged. At present, Eindhoven has about 210,000 inhabitants, while many others live in the surrounding metropolitan area. The Technical University is one the main research centers in the Netherlands and the Van Abbe Museum is famous for its modern art. ELSEVIER. In 1580, Lodewijk Elsevier (c. 1540–1617) from Louvain established himself in Leiden as a printer and bookseller. The house of Elsevier became one of the most important publishing firms in the 17th century (along with Plantin-Moretus in Antwerp and Blaeu in Amsterdam). The Elsevier family published books by Hugo Grotius, Nicolaas Heinsius, and Simon Stevin, among others. The firm was liquidated in 1681. In 1880, a new publishing house was founded that adopted the Elsevier name (now Reed Elsevier). EMANCIPATION. See FEMINISM; HOMOSEXUALITY; JEWS; ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH; WOMEN. EMMA OF WALDECK-PYRMONT. See MONARCHY; WILHELMINA (1880–1962); WILLIAM III (1817–1890). EMMIUS, UBBO (1547–1625). Educator and historian. Born in Norden (Eastern Frisia, Germany), Emmius attended the universities of Rostock and Geneva, where he was taught by the Calvinist

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theologian Theodore Beza (1519–1605). In 1579, he was appointed rector of the school in Norden; in 1588, he moved to Leer, Germany. In 1595, Emmius was invited by the new Calvinist authorities to organize higher education in the city of Groningen. When a university was founded in Groningen in 1614, the aged Emmius became its first professor and rector. He published an extensive Rerum Frisicarum historia (1596, reprinted several times until 1616); his correspondence (Briefwechsel des Ubbo Emmius) was edited in 1911 and 1923 by Hajo Brugmans. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. ENERGY. Until the 20th century, wood and peat were the most used energy sources in the Netherlands. Then, coal, oil, and natural gas became alternatives. In 1973, an Arab oil boycott was extended to the Netherlands because it had supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Carless Sundays, in order to save gasoline, were a solution in the short term. The government also started to stimulate the use of renewable energy sources, such as modern windmills and solar collectors. Dutch society, however, did not appreciate nuclear energy as an alternative. Proposals for new nuclear plants and the presence of such plants in Dodewaard, Gelderland, since 1968 and Borssele, Zeeland, since 1973 led to fear and strong protests. In response, the government decided to close both plants, the first in 1997. The other will remain open until 2033, however, according to a government decision in 2006. At any rate, most electricity in the Netherlands is still generated by fossil fuels, of which Dutch natural gas will be available in large quantities for only several more decades. Dutch energy prices have increased tremendously recently. The linking of the Dutch natural gas price to the world’s rising oil prices has been profitable for Dutch state finances, but not, of course, for Dutch citizens of modest means. In order to create more competition, the government decided to liberalize the energy market as of 1998. In 2004, all households were free to choose their own electricity and gas supplier. They could already make a choice for so-called green electricity, which is generated by clean sources (such as wind, sun, hydropower, and biomass). See also ECONOMY; PETROCHEMICALS. ENGLAND. See GREAT BRITAIN, RELATIONS WITH.

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ENSCHEDE. City in Twente, the eastern part of the province of Overijssel, with a population of about 140,000 inhabitants. Enschede became a textile center during the 19th century, in particular after the city had to be rebuild because of the city fire in 1862. It has a university of technology (opened in 1961), some polytechnics, and museums for nature and art. In 2000, a whole district was swept away— 23 people were killed and hundreds were wounded—as a result of an explosion in the plant of SE Fireworks. ENSCHEDÉ HOLDING. See CASTELEYN, ABRAHAM (c. 1628– 1681). ENVIRONMENTALISM. Organized Dutch nature protection started around 1900. The Vereniging tot Behoud van Natuurmonumenten in Nederland (Dutch Society for the Maintenance of Nature Reserves), for example, which was founded in 1905, has bought and preserved land in all Dutch provinces over the years (in 2006, it comprise 370 areas, together covering almost 95,000 hectares/365 square miles). Bird protection and the care of other native animals have also attracted many people who fear the negative consequences of the rapid urbanization and industrialization of the country. Since the 1960s, the environmentalist movement has started to pay attention to all kinds of pollution. It also struggled against the use of pesticides, intensive agriculture, and nuclear energy. Two other well-known Dutch environmental organizations are Milieudefensie (Friends of the Earth Netherlands, founded in 1971) and the Fietsersbond (Cyclists’ Union, founded in 1975). Furthermore, many Dutch people have supported international organizations, such as Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund. The Netherlands, as a member of the European Union, subscribed to the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, in order to improve the Earth’s climate. See also WADDEN (SEA). EPIDEMICS. Contagious diseases, such as plague, syphilis, smallpox, cholera, and tuberculosis, ravaged the population of western Europe frequently over the centuries. Whereas the plague had already disappeared before the 19th century, the last outbreak of cholera in the Netherlands was in 1866. Since hygiene has improved and methods of vaccination have been developed, the traditional infectious diseases have been effectively controlled. See also HEALTH.

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ERASMUS OF ROTTERDAM (c. 1469–1536). Humanist and scholar. Desiderius Erasmus was the illegitimate son of a priest. He was educated in schools at Gouda, Deventer, and ’s Hertogenbosch, where he lived with the Brethren of the Common Life founded by Geert Groote. Erasmus became a priest himself and served the bishop of Cambrai (now in France). He studied theology and letters at the University of Paris. During a voyage in England, he met Chancellor Thomas More (1478–1535) and the learned John Colet (1466–1519), who became his lifelong friends. Erasmus advocated a rational, humanistic, nondogmatic kind of Christendom. In the controversies around Martin Luther and other “reformers,” Erasmus pleaded for peaceful solutions and for toleration. Of his many theological and educational writings, The Praise of Folly and the Colloquia familiaria have won world fame. Erasmus has influenced not only scholarly study of the ancient classical and holy texts but also the views of pacifist movements in the Netherlands, expressed, for instance, by Dirck Coornhert. ESCHER, MAUK (MAURITS CORNELIS) (1898–1972). Artist who became known for his (black-and-white) woodcuts and lithographs, often with deceptive and impossible constructions. His work has a mathematical and technical character. At the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Art, he followed the lessons of Samuel Jesserun de Mesquita (1868–1944). Before World War II, Escher worked in Rome for many years until the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini became unacceptable to him; afterward, he relocated to Switzerland and Belgium. In 1941 he moved to Baarn, Northern Holland. He died in the Rosa Spier House in Laren, Northern Holland, a retirement home for artists. EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (EP). Representative body, originally of the European Coal and Steel Community, and later of the European Community and the European Union (EU), located in Strasbourg, France, and in Brussels. The Dutch have participated in this institution since its start in the 1950s. At first, the six participating countries delegated members from their own national parliaments. Since 1979, the EP’s members have been elected directly, every five years. Although the EP’s powers have grown over the years, they are

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still limited (e.g., no right of initiative yet). This is one of the reasons why many Dutch have not been inclined to vote for this parliament. So far, the Social Democrat Pieter Dankert (1934–2003) has been the only Dutch EP president (1982–1984). Since 2004, the Netherlands has had 27 out of 732 seats in the EP (from 25 member states), which is the sixth biggest delegation. The members of the EP, however, are not divided along national lines. Although most of them have strong connections with national political parties, in the Parliament itself they belong to European factions; for example, the Christian Democrats of the Dutch Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) are associated with the European People’s PartyEuropean Democrats (EPD-ED), the Social Democrats of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA) with the Party of European Social Democrats (PES), and the Liberals of the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) with the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE). In the 2004 elections, former European Commission official Paul van Buitenen (1957– ) became the first Dutchman who was successful in the Netherlands with a typical European party: Europa Transparant (two seats). His party belongs to the faction of European Greens-European Free Alliance. In 1998, van Buitenen wrote a report about corruption in the European Commission of Jacques Santer, which had led to its fall. EUROPEAN UNION (EU). In 1957, the Netherlands was an active participant in the founding of the partially supranational and partially intergovernmental European Economic Community (EEC)—as it had been of its more specialized predecessor, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952—and European Atomic Energy Commission (EURATOM), which were merged into the European Community (EC) in 1967. In 1993, this organization was given broader powers under a treaty negotiated in the Dutch city of Maastricht and was renamed the European Union. In the same year, the Netherlands was also one of the first five so-called Schengen countries that started opening their borders to one another without passport controls. The next stage involved a common currency—the euro—for certain EU members. In 1998, the European Bank was established, with the Dutchman Wim Duisenberg as its first president. He guided the introduction of the euro in 2002.

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Dutch governments have always strongly supported all steps toward closer economic, monetary, and political integration in Europe, and Dutch leaders often sought compromises. However, expansion of the EU, to 27 member states in 2007 with more likely to come in the next years, has diminished their influence. Furthermore, a part of the Dutch population has become quite “euroskeptical” recently. In a referendum in 2005, a majority of Dutch voters rejected the treaty establishing a European constitution, which the European heads of government had signed in the previous year. Since then, the Dutch government has worked for a reduction of the country’s contribution to the EU. Yet in 2006, the Netherlands was still the EU’s largest net payer. Other issues that cause dissatisfaction, fear, and debate are, for example, the EU’s perceived bureaucracy and interference, loss of national identity, the arrival of workers from the new Eastern European member states that may cause unemployment, and the possible future membership of Turkey. Some of the Dutch members of the European Commission, the EU’s executive body, were particularly noteworthy, including Sicco Mansholt, Frans Andriessen, Hans van den Broek, and Frits Bolkestein. The European Police Office (EUROPOL) and Eurojust (a body for criminal justice cooperation and coordination) have their seat in The Hague. See also EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (EP). EUROPISCHE MERCURIUS. A Dutch “news book” (a typical early modern information source) published between 1690 and 1750 in Amsterdam (by, at different times, Timotheus ten Hoorn, Andries van Damme cum suis, and the Ratelband-Gerrevink family) and until 1756 in The Hague (by Fredric Henric Scheurleer and then Ottho van Tol). The Europische Mercurius presented and commented on mainly political news from all parts of Europe twice a year in volumes of about 300 quarto pages. It was meant for Dutch politicians, diplomats, merchants, and educated persons. Most of the editors have still not been identified. See also PRESS. EUTHANASIA POLICY. The practice of euthanasia, the causing of death by a doctor at the explicit request of a patient, has been permitted by law in the Netherlands since 2002. A long period of heated political and ethical discussions about the termination of life on re-

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quest and assisted suicide had preceded. A patient’s repeated request may be fulfilled only when his or her suffering is unbearable and the situation is hopeless. Furthermore, the doctor must first consult an independent colleague. Christian groups in particular fought against the legalization. The Dutch euthanasia practice also led to criticism from the Vatican, which failed to appreciate the precautions built into the Dutch law. EUWE, MAX (MACHGIELIS) (1901–1981). Chess player. Euwe studied mathematics at the University of Amsterdam. In 1935, he became world chess champion by defeating Alexander Alekhine, to whom he lost the title again two years later. He wrote many books about chess, for example, Oordeel en plan: Het denkproces in het schaken, 1952 [English translation, Judgment and Planning in Chess, 1953]. Between 1970 and 1980, he was president of the World Chess Federation (called FIDE). In his daily life, Euwe had occupied, among other posts, the directorship of the Netherlands Automatic Data Processing Research Center and was professor of automatic information processing at the universities of Rotterdam and Tilburg, until his retirement in 1971.

–F– FAGEL. Descendants of François Fagel (c. 1540–1587), who was banned in 1584 from the city of Bruges in Flanders and then settled in Amsterdam. Members of the Fagel family, including Gasper (1634–1688), François (1659–1746), and Hendrik (1706–1790), played a role in Dutch courts of law but especially as registrars of the States General, an office that in practice became hereditary in this family. The holders of this office had a strong influence on Dutch foreign relations. FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777–1843). Statesman who served Kings Louis Napoléon and William I in the colonial and foreign offices. As minister of education and industry, Falck was a proponent of the union with the Southern Netherlands (1815–1838); he also stimulated the development of universities (at Ghent and Liège) and

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industry there. In his function as ambassador to Great Britain (1823–1832), he disapproved of the Dutch foreign policy concerning the Belgian Revolt. After the conclusion of peace in 1839, Falck was appointed ambassador to the court in Brussels. His memoirs and many of his personal and official letters have been published. FASCISM. As a political doctrine following the Italian example of Benito Mussolini, fascism occupied only a marginal place in Dutch political life during the 1920s and 1930s. In the Netherlands, fascists were divided among dozens of sectarian groups, such as the Verbond van Actualisten (Association of Actualists) and the Algemene (Nederlandsche) Fascistenbond (General Dutch Association of Fascists). They were never able to win a seat in the elections for the Parliament. In addition, they had as their rivals the National Socialists. During recent decades, only very small and politically insignificant groups of neo-Fascists have been active. The ultraright Johannes Gerardus Hendrikus (“Hans”) Janmaat (1934–2002) was a member of Parliament during the 1980s and 1990s. See also NATIONAAL SOCIALISTISCHE BEWEGING (NSB). FEBRUARY STRIKE. On 25 and 26 February 1941, early in World War II, the illegal Communist Party called for a strike because of the harsh retaliatory measures of the German Occupation against the Jewish inhabitants of Amsterdam. The strike was a success; most of the city council employees and other workers and employees in Amsterdam and the surrounding area and in Utrecht responded to the appeal. The strike was severely repressed by the Germans. The victims are commemorated every year in Amsterdam, particularly at the statue of the Dokwerker (dike worker) in Jonas Daniël Meijer Square. FEDERALISM. This has been a strong characteristic of Dutch political development. The seven sovereign provinces that emerged as an independent state from the Revolt against the Spanish king Philip II maintained their republican and federal constitution until 1798. After the Batavian Revolution in 1795, a National Assembly was convened in which three factions could be discerned: the Federalists, the Moderates, and the Unitarians. After the coup d’état of the radicals in January 1798, the Unitarians enforced the

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acceptance of a unitary constitution in May 1798. However, after 1800, traditional provincial political affiliation grew stronger. Under the monarchy after the Restoration in 1815, the provinces remained an important political and administrative intermediary between central government and local administrations. The provincial assemblies are elected every four years; the members choose the representatives of the First Chamber of Parliament. Currently, the Fryske Nasjonale Partij (Frisian National Party), founded in 1962, has federalist ideas. FEMINISM. In the 1860s, a movement for better education for girls and more social and political rights for women developed. Aletta Jacobs became the first Dutch woman to be admitted to academic study (she became a doctor of medicine at the University of Groningen in 1879); she was active in the movement for women’s and universal suffrage. In 1919, women’s suffrage was introduced in Dutch constitutional law. After World War I, a new phase in the drive for women’s emancipation had come. In 1956, married women were granted full legal capacity in civil law; in 1970, divorce was facilitated; and in 1980, abortion was partly excluded from penal law. Opzij (1972– ) is a well-known feminist magazine. See also DOLLE MINA. FENTENER VAN VLISSINGEN. Family of entrepreneurs, of which several members are among the richest people in the Netherlands. Frits Fentener van Vlissingen (1882–1962) worked in the Steenkolen Handels Vereniging (SHV, Coal Trade Association) of Daniël van Beuningen, his brother-in-law. In 1929, he founded the Algemene Kunstzijde Unie (AKU), a forerunner of Akzo Nobel. He was also one of the founding fathers of Royal Dutch Airlines KLM. After World War II, in 1954, the Fentener van Vlissingens took over SHV. Of his three grandsons—brothers Frits (1933–2006), John (1939– ), and Paul (1941–2006)—only John did not made a career in SHV. He started BCD Holdings, one of world’s largest business travel organizations. Paul wrote a few books about his experiences as an entrepreneur. The next generation of the Fenteners in SHV is represented by Frits’s daughter Anneriek (1961– ), who became president-commissioner in 2005.

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FEUDALISM. In the Low Countries (Holland, Flanders, Brabant, and Gelderland), feudalism was weakened through the process of independence gained by the counts and dukes in the late Middle Ages. This process was stimulated by the state formation and centralization imposed by the Burgundian dukes and the princes of the House of Habsburg. After the Revolt against the king of Spain in the late 16th century, remnants of the seigniorial system could be found mainly in the less urbanized eastern provinces of the Dutch Republic. Seigniorial rights were abolished by the constitution of 1798, but a few of them persisted well into modern times. FISHING. An important economic activity of the region since the Middle Ages. Although freshwater and offshore fishing are now somewhat diminishing, they have been of vital importance for the food supply of the population (especially herring, salmon, cod, and stockfish). Some kinds of “fish,” for example, whales, were primarily hunted for their by-products. Because of its economic value, the right of fishing in rivers or on coasts has often been hotly disputed. More recently, the European Union (EU) policy to safeguard the fishing industry by fixing the draft of fishes has also often led to grumbling. Recently, the Dutch fishing fleet consisted of about 500 fishing ships, with about 2,500 persons on board. Furthermore, about 3,300 persons were employed in the fishing industry ashore. FLAG OF THE NETHERLANDS. See NATIONAL SYMBOLS. FLANDERS. During the 12th century, the county of Flanders reached the height of its power. After that time, the counts had to defend their independence against the French kings who succeeded in conquering the southern parts of their Flemish-speaking neighbors (with cities such as Atrecht, St. Omer, Lille, and Douai). Cultural and commercial advances came in the later Middle Ages with the rise of the powerful cities of Ghent and Bruges. Philip the Good (1419–1467) of Burgundy and the Habsburg emperor Charles V incorporated Flanders into their possessions, after 1548 becoming the Seventeen Provinces of the Low Countries. After the Dutch Revolt and the recognition of the independent Republic of the Seven United Provinces in 1648, the remaining parts of Flanders were in the pos-

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session of the Spanish kings and Austrian emperors. Following the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), the Southern Netherlands was included in the new monarchy under King William I. After the Belgian Revolt of the 1830s, Flanders became part of the independent kingdom of Belgium. FLEVOLAND. The 12th province of the Netherlands; population 366,000. It was established in 1986 by combining several recently reclaimed polders in the former Zuiderzee, now the IJsselmeer: Noordoostpolder (reclaimed in 1942), Oostelijk Flevoland (1957), and Zuidelijk Flevoland (1968), including the former islands of Urk and Schokland (since 1995 a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] World Heritage Site). The province name is derived from Lake Flevo, the Roman predecessor of the Zuiderzee. Its capital is Lelystad, and other cities are the fastgrowing Almere, Dronten, and Emmeloord. Agriculture and recreation (in the Oostvaardersplassen nature reserve and near the socalled Randmeren) are important features of this province, which is also important as a housing area for people from Amsterdam. FLOWER CULTIVATION. Although the tulip originally came from Asia, this flower, like many others, has been a hallmark of the Netherlands since the 17th century. Botanist Charles de l’Escluse (1526–1609) introduced the tulip bulb in the Leiden Hortus Botanicus. Flower bulb production developed into an important industry, particularly in the so-called Bulb Region between Haarlem and Leiden. From 1960 to 2002, the area devoted to the cultivation of flowers increased from 10,000 to 21,000 hectares (25,000 to 52,000 acres). In addition to seasonal workers, some 20,000 people are involved full-time in this industry. FloraHolland, a cooperative with branches around the country since 2002 (with many predecessors), is the biggest flower auction in the world. See also BUBBLE COMPANIES; BUSBECQ, OGIER GHISLAIN DE (1522–1591). FOKKER, ANTHONY (ANTON HERMAN GERARD) (1890– 1939). Self-made aircraft manufacturer. Fokker’s father sent him for mechanics training in Germany in 1910, where he constructed his first propeller airplane, called the Spider. In 1912, he started

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Fokker Aeroplanbau, near Berlin. During World War I, Fokker constructed excellent airplanes for the German army. Because German aircraft were forbidden after the war, he returned to his native country and, with the support of his family, started a Dutch company in 1919. Three years later, however, he moved to the United States to establish another successful company. “The Flying Dutchman,” as he was called, became a U.S. citizen. The Dutch Fokker company subsequently had many ups and downs. During World War II, the factories were completely destroyed. In 1951, a new factory was built next to Schiphol Airport. The Fokker “Friendship” subsequently became one of world’s best-selling planes. Despite its successful planes, Fokker went bankrupt in 1996. Parts of the original company, such as the space travel division, managed to succeed as independent enterprises. FOREIGN RELATIONS. The Netherlands has a long tradition of neutrality. Self-interest dictated a friendly policy toward the Great Powers during the 17th century, especially after the end of the Revolt against Spain within the framework of the Westphalian peace treaty (1648). Yet, the colonial expansion of Great Britain and the territorial claims of France (under Louis XIV) brought the Netherlands into war several times even in the 18th century. The policy of neutrality was more successful during the 19th century. In 1899, the first International Peace Conference was held in The Hague, where in 1913 the Peace Palace (Vredespaleis), an initiative of Andrew Carnegie, was inaugurated. The policy of neutrality nearly broke down under the pressure of the belligerent powers during World War I. During World War II, Dutch traditional policy was ignored by Nazi Germany, which occupied the country. After the war, Dutch foreign policy was aligned more closely on European interests and organizations, with broader cooperation among Western countries through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Its foreign policy was also increasingly influenced by membership in the European Union (EU). See also BELGIUM, RELATIONS WITH; BENELUX; UNITED NATIONS (UN); UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. FORTRESSES. Fortifications were built as part of a defensive system during the Middle Ages and even in the early modern period in the

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Northern Netherlands. Only a few examples remain today, because most were demolished in the 19th century as a consequence of new techniques in warfare. Many cities broke down their walls after the law on the use of fortresses (vestingwet) was abolished in 1874. Apart from certain castles that were constructed specifically for defensive purposes, some beautiful specimens have been preserved or rebuilt, for example, in Bourtange (Groningen), Naarden, and Willemstad (Northern Brabant). See also DUTCH WATER LINE. FORTUIJN (FORTUYN), PIM (WILHELMUS SIMON PETRUS) (1948–2002). Sociologist and politician. After his studies at the Free University of Amsterdam, Fortuijn lectured at, among others, the universities of Groningen and Rotterdam, in the latter city as extraordinary professor of employment conditions in the civil service. The contrary and openly homosexual Fortuijn agitated against the second Wim Kok cabinet and criticized its policies concerning asylum, health care, education, safety, and traffic. With his controversial statements such as “The Netherlands is full” and “Islam is a backward culture,” he attracted many supporters in a short time, but because of this he was no longer a suitable candidate for the leadership of the new political party Leefbaar Nederland (Livable Netherlands). Therefore, he founded his own party, the Lijst Pim Fortuyn (LPF) and, as his electoral program, wrote De puinhopen van acht jaar paars [The Mess of Eight Purple Years, 2002], referring to the political color of the then coalition of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD), and Democraten 1966 (D66). Shortly before the May 2002 elections, Fortuijn’s ambition to become prime minister was brought to a close when he was brutally killed. The murder caused a great shock within Dutch society. The assassin, Volkert van der Graaf, received 18 years’ imprisonment. FRANEKER (Frisian FRJENTSJER). This town, first documented in the late 11th century, was the second in importance in the province of Friesland or Frisia, after the capital Leeuwarden. In 1585, a university was founded here, the second in the Northern Netherlands, after Leiden. Famous professors taught here, such as Ulrik Huber and Antonius Matthaeus, and many students were attracted from abroad. In 1816, the academy was turned into an Atheneum, which

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was closed down in 1844. At present, the city has about 12,500 inhabitants. FRANK, ANNE (1929–1945). Jewish girl born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, who fled with her parents to Holland in 1933 after the Nazis seized power in Germany. During World War II, the Frank family went into hiding in the back part of their house (achterhuis) on the Prinsengracht in Amsterdam because of the anti-Jewish measures of the Nazis. The family was eventually discovered and arrested in 1944 and deported to the Bergen-Belsen extermination camp, where Anne died in March 1945. Only her father survived the war. Anne Frank kept a diary from June 1942 to August 1944. Amsterdam historian Jan Romein drew attention to the manuscript, which was partially published in 1946 under the title Het Achterhuis and translated into several languages. An unexpurgated edition was published in 1986. The book was also adapted for the screen. The Anne Frank House is now a museum. FRANKEN. Designation of a group of German tribes living in western Europe. The laws of the Franks living along the rivers IJssel and Rhine were codified in the third century (Lex Salica, Lex Ripuaria). In the fifth century, the Ripuarian Franks founded an independent state, from which they conquered the Roman province of Gallia (later Francia). FREEMASONRY. A secret society apparently introduced in the Republic during the second decade of the 18th century. The fraternity was suppressed by the States of Holland in 1735. However, several years later, new lodges were founded and tolerated by the authorities. During the 19th century, Freemasonry enjoyed royal patronage in the person of Prince Frederik (1797–1881)—a brother of King William III —who from 1816 served as grandmaster-general for more than half a century. Freemasons now have some 6,000 members organized in 146 lodges in the Netherlands. FREETHINKERS. In 1856, some people known as Freethinkers organized the society De Dageraad (Daybreak), in 1957 renamed De Vrije Gedachte (Free Thought). Liberal and socialist writers, histo-

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rians, and politicians, such as Johannes van Vloten (1818–1883), Multatuli, and Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis were most influential during the initial period. The association became a melting pot of liberal, socialist, and humanist thinkers, and atheists who propagated materialism and atheism. Free thought never became a popular movement in the Netherlands. FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF (QUAKERS). The followers of George Fox (1624–1691) were present in the Netherlands by the 17th century. At that time, local authorities often persecuted the Quakers for fear of their sectarian and nonconformist attitudes, but in later centuries, they were usually tolerated. The center of the Dutch Society of Friends was established in Amsterdam in 1931. FRISIA (FRIESLAND; Frisian FRYSLÂN). One of the seven sovereign provinces constituting the union of the United Republic since 1579–1581. Until 1748, the Frisian capital of Leeuwarden accommodated the court of the stadtholder of the northern provinces. Friesland remained a province under the monarchy (under the constitution of 1815), yet with a character of its own because of the Frisian language. The Frisian anthem is the song “De Alde Friezen” (1829), written by Eeltsje Halbertsma. In 1997, the province name was officially changed in Fryslân. Although the number of farms has decreased considerably (by increase of scale and due to declining profits) during the 20th century, the province (nowadays with about 643,000 inhabitants) still shows an agricultural character. Tourism (water sport) and business activities have also become important sources of earnings. The present main cities are, after the provincial capital, Drachten, Sneek, Heerenveen (Frisian It Hearrenfean), and the harbor city of Harlingen (Frisian Harns). See also SKATING; UPSTALBOOM. FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. Frisian belongs to the North Sea subgroup of the Western Germanic languages, together with English. From the 13th century, its language area has decreased from a long coastline (Northern Holland to Denmark) to just the province of Frisia (north of the river of the Tsjonger). Variants of the language, however, are also still spoken in a few

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parts of northern Germany (Saterland in Eastern Frisia, Northern Frisia on the coast of Schleswig-Holstein, and on the island of Helgoland). The Habsburg authorities replaced Frisian with Dutch in Frisian public administration during the 16th century. Nevertheless, the poet Gysbert Japiks (1603–1666) demonstrated that Frisian could still be used as a literary language. Influenced by the Romantic and nationalistic movements, this language was propagated from the 1840s, among others by the Halbertsma brothers, Joast (1789–1869) and Eeltsje (1797–1858). Other important Frisian authors were Pieter Jelles Troelstra, Obe Postma (1868– 1963), Douwe Kalma (1896–1953), and Anne Wadman (1919– 1997). Publication of scholarly texts in Frisian was promoted by the Fryske Akademy, founded in 1938. Poet and journalist Fedde Schurer (1898–1968) stimulated the authorities to introduce Frisian into the public domain again. Since 1980, the Frisian language has been a compulsory subject at the Frisian primary schools. Although the regional authorities and several churches use Frisian, Dutch remains dominant in public life. FRUIN, ROBERT JACOBUS (1823–1899). Educator and historian. After his study in humanities at Leiden University, Fruin wrote his doctoral thesis on an Egyptian subject. As a supporter of the liberal leader Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, Fruin challenged the antirevolutionary historical and political views of Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer. In 1860, he became the first chair of Dutch history at Leiden University. In his inaugural address on the impartiality of the historian, he unfolded his optimistic program for a critical historical methodology and historiography. For four decades, Fruin was the most influential Dutch historian, and his studies on the Dutch Republic are exemplary. His interest focused on the period of the Revolt and on the constitutional history of the Republic, for example, in The Siege and Relief of Leyden in 1574 (1874). His books on the decade 1588–1598 and the constitution are still in print (Tien jaren uit den Tachtigjarige oorlog, 1861; Geschiedenis der staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot de val der Republiek, 1901). Fruin’s collected works were published in 10 volumes (Verspreide geschriften, 1900–1905).

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FRYSKE NASJONALE PARTIJ (FNP; FRISIAN NATIONAL PARTY). A Frisian regional and federalist party founded in 1962. The FNP has been represented in the provincial council of Frisia since 1966 and in many Frisian local councils as well. The main goal is the promotion of the Frisian economy, culture, and Frisian language. The FNP is a member of the European Free Alliance, which has some seats in the European Parliament (EP). FURTHER REFORMATION. A movement during the 17th century that aimed at a more individual and sentimental experience of faith, in opposition to what was felt to be rigidity in the Calvinist church. This kind of Puritanism can be compared with later pietism. Representatives of this movement were Gijsbert Voet and Anna Maria van Schurman (Schuurman). See also REFORMATION.

–G– GANSFORT, WESSEL (c. 1419–1489). Born in Groningen, Gansfort studied with the Brothers of the Common Life, founded by Geert Groote, in Zwolle and in Cologne and Heidelberg, Germany. He later taught at the University of Paris for many years. His broad erudition in theology, philosophy, and classics gave him the epithet Lux Mundi (“Light of the World”). Gansfort shifted from realistic to nominalistic scholasticism. Later in life he returned to the Netherlands, living in Zwolle and Aduard—the north, where he was a representative of northern humanism (as was Rodolphus Agricola). His “biblical humanism” caused him, on a biblical basis, to criticize several orthodox dogmas of the church. GAY AND LESBIAN EMANCIPATION. See HOMOSEXUALITY. GEER, LOUIS DE (1587–1652). Born in Liège, Southern Netherlands, de Geer and his parents established themselves in Amsterdam. He became one of the wealthiest merchants in the commerce of iron and weapons, especially during the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). Together with his brother-in-law, he organized iron mining in Sweden,

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where he settled. He became an important financier of the Swedish king and as such acquired influence in Swedish foreign policy. GELDERLAND (GELRE; GUELDERS). The county of “Gelre and the city of Zutphen” were the property of the counts of Wassenberg and, after the mid-14th century, temporarily in the possession of the Duke of Gulik (now in Germany). The counts of Wassenberg contested the power of the neighboring bishop of Utrecht and the counts of Holland. In the end, the region, with cities such as Arnhem (its capital) and Nijmegen, came into the possession of Emperor Charles V, who united the 17 counties and duchies of the Netherlands in 1548. During the Revolt of the Netherlands, Gelderland sided with William I of Orange. Until the Batavian Revolution, it remained one of the seven sovereign provinces that formed the Dutch Republic. After 1814, Gelderland became a province of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Gelderland’s landscape is varied, with rivers such as the Rhine (the Betuwe area) and the IJssel, the forest of the Veluwe (part of which is a national park since 1935, with the famous Kröller-Müller Museum of Modern Art), and many castles. It is the largest province of the Netherlands and has about 1,971,000 inhabitants. Some other important cities are Apeldoorn, Ede, Doetinchem (in the Achterhoek), Harderwijk (with a university until 1812), and Wageningen. GENERALITEITSLANDEN. A Dutch term used to indicate the parts of the Republic that were directly governed by the States General. These were the territories conquered during the later part of the Revolt, or Eighty Years’ War, with Spain. After the conclusion of the Peace Treaty of Münster in 1648, these regions were StaatsVlaanderen (now part of the province of Zeeland), Staats-Brabant, Staats-Limburg, and, from 1713, Opper-Gelre, in the south. In the north, Westerwolde (now part of the province of Groningen) was also a Generaliteitsland. GERBRANDY, PIETER SJOERDS (1885–1961). Lawyer and politician. Gerbrandy was a professor of law at the Free University of Amsterdam and a member of the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP, Anti-Revolutionary Party). In 1939, he became minister of justice in

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the cabinet of Minister-President Dirk Jan de Geer (1870–1960). Because of the German occupation, the ministers went into exile in London. After the abdication of the defeatist de Geer in September 1940, Gerbrandy became prime minister, as well as minister of justice and of colonial affairs. He took a firm stand and won the confidence of Winston Churchill. After World War II, he became a member of Parliament (1948–1959), during which period he headed a campaign against government policy concerning Indonesia; Gerbrandy was an advocate of maintaining (colonial) state unity. GEREFORMEERD POLITIEK VERBOND (GPV; REFORMED POLITICAL UNION). See CHRISTEN UNIE (CU). GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH. Contacts with the German countries, for example, between the House of Orange-Nassau and the Brandenburg-Prussian dynasty of the Hohenzollerns, have traditionally been very close. Officially, the Dutch Republic was part of the German Holy Roman Empire until 1648. After the unification of Germany in 1871, many Dutch feared German dominance, yet in World War I, the Germans did not violate Dutch neutrality. After the war, the dethroned Emperor Wilhelm II obtained asylum in the Netherlands. The Nazi occupation of the Netherlands during World War II led to both popular resignation and anti-German feelings, aside from a small group of Dutch who favored the Nazi ideology. After 1945, the Dutch government restored its political and economic relationships with the new democratic western part of Germany, which would soon be integrated in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU). Since then, all kinds of contacts (including tourist and cultural) have intensified tremendously. Germany is the biggest trading partner of the Netherlands. See also EASTERN FRISIA; FOREIGN RELATIONS. GEYL, PIETER CATHARINUS ARIE (1887–1966). Historian. After his studies in the humanities at Leiden University, Geyl wrote his doctoral thesis on the role of the Venetian envoy during the Dutch Republic (Christofforo Suriano, resident van de serenissime republiek van Venetië in Den Haag, 1616–1623, 1913). In 1913, Geyl settled in London as a correspondent of the daily Nieuwe Rotterdamsche

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Courant. In England, he became acquainted with historians such as George Norman Clark (1890–1979), George Macaulay Trevelyan (1876–1962), and John Ernest Neale (1890–1975). He was appointed to the chair of Dutch studies at London University in 1919. During the 1920s, Geyl became a champion of a kind of nationalism that included not only the Dutch in the Netherlands but also the Flemish in Belgium and the Afrikaners in South Africa. This idea also influenced his view of history as he expressed it in many publications, especially in his Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse stam [History of the Dutch-Speaking Peoples, rev. ed., three vols., 1948–1959]. In 1936, he was appointed professor of history at the University of Utrecht. Geyl won international fame not only through the English translations of his books on Dutch and general history (The Revolt of the Netherlands, 1555–1609, 1932; The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century, 1609–1715, two vols., 1961–1964; Napoleon: For and Against, 1949) but also as a polemist, for example, with Arnold Toynbee, From Ranke to Toynbee, 1952; Debates with Historians, 1955; Toynbee’s Answer, 1961; and Encounters in History, 1961. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. GIFFEN, ALBERT EGGES VAN (1884–1973). Professor of prehistory and Germanic archaeology at the universities of Groningen and Amsterdam from 1930 to 1954. Van Giffen studied biology and wrote his thesis “Die Fauna der Werten” in 1913. He supervised the excavation of the terps (mounds) in the province of Frisia. In 1920, van Giffen became director of the recently founded BiologicalArchaeological Institute at the University of Groningen. One of the many scientific subjects that drew van Giffen’s attention was the prehistoric graves, such as the hunebed (or monolith). GOGH, THEO VAN (1957–2004). Filmmaker and publicist. For his movies Blind Date (1996) and In het belang van de staat [For the Sake of the State, 1997], van Gogh received the Gouden Kalf, the highest award of the annual Dutch Movie Festival, and for the latter also a certificate of merit at the San Francisco International Film Festival. As an opinion maker, he was controversial because he spoke very plainly and bluntly. In November 2004, van Gogh was brutally murdered in reaction to his film Submission (a joint production with

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Ayaan Hirsi Ali), which criticizes the treatment of women under Islam. The murderer, Mohammed Bouyeri, a Dutch Muslim who did not regret his action, was sentenced to life imprisonment. See also CINEMA. GOGH, VINCENT WILLEM VAN (1853–1890). Painter. In the 1880s, van Gogh worked in his native province of Northern Brabant, and in Drenthe, and later in Paris and Arles, France. As a painter, van Gogh was fundamentally self-taught. Very poor himself, he lived with the poor, for instance, with the coal miners in Borinage, Belgium, or the land laborers in his native province of Brabant. His social commitment inspired his dark realism. Later on, while living as a kind of mentally ill person in the bright south of France, van Gogh changed his style of painting into a luminous Impressionism. He worked as if possessed, finishing hundreds of paintings. His early death was supposedly a consequence of an attempt at suicide. World famous as a painter, van Gogh also wrote many letters to his friend, painter Willem van Rappard (1858–1892), and especially to his brother Theo van Gogh (1857–1891), an art dealer in Paris. The letters are of great historical, artistic, and human interest. The biggest collections of his works are now in the Netherlands, at the KröllerMüller Museum and the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam. GOLDEN AGE. In retrospect, the 17th century gave the impression of wealth, power, and an intellectual and artistic high point. The Republic fought its rivals Spain, Portugal, and England effectively on the seas; its trade, and even the war with Spain (until 1648), brought huge profits. Especially during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a nostalgic longing for the proud, simple, but powerful lifestyle of the ancestors was voiced. Later historical research has qualified this romantic view because the splendor and riches concealed the hardship of the daily life of the poor. GOMARUS, FRANCISCUS (1563–1641). Theologian. Gomarus studied theology in Oxford, England, and Heidelberg, Germany. After serving as a minister of the Calvinist community in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, he was appointed professor of theology at the University of Leiden in 1594. He became the orthodox leader against

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the critics of John Calvin’s theology, especially his colleague Jacobus Arminius and his successor Conradus Vorstius (1569–1622). Gomarus resigned and accepted a position at the Academy of Saumur in France and later, in 1618, at the University of Groningen. Gomarus’s defense of the doctrine of predestination was accepted during the national Synod of Dordrecht (1618–1619), when the Arminians (or Remonstrants) were excluded from the Calvinist church. GORTER, HERMAN (1864–1927). Poet and politician. In 1889, the classicist scholar Gorter published the long poem Mei (May), which won him fame. In 1895, he translated Baruch Spinoza’s Ethica into Dutch. Soon the aesthetician Gorter was converted to historical materialism. In 1904, he published a Dutch translation of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’s Communist Manifesto (1848). He was an editor of the monthly De Nieuwe Tijd [The New Era] of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Labor Party), founded in 1894. After having been expelled from the party, with Henriëtte Roland Holst, Anthonie Pannekoek, and others he founded the Sociaal-Democratische Partij (SDP, Social Democratic Party, renamed in 1918 the Communist Party), of which he was a member of the executive committee. Gorter served as an editor of the Marxist weekly De Tribune. Hardly inclined to compromise, he collided with other party bosses, and even with V. I. Lenin, with whom he spoke in Moscow in 1920. The same year, he founded a new political party, the Kommunistische Arbeiderspartij Nederland (Communist Workers Party in the Netherlands), affiliated with the German Kommunistische Arbeiter Partei Deutschland, which he had joined, also in 1920. In his and Pannekoek’s view, soviets of workers were the only authentic way toward the realization of communism. Gorter’s poetry and essays were collected in eight volumes (Verzamelde Werken, 1948–1952). See also SOCIALISM. GOUDA. This city on the river Gouwe received its statute as an autonomous community from the Count of Holland in 1272. During the Middle Ages and the period of the Republic, the city was an import center of commerce and industry (e.g., brewing and drapery). It was one of the voting towns in the States of Holland. Gouda, with a

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population of about 72,000 inhabitants now, has several industries such as cheese, pottery, textiles, and electronics. The city houses a fine collection of Dutch paintings from the 16th, 17th, and 19th centuries in the municipal museum, the Catharina Gasthuis, and has a beautifully preserved town hall in late Gothic style. Famous are the 64 stained-glass windows from the late 16th century by the brothers Crabeth in the Great or St. John’s Church. The name of the city is known worldwide because of the Gouda cheese. GOVERNMENT. Before the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the term government was used for the governors or regents (and their councils) and for (sovereign) city governments as well. During the period of the Republic, the provincial States and the States General could be regarded as governments, too, because they claimed to be sovereign bodies in the absence of a prince. Nowadays, the government officially consists of the king or queen and the cabinet of ministers. Following World War II, the Netherlands has been governed by cabinets that were supported by different coalitions of political parties in Parliament (see appendixes A–C). See also CENTRAAL PLANBUREAU (CPB); LOCAL GOVERNMENT; OMBUDSMAN. GOVERNOR(-GENERAL). During the reign of the Burgundian dukes in the 15th century, the stadtholder, or deputy of the duke, bore the title of governor. Under Charles V and Philip II, the Low Countries were governed by regents (Margaret of Austria, Mary of Hungary, and Margaret of Parma). In the period of the Republic and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, many colonies (e.g., the Netherlands East Indies from 1609 to 1948) were administered by a governor-general. The present provinces still have a royal governor, the commissaris van de koning(in). GRAND PENSIONARY. The legal advisor of the provincial States, among whom the grand pensionary of Holland (at first called landsadvocaat) was the most powerful. His duty was to prepare and execute decisions of his States. As such, he was a central figure in policymaking, especially of foreign relations. Outstanding officeholders have included Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Johan de Witt, and

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Simon van Slingelandt. The title of grand pensionary was also given to Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck, head of state in the Batavian Republic (1805–1806). GRANVELLE, ANTOINE PERRENOT DE (1517–1586). Roman Catholic cardinal, diplomat, and politician in the service of Holy Roman emperor Charles V of Habsburg. After the departure of King Philip II from the Netherlands to Spain in 1559, Granvelle became one of the most influential councilors of the regent, Margaret of Parma. His policy was fiercely opposed by the nobility in the Netherlands, who felt excluded. In 1564, Granvelle was dismissed, but in his new function, as a Spanish diplomat in Rome, he remained an important advisor of his sovereign in the political matters of the Netherlands, especially during the Revolt. GREAT ASSEMBLY. Two Great Assemblies were convened as attempts to improve the political system of the Republic. In 1651, representatives of the provincial States assembled in The Hague because new measures seemed necessary after the sudden death of the young stadtholder William II. Although the members of this assembly conferred without consulting their principals, regional particularism proved too strong to alter the terms of the 1579 Union of Utrecht. Decisions were reached only in military matters: appointments would be made by the provincial States insofar as it concerned soldiers who were paid by them. The assembly of 1716–1717 seemed necessary because of the financial problems and the declining international position of the Republic. Despite some reports with proposals for political reform, among others by Grand Pensionary Simon van Slingelandt, no results were reached, mainly because the provinces did not accept a more centralizing government. GREAT BRITAIN, RELATIONS WITH. Aside from several early modern trade and colonial wars, the Batavian Republic–French period (1795–1813), and the Boer War, Dutch–British relationships have been friendly. In 1582, the province of Holland sent its first permanent ambassador to England, and during the Dutch Revolt, the English Queen Elizabeth I gave assistance to the Dutch revolutionar-

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ies. In 1795, Stadtholder William V obtained asylum in England, and in 1940, Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch government were welcomed in London as partners in the war against Nazi Germany. After World War II, Britain and the Netherlands cooperated in international organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU). There are also strong economic relations between both countries. See also FOREIGN RELATIONS; WILLIAM III OF ORANGE (1533–1584). GREAT COUNCIL OF MALINES. In 1473, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold founded at Malines (Mechelen in Brabant, now in Belgium) the seat of his High Court of Justice (or “Parliament”). After 1482, the Habsburg rulers of the Netherlands, Duke Maximilian, Emperor Charles V, and the king of Spain Philip II, maintained this central institution as a court first, and for appeal in civil cases from sentences of the provincial courts. In the Spanish and Austrian Southern Netherlands, the Court of Malines remained in session until 1796. In the Northern provinces, its activities ended in 1582, not to be succeeded by a central court until a high court was established in 1838. Important portions of the records of the council from the 15th and 16th centuries were published under the direction of Prof. Jacobus Thomas de Smidt (Chronologische lijsten der geëxtendeerde sententiën en procesbundels, six vols., 1966–1988). GROENLINKS (GL; GREEN LEFT). A political party that emerged in 1989 from a coalition of four former parties: the Dutch Communist Party (CPN); the Evangelische Volkspartij (EVP, Evangelical People’s Party), founded in 1981; the Politieke Partij Radicalen (PPR); and the Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij (PSP). After the coalition won six seats in the parliamentary elections of 1989, the four merged definitively. The party had its greatest electoral success in 1998, winning 11 out of 150 seats; after the November 2006 elections, it held seven seats. During international crises, such as the bombardments on Serbia in 1999 and the intervention in Afghanistan in 2000, GL was at odds with its pacifist principles, supporting these wars. The most important party issue is a social and durable economy that is friendly toward the environment. GL is against the monarchy. Prominent leaders have included Paul Rosenmüller (1956– ) and

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Femke Halsema (1966– ). In the European Parliament (EP), GL participates in the party of Greens-European Free Alliance. GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801–1876). Historian and statesman. Keeper of the archives of the royal family since 1831, Groen van Prinsterer prepared the edition of the Archives ou correspondence inédite de la maison d’Orange-Nassau (13 vols., 1835–1861). He was a member of the pious Réveil movement, a Protestant revival originating in Geneva and Lausanne, Switzerland. Inspired by his master Willem Bilderdijk, he developed a political theory that rejected the spirit and influence of the French Revolution, expounding his views in his lectures Ongeloof en Revolutie [Lectures on Unbelief and Revolution, 1847) and in his Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland [Handbook on the History of the Native Country, 1846]. Groen became a member of Parliament in 1840, 1849–1857, and 1862–1866. He was the spiritual father of the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP, Anti-Revolutionary Party), claiming the right of the government independent of the will of the people, and the adversary of the leader of the liberals, Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. He was an advocate of state-subsidized education in private religious schools. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. GRONINGEN. Dutch province and also the city that serves as its capital. The province of Groningen originated during the Middle Ages as a possession of the bishop of Utrecht, consisting of the Saxon city of Groningen and its surrounding Frisian regions (or Ommelanden), bordering on the provinces of Frisia and Drenthe. During the 16th century, the German emperor Charles V (of the House of Habsburg) acquired this northern part of the Low Countries, which he had united by 1548 in a loose federation. During the Revolt of the Netherlands against King Philip II of Spain, the local magnates in the Ommelanden took sides with the Calvinist party and its leader, William I of Orange. In 1594, the stadtholders Maurice and Willem Lodewijk conquered Groningen and united the territory of the northern Seven Provinces—the Dutch Republic. Agriculture, shipping activities (in the Eems harbor, the harbor city of Delfzijl, and near Hoogezand-Sappemeer), and chemical industries are impor-

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tant provincial sources of earnings. Its profits from the enormous natural gas reserve found near Slochteren in 1959 were relatively small, because most of the money went to the central government. The Lauwers Lake area, created in 1969 after the Lauwers Sea was closed off, became a national park (known for its many species of birds) in 2003. The province currently has a population of about 575,000. The city of Groningen acquired rights in the 11th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries, it remained the economic and political stronghold in a province in which only a few minor cities were tolerated. Its university was founded in 1614. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Groningen became more integrated with the rest of the Netherlands by the improvement of transportation (highways, waterways, and rail). The town has about 181,000 residents (some 40,000 are university and polytechnic students). Two major sugar industries are located in Groningen, as is the headquarters of the national gas distribution. Trade, tobacco and catering industries, information and communication technology, civil services, and medical care and research have generated many jobs. Groningen houses several museums, including the much talked-about Groninger Museum (mainly arts), a shipping museum, and the Dutch Comics museum. GROOTE, GEERT (1340–1384). Theologian. Born in Deventer in the province of Overijssel, Groote studied theology and law at the University of Paris. He was influenced by the mystic Jan van Ruusbroec. As a preacher, he criticized the shallow religiosity of the church. Groote founded the congregation of the Brethren of the Common Life at Windesheim near Zwolle. His life and the movement of devotio moderna were described by Thomas a Kempis, author of The Imitation of Christ. GROTIUS, HUGO (1583–1645). Theologian and jurist. Later known by his Latin name, already as a young boy in Delft, Hugo de Groot displayed his unusual intellectual gifts. He studied at Leiden University and earned his doctor’s degree in law at the University of Orléans in France in 1599. He defended the freedom of the seas, in the interest of Dutch maritime commerce, in his famous treatise Mare liberum (1609). As of 1613, Grotius served as a pensionary or legal

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advisor of the town of Rotterdam, but he became entangled in the religious controversies between the orthodox Calvinists (followers of Franciscus Gomarus) and the more lenient Protestant disciples of Jacobus Arminius, the so-called Remonstrants. The latter were outlawed during the national Synod of Dordrecht in 1618–1619, and their leaders were taken prisoner and sentenced to death (in the case of Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt) or to life imprisonment. Grotius escaped detention, fleeing Loevestein in a book chest, and went to Sweden and France. In 1631, he became Sweden’s ambassador in Paris. He published many books on the law of nations, which brought him lasting fame, but his main personal interests were undoubtedly in the field of theology. GUILDS. Associations of merchants or craftsmen who obtained from the city authorities a monopoly in the trade or production of a certain branch of manufacturing or crafts (e.g., linen making, brewing, or goldsmithing). This medieval system of monopoly and cooperation persisted well into modern times. Although the guilds at first had political influence by representation in the city councils, their power was curtailed in the 16th and 17th centuries, sometimes, as in Groningen during the 1660s, only after violent riots. It was not until the Batavian Revolution in 1798 that the new constitution abolished the guild system in favor of free enterprise and trade. See also HANSA.

