Group Psychology and the Analysis of the EGO (The Norton library ; N770)

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO ANALYTI CAL -

LIBRARY No. 6

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY EDITED BY ERNEST JONES, M.D.

No. 6

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO SIGMUND FREUD,

MD., LL.D.

AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION BY

JAMES STRACHEY

FIFTH IMPRESSION

LONDON THE HOGARTH PRESS, 42 WILLL\M IV STREET. W.C.2 AND THE INSTITUTE OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS 1949

BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF qnriAi x^/r^oir

PUBLISHED BY

The Hogarth Press Ltd LONDON Clarke, Irwin

&

Co. Ltd

TORONTO

This Translation First published

1922

Second Impression

1

940

Third Impression

1

945

Fourth Impression 1948 Fifth Impression f.OPYRIC.HT

PRINTED

IN

1949

GREAT BRITAIN BY

LOWE AND BRYDONE PRINTERS

LTD.,

cr t.

LONDON, N.VV.IO

173

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

A

comparison of the following pages with the

German

original {^Massenpsychologie

und Ich-Analyse,

Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, Vienna, 192 i) will show that certain passages have been transferred

the English version from the text to the footnotes. This alteration has been carried out at the author's in

express desire. technical

All

terms

have

been

accordance with the Glossary to be

translated

published

as

in

a

supplement to the International Jo7irnal of PsychoAnalysis

.

J.

BOSTON UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

s.

CONTENTS

I

II

Introduction

Le

.

.

.

.

Bon's Description of the Group

Mind

in

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

IV

Suggestion and Libido

V Two VI

Artificial

Further Problems and Lines of

i/VII

Identification

^YSl

Being

IX

X XI

Xn

Groups: the Church and the

in

Love and Hypnosis

The Herd

Instinct

The Group and

A

Work

the Primal

....

Differentiating

Postscript

Horde

Grade

in the

Ego

Army

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO I

INTRODUCTION

The

contrast between Individual Psychology and Social ^

Group Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance, loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined -more closely. or

It

true

is

that

Psychology is concerned and explores the paths by

Individual

with the individual

man

which he seeks to find only rarely and under

satisfaction for his instincts;

certain

exceptional

but

conditions

Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this individual to others. In the individual's is

mental

to

life

someone

else

is

invariably

involved,

as a

* P Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent the rather more comprehensive German Masse\ The author ^

latter word to render both McDougall's 'group', and Bon's ^foule\ which would more naturally be translated 'crowd '-in English. For the sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as well, and has been substituted

uses also

this

Le

for 'crowd'

Le Bon.

even

in

— Translator

the extracts from the English translation of ?[

2

Grotip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

an object, as a helper, as an opponent, and so from the ver}^ first Individual Psychology is at as

model,

same time

—

Psychology as well in this extended but entirely justifiable sense of the words. The relations of an individual to his parents and

the

to his brothers

and to have

Social

and

sisters,

been

the

— physician

his

hitherto

analytic

fact

in

research — may

to the object of his love, all

chief

claim

the relations which

to

be

of

psychoconsidered as

subject

in this respect they may be with certain other contrasted processes, described b}^ in which the satisfaction of the narcissistic us as

social

phenomena; and '

'

,

instincts

is

partially

social

and

them

'autistic'

totally

withdrawn

from the

The contrast between people. Bleuler would perhaps call

other

of

influence

or

— — mental

narcissistic

acts

therefore

falls

wholly

domain of Individual Psycholog}^ and is not well calculated to differentiate it from a Social within

the

or

Group Psychology. The individual in the relations w^hich have already been mentioned to his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love with, to his comes under the influence friend, and to his physician of only a single person, or of a ver}^ small number of persons, each one of whom has become enormously

—

—

important

to

Group Psychology relations

Now

him. it

has

in

speaking

become

on one side and to

of Social

or

usual to leave these

isolate as the subject of

Introduction

is

may

large

of people simultaneously,

is

Psychology

man

by a

individual

people with whom connected by something, though otherwise they in many respects be strangers to him. Groups

number he

an

of

inquirv^ the influencing

3

as a

therefore concerned with the individual'

member

of a race, of a nation, of a caste,

of a profession, of an

or as a

institution,

component

>

part of a crowd of people who have been organised into a group at some particular time for some definite purpose. When once natural continuity has been severed in this w^ay, it is easy to regard the pheno-

mena

that appear

under

being expressions of further

reducible,

a

these special

special

conditions as

instinct

the social instinct

that

is

not

('herd instinct',

'group mind'), which does not come to other situations. But we may perhaps

light in

any

venture to

object that it seems difficult to attribute to the factor of number a significance so great as to make it capable by itself of arousing in our mental life a new instinct that

is

pectation

otherwise is

possibilities:

not

therefore

Our exbrought into play. directed towards two other

that the social

instinct

may

not

be a

primitive one and insusceptible of dissection, and that it may be possible to discover the beginnings of its

development

in

a narrow^er

circle,

such as that of the

family.

it

Although Group Psychology is only in its infancy, embraces an immense number of separate issues

\ ^

4

Group Psychology and

and

offers to investigators

have hitherto from

one

different forms of

a great

countless

even been

not

another.