–H– HAARLEM. City founded in the ninth century. It was granted urban statutes in 1245 by Count William II of Holland. Haarlem was an important commercial center because of its strategic position. During the 17th century, the city prospered, as can still be seen in its buildings and churches. Famous painters such as Frans Hals and Judith Leyster worked there. The manufacture and sale of drapery were important activities. Since 1840, Haarlem has been the capital of the province of Northern Holland (Noord-Holland). The town, which has about 147,000 inhabitants, has some beautiful old buildings, such as the town hall and the St. Bavo Church. Haarlem houses a fine col-

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lection of old and modern art and the splendid 18th-century collection of Teyler’s Museum situated along the River Spaarne. HABSBURG. The first member of the Austrian House of Habsburg to become a ruler of the Netherlands was Maximilian I, who married Mary of Burgundy (1457–1482) in 1477. Their grandson Charles V succeeded him in 1515 as lord of the Netherlands and, in 1519, as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (German Reich). During the reign of Charles’s son Philip II, the northern part of the Netherlands broke away in 1581 to become in due course the independent Dutch Republic. HADEWIJCH (fl. mid-13th century). Flemish poet and mystic who influenced Jan van Ruusbroec. She is known only from her letters and poetry. Hadewijch probably lived in Brabant, was well educated, and might have been a beguine. Her strophic poems may be characterized as medieval chansons, and her visions as mystic revelations. HADRIAN VI (1459–1523). Pope (R. 1522–1523) of Dutch descent, born Adriaan Florisz Boeyens in Utrecht. He was educated by the Brethren of the Common Life (founded by Geert Groote) in the city of Zwolle. In 1491, Boeyens was appointed professor of theology at the University of Louvain. In 1507, he was chosen as a tutor of the young future emperor Charles V and served from 1512 as privy councilor to Charles’s aunt, Margaret of Austria, governor of the Low Countries. He was appointed bishop of Tortosa in 1516 and was made a cardinal in 1517. Boeyens published several books on theological subjects. He tried to neutralize Martin Luther’s Reformation movement by reforming the church from within. Hadrian VI was the last non-Italian to be elected pope until John Paul II in 1978. HAGA, CORNELIS (1578–1654). Diplomat. Haga was sent by the States General as a special envoy to the Turkish court (Sublime Porte) in Istanbul in 1611. He negotiated a favorable treaty in 1612 that was an important stimulus for Holland’s commerce in the Levant, the eastern part of the Mediterranean. He advised the Amsterdam city council in founding the Directorate of Levantine

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Commerce. In 1645, Haga was appointed president of the High Court (Hoge Raad) in Holland and Zeeland. THE HAGUE (DEN HAAG, ’S GRAVENHAGE). Seat of the government of the Netherlands. The city came into being around its core, the Binnenhof, the buildings where the medieval counts of Holland held their residence. Since then, The Hague has remained the seat of the government and many of its officials: the States of Holland, the States General from about 1588, and the Parliament and the administration, both since the foundation of the kingdom in 1814. Queen Beatrix has two small palaces in the city: the House Ten Bosch and the Palace Noordeinde. The Hague, with a population of about 475,000, possesses several fine buildings, churches, and museums, for example, the House of Parliament with the Ridderzaal (Knights’ Hall); the Peace Palace (funded by Andrew Carnegie), which originally housed the Permanent Court of Arbitration and is now the seat of the International Court of Justice; the Dutch High Court of Justice; the Mauritshouse museum; the municipal Museum of Art; and the Panorama Mesdag (in Scheveningen), painted by Hendrik Willem Mesdag (1831–1915). The city is also the seat of the European Union (EU) Police Office, EUROPOL, and Eurojust. HALS, FRANS. See PAINTING. HANSA (HANSEATIC LEAGUE; HANZE). Since the 13th century, a league of towns existed in northern Germany with the aim of defending their commercial interests in foreign countries. The term also designated the societies of German merchants in foreign towns. The influence of the Hansa extended from London and Bruges to Bergen, Stockholm, Riga, and Novgorod. Several towns in the Low Countries were members of this league, such as Groningen, Kampen, Zwolle, and Deventer. Political decisions were made in periodic assemblies (Rezesse). The emergence of more powerful states diminished the significance of the Hansa beginning in the late Middle Ages. HATTEM, PONTIAAN VAN (1641–1706). Theologian. Van Hattem was removed from his office as minister of the Calvinist church in

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1683 because of “Spinozist” sympathies. In 1692, the authorities forbade him from leading the formal meetings (conventikelen) of his followers. His books were publicly burned by the city authorities of Middelburg in 1714. HAUER, RUTGER (1944– ). Movie star whose fame started with the 1969 children’s television series Floris and the 1973 movie Turks fruit [Turkish Delight], based on a novel of Jan Wolkers with the same title, both directed by Paul Verhoeven (1938– ). Hauer also played in several other Dutch movies, such as Keetje Tippel (1975) and another Verhoeven film, Soldaat van Oranje [Soldier of Orange, 1979]. Hauer made his international cinema debut in the South African movie The Wilby Conspiracy (1975) and entered the American movie scene with the movies Nighthawks (1981) and Blade Runner (1982). Many other movies, low budget and big as well, have followed, and he is still active in films. In 1994, Hauer supported actions for the release of Greenpeace activist Paul Watson, who was convicted of sinking a Norwegian whaling ship. Hauer’s Starfish Association deals with the fate of HIVinfected children and pregnant women. HEALTH. Increasing prosperity and medical research have improved Dutch health conditions tremendously during the last century, yet “new” and typical geriatric disorders, such as strokes, dementia, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, diabetes, AIDS, overweight complications, and so on, have taken their toll. In 2003, the leading causes of death in the Netherlands were cardiovascular conditions (33 percent) and cancer (28 percent). Although the number of smokers has decreased to about 30 percent of the population, lung cancer and related troubles remain severe problems. The costs of the Dutch health system have become incredibly high. Until 2006, Dutch employees with a salary (and employers with a gross profit) of less than 33,000 euros, and persons on relief, could resort to the Dutch National Health Service. All others had to take out a private health insurance. Jan Peter Balkenende’s second cabinet introduced a new system, of which the basic principles are the same for all citizens. A part of the contribution, however, is related to people’s earnings and will be paid by the employers. The government implemented new regulations on disablement at the same time. See also EPIDEMICS.

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HEEMSKERCK, JACOB VAN (1567–1607). Admiral. Van Heemskerck was appointed commander of the fleet sent by Amsterdam merchants to find a northern passage to India. With Willem Barentsz, he overwintered on Novaya Zemlya in the Behouden Huis during 1596–1597. He took part in several voyages to the East Indies via the Cape. In 1607, he was killed in a battle against the Spaniards near Gibraltar. HEEMSKERCK VAN BEEST, JACOBA BERENDINA VAN (1876–1923). Painter. She was instructed in painting by her father and studied at the Academy of Arts in The Hague. In 1904, van Heemskerck studied in Paris with Eugène Carrière (1849–1906). Although she lived in The Hague, she stayed every year with her friend and patron Marie Tak van Poortvliet (1871–1936) in the bathing resort of Domburg (in the province of Zeeland). There she met Jan Toorop and Piet Mondrian. Under the influence of Wassili Kandinski and the anthroposophical ideas of Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), she developed a personal abstract style. Berlin, rather than Paris, became her artistic mecca, where she became friends with Herwarth Walden (1878–1941), the director of the Sturm Gallery, exhibiting in the Erste Deutsche Herbst Salon in 1913. She was also inspired by contacts with German architects such as Bruno Taut and Hans Hildebrand. After World War I, van Heemskerck began designing stained-glass windows. A selection of her letters to Walden has been published by Herbert Henkels and Arend H. Huussen Jr. (Jacoba van Heemskerck, eine expressionistische Künstlerin, 1983) and a biography and catalogue by Huussen and Jacqueline F. A. van PaaschenLouwerse (Jacoba van Heemskerck van Beest (1876–1923): Schilderes uit roeping, 2005). HEIDELBERG CATECHISM. A Protestant catechism formulated by a group of theologians, commissioned by Elector Palatine Frederick III. It was published in Heidelberg, Germany, in 1563. Petrus Dathenus translated this catechism into Dutch, and ever since, it has been the official creed of the Calvinist church in the Netherlands. HEIN, PIET PIETERSZ (1577–1629). Famous naval officer who started his career in the service of merchants. He also worked for sev-

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eral years as a captive on Spanish galleys until he was freed in 1608. During the Revolt, Hein took part in the Dutch conquest of San Salvador in 1624. As vice admiral, he was especially successful in the Caribbean, where he seized several Spanish ships. The most impressive conquest was the Spanish fleet of ships with silver in the Bay of Matanzas, Cuba, in 1628. In Dutch historical memory, his fame is comparable with that of Adm. Michiel de Ruyter. See also CLASSICAL MUSIC. HEINEKEN, FREDDY (ALFRED HENRY) (1923–2002). Beer brewer. He started in 1941 in the company his grandfather Gerard Adriaan Heineken had purchased in Amsterdam in 1864. During Alfred Heineken’s leadership, the brewery grew to be one of world’s largest. In 1983, he and his driver were kidnapped, but were released after 35 million guilders (almost 16 million euros) was paid. He left the company as main director in 1989. Present Heineken breweries in the Netherlands are located in Zoeterwoude (Southern Holland) and ’s Hertogenbosch; The company also operates in about 170 countries. HEINSIUS, ANTHONIE (1641–1720). Pensionary of his native city Delft from 1679, and grand pensionary of Holland from 1689. As a diplomat, Heinsius was the confidant of Stadtholder William III of Orange (who became king of England in 1689). After the death of William in 1702, Heinsius was given the unrewarding task of conducting the foreign policy of the Dutch Republic during the War of the Spanish Succession. Although the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 put an end to the expansionist ambitions of French King Louis XIV, who died in 1714, the Republic was compelled to realize that its place in the European scene had dwindled and that its financial situation had seriously deteriorated. Heinsius’ political correspondence was published by the Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis (Institute of Netherlands History) in The Hague (De briefwisseling van Anthonie Heinsius, 1702–1720, 19 vols., 1976–2001). HEINSIUS, DANIEL (1580–1655). Scholar. Heinsius studied law at the University of Franeker and was appointed professor at Leiden University, first of poetry in 1603 and later of Greek in 1605 and of

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history in 1613. He wrote many elegant orations and published several critical editions of classical authors. He also had a reputation as a Dutch poet in the classicist style, for example, the Nederduytsche Poemata, and as a Latin historiographer. From 1607 until 1653, Heinsius was librarian at the Leiden University library. See also HEINSIUS, NICOLAAS (1620–1681). HEINSIUS, NICOLAAS (1620–1681). The son of Daniel Heinsius, he was appointed to the diplomatic service of the Swedish queen Christina. He edited many Roman authors and wrote neo-Latin poetry. His son Nicolaas (1656–1718) was the physician of Christina of Sweden (in Rome) and the electors of Brandenburg and Cleves, Germany. He wrote a famous picaresque novel, Den vermakelyken avanturier (1695). HEMSTERHUIS, FRANCISCUS (1721–1790). Philosopher. Franciscus was the son of Tiberius Hemsterhuis (1685–1766), professor of Greek philology and Dutch history at the universities of Franeker and Leiden. After a short period in the military service, he became a clerk in the bureau of the Council of State. This administrative job left him with ample leisure to pursue his philosophical studies. Through Amalia Gallitzin, the wife of the Russian ambassador in The Hague, he came into contact with German thinkers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi. Hemsterhuis wrote some dialogues in French in the Platonic style on aesthetic subjects. His religiosity was pantheistic, a rejection of orthodox Calvinism and of enlightened rationalism alike. HERMANS, WILLEM FREDERIK (1921–1995). Writer. After studying physical geography at the University of Amsterdam, Hermans became a lecturer at the University of Groningen. In 1973, he resigned after a conflict with political overtones in his department. Apart from a few scientific publications, his work primarily consists of poems, novels, and essays, some of which have been translated into English. He is one of the most critical and influential Dutch intellectuals of the late 20th century. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

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HERTOGENBOSCH, ’S (DEN BOSCH). See ’S HERTOGENBOSCH. HEUTSZ, JOHANNES BENEDICTUS VAN (1851–1924). Van Heutsz took part in the military expedition against the Sultanate of Aceh in the Netherlands East Indies in 1874–1875. From 1898 to 1904, he served as governor of this nearly “pacified” province on the island of Sumatra (now Indonesia), asking the advice of Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje; in 1904, he was appointed governor-general. Van Heutsz’s severe measures did not effectively suppress the emerging Indonesian nationalist movement. HIGH COURT. After the separation between the southern and the northern parts of the Low Countries in the 1580s, the BurgundianHabsburg Great Council of Malines no longer functioned as a court of appeal and revision in the North. No new central court of justice was created there until 1802 (after the Batavian Revolution). Only the provinces of Holland and Zeeland had a common court of appeal (Hoge Raad), created in 1582. The modern High Court was not established until 1838 during the reign of King William I, as the summit of a hierarchical judicial organization. The High Court was a court of cassation (annulment) based on the French model. HIRSI ALI (MAGAN), AYAAN (1969– ). Politician of Somali origin who escaped to the Netherlands in 1992 to avoid an arranged marriage. After she joined the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD), Hirsi Ali was elected to Parliament in 2003. Together with Theo van Gogh, she made the movie Submission as part of her struggle against radical Islam and for the emancipation of women. Her books De zoontjesfabriek (2002) and De maagdenkooi (2004) were best-sellers and were translated into many languages, for example, into English as The Caged Virgin and German as Ich klage an. Threats and intimidation obstructed Hirsi Ali’s activities as a member of Parliament. In May 2006, she resigned from Parliament when her naturalization became a political issue. The VVD minister for integration and immigration, Maria Cornelia Frederika (“Rita”) Verdonk (1955– ), declared—contrary to the wishes of a parliamentary majority and her colleagues in the coalition government—that Hirsi

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Ali had never possessed Dutch citizenship, even though it was already known for several years that she had given another surname (her grandfather’s name Ali instead of her father’s name Magan) and year of birth to get asylum. Hirsi Ali continued to advance her career as an advisor at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C. In June 2006, the matter led to the fall of the second Jan Peter Balkenende cabinet, after the withdrawal of coalition partner Democraten 1966 (D66). Although Verdonk had decided that Hirsi Ali could keep her Dutch passport, this party remained dissatisfied with the way the minister had dealt with the question. HISTORIOGRAPHY. During the early Middle Ages, several kinds of historical works were written in the countries that only subsequently constituted the Low Countries and the Dutch Republic, for example, the chronicles of Alpertus Mettensis, Melis Stoke, Emo and Menko, and Johannes de Beka. In the later Middle Ages and the 16th century, the types of historical writing as well as their numbers rapidly multiplied, including local, regional, and even world chronicles. During the Revolt, many comprehensive histories were written from a Spanish or a Dutch perspective, for instance, those by the Italian Jesuit Famiano Strada (1572–1649), the Italian cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1579–1644), Pieter Christiaensz Bor (1559–1635), Emanuel van Meteren, Ever(h)ard van Reyd (1550–1602), and Pieter Cornelisz Hooft. Historiography gradually became more objective and “scientific” beginning in the mid-18th century with large-scale works such as Dutch History by Jan Wagenaar, History of Dutch Government until 1795 by Prof. Adriaan Kluit (1736–1807), and Dutch History by poet Willem Bilderdijk. The systematic publication of series of historical sources was initiated by the 19th-century historians Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer and Reinier Bakhuizen van den Brink. One of the most prominent historians of that century was Robert Fruin, who was appointed in 1860 to the newly created chair of Dutch history at Leiden University. During the 20th century, historiography was quickly professionalized and specialized; some of the better-known Dutch historians are Johan Huizinga, Pieter Geyl, Jan Romein, Ludovicus Jacobus Ro-

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gier (1894–1947), Ernst Kossmann, and Bernard Slicher van Bath. HOFF, JACOBUS HENDRIKUS VAN ’T (1852–1911). Chemist. Van ’t Hoff studied technology at the Polytechnic School in Delft, physics at Leiden University, and chemistry at the universities of Utrecht, Bonn (Germany), and Paris. In 1878, he was appointed professor of chemistry, geology, and mineralogy at the University of Amsterdam. He conducted research in the field of chemical dynamics (theory of chemical balance and the phenomenon of affinity). In 1896, van ’t Hoff accepted an appointment at the University of Berlin. He was awarded the first Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1901. HOGENDORP, GIJSBERT KAREL VAN (1762–1824). In 1787, van Hogendorp was appointed pensionary of Rotterdam. As an ardent adherent of the Orangist party, he had to resign from office after the Batavian Revolution of 1795. During the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, and French occupation (1795– 1813), he refused to accept any public office. After the Restoration, however, van Hogendorp was appointed president of the committees that were to draft new written constitutions (in 1814 and 1815). A fundamental difference of opinion between him and King William I about the character of responsible government caused them to drift apart. After a short term as minister of foreign affairs (1813–1814) and as vice president of the Council of State (1814– 1816), van Hogendorp was elected a member of the Second Chamber of the States General. He was a critic of the government and advocated a more liberal policy, including free trade, responsible government, and the extension of the right to vote. He was made a count in 1815. HOLLAND. One of the provinces that, in the 1580s, constituted the Republic of the Seven United Provinces in the Revolt against their sovereign, the Spanish king Philip II. Holland came into being during the Middle Ages as part of the German empire, ruled by counts who gradually gained more independence from the central authority. Beginning in 1428, the Burgundian dukes created some cohesion

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between parts of the “Low Countries”; their Habsburg successors accomplished the unity of the 17 counties and duchies into a loose federation in the 1540s. After the Dutch Republic had gained independence, the province of Holland remained the richest, most populated, and most urbanized segment. Most of the power was concentrated in the town of Amsterdam (the seat of several commercial companies, such as the East India, Muscovy, Levant, and Nordic companies) and The Hague where the States of Holland and the States General met. After the Batavian Revolution and the proclamation of the constitution in a united national state in 1798, Holland’s influence drastically diminished. In 1840, the old province was divided into two new provinces, Northern Holland (capital Haarlem; population about 2,596,000) and Southern Holland (capital The Hague; population 3,453,000). Northern Holland also reclaimed land in the last centuries, particularly through the impoldering of the Haarlemmermeer (1849–1852) and the Wieringermeer (1934). Both provinces have many old towns, seaside resorts, and beaches. Historical parts of Northern Holland include Kennemerland (the area between Haarlem and Alkmaar), West-Frisia (the region around Enkhuizen and Hoorn), the Zaanstreek (around Zaandam), and Waterland (around Monnickendam). The harbor of Rotterdam, in Southern Holland, is tremendously industrialized. The region below consists of old isles, which have become connected to each other as part of the DeltaPlan. See also RANDSTAD. HOLLANDITIS. A word coined in the early 1980s as a result of the Dutch protests against cruise missiles in Europe. Although the government had accepted deployment on the airbase of Woensdrecht (Northern Brabant), domestic opposition was strong. In 1981, 400,000 people demonstrated in Amsterdam, and in 1983, 550,000 in The Hague; also in 1983, 3.2 million citizens petitioned the government to reject the arms race. Because demonstrations against cruise missiles followed in other European cities, the Dutch protests were seen as a contagious disease, dubbed “Hollanditis.” See also COMMUNISM; INTERKERKELIJK VREDESBERAAD (IKV).

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HOLLANDSCHE EENHEIDSPRIJZEN MAATSCHAPPIJ AMSTERDAM (HEMA; DUTCH STANDARD PRICING COMPANY AMSTERDAM). See VENDEX KBB. HOLLANDSE WATERLINIE. See DUTCH WATER LINE. HOMOSEXUALITY. The larger part of Dutch society had rejected sexual relationships between members of the same sex until the last decades of the 20th century. Although things have changed rapidly since then, discrimination of gays and lesbians still exists, particularly in dogmatic religious circles. During the Republic, sodomites could be executed. About 1730, for example, persecutions spilled over from Holland and Utrecht to the province of Groningen, where a mass execution of 22 men and boys took place. A contrary opinion, however, was given in an anonymous tract in 1776–1777, which was attributed to Abraham Perrenot (1726–1784), a legal advisor to Stadtholder William V, taking sodomites under its wing. It said they should be considered criminals only when the act was committed with underage boys. In 1803, the last execution for sodomy took place in Schiedam, and the French penal code of 1811 brought its decriminalization. The liberal 1886 Parliament abolished penalties on same-sex contacts and set the minimum age of consent at 14; this was raised by the Christian Democrats to 21 (and for heterosexuals to 16) in 1911. The Nazi regime during World War II was another tough period for homosexual men. In 1946, the Cultuur- en Ontspanningscentrum (COC; Center for Culture and Entertainment) was founded as a society for the emancipation of gays and lesbians. After a few decades in which the COC had to operate cautiously because homosexuality was not yet accepted by the Dutch, the club could show itself more openly beginning in the 1970s. In 1971, the age of consent for hetero- and homosexual contacts became the same, at 16 years old. Two years later, homosexuality was no longer permitted as a reason to reject a person for army service. During the 1990s, the COC and other interested parties focused on obtaining civil marriages for gays and lesbians, which was achieved in 2001 (registration of partnership had already been granted in 1998), as well as adoption of Dutch children by gay couples.

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Present gay magazines include the GayKrant (1980– ) and Expreszo (1988– ). The Canal Parade has been a popular part of the yearly Amsterdam Gay Pride celebration since 1996. See also TOLERATION. HOOFT, PIETER CORNELISZ (1581–1647). Dutch poet and historian. Hooft was born into a rich Amsterdam family of merchants. He made a grand tour in France and Italy and became a typical “Renaissance” poet whose plays and poetry were inspired by and modeled after classical themes and models. When Hooft wrote his Nederlandsche Historiën [Dutch History, covering the years 1555–1587], his model was the Roman historian Tacitus. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; HISTORIOGRAPHY. HOOGOVENS. See CORUS. HOOP SCHEFFER, JAAP (JAKOB GIJSBERT) DE (1948– ). Politician and diplomat. After studying law at Leiden University, de Hoop Scheffer started a career in foreign affairs. He was elected to Parliament for the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) in 1986. From 1997 until 2001, he was the leader of this party, albeit not very successfully. The following year, he became the minister of foreign affairs in the first Jan Peter Balkenende cabinet, in which he remained until his appointment as secretary-general of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 2004. HOUTEN, SAMUEL VAN (1837–1930). Politician. Van Houten became famous for his radical progressive ideas, which he presented as a “young liberal” member of Parliament. He advocated the legal and social emancipation of women, propagated neo-Malthusianism, and fought against child labor. He served from 1894 to 1897 as minister of the interior. After that, he took a more conservative stance. He was a prolific writer, whose collected parliamentary speeches were published during the years 1903–1915. Van Houten also published his “political letters” (Staatkundige brieven). HUBER, ULRIK (1636–1694). Jurist. Huber studied law at the universities of Franeker, Utrecht, and Heidelberg, Germany. In 1657,

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he was appointed professor of rhetoric, history, and politics; as of 1665, he held the chair of law at Franeker. During 1679–1682, Huber served as councilor in the Frisian Court of Law at Leeuwarden. His studies on constitutional law brought him international fame. HUET, CONRAD BUSKEN. See BUSKEN HUET, CONRAD (1826– 1886). HUGUENOTS. Term of abuse—of uncertain origin—used by Roman Catholics to designate French Calvinists in the 16th century. In 1598, Protestants were granted toleration in certain regions by a royal decree, the Edict of Nantes. Beginning with the reign of King Louis XIV in the mid-17th century, however, the persecution of Protestants intensified and, in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked. French Calvinists quickly fled abroad to Germany, England, and the Dutch Republic. Many of them, such as philosopher Pierre Bayle and theologian Pierre Jurieu (1637–1713), cherished a hope of their return from the “refuge” to France. HUIZINGA, JOHAN (1872–1945). Historian. After his studies in Germanics at Groningen University, Huizinga wrote his doctoral thesis “The Vidûsaka in Indian Theater” in 1897. The same year, Huizinga—who as a young student had shown vivid interest in modern poetry and painting (e.g., that of Jan Toorop and Vincent van Gogh)—became a teacher of history in Haarlem. In 1905, he was appointed professor of general and Dutch history at Groningen University. In his inaugural lecture, “The Aesthetic Element of Historical Ideas,” he presented some leading thoughts, which determined his later historical works. Visualization was, in his opinion, a prerequisite for the creation of historical concepts. From 1914 to 1942, he was professor of history at Leiden University. During this period, he gained international fame with his books The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919) and Erasmus (1924). Criticism of modern culture was a topic that he touched on in several publications on his visits to the United States in 1918 and 1927 and in In de schaduw van morgen [In the Shadow of Tomorrow, 1935], translated into German by the Swiss historian Werner Kaegi (1901–1979), who also published other works by Huizinga. Among his correspondents were anthropologist

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Bronisław Kasper Malinowski (1884–1942), classicist Percy Stafford Allen (1869–1933), and French historian Gabriel Hanotaux (1853–1944). See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. HUMANISM. A critical movement in philology, and its affiliated branches of scholarship, that originated in Italy, reaching the Low Countries and Germany in the late 15th century. The tendency of renewal, especially in spiritual matters, reached its height in the devotio moderna (of Thomas a Kempis, Geert Groote, and his congregation of Windesheim, near the city of Zwolle), in the Circle of Aduard near the city of Groningen (including Wessel Gansfort and Rodolphus Agricola), and especially in the singular genius of Erasmus of Rotterdam. See also HUMANISTISCH VERBOND. HUMANISTISCH VERBOND (HUMANIST SOCIETY). Founded in 1946, an organization that works for churchless people who can be regarded as modern humanists. One of its basic principles is the idea that people are responsible for their own behavior and have a responsibility for society as well. Self-determination, tolerance, and equal treatment have always been important key words within this circle. The Humanist Society offers, among other things, services for funeral ceremonies. HUNEBEDDEN. Constructions made of large stones in the Neolithic period between 2700 and 2400 B.C. The formations, which seem to be a part of the European phenomenon of megalithic monuments, were used as common burial places for a number of village communities, especially in the present province of Drenthe. Excavation and preservation of the remaining 50-odd hunebedden has taken place since the mid-18th century. Archaeologist Albert Egges van Giffen published a three-volume book on these monuments (De hunebedden in Nederland, 1925–1927). HURGRONJE, CHRISTIAAN SNOUCK. See SNOUCK HURGRONJE, CHRISTIAAN (1857–1936). HUYGENS, CHRISTIAAN (1629–1695). Mathematician, physicist, and astronomer. He was the son of Constantijn Huygens (1596–1687), who was an advisor of the stadtholders and himself a

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gifted poet and composer. Christiaan Huygens’s fundamental scientific research was in the fields of mechanics (gravity), optics (waves), and music. Although his birth and death were both in The Hague, most of his life was spent in Paris, where Huygens was an active member of the Académie des Sciences.

–I– ICONOCLASTIC FURY (BEELDENSTORM). In 1566, during the initial phase of the Dutch Revolt against the Spanish king Philip II, a rabid anti-Catholic movement ran through the provinces. Calvinists destroyed sculptures and damaged pictures and other sacred decorations in Roman Catholic churches. This protest seems to have been inspired not only by religious objections against the superstitious worship of statues but also by opposition to the persecutions of the Catholic Inquisition and by social protest against the poor living conditions in those years. IJSSEL (GELDERSE IJSSEL). Arm of the river Rhine flowing through the eastern provinces of Gelderland and Overijssel and partly serving as a boundary between the Netherlands and Westphalia (Germany). During the late Middle Ages, the river was an important means of transport for goods with an inland destination. Several commercial towns were founded along the river, such as Kampen, Zwolle, Deventer, and Zutphen, which were members of the Hansa League. IJSSELMEER. See ZUIDERZEE. IMMIGRANTS. Immigrants have always formed a substantial part of the population of the Netherlands. During the formative years of the Dutch Republic, many Calvinists fled from the Spanish-dominated Southern Netherlands to the united Northern provinces. During the prosperous 17th century—the Dutch “Golden Age”—many people from Germany and the Scandinavian countries came to the Netherlands to find jobs as servants, aboard the Asia-bound ships of the East India Company, or as craftsmen. Jews, persecuted for their

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religion in Spain and Portugal, settled in Amsterdam and The Hague, as did English dissenters in the beginning of the 17th century and French Huguenots from the 1680s. In particular the German element, which, however, mostly assimilated to the dominant culture, has been strong, even during the 19th century when not only maidservants and day laborers but also merchants and peddlers immigrated. Other groups of immigrants include Chinese, Italians, Gypsies, and in the wake of decolonization after 1945, people from Indonesia (e.g., the Moluccas, Ambon), Surinam, and the Netherlands Antilles, but also guest workers from Turkey and North Africa (particularly Morocco) in the 1960s. The integration of Muslims, in combination with increasing numbers of asylum seekers, has caused tensions in the Dutch society recently. See also ISLAM. INDIA. The Dutch established trading posts not only in Indonesia but also on the Indian peninsula and Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), as of the 17th century, especially on the coasts of Koromandel, Guzeratte, Malabar, and Bengal. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Dutch were ousted by the French and the English. The Dutch presence on Ceylon has left more traces, especially in language and in law. See also EAST INDIA COMPANY. INDONESIA. See BATAVIA; COLONIES; NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES; SUKARNO (1901–1970). INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. Commerce and agriculture were the most important sectors of the Dutch economy until late in the 19th century. The unification in 1815 of the northern and southern parts of the Netherlands (the Republic and Belgium) promised a good start for a more diversified economy. The industrial policy of King William I tried to stimulate Walloon mining and steel production. The Belgian Revolt and the declaration of independence (1830–1831) therefore brought a serious setback for the development of industry in the North. Only in the 1870s, or even in the 1890s, was a takeoff apparent in capitalistic industrial production, with the accompanying phenomena of children’s and women’s labor, low wages, poverty, and the miserable housing conditions of the workers. However, social policy was fairly quickly enacted to

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counter these obvious disadvantages of the new development. See also MANUFACTURING. INQUISITION. Under papal jurisdiction, the inquisition into heretical practices and beliefs was also introduced in the Low Countries during the 16th century. Many members of Lutheran, Anabaptist, and other Protestant sects, as well as Jews, were arrested, tried, and executed by secular authorities. The harsh application of the edicts of Emperor Charles V against the heretics provoked antipathy during the 1540s and 1550s, which two decades later fueled open resistance against the centralizing policy of the Habsburg ruler, King Philip II of Spain. See also REVOLT. INTERKERKELIJK VREDESBERAAD (IKV; INTERDENOMINATIONAL PEACE FORUM). In 1966, nine churches started the IKV in order to stimulate discussions about war and peace. The IKV became known with the 1977 campaign “Rid the world of nuclear weapons, starting with the Netherlands” and its participation in the Komitee Kruisraketten Nee (No Cruise Missiles Committee) in 1982. The IKV made many contacts with Eastern European churches to stimulate détente between East and West during the Cold War. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the IKV has chosen other focal points, for example, Yugoslavia in the 1990s. One of its leading figures was Mient Jan Faber (1940– ), IKV secretary from 1974 until 2004; currently he is political director of the Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly (since 1994) and extraordinary professor of citizens’ involvement in war situations at the Free University of Amsterdam. Since 2007, the IKV has cooperated closely with the Dutch department of the Roman Catholic organization Pax Christi. ISLAM. This world religion got a foothold in the Netherlands after World War II. In the 1950s, the first mosques were opened and the Koran became available in Dutch. Most Muslims in the Netherlands, however, are not natives, but immigrant workers, particularly from Turkey and Morocco, people from former colonies, asylum seekers from Islamic countries, and their descendants. At present, the approximately one million Muslims form the third religious group, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestantse Kerk in

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Nederland (PKN). Many Muslims still have strong connections with their old countries, and their mosques, schools, and organizations bear ethnic colors. This has caused integration problems in the liberal Dutch society, in combination with native fears of radical Islamic fundamentalism. People like Frits Bolkestein and Pim Fortuijn intensified the integration debate in the 1990s, which is still a hotly debated topic. Some authorities argue that the presence of foreign imams hinders the integration process. Leiden University got permission to start the teaching of Islamic theology in 2006. ISRAËLS, ISAAC AND JOZEF. See PAINTING.

–J– JACOBS, ALETTA HENRIETTE (1854–1929). Feminist. In 1871, Jacobs was admitted as the first woman student to a Dutch university (Groningen). She was also the first woman in the country to earn her doctoral degree (in medicine), in 1879. Jacobs became an advocate of radical liberal ideas on reforming society. She was a champion of universal suffrage, equal rights for men and women, and birth control. She supported the international suffragette movement, together with Carry Chapman Catt. Jacobs’s memoirs (Herinneringen) were published in 1924. JAKARTA. See BATAVIA. JANSEN, CORNELIS (CORNELIUS JANSENIUS) (1585–1638). Dutch Roman Catholic theologian and bishop. After his studies of theology, Jansen became professor at the University of Louvain in 1618 and bishop of Ieper in 1631. His posthumously published views (Augustinus, 3 vols., 1640) on the problems of free will, grace, and predestination were rejected by the pope and placed on the index of forbidden books. They were nevertheless popular in some circles in the Netherlands and France (Port Royal). Persecution led to the refuge of many French followers of Jansenism to the Netherlands. JAPAN. See DESHIMA.

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JAPIKS, GYSBERT. See FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. JAVA. See BATAVIA; NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. JAZZ MUSIC. This African American type of music became popular for dance during the 1920s, live on stage and on records as well. One of the first successful Dutch jazz bands was the Ramblers in 1926. World War II was a hard period for jazz musicians because the German occupiers condemned black artists and American music. After the war, the Dutch Swing College Band (founded on 5 May 1945, Dutch Liberation Day) became one of the most famous Dixieland bands in the country. At the same time, vocalist Rita Reys (1924– ) made an international career as “Europe’s First Lady of Jazz.” Although Dutch jazz artists have been influenced by all international styles and trends, they have certainly held their own jam sessions, too. Since 1976, the annual North Sea Jazz Festival has presented many national (e.g., Pia Beck [1925– ], Hans [1940– ] and Candy [1969– ] Dulfer, and Willem Breuker Kollektief) and foreign jazz artists for audiences of tens of thousands (originally in The Hague, as of 2006 in Rotterdam). The most important Dutch jazz prize is named after “Boy” Edgar (1915–1980), a family doctor who arranged music for many years and had his own band. JESUITS. Members of the Roman Catholic spiritual order of the Society of Jesus (founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540) were also active in the Low Countries. Their main task was missionary work. Beginning in the mid-16th century, the Jesuits played an important role in the Roman Catholic revival movement known as the Counter-Reformation. Following the emergence of the Calvinistic Dutch Republic, one of the tasks of the Jesuits was to support the remaining Catholics, who at first were persecuted. After the middle of the 17th century, Catholics were tolerated as second-class citizens. In the mid-18th century, the Age of Enlightenment, the Jesuit order was suppressed by absolutist rulers in Europe (especially Portugal, France, and Spain). Under this pressure, the pope dissolved the order in 1773, but this decision was repealed in 1814. Since then, members of the order have been active in missionary work (evangelization, education, and science) all over the world, including the Netherlands. See also CANISIUS, ST. PETRUS (1521– 1597).

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JEWS. From Spain and Portugal, the first Jews (Sephardim) immigrated to the Republic in the 1590s, especially after the blockade of the River Scheldt since 1585, which impeded commerce with the harbor of Antwerp from the sea. In 1619, the provincial States of Holland decided that the cities were free to admit Jews (and to let them live in a ghetto) as they pleased, but it was explicitly forbidden to compel Jews to wear external distinctions. During the 17th century, Jews emigrated from eastern Europe. Both the Sephardic and Ashkenazic communities were granted autonomy by the Calvinist authorities in cities such as Amsterdam, The Hague, and Rotterdam, where they were also allowed to build synagogues. In 1796, during the Batavian Revolution, Jews were emancipated: they were regarded as citizens of the new Republic—adherents of a religion, not of a nation. Social emancipation was slow in following the granting of equal political rights, however. The 19th century revealed persistent anti-Semitism on religious grounds. Increasing integration and assimilation caused a reaction among Orthodox Jews, who deplored the disappearing observance of religious traditions. Zionism gave another impulse to orthodoxy. During the first decade of the 20th century, the Orthodox Jewish religious communities diminished. The Nazi occupation of the Netherlands during World War II (1940–1945) brought the so-called final solution of the “Jewish problem”: Nearly two-thirds of the “Jewish” population —according to the racist Nazi definition—was wiped out. Since 1974, the Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel (CIDI, in The Hague) has distributed information on the relationship between the Netherlands and Israel and on the Dutch Jewish community (recently estimated at about 40,000 members). JOHN MAURICE (JOHAN MAURITS), COUNT OF NASSAUSIEGEN (1604–1679). After he served in the army of the stadtholders Maurice (1567–1625) and Frederick Henry, in 1636 John Maurice became governor of Brazil—thus his epithet “the Brazilian”—until the colony was lost after Portugal regained independence in 1640. His attempts to maintain this colony were in vain, because he lacked support. In 1647, the Elector of Brandenburg appointed him as governor of Mark, Cleves, and later also Minden. From 1665, he served the Republic again in the wars against Mün-

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ster and France. The Mauritshouse in The Hague and channels and gardens in Cleves recall his interest in art and sciences. JONG, LOE (LOUIS) DE (1914–2005). Journalist and historian. After his studies at Amsterdam University, de Jong worked as a journalist. During World War II, he became director of Radio Oranje, which presented broadcasts for the occupied Netherlands. From 1945 until his retirement in 1979, he was director of the Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie (RIOD, now NIOD, Nederlands Institutuut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie, Netherlands Institute for War Documentation). De Jong entered the public eye through his television program about the occupation in the early 1960s. His main achievement was the writing of the voluminous Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog [The Kingdom of the Netherlands during the Second World War, 14 vols., 1969–1991]. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY; SREBRENICA TRAGEDY. JONG, PIET (PETRUS JOSEF SIETSE DE) (1915– ). Politician. Having studied at the Royal Naval Institute in Den Helder, de Jong entered the Dutch Navy in 1934. After the invasion of the Netherlands by Nazi Germany in 1940, he went to England and became the commander of a submarine during World War II. After 1948, he was an expert advisor to several politicians. De Jong was a member of the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) and was a secretary and later (naval) defense minister from 1959 to 1963. From 1967 to 1971, he was prime minister, after which he was member of the First Chamber of Parliament until 1974. JOYOUS ENTRY (BLIJDE INKOMST). The charter given by Joanna of Brabant (1322–1406) to her subjects in 1356. It guaranteed involvement in matters of justice, administration, and finances. It is also the name of the festivity organized by an important city in order to welcome a new lord because of his inauguration or marriage. JULIANA (1909–2004). Queen of the Netherlands. She succeeded her mother Wilhelmina in 1948. In 1937, she married Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld. They had four daughters, of whom the eldest is Beatrix, who became queen when Juliana stepped down in 1980.

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During World War II, the royal family lived in England and Canada. In 1927, Princess Juliana was introduced in the Council of State, an important institution that has the constitutional task to give advice to the government on new legislation. After her coronation in 1948, Queen Juliana showed herself to be an active monarch, involved with her people, with whom she enjoyed intensive contacts. She regularly made working visits to many towns and villages. During her reign, the colonial period expired: Indonesia (in 1949) and Surinam (in 1975) became independent states. Constitutional crises revolving around a faith healer and the Lockheed corruption affair, in which Prince Bernhard became involved, did not prove detrimental to Juliana’s popularity. See also DEATH PENALTY.

–K– KAEMPFER, ENGELBERT (1651–1716). Born in Lemgo (Lippe, Germany), Kaempfer studied political science in Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland), graduating in 1673; he later studied medicine at Leiden University (degree in 1693–1694). Meanwhile he had also studied in Uppsala, Sweden, where he was invited to serve as the secretary of an embassy sent in 1683 by King Charles VI to Moscow and Isfahan, Persia. Later, in 1685, he joined the Dutch East India Company as a ship’s doctor. In 1690, he visited Siam and Japan. In 1694, he returned to Lemgo as physician to Count Friedrich Adolf zu Lippe. During his voyages, Kaempfer made extensive notes and sketches (e.g., of Persian Persepolis), but during his lifetime only the Amoenitatum exoticarum politico-physico-medicarum fasciculi V was published (1712). After his death, his papers were bought by Hans Sloane (they are now in the British Library); his famous History of Japan was published in 1727. The importance of Kaempfer’s observations lies especially in the fields of medicine, botany, ethnography, and history. KAMERLINGH ONNES, HEIKE (1853–1926). Physicist. After finishing his studies in physics and mathematics at the universities of Groningen and Heidelberg (Germany), Kamerlingh Onnes was

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soon appointed as the first professor of experimental physics at Leiden University, in 1882. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz was his collega proximus (appointed professor of theoretical physics in 1877). Kamerlingh became famous for his experiments with materials at low temperatures, such as liquid helium. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1913. KAMPEN. City on the estuary of the River IJssel founded during the 12th century. Kampen received autonomy about 1240 and became a prosperous commercial town where ships could arrive by way of the Zuiderzee. It was a member of the Hansa, which also included many German and Scandinavian ports on the North Sea and the Baltic. During the 16th century, the city lost its prominent position because of the rivalry of many ports in Holland. After the Revolt of the Netherlands against Spain, Kampen, together with Zwolle and Deventer, was still one of the three main cities in the province of Overijssel. The city, with about 33,500 inhabitants, has many kinds of industry, such as timber, cigars, chemical products, and shipbuilding. Two Protestant universities of divinity are established in Kampen, which also houses some fine 16th- and 17th-century buildings, such as the town hall and the St. Nicolas Church. KAPTEYN, JACOBUS CORNELIS (1851–1922). Astronomer. After his studies in physics and mathematics at Utrecht University, Kapteyn was appointed professor of astronomy and theoretical mechanics at Groningen University, where he founded an astronomical laboratory. He enjoyed international fame because of his research in the structure of stellar systems. Because he did not succeed in obtaining an observatory in Groningen, Kapteyn directed his studies to cataloging the stars in the Southern Hemisphere. In collaboration with David Gill of the observatory in Cape Town, he published The Cape Photographic Durchmusterung for the Equinox 1875 (3 vols., 1896–1900). KATHOLIEKE VOLKSPARTIJ (KVP; CATHOLIC PEOPLE’S PARTY). In the years when Abraham Kuyper postulated an antithesis between Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and non-Christian (pagan) political principles in society and founded the

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Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP), Hermanus Schaepman in 1883 formulated a political program for the Catholic voters. It was only in 1896 that Schaepman succeeded in founding a political party independent from liberals and conservatives, the Rooms-Katholieke Staats Partij (RKSP, Roman Catholic State’s Party). During the first decades of the 20th century, the Christian politicians were able to form coalition cabinets, thanks to their majority in Parliament. After World War II, a renewed Roman Catholic party was founded, the KVP. Governments were based on a broader foundation, sometimes including Liberals and the Labor Party. In the 1970s, Christian participation in government could only be guaranteed by a merger of the KVP with the Protestant Christelijk-Historische Unie (CHU, Christian Historical Union) and the ARP. Several Catholics have played a crucial role in Dutch politics, such as Louis Beel, Jan de Quay, and Ruud Lubbers. KEMPIS, THOMAS A (1379/1380–1471). Monk and scholar. Thomas A. Kempis studied with the congregation of the Brethren of the Common Life in the city of Deventer, became a priest, and spent most of his life in the monastery Agnietenberg near Zwolle. His life was devoted to the copying of religious manuscripts, but Thomas also wrote many books and treatises himself, of which the most famous are The Imitation of Christ and a biography of Geert Groote, the founder of the congregation of the Brethren. KEYSER, HENDRICK (HENRICK) DE (1565–1621). Sculptor. Born in Utrecht, de Keyser was appointed the city sculptor of Amsterdam in 1594. Soon he became one of its principal architects. He built the Stock Exchange (demolished in 1838), the Zuiderkerk and the Westerkerk, and the Mint Tower. He also renewed the façade of the town hall at Delft and was the sculptor of the memorial stone for William I of Orange in the New Church in that city. In addition, he made the statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam and the sculptures at the castle of Frederiksberg in Denmark. KINGDOM OF HOLLAND. The successor of the Batavian Republic —which should not be confused with the province of Holland. This kingdom, with Louis Napoléon as sovereign, was a satellite state of

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France between 1806 and 1810. It also included the German region of Eastern Frisia. KINSBERGEN, JAN HENDRIK VAN (1735–1819). Naval officer. Van Kinsbergen won fame in the service of the Russian empress Catherine II. He commanded the Russian fleet in the Black Sea against the Turks in the 1770s. After his return to the Republic, he successfully fought the North African (Barbary) pirates. During the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War at sea (1780–1784), Van Kinsbergen distinguished himself in the battle of Doggersbank in 1781. He also wrote several books on sea tactics. KLEFFENS, EELCO NICOLAAS VAN (1894–1983). Diplomat and Liberal statesman. After studying law at Leiden University, van Kleffens started his career in the service of the League of Nations, then worked for Shell and for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1939, he became nonpartisan minister of that department. When Nazi Germany declared war on the Netherlands, he went with the government into exile in London. In 1943, van Kleffens pleaded in a radio speech for an Atlantic alliance such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) would become. After the war, he served the government as ambassador (to the United States and Portugal) and was a Dutch representative in international organizations such as the United Nations Safety Council, NATO, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the European Coal and Steel Community. Van Kleffens was Dutch minister of state beginning in 1950, and in 1954–1955, he was president of the United Nations General Assembly. KLM. Royal Dutch Airlines (Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij) was founded in 1919 under the direction of Albert Plesman (1889–1953). It is now the oldest existing airline company. KLM has steadily expanded: it was the first airline to fly to Batavia (Indonesia) in 1929, and in 1934, to the West Indies. In 2004, KLM became a subsidiary of Air France, although its independent identity was guaranteed until 2009. The headquarters of Air France–KLM is located near Paris. KLM’s network is one of the largest in the world, comprising some 160 cities in about 75 countries.

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KOK, WIM (WILLEM) (1938– ). Politician. Kok held various positions in the Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen (NVV, Netherlands Association of Trade Unions). In 1969, he was appointed secretary of the board, and in 1973, president. He kept this position after the merger of the neutral NVV and the Roman Catholic Nederlands Katholiek Vakverbond (NKV, Netherlands Catholic Trade Union) into one Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging (FNV, Federation Dutch Labor Movement) in 1981. From 1979 until 1982, Kok was president of the European Federation of Trade Unions. He has served the Dutch Labor Party, the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), since 1985. In 1986, he succeeded Joop den Uyl as leader of the PvdA in Parliament. From 1989 until 1994, he was minister of finance in the cabinet under Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers. Kok became prime minister himself in 1994 and led two cabinets until 2002. He became minister of state the following year. See also SREBRENICA TRAGEDY. KONINKLIJKE NEDERLANDSE AKADEMIE VAN WETENSCHAPPEN (KNAW; ROYAL NETHERLANDS ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES). Institution founded in 1808 by King Louis Napoléon. Its statutory purpose is to promote the natural sciences (section Natuurkunde) and the humanities (section Letterkunde). Only a limited number of scientists and scholars are chosen as (corresponding) members. The KNAW’s activities include, among others, the publication of scientific papers and the direction of many research institutes (e.g., the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation [NIOD] in Amsterdam, the Huygens Institute in The Hague, and the Fryske Akademy in Leeuwarden). Since the 1980s, the KNAW has accepted more bureaucratic and controlling tasks, such as the “quality assessment” of research conducted at universities. KOOLHAAS, REM (1944– ). Architect. As the son of writer and film critic Anton Koolhaas (1912–1992) and grandson of architect Dirk Roosenburg (1887–1962), he started his education at the Dutch Film Academy. From 1968 until 1972, Koolhaas studied architecture in London. In 1975, along with others, he founded the Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA), which participated in discussions

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about architecture, for example, with the book Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (1978). Koolhaas has realized prestigious projects since the 1980s, including the Rotterdam Art Hall (1992), the Dutch Embassy in Berlin (2002), and the Art Museum in Seoul (2004). His design for the Chinese Television headquarters will be delivered in 2008. Koolhaas has won several prizes, such as the Pritzker Architecture Prize (2000). Since 1995, he has also been a professor at Harvard University. KOSSMANN, ERNST HEINRICH (1922–2003). Historian and professor of modern history at the University of Groningen. Along with his many publications about political theory, Kossmann published The Low Countries (1978), a history of both the Netherlands and Belgium in the last two centuries. He was the twin brother of author Alfred Kossmann (1922–1998). During World War II, they were picked up by the Nazis and sent to work in Germany. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. KRAYENHOFF, BARON CORNELIUS RUDOLPHUS THEODORUS (1758–1840). Cartographer. Initially Krayenhoff practiced as a physician in Amsterdam. As a friend of Herman Willem Daendels, he became one of the Patriots who realized the Batavian Revolution in 1795. The next year, he was appointed director of the fortifications of the province of Holland. His specialties were then engineering and cartography. In 1798, the government decided to produce a map of the Batavian Republic. Krayenhoff was commissioned with the execution of the necessary survey, and he applied a new variation on the method of triangulation. The new Topographical and Military Map of the Netherlands was printed in parts, and reprinted with corrections during the years 1809–1829. Meanwhile, Krayenhoff served King Louis Napoléon in 1809 as secretary of war and King William I from 1814 as inspector-general of fortifications. He published several books on surveying and the history of war. KROES, NEELIE (1941– ). Politician. Kroes studied economy at the School of Economics (now Erasmus University) in Rotterdam and became a member of Parliament for the liberal Volkspartij voor

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Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) in 1971 (between 1965 and 1991, she went by the name Smit-Kroes). She continued as secretary (1977–1981) and minister (1982–1989) of transport and communications. From 1991 until 2000, Kroes served as president of Nyenrode Business University, one of her many additional jobs. Since 2004, she has been the European Union’s (EU) commissioner for competition. KRÖLLER-MÜLLER, HELENE EMMA LAURA JULIANE (1869–1939). Born into a family of merchants, in 1888 Helene Müller married Dr. Anthony George Kröller (1862–1941) who was associated with the firm of Wilhelm H. Müller and Co., ship brokers at Rotterdam. The family lived in Scheveningen (near The Hague), and she became interested in modern art. Her wealth enabled her to build up a large and fine collection of paintings, drawings, and objets d’art. The painter and critic Hendricus Petrus Bremmer (1871–1956) was her advisor. In the woods of the Veluwe (now the national park known as the Hoge Veluwe near Otterlo), they designed a new residence, built by architect Hendrik Berlage in 1920, and a museum, built by Belgian architect Henry van de Velde in 1938. Later on, a sculpture garden was laid out in which was rebuilt the Rietveld pavilion (1965). The collection, which is now the property of the Dutch state, includes hundreds of paintings by Vincent van Gogh, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Juan Gris, Pablo Picasso, and others. KröllerMüller published a highly personal book on modern art in German: Die Entwicklung der modernen Malerei: Ein Wegweiser für Laien (1925). KUYPER, ABRAHAM (1837–1920). Protestant minister from 1863 to 1874, theologian, and statesman. From 1872, Kuyper was the editor-in-chief of De Standaard, the daily newspaper of the antirevolutionary political movement, started by Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer. Kuyper became a member of Parliament in 1874. After five years, he founded the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP, Anti-Revolutionary Party). In 1880, he founded the Free (Calvinist) University of Amsterdam, an academy for the propagation of Christian science and culture. In 1886, he seceded from the Dutch Reformed (Hervormde) Church and founded another Dutch Reformed (Gereformeerde) Church on orthodox Calvinist principles, the so-called

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Doleantie. In the same year, Kuyper developed his “antithesis” to compel the governing liberals, by a coalition of religious parties (confessionelen), to accept state-subsidized education in private religious schools. From 1901 to 1905, he served as prime minister in a coalition cabinet, during which time a national strike by railway employees was broken by special laws that forbade civil servants to strike. The cartoons about this strike and the politician Kuyper from the socialist Albert Hahn (1877–1918) are still famous.

–L– LABADIE, JEAN DE (1610–1674). Born in Bourg (Bordeaux, France), de Labadie was appointed a Calvinist minister at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1666 but was removed in 1669 because of heterodoxy. He settled in Herford (Westphalia, Germany) and later Altona (Holstein, then Denmark) with some adherents of his pietistic millennial teachings. The members of the mystic sect shared their goods and did not accept civil marriage. After the death of their leader, the community found a haven in the village of Wiuwert, Frisia, at the castle of the Van Aerssen sisters. Poet Anna Maria van Schurman (1607–1678) and the famous painter Maria Sibylla Merian joined the sect. After the death of the new leader, Pierre Yvon (1640–1707), the community declined and extinguished about 1732. See also FURTHER REFORMATION. LABOR MOVEMENT. In 1861, Amsterdam book printers were the first group of workers to form a trade union in the Netherlands. Five years later, they organized themselves on a national scale. The Amsterdam diamond cutters followed suit. Their goal was financial aid for their members and joining forces in their confrontations with the employers. In 1869, the General Union of Dutch Employees was founded as the Dutch Section of the First Socialist International (1864–1872). In 1871, a new anti-Socialist Union of Dutch Workers was founded. Parallel with the segmentation of Dutch social and political life in the 1870s, trade unions developed in the direction of separate Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Socialist associations and federations of

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unions. The last was divided into social-democrat, communist, and syndicalist factions. Strikes remained a powerful weapon in the struggle for better working conditions and higher wages, even in the period after World War II when the system of annual collectively bargained agreements on social conditions between employers and employees was the rule. In 1976, the Catholic and Socialist federations of trade unions merged into the Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging (FNV, Federation Dutch Labor Movement). Since then, the Christelijk Nationaal Vakverbond (CNV, Christian National Trade Union) is considered to represent Protestant and Catholic workers as well. See also KOK, WIM (WILLEM) (1938– ). LAND RECLAMATION. Many polders in the provinces of Holland and Utrecht are the result of the impoldering of alluvial land outside the dikes, or of lakes that originated from storm floods. Land reclamation, especially from the 16th century, can be traced in Frisia (Het Bildt) and in Holland (Beemster, Schermer, Purmer) owing to the political, economic, and technical possibilities (such as the windmill) at that time. Engineer Jan Adriaensz Leeghwater (1575–1650) played an important role in the reclamation of several polders and also advocated the Haarlemmermeerpolder (a large former lake near Haarlem), which was not executed until the 19th century. The Wieringermeerpolder, the Noordoostpolder, and the Flevopolders are the major reclamations of the 20th century. The Beemster Polder was designated a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site in 1999. Dutch dredging companies have also reclaimed land abroad recently, notably the land for the new Hong Kong airport and some artificial isles for the Dubai coast. See also FLEVOLAND. LAUWERIKS, JOHANNES LUDOVICUS MATHEUS (1864– 1932). Architect. Lauweriks was associated with Karel de Bazel in the architectural firm of Petrus Cuypers in Amsterdam. In 1894, he joined the Theosophical Society and founded with de Bazel an independent firm. He became a teacher at the Academy of Decorative Arts in Düsseldorf, Germany, in 1904. Lauweriks worked as an interior designer and as an architect. He became a friend of the industrialist and patron of the arts Karl Ernst Osthaus (1874–1921) and

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built houses and residential areas in Hagen and Göttingen in Germany. In 1916, during World War I, Lauweriks returned to Amsterdam. LEEGHWATER, JAN ADRIAENSZ. See LAND RECLAMATION. LEEUWARDEN (Frisian LJOUWERT). Capital of the province of Frisia, with about 90,000 inhabitants. Originally, the city had a harbor on the Middelzee, but it silted up in the 14th century. After that, Leeuwarden remained an important center of a predominantly agrarian countryside. During the period of the Republic, Leeuwarden was the seat of the most important administrative institutions: the court of the stadtholders Nassau-Dietz (until 1747), the assembly of the States of Friesland, and the Court of Justice. The city was also an important center of economic activity. After the foundation of the monarchy, Leeuwarden remained the capital of Frisia, a province with a strong cultural identity represented by the Frisian language. Several agrarian and nonagrarian industries, as well as some insurance companies, are established in the city, which also houses three polytechnics, several famous museums, and the Fryske Akademy. The old collection of the closed Franeker University library is kept in Tresoar, the Frisian history and literary center. LEEUWENHOEK, ANTONI (ANTON, ANTONIE) VAN (1632– 1723). Scientist. Van Leeuwenhoek served as a minor civil servant in his native city Delft. He is the inventor of the microscope, with which he discovered microorganisms such as bacteria and spermatozoa. For half a century, he described his discoveries in hundreds of letters to the English Royal Society, to which he was introduced by his fellow townsman, physician Reinier de Graaf (1641–1673). LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (1533–1588). This English politician and favorite of Queen Elizabeth I was sent to the Northern Netherlands during the Revolt against Spain, which was supported by its rival England. Leicester’s policy as regent was not very successful, especially his decree that forbade trade with the Spanish enemy—the profits of which financed the war—which earned him the opposition of the merchants of Holland. His attempts

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to regain his position by force failed. At the insistence of Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt and the States of Holland, Leicester was called home by the English queen in 1587. LEIDEN. In the 13th century, the city of Leiden received from the Count of Holland a privilege, which promoted the former village, on an old arm of the river Rhine, to an autonomous town. In the later Middle Ages, it became one of the towns (goede steden) that the ruler consulted in the assembly of the States of Holland. One of the main sources of its wealth was the textile industry, especially during the 14th and 17th centuries. During the Revolt of the Netherlands, Leiden successfully resisted a siege by the Spaniards. Prince William I of Orange, the leader of the revolting provinces, rewarded the city with an academy in 1575. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Leiden was on the decline, its population decreasing and impoverished. A recovery took place following the late 19th century. A broad range of small industries gave the town new prosperity. Leiden, a city with about 119,000 inhabitants, houses several national museums (e.g., of Antiquities, Ethnography, and Sciences) and a famous local museum, the Lakenhal, in which the painters Lucas van Leyden (1494–1533) and Floris Hendrik Verster (1861–1927), among others, are represented. LELYSTAD. City founded in 1966 in the recently reclaimed land of the Flevopolder in the former Zuiderzee, now the IJsselmeer. The town was named after Cornelis Lely (1854–1929), the engineer and politician who drafted the plans for the reclamation of the Zuiderzee. Lelystad, with about 71,000 inhabitants, is partly oriented to the agrarian sector. As capital of the province of Flevoland, it is also an administrative center, and it houses the Bataviawerf (shipyard), an important museum of archaeology where many remnants of ships and other objects found at the bottom of the former sea are exhibited. It is also a real shipyard, where replicas are built of ships of the Dutch East India Company. In 2003, the Aviodrome aviation museum was transported from Schiphol Airport to the airport at Lelystad. LEVANT TRADE. In the early 17th century, trade with the eastern Mediterranean and later further afield was organized as an associa-

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tion of merchants. Several of these companies were founded, especially in Amsterdam, such as the famous East India Company, but also the Muscovy and Nordic companies. During the period of 1625 and 1826, the Board of the Levant Trade organized the protection of the Dutch trade in the eastern Mediterranean, the payment of consuls in the region, and the recovery of Dutch sailors who had been made slaves by privateers. Commercial firms established business offices in the city of Smyrna, among others. The ships brought back products such as silk and tropical fruits. LEYSTER, JUDITH JANSDR (1609–1660). Painter. Leyster lived in the city of Haarlem, where she married her colleague Jan Miense Molenaer (c. 1610–1668) in 1636. She was a disciple of Frans Hals, and she painted in his style. Her work consists of portraits, still lifes, and genre paintings. Her famous self-portrait is now in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. LIBERALISM. A political philosophy that developed gradually during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In the 1780s, some of the Patriots advocated a new constitution through which the aristocratic and oligarchic system, headed by the Stadtholder William V of Orange, would be replaced by a more democratic system. During the reign of King William I, proponents of liberalism became vociferous, especially in the southern part of the Netherlands (i.e., Belgium), where liberals demanded freedom of education and of the press. After the secession of Belgium, the liberals in the Northern Netherlands also demanded responsible government and public discussion about the state’s budget and financial policy. Johan Rudolf Thorbecke became their leader in the 1840s. Beginning around 1870, modern political parties with programs were founded, including the parties composed of Socialists, Roman Catholics, and orthodox Protestants. The Liberal movement split into a more conservative wing and a radical one that proposed a wider extension of the right to vote (even universal suffrage) and an active role of the state in society. After 1917, the Liberal movement declined. Only after World War II was the new liberal party, the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD, People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy) invited to take part in a coalition that formed the

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government. During recent decades, this party has usually been the third biggest in the Parliament. LIBRARIES. Libraries were immediately added to the new universities founded in the Northern Netherlands—at Leiden in 1575, Franeker in 1585, and Groningen in 1614. Nowadays, the Royal Library in The Hague functions as a scientific library, with the duty to save all relevant publications, just like all present university libraries and some provincial libraries in regions without a university nearby. The phenomenon of the public library dates back to the end of the 18th century, when one of the local branches of the many newly founded learned societies, the Maatschappij tot Nut van ’t Algemeen (Society for the Benefit of the Common Man), founded in 1784, took the initiative of establishing small libraries for the “common man.” Since about 1890, a national system of public libraries has been developed in towns and villages (in buildings and by means of “bibliobuses” as well). Their coordinating organization is called, since 2003, the Vereniging van Openbare Bibliotheken (VOB, Society of Public Libraries). LIJST PIM FORTUYN (LPF; LIST PIM FORTUYN). Political party founded by Pim Fortuijn, who did not witness its first results because he was murdered shortly before the elections in May 2002. After these elections, the LPF formed a coalition with the Christian Democrats of the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) and the liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD). The party turned out to be highly unstable as a result of power struggles and quarrels about the interpretation of Fortuijn’s ideas. Mathieu (“Mat”) Herben (1952– ) appeared to be the new party leader every so often. After the 2003 elections, the party dropped from 26 to 8 members in Parliament, and after the 2006 elections the LPF did not even return within the Second Chamber. LIMBURG. One of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands (population 1,136,000). The region of Limburg had already been inhabited in prehistoric times 6,000 years ago. During the Middle Ages, the area was divided among the Duke of Limburg, the Count (Duke) of Gelderland, and the bishop of Liège. In the Revolt against Spain, the

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Dutch Republic conquered parts of this territory, which, since the independence of Belgium in 1839, has been divided into a Dutch and a Belgian province of Limburg. The predominantly Roman Catholic province stretches along the Meuse River with its several fortified cities, such as Maastricht (now the capital) and Venlo. Many old castles, churches, and monasteries have survived. In the south, the St. Pietersberg, a hill of marl, dominates the countryside. During the 1960s, the mining of coal was stopped and replaced by other kinds of employment, such as DSM (chemical industry), car production (now NedCar, with Volvo) in Born, and the Algemeen Burgerlijk Pensioenfonds (Dutch State Employees’ Pension Scheme) in Heerlen. The local Limburg vernacular is still very vivid. LINSCHOTEN, JAN HUYGHEN VAN (1563–1611). Dutch traveler. During the 1580s, van Linschoten took part in a voyage to the East Indies in the service of the Portuguese. He also gathered information about the newly discovered parts of East Asia, China, and Japan, among other places, from the Dutchman Dirck Gerritsz Pomp. As a citizen of Enkhuizen, he joined voyages that sought, without success, the Northeastern Passage in the 1590s. In 1596, he published his famous Journael van de dertien-jarighe reyse na Oost Indien [Journal of the Thirteen-Year Voyage after East Asia]. The Dutch Hakluyt Society was named the Linschoten Vereeniging after him; since 1909, it has published more than 100 volumes of travel accounts. LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (JOEST LIPS) (1547–1606). Scholar. Born in Flanders, Lipsius became famous in the field of classical philology, history, and political theory. He was a professor at various universities: in Jena, Germany, where he converted to Lutheranism; in Leiden (1578–1591), where he accepted Calvinism; and after 1592 in Louvain after he returned to Roman Catholicism. During his stay in Leiden, where he taught history and law, Lipsius published, among other things, his treatise De constantia (1584), evidence of his Christian-humanistic stoicism, and Politica (1589), a theory on the modern state in which he approved of Niccolò Machiavelli’s theses. Political and theological controversies obliged him to resign, but his writings remained influential for a long period.

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LITERATURE. See DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; FRISIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Traditionally one of the two or three levels of political decision making. During the period of the Republic, until the end of the 18th century, the magistrates of towns and landed districts possessed a considerable degree of autonomy. After the constitution of 1798, which founded the unitary state, central government became stronger. It delegated some executive power to provincial and local authorities. Since the liberal constitution of 1848, provincial and local councils have been elected every four years by the inhabitants. LOEVESTEIN. Castle and fortress on the strategic point where the rivers Maas (Meuse) and Waal unite near the city of Gorinchem, Holland. In this castle, Hugo Grotius was imprisoned from 1619 until his famous escape in 1622. In 1650, Stadtholder William II kept six of his political opponents in custody at Loevestein, including Jacob de Witt (1589–1674), burgomaster of Dordrecht (and father of Johan de Witt). After the death of William in that same year, the anti-Orangist regents in Holland and other provinces refrained from appointing a successor. Their “party” was called the States Party, or Loevestein faction. LOHMAN, ALEXANDER FREDERIK DE SAVORNIN. See SAVORNIN LOHMAN, ALEXANDER FREDERIK DE (1837–1924). LORENTZ, HENDRIK ANTOON (1853–1928). Physicist. After finishing his studies of mathematics and physics at Leiden University, Lorentz became a teacher at the high school in his birthplace Arnhem. In 1877, Lorentz was appointed the first professor of theoretical physics at Leiden University. His research was concentrated at first in the field of electromagnetism. He and his pupil Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943) were awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1902. Later on, he also studied relativity, gravitation, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics. Lorentz took part in many international scientific congresses. He was also actively interested in questions of peace and social welfare. His collected papers were published in nine volumes (1934–1939).

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LOUIS NAPOLÉON (1778–1846). King and officer in the armies of his brother Napoléon Bonaparte. Louis Napoléon took part in the campaigns in Italy and Egypt. He married Napoléon’s stepdaughter Hortense de Beauharnais and was father of the future French emperor Napoléon III. His brother, by now raised to Emperor Napoléon I, compelled Louis to accept the crown of the newly created Kingdom of Holland (the former Batavian Republic) during the years 1806–1810. The king tried in vain to follow a political line of his own and to be a “good king” for his subjects. He stimulated the national codification of law. However, the emperor, angry with his independent course and especially with the failure of his brother to firmly maintain the Continental Blockade, forced him to resign. The Kingdom of Holland was annexed (or “reunited”) with the Empire from 1810 until it recovered its independence in 1813. LOW COUNTRIES. This geographical expression originally designated the whole Northern German lowland. In the later Middle Ages, the “Netherlands” and “Belgium” were designated as the “laghe landen bi der see,” the low countries near the sea. During the 16th century, the 17 counties and duchies of the Netherlands were united under Habsburg rule. During the Revolt, these were split into a northern group, the independent Republic of the Seven United Provinces, and a southern group, known as the Spanish (later Austrian) Netherlands, which was occupied by the French in 1794. As a consequence of the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), the southern part was united with the Kingdom of the (former northern) Netherlands. This union was disrupted in the 1830s as a consequence of the Belgian Revolt, after which the independent state of Belgium was internationally recognized. See also BENELUX. LUBBERS, RUUD (RUDOLPH FRANS MARIE) (1939– ). Politician. After studying economics at the Rotterdam School of Economics (now Erasmus University), Lubbers served in companies owned by his family. He was a member of the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party). In 1973, he was appointed minister of economic affairs in the cabinet of Prime Minister Joop den Uyl. In 1977, he was elected to Parliament and became leader of the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) the following year. Between

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1982 and 1994, Lubbers was prime minister of three cabinets. Two years later his nomination for the post of secretary-general of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was blocked by the United States. After a part-time professorship of globalization at the University of Tilburg, he became, however, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2001. In 2005, Lubbers decided to resign because of reports of his alleged sexual intimidation. A few months later, he continued his career as president-supervisor of the Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands. LUNS, JOSEPH MARIE ANTOINE HUBERT (1911–2002). Politician. After studying law Luns served in the diplomatic corps. In 1949, he was part of the Dutch representation in the United Nations (UN) in New York. He became a cabinet minister in 1952. From 1956 to 1971, Luns functioned as minister of foreign affairs. During this period, the Netherlands was compelled to give up its last formal colonial possession, New Guinea, to Indonesia. In 1967, he was the second Dutchman—after Hendrik Brugmans—to receive the Karlspreis (the International Charlemagne Prize of the German city of Aix-la-Chapelle). Luns was secretary-general of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) from 1972 until his retirement in 1985. During this period, he promoted strong measures to strengthen NATO’s defense capabilities. LUTHERANS. Followers of the German reformer Martin Luther (1483–1546). Lutherans, as well as Anabaptists and Calvinists, were persecuted in the Netherlands, especially once the Roman Catholic Inquisition grew active in the 1540s against the “heretics.” The Calvinistic Dutch Republic tolerated the Lutherans, who remained a relatively small group with adherents mainly among German immigrants. They held their first synod there in 1605, in the city that remained their administrative center, Amsterdam. Since 1791, a separate “Restored” Evangelical-Lutheran Church has existed, which merged in 1952 again with the traditional Evangelical-Lutheran Church. Women have been entitled to hold the office of minister in that church since 1931. In 2003, the Evangelical-Lutheran Church merged into the Protestantse Kerk in Nederland (PKN).

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LUXEMBOURG. During the 18th century, the remnants of the medieval duchy of Luxembourg were part of the Austrian Empire, as were the Southern (Belgian) Netherlands. In 1795, Luxembourg was annexed to France. The international Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) then assigned the new archduchy and member of the German Bund to King William I of the Netherlands. After the Belgian Revolution, a part of Luxembourg became a Belgian province in 1831. In 1867, Luxembourg was declared neutral by the Treaty of London adopted by Germany, France, and the Netherlands. After the death of the Dutch king William III in 1890, the law dictated that a masculine descendant should succeed him, and so Adolf of NassauWeilburg (a branch of the House of Nassau), became grand duke, rather than Wilhelmina, daughter of William III. Although Luxembourg remained independent, on the whole relations were close and friendly. After World War II, they were further reinforced by the Benelux union. LUZAC, ELIE (1721–1796). Of French Huguenot descent, Luzac was a publisher in the city of Leiden, where his uncle Jean Luzac (1702–1789) published the famous Gazette de Leyde. Elie Luzac was a strong advocate of the freedom of the press. As a journalist and political theorist, he was an adherent of a moderate, Protestant kind of Enlightenment. His rationalist and tolerant perspective prevented him in the 1780s from subscribing to the radical democratic ideas of the so-called Patriots. Rietje (Maria) van Vliet wrote an extensive biography of him, Elie Luzac (1721–1796): Boekverkoper van de Verlichting [Book-Seller of the Enlightenment, 2005].

–M– MAANEN, CORNELIS FELIX VAN (1769–1846). Politician. Van Maanen became a member of the judiciary in the province of Holland and in 1806 was appointed by King Louis Napoléon as minister of justice, an office he also held during the reign of King William I. He was a proponent of strong leadership. During the debates over the new written constitution in 1814–1815, van Maanen opposed Gijsbert van Hogendorp, who advocated a form of

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responsible government. He did not, however, oppose the principles of the rule of law, as can be seen in his role during the lengthy discussions on the new codification of law. MAASTRICHT. Capital of the province of Limburg. Maastricht probably originated as a Roman settlement and castle on the River Meuse (Maas). In the fourth century, it became the seat of a bishop (Servatius). During the Middle Ages, the city remained an important center of trade at the intersection of main roads. Maastricht remained an often disputed strategic fortress in the 16th and later centuries. As of 1632, it was part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. The revolutionary government of Belgium’s claim on the city in 1830 was successfully resisted by King William I. In 1834, Petrus Regout (1801–1878) founded a famous earthenware industry in the city. Since the 1970s, Maastricht has housed a university. The city, with about 120,000 inhabitants, has many other cultural (e.g., the Bonnefantenmuseum for fine arts and archaeology) and economic functions. It houses graphic and paper industries but also factories of chemical products, textiles, and leatherware. Because of its strategic location, it is on the intersection of highways. The town also possesses an airport. The Treaty of Maastricht in 1992 brought a further step in the process of European integration from European Community to European Union (EU). MAATSCHAPPIJ TOT NUT VAN ’T ALGEMEEN. A society for the benefit of the common man founded in the small town of Edam, Holland, in 1784 with the purpose of spreading enlightened ideas among the lower classes of Dutch society. Raising the standard of education by increasing literacy was its first aim. Morality was to be enforced by virtuousness. “Departments” were founded everywhere in the Republic, financially supported by enthusiastic citizens. Lectures were organized; libraries with inexpensive, edifying, and useful reading materials were founded; series of small civilizing books were published; and many writing competitions were held, of which the prize-winning contributions were published. The society was active well into the 20th century as an institution for the reform and improvement of education and the morality of the lower classes, including campaigns for temperance and savings banks.

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MAERLANT, JACOB VAN (c. 1230–c. 1300). Poet. Van Maerlant was the author of moralistic-didactic poems, many of which are adaptations of French originals in the vernacular (medieval Dutch), such as the Roman de Troje. He seems to have introduced the genre of the popular scientific work, translated from Latin and put into verse, such as the Secreta secretorum and De natura rerum. He was a prolific writer who in addition translated historical and theological treatises and encyclopedic works (Spieghel historiael and Der kerken claghe). MAETSUYKER, JOAN (1606–1678). Legal advisor and official. Maetsuyker entered the service of the Dutch East India Company in 1636 as a legal advisor. At the request of Governor-General Anthony van Diemen, he codified the many laws and regulations into a more systematic statute book, the Bataviase Statuten (1642; revised 1766). In 1642, he was appointed a member of the Court of India in Batavia. Between 1646 and 1651, Maetsuyker served as governor of Ceylon, and from 1653, he was governor-general of the Netherlands East Indies. MANSHOLT, SICCO LEENDERT (1908–1995). Politician. Mansholt specialized in agriculture. From 1931 until 1936, he was an employee on a plantation on Java in the Netherlands East Indies. After World War II, he became a member of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labor Party) and served as minister of agriculture and fisheries from 1945 to 1957. From 1958 until 1973, Mansholt was a commissioner for the European Community, the predecessor of the European Union (EU). His main contribution has been the implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy. MANUFACTURING. The industrialization of the Netherlands started late compared with neighboring countries, and this trade and business country—with few raw materials—has never been heavily industrialized. A mechanized textile industry, for instance, started only after the Belgian separation of 1830 (in Twente and Northern Brabant). The 19th century, however, was not completely lacking in Dutch industrial pioneers. Willem Albert Scholten (1819–1892), for example, created an empire of potato flour factories in the province

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of Groningen; Petrus Regout (1801–1878) founded a glass and pottery enterprise in Maastricht; and Charles Theodoor Stork (1822– 1895) opened machine factories in Twente. Furthermore, the decades around 1900 marked the start of companies that would lead to the multinationals Unilever, Philips Electronics, Shell, and Akzo Nobel. These manufacturing industries and others developed into an important part of the Dutch economy, particularly in the reconstruction period after 1945 with the boost of the Marshall Plan. In addition, more and more agricultural jobs and services became related to the industrial sector. During the 1960s, Dutch factories even needed foreign guest workers for unskilled and dirty jobs, despite the Dutch postwar population explosion. Since the 1970s, the Dutch industrial competitive position has decreased seriously as a result of high wages, environmental requirements, the rise in value of the guilder (and then the euro), and solidarity with less-developed countries. Restructuring led to the loss of many jobs and industrial branches that were too labor-intensive (e.g., textiles). Nevertheless, this process also saved many branches and has stopped further decline. After the bankruptcy of the aircraft builder Fokker in 1996, for example, other Dutch companies proved to be more successful in specific parts of aircraft manufacture. Another stabilizing tendency of the past decades was the deconcentration of Dutch industries from the western provinces to the rest of the country. The dominant industries of the Netherlands in recent years have been foods and beverages (e.g., Unilever, Heineken, CSM, Van Melle, Douwe Egberts [Sara Lee Corporation], and Friesland Foods), petrochemicals, machines and metal (e.g., Corus), publishing and printing, and electronics (e.g., Philips and Océ copier systems). The importance of information and communications technology has become huge for all of them. See also SHIPBUILDING. MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (SAVOY) (1480–1530). After the death of her second husband Philibert of Savoy in 1504, Margaret returned to the Low Countries where her father, Holy Roman emperor Maximilian I, installed her as governor in 1507. Margaret was a shrewd politician and diplomat who succeeded in extending Habsburg possessions in the Low Countries in the interest of the new emperor, her nephew Charles V. The seat of the government was in the city of

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Malines, near Brussels, where the highest court was also established, the Great Council of Malines. MARGARET OF PARMA (1522–1586). This natural daughter of Holy Roman emperor Charles V was educated by her aunt Mary of Hungary and by Margaret of Austria, her great-aunt. Her halfbrother Philip II, king of Spain, installed her as governor in 1559 when he left the Low Countries. During her government, dissatisfaction with the policy of the king and of his confidant, Cardinal Granvelle, resulted in a revolt and civil war. In 1567, Margaret left the Netherlands for Italy, only to return to office from 1580 until 1583 when the northern provinces renounced Philip as their sovereign (in 1581) and founded the Dutch Republic. MARIJNEN, VICTOR GERARD (1917–1975). Politician. After his studies of law at the Roman Catholic University of Nijmegen (now Radboud University), Marijnen worked in the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. In 1957, he was appointed secretary to the board of the Union of Catholic Employers. He was a member of the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) and in 1959 was appointed minister of agriculture. He headed the cabinet as prime minister from 1963 until 1965. In 1968, Marijnen became burgomaster of The Hague. MARNIX, FILIPS VAN (1540–1598). Theologian and writer. This lord of St. Aldegonde was born into a Savoyan family that immigrated in the service of Margaret of Austria, governor of the Low Countries. Marnix studied under the theologians Theodore Beza and John Calvin in Geneva and was converted to Calvinism. He participated in the political and military actions of the dissenting nobility against the government of King Philip II of Spain. In 1569, Marnix published De Biencorf, a famous sharp satire against the Roman Catholic Church. In the 1570s, he was a confidant of the leader of the Dutch Revolt, Prince William (I) of Orange, and he was one of the architects of the peace treaty of 1576 (the so-called Pacification of Ghent). After his disgrace in the 1580s, Marnix left the Low Countries and devoted himself to letters, living mostly as a private scholar and writing theological treatises, among others against the Anabaptists.

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MARSELIS. Members of this Amsterdam family became rich merchants in Muscovy during the 17th century. They founded the ironworks near Tula, among other things. Peter Marselis served as an elder in the Dutch Calvinist church council of Moscow. Other families with important connections in the Muscovy trade were the Ackema, Brants, Winius, Witsen, Lups, and Ruts. MARSHALL PLAN. The European Recovery Program was offered by the United States to all the countries that had suffered from the devastations of World War II. It was formulated in 1947 as an initiative of Secretary of State George Marshall, who had served during the war as one of the commanding generals of the U.S. Army. In exchange for granting financial aid, which was not accepted by the Communist countries, the U.S. government required that the European countries reorganize their economies. This resulted in the foundation of the Organization of European Economic Cooperation in 1948. The Netherlands benefited amply from the Marshall Plan from 1948 to 1951. MARY OF HUNGARY (1505–1558). This younger sister of Holy Roman emperor Charles V of Habsburg married Louis II of Hungary. After he fell during the battle of Mohac against the Turks in 1526, she remained governor of Hungary but was installed as governor of the Low Countries after the death of her aunt Margaret of Austria in 1530. Mary was a loyal follower of her brother’s policy. As a consequence, she often had to implement harsh measures against the Protestant sects, among others. She left office in 1555 when her brother abdicated. MATA HARI (PSEUDONYM OF MARGARETHA GEERTRUIDA ZELLE) (1876–1917). After leaving her husband, Rudolph MacLeod, an officer in the army of the Netherlands East Indies whom she had married in 1895, Zelle lived in Paris, where she became a courtesan and dancer, famous for her highly provocative (naked) performances. During World War I, she became entangled in a web of espionage for the Germans. Mata Hari—which means “eye of the day” or “sun” in Malayan—was court-martialed by the French and executed in Vincennes on the charge of high treason. Her

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case has since been of lively interest both to historians and the general public. The Frisian Museum collects personal belongings in her city of birth, Leeuwarden. MATTHAEUS. Family of scholars originating from Germany. Antonius I (1564–1637) was professor of law at the universities of Marburg (Germany) and Groningen. Antonius II (1601–1654) was appointed professor of law at the Academy of Harderwijk and the University of Utrecht; his most famous work is a commentary on Roman-Dutch criminal law, De criminibus (1644). Antonius III (1635–1710) was appointed professor of law at the universities of Utrecht (1660) and Leiden (1672). In addition to many works in the field of law, he published several editions of old chronicles on the history of the Low Countries, including Chronicon Egmundanum (1692) and Veteris Aevi Analecta (10 vols., 1698–1710). MATTHIJSZ, JAN. See ANABAPTISTS. MAURICE (MAURITS), COUNT OF NASSAU (1567–1625). This son of William I of Orange was appointed stadtholder of the majority of the northern provinces in 1585, along with his cousin Willem Lodewijk (in the provinces of Frisia and Groningen, from 1584–1620). After the departure of the Earl of Leicester in 1587, Maurice played a central role in the political and military stage. As a strategist and general, he reorganized the army (a “military revolution”) and, during the campaign against the Spaniards, he successfully conquered several towns (including Breda, Zutphen, Deventer, and Groningen). He was also admired for his victory in the battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600. During the religious controversies between the adherents of Jacobus Arminius and Franciscus Gomarus in the 1610s, he chose the side of the Calvinistic counter-Remonstrants. This brought an escalation of the political conflict with the grand pensionary of Holland, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who sided with the Arminians or Remonstrants. At the instigation of Maurice, a special court sentenced Oldenbarnevelt to death in 1619. Two years later the Twelve Years’ Truce in the war with Spain ran out. Maurice became prince of Orange after the death of his elder brother Philip William in 1618. See also REVOLT.

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MAXIMILIAN I OF HABSBURG (1459–1519). Archduke of Austria. Maximilian was the son of the Holy Roman (German) emperor Frederick III and in 1477 married Mary, Duchess of Burgundy. After the death of his young wife in 1482, Maximilian became regent of the Burgundian Netherlands for his son Philip the Handsome. In 1493, he succeeded his father as emperor of the German Reich. His attempts to unify the Reich were fruitless, but Maximilian was successful in securing the German crown for the Habsburg family. After the death of his son, he became regent again in the Netherlands, now on behalf of his grandson Charles, the future emperor Charles V. MEETER, EILLERT (1818–1862). Journalist. Meeter severely criticized the lack of democratic control of the government in the 1840s. Because of libel and violation of the laws on the press, he was sentenced to prison on several occasions. He edited several small radical periodicals such as the Tolk der Vrijheid [Mouthpiece of Freedom; Groningen, 1839–1840] and Ooyevaar [Stork; The Hague, 1845–1846]. He took refuge in England, where he published his memoir Holland: Its Institutions, Its Press, Kings and Prisons (1857). See also CENSORSHIP. MEIJERS, EDUARD MAURITS (1880–1954). Jurist. After finishing his study of law at Amsterdam University, Meijers worked as a lawyer. In 1910, he was appointed professor of Dutch civil law and international private law at Leiden University. He published extensively on labor relations, but also was an internationally recognized historian of law. In the 1920s, he discovered the voluminous manuscript notes of the 18th-century president of the Court of Holland, the famous jurist Cornelis van Bijnkershoek, and his son-in-law Willem Pauw (1712–1787). Meijers was one of the founders of the Dutch Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis (1918) and the South African Tydskrif vir Hedendaagse Romeins-Hollandse Reg (1937). Because of his Jewish origin, Meijers was deported to Theresienstadt by the Germans during World War II. In 1947, the Dutch government entrusted him with the task of drafting a new civil code. His colleague Jan Drion (1915–1964), the vice president of the High Court Frederik Johan (“Frits”) de Jong (1901– 1974), and the solicitor general of the High Court Jannes Eggens (1891–1964) continued

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this task. Meijers’s studies are collected in his Verzamelde privaatrechtlijke opstellen (3 vols., 1954–1955) and his Études d’histoire du droit (4 vols., 1956–1966). Part of his extensive library is kept at Leiden University. MELKERT, AD (ADRIANUS PETRUS WILHELMUS) (1956– ). Director and politician. Melkert studied politics at the University of Amsterdam. Before his political career, for a few years he was director of internal affairs of the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Internationale Bijstand (NOVIB, Dutch Organisation for International Assistance, which is part of the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief since 1994). In 1986, he was elected to Parliament for the Social Democratic Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA). After he served in the government as minister of social affairs and employment for four years, he returned to Parliament as chairman of his party. In the 2002 election, in which he was an opponent of Pim Fortuijn, his party lost many seats, for which reason he left politics. In the same year, he became executive director of the World Bank in Washington, D.C., and in 2006, he was appointed undersecretary-general of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL (1604–1657). Jewish theologian. Born on Madeira, this Sephardic (Portuguese) Jewish scholar settled in Amsterdam, where he founded a printing house in 1626. He published his own El Conciliador from 1632 to 1651, in which he tried to reconcile seemingly contradictory passages of the Bible. Menasseh was convinced of the importance of the coming of the Messiah as soon as the Diaspora of the Jews over the world was completed. In 1655, he went to London hoping to induce Oliver Cromwell to admit the Jews freely to England, without success. A portrait of him has been attributed to Rembrandt. MENGELBERG, WILLEM (JOSEPH WILHELM) (1871–1951). Musician and conductor. Born into an artistic family from Cologne, Germany, Mengelberg studied piano in his birthplace Utrecht and at the conservatory at Cologne. In 1895, he was appointed conductor of the Concertgebouw Orchestra (founded in 1888) in Amsterdam. Under his leadership, the orchestra became world-famous, and as its

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conductor, he became an international celebrity. He conducted the philharmonic orchestras of New York and London. Mengelberg introduced the classical music of Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss and was a good friend of composers such as Sergej Rachmaninov, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schönberg, and Igor Stravinsky. Because the Dutch authorities resented that he did not take a firm stand against the German Occupation during World War II, Mengelberg had to stay in Switzerland where he had already settled in 1934. MENNONITES. See ANABAPTISTS. MERCATOR, GERARDUS (GERHARD KREMER) (1512–1594). Cartographer. Born in Rupelmonde near Antwerp, Mercator studied at the University of Louvain and specialized as a mapmaker. Accused of Protestant sympathies, he moved to Duisburg, Germany, in 1552, where he created most of his many maps and atlases. He developed a special kind of map projection (named after him) and increased the legibility of his maps by improving the lettering. MERIAN, MARIA SIBYLLA (1647–1717). Member of a SwissGerman family of artists. Merian married painter and architect Andreas Graff. She won fame because of her splendid botanical drawings. The results of her stay in the Dutch colony of Surinam were published under the title Metamorphosis insectorum surinamensium in 1705. She joined the Protestant sect of Jean de Labadie and died in Amsterdam. Many of her original drawings were bought in 1717 by the Russian tsar Peter the Great and were not published until 1974 and 1976 in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). MERULA, PAULUS (1558–1607). Historian and librarian. Merula studied law and history. In 1592, he was appointed extraordinarius professor of history at the University of Leiden, an office that he combined beginning in 1597 with the librarianship of the Leiden academic library. He published several historical books, including Vita Erasmi (1607) and Cosmographiae generalis libri III (1605), but he is most famous for his guide on legal proceedings, Maniere van procederen in civiele zaken (1592).

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METEREN, EMANUEL VAN (1535–1612). Historian. Van Meteren was born in Antwerp, but lived mostly in London from 1550 on. During the Revolt, he decided to settle definitely in London in 1583, where he acted as an agent of Dutch merchants. His reputation as a historian is based on his extensive history of the war of the Netherlands against Spain after 1568. German and Latin editions of this book were published in 1593 and 1598 before several editions were published in Dutch (beginning in 1599). He was taken to court by many individuals who felt offended by its contents. After van Meteren’s death, a revised edition was published with the approval of the States General of the Dutch Republic in 1614. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. MEURSIUS, JOHANNES (JOHANNES VAN MEURS) (1579– 1639). Historian. Meursius studied at Leiden and took his doctoral degree in law at the University of Orléans in France. In 1608, he was appointed professor of Greek and history at the University of Leiden. He published extensively on contemporary history, including Rerum Belgicarum libri IV (1615), Athenae Batavae (1625), and in the field of Greek studies Graecia feriata. Meursius fled to Denmark (and the Academy of Sorö) because of the religious persecutions after the execution of Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. After his death, the erotic Elegantiae latini sermones [Conversations of Aloisia Sigeae] was published in his name, although he was not the author. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. MEUSE (MAAS). River, roughly 925 kilometers (575 miles) long, which rises in the northeastern part of France and flows from the Belgian Ardennes to the Dutch province of Limburg. Important Dutch cities in its course are Maastricht, Roermond, Venlo, and ’s Hertogenbosch. The Meuse merges with the Rhine delta downstream and ends in the North Sea, via the Hollandse Diep and the Nieuwe Waterweg (New Waterway), across Rotterdam, with its well-known industrial area called Maasvlakte (“Meuse plain”). The Meuse water level depends largely on rainfall, which has often led to floods in wet seasons in earlier times. Since its canalization around 1930, the river has become more profitable for the shipping industry. Gravel mining

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produced many lakes in the Limburg Meuse area during the second half of the 20th century. MIDDELBURG. City, capital of the province of Zeeland. Its first documentation dates from 1103; an abbey was founded here in 1123, and the city was granted urban statutes in 1207. Middelburg, on the island of Walcheren in the delta of the rivers Scheldt and Meuse, was an important and prosperous commercial center. During the 17th century, many merchants traded with Asia and the Americas through the East India Company and the West India Company. In 1720, the Middelburgse Commercie Compagnie was founded for trade with Africa. Decline set in during the 18th century. Middelburg, which was seriously damaged by bombing during World War II, now has about 39,000 inhabitants. It is an administrative and cultural center. Middelburg possesses a fine museum of arts, the Zeeuws Museum, and some beautiful old buildings such as the Gothic town hall from the 15th century and the (restored) abbey building with the New Church. The city also houses, since 2004, the Roosevelt Academy, a liberal arts and sciences university college. MIERIS, FRANS VAN (1635–1681). Painter. Van Mieris won fame as one of Leiden’s “fine” painters. He was a skillful follower of the style and genre of his master, Gerard Dou (1613–1675). His grandson Frans van Mieris the Younger (1689–1763) was also a painter, notably of portraits, who gained fame as a historian. He edited the sources for the history of the counts of Holland and of his hometown Leiden, of which he also wrote a history. He published on numismatics as well. MILITIA (SCHUTTERIJEN). During the later Middle Ages, urban militias were founded and organized as guilds. They were to aid in the defense of a town and to keep internal public order. Their boards held an annual banquet. Many artists in the 17th century, such as Bartholomeus van der Helst (1613–1670), Frans Hals, and Rembrandt, were commissioned to paint a group portrait of the event (schuttersmaaltijd). MINING INDUSTRY. Although the monks of the monastery of Rolduc operated a mine beginning in the Middle Ages, large-scale

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mining only really got under way in the early 20th century in the province of Limburg. At the peak of its production, the Limburg mines produced some 12 million tons of coal a year and 55,000 employees found work in this industry. Since 1958, mining has declined as a consequence of the increasing use of natural gas. MINISTER OF STATE (MINISTER VAN STAAT). This honorary title is conferred on outstanding politicians after they have resigned from important positions. Ministers van staat are nominated by the cabinet and appointed by the Crown. Their advice is often consulted on complicated constitutional matters. Present ministers of state, with their dates of designation, are Edzo Hendrik Toxopeus (1918– ) (1985), Max van der Stoel (1991), Ruud Lubbers (1995), Henricus Antonius Franciscus Maria Oliva (“Hans”) van Mierlo (1931– ) (1998), Frederik (“Frits”) Korthals Altes (1931– ) (2001), Josephus (“Jos”) A. van Kemenade (1937– ) (2002), Wim Kok (2003), and Hans van den Broek (2005). MONARCHY. Louis Napoléon, the brother of the French emperor Napoléon I, was the first and only king of the Kingdom of Holland (1806–1810) until its annexation to the French Empire. During the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815, it was decided that the Netherlands, again independent since December 1813, would be enlarged with the former Austrian, or Southern, Netherlands. The sovereign of the Northern Netherlands, William, was designated king. William I preferred a strong personal reign. Parliamentary influence was only marginal under the constitution of 1815. The king governed his people as an “enlightened despot,” yet with great enthusiasm and energy, particularly stimulating trade, industry, and colonial exploitation. In 1839, he reluctantly accepted the secession of the Southern Netherlands as the independent state of Belgium. In 1848, his son William II had to accept a liberal constitution. King William III, a conservative and unimaginative person, could only reluctantly accept this curtailment of royal power. After the political crises of 1866–1868, the monarchy assumed a constitutionalparliamentary character: the king could not retain a minister against the will of the majority in Parliament. After the death of his wife, Queen Sophia (1818–1877), and the early deaths of two of his three

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sons, William III in 1879 married the young Princess Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont (1858–1934). Their only daughter, Wilhelmina, ultimately succeeded William III. She had a strong personality and during her long reign from 1898 to 1948 proved capable of steering the monarchy through several storms. She accepted the process of political democratization, including universal suffrage in 1917. In 1918, an attempt at social revolution by the leader of the Social Democrats, Pieter Jelles Troelstra, failed, owing to massive loyalty of the people to the monarchy. The fact that the royal family left the country for England after the German invasion of the Netherlands during World War II has been criticized, but most people think it was wiser that the monarchy not serve as a hostage in Nazi hands. Queen Juliana and her daughter Queen Beatrix have, by their open and flexible attitude toward fundamental changes in Dutch society and politics, secured the popularity of the monarchy. MONASTERIES. Monastic orders and communities played an important role in the spread of Christianity in western Europe during the early Middle Ages. Influential monasteries were founded in the Low Countries, for example, near Egmond by the Benedictines and several convents in Frisia and Groningen by the Cistercian order near Aduard and elsewhere. The monks not only were active as scholars and teachers but also took part in economic activities. During the Revolt against the Roman Catholic Spanish king Philip II, many monasteries and convents were destroyed. The remaining possessions of the orders were confiscated by the new Calvinistic authorities. Catholic priests were tolerated again in the course of the 17th century. Relations with the Holy See in Rome were restored in the beginning of the 19th century by a concordat, yet the (Northern) Netherlands was considered to be a mission field until the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853. MONDRIAN (MONDRIAAN), PIET (PIETER) CORNELIS (1872–1944). Painter. Mondrian studied at the Academy of Arts in Amsterdam. At first he painted landscapes. Working in the province of Zeeland, he was influenced by the neo-Impressionist Jan Toorop. In 1909, he joined the Theosophic Society. During his stay in Paris

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(1911–1914), his art took an abstract turn under the influence of painters such as Pablo Picasso, Fernand Léger, and Georges Braque. During World War I, Mondrian again worked in the Netherlands, composing his abstract paintings on geometrical and linear principles. Together with Theo van Doesburg, he published his ideas on neoplasticism in their periodical De Stijl (1917–1931). In 1938, he moved to London, and then to New York in 1940. MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1877). American diplomat and historian. Motley won fame with his voluminous studies on the history of the Dutch Republic, based on extensive archival research: The Rise of the Dutch Republic (1856), History of the United Netherlands (1860–1867), and Life and Death of John of Barneveld, Advocate of Holland (1874). In 1872, he received an honorary doctoral degree from Leiden University. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. MUIDEN. City of about 6,500 inhabitants on the River Vecht in the province of Utrecht that lost its commercial activities to Amsterdam in the late Middle Ages. Near Muiden, the Count of Holland built a castle, which played a role not only in military and political history—Count Floris V (1254–1296) was imprisoned there by his opponents—but also in cultural history. Historian and poet Pieter Cornelisz Hooft, while governor of the castle from 1609 to 1647, organized regular meetings of his friends and fellow men of letters, the so-called Muider Circle. Nowadays the restored castle is used as a center for cultural activities. MULISH, HARRY KURT VICTOR (1927– ). Writer. Mulish is among the most widely read postwar authors of the Netherlands. World War II is an important theme in his work, which can be explained by the fact that his father collaborated with the Nazis, while his mother was a Jew. His novel Het stenen bruidsbed [The Stone Bridal Bed, 1959], for example, deals with the Dresden bombardment in 1945, and in Siegfried (2001), he tries to fathom Adolf Hitler. Mulish’s socialist sympathies—he visited Cuban leader Fidel Castro many times and sympathized with the German Democratic Republic —became clear in his Bericht aan de rattenkoning [Message to the Rats’ King, 1966], an essay about the Provo revolts in Amsterdam.

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His novels Twee vrouwen [Two Women, 1975], De aanslag [The Assault, 1982], and De ontdekking van de hemel [The Discovery of Heaven, 1992] were filmed in 1981 (as Twice as a Woman), 1986, and 2001, respectively. De aanslag, which covers the period from the war until the great demonstrations against cruise missiles in the early 1980s, was awarded an Oscar and a Golden Globe for best foreign movie. Mulish himself received many literary prizes for his extensive oeuvre, among others the P. C. Hooft Prize (1977) and the Award for Dutch Literature (1995). His work has been translated into at least 30 languages. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. MULTATULI (PSEUDONYM OF EDUARD DOUWES DEKKER) (1820–1887). Writer. Douwes Dekker at first chose a career in the government of the Netherlands East Indies. After a quarrel with his superiors, he resigned and returned to Europe. In 1860, his novel Max Havelaar was published, which later brought him fame. Essentially it is an elaborate complaint against governmental and commercial policies in the Indies, and especially on Java, where native ruling classes were allowed, for commercial reasons, to exploit their subjects. Multatuli grew into a sharp and critical essayist who reshaped Dutch prose using colloquial language. He became a member of the Freethinkers Society. One of Multatuli’s lifelong ambitions— always being short of money—was to invent a viable system for success at roulette. In the 1880s, he lived in the village of NiederIngelheim on the Rhine in Germany, where he died. There is a Multatuli Museum in Amsterdam. See also CULTUURSTELSEL. MÜNSTER, TREATY OF. Accord concluded between Spain and the Dutch Republic as part of the general Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which ended not only the 80-year Revolt against Spain by the Northern Netherlands but also the war between France and Germany and the civil war in the Empire (Thirty Years’ War). Under its terms, Spain recognized the Republic as an independent state, the parties would keep the territories captured during the war, and the River Scheldt would remain closed to traffic by the States General. MUSIC. See CLASSICAL MUSIC; JAZZ MUSIC; ORGAN MUSIC; POP MUSIC.

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MUSSERT, ANTON ADRIAAN (1894–1946). Engineer and politician who politically evolved from being a liberal to an authoritarian nationalist and finally to a fascist. Mussert felt confirmed in his political and organizational capacities as a member of the national committee that successfully contested the draft treaty with Belgium, which many considered as conflicting with Dutch economic interests. The treaty was rejected by Parliament. In 1931, Mussert became the leader of a new right-wing party, the Nationaal Socialistische Beweging (NSB, National Socialist Movement), which differed from its German Nazi model in omitting racist and anti-Semitic slogans. During the years of economic crisis and the Depression, the NSB met with some success, obtaining 8 percent of the votes during the elections of the provincial States in 1935. Radicalization of the NSB’s political ideas, however, caused a decrease in its membership. After the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands in May 1940, during World War II, Mussert tried to convince Hitler of the necessity to win Dutch sympathy by creating a federation of Germanic peoples. However, the Nazis preferred annexation, so the political role of the NSB was only marginal. After the war, Mussert was found guilty of high treason and executed.

–N– NAARDEN. Small town (population 17,000) in the province of Northern Holland (south of Amsterdam). It was rebuilt as a fortified place after its devastation during civil strife in 1350 and again after the Spanish massacre during the Revolt of 1572. It has preserved its medieval character to the present day, whereas most fortresses elsewhere were pulled down in the late 19th century. Naarden is the burial place of Czech scholar Jan Amos Comenius (1592–1670). NASSAU. See ORANGE-NASSAU. NATIONAAL ARBEIDS SECRETARIAAT (NAS; NATIONAL LABOR SECRETARIAT). Trade union federation founded in 1893. Famous NAS leaders include Christiaan Cornelissen and Henk Sneevliet. The direction was syndicalist at first and later Trotskyist.

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The number of members was quite limited in comparison with the socialist and religious-oriented trade unions. The NAS was liquidated in 1940 by the Nazi occupation authorities during World War II. NATIONAAL SOCIALISTISCHE BEWEGING (NSB; NATIONAL SOCIALIST MOVEMENT). Political party founded in 1931 by Anton Mussert and Cornelis van Geelkerken (1901–1976). It was the Dutch branch of Adolf Hitler’s German National Socialist Workers’ Party. The NSB was not popular in the Netherlands; its maximum vote was 8 percent in 1935 (in the elections for the assemblies of the provincial States), which decreased to 4 percent in the parliamentary elections of 1939. During the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands in World War II (10 May 1940–5 May 1945), the NSB had to cooperate with its German counterparts, although opinions differed about the future status of the Netherlands as a Dutch entity or as part of a greater German Reich. Several NSB leaders were later sentenced to death by war tribunals. See also COLLABORATION. NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. After the Batavian Revolution in 1795, the sovereignty of the traditional provinces merged into a unified state. The old States General was replaced by a representative body, based on the French model, directly elected by men of at least 20 years of age who were neither paupers nor servants. The National Assembly met for the first time on 1 March 1796. Most of its powers were transferred to the executive by the constitution of 1801. See also PARLIAMENT. NATIONAL SYMBOLS. The Dutch flag has three horizontal bands of the same size, with the colors red (before 1600, orange), white, and blue. This flag was called the “Prince’s flag,” referring to the leader of the Revolt, William I of Orange. During the Republic, the States General also used a yellow flag with a red lion and seven arrows. The Batavian Republic recognized the red-white-blue combination as the official Dutch flag, although with a female figure in the red band (the figure was abolished again by Louis Napoléon). The flag’s colors were more precisely defined in 1949. It is used for official ceremonies and festivities, such as Queen’s Day (30 April), Memorial Day (4 May, flown at half-staff), Liberation Day (5 May), and the

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birthdays of members of the royal family (then by Orangists combined with an orange pennant). The coat of arms of the Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of a gold lion with a sword and seven arrows on a blue shield. Two other lions hold this shield, with a royal cloak on the background. They stand on a banner with the device “Je maintiendrai” (I will maintain). This coat of arms is a combination of symbols from the OrangeNassau family and the Dutch Republic. The Dutch national anthem is “Wilhelmus.” NATURAL GAS. Commercially viable gas sources were discovered in the Netherlands in 1948. Exploitation by the Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij (NAM) began in 1959–1960 when an enormous reserve was found near Slochteren in the province of Groningen. Since 1988, the average annual domestic output has been about 45 billion cubic meters (1.6 trillion cubic feet). Benefits for the Dutch Treasury have amounted to more than 200 billion euros in the period 1963–2006, constituting a substantial part of the state’s income. NAVIGATION ACT. Proclaimed in 1651, the Navigation Act is one in a long series of decrees by which the English government attempted to protect its own commercial interests. The Act under Oliver Cromwell provided that no countries would be allowed to ship to England goods that they had not produced themselves. Import was permitted only on producing countries’ own or English ships, and only English ships were to transport products between England and its colonies. This act was, of course, directed largely against Dutch shipping. Holland considered the proclamation to be a casus belli for the First and Second Anglo-Dutch Wars, of 1652–1654 and 1665–1667. With the Treaty of Breda in 1667, the Navigation Act was to some extent mitigated, but it was not to be repealed until the era of free trade in 1849. NAVY. The navy played an important historical role in several offensive and defensive tasks, such as convoying merchant ships, privateering, and fighting many wars at sea. The Hansa League had to use naval force to secure its commercial interests. Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius defended the theory of the mare liberum, the “freedom” of

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the sea. It was in the interest of a small emerging trading country that by international agreement no major power be allowed to control the sea. Nevertheless, the Dutch Republic itself acted like a major power in its colonies in the East and West Indies. At the height of its sea power, the Republic fought its rivals, Spain and England, successfully until the middle of the 17th century with fleets commanded by admirals such as Michiel de Ruyter, Piet Hein, and Maarten Tromp. The Republic was not able to maintain its international position against its European rivals, however, and lost most of its colonies around 1800 to Great Britain. Nonetheless, the Netherlands remained an important seafaring nation and maintained a navy that fought during World War II in Europe and the Netherlands East Indies. Presently, the Dutch Navy is integrated into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) armed forces. Belgium and the Netherlands merged their naval organizations in 1996. See also ARMY. NEDERLANDSCHE HANDEL MAATSCHAPPIJ (NHM; NETHERLANDS TRADE CORPORATION). A company founded in 1824 to stimulate the integration of industry (especially textiles) in the Southern Netherlands and the trade and shipping of the Northern Netherlands, the parts of the new state that had been politically united in 1815. Its initial capital was 37 million guilders, of which King William I took a personal share of 4 million. The king guaranteed the dividends during the first years. The NHM had a monopoly in the transport of products that the government had cultivated in the Netherlands East Indies by means of the cultuurstelsel, a system of forced agriculture. The company also organized the auction of these products in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. Profits were high, particularly on coffee and sugar. After the liquidation of the cultuurstelsel in the 1860s and 1870s, the NHM became a banking institution that founded its own agricultural enterprises. In 1964, the NHM and Twentsche Bank merged as the Algemene Bank Nederland (ABN), which in 1991 joined together with the AmsterdamscheRotterdamsche Bank (AMRO) as ABN AMRO. NEDERLANDSCHE UNIE (NU; NETHERLANDS UNION). World War II political movement founded in July 1940, after the

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German occupation in May, by a driemanschap (triumvirate) aiming at cooperation between Dutch and German authorities to create a national mass movement. The triumvirate hoped to join forces and thereby achieve a more harmonious and just economic and social order. The German authorities tolerated the Nederlandsche Unie only until the end of 1941 when it was dissolved. Its weekly magazine was called De Unie [The Union]. NEDERLANDS DANS THEATER (DUTCH DANCE THEATER). See DANCE. NETHERLANDS ANTILLES. Part of the group of islands in the Caribbean, of which six belong to the Kingdom of the Netherlands: Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, St. Maarten, St. Eustatius, and Saba. During the first half of the 17th century, the islands were conquered from the Spaniards. After the Treaty of Münster in 1648, the chartered West India Company governed the islands in the name of the States General. They were a stronghold for Dutch strategic and commercial interests in the Americas. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British conquered the islands, which were returned to the new Kingdom of the Netherlands by the Congress of Vienna. They received their own governor in 1845. The name “Nederlandse Antillen” was officially introduced in the constitution of 1948. According to the 1954 Statute of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the six together became a separate part of the kingdom, with their own central government and a local administration on each isle. In 1986, Aruba obtained autonomy (status aparte). Although the remaining islands wished to maintain the existing constitutional relationships during the 1990s, the latest plebiscites after 2000 showed different outcomes. Curaçao and St. Maarten voted for the option to obtain the same position as Aruba. Bonaire and Saba, on the other hand, chose for a direct constitutional relationship with the Netherlands. Only St. Eustatius aimed for continuation of the present association of the Netherlands Antilles. In any case, negotiations will end the position of the present central Antillean government and parliament (the Staten), which consists of 22 members (14 from Curaçao, St. Maarten and Bonaire three each, and St. Eustatius and Saba one each), probably in December 2008.