of the mental

the Analysis of the

problems

properly

The mere

Ego which

distinguished of the

classification

group formation and the description

phenomena produced by them

expenditure

and

of observation

and have already given

rise to

a

require

exposition,

copious* literature. dimensions of this

Anyone who compares the narrow will little book with the extent of Group Psychology at once be able to guess that only a few points chosen from the whole material are to be dealt

And

will

they which the

in fact only

be

depth-psychology concerned. specially

a of

few^

with here.

questions with

psycho-analysis

is

n

LE BON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND

Instead

more

of

starting

useful to

begin

from

a

with

some

seems

it

definition,

of

indication

the

range of the phenomena under review, and to select from among them a few specially striking and characteristic

attached.

facts

We

can

to

which

achieve

our

both

inquiry

of

these

can

be

aims by

means of quotation from Le Bon's deservedly famous work Psychologic des fotdcs) Let us make the matter clear once

again.

If

a

with exploring the predisPsychology, concerned the instincts, the motives and the aims of positions, tions with

man down to his those who are nearest

achieved

its

an individual

task,

these matters

with

and

actions to him,

had completely

and had cleared up the their

inter-connections,

then suddenly find itself confronted by which would lie before it unachieved. *

1

The Crowd: a Study of

2th. Impression,

1920.

the

his rela-

a It

whole of it

would

new would

task

be

Popular Mind, Fisher Unwin,

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

6

understand

different

And

thought,

had come

it

and acted

felt,

Ego

that under a

obliged to explain the surprising fact certain condition this individual whom to

the

in

quite

a

way from what would have been expected.

this

condition

insertion

his

is

a

into

collection

of people which has acquired the characteristic of a What, then, is a 'group'? ^psychological group'.

How a

does

acquire the capacity for exercising such mental life of the influence over the

it

decisive

And what

individual?

change which It

is

it

nature

the

is

upon the

forces

of

the mental

individual?

the task of a theoretical

Group Psychology

The best way of questions. start with the third. to evidently

to answ^er these

three

approaching them is Observation of the changes

in

the individual's reactions

what provides Group Psychology with its material; for every attempt at an explanation must be preceded by a description of the thing that is to be

is

explained. I

will

now

'The most

says:

Le Bon speak

let

striking ^

is

psychological group the individuals that unlike

be

character,

their

or their

peculiarity

the

following.

compose

mode

of

for

life,

it,

presented by a

Whoever be

however

like

their occupations,

intelligence,

the

He

himself.

fact

or

their

that they

group puts them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes

have been

^

transformed

[See footnote page

i.]

into

a

Le Bon' s them

think,

feel,

from that

in

think,

feel,

7

a manner quite different individual of them would

and act

in

which each

and act were he

a state

in

and

There are certain ideas

come

Mind

Description of the Group

feelings

of isolation.

which

do not

do not transform themselves

into being, or

into

acts except in the case of individuals forming a group.

The

a provisional being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined, exactly as the cells which constitute a psychological group

body form by

living

displays

is

their reunion a nev/ being

characteristics

very

possessed by each of the shall take the

We

cells

different singly.'

libert\'

from (p.

which those

29.)^

of interrupting

Le

Bon's exposition with glosses of our own, and shall If accordingly insert an observation at this point. the individuals

in

the

group

are

combined

into

a

must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely the thing that is characteristic of a group. But Le Bon does not answer unity, there

question; he goes on to consider the alteration which the individual undergoes when in a group and describes it in terms w-hich harmonize well with the

this

fundamental postulates of our own depth-psychology. '

easy to prove how much the individual forming part of a group differs from the isolated individual, but it is less easy to discover the causes It

is

of this difference. ^

[References are to

the English translation.

— Translator?^

Group Psychology and

8

*

the Analysis of the

Ego

To

obtain at any rate a glimpse of them it is necessary in the first place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that unconscious

phenomena play an not only in organic of the intelligence. of small scious

observer,

The in

importance

The most

life.

is

preponderating part but also in the operations

altogether life,

conscious

analyst,

than a very small number that determine his conduct.

is'

uncon-

its

the most acute

discovering more of the conscious^ motives

successful

scarcety

with

comparison

subtle

mind

of the

life

in

Our conscious

'

acts are

the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in

the

mind

substratum

handed

which

generation, Behind the lie

edly

constitute

avowed causes

secret

ignorant.^

the

still,

The

the

generation to genius of a race.

we do there

which

not

are

we

avow,

many

hidden

motives

ourselves

which

but

others

greater part of our daily actions

of

result

causes of

common

from

of our acts there undoubt-

causes that

secret

behind these secret

more

down

This

influences.

innumerable

the

of

consists

characteristics

>

main by hereditary

in the

escape

are are

our

'

observation. ^

reads

^

(p.

30.)

[The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, the English translation has 'unconscious'; and

beivusster'

\

the original French text

^

inconscients\— Translator.]