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In recent decades, many young Antilleans moved to the Netherlands, wishing for a better future. This migration, combined with severe budget deficits, corruption, drug smuggling—mainly from Curaçao—and old colonial resentment has complicated and frustrated the relationship with the government in The Hague. NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. The Dutch arrived in the Indonesian archipelago in 1596 as rivals of the British, Spanish, and Portuguese. Cornelis (de) Houtman (c. 1565–1599) led this first expedition. After the founding of the East India Company in 1602, the Dutch succeeded in establishing their authority by military means on Java (where the capital Batavia was established) and some other islands, under the direction of governors-general such as Jan Pietersz Coen and Anthony van Diemen. The main purpose was to secure the monopoly in the trade in spices. The Dutch occupation assumed the characteristics of colonial government only in the 19th century. Rather few whites lived there as civil servants, soldiers, or merchants and entrepreneurs. Although a kind of governmental “ethical policy” was introduced with the political participation of native inhabitants, Dutch authority was easily destroyed during World War II by the Japanese occupation. After the war, the Indonesian liberation movement under Sukarno succeeded in obtaining independence in 1949. NEUTRALITY. See FOREIGN RELATIONS. NEW AMSTERDAM. After Henry Hudson (c. 1570–c. 1611), in Dutch service, discovered what became the Hudson River, Fort Orange was built in 1614. The city of New Amsterdam was founded in 1625 and became the center of a Dutch colony in the New World, which bordered the Hudson estuary and was called New Netherland. This colony expanded through a system of large-scale landownership introduced by the Dutch West India Company. The English seized the colony (including the settlement on the Delaware River founded by Pieter Plockhoy), and the last governor, Petrus Stuyvesant, was forced to surrender in 1664. NEW NETHERLAND. See NEW AMSTERDAM.

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NIEUWENHUIS, FERDINAND DOMELA. See DOMELA NIEUWENHUIS, FERDINAND (1846–1919). NIEUWENTYT, BERNARD (1654–1718). Physician and mathematician. After studying medicine at the University of Utrecht, Nieuwentyt worked as a medical doctor in the small town of Purmerend in Holland. As a mathematician, he had a polemic with the German scientist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) over the infinitesimal method of calculus. His 1715 book Het regt gebruik der werelt beschouwingen [translated as The Religious Philosopher; or, The Right Use of Contemplating the Works of the Creator] won him fame as a philosopher. The book marked a new anti-Cartesian stage in the process of secularization and in the relationship between science and religion, as did his posthumously published Gronden van zekerheid [Foundations of Certitude, 1720], in which he argued that modern science, or experimental philosophy, is totally in accordance with biblical revelation as against the views of the atheists and Spinozists. NIEUWPOORT. Town in the county of Flanders in Belgium that participated in the wealth of the neighboring cities Bruges and Ieper during the 15th century. Because of its strategic position on the coast of the North Sea, it has been repeatedly besieged. During the Dutch Revolt, the stadtholder Maurice defeated the Spanish army near Nieuwpoort in 1600, a victory of no political consequence, but one that lived on in the collective memory as a military masterpiece. NIJMEGEN. City in the province of Gelderland. Traces of Roman settlement of the first century B.C. have been found there. After the revolt of Gaius Julius Civilis, in A.D. 70 the Romans built a fortification on the boundary of the empire. Later, about 800, Emperor Charlemagne built a fortress, in the place where a Frankish settlement had already existed. Nijmegen, on the River Waal, an arm of the Rhine, became an important commercial town and member of the Hansa League. In 1678, the peace treaty following the war between the Republic and France was signed in Nijmegen. A Roman Catholic–supported university was founded in Nijmegen in 1923, since 2004 called Radboud University. The town,

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with about 159,000 inhabitants, is situated on an important intersection of roads, canals, and rivers. It has a harbor and houses several industries such as chemical products and paper. Nijmegen is an administrative and cultural center for the neighboring region in Germany, as well. After the devastations during the last phase of World War II, the city has been rebuilt with care. It houses a fine collection of paintings in the museum of the arts, the Commanderij van St. Jan, and has an archaeological museum. Several Dutch Catholic organizations have their administrative centers in Nijmegen. NOBILITY. The nobility played a much less important role in Dutch politics than elsewhere in Europe during the Early Modern period. For example, the nobility (Ridderschap) had only one vote in the provincial assembly of the States of Holland. In the Republic, no new titles of nobility were granted. Nevertheless noble families in some agrarian provinces, such as Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel, played a dominant role as large landowners. During the Batavian Revolution, titles of nobility were abolished. After the Restoration, King William I created a council, the Hoge Raad van Adel (High Council of Nobility), to advise him on this matter. According to the Dutch constitution, the king is entitled to raise a person to the peerage, but its members enjoy no political privileges. NORDIC COMPANY (NOORDSE COMPAGNIE). Commercial company, founded in 1614 by a charter of the States General, that had a whaling monopoly in the region between Novaya Zemlya and the Davis Strait, including Greenland. On Spitsbergen, a settlement was founded for the production of whale oil. The company was discontinued in 1642, after which, whaling was open to all until international whaling conventions took precedence. NORTHERN BRABANT (NOORD-BRABANT). See BRABANT. NORTHERN HOLLAND (NOORD-HOLLAND). See HOLLAND. NOVAYA ZEMLYA. Russian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean between the Barents and Kara seas. Already during the Middle Ages, it was being explored because of the islands’ wealth of fur-bearing animals.

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It acquired fame as the overwintering place in 1596–1597 of a ship under the command of Jacob van Heemskerck and Willem Barentsz, who were exploring the region in search of a passage to Asia; they discovered in the meantime Bear Island and Spitsbergen. After his return, Gerrit de Veer published a famous journal of the journey and the narrative of the Behouden Huis. Excavations on the site since 1876 have unearthed many objects that the explorers left behind.

–O– OCKELS, WUBBO (1946– ). Physicist and astronaut. As the first Dutch astronaut, Ockels made a space flight on the space shuttle Challenger in 1985. Since then, he has worked at the European Space Research and Technology Center in Noordwijk, Noord-Holland, and as part-time professor of the Delft University for Technology. The International Astronomical Union named a planetoid between Mars and Jupiter after him. OERA LINDA BOEK. Unofficial title of a manuscript that turned up in 1867. It describes in an unusual script and in quasi-ancient Frisian language the chronicles of the Frisians since prehistoric times. Most historians now consider it a forgery. Recently Dr. Goffe Jensma tried to make a reasonable case that it was written by minister and writer François Haverschmidt (1835–1894; pseudonym Piet Paaltjens), who could have written it as a parody on the Bible in order to challenge orthodox Christianity. In the 1930s, German National Socialist scholar Herman Wirth (1885–1981) published a mutilated “translation” of it. After World War II, the battle between adherents of the historical authenticity of the sources of the Oera Linda Boek and its opponents continued. Robert Scrutton (The Other Atlantis, 1977) and Frank H. Pierce II (The Oera Linda Book, 1983) have published new English translations. OLDENBARNEVELT, JOHAN VAN (1547–1619). Statesman who played an important role during the Dutch Revolt against Spain as a supporter of William I of Orange. As of 1586, Oldenbarnevelt held the function of legal advisor (landsadvocaat or grand pensionary)

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of the States of Holland. He was crucial in making domestic and foreign policy in the Republic, for instance, organizing the Dutch East India Company in 1602. In the last stage of his career, he strove for peace with Spain, in accordance with the interests of the merchants of the province of Holland. This caused a conflict with stadtholders Maurice and Willem Lodewijk of Nassau and their Calvinistic followers, who were afraid of losing their important positions as military leaders and of the reemergence of the Roman Catholics. The problems between orthodox Calvinists and the Arminians (including, among others, Hugo Grotius) intensified the conflict. In 1619, Oldenbarnevelt was sentenced to death by a special court. His son Reinier (1583–1623) was beheaded because of his part in a conspiracy against Prince Maurice. OMBUDSMAN. Since 1982, the independent institution of the national ombudsman has dealt with complaints from Dutch citizens about unseemly actions of the central government. The ombudsman is appointed by the Parliament’s Second Chamber. He or she takes individual cases into account only when no appeal is possible. Although the ombudsman may not judge laws and cannot change decisions from judges, his or her reports are taken seriously. ONNES, HEIKE KAMERLINGH. See KAMERLINGH ONNES, HEIKE (1853–1926). OORT, JAN HENDRIK (1900–1992). Astronomer. Oort studied at Groningen University under Jacobus Kapteyn. During 1935–1970, he was professor of astronomy at the University of Leiden and, after 1945, director of the Leiden Observatory. Oort won world fame by his scientific studies on the character of the Milky Way galaxy, and the Oort cloud of protocomets at the edge of the solar system is named for him. He was a pioneer in the field of radio astronomy. ORANGE-NASSAU. Members of the House of Dillenburg served as stadtholders in the Dutch Republic. William I of Orange, who in 1544 inherited the small princedom of Orange in southern France from his cousin René of Châlon, was the first in this line. With the

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death of Stadtholder William III of Orange, the king of England, in 1702, the male line of this house died out. In the female line, it was continued by the descendants of the House of Nassau-Dietz. William IV, who became hereditary stadtholder of all Dutch provinces, carried the title of the Prince of Orange and Nassau (1747–1751). After the Batavian Revolution and the annexation to the French Empire, his grandson, William I, became king of the Netherlands in 1815. ORANGISM. During the period of the Republic in the 17th and 18th centuries, political allegiance was roughly divided between those in favor of an aristocratic republican government and the adherents of the stadtholders of the House of Orange who preferred a more centralized monarchical form of constitution. After the creation in the 1830s of an independent state of Belgium, part of the Flemish minority remained loyal to the Dutch monarchy, the House of Orange. ORDER OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE. Aristocratic fraternity created in 1430 by Philip the Good (1396–1467), Duke of Burgundy, as a means of strengthening his ties with the members of the nobility. It was intended as a counterpart of sorts to the English Order of the Garter. Its name presumably is a reference to the mythological story of Jason and the Argonauts. Many noble recipients of the order can be seen with the insignia on portraits painted by contemporary artists. ORGAN MUSIC. Music for organ has long been an important part of the Protestant liturgy. After the Calvinist-led Reformation in the Low Countries, community hymn singing was essentially the only acceptable kind of music. Although not universally approved of, the organ was nevertheless introduced as an accompanying instrument. The many organs in the Dutch churches were often equipped with several stops, and quite a few of these have been preserved to the present day. A famous Dutch composer of organ music was Jan Pietersz Sweelinck. Organist Jan Zwart (1877–1937) was the first to play Sweelinck’s music on Dutch radio. His popular disciple Feike Pieter Asma (1912–1984) also promoted organ music in the 20th century.

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OUD, JACOBUS JOHANNES PIETER (1890–1963). Architect. Oud studied in Amsterdam and Delft. After working in the architectural firm of Petrus Cuypers and Jan Stuyt (1868–1934) in Amsterdam, Oud became an independent architect. Together with Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, in 1917 he founded the periodical De Stijl in Leiden, but he withdrew in 1922, not accepting the dogmatic ideas of the painters as being useful for an architect. In the meantime, he had contacted his colleagues at the Staatliche Bauhaus in Weimar Germany. With Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Walter Gropius, he became famous as an adherent of the International Style. He designed and constructed many buildings, houses, and residential areas in Rotterdam, The Hague, and other places. Oud wrote one of the Bauhaus books, Number 10, Holländische Architectur (1926). OUDEWATER. Small town of about 10,000 inhabitants on the border of the provinces of Holland and Utrecht (it has belonged to the province of Utrecht since 1970). It won some international notoriety because of its weighing house for “witches.” After the town was granted a privilege by Emperor Charles V, accused witches were weighed there until the 18th century. An official certificate of “normal weight” was supposed to testify that a woman accused of sorcery was not a witch. In 1572, Oudewater was one of the revolting towns, for which the Spanish punished its residents severely during their temporary occupation in 1575–1576. OVERIJSSEL. This province, now with a population of about 1,110,000, was already inhabited in prehistoric times. During the Middle Ages, a unified territory called Oversticht was created by the donation of former jurisdictions to the bishop of Utrecht (Sticht) by Holy Roman emperor Henry III about 1040. The authority of the bishops dwindled following the 13th century. The commercial towns along the River IJssel, such as Zwolle, Kampen, and Deventer, were the most influential powers in the region. In 1528, the territory became part of the Habsburg possessions; Charles V united it, as sovereign, with the Low Countries. During the Revolt of the Netherlands against their monarch, King Philip II of Spain, Overijssel joined the Union of Utrecht in 1579, which became the constitu-

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tional basis of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. This predominantly agrarian province played only a minor role, however; Holland was the richest and most powerful. During the last decades of the 18th century, the remnants of the feudal system were abolished under the attacks of the strong Patriot movement. Following the new Batavian constitution in 1798 and restoration of the monarchy in 1815, Overijssel was one of the 10 (later 12) provinces of the Netherlands. In the late 19th century, the region of Twente was a center of the textile industry in cities such as Enschede, Hengelo, and Almelo. With its beautiful landscape and castles, Overijssel is a favorite region for tourists nowadays. The Weerribben (in the northwest region, established in 1992) and the Salland Heuvelrug (central region, 2004) are national parks. Zwolle is the present capital.

–P– PACIFISM. Movement that rejects war as a means of policy. Pacifism had already manifested itself in the Netherlands in the 16th and 17th centuries among the Anabaptists, Mennonites, and Society of Friends (Quakers). In the late 19th and the 20th centuries, it was an undercurrent in some anarchistic circles and some groups of antimilitarists and advocates of conscientious objection. In 1957, during the Vietnam War, the Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij (PSP, Pacifist Socialist Party) was founded. PACIFISTISCH SOCIALISTISCHE PARTIJ (PSP; PACIFIST SOCIALIST PARTY). Political party founded in 1957 during the Vietnam War. It originated in the Third Path movement, which refused to take sides during the Cold War period. Besides pacifism, the PSP stressed its socialist principles by advocating the socialization of production means and the reduction of income differences. The dwindling party merged in 1989 with three other parties into the GroenLinks (GL, Green Left). PAINTING. In the cities of the northern parts of the Low Countries, painters were already active during the Middle Ages. Haarlem,

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Leiden, and ’s Hertogenbosch were centers of the arts in the 15th century, with painters such as Geertgen tot Sint Jans (c. 1460–c. 1495), Jeroen Bosch (c. 1450–1516), and several anonymous “masters.” Their clients were clergymen and monasteries and people from the urban elites. During the 16th century, the era of the Protestant Reformation, artists such as Lucas van Leyden (1494–1533), Jan van Scorel (1495–1562), and Maerten van Heemskerck (1498–1574) excelled. The civil war and the Dutch Revolt against Spain led many Protestants from Flanders and other southern provinces to immigrate to the North, where a new Calvinist Republic was born. These people brought wealth, intellect, know-how, and artistic feeling with them. The wealthy merchants in the numerous cities of the Republic (especially in Holland) commissioned large paintings depicting religious or historical scenes. They bought portraits, but also smaller genre paintings. The city magistrates employed architects and sculptors for the new town halls. Frans Hals (1580/85–1666), Rembrandt van Rijn, Jan Steen (1625/1626–1679), Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675), and Judith Leyster are only a few of the hundreds of artists who were gainfully employed in the Republic during its “Golden Age.” Although during the 18th century only a few painters, such as Cornelis Troost (1697–1750), could claim to have reached European standards, several painters won fame during the 19th century, including portrait painter Charles Hodges (1764–1837) and the romanticist landscape painters Wijnand Nuyen (1813–1839) and Andreas Schelfhout (1787– 1870). During the late 19th century, several painters were inspired by French Impressionism, and some of them founded the Hague School; among them was Jozef Israëls (1824–1911), whose son Isaac (1865–1934) was a talented painter as well. Many Dutch artists followed international trends and “isms,” for instance, Jan Toorop in symbolism, Jacoba van Heemskerck in expressionism, and Johannes Moesman (1909–1988) and Carel Willink in surrealism. Other Dutch artists, such as Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, were trendsetters themselves. See also COBRA; GOGH, VINCENT VAN (1853–1890); MIERIS, FRANS VAN (1635–1681). PAMPHLETS. In the centuries when books were expensive and newspapers virtually nonexistent, pamphlets and broadsheets played an

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important role as a means of mass communication. During the periods of the Reformation and the Dutch Revolt, religious dogma and political issues were publicly debated in the form of pamphlets. Dirck Coornhert, for instance, published his tracts on religious toleration, and Prince William (I) of Orange, his apology against the incriminations by King Philip II. In the Dutch Republic, literacy was relatively high; printing, publishing, and the book trade were flourishing branches of enterprise. Many events inspired authors to take sides in the public debate, such as the arrest in 1618 and condemnation of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt or the peace treaty of Münster in 1648. One journalist notorious for his critical and slanderous pamphlets was Jacob Campo Weyerman. During the late 18th century, the political controversies between the Orangists and the Patriots were hotly debated in hundreds of pamphlets. Professional journalism and the periodical press gradually took over these functions during the 19th and 20th centuries. PANNEKOEK, ANTHONIE (1873–1960). Astronomer and politician. In 1899, Pannekoek joined the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Worker’s Party), founded in 1894; he studied Karl Marx’s Das Kapital and contributed to many Socialist journals. As of 1906, he worked as a teacher and propagandist for the German Socialist Party in Berlin and Bremen. In 1910, Pannekoek joined Rosa Luxemburg in her criticism of Karl Kautsky on topics such as the general strike, the role of the masses, and leadership. He returned to the Netherlands in 1914. In 1918, Pannekoek joined the Communistische Partij Holland (CPH, Communist Party of Holland), and although he withdrew his membership in 1921, he remained a regular contributor to several German and Austrian communist periodicals. In 1919, Pannekoek was appointed lecturer, and in 1925 professor, of astronomy at the University of Amsterdam, where he taught until 1946. He published works on the Milky Way galaxy, astrophysics, and the history of astronomy. His memoirs (Herinneringen) were published in 1980. See also SCIENCE. PARLIAMENT. During the period of the Dutch Republic (1581– 1795), the Staten-Generaal (States General) was an assembly of representatives from the seven sovereign provinces. Affairs concerning

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the union, religion, and defense (e.g., foreign relations, the East India and West India companies) came within its competence. In 1796, a National Assembly was elected by “universal” male suffrage. In 1798, after the proclamation of the first written constitution of the unified state, the representative body of the Batavian Republic consisted of two chambers. The bicameral system was continued after the founding of the kingdom in 1814–1815. With the political crisis of the 1860s, a parliamentary system, with responsible government, was recognized by the monarch. At present, the Tweede Kamer (Second Chamber) is directly elected (since 1919 by universal suffrage of men and women, and by a proportional system based on lists of candidates for the political parties). Now with 150 members, it has the right to accept, amend, or reject government proposals, to introduce bills at its own initiative, and to set up parliamentary committees that investigate government policies. The Eerste Kamer (First Chamber), with 75 members, is elected by members from the provincial assemblies. Its most important task is accepting or rejecting of bills already approved by the Second Chamber. The maximum term for parliamentary elections is four years. See also EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (EP); PARLIAMENTARY INQUIRIES. PARLIAMENTARY INQUIRIES. Although both chambers of Parliament have the right to carry out investigations and inquiries, only the Second (Lower) Chamber has used this right so far. Between 1852 and 1887, members of Parliament chose this means particularly for the purpose of increasing their knowledge about society. After World War II, an inquiry was organized to evaluate the government’s acts during the years of war, when the Parliament had not functioned. In 1977, it was made possible to hear ministers and civil servants under oath. Since then, the use of this right has increased. Recent examples of the subjects of inquiries are the Srebrenica tragedy (2002–2003), corruption in the Dutch building industry (2002–2003), and the Bijlmer disaster (1998–1999). Some inquiries have had direct political consequences for the ministers in question. PARTIJ VAN DE ARBEID (PvdA; LABOR PARTY). This Social Democratic political party was founded in 1946 as the successor of

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the Socialist Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP), the leftwing Vrijzinnig-Democatische Bond (VDB, Liberal Democratic Union), and the small pacifist-progressive Christelijk-Democratische Unie (CDU, Christian Democratic Union). The founders hoped to create a breakthrough (Doorbraak) in the postwar political landscape, but their wish was not fully realized. Therefore, the PvdA had to participate in coalition governments, mostly with Christian Democratic parties, but from 1994 until 2002 only with liberal parties (the so-called purple Wim Kok cabinets). The radical New Left movement caused some troubles within the party in the late 1960s. In the 1973 elections, the party had its finest hour, capturing 53 out of 150 seats in Parliament. By the 2002 elections, the party had only 23 seats left. In 2003, the party recovered with 42, but in 2006, nine seats were lost again, while the more left-wing Socialistische Partij (SP) gained a huge victory. Nevertheless, in 2007, the PvdA joined the fourth coalition cabinet of Jan Peter Balkenende, together with the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) and the Christen Unie. The PvdA has its own scientific department, called the Wiardi Beckman Foundation. Some well-known PvdA leaders have been Willem Schermerhorn, the popular Willem Drees Sr., Anne Vondeling (1916–1979), Joop den Uyl, Ed van Thijn (1934– ), Wim Kok, Ad Melkert, and Wouter Jacob Bos (1963– ). The PvdA belongs to the faction of the Party of European Social Democrats in the European Parliament (EP). PARTIJ VOOR DE VRIJHEID (PVV; PARTY FOR FREEDOM). A conservative, anti-Muslim political party. It started as Group Wilders in Parliament, after its leader Geert Wilders (1963– ) left the liberal Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD) in 2004. In the November 2006 elections, the PVV entered Parliament with nine seats (out of 150). The party claims the Judeo-Christian and humanist principles as the dominant culture, argues the necessity of an immigration stop of non-Western asylum seekers, focuses on tax relief, is skeptical toward the European Union (EU), and is against Turkey’s bid for membership in the EU. PATRIOTS. Adherents of a political movement at the end of the 18th century who strove for more democratic participation in local and

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provincial government. Inspired by the American Declaration of Independence and the writings of Richard Price, Joseph Priestley, and Thomas Paine, the Patriots criticized the oligarchic regime of the regents and the stadtholder, William V of Orange, and their pro-English foreign policy. During the disastrous Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780–1784, the Patriot movement gained momentum. For a while it appeared to take control, but Prussian military intervention restored William V to power in 1787, forcing thousands of Patriots into exile in France. After the French Revolution and the declaration of war in 1793, many Patriots returned in 1795 with the conquering French Army. The Batavian Revolution ended the government of the stadtholder, who fled to England. However, the Patriots were not unanimous in their political views. Three different factions manifested themselves in the National Assembly as of 1 March 1796: federalists, who wanted a strong emphasis on the power of the former provinces; unitarians, who demanded a strong central executive; and moderates who sought a balance between provincial and central power. PEACE CONFERENCES. At the initiative of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, the representatives of several governments were convened for meetings to agree upon international standards regarding warfare. The conferences were held in The Hague in 1899 and 1907. Several treaties were concluded, but did not fundamentally affect the practice of war, even during the Boer War in South Africa in 1899–1902. Thanks to a gift from American philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, the Peace Palace was built during the years 1907 to 1913 at The Hague. It eventually became the seat of the International Court of Justice. See also PACIFISM. PERIZONIUS, JACOBUS (1651–1715). Historian. Perizonius studied arts and letters in Utrecht and Leiden. In 1681, he was appointed professor of history and rhetorics at the Academy of Franeker. In 1693, he received a post at the University of Leiden, where he would also teach Greek. His main interest was Roman history. Perizonius developed a critical-historical method, reinforced a century later by German scholar Barthold Georg Niebuhr (1776–1831); as a consequence, many sources of Roman “history” were proved to be of only a mythical or pure literary nature. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY.

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PETROCHEMICALS. The petrochemical industry is an important economic activity in the Netherlands, although not much oil has been found on Dutch soil (only some fields near Schoonebeek in the province of Drenthe, in Southern Holland, and in the North Sea). The reason for this is the huge supply and refining of crude oil (to gas, LPG [liquefied petroleum gas], kerosene, diesel, asphalt, and so on), particularly in the harbor area of Rotterdam (Pernis). Shell and Sabic (until 2002, DSM Petrochemicals) have become leading companies in this field, but they are accompanied by many other enterprises, which produce machinery and develop new technologies. Because of the transport of hazardous materials and other risks, safety measures (supervised by Rotterdam Seaport Police) are very important. See also ENERGY. PHILIP II OF HABSBURG (1527–1598). Lord of the Netherlands from 1555 and king of Spain from 1556; son of Holy Roman emperor Charles V of Habsburg and Isabella of Portugal. Raised at the court of Spain, Philip’s Spanish-oriented policy estranged an important segment of the nobility in the Low Countries. The Roman Catholic king’s harsh implementation of the legislation against the Protestants met with wide resistance in those circles that advocated religious tolerance. However, probably the most opposition was stirred up by Philip II’s centralization policy. He aspired to be a “modern,” efficient monarch, doing away with old regional privileges and trying to implement an efficient tax collection system for an ambitious and costly offensive foreign policy. The Revolt of the Netherlands beginning in 1566–1568 initiated a war that came to an end only with the Peace of Westphalia (Treaty of Münster) in 1648. The result was the international recognition of the Dutch Republic as an independent state; the Southern Netherlands (Belgium) remained part of the Spanish, later Austrian, possessions until the French occupation in 1794. PHILIP OF LEYDEN (c. 1325–1382). Philip studied law at the University of Orléans, France, and was priest of the main church of the city of Leiden. He was appointed a councilor to the Count of Holland, William V (1329–1389), and wrote a famous treatise on political affairs (De cura reipublica et sorte principantis), in which he

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proved to be an advocate of a strong quasi-monarchical authority. Philip argued for a reduction of the power of the nobility and of the privileged cities in the county of Holland. Civil servants had to function as real servants of the ruler. In his aristocratic opinion, the wealthiest and most prominent citizens should form the government to the exclusion of democratic elements, such as the guilds. PHILIP THE HANDSOME (1478–1506). Prince of the Netherlands; son of Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian I of Habsburg. In 1496, Philip married Isabella of Castile and Aragon (Spain), and in 1506, he was crowned king of Castile not long before he died. His father became regent of the Netherlands on behalf of Philip’s son Charles V, the future emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, prince of the Netherlands, and king of Spain and its many overseas colonies. Philip’s short reign was influential for the unification of the territories in the Low Countries. PHILIPS, ANTON (1874–1951). Industrialist. Born into a German Jewish immigrant family (who changed their original name of Ephraim), Philips became associated with his brother Gerard in 1892 to found a lightbulb factory in the city of Eindhoven. Anton Philips left the company in 1939 to his son-in-law Frans Otten (1895–1969). Otten’s successor, from 1961 until 1971, was Anton’s popular son Frederik Jacques (“Frits”) Philips (1905–2005), who saved the lifes of some 400 Jews during World War II by starting a factory in the concentration camp at Vught (near ’s Hertogenbosch). The famous international concern is now called Philips Electronics. PHILIPS ELECTRONICS. Multinational business founded by Anton Philips and his brother Gerard, originally as a manufacturer of lightbulbs, but then spreading to all sorts of electrical equipment, household appliances, and electronics as well as records and other forms of entertainment. The firm has a far-flung network of factories around the world, and despite Japanese competition and considerable difficulty of late, it remains one of the leading companies of its kind. It has some 160,000 employees in more than 60 countries.

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PIETISM. Movement in especially German (Lutheran) Protestantism that emphasized sentiment and a pious lifestyle. In the Republic, its leaders were Jean de Labadie and Willem Schortinghuis (1700–1750). In the 19th century, the Swiss-inspired Réveil movement became a Protestant current that advocated a romantic return to the prerevolutionary era. See also FURTHER REFORMATION. PIJPER, WILLEM FREDERIK JOHANNES (1894–1947). Composer and music critic. After studying at the conservatory in Utrecht, Pijper was appointed in 1918 professor of harmony at the Amsterdam Academy of Music, a position that he combined with writing reviews for the Utrechtsch Dagblad. In 1926, he became coeditor of the periodical De Muziek. Pijper’s compositions include a septet, sonatas for violin, trios for piano, piano sonatas, symphonies (the third, in 1926, was dedicated to Pierre Monteux [1875–1964], director of the Concertgebouw Orchestra), and a piano concerto (1927). His Six Symphonic Epigrams (1928), Six Adagios for String Orchestra (1940), and the Aphorisms for Piano (1915) are his most famous works. Pijper was influenced by French Impressionism and by modern composers such as Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg, and Béla Bartók. His later works are characterized by pluritonality and plurirhythmicality. PILLARIZATION (VERZUILING). See POLITICAL PARTIES. PINTO, ISAAC DE (1717–1787). Member of a wealthy, Sephardic Jewish family of merchants and bankers who came as marranos, or New Christians, from Portugal to Antwerp around 1600 and later immigrated to the Dutch Republic. As a typical representative of the “Dutch Enlightenment,” Pinto wrote several treatises on the conditions of his fellow believers in the Republic and on economic and financial affairs. Criticism of Jewish business morals by Voltaire elicited a defense from Pinto in his Réflexions critiques sur le premier chapitre du VIIe tome des Oeuvres de monsieur Voltaire au sujet des juifs (1762). Two members of the Pinto family were outstanding jurists during the 18th century: Abraham de Pinto (1811–1878) and his brother Aaron Adolf (1828–1907).

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POLDER DISTRICTS. See WATERSCHAPPEN. POLITICAL PARTIES. The constitution of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814–1815 limited suffrage to a very small group of rich and propertied people. The political elite remained an oligarchy, even after the proclamation of a new constitution in 1848—inspired by liberal politician Johan Rudolf Thorbecke—which nearly tripled the number of voters from 35,000 to 100,000 (or 3.5 percent of the population). Revisions of the constitution in 1887 and 1896 gradually increased the number of voters, until 1919 when universal suffrage was introduced, enfranchising women for the first time. From 1848 until about 1880, political factions began to manifest themselves in Parliament. Members of Parliament were supposed to make their decisions independently and to the best of their knowledge. During the heyday of liberalism in the second part of the 19th century, the conservatives were only a minority. Meanwhile, more or less organized political parties emerged with a formal political program. Religious parties were the first to organize in a modern manner: the Protestants under Calvinist leaders Abraham Kuyper (Antirevolutionaire Partij [ARP]) and Alexander de Savornin Lohman (ChristelijkHistorische Unie [CHU]), the Roman Catholics under Father Hermanus Schaepman. Socialists such as Pieter Jelles Troelstra, anarchists, and communists followed. This political development reflected and reinforced the process of “pillarization,” or verzuiling, in Dutch society. In combination with a rather low electoral threshold, political parties showed a tendency to diverge along sectarian and ideological lines, even before universal suffrage was granted. Only the RoomsKatholieke Staats Partij (RKSP, Roman Catholic State Party) remained principally unaffected by this tendency. During the 1930s, a few marginal Fascist and National Socialist parties emerged. Until World War II, the government could rely on coalitions of Liberals, Protestants, and Roman Catholics to constitute a majority in Parliament. Afterward, the Social Democrats were willing to participate in “bourgeois” governments. During the 1960s, a process of secularization broke through the pillarized (verzuilde) society and its political party organization. The Catholic and two Protestant parties united as the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA, Christian Democratic Appeal) in 1973. With the

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Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labor Party), the Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (VVD, Liberal Party), and the Democraten 1966 (D66, Democrats), they have dominated the political scene in the last decades. Another characteristic of the Dutch Parliament is the presence of many relatively small parties, from which some of them have stable positions and others are nine-day wonders. In the November 2006 elections, for instance, two new parties entered the Parliament: the Partij voor de Vrijheid (PVV, Party for Freedom) and the Partij voor de Dieren (Party for the Animals). Only a small percentage of voters are members of any political party. See also Appendix C; CHRISTEN UNIE (CU); DREES, WILLEM (1886–1988); FRYSKE NASJONALE PARTIJ (FNP); GROENLINKS; KATHOLIEKE VOLKSPARTIJ (KVP); NATIONAAL SOCIALISTISCHE BEWEGING (NSB); LIJST PIM FORTUYN (LPF); PACIFISTISCH SOCIALISTISCHE PARTIJ (PSP); POLITIEKE PARTIJ RADICALEN (PPR); SOCIALISTISCHE PARTIJ (SP). POLITIEKE PARTIJ RADICALEN (PPR; RADICAL POLITICAL PARTY). Dissatisfied members of the Roman Catholic Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP) and the Protestant Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP) founded this political party in 1968, which nevertheless did not become a Christian party. The party’s main issues were the environment, disarmament, and foreign aid. The PPR joined the Joop den Uyl cabinet between 1973 and 1977. Its bestknown leaders were Dr. Bastiaan (“Bas”) de Gaay Fortman (1937– ) and Brigitta Catherina (“Ria”) Beckers-de Bruijn (1938–2006). In 1989, the PPR merged into GroenLinks (GL, Green Left). POMP, DIRCK GERRITSZ (1544/1545–1608). Dutch traveler and explorer. Pomp came from the town of Enkhuizen, Holland. Under the Portuguese, he was a member of the fleet that sailed to Goa, India, and from there he made two trips to Japan and China. His adventures as the first Dutchman to visit China were published by cartographer Lucas Jansz Waghenaer in his Thresoor der zeevaerdt (1592). In 1598, Pomp took part in the expedition under the direction of Jacques Mahu (d. 1598) and Simon de Cordes (d. 1599), via the Strait of Magellan; as a result, he lived in Spanish captivity in Lima, Peru, from 1599 until 1603.

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PONTANUS, JOHANNES ISAÄCS (1571–1639). Historian. Born aboard a ship at sea (pons is the Latin for “deck of a ship”) near Helsingør as the son of a Dutch commercial agent, Pontanus studied medicine at the Academy of Harderwijk in the province of Gelderland, made a grand tour to Rome, and took his doctoral degree in medicine at the University of Basel, Switzerland. In Denmark for some time he assisted the famous astronomer Tycho Brahe in his observations. In 1606, Pontanus was appointed professor of philosophy and matheseos (including medicine) at Harderwijk. At the request of the Danish king, he wrote a history of the Danes (published in 1631). In 1621, he was appointed historiographer to the States of Gelderland. His most famous book is on the history of Amsterdam (published in Latin in 1611 and in Dutch in 1614). POOR RELIEF. During the Republic, the responsibility for the care of the “poor” (invalids, widows, orphans, and the elderly) rested with the churches. Public authorities intervened only when help or discipline were required for those who could not be relegated to their place of origin (e.g., foreigners). As of the Middle Ages, almshouses, hospitals, and orphanages were commonplace; in the 17th century, houses of correction appeared; and at the end of the 18th century, workhouses were introduced. In the early 1800s, thousands of poor people from the cities, together with beggars and vagrants, were transported to wastelands in the provinces of Overijssel and Drenthe for farming and colonization. All these initiatives had no lasting effect. Although the Poor Law of 1854 reinforced the role of the churches in poor relief, the state became more active by the end of the 19th century. State assistance for the poor was secured by law in 1963. POP MUSIC. Subgenre of popular music that covers many types of modern music since the second half of the 20th century. Originally the term was a synonym of “rock ’n’ roll,” which became popular during the 1950s. In common with other (mainly Western) countries, many Dutch pop groups and solo artists entered the scene. In the 1960s, commercial radio stations broadcasting from the North Sea, in particular Radio Veronica and Radio Noordzee, strongly promoted this music. These “pirate” stations were forced to stop their activities

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in 1974. However, their charts were incorporated into the public broadcasting system. Radio Veronica even succeeded in entering the Dutch system as one of the typical broadcasting corporations. Though most Dutch bands played English songs, only some of them became successful abroad, for example, Golden Earring, Shocking Blue, the Cats, Earth & Fire, BZN, and Kayak. In the 1980s, the term “Nederpop” was introduced for several bands that performed only Dutch songs, for instance, Doe Maar, Het Goede Doel, De Dijk, Frank Boeijen Groep, and De Kast (which also performed Frisian hits). Boudewijn de Groot (1944– ) is regarded as one of the greatest Dutch singers. Each year many open-air festivals are held, such as Pinkpop (at Geleen and Landgraaf in Limburg, since 1970) and Parkpop (in The Hague, since 1981, free of charge). After the introduction of the so-called house music during the 1990s in Dutch discotheques, dance festivals like Dance Valley (at Spaarnwoude in Noord-Holland, since 1995), also became crowded events. The present multicultural society has led to a typical Dutch urban scene. See also TIËSTO (DJ). POPULATION. See DEMOGRAPHICS. POST, PIETER (1608–1669). Dutch classicist architect, painter, and engraver. Post started his career in Rome as a painter, but achieved fame in the Netherlands because of his designs of several buildings, such as the Maastricht town hall and the Leiden and Gouda weighhouses. He was also involved in the building of the palaces of Stadtholder Frederick Henry—now used by Queen Beatrix—together with Jacob van Campen, and the Mauritshouse in The Hague. POSTAL SERVICES. During the period of the Republic, transportation of many kinds of cargo took place along the post roads. Postal service became a state monopoly (1799, Post Act 1807) only after the federation of the seven sovereign provinces had been replaced by a unitary state. The introduction of railway systems limited postal services to mainly letters and small parcels. The new Act of 1850 regulated the postal services; stamps were introduced in 1852 and became obligatory in 1870. In 1928, the responsible state company, which

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also included telegraph and telephone services, was called Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie en Telefonie (PTT). This company was denationalized in 1989 as Koninklijke PTT Nederland (Royal KPN). In 1998, postal activities were transferred to the independent company TPG Post (headquartered in The Hague), which is called TNT (originally the Australian Thomas Nationwide Transport) since 2006. TNT has about 20,000 mailboxes in the Netherlands. PRAGMATIC SANCTION OF 1549. See CHARLES V OF HABSBURG (1500–1558). PREHISTORY. From the Middle Paleolithic period on, man-made objects were fashioned that were later found in several parts of what is now the Netherlands. Indications of different kinds of human occupation were more frequent in later periods, for example, the Mesoand Neolithic periods, with their different pottery cultures and copper, bronze, and iron objects. See also HUNEBEDDEN. PRESS. Since the late 15th century, use of the printing press has been an important cultural and commercial activity in the Low Countries. The production of atlases and books, of all kinds and in many languages, was an important economic activity, especially in the Republic during the 17th and 18th centuries. At that time, the publishing houses served as the suppliers of the intellectual entrepôt that the Republic formed in Europe, for example, through the circulation of many books by French philosophes such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau that were forbidden in France. Journalism developed with the increasing circulation of periodicals and daily newspapers, especially after the 18th century. Alongside local papers in the Dutch language such as the Amsterdamsche Courant or the Oprechte Haerlemsche Courant from Abraham Casteleyn, French newspapers such as the Gazette de Leyde were published. News was also summarized in so-called news books, such as the Europische Mercurius. Although during the 18th century several moralistic weeklies were published in the vein of the English Spectator, journalism was especially stimulated by the political controversy between Orangists and the Patriots during the 1780s when many periodicals and pamphlets were published.

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Technological innovations and the founding of political parties after 1870 created a new stimulus for professional journalism and the circulation of newspapers, especially when the special tax on newspapers was abolished in 1869. After a long period of local and ideological diversification, the trend over recent decades has been toward a merger of publishing companies. Nonetheless, the Netherlands still boasts many important publications such as the NRC/Handelsblad, Trouw, Volkskrant, Telegraaf, Algemeen Dagblad, Elsevier, De Groene, and Vrij Nederland. The oldest regional daily is the Leeuwarder Courant (since 1752). The tabloids Spits and Metro, which are free of charge, have become competitors recently. See also CENSORSHIP; JONG, LOUIS DE (1914–2005); MEETER, EILLERT (1818–1862). PRIME MINISTERS. See GOVERNMENT. See also APPENDIX B. PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME GROEN VAN. See GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801–1876). PRINTING. See PUBLISHING AND PRINTING. PRIVILEGES. This was the name given to the charters in which sovereigns granted some persons or groups of persons (for example, the citizens of a city) certain liberties, such as exemption from some taxes or the right to create their own law and government (autonomy). The kinds of privileges by which the rulers gave up parts of their power and sovereignty were many and varied. A particularly famous charter is the Great Privilege, which Mary of Burgundy granted in 1477 to the States General of the Low Countries assembled in Ghent. In the Early Modern period, the kings of the “New Monarchies” tried step by step to regain their central power at the cost of the liberties of their subjects, who often revolted, as in the Revolt of the Netherlands against Philip II. See also URBAN STATUTES. PROSTITUTION. The practice of prostitution—never illegal itself— has been tolerated in the Netherlands for a long time and was legalized in phases (e.g., the brothel abolition law in 2000). Prostitutes are regarded as entrepreneurs and pay income taxes. Dutch authorities

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hoped, by this measure, to bring about better conditions for prostitutes (health care, reduction of drug problems, etc.) and to fight criminal side effects (such as slave-running, illegal immigrants, and exploitation of minors) more effectively. So far, this approach seems to have been quite fruitful. Dutch “red light districts,” particularly in Amsterdam, are still tourist attractions, because of the so-called window prostitution. Street prostitution and brothels in residential sections have often led to citizens’ protests, which urged local authorities to move them to (industrial) zones without inhabitants. PROTESTANTISM. Following upon the Reformation, Protestantism gained a firm foothold in the Netherlands during the later part of the 16th century. The Calvinist church was privileged by the state, but other denominations such as the Anabaptists or Mennonites, Lutherans, Arminians, and Friends (Quakers) were only tolerated. During the 19th and 20th centuries, many schisms took place in the Dutch Reformed Church that still mark the rather small church communities. See also CHRISTIANITY; PROTESTANTSE KERK IN NEDERLAND (PKN). PROTESTANTSE KERK IN NEDERLAND (PKN; PROTESTANT CHURCH IN THE NETHERLANDS). In 2003, the two biggest Protestant churches, the Dutch Reformed (Hervormde) Church and the other Dutch Reformed (Gereformeerde) Church merged, together with the small Evangelical Lutheran Church, as the PKN, with some 2.5 million members. Preparations for the merger took more than 40 years, and yet about 125 local congregations still refused to merge into the PKN. See also CALVINISM; KUYPER, ABRAHAM (1837–1920). PROVINCES. The Dutch Republic of the Seven United Provinces consisted after 1581 of the traditional domains of (in voting order of the States General) Gelderland, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland (see FRISA [FRIESLAND]; Frisian FRYSLÂN), Overijssel, and Groningen (or Stad en Lande). The landschap Drenthe, and the regions conquered after 1600 in the south (the Generaliteitslanden) were not accepted as partners in the States General. During the 19th century, the number of provinces was extended to include NoordBrabant (Northern Brabant), Drenthe, and Limburg, and in 1840

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the old province of Holland was divided into a northern and a southern part: Noord-Holland and Zuid-Holland. In 1986, a 12th province, Flevoland, was created. The present provinces are the administrative layer between the central government and the local municipalities. They have a great variety of tasks, including environmental planning, recreation, and culture. Elections for the provincial States take place every four years. Afterward, the elected members constitute an executive committee, the Gedeputeerde Staten, which is presided over by an official of the Crown, the royal governor or commissaris van de koning(in). See also APPENDIX D. PROVO. The Provo movement (a concept coined by criminology professor Wouter Buikhuisen, from the word provocation) consisted of young persons in Amsterdam who protested against authority and order in the 1960s and 1970s. They organized “happenings,” for example, protest demonstrations and fights between members and the police. One of the leading figures in the movement was Roeland Hugo Gerrit (“Roel”) van Duijn (1943– ). PUBLISHING AND PRINTING. Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press (about 1454 in the city of Mainz, Germany) rapidly spread throughout Europe. In the 1470s, printers were active in Aalst (Flanders), Louvain (Brabant), Utrecht, Delft, Deventer, Gouda, Nijmegen, and Zwolle (in the Northern provinces). The invention of printing is often erroneously attributed to Laurens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem, although the first printing office in Haarlem was not established until 1483. Not only did the humanists take advantage of book printing to circulate their learned Latin treatises and text editions, but writings in the vernacular also found many buyers. In 1477, the first Bible in the Dutch language was printed, at Delft. Following the Reformation, the printing industry flourished in the Netherlands; not only were religious and political documents published, but especially many pamphlets commenting on the political issues of the time. In the 16th and 17th centuries, several famous publishing houses were active, such as Plantijn and Moretus (Antwerp), Elsevier (Leiden), and Blaeu (Amsterdam). The considerable increase in publishing and printing has led to several great publishing giants during the last centuries, such as Reed Elsevier,

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VNU (a merger of De Spaarnestad and Cebema in 1964, called the Nielsen Company since 2007), De Telegraaf Holding, Wegener, and Wolters Kluwer (a merger of Wolters Samson and Kluwer in 1997). They are employers of thousands of people. See also BOOK TRADE.

–Q– QUAKERS. See FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF (QUAKERS). QUAY, JAN EDUARD DE (1901–1985). Politician. De Quay studied psychology at the University of Utrecht and was appointed lecturer (in 1927) and professor (in 1934) at the Roman Catholic School of Economics in Tilburg (now Tilburg University). In 1940, he was a member of the Driemanschap of the Nederlandsche Unie (NU, Netherlands Union). He served a few months as minister of war in the Dutch government in London in 1945. De Quay became a member of the new Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party) and in 1946 was appointed governor of the province of Northern Brabant. De Quay was prime minister from 1959 until 1963. From 1966 to 1969, he was a member of the First Chamber of Parliament, interrupted by a short term as minister of transport and public works in 1966–1967.

–R– RAAD VAN BEROERTEN. See COUNCIL OF TROUBLES. RAAD VAN STATE. See COUNCIL OF STATE. RADIO AND TELEVISION. When Dutch radio started in 1919 shortly after World War I, each political and religious pillar wished to have its own corporation. Until the 1960s (apart from World War II), radio—and after the 1950s also television—broadcasting time was divided between the orthodox Protestant Nederlandse Christelijke Radio Vereniging (NCRV, Dutch Christian Radio Society, founded in

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1924), the Roman Catholic Katholieke Radio Omroep (KRO, Catholic Radio Corporation, 1925), the socialist Vereniging voor Arbeiders Radio Amateurs (VARA, Corporation for Workers Radio Amateurs, 1925), the Vrijzinnig Protestantsche Radio Omroep (VPRO, Freethinking Protestant Radio Corporation, 1926; now secularized), and the liberal Algemene Vereniging Radio Omroep (AVRO, General Society Radio Broadcasting Corporation, 1923–1928). Their broadcasting time was proportioned to the evolving numbers of members. Only general-interest programs such as news and sports were made by a coordination organization (since 1969 called the Nederlandse Omroep Stichting [NOS] or Dutch Broadcasting Foundation). The “depillarization” of the 1960s allowed several new broadcasting corporations to enter the public system, which increased to three television and five radio channels. The biggest are the unaffiliated Televisie en Radio Omroep Stichting (TROS, Television and Radio Broadcasting Foundation, 1966) and the orthodox Protestant—more so than the NCRV—Evangelische Omroep (EO, Evangelical Broadcasting Corporation, 1971). The legal successor of the pop music “pirate” broadcaster Radio Veronica, the Veronica Omroep Organisatie (VOO, Veronica Broadcasting Organization), formed in 1975, left the public system again in 1995 and started commercial programming. With the introduction of cable facilities and dish antennas at the end of the 1980s, the Dutch government could no longer stop commercial radio and television, at least not from abroad. Therefore, the commercial company RTL (now several channels) started broadcasting Dutch programs out of Luxembourg in 1989. Media tycoons Joop van den Ende (1942– ; also a theater producer) and John de Mol (1955– ) exploited the new possibilities. They combined their activities in the television production company Endemol in 1994, which has become a subsidiary of Spanish Telefónica and operates worldwide now. In 2005, De Mol started his television channel Talpa (the Latin word for mol or mole). RTL’s rival the Scandinavian Broadcasting System (SBS, currently another Luxembourg company, but previously a Scandinavian enterprise) is also represented in the Netherlands with some Dutch channels, the first going on the air in 1995. Furthermore, many regional and

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local radio and television organizations, public as well as commercial, have broadened the system. RAILWAYS. The Dutch railways system began with the railroad from Amsterdam to Haarlem in 1839. It was extended in the 1840s by a line to Utrecht. In 1860, a state-owned company took over the responsibility of railway construction from the private companies. The construction company Werkspoor, established in 1891, merged in 1954 with the engineering works of Stork (founded in 1868). The network was rapidly extended; by 1990, its total length measured 2,828 kilometers (1,753 miles). During the 1990s, the state-owned railway company Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) was privatized, although the enterprise, which has been running a loss since 1964, remains state subsidized. Currently some regional sections are operated by other companies, such as Arriva and Syntus. RANDSTAD. Name introduced by KLM pioneer Albert Plesman for the urbanized districts in the west and the center of the Netherlands, where almost half of the Dutch population lives. Another name for this economically very important agglomeration—with the Rotterdam and Amsterdam harbors and Schiphol Airport—is “Deltametropolis.” The Randstad consists of areas from four provinces (Northern and Southern Holland, Utrecht, and Flevoland) and includes the four biggest cities of the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht) and many smaller cities as well, such as Amersfoort, Almere, Hilversum, Zaanstad, Haarlem, Leiden, Zoetermeer, Vlaardingen, Dordrecht, Gouda, and Nieuwegein. In between these cities, some rural areas are nurtured—the so-called Green Heart (Groene Hart). Its size, however, is decreasing because of lack of habitable land in the country; the rich in particular have built homes in the Green Heart. The Randstad is faced with typical urban problems, such as air pollution, traffic jams, and criminal activities, and it attracts many foreigners. Administrative fragmentation makes things worse, according to some authorities. Randstad is also the name of a big agency for temporary employment. REDBAD (RADBOUD) (c. 647–719). King of the Frisians, most likely from 679. He struggled against the Franken, with varying de-

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grees of success. In 689, the pagan king Redbad lost the battle of ancient Dorestad (in the vicinity of the present city of Wijk bij Duurstede, Utrecht). After 717, however, his armies intruded as far as Cologne in present-day Germany. His son Poppo (b. 674), who succeeded him, was less successful; he was cut down in the battle of the Boarn in 734 against the Frankish king Charles Martel. REFERENDUM. For some years now, Dutch democracy has had nonbinding—consultative or corrective—plebiscites. Such referendums are valid only when a majority consists of at least 30 percent of all people on the electoral roll (the Dutch system does not have compulsory voting). On the municipal level, some other types are also possible, for example, the choice between two mayoral candidates. This was the “meager” result after a long struggle for the introduction of the referendum by the political party Democraten 1966 (D66) from its founding in 1966. In 2005, the first consultative referendum was organized about the ratification of the proposed European Union (EU) constitution. A majority of 61.5 percent of voters rejected the proposal (participation: 63.3 percent). REFORMATION. From 1517, Lutheranism spread across the Low Countries, as did other “heretical” movements such as radical Anabaptism. After the middle of the 16th century, Calvinism eventually found the most support in Flanders, Holland, and other parts of the Low Countries. Its severe repression by the authorities through the Inquisition provoked fierce resistance among the population, which finally led to the Dutch Revolt. REFORMATORISCH POLITIEKE FEDERATIE (RPF; REFORMING POLITICAL FEDERATION). See CHRISTEN UNIE (CU). REGENTS. Political group of persons who constituted the local magistrates and city councils (vroedschappen). During the 17th and 18th centuries, they were an oligarchy who held office by co-optation. As a social “class,” they maintained their position largely through intermarriage. Famous families included the Bickers from Amsterdam and the Fagels from The Hague. The boards of orphanages and other

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social institutions were also called regents. The regents often had their portraits painted in the 16th to 19th centuries. RELIGION. As elsewhere in Europe, the traditional religion in the Low Countries had been Roman Catholicism until the 16th century. After the Reformation, however, Christianity was divided between Catholicism and many Protestant sects, such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anabaptism (or Mennonites), and Remonstrants. In addition, Jews, Friends (Quakers), and Freethinkers lived in the Netherlands. Currently, the religion of the Dutch population of about 16 million people is characterized by secularization among the traditional Christian inhabitants and the increasing influence of non-Christian religions and sects. In 2005, about 31 percent of the population was affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church and 24 percent with Protestant churches, and 6 percent was Islamic. REMBRANDT HARMENSZOON VAN RIJN (1606/1607–1669). One of the most famous Dutch painters, with a worldwide reputation and a legacy of hundreds of paintings and etchings and thousands of drawings. Rembrandt made many self-portraits and used his family as models for his historical and biblical figures. In 1639, he moved with his wife Saskia van Uylenburgh (1612–1642) from Leiden to Amsterdam. Their house in the Jodenbreestraat is now a museum. Rembrandt shocked some of his contemporaries with his presently best-known (and biggest) painting The Night Watch (1640–1642)— preserved in the Amsterdam Rijksmuseum—because he demonstrated the urban militia in a new, unconventional way. Some of his pupils also became famous, including Gerard Dou (1613–1675), Ferdinand Bol (1616–1680), and Carel Fabritius (1622–1654). REMONSTRANTS. See ARMINIUS, JACOBUS HARMENSZ (1560–1609). REPUBLIC OF THE SEVEN UNITED PROVINCES. During the Dutch Revolt, the northern and southern parts of the Netherlands split: The latter remained in Spanish possession, whereas the former declared its independence in 1581 (after the Union of Utrecht joined seven provinces in 1579). The war with Spain finally ended in 1648,

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within the framework of the Peace of Westphalia (at Münster), which also concluded the Thirty Years’ War in Germany. The States General was responsible for foreign policy, in the formulation of which the grand pensionary of the rich and powerful province of Holland played a crucial role. The stadtholders also gained political influence through their positions as military leaders. During the first half of the 17th century, the Republic conquered strongholds in Asia, Africa, and America to the detriment of the Spanish and Portuguese occupants. The merchants of Amsterdam held the key to a global network until they were outmaneuvered by their rivals in England and France. After the death of the stadtholder, and king of England, William III of Orange in 1702, the Republic’s role in international politics was only marginal. The Batavian Revolution replaced the old federal constitution of 1579 with a modern unitary constitution in 1798. REVE, GERARD KORNELIS VAN HET (1923–2006). Writer, born into a Communist family. Gerard Reve (his author’s name since 1973; he started writing as Simon van het Reve) wrote one of the classics in Dutch 20th-century literature: De avonden [The Evenings, 1947] and published many other books, including Op weg naar het einde [Approaching the End, 1963], Lieve jongens [Dear Boys, 1973], and Brieven aan Josine M. [Letters to Josine M., 1981]. De avonden deals with narrow-mindedness and people’s scared and oppressive existence. After his journey to an author’s conference of international writers organization PEN in Edinburgh in 1962, Reve also started writing books in letter form. He was one of the first public homosexuals in Dutch society. In 1966, Reve paradoxically converted to Roman Catholicism. He also caused several scandals. In 1966, for instance, he was sent to court because he had written about “his” sexual intercourse with a donkey who was God, in his book Nader tot U [Nearer to Thee, 1966]; two years later, he was cleared of this charge. In 1969, he kissed the minister of social work, Marga Klompé, after she awarded him the prestigious P. C. Hooft Prize for literature. Such acts were still uncommon in those days. His work was still controversial in the 1980s. The Stichting Collectieve Propaganda van het Nederlandse Boek (Dutch Book Propaganda Foundation) refused, for example, Reve’s book De vierde man [The Fourth Man, 1981; turned into a film by director Paul Verhoeven (1938– )]

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as a giveaway during the Dutch book week. Nevertheless, many people have admired Reve’s books, and he has begun to receive recognition. In 2001, Reve received the Prijs der Nederlandse Letteren, the most important literary prize of Belgium and the Netherlands, which is awarded by the Nederlandse Taalunie (Dutch Language Union) every three years. He is a brother of the Slavist Prof. Karel van het Reve (1921–1999), who assisted Russian dissident Andrei Sakharov in smuggling his work out of the Soviet Union. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. RÉVEIL. Evangelical revival at the beginning of the 19th century. Réveil was a Protestant pietist movement that, inspired by Swiss theologians, spread to France and the Netherlands. It was backed by men such as historian Willem Bilderdijk, politician Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, merchant Willem de Clercq, theologian Otto Heldring (1804– 1876), and poet Isaac da Costa. They supported a Romantic, antirationalist, emotional kind of religious experience. Several members were active in social work for the benefit of outcasts in general. REVOLT. The Dutch Revolt, beginning in 1568, was the result of several political and religious conflicts. The high nobility felt neglected by the centralizing policy of the government with its seat in Brussels and of the Spanish king Philip II of Habsburg, who was also lord of the Low Countries after 1555. Too many of the king’s councilors in Madrid were “foreigners.” The harsh measures, including the Inquisition, used against Protestant “heretics,” provoked fierce resistance, even among many moderate Roman Catholics who remained loyal to the king in principle. Military resistance, organized by Prince William (I) of Orange, resulted in a civil war after the government attempted in 1566 to punish the Protestant iconoclasts. After two decades of war, in 1588 Philip II sent an “Invincible Armada” to bring his subjects and their ally, the English queen Elizabeth I, to their knees, but the Armada was destroyed by a storm on the western coast of Ireland and Scotland. After that, the seven revolting Northern provinces became de facto an independent Republic, founded on the alliance of 1579, the Union of Utrecht. The Treaty of Münster ended what became known as the Eighty Years’ War in 1648.

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RHINE (RIJN). One of the most important rivers that empties into the North Sea. Other rivers that flow into the same delta are the Waal, Meuse, and Scheldt. In Roman times, the Rhine was the northern border of the empire; along the river Rhine and the Danube, a number of fortifications were erected against German invasions. During the Middle Ages, some of these strongholds became towns, such as Utrecht (near ancient Dorestad) and Nijmegen. The Rhine was an important waterway for the transport of travelers and all kinds of merchandise. During the 19th century, problems between Prussia and the Netherlands regarding the international status of the Rhine were solved by a convention at Mainz, which declared the Rhine free of toll barriers (especially on Dutch soil). Today the Rhine is still a major waterway, along which products are transported between Germany and Holland, whereas Rotterdam benefits from its location as a center of transshipment. RIEBEECK, JAN ANTHONISZ VAN (1619–1677). Surgeon and pioneer. Van Riebeeck began his career in the service of the Dutch East India Company as a ship’s doctor and traveled to Batavia. After his dismissal because of forbidden private commerce, he settled as an independent merchant in Amsterdam. When the island of St. Helena proved to be a poor station for refreshing Indies-bound ships, van Riebeeck argued for the Cape of Good Hope as a viable alternative. The directors of the East India Company appointed him as a merchant in their service and sent him to scout the Cape for opportunities. Van Riebeeck built a fortress and some houses, which constituted the beginnings of what would later become Cape Town. He founded the Cape Colony and remained there as governor-general until 1662. He then went to Melaka as commander and later to Batavia, where he died. The journal (Daghregister) of his political activities was published in 1952 (in three volumes; also in English translation). RIETVELD, GERRIT THOMAS (1888–1964). Architect. After several years working as a furniture maker, Rietveld studied architecture and was influenced by the geometric artistic concepts of Theo van Doesburg and his periodical De Stijl. He participated after 1928 in a number of international congresses on modern architecture. Rietveld designed

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several houses, including the famous Rietveld Schröder House (since 2000 a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] World Heritage Site) and residential areas in Utrecht, The Hague, and other cities. He designed the building for the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam and a pavilion in the sculpture garden of the Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo, Gelderland. He also designed several furniture pieces, including the “Rietveld chair,” influenced by the ideas of De Stijl and Piet Mondrian. RIPPERDA, JOHAN WILLEM (1682–1737). Diplomat and adventurer. After an unstable political career in his native province of Groningen and the States General, Ripperda became the Republic’s ambassador in Spain in 1715. He changed his religion from Roman Catholicism to Calvinism and back several times when this was suitable for his career. His charming character made him a favorite of the Spanish monarchs. He negotiated for them with the Habsburg court in Vienna and became Spain’s first minister and grandee in 1725, though only for a short period. He fell into disgrace and was imprisoned because of his unsuccessful policy and was the victim of the Spanish nobles’ jealousy. Ripperda escaped, however, and fled via Portugal, England, and the Netherlands to Morocco, where he died under unclear circumstances. ROENTGEN, GERHARD MORITZ (1795–1852). Dutch naval officer and engineer of German origin. Roentgen studied English shipbuilding and was an advisor to the Dutch government. Dutch and Belgian shipbuilding was modernized based on his reports. Himself a creative engineer (he invented the compound steam engine), he worked together with Robert Cockerill in Seraing, Belgium. Roentgen founded the Netherlands Steamboat Company in 1823 and the Feyenoord shipyard in Rotterdam. ROGGEVEEN, JACOB (1659–1729). Lawyer and theologian. Roggeveen worked as a notary public in Middelburg, capital of the province of Zeeland. He lived in the Netherlands East Indies from 1706 to 1714. After he returned home, he was banished from Middelburg because of the publication of his book De val van ’s werelds afgod [The Fall of the World’s Idol, 1718]. It was deemed heterodox,

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Roggeveen being a member of the sect of followers of Pontiaan van Hattem. With the financial aid of several merchants of the West India Company, Roggeveen sailed in 1721 with a fleet of three ships to find a new passage to the “South Land” (Australia). He discovered Easter Island during his journey, as well as some islands of the Paumotu Archipelago and the Samoa Islands. Failing to find Australia, Roggeveen sailed to Batavia, where his ships and cargo were confiscated because of his violation of the monopoly of the Dutch East India Company. His travel journal was published in 1911. ROLAND HOLST–VAN DER SCHALK, HENRIËTTE GOVERDINE ANNA (1869–1952). Poet and politician. Together with her husband, artist Richard Roland Holst (1868–1938), Henriëtte van der Schalk studied Das Kapital by Karl Marx in 1896. Historical materialism influenced her political ideas and her view of history, on which she wrote extensively. She became a member of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Labor Party) but was expelled with Herman Gorter, Henk Sneevliet, and others in 1909. After founding the short-lived Revolutionair Socialistische Bond (Revolutionary Socialist Association) in 1916, she joined the orthodox Marxists. Contrary to her friends Gorter and Anthonie Pannekoek, Roland Holst–van der Schalk maintained her loyalty to the Soviet Union after the Bolshevik Revolution. In 1927, she withdrew her membership from the Dutch Communist Party. Her ideas developed in the direction of a religious-ethical socialism. She was also a proponent of the social and legal emancipation of women. In 1947, she published her memoirs (Het vuur brandde voort: Levensherinneringen). ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. During the Middle Ages in western Europe, Roman Catholicism was the embodiment of Christianity. During the 16th century, several Protestant sects gained a firm foothold in the Netherlands (among them Lutheranism, Anabaptism, and Calvinism). Although the Calvinist church enjoyed state privilege in the Dutch Republic from the end of the 16th century, other churches were largely tolerated as long as they kept a low profile in the daily life of the Dutch. In the view of Rome, the Republic had become a region of “mission”: its Catholic inhabitants (about 40

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percent of the total population) were governed by an apostolic vicar. At the beginning of the 18th century, a schism divided the Roman Catholics in the Netherlands: a small part seceded as the “Utrecht” church under the Vicar Petrus Codde (1648–1710) and his successor in 1723, Archbishop Cornelis Steenhoven (1661–1725). During the Batavian Revolution, Catholics were given equal rights with other religions; separation of church and state was established in 1796. Social acceptance and the emancipation of the Roman Catholics in Dutch society, however, was achieved only gradually and reluctantly. In 1853, the liberal Dutch government agreed with Rome to the restoration of the ecclesiastical hierarchy through the creation of bishoprics. In the 1870s, Protestants and Roman Catholics founded their own separate political parties, which merged into one democratic Christian party in 1973. Catholic emancipation expressed itself in education (separate schools, a university in Nijmegen), literature, and architecture (with many new church buildings going up). Support of the Roman Catholic Church has been declining since 1960 as part of a broad secularization process. The Netherlands consists of seven dioceses: Utrecht (archbishopric), Breda, Haarlem, ’s Hertogenbosch, Roermond, and since 1955, Groningen and Rotterdam. ROMEIN, JAN MARIUS (1893–1962). Historian. After studying humanities at the University of Leiden, where he met his wife and lifelong collaborator Annie Verschoor (1895–1978), Romein became an editor of the daily De Tribune [The Tribune] of the Communistische Partij Holland (CPH, Communist Party of Holland). In 1925, he obtained his doctoral degree with the thesis Dostojewski in de Westersche kritiek [Dostoyevsky in the Eyes of Western Critics]. Before that, he had already published a Dutch translation of Romain Rolland’s Jean Christophe (10 vols., 1916–1917, with an introductory essay, 1918) and a translation of Franz Mehring’s biography of Karl Marx (1921). In 1927, he was expelled from the Communist Party, but he kept his Marxist views. Later, Romein specialized in history, writing on the history of Byzantium and the historiography of the Netherlands during the Middle Ages, but also on current political affairs. His most famous works include a history of the Low Countries and a series of short biographies of important Dutch. In 1939, Romein was appointed to a

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chair in history at the University of Amsterdam, in spite of strong opposition to his materialistic view of history. Afterward, he also wrote extensively on world history, especially on Asia and Indonesia (e.g., The Asian Century, 1962). Romein introduced the theory of history as a subject in the academic curriculum and published a book on biography (De biographie, 1948). He met with the disapproval of his Utrecht colleague Pieter Geyl because of his support for Arnold Toynbee’s “determinist” historical concepts. His Watershed of Two Eras: Europe in 1900 was posthumously published; it is an attempt at writing “integral” history of the transitional decades from the 19th to the 20th centuries. RÖNTGEN, JULIUS (1855–1932). Member of a German-Dutch family of composers. After 1877, he lived in Amsterdam, where he was active as a pianist and conductor. Röntgen composed many classical music works in the tradition of Felix Mendelssohn and Robert Schumann, including 12 symphonies; concertos for piano, violin, and cello; and “Old Dutch Dances,” op. 46. ROOMS-KATHOLIEKE STAATS PARTIJ (RKSP; ROMAN CATHOLIC STATE PARTY). During the second half of the 19th century, religious political parties emerged in opposition to the liberals and the conservatives: the orthodox Protestants were united by Abraham Kuyper in the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP) about 1870. Not until 1894 did Father Hermanus Schaepman, a member of Parliament, succeed in uniting the Roman Catholic politicians on a political program inspired by the papal encyclical Rerum Novarum. In 1926, the RKSP emerged, uniting the national association of Catholic constituencies and the Rooms-Katholieke Volkspartij (RKVP, Roman Catholic People’s Party), founded in 1922. In 1945, after World War II, the RKSP was reconstituted into the Katholieke Volkspartij (KVP, Catholic People’s Party), which in 1973 merged with the Protestant parties into the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA, Christian Democratic Appeal). ROTTERDAM. Originating as a small village, Rotterdam became a chartered town in 1340. Spanish troops plundered the city in 1572 at the beginning of the Dutch Revolt. Rotterdam became the second

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harbor in Holland after Amsterdam in the next centuries. The city’s population and harbor activities grew tremendously after the digging of the New Waterway in 1866–1872, which provided a good connection to the North Sea. At present, the city has about 590,000 inhabitants, with great ethnic variety. It is the center of a large urban agglomeration of about 1.1 million people. Its economic activities include shipping, shipbuilding, and several kinds of industry (e.g., petrochemicals). In 2004, however, Rotterdam was surpassed as the world’s largest port by Shanghai, China. The center of the city, which was destroyed by German bombing on 14 May 1940 (with some 850 killed, 30,000 injured, and 80,000 homeless), has many modern buildings, for instance, the cube houses of architect Piet Blom (1934–1999). Rotterdam is home to an important maritime museum and some fine collections of ancient and modern art, for instance, the Boymans van Beuningen Museum and the Kunsthal. A business school founded in Rotterdam in 1913 became Erasmus University since 1973. RUDING, ONNO (HERMAN ONNO CHRISTIAAN RUDOLF) (1939– ). Bank manager and Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA) politician. After having studied economics at the School (now University) of Economics in Rotterdam, Ruding went to work in finance and banking, among other posts as executive director of the International Monetary Fund (1977–1980). Then he served the Ruud Lubbers government as minister of finance (1982–1989), during which time he became known for his austerity policy in order to manage the state’s finances. After a part-time job as president of the Nederlands Christelijk Werkgeversverbond (NCW; Dutch Christian Employers Association), Ruding joined Citicorp Bank in 1992. RUMPHIUS, GEORG EBERHARD (1627/1628–1702). One of the many German scientists who, like Engelbert Kaempfer, went to Asia in the service of the Dutch East Indies Company. As a servant of the company, Rumphius lived on the island of Amboina in presentday Indonesia. As a biologist, he published several famous books on the flora and fauna of that island, as well as a history and a geographical description.

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RUUSBROEC, JAN VAN (1293–1381). Mystic who once served as a priest at St. Gudele Church in Brussels. Ruusbroec withdrew with some like-minded people to Groenendaal (near Brussels), where they lived as an irregular religious community. In 1350, they accepted the rules of the monastic order of St. Augustine. Influenced by some 12th-century women mystics, such as Hadewijch and Beatrijs (1200–1266), Ruusbroec wrote his spiritual treatises in the vernacular. He became a model for Geert Groote and his community near Zwolle. Ruusbroec’s works have been translated into French, Latin, and English. RUYTER, MICHIEL ADIRAANSZ DE (1607–1676). Naval officer. De Ruyter served as vice admiral on several occasions, including an expedition against the North African Barbary pirates; during the Nordic War; in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, with a sea battle in 1666 and action against Chatham in 1667; and during the Third Anglo-Dutch War, participating in the battles of Solebay (1672) and Kijkduin (1673). He fell in a battle against the French near Sicily. De Ruyter, along with Piet Hein, was one of the most popular sea heroes in Dutch history. He is buried in the New Church in Amsterdam.

–S– SABA. The smallest of the three Dutch Windward (Bovenwindse) or “SSS” Netherlands Antilles. Its 1,500 inhabitants are descendents of African slaves and people from Scotland, Ireland, and the Dutch province of Zeeland. The Spanish, Dutch, French, and English have occupied Saba at various times since its discovery in 1493. Sugar, rum, and fishing became its main economic activities. In 1632, the Dutch colonized the island for the first time. It has been a Dutch possession continuously since 1816, at present governed by one authority and two deputies, from the chief town The Bottom. The Saba council has five members. The volcano Mount Scenery, at 887 meters (2,910 feet), is the highest point of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. From 1938, the only road on the island was constructed on its steep slopes. English is the main language and day-trippers are the most important source of earnings nowadays. In 2004, Saba’s majority voted for a direct

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constitutional relationship with the Netherlands, just like Bonaire. This will be realized in 2008. See also COLONIES; STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. ST. EUSTATIUS (STATIA). The second largest of the three Dutch Windward (Bovenwindse) Netherlands Antilles, with about 3,000 inhabitants who live between two mountains, of which the Quill is an extinct volcano. In 1636, the Dutch West India Company conquered the island from the French. It became very profitable as a transit port, for instance, for selling arms during the American War of Independence. At that time, some 30,000 people were living there. The answering of the salute fire of a ship flying the U.S. flag in 1776 provoked the English. They declared war on the Dutch a few years later and took St. Eustatius in 1781. However, it was returned to the Dutch in 1816. The main language remained English. The island’s administration—the authority and his deputies and the council of five members—is located in the capital of Oranjestad. Tourism has become the main source of earnings. In 2005, a plebiscite showed that the majority of St. Eustatius residents wish to maintain the present constitutional situation, in contrast to the other Netherlands Antilles. Because of this situation, Sint Eustatius will have another status in 2008. See also COLONIES; STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. ST. MAARTEN. Even though only the southern half of the island is under Dutch control, with about 32,000 inhabitants it is the largest of the three Windward (Bovenwindse) Netherlands Antilles. The northern part, St. Martin, belongs to the French département of Guadeloupe, although the population voted for secession from this department in 2003. Christopher Columbus visited the isle during his second journey to the Americas, on 11 November 1493, the feast day of St. Martin. The Spanish did not give up their claims until 1644, by which time Dutch and French adventurers had already settled there. The Dutch Republic and France partitioned the island in 1648, and that agreement was reconfirmed in 1817. The present authority, his deputies, and the island’s council (11 members) have their seat in the capital of Philipsburg. Tourism is highly developed, because large planes can land at Princess Juliana Airport. While Dutch is the official language, English is the first spoken language. In the 2000 refer-

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endum, the majority voted for the option of becoming an independent part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, just like Aruba. St. Maarten will probably receive this status in 2008. See also COLONIES; STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. SAVORNIN LOHMAN, ALEXANDER FREDERIK DE (1837– 1924). Statesman. In 1884, de Savornin Lohman, a member of Parliament since 1879, was appointed professor of constitutional law at the Free University of Amsterdam. In 1894, he led a secession from the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP) and in 1908 founded a new, more conservative political party, the Christelijk-Historische Unie (CHU, Christian Historical Union), which merged into the Christen Democratisch Appèl (CDA, Christian Democratic Appeal) in 1973–1980. De Savornin Lohman served as minister of the interior in 1890–1891. SAXONY. Province in Germany whose name is reminiscent of the Germanic tribe of the Saxons who were subjected to the authority of the Franks and their sovereign, Charlemagne. They were christianized, but were permitted to live under their own laws (the Lex Saxonum, codified about 800). The modern language, or dialect, that is spoken in Lower Saxony (Germany) has a historical affinity with the dialects now spoken in parts of northeastern Netherlands. At the University of Groningen (in the Faculty of Arts), there is a chair for Low Saxon studies. SCALIGER, JOSEPHUS JUSTUS (1540–1609). Scholar and philologist. Scaliger was born in France, the son of Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558). Josephus converted to Calvinism and took temporary refuge in Geneva, Switzerland, during the wars of religion. In 1593, he was appointed professor at the University of Leiden, where he taught Latin, classical studies, and history. Scaliger was a famous philologist whose critical methods influenced his pupils, including Hugo Grotius and Daniel Heinsius. His precious collection of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Slavic manuscripts has been in the Leiden University Library since his death.

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SCHAEPMAN, HERMAN (HERMANUS JOHANNES ALOYSIUS MARIA) (1844–1903). Priest and statesman. From 1870 until 1880, Schaepman was a professor at a seminary; from 1872, he also served as editor in chief of the Roman Catholic daily De Tijd and other papers. In 1880, he was elected to Parliament, where he presented a program for his Catholic political friends. Together with Protestant leader Abraham Kuyper, he strove for an extension of the vote. In 1888, the first “coalition” cabinet of the religious groups was formed. Schaepman was instrumental in creating the Rooms-Katholieke Staats Partij (RKSP, Roman Catholic State Party) based on the ideas set out in the papal encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891). SCHELDT (SCHELDE). River that has long been an important route of transport in the Low Countries. Other rivers in the same delta are the Rhine, Waal, and Meuse (Maas). During the Revolt against Spanish rule, the northern provinces were able to maintain an effective blockade of the mouth of the Scheldt in Zeeland from 1585, which caused the decline of the harbor of Antwerp. The French armies reopened the Scheldt in 1792, but it was only after 1831 and the independence of Belgium that the Netherlands joined an international treaty guaranteeing free access to the river. The abolition of tolls on the Wester-Scheldt in Zeeland facilitated the resurgence of Antwerp as an international port. SCHERMERHORN, WILLEM (1894–1977). Politician. After studying engineering, Schermerhorn was appointed professor of geodesy at the Polytechnic School (now University) of Delft. He introduced photogrammetry from the air in the Netherlands. After World War II, he became a member of the new Labor Party, the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA). Schermerhorn was the prime minister of the first postwar cabinet of the national government “for reconstruction and renewal” from June 1945 until July 1946. In 1946–1947, he was a member of the general committee that negotiated with Sukarno and other Indonesian leaders on independence. In 1948, he was elected to Parliament, then served as a member of the First Chamber from 1951 until 1965.

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SCHIMMELPENNINCK, RUTGER JAN (1761–1825). Statesman. Schimmelpenninck began as a lawyer in Amsterdam, later becoming the leader of the “moderate” faction of the Patriots in the National Assembly. He also served as ambassador in Paris and London. Napoléon, who aimed at a closer union between the French Empire and the Batavian Republic, asked him to frame a new constitution. From 1805–1806, Schimmelpenninck acted as head of state, with the title of grand pensionary. New legislation on taxation and national education was enacted during his short administration. SCHIPHOL AIRPORT. Main airport of the Netherlands and one of the biggest in Europe, located in the Haarlemmermeerpolder near Amsterdam since World War I. The name “Sc[h]iphol” goes back to a 1447 document. KLM had its first flight from Schiphol in 1920 (to London). The Nazis bombed the airfield in 1940, which was restored after the war and afterward relocated farther to the southwest. Since the 1970s, Schiphol has been developed as a “city,” with a huge infrastructure, a partly underground railway station, and many shopping facilities. Despite all kinds of measures, noise pollution remains a politically touchy subject. In 2003, a fifth long runway was opened, but did not decrease the noise problem as expected. Privatization of Schiphol started in 2006, after long debate, but was cancelled again by the new government in 2007. See also BIJLMER DISASTER. SCHMIDT, ANNIE (ANNA MARIA GEERTRUIDA) (1911– 1995). Poet and writer. Before 1958, Schmidt worked as a librarian and as a journalist for the daily Het Parool. She wrote countless cabaret songs—composer Harry Bannink (1929–1999) set many of her poems to music—plays, and musicals, some for radio and television productions. Adults admire her work for children, too, because of her linguistic jokes with hidden meanings. Some famous titles are Abeltje, Jip en Janneke (illustrated by Fiep Westendorp [1916– 2004]), Minoes, and Ja Zuster, Nee Zuster. She was awarded the Hans Christian Andersen Prize in 1988. Annejet van der Zijl wrote her biography, Anna, in 2002. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

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SCHOOTEN, FRANS VAN (1581/1582–1646). Mathematician and engineer. Van Schooten was a professor in the school of engineers at Leiden University. His son Frans Jr. (1615–1660), who succeeded him as professor of mathematics, published René Descartes’s findings in the field of analytical mathematics (Geometria a Renato Des Cartes). His other son, Pieter (1634–1679), succeeded Frans Jr. in 1661 as professor in Leiden. SCHURMAN (SCHUURMAN), ANNA MARIA VAN (1607–1678). See FURTHER REFORMATION; LABADIE, JEAN DE (1610–1674). SCIENCE. The Dutch have often been at the forefront of science, especially during the 17th, late 19th, and early 20th centuries. Relative freedom from clerical control stimulated a fruitful climate for a curious spirit. Among the more famous Dutch scientists have been engineer Simon Stevin, mathematician and astronomer Christiaan Huygens, botanists Antoni van Leeuwenhoek and Jan Swammerdam, and medical professor Hermann Boerhaave. Nobel prizes for the sciences have been awarded to several Dutch scientists: in chemistry, Jacobus van ’t Hoff, Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debije (1884–1966), and Paul J. Crutzen; in physics, Hendrik Lorentz with Pieter Zeeman (1865–1943), Johannes van der Waals Sr., Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Frits Zernike, Simon van der Meer (1925– ), Gerard ’t Hooft (1946– ), and Martinus Justinus Godefridus (“Tini”) Veltman (1931– ); in medicine, Willem Einthoven (1860–1927), Christiaan Eykman (1858–1930), and Nikolaas Tinbergen; and in economics, Jan Tinbergen. See also ASSER, TOBIAS MICHAEL CAREL (1838–1913); OORT, JAN HENDRIK (1900–1992); PANNEKOEK, ANTHONIE (1873–1960); VRIES, HUGO DE (1848–1935). SCRIVERIUS, PETRUS (1576–1660). Historian. Scriverius worked as a private scholar in Leiden. Among his correspondents were historians such as Janus Dousa, Johannes Meursius, and Johannes Pontanus. He was mainly an antiquarian collector and a critical editor of texts, both classical and Dutch. Scriverius also promoted Dutch poetry. His most famous publication was Batavia illustrata (1611), a collection of authors on “Batavian,” that is, Dutch, history. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY.

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SEA BEGGARS (WATERGEUZEN). Nickname for a part of the political opposition in the Netherlands against their overlord, the Spanish king Philip II. Among them were members of the impoverished lower strata of the nobility who feared the centralizing tendency in the government and the increasing influence of foreigners in the policy of Brussels. In the early phase of the Dutch Revolt, they joined the small armies of insurgents as privateers, some of whom organized successful land raids such as the surprise attack on the town of Brielle in 1572. SHELL. The Shell Transport and Trading Company and Koninklijke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschappij (KNPM) joined in 1907 as the Koninklijke/Shell Group by transmitting their properties to two new corporations, the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij (BPM) and the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company Ltd. The group, which has its headquarters at The Hague, is active in the distribution of petroleum but also of petrochemical products and natural gas. In 2005, the shareholders decided to merge the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Petroleum Maatschappij and Shell Transport and Trading into Royal Dutch Shell. Recently, some 11,000 of its 112,000 employees were working in the Netherlands. ’S HERTOGENBOSCH (DEN BOSCH). City founded by the dukes of Brabant in the mid-12th century. It was granted urban statutes in 1185. Because of its strategic position near the Meuse River, ’s Hertogenbosch became an important commercial and industrial center. The painter Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450–1516) lived here as a member of the Fraternity of Our Lady in the Cathedral of Saint John (Sint Jan). During the Revolt and the Eighty Years’ War, the city was recaptured from the Spaniards by the stadtholder Frederick Henry in 1629. Since 1815, ’s Hertogenbosch has been the capital of the province of Noord-Brabant. The city, with about 95,000 residents, is a center of industry, culture, and education. Until 2001, one of the biggest weekly cattle markets of the Netherlands was held here. It is the seat of a provincial orchestra, and the city houses a fine collection of paintings and art objects in the Noordbrabants Museum. SHIPBUILDING. Ship construction was an important branch of industry in the Low Countries and the Netherlands, where transport by

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water was relatively easy. As early as the Middle Ages, coasters and canal boats were the main form of transportation for commerce between the cities that were part of the Hansa League. New shipbuilding techniques and navigation methods facilitated transatlantic voyages. In the Republic, larger merchant ships and men-of-war were built on the dockyards of the Dutch East India Company at Amsterdam. Shipbuilding flourished elsewhere as well, for example, along the River Zaan (particularly ships for whaling), where the timber industry was also founded with many characteristic windmills. During the 19th and 20th centuries, famous shipyards included those of Wilton in Rotterdam and Verolme in IJsselmonde. However, over recent decades, the industry has declined because of competition from shipyards in East and Southeast Asian countries. In 1983, the Rijn-Schelde Verolme group failed, despite government support of billions of guilders, which even led to a parliamentary inquiry. Present shipyards often build just hulls that are finished in countries with low wages. Those in the Sliedrecht area in Southern Holland, specialized in suction dredgers, and in the province of Groningen are still profitable. The Netherlands and Belgium possess the biggest dredging industry of the world. Royal Boskalis Westminster (in Sliedrecht, founded in 1910) and Van Oord Dredging and Marine Contractors (in Rotterdam, founded in 1868) employ thousands of people. SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796–1866). Orientalist. Von Siebold studied medicine at the University of Würzburg, Germany. In 1822, he immigrated to the Netherlands, where he entered government service. He was appointed physician with the rank of major and was sent to Batavia (Indonesia). Von Siebold was then assigned a post in the Dutch “factory” at Deshima, Japan. In the wake of famous predecessors such as Engelbert Kaempfer and Isaac Titsingh, Von Siebold did comprehensive research on the flora, fauna, and human society of Japan, about which he published extensively (Nippon, 1832–1851; Fauna Japanica, 1833–1851; Flora Japanica, 1835–1870). He also built up a large collection of indigenous materials, which are now part of the Ethnographic Museum in Leiden. SIMONS, MENNO. See ANABAPTISTS.

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SINT-MICHIELSGESTEL. During World War II, the Nazis established a hostage camp in this municipality in Northern Brabant. Between 1942 and 1944, they interned many Dutch intellectuals and politicians there, such as theologian Willem Banning (1888– 1971), Willem Schermerhorn, and author Simon Vestdijk (1898– 1971). Within these circles, the idea of a Dutch people’s movement— the Nederlandse Volksbeweging (1945; changed into the Personalistische Unie, 1946–1951)—was born, a movement to create a political breakthrough (Doorbraak) in the Dutch pillarized society. After the war, the foundation of the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labor Party) was one of the results. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. SKATING. A typical and popular sport in the Netherlands, mainly practiced on artificial ice because most Dutch winters are mild. During the 1960s, the first outdoor 400-meter skating rinks were opened in Amsterdam and Deventer. In the same period, skaters such as Ard Schenk (1944– ) and Kees Verkerk (1942– ) scored many successes in international championships and at the Olympic Winter Games. Their successors professionalized the sport in the next decades. Currently several indoor rinks exist, including among others Thialf in Heerenveen (Frisian It Hearrenfean). In severe winters, the Elfstedentocht (11-city race) is usually organized: a one-day, 200kilometer (125-mile) speed-skating competition and leisure skating tour in Frisia through the 11 old Frisian cities. The tour starts and ends in the Frisian capital Leeuwarden (Frisian Ljouwert) and passes through Sneek (Snits), IJlst (Drylts), Sloten (Sleat), Stavoren (Starum), Hindelopen (Hylpen), Workum (Warkum), Bolsward (Boalsert), Harlingen (Harns), Franeker (Frjentsjer), and Dokkum. The tour has only been held 15 times since 1919. SLAVERY. Although the last remnants of human bondage, characteristic of feudalism, had nearly vanished in the Republic itself, the Dutch introduced slavery in their colonies following the example set by other colonizing nations such as Spain, Portugal, and England. In the Netherlands East Indies, the Cape Colony, the West Indies, and Surinam, slavery became an institution of colonial law. Although slavery was not accepted in the Republic itself—jurists even claiming that slaves who came to Europe should be set free—this

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peculiar institution was not abolished in the Dutch East Indies and Surinam until 1863. Dutch merchants, especially from Zeeland, took part in the slave trade for nearly two centuries. SLICHER VAN BATH, BERNARD (1910–2004). Historian. After his studies in Groningen and Utrecht, Slicher became the archivist of Overijssel (1946–1948) and professor of social and economic history in Groningen and of agrarian history in Wageningen. Furthermore, he was director of the Amsterdam Center for Latin American Research and Documentation (CEDLA) and extraordinary professor in Leiden and Nijmegen. Slicher was one of the first Dutch historians who used old documents such as accounts, fiscal documents, and birth and death records to reconstruct daily life. His De agrarische geschiedenis van West-Europa, 500–1850 (1960) was reprinted many times [in English as The Agrarian History of Western Europe, A.D. 500–1850, 1963]. He also wrote about the history of Latin America. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. SLINGELANDT, SIMON VAN (1664–1736). Secretary of the Council of State from 1690 to 1725; treasurer of the Republic; and after 1727, grand pensionary of Holland. As a diplomat, van Slingelandt managed to bring England and Austria together in the Treaty of Vienna in 1731, by which the Habsburg law of succession was recognized (also by the Republic, which had an interest in the Southern, or Austrian, Netherlands). His mediation brought about—after his death—the 1738 Peace of Vienna between Austria and France, concluding the war caused by the Polish succession. Van Slingelandt was a politician critical of the slow decision-making process in the existing system of government. He tried in vain to reform the Dutch Republican constitution. His treatises and proposals were published in 1780–1787 when the Patriots tried to reform the political system. SLOCHTEREN. In 1959, the biggest gas field in all western Europe was discovered near the Groningen village of Slochteren. Shortly thereafter, natural gas became one of the most important energy sources in the Netherlands. Although its extraction is still very profitable, a disadvantageous side effect is the subsiding of the level of the land in nearby areas.

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SMIT-KROES, NEELIE. See KROES, NEELIE (1941– ). SNEEK (Frisian SNITS). One of the 11 old Frisian towns with municipal rights since the 13th century. Its Water Gate recalls the old city wall. Currently the town is attractive as a center for water sports because of the many nearby lakes. It is famous for its annual sailing festival, the Sneekweek, the biggest in Europe. Sneek has some 33,000 inhabitants. There are several industries, among others the well-known peppermint factory that produces King peppermint. SNEEVLIET, HENK (HENDRICUS JOSEPHUS FRANCISCUS MARIE) (1883–1942). Politician. A railway employee since 1900, Sneevliet became a member of the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Labor Party) and the union of railway workers, of which he was appointed deputy president in 1909 and full-time president in 1910. In 1912, he resigned from the SDAP after a conflict over tactics used during the international strike of seamen the year before. After a short-lived membership in the orthodox Marxist Socialistisch Democratische Partij (Socialist Democratic Party), he was expelled in 1912 from the board of his union. He moved to the Netherlands East Indies (Indonesia), where he again became a member of the union of railway employees and an active propagandist. Because of his radical ideas and seditious pamphlets, he was repatriated by order of the government. Sneevliet had trouble finding a congenial field of activity even in the Dutch Communistische Partij Holland (CPH, Communist Party of Holland). He became a paid official with the Nationaal Arbeids Secretariaat (NAS, National Labor Secretariat), a federation of trade unions in the tradition of the Second International. In 1920, Sneevliet represented the Communist Party of the Netherlands East Indies at the second meeting of the Comintern in Moscow. He was sent to China, where he worked with the Chinese Communist Party until 1923. Upon his return to the Netherlands, he resumed his work with the NAS. After his withdrawal from the CPH in 1927, Sneevliet became the first president of the Revolutionair-Socialistische Partij (RSP, Revolutionary Socialist Party) in 1929, and from 1933 until 1937 he was a member of Parliament. This intractable individualist, who also broke with Leo Trotsky (1879–1940) in 1938, was a member of the Resistance

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during World War II. In 1942, he was convicted by the Nazi German Obergericht at Amsterdam and executed. See also SOCIALISM. SNELLIUS, RUDOLPH (1546–1613). Mathematician and philologist; professor of mathematics and astronomy at Leiden University from 1581 and of Hebrew from 1585. Among his pupils were Isaac Beeckman and his own son Willibrord Snellius (1580– 1646), who became professor honorarius at the same university in 1615. He edited works of his contemporary Simon Stevin. Snellius was famous for his improvement of triangulation, a new method of surveying. SNOUCK HURGRONJE, CHRISTIAAN (1857–1936). Scholar of Islam who wrote a famous book on Mecca (1888–1889). He went to the Netherlands East Indies as an advisor to the government, especially with a view to ending the Aceh War in northern Sumatra. In 1906, he was appointed professor of Arabic and Islamic studies at Leiden University. Snouck became a supporter of the so-called ethical policy in the East Indies, working toward a gradual participation of natives in the government. SOCIAAL-ECONOMISCHE RAAD (SER; SOCIAL-ECONOMIC COUNCIL). Council founded in 1950 as the most important advisory body for the government. The SER has 45 members, one-third appointed by employers, another third by the trade unions, and the rest by the Crown. The Dutch way of making harmonious agreements about labor conditions and dealing with conflicts about wages is called the “polder model.” SOCIALISM. The Socialists were organized as a political party in 1878. The Sociaal Democratische Vereeniging (Social Democratic Association) and its successor the Sociaal Democratische Bond (SDB, Social Democratic Union) developed under the leadership of Hendrik Gerhard (1829–1886) and Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis into an anarchistic, antiparliamentarian movement. In 1894, the moderate wing, under Pieter Jelles Troelstra, founded a successful independent political party, the Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Worker’s Party). It won two seats

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(out of 100) in Parliament during the elections of 1897, a number that increased to 15 in 1913. After the introduction of universal suffrage in 1917, the Socialists won 22 to 24 seats. The Socialists did not accept responsibility in the national government until 1939. After World War II, the reformed Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA, Labor Party), under the leadership of Willem Drees, won between 29 (out of 100) and 53 (out of 150 after 1956) seats in Parliament, with its peak in 1977. Since then, the electoral success of the Social Democrats has fluctuated, usually in favor of less ideologically inspired parties and of the Dutch GroenLinks (GL, Green Left) and the Socialistische Partij (SP, Socialist Party). Many national and foreign archives of left-wing institutions and persons are kept in the Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (IISG, International Institute of Social History), founded in 1935 in Amsterdam. SOCIALISTISCHE PARTIJ (SP; SOCIALIST PARTY). A political party founded in 1972 as a Maoist party and originally named the Kommunistiese Partij Nederland/Marxisties-Leninisties (Communist Party of the Netherlands/Marxist-Leninist). In 1991, the party formally abandoned the communist doctrine. The SP got its first members in Parliament in 1994, under the direction of party leader Johannes Guillaume Adreas (“Jan”) Marijnissen (1952– ). Nine (out of 150) seats had been the party’s maximum until 2003. Yet, in the November 2006 elections, the SP climbed to no less than 25 seats, which gave it the third biggest position in Parliament. The SP is a radical alternative for the Social Democratic Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA) and the more intellectual GroenLinks (GL). SP members of Parliament have to donate their salary to the party. The red tomato is the party’s symbol. The SP is linked to the European United Left and Nordic Green Left groups in the European Parliament (EP). SOCIETIES. 1. During the 17th century, several share-based companies known as societies were founded for commerce with the Netherlands East Indies and the West Indies, the Nordic countries, Muscovy (Russia), and other countries. 2. Learned societies and societies of antiquarians became a feature of “enlightened” 18th-century Netherlands, such as the Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen (Dutch Society of Sciences),

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founded in 1752; Teyler’s Genootschap (Teyler’s Association) of 1778 at Haarlem; the Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde (Society for Dutch Literature) at Leiden from 1766; and the Maatschappij tot Nut van ’t Algemeen (Society for the Benefit of the Common Man) at Edam, established in 1784—all of which continue to flourish in the present day. 3. The Liberal constitution of 1848 and the process of further democratization of Dutch society were instrumental in the enormous growth of associations of all kinds: political, cultural, religious, economic, and so on. The Chambers of Commerce have registered tens of thousands as legal bodies. SOUTHERN HOLLAND (ZUID-HOLLAND). See HOLLAND. SPEYK, JAN VAN (1802–1831). Naval officer who became a legendary figure in Dutch popular history and literature. During the Belgian Revolt, his ship was boarded by insurgents near Antwerp. Van Speyk refused to surrender and lit the fuse of a powder keg. The ship exploded and most of the crew died, but this deed was hailed as a heroic action. Van Speyk is buried in the New Church in Amsterdam. SPIEGEL, LAURENS PIETER VAN DE (1736–1800). Statesman. After his studies of law in Leiden, van de Spiegel served the cities of Goes (Zeeland) and Middelburg. In 1785, he became grand pensionary of Zeeland, and after the Orangist restoration of 1787, he held the same office in Holland. Van de Spiegel established an alliance with England and Prussia against France and modernized the centuries-old taxation system. During the Batavian Revolution of 1795, he was arrested and put in prison for three years. In Lingen, Germany, he tried to draw up a new state arrangement, together with the prince of Orange-Nassau. SPINOZA, BARUCH (BENEDICTUS DE) (1632–1677). Philosopher. Spinoza was the son of a wealthy Portuguese-Jewish merchant in Amsterdam. In 1656, he was banned from the synagogue because of his unorthodox ideas. From 1660 until 1667, he lived in the village of Rijnsburg near Leiden, where he earned a living by polishing

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lenses in the circle of the so-called Rijnsburger collegianten. After that, he lived in The Hague, where he wrote most of his famous treatises and developed the principles of Cartesian philosophy in the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus and Ethica. Because of their affected rationalistic, atheistic, and democratic character, most of Spinoza’s works were censored by the authorities. See also DESCARTES, RENÉ (RENATUS CARTESIUS) (1596–1650). SPITSBERGEN (SVALBARD). Group of islands in the Arctic region rediscovered by Willem Barentsz in 1596 during his expedition in search of a northern passage to India. Dutch whalers founded Smeerenburg there as a settlement for the production of whale oil, and it was in operation between 1614 and 1652. Archaeologists from the Arctic Center at Groningen University excavated many remnants of this so-called Blubber City between 1978 and 1981. In 2005, the Smeerenburg collection was handed over to Norway. See also NORDIC COMPANY. SQUATTING (KRAAKBEWEGING). Dutch laws do not forbid the occupying of empty buildings after a one-year vacancy. Nevertheless, the state removes squatters after an owner has demonstrated that he will reuse his property. Since the 1960s, the authorities have often turned a blind eye to squatting because of the great housing shortage in the main cities. Squatting also became an anticapitalist and anarchist youth movement, however. In 1980, riots with the slogan “geen woning, geen kroning” (no house, no coronation) overshadowed the inauguration of Princess Beatrix as queen. Many clearances have led to violent confrontations with the police. SREBRENICA TRAGEDY. During the civil war in the former Yugoslavia, Bosnian-Serbs under the command of Gen. Ratko Mladic´ on 11 July 1995 deported and murdered some 7,500 Muslims from the Bosnian enclave of Srebrenica, which was a safety area under the flag of the United Nations. Dutch peacekeepers (the “Dutchbat”) witnessed the deportation but took no action. After the massacre, which is regarded as the most horrible genocide in Europe since World War II, investigations started about the responsibility. Lost evidence (e.g., films) and contradictory explanations hindered the

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research. The conclusions of a report, prepared by the Netherlands Institute for War Documentation, led to the fall of the second Wim Kok cabinet in 2002. The government accepted the political responsibility for the fact that the Dutch “blue helmets” had not prevented the deportation. STAATKUNDIG GEREFORMEERDE PARTIJ (SGP; POLITICALLY REFORMED PARTY). See CHRISTEN UNIE (CU). STADTHOLDER. The function of vice regent in the provinces of the Netherlands became somewhat of an anomaly after the abjuration of King Philip II of Spain in 1581. The stadtholder of Holland, William I of Orange, was one of the most important military leaders of the rebellious Northern provinces during the Revolt and afterward. He was succeeded in most of the provinces by his son Maurice and in the provinces Friesland (see FRISA [FRIESLAND]; Frisian FRYSLÂN) and Groningen by his nephew William Louis (Willem Lodewijk) of Nassau (1560–1620). In 1625, Frederick Henry (1584–1647), the youngest son of William I, was appointed stadtholder by most of the provincial States. He played an important role in international politics. His son William II (1626–1650) married Mary Stuart, daughter of the English king Charles I; his daughter Louise Henriëtte married Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, Germany. Frederick Henry’s household assumed the style of a princely court, and it could be expected that the function of stadtholder would soon become hereditary in the family of Orange-Nassau. The conflict between the States of Holland and William II and his premature death prevented this development, however. Most provinces refrained from appointing a new stadtholder in 1650. From 1650 to 1672, there was a “stadtholderless” period in Holland during which period Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt excelled as a political and military leader. Another powerful stadtholder (after 1672) was William III of Orange (1650–1702), who also became the king of England in 1689. After his death, his provinces decided not to fill the vacancy immediately. Yet during the 1747 riots, William IV of Orange-Nassau (1711–1751) became stadtholder of all the Dutch provinces. His early death was solved by the regencies of his wife Anne of Hanover (1709–1759) and

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Louis Ernst, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel (1718–1788). His son William V (1748–1806) then became hereditary stadtholder in 1766. In 1795, he fled to England because of the French-inspired Batavian Revolution. Thereafter, the stadtholderate was abolished. STATES GENERAL. The assembly of representatives of the provincial States and other corporations, summoned upon occasion to deliberate with the sovereign on financial and other important issues. Its first meeting took place in 1464, at the request of the Burgundian duke Philip the Good (1419–1467). The States General became the main political body in the United Northern Provinces, which renounced their sovereign, King Philip II of Spain, in 1581. The States General deliberated on subjects of common interest: the Union, religion, and defense. Important resolutions were adopted only by unanimity, which slowed the process of decision making considerably. The assemblies of the seven provinces became sovereign bodies. After the Batavian Revolution in 1795, the States General was replaced by a National Assembly on the French model, but was restored as a bicameral Parliament in 1815 after the founding of the monarchy and the proclamation of a constitution. Political parties in the modern sense emerged only in the 1870s. STATES OF HOLLAND. Representative assembly that originated in the 15th century and became the powerful sovereign body of Holland as a result of the Dutch Revolt in 1572, just like the States of the other revolting provinces. The nobility (Ridderschap) had only one vote and represented the rural districts, too. Before the Revolt, the other voting members were the six most important cities of the province: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, and Gouda. After 1572, delegates from several smaller towns appeared in the States as well, of which 12, for example, Rotterdam, got a vote. They met most of the time in The Hague. The States’ crucial official was the grand pensionary. During the Batavian Revolution in 1795, the States of Holland was transformed into a new, less powerful body. STATUTE OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. After the recognition in 1949 of the independence of Indonesia (the former

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colony of Netherlands East Indies), a new constitutional framework was constructed in 1954 for the remaining parts of the Dutch empire: the Netherlands, Surinam, and the Netherlands Antilles. Since the independence of Surinam in 1975, the statute now concerns the relations between only the Netherlands and the Antilles. Of this group of six Caribbean islands, Aruba was granted a status aparte in 1986. In December 2008, the statute will be revised, because the cooperation between the Netherlands Antilles will be ended. STEEN, JAN. See PAINTING. STELLING VAN AMSTERDAM. See DUTCH WATER LINE. STEVIN, SIMON (1548–1620). Mathematician. As a fortification engineer, Stevin was effective in the military campaigns of the Dutch Revolt. He acted as an advisor in these matters for stadtholder Maurice. His activities concerned not only the publication of his mathematical treatises and constructions (for example, a much-admired sailing wagon) but also included his participation in the founding of a training college for surveyors at the University of Leiden. STOEL, MAX VAN DER (1924– ). Politician. After studying law at the University of Leiden, van der Stoel worked for the Dutch Labor Party, the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA), starting at the scientific bureau. Between 1960 and 1982, he was a member of Parliament (in the First Chamber 1960–1965, and in the Second Chamber 1966–1973 and 1977–1981) and the government (as state secretary 1965–1966 and minister of foreign affairs 1973–1977 and 1981– 1982). Afterward, he became Dutch ambassador to the United Nations (UN) (1983–1986), a member of the Dutch Council of State (1986–1992), and minister of state (as of 1991). During the 1990s, he was the United Nations Representative for Human Rights in Iraq, and from 1993 until 2001 the first Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) High Commissioner on National Minorities. In 2001, under the authority of the Dutch government, van der Stoel convinced Jorge Zorreguieta, a former member of Argentina’s military regime, not to be present at the wedding of his daughter Máxima to Crown Prince Willem-Alexander.

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STORM TIDES. Natural and potentially catastrophic phenomenon regularly occurring throughout Dutch history. The inhabitants of the lower lands in the estuaries of the rivers such as the IJssel, Meuse, Rhine, and Scheldt were compelled to construct dikes for protection from high tides at points along the coast where there were no dunes or where they had been swept away such as in Zeeland, the north of Holland, and along the Zuiderzee (now the IJsselmeer). Serious storm floods occurred in 1421–1424, 1570, 1717, 1863, 1916, and 1953. The last flood claimed more than 1,800 lives and prompted the realization of the Delta-Plan. STRIKES. In 1903, railway employees participated in an unprecedented and successful general strike in solidarity with the striking workers in the Amsterdam harbor. The government of Prime Minister Abraham Kuyper reacted by introducing bills forbidding civil servants to strike, the Dutch Railway Companies being state owned. Socialist and syndicalist attempts at a general national strike thereafter failed because of hesitant leadership and discord among different sections of the trade unions. During the German occupation in 1940–1945, the illegal Communist Party in Amsterdam proclaimed a February Strike in 1941 among the civil servants in protest against the treatment of Jewish citizens. The strike met with a positive response among the trades and industries in an impressive, though unsuccessful, spontaneous action of resistance against Nazi oppression. Three years later, in September 1944, after the battle of Arnhem, the Dutch government in exile in London made an appeal to the railway workers to strike. The strike was nationwide, but the German transport system was scarcely affected by it. The German blockade of inland navigation, however, seriously hindered the transport of food. Given the scarcity of food, the strike and the blockade caused a famine during the winter of 1944–1945, especially in the towns in Holland. STUYVESANT, PIETER (PETER, PETRUS) (1592–1672). Stuyvesant was appointed governor of the Caribbean island of Curaçao in the Netherlands Antilles, in the service of the Dutch West India Company, in 1642. In 1646, he was reassigned to the colony of New Netherland in North America as director general. Stuyvesant was

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forced to accept the surrender of the colony and its capital New Amsterdam (New York) to the English. SUFFRAGE. After the Batavian Revolution, in 1798 the right to vote was given to all male citizens 20 years of age and older who were not servants or dependent on charity. Following the Restoration of 1815, suffrage became dependent on a high level of income and/or property ownership. In the constitutions of 1848 and later, the right to vote was extended to more and more citizens by lowering the income/property requirements. In 1917, universal suffrage was given to men age 23 and older, and in 1919 women (23 and older) were finally granted the right to vote. In 1972, the age limit was lowered to 18 years. SUKARNO (1901–1970). Indonesian politician. After his studies as an engineer in Bandung, Sukarno became involved in the nationalist movement. He was an advocate of the principle of noncooperation with the Dutch colonial government in the Netherlands East Indies. In 1927, he founded the Partai Nasional Indonesia. During World War II, he collaborated with the Japanese who had occupied the archipelago in 1941. After the war, Sukarno became the first president of the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed independent on 17 August 1945, although not recognized by the Dutch government until 1949. In 1963, Indonesia occupied Dutch New Guinea, which had been excluded from the new Indonesian state and had remained under Dutch sovereignty. SURINAM. After unsuccessful attempts by the Spaniards and Dutch to colonize the regions along the Surinam River, English entrepreneurs from Barbados succeeded in founding several plantations after 1650. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch admiral Abram (Abraham) Crijnssen (d. 1669) conquered the colony, which was ceded by the English in the Treaty of Breda in 1667, under which the Dutch handed over their colony of New Amsterdam (New York) to England. The Surinam colony was governed by the West India Company. Sugar and coffee plantations were founded, and as elsewhere in the Americas, black slaves were imported from Africa. In 1863, slavery was abolished in Surinam, freeing some 30,000 slaves.

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Economic historians have concluded that the colony never was profitable for the investors in the Republic. In 1975, Surinam became an independent state. The official language is Dutch, but there are some 20 languages spoken by different groups of the population (e.g., Hindustani, Creole, Javanese, and African languages). SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637–1680). Zoologist. Swammerdam studied medicine in Leiden and then settled as a private scholar in his native city of Amsterdam. He specialized as a zoologist in the field of anatomy and in particular in entomology. His manuscripts were bought by Hermann Boerhaave, who published Swammerdam’s main works as Biblia Naturae, or Natural History of Insects (1737). SWEELINCK, JAN PIETERSZ (1562–1621). Composer. Born in Deventer, Sweelinck succeeded his father as organist of the Old Church in Amsterdam in 1578. He wrote many vocal works and compositions for the organ in a style that combined and modernized Italian and English traditions. Through his pupils, he influenced the innovative northern German school of organ composers. SYNOD OF DORDRECHT. In 1618–1619, a national synod was convened in Dordrecht to discuss the issue of the Arminian interpretation of John Calvin’s theology. The Arminians, or Remonstrants, were excluded from the orthodox church. The synod also decided to promote a new Dutch translation of the Holy Bible (Statenbijbel, 1637). At the same time, the Presbyterian principle was confirmed as a basis of the Dutch Calvinist ecclesiastical organization: consistory, classis, and regional synod (Dordtse Kerkorde). See also ARMINIUS, JACOBUS HARMENSZ (1560–1609).

–T– TACITUS, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS (c. 55–116/120). Roman praetor and consul. Tacitus became a historiographer after the death in 96 of Emperor Domitian. One of his famous writings is the treatise on the German tribes (De origine et situ Germanorum), which is an

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important source of our knowledge on the Germans in western Europe at that time. TASMAN, ABEL JANSZ (1603–1659). Captain in the service of the Dutch East India Company from 1633. In 1642, by order of the company, he began an exploratory expedition to find the yet unknown “South Land” (Terra Australis). Sailing from Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia), he discovered Van Diemens Land (Tasmania) and Statenland (New Zealand). He was the first to sail around Australia, although he was not aware of this at the time. TAVERNS. During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, taverns played an important role in the communication of news and information for travelers. Gradually taking over the role of the guest rooms (hospitia) in the convents, they were built at strategic points along highways that were frequented by merchants, wandering scholars, and pilgrims. TAXATION. During the period of the Republic, many kinds of direct and indirect taxes were levied, for example, on consumption and luxury articles and on property transfers. The provinces were entitled to levy their taxes in view of their respective shares (quoten) in the required annual taxation of the Generaliteit. To collect the taxes, the authorities often resorted to a system of leasing to private persons. It was only after the new constitution in 1798, during the Batavian Republic, that attempts at unifying the taxation system were made. During the reign of King Louis Napoléon, a national system of tax collection based on modern principles was introduced in 1809. In the present national taxation system, direct taxes are levied on income, wages, and properties. Indirect taxes, such as value-added tax (VAT) and excises on goods, are collected from businesses, which then pass them on to the consumers and end users of products and services. Contributions and retributions are a third kind of tax, such as road taxes or fees. Another distinction among taxes is between progressive and proportional rates. In this respect, social policy and conceptions of an equitable distribution of income play their roles. Recently there has been a tendency for taxes to shift from income tax to VAT, as a consequence of the need to adjust to European stan-

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dards, because of membership in the European Union (EU). Tax policy has to cope with the problem of the growing and heavy burden of national as well as local and regional taxes. Politicians realized also that taxes must be capped to avoid stifling hard work and investment. Dutch tax rates on income include several brackets. In 2001, a new tax system was introduced for private persons, with three so-called boxes. The first box includes taxable income and houses (with several brackets), the second concerns income from profits (at a tax rate of 25 percent), and the third, income from savings and investments (tax rate: 30 percent from 4 percent return). TELEVISION. See RADIO AND TELEVISION. TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM (1628–1699). English diplomat. As ambassador in The Hague, Temple played an important role in English–Dutch, and for that matter European, diplomacy during the late 17th century. In 1667, he negotiated with Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt the Triple Alliance of England, Sweden, and the Republic. He acted as mediator with regard to the marriage of William III of Orange and Mary Stuart and negotiated the Peace of Westminster in 1674 after the war between England and the Republic. Temple wrote Observations upon the United Provinces (1672). THEATER. This term covers a great variety of cultural activities, from stage plays to opera, revues, musicals and cabaret, to dance and circus acts, whether performed in theater buildings (play houses and music halls) or in the open air. Dutch drama has a long tradition dating back to the Middle Ages. The so-called worldly abele spelen (c. 1350) are among the oldest plays in western Europe. Chambers of Rhetoric organized urban festivals during the next centuries. Amsterdam had its first public theater in 1617, which was replaced in 1638 by one designed by Jacob van Campen (it burned down in 1772). Authors of the 17th century such as Joost van den Vondel wrote dramas about topical themes in classical situations. In the period from about 1660 to 1760, French theories influenced Dutch playwrights, as could be noticed in the performances of the Amsterdam fraternity Nil Volentibus Arduum (founded in 1669).

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In the mid-1800s, people began to raise Dutch drama out of the melodrama atmosphere. A successful company at the turn of the 20th century was the idealistic Nederlandsche Toneelvereeniging (Dutch Drama Society), which started in 1893 with Multatuli’s play Vorstenschool [The School for Princes, 1872]. Jewish playwright Herman Heijermans (1864–1924) wrote many plays for this company, such as the very popular Op hoop van zegen [1901; translated as The Good Hope, 1928]. Since the 1970s, Dutch drama has changed partly into more consciousness-raising theater. The Netherlands has many professional and amateur theater companies nowadays. Most of them travel among theaters in all important cities in the country. Three major professional drama companies are the Toneelgroep Amsterdam (founded in 1987 as a merger of the Publiekstheater and Toneelgroep Centrum), the Ro Theater (Rotterdam, 1976), and Het Nationale Toneel (The Hague, 1988, a continuation of the Haagse Comedie from 1947). Tryater (Leeuwarden, 1965) is the professional Frisian theater company. Some Dutch theater locations are renowned, such as the royal theater Carré in Amsterdam, which started as a circus theater in 1866. The present location (since 1887) along the River Amstel, became famous for its revue company Henri ter Hall in the period 1907–1928; musicals such as My Fair Lady, Cats, and Les Misérables; and shows of cabaret artists such as Toon Hermans (1916–2000) and André van Duin (1947– ). The Circus Theater next to the Scheveningen Kurhaus (near The Hague), which also started as a circus in 1904, has become another suitable location for musicals in 1991, through the good services of media tycoon Joop van den Ende (1942– ). The Amsterdam Stopera (finished in 1986 as a combination of an opera hall and the city hall) is the home of the Nederlandse Opera and a few other companies. This Dutch opera foundation started after World War II. A traveling company is the Nationale Reisopera (Enschede), a 1994 continuation of the opera company Forum founded in 1955. Toni Boltini (1920–2003) created one of Europe’s greatest traveling circuses after 1945. Two illustrious and much visited yearly theater events are the Amsterdam Uitmarkt (since 1978) and the partly open-air Oerol Festival on the isle of Terschelling (since 1982). The Theater Instituut Nederland in Amsterdam (started in 1925 as the society Het Toneelmu-

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seum) is the support center and museum for the Dutch performing arts. Drama studies can be pursued at several universities, particularly those of Amsterdam and Utrecht. Some seven polytechnics also offer theater education. See also CLASSICAL MUSIC; DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. THOMAS A KEMPIS. See KEMPIS, THOMAS A (1379/1380–1471). THORBECKE, JOHAN RUDOLF (1798–1872). Statesman and historian. Thorbecke became professor of law at Leiden University in 1831. During his studies in Germany, he was influenced by the Historical School of Friedrich Karl von Savigny (1779–1861), as evidenced in Thorbecke’s Über das Wesen und den organischen Character der Geschichte (1824). Although he was a historian, he did not develop his political theory in a conservative direction. On the contrary, he pleaded in his “Notes on the Constitution” (1839, 1841) for political participation of a broader spectrum of the population. In 1840, Thorbecke became a member of Parliament. After the more liberal revision of the constitution in 1848, he became prime minister (1849–1853). During his ministries in 1862–1866 and 1871– 1872, important legislation was enacted, on the power of the provinces and the local councils and on the postal services and expropriation, among other things. Thorbecke’s type of liberalism refrained from more than marginal governmental interference in economic, social, and cultural life. Liberal support for governmental “neutrality” in education clashed with orthodox Protestant—and later Roman Catholic—wishes for state-subsidized education in private religious schools. In this, Thorbecke was an adversary of Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer. TIËSTO (1969– ). Disc jockey; stage name of Tijs Verwest. Tiësto achieved world fame on the dance scene and has been declared the best disc jockey of the world several times. In 2004, he was invited to play his music during the opening of the Olympic Summer Games in Athens. TILBURG. City in Northern Brabant, with about 180,000 inhabitants. It was originally a manor that included several villages and a castle.

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Municipal rights came from Louis Napoléon in 1809. During the 19th century, Tilburg grew into the wool capital of the country, and when this industry collapsed in the 1960s, it was replaced by a great variety of new prosperous enterprises. Part of the neogothic town hall was built as a palace for King William II (the local football team still bears his name). Tilburg has a university (founded in 1927 as a Roman Catholic polytechnic and since 2002 called Tilburg University); museums for contemporary art, textiles, and nature; and recreational facilities. The nearby popular amusement park De Efteling (in Kaatsheuvel, opened in 1952) is one of the oldest in the Netherlands. TINBERGEN, JAN (1903–1994). Economist. Tinbergen was appointed professor at the School of Economics (now Erasmus University) in Rotterdam in 1933, which chair he held until 1973. In 1945, he became director of the Dutch Centraal Planbureau (CPB, Central Planning Bureau), too. He also wrote extensively on econometry and economic policy, and on the problems of war and peace. Tinbergen was awarded, with Ragnar Frisch, the first Nobel Prize for economics in 1969. TINBERGEN, NIKOLAAS (1907–1988). Biologist. Tinbergen studied biology in Leiden, where he organized research in the new field of behavioral biology, cooperating with German scientist Konrad Lorenz. In 1949, Tinbergen immigrated to Great Britain, where he was appointed lecturer, and later professor, of ethology at Oxford University. In 1973, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physiology and medicine, together with Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz. TITSINGH, ISAAC (1745–1812). Having studied surgery in his native city of Amsterdam and law in Leiden, Titsingh left for Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia) as a merchant in the service of the Dutch East India Company. In the period from 1779 to 1784, he spent more than three years at the Dutch commercial post in Deshima, Japan. From 1785 to 1792, he served as director of trade in Chinsura (Bengal, India), and in 1794–1795, he was part of a Dutch embassy sent to Beijing, China. He studied the Japanese language and literature and was the possessor of the first extensive Japanological collection in Europe. Titsingh, who twice visited the shogun’s court at Edo (now

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Tokyo, Japan), was granted the exceptional favor of carrying on a personal correspondence with several individual Japanese. Although his manuscripts have remained unpublished in the archives of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences, Philipp Franz von Siebold made use of them in his Nippon (1832–1851). TOLERATION. The Dutch Republic has been applauded because of its relatively mild political and religious climate. Although Calvinism was the prevalent religion, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anabaptists, and Jews were tolerated, although they were treated as second-rate citizens. Many foreigners were accepted as inhabitants, and many came as refugees—groups such as the Flemish Calvinists and Portuguese Jews at the turn of the 17th century or the Huguenots from France at the end of that century or individuals such as René Descartes and John Locke (1632–1704), who wrote one of three Letters on Toleration (1689) during his stay in the city of Gouda. This tradition continued over the ages. Many groups of refugees were received in the Netherlands, including Jews fleeing from Nazi Germany and, more recently, refugees from many other countries of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The attitude of tolerance also appears in the treatment of individualists and nonconformists of all sorts, including drug addicts and homosexuals. TOLLS. Tolls on rivers and roads were levied as early as the Middle Ages by the regional rulers or local authorities. They were considered a kind of contribution or taxation. In the Low Countries, lucrative tolls were levied on most rivers, such as the Rhine and Scheldt. They were abolished in 1795 after the Batavian Revolution. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new tolls were levied, for example, on canals or roads with high costs for construction and maintenance. TOONDER, MARTEN (1912–2005). Comic-strip writer who founded the Toonder Studios, which was a cover for resistance organizations during World War II. His best-known characters were Olivier B. Bommel and Tom Poes (Mr. Bumble and Tom Puss), whom he situated in a fairy-tale world, but one with very identifiable characters. Their 177 comics—always three pictures with text below—were published in many European dailies and weeklies for half a century.

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An animated cartoon—“Als je begrijpt wat ik bedoel,” 1983 [English translation, “The Dragon That Wasn’t (Or Was He?),” 1987]—was taken from the album De Zwelbast. Toonder enriched the Dutch language with several words and expressions. TOOROP, JAN (JEAN THEODOOR) (1858–1928). Painter. Born in the Netherlands East Indies of a mixed European-Chinese marriage, Toorop studied in Amsterdam and Brussels, among other places. He became involved in the Symbolist movement, having contact with French poet Paul Verlaine and with Belgian painters such as James Ensor and Fernand Khnopff. Before his marriage to the Englishwoman Annie Hall, he converted to Roman Catholicism. Toorop painted in the neo-Impressionistic style and was influenced by the Jugendstil, as is also apparent from his numerous designs for book bindings. He was an accomplished portraitist. After 1910, Toorop’s work took on a more monumental format (e.g., murals and stainedglass windows for churches). He maintained a lively correspondence with a great number of artists and writers. TRADE. From the time that towns in the Netherlands joined the Hansa League during the Middle Ages, commerce has been an important source of prosperity. During the Republic and the “Golden Age,” 17th-century shipping was the major means of transport. Cargo was brought from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean and from the Americas and Indies via the Cape Colony. Apart from merchandise, there were also whaling and other fishing products from Spitsbergen and Davis Strait. At home, rivers and canals facilitated the traffic of barges carrying not only passengers but also products manufactured in the towns or grown in the country. The major seaports of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and the smaller ones at Groningen, Delfzijl, Harlingen, and Vlissingen, have a long tradition of commercial activities. Even today the Netherlands is a major trading nation, not only exporting many of its own products but also trading in and shipping products between many European, Asian, and American countries. Because of this, Rotterdam has remained one of the world’s leading ports. See also BOOK TRADE; LEVANT TRADE.

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TRADE UNIONS. Trade unions were founded in the 1860s in Amsterdam, first by printers (in 1861) and then diamond cutters (1866). In 1869, a Dutch branch of the first International Workers Association (1860–1872) was established. Labor was organized along the same lines as the political parties, namely, on the basis of religious or political affiliation: Roman Catholic, Protestant, and socialist or communist. At the beginning of the 20th century, syndicalism also played a role. Since the end of World War II, the “recognized” labor unions have been partners in the regular consultations with employer organizations and the government in agreements on the conditions of employment, adopting collective agreements on working hours and wages, among other topics. See also KOK, WIM (WILLEM) (1938– ); LABOR MOVEMENT; NATIONAAL ARBEIDS SECRETARIAAT; SOCIAAL-ECONOMISCHE RAAD (SER). TREATY OF 18 (24) ARTICLES. During the international conferences held in London in 1831, the European powers made arrangements for the independent existence of Belgium, which had seceded from the Kingdom of the Netherlands after the Belgian Revolt of August 1830. King William I did not accept the second “treaty” (of 24 Articles) until March 1838. In April 1839, the Netherlands recognized Belgium as an independent neighbor state. TREATY OF MÜNSTER. See MÜNSTER, TREATY OF. TREATY OF THE HAGUE. In this peace treaty, signed on 16 May 1795, France and the new Batavian Republic agreed to a defense alliance; a promise by the Republic not to conclude a separate peace with Great Britain; the delivery to France of 30 men-of-war and part of the Republic’s army under French command; a garrison of French troops (25,000) on the Republic’s territory at its own cost; the cession to France of part of Flanders, the towns of Maastricht and Venlo, and the harbor of Vlissingen; and the payment of 100 million guilders as compensation for the French military “liberation.” The Patriots, who seized power after the Batavian Revolution in January 1795, were blamed for the harsh conditions of this “amicable” treaty.

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TROELSTRA, PIETER JELLES (1860–1930). Socialist politician. When the Socialist Party of Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis began to lean toward anarchism, a new Sociaal Democratische Arbeiderspartij (SDAP, Social Democratic Labor Party) was founded in 1894, of which Troelstra was one of the leaders. After 1897, Troelstra was a member of Parliament, where he excelled as an eloquent speaker. He made his ability as a Socialist propagandist clear in his function as editor in chief of the Socialist daily newspaper Het Volk [The People] after 1900. As a mediator between left- and right-wing currents in the party, he could not avoid the expulsion in 1909 of those at the extreme left who would later found the Dutch Communist Party. After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the SDAP supported the Dutch government’s policy of neutrality, but when in 1918 revolutions broke out in Germany and Russia, Troelstra publicly announced his sympathy for the revolutionary upheaval, and public opinion turned strongly against him. His “mistake” had deep influence on political affairs during the following decades. Troelstra, who wrote some poetry in the Frisian language, published his memoirs, Gedenkschriften, in 1927–1931. TROMP, MAARTEN HARPERTSZ (1598–1653). Naval officer. Tromp was given command of a warship as early as 1624. Together with Vice Adm. Piet Hein, he fought the Dunkirk privateers. In 1639, he fought again as a lieutenant admiral. During the last decade of the Revolt (1568–1648), Tromp defeated a Spanish fleet near the Downs in 1639. During the First Anglo-Dutch War, he defeated the English fleet near Dover in 1652, but was himself defeated near Portland in 1653. In the same year, he fell near Terheijde. Tromp is one of the most popular admirals in Dutch history, along with Hein and Michiel de Ruyter. TULP, NICOLAES (CLAES) PIETERSZ (1593–1674). Physician. Tulp studied medicine in Leiden and settled as a physician in Amsterdam, where he was elected burgomaster several times. His fame is based on his books on Observationes medicarum (1641, 1652). Tulp was appointed praelector of anatomy with the Amsterdam guild of surgeons in 1628. He appears in Rembrandt’s world-famous The Anatomy Lesson (1632, now at the Mauritshuis, The Hague). TWENTE. See OVERIJSSEL.

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–U– UNILEVER. Multinational corporation that was the result of a merger of several enterprises specializing in dairy products and soap. It began with the companies founded by the Jurgens brothers and the Van den Bergh family in the city of Oss in Northern Brabant in 1801 and 1859, respectively. They cooperated as merchants in dairy and food products with the Englishman William Lever, who bought a soap factory in the same place. In 1895, the Van den Berghs founded a new company in England, which was moved to Rotterdam in 1919. In 1929, the several enterprises merged, with margarine as one of its main products. Today, Unilever is one of the leading companies in numerous sectors, including not only food and detergents but also chemical products, paper, synthetic materials, feed, transport, and plantations. Since 2005, the British and Dutch parts of this multinational company (headquartered in London and Rotterdam, respectively) have had only one senior executive. UNION OF UTRECHT. In 1579, Holland and some other provinces and cities entered into a treaty with the intention of cooperating more closely in political, religious, and military affairs. The southern parts of the Netherlands, in revolt against their overlord, Philip II of Spain, were more inclined toward reconciliation with their sovereign than were the northern provinces. Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Drenthe, parts of Frisia, and Groningen promised to cooperate as if they were one province, preserving, however, their traditional rights and privileges; to assist each other against their enemies; not to conclude a peace or any other treaty without the unanimous consent of all the partners in the union; to promote freedom of conscience in religious matters; and not to separate from the union. After renouncing their sovereign in 1581, the Treaty of the Union served as a constitution of the Seven Sovereign United Northern Provinces, a constitution that remained effective until the end of the old Republic in 1795. UNITED NATIONS (UN). The Netherlands has been an active member of the preeminent international organization since its founding in 1945. It has had a temporary seat in the UN Security Council five

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times (1956, 1951–1952, 1965–1966, 1983–1984, and 1999–2000). In 1954–1955, Eelco van Kleffens was president of the United Nations General Assembly. The UN judicial organ, the International Court of Justice, is located in The Hague, and since 1997, the former Dutch minister of foreign affairs Pieter Hendrik (“Peter”) Kooijmans (1933– ) has been one of its 15 judges. Dutch troops have also participated in many UN peacekeeping operations. See also WORLD HERITAGE SITES. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. DutchAmerican relationships have traditionally been strong. After World War II, the Netherlands attached great value to a transatlantic alliance. It welcomed Dutch-American defense cooperation within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which was founded in 1949. Friendly relations were also important because of the Netherlands Antilles in the Caribbean. In 2000, for example, the Netherlands signed an agreement with the United States to start a common war on drugs in this region. Now and again, some Americans have criticized specific Dutch positions (e.g., on abortion and euthanasia), but this has never disturbed the official relationship. See also AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. UNIVERSITIES. The first university founded in the Netherlands was at Louvain (1425). After the Revolt against Spain, universities were also founded in the northern provinces: Leiden in Holland (1575), Franeker in Frisia (1585; liquidated in 1811), Groningen (1614), Utrecht (1636), and Harderwijk in Gelderland (1647; liquidated in 1812). New universities were thereafter founded in Amsterdam (1876; and in 1880, a Calvinistic Free University), Nijmegen (1923, Roman Catholic), and Maastricht (1975). Polytechnics, agricultural, and business schools were founded in Delft, Eindhoven, Enschede, Wageningen, Rotterdam, and Tilburg, acquiring the status of university in the 1970s and 1980s. Protestant theological universities are located in Kampen and Apeldoorn, and Utrecht houses a Catholic university and a university for humanist studies. Nyenrode Business University (Breukelen, Utrecht) is a private institution. The Open University (with its main office in Heerlen, Limburg) was founded in 1984 for home study by people who are interested in sci-

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entific education, no matter what their previous training is. Famous scholars have taught at the Dutch universities, which were also frequented by foreign students, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries and again recently. Legislation on higher education has moved since 1970 from “democratization” to bureaucratization. The most recent reorganization has a strong authoritarian taste. Professors, staff members, and students have only an advisory role in academic policymaking and implementation on the level of the university and the faculty. The Dutch universities are now employers of about 22,000 academic personnel and the same number of technical and administrative staff members; they have about 207,000 students enrolled. UPSTALBOOM (Frisian UPSTALBEAM). During the 12th to 14th centuries, representatives of the Frisian regions, along the North Sea coast, assembled near the city of Aurich (Eastern Frisia, Germany) on the Tuesday after Pentecost to discuss matters of common interest. This loose organization was not very effective, because it lacked the power to exact obedience to its decisions (willekeuren). URBAN STATUTES. Special privileges (stadsrechten) granted to certain communities by counts and dukes during the Middle Ages by which these cities were exempted from the law of the surrounding country. This autonomy proved to be the basis of the successful economic and cultural development of many towns in western and central Europe. In the period of the Dutch Republic, the cities of the provinces, especially Holland, were influential in the state assemblies. The autonomous legal development of the Dutch cities ended with the Batavian Revolution and the introduction of a written national constitution in 1798. UTRECHT. Dutch province and also the city that serves as its capital. With about 1,172,000 inhabitants, it is the smallest province in the Netherlands. After its capital of the same name, the second most important city is Amersfoort. The province got its irregular borders during the Middle Ages as a result of conflicts between the bishops of Utrecht, the counts of Holland, and the dukes of Gelre. During the Revolt against the Spanish king Philip II, Utrecht

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became one of the seven provinces of the new Republic. The partly urbanized province still has a great variety of landscapes, with forests, hills, lakes, and rivers, as well as cultivated areas for agriculture. In the 17th century, rich Amsterdam merchants built beautiful country houses along the River Vecht, which was also a part of the Dutch water line. The private Nyenrode Business University, near Breukelen, is located in such an estate. In May 1940, the Dutch army used (for the last time) the old Grebbe line (in southeast Utrecht), trying to stop the Nazi invasion. The city of Utrecht was built on the site of a Roman castellum and gained municipal rights in 1122. During the early Middle Ages, it was the religious center of the Christianization of northwestern Europe. Willibrord was appointed here as archbishop of the Frisians in 675. The city, which was favorably situated on the Rhine River, also gained importance as a commercial center. In 1579, a treaty among what would become the Seven United Provinces—the Union of Utrecht—was concluded here. A university was founded in Utrecht in 1636, and in 1713 a peace was concluded with France in this city to end the War of the Spanish Succession. The seat of the Roman Catholic archbishop was again established in Utrecht in 1853. Utrecht has about 281,000 residents, and it houses several kinds of industries, such as food, textile, and chemical products. There is a strong accent on services, such as the exhibition center and administrative seats of several national companies and institutions, for instance, the Dutch Railways, the Mint, the Protestant Labor Union, and many state-owned organizations. Utrecht is also an important cultural center, with an orchestra and two fine museums for religious and modern art. The tower of the Dom Church is the highest of all church towers in Netherlands at 112 meters (367 feet). Utrecht’s main suburbs are Nieuwegein, Houten, and Maarssen. UYL, JOOP (JOHANNES MARTEN) DEN (1919–1987). Politician. After studying economics at the University of Amsterdam, den Uyl worked as a journalist for Het Parool and Vrij Nederland. In 1949, he was appointed director of the scientific bureau of the new Labor Party, the Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA). After some years in local politics and government in Amsterdam, in 1956 den Uyl was elected

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to Parliament. He served as minister for economic affairs in 1965–1966. Den Uyl was prime minister from 1973 until 1977, and from 1981 to 1982 he was minister for social services and environment. In 1986, he retired from Parliament. UYTTENBOGAERT (UYTENBOGAERT), JOHANNES (1557– 1644). Theologian and lawyer. Uyttenbogaert was a friend and advisor to Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. He opposed the strong influence of the Calvinist church on political matters. With Hugo Grotius and others, he was a follower of the theology of Jacobus Arminius and joined the so-called Remonstrants, who sought protection by the States of Holland against the Calvinists in 1610. The parties differed on, among other things, the dogma of predestination and the Fall. During the Synod of Dordrecht, Uyttenbogaert was discharged and banished. In 1626, he returned to The Hague. He wrote several treatises on church history and on the relationship between church and state.

–V– VALENTIJN, FRANÇOIS (1666–1727). Theologian and historian. Having studied theology, Valentijn went to Batavia (Jakarta, Indonesia) as a minister in the service of the Dutch East India Company in 1685. He lived in the East Indies until 1714, with an interruption between 1695 and 1705. Valentijn studied the languages and civilization of the native peoples on Java, Amboina, and the other Moluccan Islands, and other areas. In 1724–1726, he published his description of the Indonesian Archipelago in five volumes under the title Oud en Nieuw Oost Indien [Old and New East Indies], in which he also unfolded a new vision of the future of the Dutch presence there. VAN. For surnames beginning with the particle “van,” “van den,” or “van der,” see the root name (e.g., for VAN GOGH, see GOGH). VEER, GERRIT DE (1570–c. 1600). Explorer. De Veer was a member of the exploratory expedition commanded by Willem Barentsz and Jacob van Heemskerck in 1596 in search of the northeast

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passage to India. He published his travel journals, including the famous story of the overwintering of part of the crew in the Behouden Huis on Novaya Zemlya. VENDEX KBB. Enterprise with several chains of department stores for retail, fashion, do-it-yourself, electronics, and jewelry, located in seven European countries. Vendex KBB has been a subsidiary of the Consortium VDXK Acquisition BV since 2004. The company is headquartered in Amsterdam. In 1999, Vendex merged with Koninklijke Bijenkorf Beheer (KBB). Vroom & Dreesmann (V&D) was founded in Amsterdam in 1887 by the Roman Catholic businessmen Wilhelmus Hermannus (“Willem”) Vroom (1850–1925) and Anton Caspar Rudolph Dreesmann (1854–1934) and became Vendex’s most important department store. V&D has some 60 Dutch branches at the moment. KBB’s history goes back to 1870, when Simon Philip Goudsmit (1844–1889) started a shop in Amsterdam for manufactures and fancyworks. A third chain, De Bijenkorf, opened branches in 14 Dutch cities. The other large KBB department store was HEMA (a quite unknown acronym of Hollandsche Eenheidsprijzen Maatschappij Amsterdam, Dutch Standard Pricing Company Amsterdam). HEMA started in 1926 and sold products only with fixed prices (in the beginning 25 or 50 cents) until World War II. Even small Dutch towns got their own HEMA, which was also present in Belgium and Germany in the last years. Some other Vendex KBB chains are Praxis (do-ityourself), Hunkemöller and M&S Mode (fashion), and the Dutch and Belgian branches of Dixons (electronics). VENLO. City in Limburg on the Meuse River. Built on the site of a Roman settlement, Venlo obtained municipal rights in 1343 from the count of Guelders (Gelderland). Although the city signed the Union of Utrecht during the Revolt and was taken by Stadtholder Frederick Henry in 1632, it remained a Spanish possession from 1637 until 1713. Between 1795 and 1813, the French governed Venlo. With two bridges over the Meuse on the frontline at the end of World War II, many historic buildings were destroyed. The present municipality has about 92,000 inhabitants (the city itself, about 40,000). Well-known enterprises located here are the Océ copier factory and the transport firm Frans Maas.

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VERHOEVEN, PAUL. See HAUER, RUTGER (1944– ); REVE, GERARD KORNELIS VAN HET (1923–2006). VERMEER, JOHANNES. See PAINTING. VIGLIUS (WIGLE) VAN AYTTA (1507–1577). Statesman. Of Frisian origin, Viglius studied law in Louvain and several other European universities. He was appointed a judge in the German Reichskammergericht in Speyer in 1535 and professor of law in the Academy of Ingolstadt in 1537. In 1541, he was appointed a member of the Privy Council in Brussels, the most important advisory board of the governess, Mary of Hungary, of the Habsburg Netherlands. Viglius became president of the Privy Council in 1549. After the dismissal of Cardinal Granvelle in 1564, Viglius was the most influential advisor to the acting regent, Margaret of Parma. His main opponent was William I of Orange, leader of the Revolt against King Philip II of Spain. Viglius was no hard-liner, but his policy of conciliation succeeded only partly because of the military developments and the political and religious controversies that had become fundamentally irreconcilable. VIKINGS. Raiders from Norway and Denmark who made forays into what was later known as the Low Countries, where they plundered towns such as Antwerp, Utrecht, Dorestad, Ghent, and Tiel. The economic and especially commercial development of these regions seems to have been hampered, and hardly any cities were founded during the 9th and 10th centuries. VLISSINGEN (FLUSHING). Harbor on the island of Walcheren in the province of Zeeland. Vlissingen was granted urban statutes in 1315 by the Count of Holland, William III the Good (1285–1337). The town became an important fishing port. In the 16th century, its strategic position was strengthened by the construction of new fortresses. During the 17th century, the city was also a commercial center, together with the Zeeland capital Middelburg and the ports of Veere and Zierikzee. The slave trade was a profitable activity during the 18th century. Its important position made Vlissingen a target in 1809 during the Napoleonic Wars and again in 1944 during World

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War II, when the city was destroyed. At present, the city has about 45,000 inhabitants. VOET, GIJSBERT (GISBERTUS VOETIUS) (1589–1676). Professor of theology at the University of Utrecht from 1634. As a firm Calvinist, he fought the Arminians. He not only was a prolific polemist but also wrote several extensive treatises in which he systematized the dogma and role of the church. Voet entered into a long dispute with his Leiden colleague Johannes Coccejus, who advocated a more liberal direction. Their arguments primarily concerned the Commandment of the Sabbath and grace and remission. VOET, JOHANNES (1647–1713). Jurist. Voet was appointed professor of law at the University of Utrecht and in 1680 at the University of Leiden. His Commentarius ad Pandectas (1698–1704), a commentary on the Pandects, a part of the Corpus Iuris Civilis promulgated in 534 by the Roman emperor Justinian I, has won fame as an important source for the knowledge of Roman-Dutch law, especially in South Africa. It has been translated into English (as The Selective Voet, Being the Commentary on the Pandects [Paris Edition of 1829] by Johannes Voet and the Supplement to that Work by Joannes van der Linden, transl. by Percival Gane, 8 vols., 1955–1958). VOLKSPARTIJ VOOR VRIJHEID EN DEMOCRATIE (VVD; PEOPLE’S PARTY FOR FREEDOM AND DEMOCRACY). This Liberal Party was a merger in 1948 of the Partij van de Vrijheid (Freedom Party, the successor of the prewar Liberal State Party) and the Oud Committee, a group of dissatisfied members of the Vrijzinnig-Democratische Bond (VDB, League of Free Democrats), which had merged into the Social Democratic Partij van de Arbeid (PvdA) a few years before. During the 1950s and 1960s, the VVD remained a relatively small political party, although it participated in several coalition governments. The party’s course changed in a more conservative direction as a result of the foundation of the more leftwing Democraten 1966 (D66) in 1966. Since the 1970s, the VVD has gained some electoral successes; in 1982, it held 36 (out of 150) seats in Parliament, and in 1998, 38. After the November 2006 elections, the party fell back to 22 seats after a leadership struggle be-

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tween Maria Cornelia Frederika (“Rita”) Verdonk (1955– ) and Mark Rutte (1967– ), which was decided in favor of the latter. Well-known VVD leaders have been Pieter Jacobus Oud (1886–1968), Edzo Hendrik Toxopeus (1918– ), Hans Wiegel (1941– ), Frits Bolkestein, and Gerrit Zalm (1952– ). The party’s scientific department is called the Prof. Mr. B. M. Telders Foundation. The VVD cooperates with other Liberal parties in the European Parliament (EP) in the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party. See also HIRSI ALI (MAGAN), AYAAN (1969– ). VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN (1587–1679). Playwright and poet. Vondel was born in Cologne, Germany, after his Anabaptist parents had fled the Counter-Reformation from Antwerp. In 1595, the family settled in the Republic, moving in 1597 to Amsterdam. Vondel earned a living with a silk and hosiery shop first, and, after its bankruptcy, as a bank employee. He admired the classics and wrote many plays with classical and biblical themes, notably his masterpiece Lucifer (1654). His works were also filled with his ideas about contemporary politics and religious controversies. In his Palamedes oft vermoorde onnooselheyd [Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence, 1625], and in poems such as “Op de Hollantsche transformatie” [On the Latest Dutch Transformation, 1618] and the famous “Het stockske van Oldenbarnevelt” [The Cane of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, 1657], he sided against the orthodox Calvinist stadtholder Maurice in favor of the Arminian grand pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. Vondel argued for religious tolerance. In his play Gijsbrecht van Aemstel (1637), he showed sympathy for the Roman Catholic Church. His open conversion to this denomination in 1641 made him unpopular within the Calvinist elite. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE; THEATER. VOSMEER, SASBOUT (1548–1614). As a Roman Catholic priest during the Revolt of the Netherlands against the Catholic king Philip II of Spain, Vosmeer was directed by his superiors to rally his fellow believers. During this civil war between Calvinists and Roman Catholics (among others), the church organization of the latter collapsed. The Low Countries were thereafter considered by Rome as a missionary region (missio hollandica), and Vosmeer was appointed apostolic vicar (rather than archbishop). When the Calvinist authorities

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discovered Vosmeer’s activities, he was banished in 1603. He died in Cologne. VOSSIUS, GERARDUS JOHANNES (1577–1649). Scholar. Rector of the Latin school in 1600, Vossius was appointed curator of Staten College at the University of Leiden. He was a friend of Hugo Grotius, who became one of the leading followers of theologian Jacobus Arminius. Because of the publication of his History of Pelagianism (1618), Vossius was dismissed on the charge of unorthodoxy. In 1622, however, he was rehabilitated and appointed professor of rhetoric and history. Vossius published many books on classical philology and literature and on history (in Latin). See also VOSSIUS, ISAAC (1618–1689). VOSSIUS, ISAAC (1618–1689). This son of Gerardus Vossius studied at Leiden University and abroad. With his already extensive collection of books and manuscripts, he settled in Amsterdam, where he was appointed keeper of the city library in 1646. Two years later, he went to Sweden as librarian and professor of Greek to Queen Christina. From 1670, he lived in London. After his death, Leiden University purchased his famous collection of manuscripts (now known as the Codices Vossiani). Vossius published extensively in the fields of classical studies and history. VRIES, HUGO DE (1848–1935). Biologist. De Vries studied botany at Leiden University and then did scientific research in Heidelberg and Würzburg, Germany, on the influence of temperature on the permeability of the cells and protoplasm of plants. At the University of Halle in Germany, he wrote the thesis Untersuchungen über die mechanischen Ursachen der Zellstreckung [Researches on the Mechanical Causes of the Stretching of Cells] in 1877. The next year, he was appointed professor of biology at the University of Amsterdam, where he cooperated with his stimulating colleague Jacobus van ’t Hoff, a famous chemist. In 1900, de Vries published his rediscovery of an invention by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) in “Sur la loi de disjonction des hybrides.” His research especially concentrated on genetics. De Vries traveled extensively, among other places to the United States; he wrote a book about Yellowstone National Park. His

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collected works were published in seven volumes (Opera e periodices collata, 1918–1927). VRIES, JAN PIETER MARIE LAURENS DE (1890–1964). Linguist. De Vries studied Dutch and German literature at the University of Amsterdam, where he was one of the founders of the Unitas Studiosorum Amstelodamensium. He wrote his doctoral thesis in 1915 on ballads of the Faeroe Islands. He also published extensively on Dutch and Scandinavian literature. His interest focused on Germanic religion and literature. In 1926, De Vries was appointed professor of Germanic languages, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Old German, and comparative linguistics of the Indo-Germanic languages at Leiden University. Besides an early historical study on the Vikings in the Low Countries (1923) and a book on the Germanic Period (1930, rev. ed. 1941), he wrote his famous Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte [History of Ancient Germanic Religion, 1935–1937; rev. ed. 1956–1957] and his Altnordische Literaturgeschichte [History of Ancient Nordic Literature, 1941–1942, rev. ed. 1964–1967]. His second field of interest was folklore. During the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940–1945, de Vries, who accepted an authoritarian form of government, was a firm advocate of maintaining the Dutch national identity, as opposed to those collaborators who were adherents of the German idea of a greater German Reich that would include the Dutch. After the war he was dismissed as professor on the charge of serious intellectual collaboration. Working as a teacher in a secondary school until his retirement in 1955, de Vries studied and wrote extensively on etymology and the history of religion. VROOM & DREESMANN (V&D). See VENDEX KBB.

–W– WAALS, JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER, SR. (1837–1923). Physicist. After teaching in a public school and a high school, van der Waals studied physics and mathematics at Leiden University from 1862 to 1865. In 1873, he acquired his doctoral degree with a

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thesis—reviewed favorably by British physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)—that explained the phenomenon discovered by Thomas Andrews (1813–1885) in 1869 of the critical temperature of gases. Van der Waals was appointed professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam in 1877. After 1881, he developed several fundamental “laws” on gases and liquids. In 1910, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics. See also SCIENCE. WADDEN (SEA). Part of the North Sea adjacent to the Dutch provinces of Northern Holland, Frisia, and Groningen, the German regions of Eastern Frisia and Schleswig-Holstein, and the south of Denmark. The sea is so shallow here that the floor comes to the surface daily as the water recedes. The Wadden Sea contains a peculiar geomorphology, flora and fauna, and is considered a nature reserve. Between the Wadden Sea and the North Sea are several Dutch isles, five of which are inhabited: Texel (Northern Holland), Vlieland (Frisian Flylân), Terschelling (Frisian Skylge), Ameland (Frisian It Amelân) and Schiermonnikoog (Frisian Skiermûntseach), the last designated a national park in 1989. Since the first concessions were permitted for exploratory drillings for natural gas in the Wadden around 1970, heated debates about the extraction have continued. One of the opinion makers is the Wadden Society, which was founded in 1965 in order to protect the typical sea environment. Centers for the care of sick and young (lost) seals have been operating on the isle of Texel and in the Groningen village of Pieterburen since 1952 and 1971, respectively. WAGENAAR, JAN (1709–1773). Historian. Wagenaar lived in Amsterdam at first as a timber merchant, and then from 1756 to 1760, he was editor of the Amsterdamsche Courant. In 1760, he was appointed first clerk in the city secretariat of Amsterdam. Wagenaar was the first Dutch historian since Pieter Cornelisz Hooft to write a history of his country based on research in the archives and other sources. Wagenaar’s reputation was principally based on his Vaderlandsche historie [Dutch History, 21 vols., 1749–1759]. In 1758, he was appointed historian of the city of Amsterdam and published its history in three volumes (1760–1767). See also HISTORIOGRAPHY.

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WAGENINGEN. Small town of about 35,000 in Gelderland. Wageningen received municipal rights in 1263. Nowadays it is famous for its university and research center for life sciences. The university started in 1918 as a polytechnic for agricultural studies. On 6 May 1945, Nazi Germany surrendered in Wageningen. Negotiations took place in the Hotel de Wereld, in the presence of Prince Bernhard. Until 2005, the capitulation was commemorated by a veteran soldiers parade. WAGHENAER, LUCAS JANSZ (1533/1534–1606). Cartographer. Waghenaer lived in the town of Enkhuizen on the coast of the Zuiderzee and specialized in making sea charts and guides for the many seamen in his town. He compiled the Spieghel der Zeevaerdt [published in Leiden, 1584–1585; translated into English as The Mariners’ Mirror, 1588]. His Thresoor der Zeevaert is a guide for seamen published first in 1592, with several ensuing corrected editions. See also POMP, DIRCK GERRITSZ (1544/1545–1608). WALLOON CHURCHES. During the Revolt of the Netherlands against King Philip II of Spain, many Walloon (French-speaking) Calvinists from the southern parts of the Netherlands fled to the North. They constituted separate congregations affiliated with the Calvinist church in the later Republic of the Seven United Provinces. After the persecution of Protestants by King Louis XIV of France and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, many French Huguenots settled in the Republic and joined the Walloon church. Since the 19th century, the small Walloon community has been part of the Dutch Reformed Church (Nederlands Hervormde Kerk), now Protestantse Kerk in Nederland. WASSENAER, UNICO WILHELM VAN. See DUNNING, ALBERT (1935–2005). WATERSCHAPPEN. Public bodies with the task of supervising the water level, dikes, roads, and waterways. These polder districts, which played an important role in Dutch constitutional law and state formation, were founded during the Middle Ages by the landowners, who were also the main parties concerned. They were responsible for the taxation of both landowners and tenants.

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Some of them were called heemraadschappen. In many waterschappen, for example, in Holland, the boards also acted as judicial authorities, until the 19th century. Since the constitution of 1848, the provincial authorities have had control over the functioning of the waterschappen, which, at present, are also responsible for the care of water treatment. WESTERBORK. Village in the province of Drenthe where the Dutch government built a center for refugees from Nazi Germany (mostly Jews) in 1939. During World War II, the German occupation authorities dramatically changed the character of the center into a concentration camp in transit to the extermination camps. In 1983, a center for the commemoration and documentation of the persecution of the Jews was established there. WEST INDIA COMPANY (WIC; WEST-INDISCHE COMPAGNIE). The West India Company was founded in 1621 as an analog to the East India Company, but it was not authorized to exercise the same rights of sovereignty in the regions under its direction, namely, West Africa and the Americas, including New Amsterdam, Surinam, Brazil, and the Netherlands Antilles. One of its monopolies concerned the commerce in slaves. The WIC, reconstituted in 1674–1675, was liquidated in 1792. WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF. See MÜNSTER, TREATY OF. WEYERMAN, JACOB CAMPO (1677–1747). Journalist and pamphleteer. As a painter and engraver, Weyerman did not succeed, so he turned to writing. Besides many satirical and injurious tracts and weeklies, he published a bulky biographical dictionary of Dutch artists, which really is an adaptation of the famous dictionary of Arnold Houbraken (1660–1719). Weyerman was sentenced to life imprisonment by the Court of Holland in The Hague on charges of libel and blackmail. Nevertheless, he is currently regarded as one of the exponents of the early Dutch Enlightenment. Since 1977, the Stichting (Foundation) Jacob Campo Weyerman has stimulated the study and reissue of his works.

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WHALING. Dutch whaling activities began in the early 17th century after the expeditions of Jacob van Heemskerck and Willem Barentsz in 1596, overwintering on Novaya Zemlya. In 1614, the Nordic Company was founded, and in 1619, the settlement of Smeerenburg was founded by the Dutch on Spitsbergen for the production of whale oil. In the early 18th century, Greenland whaling was complemented by whaling activities in Davis Strait, which were discontinued at the end of the century. Netherlands is a signatory to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling and a member of the Internation Whaling Commission. WICQUEFORT, ABRAHAM DE (1606–1682). Diplomat and historian. De Wicquefort studied law at Leiden University and lived for several years in Paris. In 1646, he was appointed a resident, or diplomatic representative, of the Elector of Brandenburg, Germany, at the French court. After his expulsion by the French government in 1659, he returned to the Republic. Urged by Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt, the States of Holland commissioned him to write a history of the Republic, the Histoire des Provinces Unies des Pays-Bas [History of the United Provinces], which was not published until 1719–1743, in two volumes. In 1675, de Wicquefort was charged with high treason because of his connections with France and England. He escaped from prison in 1679 and died in Celle, Germany. His most famous book was L’ambassadeur et ses fonctions [The Ambassador and His Functions, 1690]. See also HISTORIOGRAPHY. WILHELMINA (1880–1962). Queen of the Netherlands. She succeeded her father, King William III, in 1890; during her minority until 1898, her mother, Queen Emma, was regent. During the British blockade of South Africa around 1900, Wilhelmina won international respect when she ordered a Dutch Navy ship to evacuate Paul Kruger (1825–1904), the defeated president of the Transvaal. She married Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1876–1934) in 1901, and they had one daughter, Juliana, in 1909. Wilhelmina had a strong personality. She succeeded in raising the prestige of the monarchy during World War I and especially World War II, when the queen and the Dutch government lived in exile in London. The Dutch people could hear

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her stimulating voice on Radio Orange during this war. The decolonization of Indonesia was a bitter pill for her to swallow. She abdicated in favor of her daughter in 1948 and thereafter lived in the Het Loo palace, near Apeldoorn. In 1959, she published her autobiography, Eenzaam maar niet alleen [Lonely but Not Alone]. “WILHELMUS.” The Dutch national anthem, the first line of which runs “Wilhelmus van Nassauwe, Ben ick van Duytschen bloet” (William of Nassau, am I of German blood). The song was written around 1570 and is part of a collection of so-called sea beggar songs published in the Nieu Geusen lieden boecxken [New Beggars Song Book, 1581]. The melody, after a French soldiers’ song, was reworked by Dutch composer Adriaen Valerius (1575–1625). During the nationalist upheaval of the early 19th century, the song “Wien Neêrlands bloed,” written in 1817 by Dutch poet Hendrik Tollens (1780–1856), was sung as the national anthem instead. However, in 1932, “Wilhelmus” was officially reinstated. WILLEM-ALEXANDER OF ORANGE-NASSAU (1967– ). Crown Prince, the eldest son of Queen Beatrix and Claus van Amsberg. Willem-Alexander studied in Llantwit Major, Wales (receiving his international baccalaureate), and at Leiden University (with a degree in history) until 1993. He was admitted to the Council of State when he became 18 years old. After his studies, he completed some military courses and internships. As part of his preparation to be king, he specialized in water management. In 1998, Willem-Alexander became a member of the International Olympic Committee. In 2002, he married the Argentine Máxima Zorreguieta, a daughter of a former member of the military Vidéla regime who himself was not welcome at the wedding ceremony. Willem-Alexander has three daughters: Amalia (b. 2003), Alexia (b. 2005), and Ariane (b. 2007). See also STOEL, MAX VAN DER (1924– ). WILLIAM I (1772–1843). King of the Netherlands and oldest son of the last stadtholder from the house of Orange-Nassau; general in the Prussian Army. In 1802, William obtained control over Fulda and Corvey in Germany as an indemnity for the loss of his possessions after the Batavian Revolution of 1795. He returned to England in

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1809. In December 1813, he accepted sovereignty over the Netherlands upon the retreat of the French occupation authorities. After the Congress of Vienna in 1814–1815, he became King William I of the Netherlands (combining the former Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands). The constitution of 1815 created space for the enlightened, autocratic regime that the new king had in mind. William stimulated commerce by founding new banking institutions and trading companies, in which he took personal shares, and improving the economic infrastructure of the canals and highways. The paternalistic king-entrepreneur returned in certain respects to the ancien régime political structures whereby the nobility regained some influence. Neither the king nor his principal minister Cornelis van Maanen, however, had sufficient feeling for the awakening of liberal sentiments or the clerical antipathy in the southern part against the Protestant king. The revolutionary movement of 1830 (the Belgian Revolt) affected Brussels as well, where insurgents proclaimed the independent state of Belgium. Military intervention was not successful in restoring the government’s authority in the South, and Great Britain did not support William as the legitimate ruler. William stubbornly sought to alter the status quo of 1831—a policy that led to a financial debacle. In 1839, the government was finally forced to accept the secession of the Belgian kingdom. In 1840, the king abdicated, disappointed by the rising criticism of his policy and of his remarriage with the Belgian Roman Catholic countess Henriette d’Oultremont. WILLIAM II (1792–1849). King of the Netherlands. He succeeded his father William I in 1840 as monarch of the northern Netherlands. He had served as an officer with the British army under the Duke of Wellington in Spain and elsewhere from 1811 to 1813 (seeing action at the battles of Vitoria, Quatre Bras, and Waterloo) and commanded the troops against the Belgian Revolt in 1830–1831. In 1826, he married Anna Pavlona, the sister of the Russian tsar, Alexander I. During William II’s reign, he had to accept certain limits on autocratic government, especially in 1848, the year of the revolutions, when he switched from a conservative to a “liberal” standpoint. The political leader of the Dutch liberals, Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, played an important role in the process of constitutional reform.

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WILLIAM III (1817–1890). King of the Netherlands. He succeeded his father William II in 1849. William III had married his cousin Sophia of Württemberg (1818–1877) in 1839, but she and all three of their sons died before he did. He remarried in 1879, to Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont (1858–1934). They had one daughter, Wilhelmina, who inherited the throne in 1890. William’s autocratic inclination only quickened the process by which Parliament won more political influence. After several constitutional crises (in 1853, 1857, and 1866) caused by the king’s insistence on a royal prerogative to appoint and dismiss his ministers as he pleased, William was at last forced to recognize that the government had to be based on a majority in Parliament. Since 1868, the Dutch monarchy has been constitutional-parliamentary. WILLIAM I OF ORANGE (1533–1584). Stadtholder. Born in Nassau-Dillenburg in the German Empire, William inherited the principality of Orange, France. He was appointed stadtholder of the provinces Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht in 1559. In 1567, William became the political and military leader of the Dutch Revolt against the centralizing and anti-Protestant policy of the Spanish king Philip II, his councilors, and the government in Brussels. His policy of confrontation was at first not successful. The king’s opponents were divided into fundamental Calvinists and other Protestant sects, on the one hand, and Roman Catholics, on the other, who were advocates of more autonomy but did not wish to divide the Catholic Church. The Revolt was in the beginning more conservative in its purpose, aiming at maintenance of local and regional privileges against the encroachment of the central government in Brussels. Besides, military fortune was varied: Many of William’s brothers were killed, and the military genius of the Spanish governor, the Duke of Alba, nearly inflicted a decisive defeat on the insurgents. After the Union of Utrecht (1579), in 1580 the king declared William an outlaw. In 1581, the Northern provinces proclaimed themselves an independent Republic. William “the Silent” was murdered at Delft by Balthasar Gerards (c. 1557–1584), a loyal follower of the king. Four years after William’s death, the Spanish Armada, a fleet sent to put down the Revolt definitively, ended in a disaster. After 1588, the consolidation of the Dutch Republic was intensified with great

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success. William became a kind of “founding father” and national hero. His nephew Willem Lodewijk of Nassau became stadtholder of the provinces of Friesland (see FRISA [FRIESLAND]; Frisian FRYSLÂN), Groningen, and Drenthe (1584–1620). William’s son Maurice succeeded him as stadtholder in the other five provinces. WILLIAM III OF ORANGE (1650–1702). Stadtholder and English king. In 1672–1675, the five Dutch provinces that had decided not to take a stadtholder after the death of his father William II in 1650, appointed William III to the position of stadtholder. He became the architect of the great coalitions against the French king Louis XIV, for example, the League of Augsburg in 1686 (whose main participants were the Dutch Republic, the Habsburg emperor, Spain, Sweden, Brandenburg, and Savoy). After the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 in England, he was offered, on the basis of his marriage to his cousin Mary II Stuart (1662–1694), the English, Scottish, and Irish crowns. Northern Ireland Protestants still admire him because he defeated his Roman Catholic father-in-law James II in the battle of the Boyne (1690). The coalition with Great Britain was only favorable for the Dutch Republic in the short term. William’s death meant the extinction of the House of Orange-Nassau in the male line. His inheritance was divided between the Frisian Nassau-Dietz family and the Brandenburg dynasty of the Hohenzollerns. WILLIBRORD (658–739). Missionary. Willibrord was a pupil of the famous abbot and bishop Wilfried of York (c. 633–709). He lived as a monk in Northumbria and Ireland. In 690, he decided to bring Christianity to the Frisians in the Low Countries, an initiative approved by the pope. In 695, Willibrord was appointed archbishop of Utrecht, where he founded a church and a monastery. He died in the monastery of Echternach (now Luxembourg), which he also founded. WILLINK, ALBERT CAREL (1900–1983). Painter. After abandoning his studies in architecture at the Academy in Delft, Willink devoted himself to painting. Studying in Berlin, he was influenced by Cubism, Expressionism, and Constructivism, as can be seen from his illustrations for the periodical he founded with the

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Belgian Constructivist painter Josef Peeters and Dutch author Charles Edgar du Perron (1899–1940). In the mid-1920s, his painting became more realistic. Willink produced several portraits (of his wives, industrialists, men of letters, and others) and became famous for his “magical realistic” paintings of houses (most in an Amsterdam setting) and of “Arcadian landscapes,” which resemble the surrealistic works by Salvador Dali, Max Ernst, and Paul Delvaux. WILTON, BARTEL (1828–1898). Industrialist; member of a family of smiths in Rotterdam. Wilton specialized in repairing ships. Together with his sons, in 1895 he founded an engineering works and shipyard at Schiedam (near Rotterdam). In 1929, the firm merged with the shipyard Feyenoord, founded by Gerhard Roentgen. WINDMILLS. Windmills and watermills have been a characteristic feature of the Dutch landscape for centuries. They were used from the Middle Ages for the regulation of the water level and for power generation for such industries as flour mills and sawmills. Steam and electricity have since substituted for the mechanical functions of windmills as sources of power. In the last decades, however, a lot of modern windmills (or wind turbines) have been built to generate electricity. Many of the old windmills are still preserved as museums or have become private dwellings. WINSEMIUS, PIERIUS (1586–1644). Historian. Winsemius studied law at Franeker and Leiden and obtained his degree in Caen, France, in 1611. He was admitted to the bar as barrister at the Court of Frisia in Leeuwarden. In 1616, Winsemius was appointed by the States of Frisia as historiographer of that province. He published Annales (1617), Chronique van Vrieslandt (1622), and a Historia of Frisia after 1616 (several editions since 1629). In 1636, Winsemius was appointed professor of rhetoric and history at the University of Franeker. WITCHCRAFT. Following the late Middle Ages, accusations of sorcery were a rather marginal phenomenon in the local and regional judicial practice in the Netherlands. As early as the 16th century, med-

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ical doctor Johannes Wier (1515–1588) wrote a skeptical and critical treatise on demonology, exorcism, and conjuring. During the period of the Republic, no one was executed for sorcery. The small town of Oudewater was famous for its certificates that guaranteed that an accused person was not a witch. The popular belief in the activities of the Devil, however, was hard to eradicate, as the Amsterdam Calvinistic minister Balthasar Bekker realized after the publication of his critical book, The World Bewitched (1695). WITSEN, NICOLAAS CORNELISZ (1641–1717). Merchant and diplomat in Amsterdam, of which city he was elected burgomaster several times. In 1664–1665, Witsen was a member of the Dutch embassy to Muscovy (his Observations were not published until 1966–1967, in three volumes). His great historical, cartographical, and antiquarian interests are evident from his extensive correspondence with many scholars (including the famous German scholar Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz [1646–1716]), and from the publication of his books on shipbuilding, Architectura Navalis . . . Ofte Aaloude en hedendaagsche scheeps-bouw [Ship’s Architecture, 2nd ed., 1690] and on Russia, Noord- en Oost-Tartarije [North and East Tartary, 2nd ed., 1705]. WITT, JOHAN (JAN) DE (1625–1672). Statesman. De Witt studied law and became a lawyer, although he had already been appointed pensionary (legal advisor) of his city of birth, Dordrecht, in 1650. As grand pensionary of the wealthy province of Holland, de Witt was the director of the foreign relations of the Republic. The house of Orange-Nassau being excluded from the office of stadtholder in 1654, de Witt considered the influence of the city magistrates in political matters as the “true freedom” in the constitution of the Republic. De Witt’s aim in his foreign policy was the maintenance of peace, considered to be of fundamental importance to a commercial country. The geographical position of power between mighty rival kingdoms prohibited the success of this policy in the long run. In 1672, the Republic was overrun by French armies, de Witt was murdered in a riot, as was his brother Cornelis (1623–1672), and William III of Orange was appointed stadtholder.

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WOENSDRECHT. See HOLLANDITIS. WOLKERS, JAN (1925– ). Writer and artist. After his art and sculpture studies in The Hague and Amsterdam, Wolkers started writing stories. His first novel, Kort Amerikaans [Short American, 1962], became a Dutch best-seller. Terug naar Oegstgeest [Back to Oegstgeest, 1965] is regarded as an important novel within his extensive oeuvre, dealing with the youth in a typical Dutch Calvinist family. The decay process as a result of cancer is the main theme in his Turks fruit [Turkish Delight, 1969], which was filmed by Paul Verhoeven (1938– ). In that period, this book was still shocking to many people because of its explicit sex scenes. Wolkers refused prestigious literature prizes, such as the P. C. Hooft Prize in 1988. Since the 1980s, he has paid much attention to his sculptures. His works of art have been easy objects to vandalism, because Wolkers often makes use of glass, for example, in the Amsterdam Auschwitz monument. His short novel Zomerhitte [Summer Heath] was a book-week giveaway in 2005. See also DUTCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. WOMEN. The place of women in society was not brought into focus until the movement for women’s liberation and suffrage in the second half of the 19th century. Radical liberals and socialists were active in formulating the demand for emancipation. The first woman to be admitted to a university (in 1871) and to earn her academic degree (in medicine, at Groningen University in 1879) was Aletta Jacobs, who played a prominent role in the international movement for universal suffrage. In 1935, the International Information Center and Archives for the Women’s Movement (IIAV) was founded in Amsterdam. In 1956, Margaretha Albertina Maria (“Marga”) Klompé became the first female minister in a Dutch cabinet. The feminist group Dolle Mina was active in the late 1960s. Like everywhere else, the women’s rights movement in the Netherlands has been slow in its progress. Since World War II, the struggle has been successful in several respects. Many discriminatory laws have been abrogated. More equal opportunities have been created for men and women. Marital power, for instance, was limited in 1956, and divorce was extended in 1970. Through education, it is hoped, the chance has been created for equal job opportunities for women in the future, al-

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though in principle wages are currently equal for men and women. Although more and more women are working in the professions, politics, and academia, the Netherlands still has, according to European standards, a relatively low (full-time) percentage of women in the labor market. Women’s studies and gender studies were introduced during the wave of “democratization” at the universities in the 1970s. WORLD HERITAGE SITES. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has a program to designate World Heritage Sites, with the goal of protecting the common cultural and natural heritage of humankind. The Netherlands contains six such sites: the former isle of Schokland in the Noordoostpolder, Flevoland (designated in 1995); the “Stelling” and waterline of Amsterdam (1996); the Kinderdijk windmills in the province of Southern Holland (1997); the Ir. D. F. Wouda Steam Pumping Station in Lemmer, Frisia (1998); the Beemster Polder in Northern Holland (1999); and the Rietveld Schröder House in the city of Utrecht (2000). Aside from the last one, all Dutch sites are related to water. This also applies for the Wadden, which has been nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO list by the Dutch government. See also DUTCH WATER LINE; LAND RECLAMATION. WORLD WAR I. During the Great War of 1914–1918, the Netherlands remained neutral in the armed conflict between the Axis powers (Germany, Austria, and their allies) and the Allied powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, and later the United States). Unlike Belgium, which immediately became involved in the war in 1914, the strategic and diplomatic interests of Britain and Germany favored upholding the traditional Dutch policy of neutrality. Yet, there were several crises in which Germany or Great Britain threatened to involve the Netherlands in the war because of their suspicion that the Dutch were favoring the other side. Dutch trade was seriously hindered by a British sea blockade and by U.S. and German torpedoes, which hit several Dutch ships. One of the consequences of the war was the increasing role of the state and its bureaucracy in society, among other things, for maintaining a distribution system of necessities and foods. Political pressure compelled the government to introduce universal suffrage in 1917.

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WORLD WAR II. As the German imperial armies had disregarded Belgian neutrality in 1914, so the Nazi troops violated Dutch neutrality in May 1940, after the outbreak of World War II (1939–1945). The Dutch Army surrendered after its defeat and after the center of Rotterdam was bombed. The government and Queen Wilhelmina and the royal family went into exile in London. The German occupation was accompanied by the ascension to power of the Nationaal Socialistische Beweging (NSB, National Socialist Movement) under its leader Anton Mussert. As in the case of the annexation by Napoléon in 1810, a foreign government was installed. Arthur Seyss-Inquart (1892–1946) served as Reichskommissar, and Hans Rauter (1895–1949) was head of the Geheime Staatspolizei (Gestapo). After their failure to win over the majority of the Dutch people to the Nazi ideology, the Germans incorporated the Netherlands into their war machine, and measures were taken to insert the society and economy into the totalitarian state. The Jews were systematically deported to extermination camps in central Europe. Most Dutchmen were forced to comply; they collaborated with or accommodated the regime. Only a small part of the population took part in the Resistance; many of those who did were executed or died in concentration camps. After the Allied defeat in the battle of Arnhem, liberation was tantalizingly slow in coming. Whereas the southern provinces of the country were liberated in the summer of 1944, in the northern part of the Netherlands, where the Germans were essentially trapped, the war ended only after a bitter struggle on 5 May 1945 with the surrender of the German army (Adolf Hitler had already committed suicide on 30 April). The purge took about five years, and the number of collaborators who were executed amounted to 40, the last in 1952. See also JONG, LOUIS DE (1914–2005).

–Z– ZAANDAM. City founded at the sluices of the River Zaan, north of the IJ River near Amsterdam. The region was known for its timber industry (sawmills) and shipyards. At present, the city of about 72,500 inhabitants is part of the municipality of Zaanstad, with a population

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of around 140,000. The Russian tsar Peter the Great worked there for some months in 1697, and the Tsar Peter House is now a tourist attraction. The landscape, mills, and wooden houses of Zaandam attracted many painters, among them Claude Monet in 1871. ZAANSTAD. See ZAANDAM. ZEELAND. One of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands, with about 380,000 inhabitants. Zeeland was one of the seven provinces that united in 1579 during the Dutch Revolt against King Philip II of Spain. The region consists of several islands in the estuary of the rivers Scheldt and Meuse. Its position was strategic and very favorable for commerce. There are many harbors, such as Terneuzen, Arnemuiden, Vlissingen, and Zierikzee. Goes is an inland mediumseized city on the isle of Walcheren. The Dutch West India Company had its headquarters in Middelburg, the capital of the province. Zeeland was occupied by France during the Napoleonic Wars. In World War II, bombing by both parties caused serious casualties as well as damage to the infrastructure. The 1953 storm tide cost more than 1,800 lives. Since the main arms of the rivers were closed under the Delta-Plan, Zeeland has become famous for its many places of recreation, including its small village beaches. The agricultural sector is also still important. ZERNIKE, FRITS (1888–1966). Physicist. After finishing his studies in chemistry at the University of Amsterdam, Zernike held a post as researcher in the laboratory for astronomy under director Jacobus Kapteyn at the University of Groningen, where he became lecturer in 1915 and full professor of mathematical physics and theoretical mechanics in 1920. He focused his interests on the fields of statistical physics and physical optics, especially on the method of phase contrast (for microscopes). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1953. See also SCIENCE. ZIJLSTRA, JELLE (1918–2001). Politician. Having studied economics at the Rotterdam School of Economics (now Erasmus University), Zijlstra was appointed lecturer there. In 1952, he became professor of theoretical economics at the Free (Calvinist) University in

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Amsterdam. He was a member of the Antirevolutionaire Partij (ARP), the orthodox Protestant political party. From 1952 until 1959, Zijlstra was minister of economic affairs and, from 1959 to 1963, minister of finance. In 1963, he was elected to the First Chamber of Parliament. Zijlstra was prime minister for a short period in 1966–1967. Until 1981, he served as president of the Bank of the Netherlands. During the same period, he was president of the Bank for International Settlements in Basel, Switzerland. ZOETEMELK, JOOP (GERARDUS JOSEPH) (1946– ). One of the few Dutch cyclists who have won the Tour de France. As an amateur, Zoetemelk won a gold medal at the Olympic Games of 1968. After turning professional in 1970, he won many other races, including the Vuelta a España in 1979, before winning the Tour de France in 1980, a race he has cycled in 16 times (also taking second place six times). His last great successes were the world championship on the road in 1985 and the Amstel Gold race in 1987. ZOUTMAN, JOHAN ARNOLD (1724–1793). Dutch rear admiral who fought the famous sea battle near Doggersbank in 1781 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War. Although the fight was inconclusive, Zoutman was applauded as a victorious hero. Damage to the fleets was, however, so serious that Dutch commerce never recovered from the blow. ZUIDERZEE. This “sea” originated as the consequence of several heavy storms that transformed the Flevomeer, or Almere, into an open arm of the North Sea sometime between 1500 B.C. and the Roman period. The first mention of the name Zuiderzee is in a 13thcentury document. Many harbor towns were built along its coasts, among them Amsterdam, Hoorn, and Enkhuizen. From 1928 to 1932, a 30-kilometer-long (19-mile) dam called the Afsluitdijk was constructed, closing off the Zuiderzee, which has been called the IJsselmeer since then. Several major projects of land reclamation were realized: the Wieringermeerpolder in 1934 (inundated by Nazi Germany in 1945), the Noordoostpolder in 1942, and the Flevopolders in 1957–1968. The harbor of Amsterdam has had a new connection with the North Sea since 1865–1876, the North Sea Canal. Recently,

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Amsterdam set up a new town district in the IJsselmeer: IJburg. See also FLEVOLAND. ZUID-HOLLAND. See HOLLAND. ZWOLLE. Town on the River IJssel, capital of the province of Overijssel. The city was first documented in 1040 and was granted urban statutes by its lord, the bishop of Utrecht. As an important commercial city, Zwolle became a member of the Hansa League like its neighbors Kampen and Deventer. In the late Middle Ages, the town was the center of the spiritual movement of the devotio moderna of Geert Groote. In 1579, during the Dutch Revolt, Zwolle joined the Union of Utrecht. Zwolle flourished during the period of the Republic, but after the Napoleonic annexation of the Kingdom of Holland (1810–1813), the city did not regain its earlier prosperity. Some famous people were born in Zwolle, for example the liberal politician Johan Rudolf Thorbecke and the man of letters Everardus (Everhardus) Johannes Potgieter (1808–1875). Presently, Zwolle houses several industries such as the manufacture of metal and chemical products, food, and printing companies. The city is an important center for its surrounding areas, with markets and educational facilities such as the polytechnic Windesheim, which is associated with the Free University of Amsterdam. Zwolle houses a fine collection of ancient and modern art in its Provincial Museum. There are some beautiful buildings from the 14th through 17th centuries, several churches, and a gateway, the Sassenpoort. The city has about 110,000 inhabitants today.

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Appendix A: Heads of State since 1806

1806–1810 1810–1813

Louis Napoléon (Bonaparte) Napoléon I, French emperor

DYNASTY OF ORANGE-NASSAU 1813/14–1840 1840–1849 1849–1890 1890–1898 1898–1948* 1948–1980 1980–

William I William II William III Emma of Waldeck-Pyrmont (regent) Wilhelmina Juliana Beatrix

*1940–1945

Arthur Seys-lnquart, German Reichs commissioner (governor)

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Appendix B: Prime Ministers since 1945

Willem Schermerhorn Louis Beel Willem Drees Louis Beel Jan de Quay Victor Marijnen Joseph (“Jo”) Cals Jelle Zijlstra Petrus (“Piet”) de Jong Barend Biesheuvel Johannes (“Joop”) den Uyl Andreas (“Dries”) van Agt Rudolph (“Ruud”) Lubbers Willem (“Wim”) Kok Jan Peter Balkenende

24 June 1945–3 July 1946 3 July 1946–7 August 1948 7 August 1948–22 December 1958 22 December 1958–19 May 1959 19 May 1959–24 July 1963 24 July 1963–14 April 1965 14 April 1965–22 November 1966 22 November 1966–5 April 1967 6 April 1967–6 July 1971 6 July 1971–11 May 1973 11 May 1973–19 December 1977 19 December 1977–4 November 1982 4 November 1982–22 August 1994 22 August 1994–22 July 2002 22 July 2002–

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Appendix C: Governments since 1945

Coalition Parties* National unity KVP, PvdA PvdA, KVP, CHU, VVD PvdA, KVP, CHU, VVD PvdA, KVP, ARP, CHU PvdA, KVP, ARP, CHU KVP, ARP, CHU KVP, ARP, CHU, VVD KVP, ARP, CHU, VVD KVP, PvdA, ARP ARP, KVP KVP, ARP, CHU, VVD ARP, KVP, CHU, VVD, DS’70 ARP, KVP, CHU, VVD PvdA, D66, PPR, KVP, ARP CDA, VVD CDA, PvdA, D66 CDA, D66 CDA, VVD CDA, VVD CDA, PvdA PvdA, VVD, D66 PvdA, VVD, D66 CDA, LPF, VVD CDA, VVD, D66 CDA, VVD CDA, PvdA, CU

Prime Minister Schermerhorn Beel (I) Drees, Van Schaik Drees (I) Drees (II) Drees (III) Beel (II) De Quay Marijnen Cals Zijlstra De Jong Biesheuvel (I) Biesheuvel (II) Den Uyl Van Agt (I) Van Agt (II) Van Agt (III) Lubbers (I) Lubbers (II) Lubbers (III) Kok (I) Kok (II) Balkenende (I) Balkenende (II) Balkenende (III) Balkenende (IV)

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Period 1945–1946 1946–1948 1948–1951 1951–1952 1952–1956 1956–1958 1958–1959 1959–1963 1963–1965 1965–1966 1966–1967 1967–1971 1971–1972 1972–1973 1973–1977 1977–1981 1981–1982 1982 1982–1986 1986–1989 1989–1994 1994–1998 1998–2002 2002–2003 2003–2006 2006–2007 2007–

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APPENDIX C

*Party Acronyms: ARP Antirevolutionaire Partij (Antirevolutionary Party) CDA Christen Democratisch Appèl (Christian Democratic Appeal) CHU Christelijk-Historische Unie (Christian Historical Union) CU Christen Unie (Christian Union) D66 Democraten 1966 (Democrats 1966) DS’70 Democratisch Socialisten 1970 (Democratic Socialists 1970) KVP Katholieke Volkspartij (Catholic People’s Party) LPF Lijst Pim Fortuyn (List Pim Fortuyn) PPR Politieke Partij Radicalen (Radical Political Party) PvdA Partij van de Arbeid (Labor Party) VVD Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie (People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy)

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Appendix D: Provinces and Capitals

Province Drenthe Flevoland Fryslân (Frisia) Gelderland Groningen Limburg Noord-Brabant Noord-Holland Overijssel Utrecht Zeeland Zuid-Holland

Capital Assen Lelystad Leeuwarden (Ljouwert) Arnhem Groningen Maastricht ’s Hertogenbosch Haarlem Zwolle Utrecht Middelburg Den Haag (The Hague)

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Bibliography

CONTENTS I. Introduction II. General A. Bibliographies B. Abstracts C. Atlases D. Journals and Series III. History A. General B. Maritime C. Colonial 1. General 2. Africa (The Cape and the Gold Coast) 3. The Americas a. The Caribbean (Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles) b. North America (New Netherland) c. South America 4. Asia a. Ceylon b. China c. India d. Netherlands East Indies 5. Australia D. Foreign Relations 1. General 2. Africa 3. The Americas 4. Asia 5. Belgium and Luxembourg 6. France 7. Germany 265

266 269 269 272 272 272 273 273 275 276 276 277 278 278 278 279 280 280 280 280 281 283 283 283 284 284 285 286 286 286

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8. Great Britain 9. Japan 10. The Middle East and the Balkans 11. Russia and the Baltic E. Intellectual History 1. Culture 2. Education 3. Law 4. Literature and History 5. Philosophy 6. Political Ideas/Theory 7. Publishing and Printing (Including Cartography) F. Religion G. Sciences H. Arts I. Social and Economic History J. Periods 1. Prehistory and the Middle Ages 2. The Sixteenth Century 3. The Revolt 4. The Seventeenth Century (Golden Age) 5. The Eighteenth Century (Enlightenment) 6. The Nineteenth Century 7. The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries IV. Websites of Dutch Historical Organizations

287 288 289 289 290 290 291 291 292 294 295 296 297 301 303 306 310 310 312 313 315 317 318 318 321

I. INTRODUCTION This bibliography about the history of the Netherlands is selected for scholars, students, and the general public for further study of this country and its people. Much has been written about the Netherlands, its foreign relations, and its colonies over the past centuries. This massive quantity of historical literature continues to grow rapidly, among other things because former colonies are now studying their own relationships with Europe. Moreover, many foreigners have published about the 17th-century Dutch Republic because the country had a relatively large impact on world history in that period. Furthermore, the recent European integration process has led to foreign interest in contemporary Dutch history, particularly for comparative research between the Netherlands and other countries involved.

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However, most of the literature about Dutch history is still written by Dutch historians in their own language and as a consequence is mainly intended for the Dutch public. Yet the number of Dutch historians who also publish in English or translate their work into internationally accessible languages has been increasing recently. They have already produced far more titles and much more specialized studies—also in other foreign languages—than can be presented below. In other words, this bibliography contains only a small, but hopefully useful, selection from all available titles from Dutch and foreign scholars. In the first edition of this dictionary, titles of books written in Dutch were excluded. A few exceptions have been made for this version, in the field of general studies when English studies were lacking and for unique standard books, volumes, and series. Nevertheless, every effort has been made to provide relevant titles in English, although they may not always be readily available or may have to be supplemented by titles in other languages. People with some knowledge of the Dutch language will easily find the main Dutch standard works in the bibliographies of the works mentioned in this bibliography. This also goes for important articles and reviews on Dutch historical topics. Moreover, titles of articles can be increasingly found in electronic databases of scientific libraries (e.g., in “Picarta,” the coordinating catalogue of all important Dutch libraries) and of electronic journals or other websites on the Internet. These new search possibilities solve the problem that many articles about Dutch history are hidden in volumes and proceedings of conferences with international themes and subjects, frequently with general titles, that do not at all reveal that they contain Dutch history, too. The first edition of this dictionary was restricted to titles published since about 1960. This principle was not changed basically, although I had to skip some of the oldest publications in order to supplement this new bibliography with titles published from 1998 until the summer of 2006. I selected most of them out of the very important database “Repertorium Geschiedenis Nederland” [Repertory of the History of the Netherlands] from the Institute of Netherlands History in The Hague (www.inghist.nl). The printed Kroniek (Chronicle) of books and volumes about Dutch history, which was published between 1994 and 2002 by the Royal Dutch Historical Society, was another means to select new relevant titles. Nonetheless, it should be clear that this bibliography is just a selection, which is of course partially the result of personal factors. This bibliography starts with a few pages of reference books, such as bibliographies and historical atlases, and general periodicals about Dutch history. These journals are interesting because they contain recent articles and the latest trends. They are also important because of their reviews of new publications, particularly the Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis

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der Nederlanden (since 2006 with the subtitle The Low Countries Historical Review). The history part of the bibliography is partially thematic—with subdisciplines such as colonial and intellectual history—and partially chronological. Only the parts on colonial history and foreign relations have geographical subdivisions. It will be self-evident that publications about, for example, the 19th century can be found not only under the heading “Nineteenth Century” but also under many thematic and geographical headings. Well-considered surveys of general Dutch history in English are quite rare. One has to take into account that some of them are combined studies about Belgium and the Netherlands together, such as the studies of Arblaster and Kossmann. Recommended authors in the field of colonial history—which is focused on the East Indies of old—and maritime history include, among others, Blussé, Bruijn, Gaastra, and Van Goor. Most historical literature about Dutch foreign relations is geographically fragmented and therefore hard to recommend in a general sense, outside of Dutch titles such as those from Hellema. The European Contributions to American Studies series will be helpful concerning Dutch–American relationships. The recent Dutch Culture in a European Perspective series (edited by Frijhoff/Spies, Kloek/Mijnhardt, Schuyt/Taverne, Bank/Van Buuren, and Fokkema/Grijzenhout) offers a good overview of cultural, intellectual, and religious history since about 1650. Jan de Vries/Van der Woude, Van Zanden, and Johan de Vries have written survey works about economic developments. As already stated, the Revolt and the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648) have always been important topics in Dutch historiography. Van Deursen, Israel, Parker, and Prak have presented new introductions about these subjects, the 17th-century Golden Age, or the Dutch Republic in general. Unfortunately, most other periods still go without such surveys in English. The Netherlands has several scientific libraries at its disposal. Their catalogues can be consulted on the Internet. The Royal Library in The Hague (www.kb.nl) is the most important one in the field of the humanities. This library also keeps a large collection of pamphlets and newspapers. Furthermore, all the traditional universities have old libraries with outstanding collections. Other important scientific libraries can be found in Dutch areas without universities, for instance, in Arnhem (www.degelderlandbibliotheek.nl), Leeuwarden (www.tresoar.nl; Tresoar also preserves all literature in Frisian), and Middelburg (www.zebi.nl). Specialized libraries are often connected to corresponding institutions. The Peace Palace library in The Hague (www.ppl.nl), for example, is famous for its collection about the history of law. University libraries in the United States with considerable material about the Netherlands can be found at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor and the University of Texas at Austin.

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The Netherlands also has a well-organized system of public archives. They preserve government documents—their main task—and all kinds of private archives of churches, companies, societies and important persons. Regional and local archives also keep publications and papers about the history of their surroundings. The International Institute of Social History (www.iisg.nl/index-nl.php) particularly preserves archives of Dutch (and also many foreign) trade unions and labor movements. The Netherlands Institute for War Documentation (www.niod.nl) is specialized in the history of World War II. Private documents of the OrangeNassau dynasty can be consulted in the Koninklijk Huisarchief in The Hague (www.koninklijkhuis.nl; click on “organisatie”). Another type of institution that should be mentioned is the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (www.cbs.nl), because of its immense database of statistical information. This bibliography concludes with a list of websites coming from organizations that are important in the Dutch historical infrastructure. Most of these websites have English pages and contain references to other websites, including regional and local institutions. In this list, the history departments of Dutch universities and the scientific (university) libraries were left out, because they can easily be found on the Internet (see also the entries “Libraries” and “Universities” in the Dictionary). The Institute of Netherlands History and the Royal Dutch Historical Society are significant coordinating organizations concerning the study of Dutch history. The website of the National Archive can be used as a starting point for the Dutch archive system (see also www.archiefnet.nl). Information about Dutch politics and politicians is kept in public archives and in documentation centers, of which the centers in Groningen, Nijmegen, and Amsterdam are the most important. Facts about the Dutch parliament and political parties are also available in electronic form on the website www.parlement .com.

II. GENERAL A. Bibliographies Bibliography of the Netherlands Institute for Art. The Hague: Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie, 1946–[1985]. Breugelmans, Ronald. Fac et spera: Joannes Maire, Printer and Bookseller in Leiden (1603–1657); A Bibliography of His Publications. Houten, Neth.: Hes & De Graaf, 2003. ———, ed. Leiden Imprints 1483–1600 in Leiden University Library and Biblioteca Thijsiana. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1974. Brogan, Martha L. Research Guide to Libraries and Archives in the Low Countries. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.

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Claes, Frans M., ed. A Bibliography of Netherlandic Dictionaries: Dutch–Flemish. Munich: Kraus I. P., 1980. Coing, Helmut, ed. Handbuch der Quellen und Literatur der neueren europäischen Privatrechtsgeschichte. II/2. Neuere Zeit (1500–1800): Das Zeitalter des gemeinen Rechts/Gesetzgebung und Rechtssprechung. Munich: Beck, 1976. Coolhaas, Willem Ph. A Critical Survey of Studies on Dutch Colonial History. 2nd rev. ed. by Gerrit J. Schutte. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1980. Edelman, Hendrik. Dutch-American Bibliography, 1693–1794. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1974. ———. The Dutch Language Press in America: Two Centuries of Printing, Publishing and Bookselling. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1986. Gehring, Charles, ed. A Guide to Dutch Manuscripts Relating to New Netherland in United States Repositories. Albany: State University of New York, State Educational Department, New York State Library, Cultural Education Center, 1978. Gerlo, Alois, and Hendrik Vervliet. Bibliographie de l’Humanisme des anciens Pays-Bas. Brussels: Presses Universitaires, 1972–1988. Goodman, Donald P. Labor Relations in the Netherlands: A Bibliography. Monticello, Ill.: Vance Bibliographies, 1979. Harris, Rendel, and Stephen K. Jones. The Pilgrim Press: A Bibliographical and Historical Memorial of the Books Printed at Leiden by the Pilgrim Fathers. Repr. ed. by R. Breugelmans. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1987. Heijden, Henk A. M. van der. Leo Belgicus: An Illustrated and Annotated Carto-bibliography. Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Canaletto, 1990. ———. The Oldest Maps of the Netherlands: An Illustrated and Annotated Carto-bibliography of the Sixteenth-Century Maps of the XVII Provinces. Utrecht: HES, 1987. Huisman, Gerda C. Rudolf Agricola: A Bibliography of Printed Works and Translations. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1985. King, Peter, and Michael Wintle, eds. The Netherlands. Oxford: Clio Press, 1988. Klashorst, Gert O. van de, Hans W. Blom, and Eco O. G. Haitsma Mulier. Bibliography of Dutch Seventeenth-Century Political Thought: An Annotated Inventory, 1581–1710. Amsterdam: APA/Holland UP, 1986. Knijff, Philip, and Sibbe Jan Visser. Bibliographia Sociniana: A Bibliographical Reference Tool for the Study of Dutch Socianism and Antitrinitarianism. Ed. Piet Visser. Hilversum, Neth.: Verloren; Amsterdam: Doopsgezinde Historische Kring, 2004. Koeman, Cornelis. Atlantes Neerlandici: Bibliography of Terrestrial, Maritime and Celestial Atlasses and Pilot Pooks, Published in the Netherlands up to

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1880. 6 vols. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum/Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Canaletto, 1967–1985 (rev. ed. 1998– ). ———. Bibliography of Printed Maps of Surinam, 1671–1971. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1973. Krewson, Margrit B. The Netherlands: A Selective Bibliography of Reference Works. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1986. Laer, Arnold J. F. van. New York Historical Manuscripts: Dutch. 4 vols. Baltimore, Md.: Genealogical Publishing, 1974. Landwehr, John. Emblem Books in the Low Countries, 1554–1949. Utrecht: Haentjens Dekker, 1972. ———. Fable-Books, Printed in the Low Countries: A Concise Bibliography until 1800. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1963. ———. Splendid Ceremonies: State Entries and Royal Funerals in the Low Countries, 1515–1791. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf; Leiden: Sijthoff, 1971. ———. VOC: A Bibliography of Publications Relating to the Dutch East India Company, 1602–1800. Ed. Peter van der Krogt. Utrecht: HES, 1991. Lindeboom, Gerrit A., and A. A. G. Ham. A Classified Bibliography of the History of Dutch Medicine. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1975. Lindeboom, Gerrit A., A. A. G. Ham, and Marius J. van Lieburg. Bibliography of the History of Dutch Medicine and Pharmacy, 1900–1991. Rotterdam: Erasmus Publishers, 2002. Meilink-Roelofsz, Marie A. P., ed. Dutch Authors on West Indian History: A Historiographical Selection. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1982. Meilink-Roelofsz, Marie A. P., Margot E. van Opstall, and Gerrit J. Schutte, eds. Dutch Authors on Asian History: A Selection of Dutch Historiography on the Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie. Dordrecht: Foris, 1988. Moors, Han G., ed. National Population Bibliography of the Netherlands, 1945–1979. The Hague: NIDI, 1981. Offenberg, Adriaan K. A Short Title Catalogue of Hebrew Books Printed in the Fifteenth Century Now in the Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana. Amsterdam: University Library, 1990. Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in the Netherlands and Belgium and of Dutch and Flemish Books Printed in Other Countries from 1470 to 1600, Now in the British Museum. London: British Museum, 1965. Tavernier, Roger. Russia and the Low Countries: An International Bibliography, 1500–2000. Groningen: Barkhuis, 2006. Thienen, Gerard van, ed. Incunabula in Dutch Libraries: A Census of FifteenthCentury Books in Dutch Public Collections. 2 vols. Nieuwkoop, Neth.: De Graaf, 1983. Veen, Coenraad F. van. Dutch Catchpenny Prints: Three Centuries of Pictorial Broadsides for Children. The Hague: W. van Hoeve, 1971.

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Voet, Leon, and Jenny Voet-Grisolle. The Plantin Press, 1555–1589: A Bibliography of the Works Printed and Published by Christopher Plantin at Antwerp and Leiden. 6 vols. Amsterdam: W. van Hoeve, 1980–1983.

B. Abstracts Acta Historiae Neerlandicael/Low Countries History Yearbook 1–15. Leiden: Brill/The Hague: Nijhoff, 1966–1982.

C. Atlases Atlas van Nederland/Atlas of the Netherlands. The Hague: SDU, 1963–1977 (with supplements 1978–1981). Ekamper, Peter, et al. Bevolkingsatlas van Nederland: Demografische ontwikkelingen van 1850 tot heden. Rijswijk, Neth.: Elmar, 2003. Geudeke, P. W., and Louisa Balk. Grote historische atlas van Nederland. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff Atlasprodukties, 1990. Grote atlas van Nederland, 1930–1950 / Comprehensive Atlas of the Netherlands, 1930–1950. Zierkzee, Neth.: Asia Maior-Atlas Maior; Utrecht: Royal Dutch Geographical Society; The Hague: Netherlands Institute of Military History, 2005. Grote historische topopgrafische atlas. 11 vols. Tilburg, Neth.: Nieuwland, 2005–2006. Heyden, Henk A. M. van der, and Dirk I. Blonk. De kaart van de Republiek der VII Provinciën, 1615–1797. Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Canaletto/Repro Holland, 2005. Pellenbarg, P. H. The Netherlands in Maps: An Annotated Atlas of 25 Maps; Infrastructure—Industrial Location—Housing—Water—Agriculture. Utrecht: Royal Dutch Geographical Society, 1994. Tamsma, R. The Netherlands in Fifty Maps: An Annotated Atlas. Amsterdam: Royal Dutch Geographical Society, 1988.

D. Journals and Series Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden: The Low Countries Historical Review 83– (The Hague: Koninklijk Nederlands Historisch Genootschap, in cooperation with the Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis, 1969– ) Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies / Revue canadienne d’études néerlandaises 1– (Windsor, Ont., 1979– ) Circumpolar Journal 1–17 (Groningen: Arctic Centre, 1973–2004)

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Circumpolar Studies 1– (Groningen: Arctic Centre, 2004– ) De Franse Nederlanden / Les Pays-Bas Français Jaarboek / Annunaire 1– (Rekkem, Belg., 1976– ) Delta: A Review of Arts Life and Thought in the Netherlands 1–16 (1958–1974) Dutch Art and Architecture Today 1–5 (The Hague, 1977–1982) Dutch Arts 1– (The Hague, 1985– ) Dutch Crossing: A Journal of Low Countries Studies 1– (London, 1977– ) Dutch Heights 1– (The Hague, 1986–1990) Dutch Studies: An Annual Review of the Language, Literature and Life of the Low Countries 1–4 (The Hague, 1974–1980) Economic and Social History in the Netherlands 1–7 (Amsterdam, 1989–1996) Historisch Nieuwsblad: Tweemaandelijks magazine over geschiedenis en historisch bedrijf 1– (Historisch Platvorm, 1992– ) Incontri: Rivista di Studi Italo-Nederlandesi 1– (Amsterdam-Maarssen, 1984– ) Itinerario: Bulletin of the Leyden Centre for the History of European Expansion 1– (Leiden, 1977– ) Jahrbuch: Zentrum für Niederlände-Studien 1– (Münster, 1991– ) The Low Countries: Arts and Society in Flanders and the Netherlands, A Yearbook 1– (Rekkem, Belg., 1993– ) Publications of the American Association for Netherlandic Studies [1]– (Lanham, Md., 1988– ) Quaerendo: A Quarterly Journal from the Low Countries Devoted to Manuscripts and Printed Books 1– (Amsterdam-Leiden, 1971– ) Rotterdam Papers: A Contribution to Medieval Archeology 1– (Rotterdam 1968– ) Septentrion: Revue de culture néerlandaise 1– (Rekkem, Belg., 1972– ) Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 35– (1920– ) Tijdschrift voor Nederlands en Afrikaans 1–3 (Cologne, 1983–1985) Tractrix: Yearbook for the History of Science, Medicine, Technology and Mathematics 1– (Amsterdam, 1989– ) Tydskrif vir Nederlands en Afrikaans 1– (Pretoria, 1994– )

III. HISTORY A. General Aerts, Remieg, et al. Het land van kleine gebaren: Een politieke geschiedenis van Nederland 1780–1990. 2nd ed. Nijmegen: SUN, 2001. Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden. 15 vols. Haarlem: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1977–1983.

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Arblaster, Paul. A History of the Low Countries. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Blokker, Bas, Gijsbert van Es, and Hendrik Spiering. Nederland in een handomdraai: De vaderlandse geschiedenis in jaartallen. 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Balans, 2005. Davids, Karel, and Jan Lucassen, eds. A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Deursen, Arie Th. van. De last van veel geluk: De geschiedenis van Nederland, 1555–1702. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker, 2004. Fokkema, Douwe, and Frans Grijzenhout, eds. Accounting for the Past, 1650–2000. Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum/Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Galema, Annemieke, Barbara Henkes, and Henk te Velde, eds. Images of the Nation: Different Meanings of Dutchness, 1870–1940. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993. Geyl, Pieter. History of the Low Countries: Episodes and Problems. London: Macmillan, 1964. Horst, Han van der. The Low Sky: Understanding the Dutch. The Hague: Nuffic; Schiedam: Scriptum Books, 1996. Israel, Jonathan I. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Kossmann, Ernst H. The Low Countries, 1780–1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. Lademacher, Horst. Die Niederlande: Politische Kultur zwischen Individualität und Anpassung. Berlin: Propyläen, 1993. ———. Geschichte der Niederlande, Politik, Verfassung, Wirtschaft. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1983. Newton, Gerald. The Netherlands: An Historical and Cultural Survey, 1795–1977. London: Benn, 1978. Pinder, David A. The Netherlands. Folkestone, U.K.: Dawson, 1976. Rietbergen, Peter J. A. N., and G. H. J. Seegers. A Short History of the Netherlands: From Prehistory to the Present Day. Trans. M. E. Bennett. Amersfoort, Neth.: Bekking, 1992. Schöffer, Ivo. A Short History of the Netherlands. Amsterdam: De Lange, 1973. Voogd, Christophe de. Histoire des Pays Bas. Paris: Eds. Hatier, 1992. Wee, Herman van der. The Low Countries in the Early Modern World. Trans. Lizabeth Fackelman. Aldershot, U.K.: Variorum, 1993. White, Colin, and Laurie Boucke. The Undutchables: An Observation of the Netherlands: Its Culture and Its Inhabitants. 3rd ed. Montrose, Calif.: White Boucke, 1993. Zahn, Ernest. Das unbekannte Holland: Regenten, Rebellen und Reformatoren. Berlin: Siedler, 1984.

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B. Maritime See also Colonial section below. Bang-Andersen, Arne, Basil Greenhill, and Egil Harald Grude. The North Sea: A Highway of Economic and Cultural Exchange. Stavanger: Norwegian University Press, 1985. Blussé, Leonard, and Femme Gaastra, eds. Companies and Trade: Essays on Overseas Trading Companies during the Ancien Régime. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1981. Boxer, Charles R. The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800. London: Hutchinson, 1965. ———. Jan Compagnie in War and Peace, 1602–1799. London: Heinemann Asia, 1979. Broeze, Frank J. A., ed. A Merchant’s Perspective: Captain Jacobus Boelen’s Narrative of His Visit to Hawaii in 1828. Honolulu: Hawaiian Historical Society, 1988. Bruijn, Jaap R. The Dutch Navy of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993. Bruijn, Jaap R., and Femme S. Gaastra. Ships, Sailors and Spices: East India Companies and Their Shipping in the Sixteenth, Nineteenth, and Eighteenth Centuries. Amsterdam: NEHA, 1993. Davies, David W. A Primer of Dutch Seventeenth-Century Overseas Trade. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1961. Goor, Jurrien van, ed. Trading Companies in Asia, 1600–1830. Utrecht: HES, 1986. Hogarth, Christine. Shipwreck: Discoveries from Our Earliest Shipwrecks, 1622–1797. Sydney: Intern. Cultural Corp. of Australia, 1988. Jacobs, Els M. In Pursuit of Pepper and Tea: The Story of the Dutch East India Company. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1991. Johansen, Hans Chr. Shipping and Trade between the Baltic Area and Western Europe, 1784–1795. Odense, Denmark: University Press of Odense, 1983. Sharp, Andrew. The Journal of Jacob Roggeveen. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970. ———, ed. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London: Clarendon Press, 1968. Shomette, Donald G., and Robert D. Haslach. Raid on America: The Dutch Naval Campaign of 1672–1674. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988. Sicking, Louis. Neptune and the Netherlands: State, Economy, and War at Sea in the Renaissance. Leiden: Brill, 2004. Sicking, Louis, Harry de Bles, and Erlend des Bouvrie, eds. Dutch Light in the “Norwegian Night.” Maritime Relations and Migration across the North Sea in Early Modern Times. Hilversum, Neth.: Verloren, 2004.

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Slot, Bernardus J. Abel Tasman and the Discovery of New Zealand. Amsterdam: Cramwinckel, 1992. Spies, Marijke. Arctic Routes to Fabled Lands: Olivier Brunel and the Passage to China and Cathay in the Sixteenth Century. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997.

C. Colonial See also Maritime section above. 1. General Boxer, Charles R. Dutch Merchants and Mariners in Asia, 1602–1795. London: Variorum, 1988. Bruijn, Max de, and Remco Raben, eds. The World of Jan Brandes, 1743–1808: Drawings of a Dutch Traveller in Batavia, Ceylon and Southern Africa. Zwolle: Waanders, 2004. Dijk, Willy O. Seventeenth-Century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634–1680. 2 vols. Leiden: Leiden University, 2004. Emmer, Pieter C. De Nederlandse slavenhandel, 1500–1850. Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers, 2000. Fisch, Jörg. Hollands Ruhm in Asien: François Valentyns Vision des niederländischen Imperiums im 18. Jahrhundert. Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1986. Gaastra, Femme S. The Dutch East India Company: Expansion and Decline. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 2003. Goor, Jurrien van, and Foskelien van Goor. Prelude to Colonialism. Hilversum, Neth.: Verloren, 2004. Greig, Doreen. The Reluctant Colonists: Netherlanders Abroad in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1987. Locher-Scholten, Elsbeth, and Peter Rietbergen, eds. Hof en handel: Aziatische vorsten en de VOC, 1620–1720; Opgedragen aan Jurrien van Goor. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2004. Moore, Bob, and Henk van Nierop, eds. Colonial Empires Compared: Britain and the Netherlands, 1750–1850; Papers Delivered to the Fourteenth AngloDutch Historical Conference, 2000. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2003. Nooter, Eric, and Patricia U. Bonomi, eds. Colonial Dutch Studies: An Interdisciplinary Approach. New York: New York University Press, 1988. Oostindie, Gert, ed. Fifty Years Later: Antislavery, Capitalism, and Modernity in the Dutch Orbit. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1995. Reynolds, Helen W. Dutch Houses in the Hudson Valley before 1776. New York: Dover, 1965.

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Temminck Groll, Coenraad L., et al. The Dutch Overseas: Architectural Survey; Mutual Heritage of Four Centuries in Three Continents. Zwolle: Waanders, 2002. Veen, Ernst van, and Leonard Blussé. Rivalry and Conflict: European Traders and Asian Trading Networks in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Leiden: CNWS Publications, 2005. 2. Africa (The Cape and the Gold Coast) Baesjou, René, ed. An Asante Embassy on the Gold Coast: The Mission of Akyempon Yaw to Elmina, 1869–1872. Leiden: African Studies Centre, 1979. Dantzig, Albert van. Les Hollandais sur la Côte de Guinée à l’époque de l’essor de l’Ashanti et du Dahomey, 1680–1740. Paris: Société Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 1980. Duin, Pieter van, and Robert Ross. The Economy of the Cape Colony in the Eighteenth Century. Leiden: Netherlands Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1987. Elphick, Richard, and Hermann Giliomee, eds. The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1820. 2nd ed. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1990. Enklaar, Ido H. Life and Work of Dr. J. Th. van der Kemp (1747–1811): Missionary Pioneer and Protagonist of Racial Equality in South Africa. Cape Town: Balkema, 1988. Feinberg, Harvey M. Africans and Europeans in West Africa: Elminians and Dutchmen on the Gold Coast during the Eighteenth Century. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1989. Kessel, Ineke van, ed. Merchants, Missionaries and Migrants: 300 Years of Dutch–Ghanian Relations. Amsterdam: KIT; Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan, 2002. Ouwinga, Marvin T. The Dutch Contribution to the European Knowledge of Africa in the Seventeenth Century, 1595–1725. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI, 1979. Raven Hart, Rowland, ed. Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as Seen by Callers. 2 vols. Cape Town: Balkema, 1979. Schmitt, Eberhard, Thomas Schleich, and Thomas Beck, eds. Kaufleute als Kolonialherren: Die Handelswelt der Niederländer von Kap der Guten Hoffnung bis Nagasaki, 1600–1800. Bamberg, Germany: Buchner, 1988. Viljoen, Russel Stafford. “Land of Our Forefathers”: Jan Paerl, a Khoikhoi Prophet in Cape Colonial Society, 1761–1851. Leiden: Leiden University, 2003.

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Worden, Nigel. Slavery in Dutch South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Yarak, Larry W. Asante and the Dutch, 1744–1873. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. 3. The Americas a. The Caribbean (Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles) Brugman, Frans H. The Monuments of Saba: The Island of Saba, A Caribbean Example. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1995. Cohen, Robert. Jews in Another Environment: Surinam in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century. Leiden: Brill, 1991. Emmanuel, Isaac S., and Suzanne A. Emmanuel. History of the Jews of the Netherlands Antilles. 2 vols. Cincinnati, Ohio: AJA, 1970. Goslinga, Cornelis Ch. The Dutch in the Caribbean and in Surinam, 1791/1795–1942. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1990. ———. The Dutch in the Caribbean and the Guianas, 1680–1791, ed. Maria G. L. van Yperen. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1985. ———. A Short History of the Netherlands Antilles and Surinam. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979. Heilbron, Waldo. Colonial Transformations and the Decomposition of Dutch Plantation Slavery in Surinam. Amsterdam: Centre for Caribbean Studies, 1992. Hoefte, Rosemarijn, and Peter Meel, eds. Twentieth-Century Suriname: Continuities and Discontinuities in a New World Society. Kingston: Ian Randle; Leiden: KITLV Press, 2001. Marley, David F. Pirates and Pioneers: Dutch and Flemish Adventurers in New Spain, 1607–1697. Windsor, Ont.: Netherlandic Press, 1992. Oostindie, Gert, and Inge Klinkers. Decolonising the Caribbean: Dutch Policies in a Comparative Perspective. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003. Soest, Jaap van. Trustee of the Netherlands Antilles: A History of Money, Banking, and the Economy with Special Reference to the Central Bank van de Nederlandse Antillen, 1828–6 February 1978. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1978. b. North America (New Netherland) Blackburn, Roderic H., and Nancy A. Kelly, eds. New World Dutch Studies: Dutch Arts and Culture in Colonial America, 1609–1776. Albany, N.Y.: Albany Institute of History and Arts, 1987.

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Blackburn, Roderic H., and Ruth Piwonka, eds. Remembrance of Patria: Dutch Arts and Culture in Colonial America, 1609–1776. New York: Publishing Center for Cultural Resources for the Albany Institute of History and Arts, 1988. Burke, Thomas J., Jr. Mohawk Frontier: The Dutch Community of Schenectady, New York, 1661–1710. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991. Cohen, David Steven. The Dutch-American Farm. New York: New York University Press, 1992. Condon, Thomas J. New York Beginnings. The Commercial Origins of New Netherland. New York: New York University Press, 1968. Jacobs, Jaap. New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America. Leiden: Brill, 2005. Jong, Gerald de. The Dutch in America, 1609–1974. Boston: Twayne, 1975. Kenney, Alice P. Stubborn for Liberty: The Dutch in New York. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1975. Kim, Sung Bok. Landlord and Tenant in Colonial New York: Manorial Society, 1664–1775. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978. Krizner, L. J., and Lisa Sita. Peter Stuyvesant: New Amsterdam and the Origins of New York. New York: PowerPlus Books, 2001. Rink, Oliver A. Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987. Schulte Nordholt, Jan Willem, and Robert P. Swieringa, eds. A Bilateral Centennial: A History of Dutch-American Relations, 1782–1982. New York: Octagon Press; Amsterdam: Meulenhoff, 1982. Smith, George L. Religion and Trade in New Netherland: Dutch Origins and American Development. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1976. Taylor, Lawrence J. Dutchmen on the Bay: The Ethnology of a Contractual Community. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983. Zee, Henri, and Barbara van der Zee. A Sweet and Alien Land: The Story of Dutch New York. New York: Viking Press, 1978. c. South America Martius Teixeira, Dante, ed. Brasil-Hollandes / Dutch Brasil: Theatrum rerum naturalium Brasiliae. 5 vols. Amsterdam: Editora Index, 1995. Nederveen Meerbeek, Hannedea van. Recife: The Rise of a SeventeenthCentury Trade City from a Cultural-Historical Perspective. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1989. Schalkwijk, Frans L. The Reformed Church in Dutch Brazil, 1630–1654. Zoetermeer, Neth.: Boekencentrum, 1998.

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4. Asia a. Ceylon Arasatnam, Sinnappah. Ceylon and the Dutch, 1600–1800: External Influences and Internal Change in Early Modern Sri Lanka. Aldershot, U.K.: Variorum, 1996. Bandaranayake, Senake, ed. Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea. Colombo: Sri Lankan National Commission for the UNESCO, 1990. Goor, Jurrien van. Jan Kompenie as Schoolmaster: Dutch Education in Ceylon, 1690–1795. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1978. Nadaraja, Tambyah. The Legal System of Ceylon in its Historical Setting. Leiden: Brill, 1972. Pieris, Paulus E. Ceylon and the Hollanders, 1658–1796. 3rd ed. New Delhi: 1995. Silva, Raipal K. da, and W. G. Mieke Beumer. Illustrations and Views of Dutch Ceylon, 1602–1706: A Comprehensive Work of Pictoral Reference with Selected Eye-Witness Accounts. London: Serendib/Leiden: Brill, 1988. b. China Hongsheng, Cai, Leonard Blussé, et al. Sailing to the Pearl River: Dutch Enterprise in South China, 1600–2000 / Hang xiang Zhujiang: Helanren zai Huanan (1600–2000 nian). Guanzhou: Guangzhou Publishing House, 2004. Wills, John E. Embassies and Illusions: Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to K’ong-hsi, 1666–1687. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1984. ———. Pepper, Guns, and Parleys: The Dutch East lndia Company and China, 1622–1681. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974. c. India Bos Radwan, Ann. The Dutch in Western India, 1601–1632. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI, 1978. Koshy, M. O. The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758. New Delhi: Mittal, 1989. Poonen, T. I. Dutch Hegemony in Malabar and Its Collapse, A.D. 1663–1795. Kerala, India: Department of Publications University of Kerala, 1978. Prakash, Om. The Dutch East-lndia Company and the Economy of Bengal, 1630–1720. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985. ———, ed. The Dutch Factories in India, 1617–1623: A Collection of Dutch East India Company Documents Pertaining to India. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1984.

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Winius, George D., and Marcus P. M. Vink. The Merchant-Warrior Pacified: The VOC (The Dutch East India Company) and Its Changing Political Economy in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991. d. Netherlands East Indies Abeyasekere, Susan. Jakarta: A History. Rev. ed. Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989. Alexander, Paul, ed. In the Shadow of Agriculture: Non-farm Activities in the Javanese Economy, Past and Present. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute, 1991. Andaye, Leonard Y. The Heritage of Arung Palakka: A History of South Sulawesi (Celebes) in the Seventeenth Century. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1981. Aritonang, Jan S. Mission Schools in Batakland (Indonesia), 1861–1940. Leiden: Brill, 1994. Ball, John. Indonesian Legal History, 1602–1848. Sydney: Oughtershaw, 1982. Blussé, Leonard. Strange Company: Chinese Settlers, Mestizo Women and the Dutch in VOC Batavia. Dordrecht: Foris, 1986. Boomgaard, Peter. Between Sovereign Domain and Servile Tenure: The Development of Rights to Land in Java, 1780–1870. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1989. ———. Children of the Colonial State: Population Growth and Economic Development in Java, 1795–1880. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1989. Breman, Jan. Control of Land and Labour in Colonial Java: A Case Study of Agrarian Crisis and Reform in the Region of Cirebon during the First Decades of the Twentieth Century. Dordrecht: Foris, 1983. Fasseur, Cornelis. The Politics of Colonial Exploitation: Java, the Dutch, and the Cultivation System. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Gouda, Frances. Dutch Culture Overseas: Colonial Practice in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1996. Groeneboer, Kees. Gateway to the West: The Dutch Language in Colonial Indonesia, 1600–1950; A History of Language Policy. Trans. M. Scholtz. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1998. Hasan, Mushirul, ed. India and lndonesia from the 1830s to 1914: The Heyday of Colonial Rule. Leiden: Brill, 1987. Henderson, William. West New Guinea: The Dispute and Its Settlement. South Orange, N.J.: Seton Hall University Press, 1973. Hisyam, Muhamad. Caught between Three Fires: The Javanese Pangulu under the Dutch Colonial Administration, 1882–1942. Jakarta: IndonesianNetherlands Cooperation in Islamic Studies, 2001.

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Ingleson, John. Road to Exile: The Indonesian Nationalist Movement, 1927–1934. Singapore: Heinemann, 1979. Jacobs, Els M. In Pursuit of Pepper and Tea: The Story of the Dutch East India Company. 2nd ed. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1995. Kahin, Audrey. Rebellion to Integration: West Sumatra and the Indonesian Polity, 1926–1998. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999. Knaap, Gerrit J. Shallow Waters, Rising Tide: Shipping and Trade in Java around 1775. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996. Knaap, Gerrit [J.], and Heather Sutherland. Monsoon Traders: Ships, Skippers and Commodities in Eighteenth-Century Makassar. Leiden: KITLV Press, 2004. Kraan, Alfons van der. Bali at War: A History of the Dutch-Balinese Conflict of 1846–49. Clayton, Australia: Center of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1995. Larson, George D. Prelude to Revolution: Palaces and Politics in Surakarta, 1912–1942. Dordrecht: Foris, 1987. Legge, John D. Sukarno: A Political Biography. London: Allen Lane, 1972. Lindblad, J. Thomas, with Peter E. F. Verhagen. Between Dayak and Dutch: The Economic History of Southeast Kalimantan, 1880–1942. Dordrecht: Foris, 1988. Lindblad, J. Thomas, ed. New Challenges in the Modern Economic History in Indonesia: Proceedings of the First Conference on Indonesia’s Modern Economic History, Jakarta October 1–4, 1991. Leiden: Programme of Indonesian Studies, 1993. Locher-Scholten, Elsbeth B. Sumatran Sultanate and Colonial State: Jambi and the Rise of Dutch Imperialism, 1830–1907. Ithaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 2003. ———. Women and the Colonial State: Essays on Gender and Modernity in the Netherlands Indies, 1900–1942. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2000. Lombard, Denys. Le Sultanat d’Atjèh au temps d’lskander Muda, 1607–1636. Paris: École Française d’Extrème Orient, 1967. Maddison, Angus, and Ge Prince, eds. Economic Growth in Indonesia, 1820–1940. Dordrecht: Foris, 1989. Nagtegaal, Luc. Riding the Dutch Tiger: The Dutch East Indies Company and the Northeast Coast of Java, 1680–1743. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996. Niel, Robert van. Java under the Cultivation System: Collected Writings. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1992. Pelzer, Karl J. Planter and Peasant: Colonial Policy and the Agrarian Struggle in East Sumatra, 1863–1947. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1978. Pigeaud, Theodor G. Th., and Hermanus J. de Graaf. Islamic States in Java, 1500–1700. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976.

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Reid, Anthony. The Contest for North Sumatra: Atjeh, the Netherlands and Britain, 1858–1898. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Rumphius, Georg E. The Poison Tree: Selected Writings of Rumphius on the Natural History of the Indies. Ed. and trans. E. M. Beekman. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981. Saltford, John. The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua, 1962–1969: The Anatomy of Betrayal. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003. Schmutzer, Eduard J. M. Dutch Colonial Policy and the Search for Identity in Indonesia, 1920–1931. Leiden: Brill, 1977. Schulte Nordholt, Hendrik G. C. The Spell of Power: A History of Balinese Politics, 1650–1940. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1996. Steenbrink, Karel. Dutch Colonialism and Indonesian Islam: Contacts and Conflicts, 1596–1950. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993. Thomas, Lynn L., and Franz von Bende-Beckmann. Change and Continuity in Minangkabau: Local, Regional, and Historical Perspectives on West Sumatra. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1985. Wedema, Steven. “Ethiek” und Macht: Die niederländisch-indische Kolonialverwaltung und indonesische Emanzipationsbestrebungen, 1901–1927. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998.

5. Australia Duyker, Edward, ed. The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Max-Joseph Marion Dufresne, 1642 and 1772. Hobart, Australia: St. David’s Park, 1992. Schilder, Günther. Australia Unveiled: The Share of the Dutch Navigators in the Discovery of Australia. 2 vols. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1975. Sigmond, Joannes P., and Lous H. Zuiderbaan. Dutch Discoveries of Australia: Shipwrecks, Treasures, and Early Voyages off the West Coast. Amsterdam: Batavian Lion, 1995.

D. Foreign Relations 1. General Carter, Alice Clare. Neutrality or Commitment: The Evolution of Dutch Foreign Policy, 1667–1795. London: Edward Arnold, 1975. Everts, Philip P. Public Opinion, the Churches, and Foreign Policy: Studies of Domestic Factors in the Making of Dutch Foreign Policy. Leiden: Institute for International Studies, 1983.

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Hellema, Duco. Buitenlandse politiek van Nederland: De Nederlandse rol in de wereldpolitiek. 3rd ed. Utrecht: Spectrum, 2006. Leurdijk, Jan H., ed. The Foreign Policy of the Netherlands. Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Sijthoff, 1978. Tonra, Ben. The Europeanisation of National Foreign Policy: Dutch, Danish and Irish Foreign Policy in the European Union. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2001. Voorhoeve, Joris J. C. Peace, Profits, and Principles: A Study of Dutch Foreign Policy. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979. Wels, Cornelis B. Aloofness and Neutrality: Studies on Dutch Foreign Relations and Policy-Making Institutions. Utrecht: HES, 1982. 2. Africa Boer, Stefan de. Van Sharpeville tot Soweto: Nederlands regeringsbeleid ten aanzien van apartheid, 1960–1977. The Hague: SDU, 1999. 3. The Americas Blanken, Maurice. “Force of Order and Methods.” An American View into the Dutch Directed Society. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976. Galema, Annemieke. Frisians to America, 1880–1949: With the Baggage of the Fatherland. Groningen: Regio Projekt, 1996. Gouda, Frances, and Thijs Brocades Zaalberg. American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920–1949. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2002. Harinck, George, and Hans Krabbendam, eds. Amsterdam–New York: Transatlantic Relations and Urban Identities since 1653. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 2005. ———, eds. Morsels in the Melting Pot: The Persistence of Dutch Immigrant Communities in North America. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 2006. Kirk, Gordon W. The Promise of American Life: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century Immigrant Community, Holland, Michigan, 1847–1894. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978. Krabbendam, Hans, and Hans-Martien ten Napel, eds. Regulating Morality: A Comparison of the Role of the State in Mastering the Mores in the Netherlands and the United States. Antwerp: Maklu, 2000. Krijff, Jan Th. J. Een aengenaeme vrientschap / An Amicable Friendship: A Collection of Historical Events between the Netherlands and Canada from 1862 to 1914. Toronto: Abbeyfield, 2003.

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Kroes, Rob, Henk-Otto Neuschäfer, and Jan Willem Schulte Nordholt, eds. The Dutch in North-America: Their Immigration and Cultural Continuity. Amsterdam: VU University Press, 1991. Lechner, Jan, ed. Contactos entre Los Países Bajos y el mundo Ibérico. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1992. Loeber, Hans, ed. Dutch-American Relations, 1945–1969: A Partnership; Illusions and Facts. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1992. Parsons, William T. The Pennsylvania Dutch: A Persistent Minority. Boston: Twayne, 1976. Reichenbach-Consten, M. J. Gertrude, and Abraham Noordergraaf, eds. Two Hundred Years of Netherlands-American Interaction. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1985. Schulte Nordholt, Jan Willem. The Dutch Republic and American Independence. Trans. Herbert H. Rowen. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982. Swierenga, Robert P., ed. The Dutch in America: Immigration, Settlement, and Cultural Change. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1985. ———. Faith and Family: Dutch Immigration and Settlement in the United States, 1820–1920. New York: Holmes & Meier, [2001]. ———. The Forerunners: Dutch Jewry in the North American Diaspora. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994. Vandermey, Albert. To All Our Children: The Story of the Postwar Dutch Immigration to Canada. Jordan Station, Ont.: Paideia Press, 1983. 4. Asia Brohier, Richard L. Links between Sri Lanka and the Netherlands: A Book of Dutch Ceylon. Colombo: Netherlands Alumni Association of Sri Lanka, 1978. Brummelhuis, Han ten. Merchant, Courtier and Diplomat: A History of the Contacts between the Netherlands and Thailand. Lochem, Neth.: Tijdstroom, 1987. Drooglever, Pieter J., Marian J. B. Schouten, and Mona Lohanda, eds. Guide to the Archives on Relations between the Netherlands and Indonesia, 1945–1963. The Hague: Institute of Netherlands History, 1999. Goodman, Grant K. Japan: The Dutch Experience. London: Athlone, 1986. Lakhina, R. L., Vasant V. Moharir, and H. U. Qureshi, eds. Fifty Years of IndoDutch Cooperation: A Commemorative Volume. Leidschendam, Neth.: Foundation for Critical Choices for India; Leiden: International Institute for Asian Studies, 1999.

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Ledyard, Gari. The Dutch Came to Korea. Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch, in conj. with Taewon Publishing, 1971. Vos, Ken, ed. Oranda: Les Pays-Bas au Japon, 1600–1868. Brussels: Générale de Banque, 1989. Vos, Mei Li. How Dutch Indonesian Cooperation Changed Remarkably Little after a Diplomatic Rupture. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 2001. Vos, Reinout. Gentle Janus, Merchant Prince: The VOC and the Tight Rope of Diplomacy in the Malay World, 1740–1800. Trans. B. Jackson. Leiden: KITLV Press, 1993. Walle, Willy F. Vande, and Noël Golvers, eds. The History of the Relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era, 1644–1911. Louvain, Belg.: Leuven University Press, 2003. 5. Belgium and Luxembourg Brouwer, Johan W. L. Divergences d’intérêts et mauvaises humeurs: La France et les pays du Benelux devant la construction européenne, 1942–1950. N.p., 1997. Postma, A., et al., eds. Benelux in de kijker: 50 jaar samenwerking. Tielt, Belg.: Lannoo, 1994. Tamse, Coenraad, and Gilbert Trausch, eds. Die Beziehungen zwischen den Niederlanden und Luxemburg im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. The Hague: SDU, 1991. 6. France Bots, J. [Hans] A. H., and Guillaume H. M. Posthumus Meyjes, eds. La révocation de l’édit de Nantes et les Provences-Unies 1685: Colloque international. Amsterdam: APA-Holland University Press, 1986. Diderot, Denis. Voyage en Hollande [1773, 1774]. Introd. and notes Yves Benot. Paris: Maspéro, 1982. Strien-Chardonneau, Madeleine van. Le voyage de Hollande: Récits de voyageurs français dans les Provinces-Unies, 1748–1795. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1994. Trenard, Louis. Histoire des Pays-Bas français. 2 vols. Toulouse: Privat, 1972. Vercruysse, Jerôme. Voltaire et la Hollande. Geneva: Institut et Musée Voltaire, 1966. 7. Germany Ackeren, Margarete van. Das Niederlandebild im Strudel der deutschen romantischen Literatur: Das Eigene und die Eigenheiten der Fremde. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1992.

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Bientjes, Julia. Holland und der Holländer im Urteil deutscher Reisender, 1400–1800. Groningen: Wolters, 1967. Dietz, Burkhard, Helmut Gabel, and Ulrich Tiedau, eds. Griff nach dem Westen: Die “Westforschung” der völkisch nationalen Wissenschaften zum nordwesteuropäischen Raum I. Münster: Waxmann, 2003. Dittrich, Kathinka, and Hans Würzner, eds. Die Niederlande und das deutsche Exil, 1933–1940. Königstein/Taunus, Germany: Athenaeum, 1982. Ehbrecht, Wilfried, and Heinz Schilling, eds. Niederlande und Nordwestdeutschland: Studien zur Regional- und Stadtgeschichte Nordwestkontinental Europas im Mittelalter und in der Neuzeit. Franz Petri zum 80. Geburtstag. Cologne: Böhlau, 1983. Enklaar, Jattie, and Hans Ester, eds. Brandenburg-Preussen und die Niederlande: Zur Dynamik einer Nachbarschaft. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1993. Lademacher, Horst. Zwei ungleiche Nachbarn: Wege und Wandlungen der deutsch-niederländischen Beziehungen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989. Lademacher, Horst, Renate Loos, and Simon Groenveld. Ablehnung, Duldung, Anerkennung: Toleranz in den Niederlanden und in Deutschland; Ein historische und aktueller Vergleich. Münster: Waxmann, 2004. Luh, Jürgen, Vinzenz Czech, and Bert Becker, eds. Preussen, Deutschland und Europa, 1701–2001. Groningen: INOS, 2003. Mühlhausen, Walter et al., eds. Grenzgänger: Persönlichkeiten des deutschniederländischen Verhältnisses; Horst Lademacher zum 65. Geburtstag. Münster: Waxmann, 1998.

8. Great Britain Ashton, Nigel John, and Duco Hellema, eds. Unspoken Allies: Anglo-Dutch Relations since 1780. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2001. Britain and the Netherlands. Papers 1– . London: Nijhoff; Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1960– . Dunthorne, Hugh. The Maritime Powers, 1721–1740: A Study of Anglo-Dutch Relations in the Age of Walpole. New York: Garland, 1986. Eisen, Janet. Anglo-Dutch Relations and European Unity, 1940–1948. Hull, U.K.: University of Hull Publications, 1980. Foot, Michael R. D., ed. Holland at War against Hitler: Anglo-Dutch Relations, 1940–1945. London: Cass; Zwolle: Waanders, 1990. Haley, Kenneth H. D. The British and the Dutch: Political and Cultural Relations through the Ages. London: George Philip, 1988. Hamilton, Alistair, Alexander H. de Groot, and Maurits H. van den Boogert, eds. Friends and Rivals in the East: Studies in Anglo-Dutch Relations in the Levant from the Seventeenth to the Early Nineteenth Century. Leiden: Brill, 2000.

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Hoak, Dale, and Mordechai Feingold, eds. The World of William and Mary: Anglo-Dutch Perspectives on the Revolution of 1688–89. 5th ed. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996. Jones, James R. The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century. London: Longman, 1996. Ormrod, David. The Dutch in London: The Influence of an Immigrant Community. London: HMSO, 1973. Raven, Gerard J. A., and Nicholas A. M. Rodger, eds. Navies and Armies: The Anglo-Dutch Relationship in War and Peace, 1688–1988. Edinburgh, Scotland: Donald, 1990. Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, and John M. Fletcher, eds. Academic Relations between the Low Countries and the British Isles, 1450–1700: Ghent, Belg.: Ghent University Publishers, 1989. Roach, Susan, ed. Across the Narrow Seas: Studies in the History and Bibliography of Britain and the Low Countries. London: British Library, 1991. Sellin, Paul R. Daniel Heinsius and Stuart England. Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1968. Simpson, Grant G., ed. Scotland and the Low Countries, 1124–1994. East Linton, U.K.: Tuckwell, 1996. Strien, C. D. van. British Travellers in Holland during the Stuart Period: Edward Browne and John Locke as Tourists in the United Provinces. Leiden: Brill, 1993. ———. Touring the Low Countries: Accounts of British Travellers, 1660–1720. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1998. Temple, William. Observations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Ed. George Clark. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972. Wilson, Charles H., ed. The Anglo-Dutch Contribution to the Civilization of Early Modern Society: An Anglo-Netherlands Symposium. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976. 9. Japan Blussé, Leonard, Willem Remmelink, and Ivo Smits, eds. Bridging the Divide: Four Hundred Years, the Netherlands–Japan. Leiden: Hotei; Hilversum, Neth.: Teleac/NOT, 2000. Chaiklin, Martha. Cultural Commerce and Dutch Commercial Culture: The Influence of European Material Culture on Japan, 1700–1850. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies, 2003. Gulik, Willem R. van, ed. In the Wake of the Liefde: Cultural Relations between the Netherlands and Japan since 1600. Rotterdam: Volkenkundig Museum, 1986.

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Mulder, W. Z. Hollanders in Hirado, 1597–1641. Haarlem: Fibula/Van Dishoeck, 1985. Philipp Franz von Siebold: A Contribution to the Study of Historical Relations between Japan and the Netherlands. Leiden: Netherlands Association for Japanese Studies, 1978. Titsingh, Isaac. The Private Correspondence of Isaac Titsingh. Ed. Frank Lequin. 2 vols. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1990–1992. Vermeulen, Ton, ed. The Deshima Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Contents, 1680–1720. Leiden: Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1986. 10. The Middle East and the Balkans Aalst, Victoria D. van, and Krijnie N. Ciggaar, eds. Byzantium and the Low Countries in the Tenth Century: Aspects of Art and History in the Ottoman Era. Hernen, Neth.: A. A. Bredius Stichting, 1985. Bosscha Erdbrink, Gerard R. At the Threshold of Felicity: Ottoman-Dutch Relations during the Embassy of Cornelis Calkoen at the Sublime Porte, 1726–1744. Ankara, Turkey: Türk Taríh Kurumu Basimevi, 1978. Bulut, Mehmet. Ottoman-Dutch Economic Relations in the Early Modern Period, 1571–1699. Hilversum, Neth.: Verloren, 2001. Gelder, Geert Jan van, and Ed de Moor, eds. Eastward Bound: Dutch Ventures and Adventures in the Middle East. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994. Groot, Alexander H. de. The Ottoman Empire and the Dutch Republic: A History of the Earliest Diplomatic Relations, 1610–1630. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1978. Schmidt, Jan. Through the Legation Window, 1876–1926: Four Essays on Dutch, Dutch-lndian, and Ottoman History. Istanbul: NHAI/Leiden: NINO, 1992. Slot, J., ed. The Netherlands-Bulgaria: Traces of Relations through the Centuries; Material from Dutch Archives and Libraries on Bulgarian History and on Dutch Contacts with Bulgaria. Sofia, Bulgaria: Septemvri, 1981. 11. Russia and the Baltic Braat, Jan, ed. Russians and Dutchmen. Groningen: INOS, 1993. Hovinga, Vincent, and Hans van Koningsbrugge. Orange and Romanov: Letters from Members of the Dutch Royal Family to Their Russian Relatives in the State Archive of the Russian Federation. Groningen: NRAC, 2003. Koningsbrugge, Hans van, and Emmanuel Waegemans. Van de vierpotige leeuw en de tweekoppige adelaar: Studies over Nederlands-Russische relaties. Groningen: INOS, 2002.

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Lemmink, J. Ph. S., and J. S. A. M. [Hans] van Koningsbrugge, eds. Baltic Affairs: Relations between the Netherlands and North Eastern Europe, 1500–1800. Nijmegen: INOS, 1990. Schade, Hans. Die Niederlande und Russland: Handel und Auinahme diplomatischer Kontakte zu Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt: P. Lang, 1992. Waegemans, Emmanuel, ed. Russia and the Low Countries. Groningen: INOS, 1998.

E. Intellectual History 1. Culture Barfoot, Cedric C., and Richard Todd, eds. The Great Emporium: The Low Countries as a Cultural Crossroad in the Renaissance and the Eighteenth Century. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1992. Blom, Ivo. Jean Desmet and the Early Dutch Film Trade. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2003. Boogaart, Ernst van den, ed. Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen (1604–1679), a Humanist Prince in Europe and Brazil: Essays on the Occasion of the Tercentenary of His Death. The Hague: Mauritshuis, 1979. Bunge, Wiep van, ed. The Early Enlightenment in the Dutch Republic: Selected Papers of a Conference Held at the Herzog August Bibliothek, Wolfenbüttel, 22–23 March 2001. Leiden: Brill, 2003. Gosman, Martin, and Alisdair J. MacDonald. Princes and Princely Culture, 1450–1650. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2003. Grijp, Louis Peter et al. Een muziekgeschiedenis der Nederlanden. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press-Salomé and Meertensinstituut; Kapellen, Neth.: Pelckmans; Utrecht: Royal Society for Dutch Music History, 2001. Guberman, J. The Life of John Lothrop Motley. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1973. Hartmann, Anja V., Małgorzata Morawiec, and Peter Voss, eds. Eliten um 1800: Erfahrungshorizonte, Verhaltensweisen, Handlungsmöglichkeiten. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2000. Kloos, Peter, and Henri J. M. Claessen, eds. Current Issues in Anthropology: The Netherlands. Rotterdam: Anthropological Branch of the Netherlands Sociological and Anthropological Society, 1981. Stegeman, Saskia. Patronage and Services in the Republic of Letters: The Network of Theodorus Janssonius van Almeloveen (1657–1712). Amsterdam: APA-Holland University Press, 2005.

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2. Education Amos, N. Scott, Andrew Pettegree, and Henk van Nierop, eds. The Education of a Christian Society: Humanism and the Reformation in Britain and the Netherlands; Papers Delivered to the Thirteenth Anglo-Dutch Historical Conference, 1997. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 1999. Boekholt, Pieter, et al., eds. Tweehonderd jaar onderwijs en de zorg van de staat. Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum, 2002. Clotz, Henrike L. Hochschule für Holland: Die Universität Leiden im Spannungsfeld zwischen Provinz, Stadt und Kirche, 1575–1619. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998. Ekkart, Rudolf E. O., ed. Athenae Batavae: The University of Leiden, 1575–1975. Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1975. Fix, Andrew C. Prophecy and Reason: The Dutch Collegiants in the Early Enlightenment. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991. Frijhoff, Willem Th. M. La société néerlandaise et ses gradués, 1575–1814: Une recherche sérielle sur le statut des intellectuels à partir des registres universitaires. Amsterdam: APA-Holland University Press, 1981. Goudriaan, Koen, Jaap van Moolenbroek, and Ad Tervoort, eds. Education and Learning in the Netherlands, 1400–1600. Leiden: Brill, 2004. Kwaasteniet, Marjanne de. Denomination and Primary Education in the Netherlands, 1870–1984: A Spatial Diffusion Perspective. Amsterdam: European University Institute, 1990. Lunsingh Scheurleer, Theodoor H., and Guillaume H. M. Posthumus Meyjes, eds. Leiden University in the Seventeenth Century: An Exchange of Learning. Leiden: Leiden University Press, 1975. Wilhelm, Franciscus A. English in the Netherlands: A History of Foreign Language Teaching, 1800–1920, with a Bibliography of Textbooks. Utrecht: Gopher, 2005. 3. Law Akashi, Kinji. Cornelius van Bynkershoek: His Role in the History of International Law. The Hague: Kluwer, 1998. Bergh, Govaert C. J. J. van den. The Life and Work of Gerard Noodt (1647– 1725): Dutch Legal Scholarship between Humanism and Enlightenment. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. Blankenberg, Erhard, and Freek Bruinsma. Dutch Legal Culture. 2nd rev. ed. Deventer, Neth.: Kluwer, 1994.

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Ekkart, Rudolf E. O., ed. Hugo Grotius, a Great European (1583–1645): Contributions Concerning His Activities as a Humanist Scholar. Delft: Meinema, 1983. Eyffinger, Arthur. The Hague, International Centre of Justice and Peace. The Hague: Jongbloed, 2003. Gellineck, Christian. Hugo Grotius. Boston: Twayne, 1983. Gepken-Jager, Ella, Gerard van Solinge, and Levinus Timmerman, eds. VOC, 1602–2002: Four Hundred Years of Company Law. Deventer: Kluwer, 2005. Holthöfer, Ernst. Beiträge zur Justizgeschichte der Niederlande, Belgien und Luxemburg im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1993. Michielsen, Joeri N. M. E. The “Nazification” and “Denazification” of the Courts in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands: The Belgian, Luxembourg and Netherlands Courts and Their Reactions to Occupation Measures and Measures from Their Governments Returning from Exile. Maastricht: University Press Maastricht, 2004. Panhuys, Haro F. van, ed. International Law in the Netherlands. 3 vols. Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Sijthoff, 1978–1980.

4. Literature and History Amann, Wilhelm, Gunter E. Grimm, and Uwe Werlein. Annäherungen: Wahrnehmung der Nachbarschaft in der deutsch-niederländisches Literatur des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts. Münster: Waxmann, 2004. Bachrach, Alfred G. H., and Robert G. Collmer, eds. Lodewijck Huygens: The English Journal, 1651–1652. Leiden: Brill, 1982. Beekman, Eric M. Troubled Pleasures: Dutch Colonial Literature from the East Indies, 1600–1950. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Blok, Frans F. Caspar Barlaeus: From the Correspondence of a Melancholic. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1976. Brachin, Pierre. The Dutch Language: A Survey. Trans. P. F. Vincent. Cheltenham, U.K.: Stanley Thornes; Leiden: Brill, 1985. Buma, Wybren Jan, Pieter Gerbenzon, and Martina Tragter-Schubert, eds. Codex Aysma: Die altfriesischen Texte herausgegeben und übersetzt. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1993. Bunte, Wolfgang. Joost van den Vondel und das Judentum: “Hierusalem Verwoest” (1620) und seine antiken Quellen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1984. Dekker, Kees. The Origins of Old Germanic Studies in the Low Countries. Leiden: Brill, 1999.

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europäischen Burgertums im Mittelalter und in der Neuzeit. Vienna: Böhlau, 1985. Spading, Klaus. Holland und die Hanse im 15. Jahrhundert. Weimar: Bohlau, 1973. Steensen, Thomas, ed. Die friesische Freiheit: Beiträge vom 1. HistorikerTreffen des Nordfriisk-lnstituut. Bräist/Bredstedt, Germany: Verlag Nordfriisk Instituut, 1990. Stein, Robert, ed. Powerbrokers in the Late Middle Ages: The Burgundian Low Countries in a European Context / Les courtiers du pouvoir au bas MoyenAge: Les Pays-Bas bourguignons dans un contexte européen. Turnhout, Belg.: Brepols, 2001. Vaughan, Richard. Charles the Bold. London: Longman, 1973. ———. Philip the Good. London: Longman, 1970. ———. Valois Burgundy. London: Allen Lane, 1975. Weightman, Christine. Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy, 1446–1503. Gloucester, U.K.: Allan Sutton; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. 2. The Sixteenth Century Blockmans, Wim, and Nicolette Mout, eds. The World of Emperor Charles V. Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2004. Fühner, Jochen A. Die Kirchen und die antreformatorische Religionspolitik Kaiser Karl V. in den siebzehn Provinzen der Niederlande, 1515–1555. Leiden: Brill, 2004. Jonge, Krista de, and Gustaaf Janssens, eds. Les Granvelle et les anciens PaysBas. Louvain, Belg.: Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2000. Kamen, Henry. The Duke of Alba. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2004. ———. Philip of Spain. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. Maltby, William S. Alba: A Biography of Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Third Duke of Alba (1507–1582). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Marshall, Sherrin. The Dutch Gentry, 1500–1650: Family Faith and Fortune. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1987. Nierop, Henk F. K. van. The Nobility of Holland: From Knights to Regents, 1500–1650. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Nijenhuis, Willem. Ecclesia Reformata: Studies on the Reformation. Leiden: Brill, 1972. Noreña, Carlos G. Juan Luis Vives. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1970. Parker, Geoffrey. The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659: The Logistics of Spanish Victory and Defeat in the Low Countries’ Wars. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

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———. The Grand Strategy of Philip II. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998. ———. Spain and the Netherlands, 1559–1659: Ten Studies. London: Fontana, 1979. Rule, John C., and John Te Paske. The Character of Philip II: The Problem of Moral Judgements in History. Boston: Heath, 1963. Schilling, Heinz. Religion, Political Culture and the Emergence of Early Modern Society. Leiden: Brill, 1992. Sprenger, Regina M. Viglius von Aytta und seine Notizen über Beratungen am Reichskammergericht (1535–1537). Nijmegen: Gerard Noodt Instituut, 1988. Tracy, James D. Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ———. A Financial Revolution in Habsburg Netherlands: Renten and Renteniers in the County of Holland, 1515–1565. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. ———. Holland under Habsburg Rule, 1506–1566: The Formation of a Body Politic. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. ———. The Low Countries in the Sixteenth Century: Erasmus, Religion and Politics, Trade and Finance. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate Variorum, 2005. Williams, Patrick. Philip II. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave, 2001. 3. The Revolt Adams, Simon, ed. The Dutch in Crisis, 1585–1588: People and Politics in Leicester’s Time; Papers of the Annual Symposium, 1987. Leiden: Werkgroep Engels-Nederlandse betrekkingen/Sir Thomas Browne Institute, 1988. Arndt, Johannes. Das heilige Römische Reich und die Niederlande, 1566 bis 1648: Politisch-konfessionelle Verflechtung und Publizistik im Achtzigjärigen Krieg. Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1998. Benedict, Philip, et al., eds. Reformation, Revolt and Civil War in France and the Netherlands, 1555–1585: Proceedings of the Colloquium, Amsterdam, 29–31 October 1997. Amsterdam: Royal Dutch Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1999. Caldecott-Baird, Duncan, ed. The Expedition in Holland, 1572–1574. London: Seeley Service, 1976. Cazaux, Yves. Guillaume le Taciturne, Comte de Nassau, Prince d’Orange. New ed. Antwerp: Mercator Fonds, 1974. ———. Naissance des Pays-Bas. Paris: Albin Michel, 1983.

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Darby, Graham, ed. The Origins and Development of the Dutch Revolt. London: Routledge, 2001. Del Rio, Martin Antoine. Die Chronik über Don Juan de Austria und den Krieg in den Niederlande, 1576–1578 / La crónica sobre don Juan de Austria y la Guerra en los Países Bajos, 1576–1578. Ed. Miguel Ángel Echevarría Bacigalupe and Friedrich Edelmayer. Vienna: Verlag für Geschichte und Politik; Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003. The Die Is Cast: An Exhibition of the Rise of the Dutch Republic Honoring the 400th Anniversary of the Union of Utrecht. New York: Bryn Mawr College, 1979. Dlugaiczyk, Martina. Der Waffenstillstand (1609–1621) als Medienereignis: Politische Bildpropaganda in den Niederlanden. Münster: Waxmann Verlag, 2005. Duke, Alistair. Reformation and Revolt in the Low Countries. London: Hambledon Press, 1990. DuPlessis, Robert S. Lille and the Dutch Revolt: Urban Stability in the Era of Revolution, 1500–1582. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Duquenne, Frédéric. L’entreprise du duc d’Anjou aux Pay-Bas de 1580 à 1584: Les responsabilités d’un échec à partager. Villeneuve d’Ascq: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 1998. Gelderen, Martin van. The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt, 1555–1590. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Goosens, Aline. Le comte Lamoral d’Egmont (1522–1568): Les aléas du pouvoir de la haute noblesse à l’aube de la révolte des Pays-Bas. Mons, Belg.: Hannoia, 2003. Grierson, Eduard. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands. London: Gollancz, 1969. Harline, Craig E. Pamphlets, Printing, and Political Culture in the Early Dutch Republic. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1987. Hart, Marjolein C. ’t. The Making of a Bourgois State: War, Politics and Finance during the Dutch Revolt. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1993. Hibben, C. C. Gouda in Revolt: Particularism and Pacifism in the Revolt of the Netherlands 1572–1588. Utrecht: HES, 1983. Holt, Mack P. The Duke of Anjou and the Politique Struggle during the Wars of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Janssens, Gustaaf. Les comtes d’Egmont et de Hornes: Victimes de la répression politique aux Pays-Bas espagnols. Brussels: Musée de la Ville de Bruxelles, 2003. Kossmann, Ernst H., and Albert F. Mellink, eds. Texts concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

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Mackiewitz, Dirk. Die niederländische Aufstand gegen Spanien, 1568–1609: Eine kommunikationswissenschaftliche Analyse. Münster: Waxmann, 2005. Oosterhoff, F. G. Leicester and the Netherlands, 1586–1587. Utrecht: HES, 1988. Parker, Geoffrey. The Dutch Revolt. London: Allen Lane, 1977. Pettegree, Andrew. Emden and the Dutch Revolt: Exile and the Development of Reformed Protestantism. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. Ramsay, George D. The Queen’s Merchants and the Revolt of the Netherlands: The End of the Antwerp Mart. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 1986. Réflexions sur Guillaume le Taciturne: Une série de conferences a l’lnstitut Néerlandais de Paris. The Hague: Ministère de l’Éducation et des Sciences, 1984. Reitsma, Rients. Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces in the Early Dutch Republic: The States of Overijssel, 1566–1600. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1982. Secretan, Catherine. Les privilèges, berceau de la liberté: Le Révolte des PaysBas, au sources de la pensée politique moderne, 1566–1619. Paris: Vrin, 1990. Swart, Koenraad W. William of Orange and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1572–1584. Ed. Raymond P. Fagel, M. E. H. N. [Nicolette] Mout, and Henk F. K. van Nierop. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2003. Tanis, James, and Daniel Horst. Images of Discord: A Graphic Interpretation of the Opening Decades of the Eighty Years’ War. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1993. Verheyden, Alphonse L. E. Le Conseil des Troubles. Flavian-Florennes, Belg.: Ed. La Phare, 1981. Vetter, Klaus. Wilhelm von Oranien: Eine Biographie. Berlin: AkademieVerlag, 1987. Weis, Monique. Légitimer la répression des troubles: Les correspondences du pouvoir espagnol avec les princes allemands au début de la révolte des Pays Bas, 1566–1568. Brussels: Archives Générales du Royaume, 2003. 4. The Seventeenth Century (Golden Age) Bots, Johannes A. H., ed. The Peace of Nijmegen, 1676–1679: Proceedings of the Tricentennial, 14–16 September 1978. Amsterdam: APA-Holland University Press, 1980. Burke, Peter. Dutch Popular Culture in the Seventeenth Century. Rotterdam: EUR, 1978. ———. Venice and Amsterdam: A Study of Seventeenth-Century Elites. London: Temple Smith, 1974.

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Catterall, Douglas. Community without Borders: Scots Migrants and the Changing Face of Power in the Dutch Republic, c. 1600–1700. Leiden: Brill, 2002. Gutmann, Myron P. War and Rural Life in the Early Modern Low Countries. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1980. Frijhoff, Willem, and Marijke Spies. 1650: Hard-won Unity. Assen, Neth.: Royal van Gorcum; Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. Haitsma Mulier, Eco O. G. The Myth of Venice and Dutch Republican Thought in the Seventeenth Century. Transl. G. T. Moran. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1980. Haley, Kenneth H. D. The Dutch in the Seventeenth Century. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; London: Thames and Hudson, 1972. ———. An English Diplomat in the Low Countries: Sir William Temple and John de Witt, 1665–1672. London: Thames and Hudson, 1986. Hoftijzer, Paul, et al., eds. Fabrics and Fabrications: The Myth and Making of William and Mary. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990. Israel, Jonathan I. Dutch Primacy in World Trade, 1585–1740. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. ———. The Dutch Republic and the Hispanic World, 1606–1661. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. ———. Empires and Entrepots: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy and the Jews, 1585–1713. London: Hambledon Press, 1990. Kessel, Peter J. van, and Elisja M. R. Schulte, eds. Rome-Amsterdam: Two Growing Cities in Seventeenth-Century Europe. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1997. Maccubbin, Robert P., and Martha Hamilton-Phillips. The Age of William III and Mary II: Power, Politics, and Patronage, 1688–1702; A Reference Encyclopedia and Exhibition Catalogue. Williamsburg, Va.: College of William and Mary; Washington, D.C.: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1989. Méchoulan, Henry. Amsterdam au temps de Spinoza: Argent et liberté. Paris: PUF, 1990. Mook, Bertha. The Dutch Family in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: An Explorative-Descriptive Study. Ottawa: Ottawa University Press, 1977. Mörke, Olav. “Stadtholder” oder “Staetholder”? Die Funktion des Hauses Oranien und seines Hofes in der politischen Kultur der Vereinigten Niederlande im 17. Jahrhundert. Münster: Lit Verlag, 1997. Prak, Maarten. Gouden eeuw: Het raadsel van de Republiek. Nijmegen: SUN, 2002. Price, John L. Culture and Society in the Dutch Republic during the Seventeenth Century. London: Batsford, 1974. ———. Holland and the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Politics of Particularism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

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Regin, Deric Wagenvort. Traders, Artists, Burghers: A Cultural History of Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1976. Rowen, Herbert H. John de Witt: Grand Pensionary of Holland, 1625–1672. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978. ———, ed. The Low Countries in Early Modern Times: Selected Documents. London: Macmillan, 1972. ———. The Princes of Orange: The Stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Schama, Simon. The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age. New York: Knopf, 1987. Spierenburg, Pieter. Elites and Etiquette: Mentality and Social Structure in the Early Modern Northern Netherlands. Rotterdam: EUR, 1981. Zee, Henri van der, and Barbara van der Zee. 1688: Revolution in the Family. London: Penguin, 1988. ———. William and Mary. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 1988. 5. The Eighteenth Century (Enlightenment) Baker-Smits, Veronica P. M. A Life of Anne of Hanover, Princess Royal. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Brake, Wayne Ph. te. Regents and Rebels: The Revolutionary World of an Eighteenth-Century Dutch City. Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, 1990. Carter, Alice Clare. The Dutch Republic in Europe in the Seven Years War. London: Macmillan, 1971. Eijnatten, Joris van. Liberty and Concord in the United Provinces: Religious Toleration and the Public in the Eighteenth-Century Netherlands. Leiden: Brill, 2003. Jacob, Margaret C., and Wijnand W. Mijnhardt, eds. The Dutch Republic in the Eighteenth Century: Decline, Enlightenment, and Revolution. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Leeb, I. Leonard. The Ideological Origins of the Batavian Revolution. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1973. Schama, Simon. Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813. New York: Knopf, 1977. Smet, Monique de. La musique à la cour de Guillaume V, Prince d’Orange (1748–1806), d’après les archives de la Maison Royale des Pays-Bas. Utrecht: Oosthoek, 1973. Tuchman, Barbara W. The First Salute. New York: Knopf, 1988. Velema, Wyger R. E. Enlightenment and Conservatism in the Dutch Republic: The Political Thought of Elie Luzac (1721–1796). Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1992.

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Went-Daoust, Yvette, ed. Isabelle de Charrière (Belle de Zuylen), de la correspondence au roman epistolaire: Études réunies. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995.

6. The Nineteenth Century Bank, Jan, and Maarten van Buuren. 1900: The Age of Bourgeois Culture. Assen, Neth.: Royal van Gorcum; Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Fishman, Joel S. Diplomacy and Revolution: The London Conference of 1830 and the Belgian Revolt. Amsterdam: CHEV, 1988. Kloek, Joost, and Wijnand Mijnhardt. 1800: Blueprints for a National Community. Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum; Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. Kraume Hans-Georg. Aussenpolitik 1848: Die holländische Provinz Limburg in der deutschen Revolution. Düsseldorf: Droste, 1979.

7. The Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries Amersfoort, Hans van. Immigration and Formation of Minority Groups: The Dutch Experience, 1945–1975. Trans. R. Lyng. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Bagley, Christopher. The Dutch Plural Society: A Comparative Study in Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973. Baumann, Heribert, Francis Bulhof, and Gottfried Merguer, eds. Anarchismus in Kunst und Politik: Zum 85. Geburtstag von Arthur Lehning. Oldenburg, Germany: University Library, 1985. Bruijn, Jaap R., et al., eds. Strategy and Response in the Twentieth-Century Maritime World: Papers Presented to the Fourth British-Dutch Maritime History Conference. Amsterdam: Batavion Lion International, 2001. Burg, Huib van der, ed. The Volume and Composition of Structural Unemployment in the Netherlands, 1950–1980. The Hague: Staatsuitgeverij, 1982. Cammen, Hans van der, ed. Four Metropolises in Western Europe: Development and Urban Planning of London, Paris, Randstad Holland and the Ruhr Region. Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1992. Crone, Michael. Hilversum unter dem Hakenkreuz: Die Rundfunkpolitik der Nationalsozialisten in den besetzten Niederlanden, 1940–1945. Munich: Saur, 1983. Dolman, Dick, ed. Parliament in the Netherlands. 3rd ed. The Hague: Government Printing Office, 1982.

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Dunk, Hermann von der. Die Niederlande im Kräftespiel zwischen Kaiserreich und Entente. Wiesbaden, Germany: Steiner, 1980. Dunk, Hermann W. von der, and Horst Lademacher, eds. Auf dem Weg zum modernen Parteienstaat: Zur Entstehung, Organisation und Struktur politischer Parteien in Deutschland und den Niederlanden. Melsungen, Germany: Verlag Kasseler Forschungen zur Zeitgeschichte, 1986. The Dutch Welfare State. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1983. Dutt, Ashok K., and Frank J. Costa, eds. Public Planning in the Netherlands. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Eijk, Cees van der, ed. Dutch Parliamentary Election Study, 1982: An Enterprise of the Dutch Political Science Community. Amsterdam: C.T.-Press, 1983. Eijk, C. van der, and Broer Niemöller. Electoral Change in the Netherlands: Empirical Results and Methods of Measurement. Amsterdam: C.T.-Press, 1983. Eldersveld, Samuel J., ed. Elite Images of Dutch Politics: Accommodation and Conflict. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; The Hague: Nijhoff, 1981. Entzinger, Han B., ed. Immigrant Ethnic Minorities in the Dutch Labour Market: Analyses and Policies. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers, 1994. Flim, Bert Jan. Saving the Children: History of the Organized Effort to Rescue Jewish Children in the Netherlands, 1942–1945. Bethesda, Md.: CDL Press, 2005. Franks, Horace George. Holland’s Industries Stride Ahead: The New Netherlands of the 1960s. The Hague: Sijthoff, 1961. Gadourek, Ivan. Social Change as Redefinition of Roles: A Study of Structural and Causal Relationships in the Netherlands of the “Seventies.” Assen, Neth.: Van Gorcum, 1982. Goddijn, Walter. The Deferred Revolution: Social Experiment in Church Innovation in Holland, 1960–1970. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1975. Goudsblom, Johan. Dutch Society. New York: Random House, 1968. Heerma van Voss, Lex, and Frits L. van Holthoon, eds. Working Class and Popular Culture. Amsterdam: IISG, 1988. Heide, Henk ter, and Frans J. Willekens, eds. Demographic Research and Spatial Policy: The Dutch Experience. London: Academic Press, 1984. Hendriks, Gradus. New Trends in Social Welfare Policy in the Netherlands. The Hague: Ministry of Cultural Affairs, 1978. Hirschfeld, Gerhard. Fremdherrschaft und Kollaboration: Die Niederlande unter deutscher Besatzung, 1940–1945. Stuttgart: DVA, 1984. Houska, Joseph J. Influencing Mass Political Behaviour: Elites and Political Subcultures in the Netherlands and Austria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.

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Hroch, Mirioslav. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe: A Comparative Analysis of the Social Composition of Patriotic Groups among the Smaller European Nations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Huggett, Frank E. The Dutch Connection. The Hague: Government Publ. Office, 1982. Janssens, Angelique. Family and Social Change: The Household as a Process in an Industrializing Community [the city of Tilburg, Netherlands]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Jong, Lou de. Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog. 14 vols. (30 bindings). The Hague: Staatsuitgeverij, 1969–1991. Kennedy, James C. Building New Babylon: Cultural Change in the Netherlands during the 1960s. N.p., 1995. Kroes, Rob. Soldiers and Students: A Study of Right- and Left-wing Radicals. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975. Kuyper, Pieter Jan. The Implementation of International Sanctions: The Netherlands and Rhodesia. Alphen aan den Rijn, Neth.: Sijthoff, 1978. Lademacher, Horst, and Jac Bosmans, eds. Tradition und Neugestaltung: Zu Fragen des Wiederaufbaus in Deutschland und den Niederlanden in der frühen Nachkriegszeit. Münster: Regensberg, 1991. Lijphart, Arend. The Politics of Accomodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. Megens, Ine. American Aid to NATO Allies in the 1950s: The Dutch Case. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers, 1994. Moore, R. G. Refugees from Nazi Germany in the Netherlands, 1933–1940. Dordrecht: Nijhoff, 1986. Nautz, Jürgen P., and Joachim F. E. Bläsing, eds. Staatliche Intervention und gesellschaftliche Freiheit: Staat und Gesellschaft in den Niederlanden und Deutschland im 20. Jahrhundert. Melsungen, Germany: Verlag Kasseler Forschungen zur Zeitgeschichte, 1988. Onderdelinden, Sjaak, ed. Interbellum und Exil. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1991. Reef, Johannes. Die Niederlande im internationalen System: Fallstudien zum Einfluss eines Kleinstaates. Münster: Lit Verlag, 1995. Schendelen, Marinus P. C. M. van, ed. Consociationalism, Pillarization and Conflict-Management in the Low Countries. Meppel: Boom, 1984. Schot, Johan W., et al., eds. Techniek in Nederland in de twintigste eeuw. 7 vols. Zutphen: Walburg Pers, 1998–2003. Schuyt, Kees, and Ed Taverne. 1950: Prosperity and Welfare. Assen, Neth.: Royal Van Gorcum; Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. Stoop, Paul. Niederländische Presse unter Druck: Deutsche auswärtige Pressepolitik und die Niederlande, 1933–1940. Munich: Saur, 1987.

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Tuyll van Serooskerken, Hubert P. The Netherlands and World War I: Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival. Leiden: Brill, 2001. Wekking, Joop. Untersuchungen zur Rezeption des national-socialistischen Weltanschauung in den Konfessionellen Periodika der Niederlande, 1933–1940: Ein Beitrag zur komparatistischen Imagologie. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990. Woltjer, J. Juliaan. Recent verleden: Nederland in de twintigste eeuw. 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Balans, 2005.

IV. WEBSITES OF DUTCH HISTORICAL ORGANIZATIONS Centraal Bureau voor Genealogy (Central Bureau for Genealogy), The Hague: http://www.cbg.nl/ Centrum voor Parlementaire Geschiedenis (Center for Parliamentary History), Nijmegen: http://www.ru.nl/cpg/ Documentatiecentrum Nederlandse Politieke Partijen (Documentation Centre for Dutch Political Parties), Groningen: http://www.rug.nl/dnpp/index Fryske Akademy (Frisian Academy): http://www.fryske-akademy.nl Historisch Documentatiecentrum voor het Nederlands Protestantisme (1800heden) (The Historical Documentation Center for Dutch Protestantism [1800 to the present day]), Amsterdam: http://www-old.vu.nl/hdc/ Historisch Huis (The House of History [Historisch Platform]), Amsterdam: http://www.historischhuis.nl/ Huygens Instituut (Huygens Institute), The Hague: http://www.huygensinstituut .knaw.nl/ Instituut voor Nederlandse Geschiedenis (Institute of Netherlands History), The Hague: http://www.inghist.nl/ Internationaal Informatiecentrum en Archief voor de Vrouwenbeweging (International Information Center and Archives for the Women’s Movement), Amsterdam: http://www.ru.nl/cpg/ Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis (International Institute of Social History), Amsterdam: http://www.iisg.nl/index-nl.php Katholiek Documentatie Centrum (Catholic Documentation Center), Nijmegen: http://www.ru.nl/kdc/ Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen (Royal Tropical Institute), Amsterdam: http://www.kit.nl/ Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies), Leiden: http:// www.kitlv.nl/

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Koninklijke Nederlandse Academenie van Wetenschappen (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences), Amsterdam: http://www.knaw.nl/ Koninklijk Nederlands Historisch Genootschap (Royal Dutch Historical Society), The Hague : http://www.knhg.nl/ Nationaal Archief (National Archive), The Hague: http://www.nationaalarchief.nl/ Nederlands Instituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie (Netherlands Institute for War Documentation), Amsterdam: http://www.niod.nl/

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Joop W. Koopmans is lecturer of early modern history at the University of Groningen. He studied history at the same university. His doctoral thesis, De Staten van Holland en de Opstand: De ontwikkeling van hun functies en organisatie in de periode 1544–1588 [The States of Holland: The Development of Their Functions and Organization during the Period 1544–1588], was published in 1990 by the Stichting Hollandse Historische Reeks (Foundation Holland Historical Series) in The Hague. During the 1990s, Dr. Koopmans was also employed as a history teacher in the Faculty of Journalism and Communication, Polytechnic Windesheim (Zwolle). Since then, his main fields of historical research at the University of Groningen have become the history of press and politics, censorship, and political assemblies in the early modern period. Dr. Koopmans wrote several articles about Europische Mercurius (European Mercury), the Dutch news book published between 1690 and 1756 by various editors in Amsterdam and The Hague. In 2005, he edited the volume News and Politics in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800), published by Peeters in Louvain, Belgium, and in 2006, together with Martin Gosman, he prepared the publication of the volume Selling and Rejecting Politics in Early Modern Europe, which will also be published by Peeters. Dr. Koopmans has served on several committees, including recently the Stichting (Foundation) Jacob Campo Weyerman and the Stichting Freonen fan Tresoar (Foundation Friends of Tresoar, the Frisian Historical and Literary Center). Arend H. Huussen Jr. is emeritus professor of modern history at the University of Groningen. He studied history, specializing in the history of law, at the University of Leiden, the city where he was born. His doctoral thesis, De codificatie van het Nederlandse huwelijksrecht, 1795–1838 [The Codification of Dutch Matrimonial Law, 1795–1838], 323

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was published in 1975 by Holland University Press (Amsterdam). His most recent books include the biographies Sophie van Leer (1892– 1953), een expressionistische dichteres: Leven en werk [Sophie van Leer (1892–1953), an Expressionist Poet: Life and Work], published in 1997 by Knoop in Haren (Gn.); Hemmo Dijkema (1799–1853), Gronings agronoom en Ruslandreiziger [Hemmo Dijkema (1799–1853), Agronomist of Groningen and Traveler in Russia], published by Van Gorcum in Assen in 2001; and Jacoba van Heemskerck van Beest (1876–1923): Schilderes uit roeping [Jacoba van Heemskerck van Beest (1876–1923): Painting as Vocation], published in 2005 by Waanders in Zwolle.

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