—

[The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore' a misunderstanding of the French word 'ignorees\ Translator.] '

—

Le

Bon's Description of the Group

Le Bon

thinks

of individuals that in this

that

become

in

submerged ~that-^the

which

in

what

mental

is

what

is

shows

and

a group,

The

vanishes.

heterogeneous

is

We

may say the development of

homogeneous.

superstructure,

individuals

in

distinctiveness

unconscious emerges;

racial

9

particular acquirements

obliterated

their

way

the

Mind

such

dissimilarities,

is

removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view. In this

to

individuals in a

way

show an .average

character.

that they also display

have

new

group would come\^ But Le Bon believes ^

characteristics

and

not

which they

he

previously possessed, reason for this in three different factors.

^*The

first

is

^

seeks

that the individual forming

the

part of

t.-

a group acquires, solely from numerical considerations, a sentiment of invincible power which allows him to'

had he been alone, he would He will be the perforce have kept under restraint. yield to instincts which,

less disposed to

check himself from ±he consideration

a group being anonymous, irresponsible, the sentiment of

that,

and

in

consequence responsibility which

y

always controls individuals disappears entirely.' (p. 33.) From our point of view we need not attribute so

much

importance

ditions

the

appearance

of

new

would be enough \o say a group the individual is brought under conwhich allow him to throw off the repressions

characteristics.

that in

to

For us

it

'

I

O

of

Group Psychology and

^characteristics

4

the

mamlestations

that

pFedisposition.

instincts.

of

We

th is

is

no

can find

of

wh ich

in

unconscious^

human mind

tHe

in

evil

is

Ego

Theapparently new whichhg_,tben^ displays are in fact

unconscious

his

the Analysis of the

all

contained as a

difficulty

inunder^

conscience

or of a disappearance standing ^sehse of -responsibility in these circumstances. It has tEe~*

'

long been our contention that dread of society [soziale Angsty is the essence of what is called conscience.^ "'^ ^

*The second

cause,

intervenes to determine

which

contagion, also manifestation in groups

the

is

of their special characteristics, and at the same time they are to take. Contagion is a pheno-

the trend

menon

of which

it

is

easy

to establish the presence,

not easy to explain. It must be classed those phenomena of a Jiypnotix: order, which

but that

it is

-t

among we shall

shortly study.

In a

group every sentiment

and act

is

and

contagious

*

contagious,

There

is

some

difference

to

such

a

between Le Bon's view and

ours owing to his concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the one adopted by psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious

more racial

especially contains the most deeply buried features of the mind, which as a matter of fact lies outside the scope of

We

do not fail to recognize, indeed, that the which nucleus, comprises the 'archaic inheritance' of the ego's human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this we

psycho-analysis.

distinguish

the

'unconscious repressed', which arose from a This concept of the repressed is not

portion of that inheritance. to be found in Le Bon.

Le

Mind

Bon's Description of the Group

1 1

degree that an individual readily sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely capable, except when he makes part of a group.' (p. 33.)

We upon *

later

shall

on base an important conjecture

this last

statement.

A

cause, and

third

most important,

the individuals of a group special chaare quite contrary at times to

determines

in

racteristics

which

those

far the

by

by the

presented

isolated

individual.

allude

I

to that suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion

mentioned above '

To

is

only an effect.

understand

to bear in

mind

this

phenomenon

it

is

necessary

certain recent physiological discoveries.

We

know to-day

ual

may be

by various processes an

that

brought

such

into

a

individ-

condition

that,

conscious personality, he obeys having all the suggestions of the operator who has deprived him of it, and commits acts in utter contradiction entirely lost his

with

his

character

and

The

habits.

most

careful

seem to prove that an individual imsome length of time in a group in action

investigations

mersed

for

soon finds

— either

himself

in

magnetic influence given out

consequence

by some other cause of which we special

state,

fascination

in

which

of

the

the group, or from in a are ignorant

much resembles

—

the

state

of

which the hypnotised individual finds

\

1

Group Psychology and

2

himself

hands of the

the

in

the Analysis of the

hypnotiser.

Ego

.

.

.

The

will has vanished ; entirely personality discernment are lost. All feelings and thoughts

conscious

and

bent

are

the

in

determined

direction

by

the

hypnotiser. '

Such

also

is

approximately the

state

of the

individual forming part of a psychological group. is

no longer conscious of

his

acts.

In

his

case,

He as

case of the hypnotised subject, at the same time that certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree of exaltation. Under in

the

of a suggestion, he will undertake the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible imthe

influence

petuosity.

the

case

from the

subject,

same

for

strength *

This impetuosity is the more irresistible in of groups than in that of the hypnotised all

by

We

conscious

fact that, the suggestion being the

the individuals of the group, reciprocity.'

see,

then,

personality,

gains in

34.)

disappearance of the predominance of the un-

that the

the

by means of sugand contagion of feelings and ideas in an

conscious personality, gestion

(p.

it

identical direction, the

the

turning

tendency to immediately trans-

form the suggested ideas

into acts; these,

we

see, are

the principal characteristics of the individual forming He is no longer himself, but has part of a group. become an automaton who has ceased to be guided

by

his will.'

(p.

35.)

Le Bon' s I

Description of the Group

have quoted

this

passage so

Mind

fully in

1

3

order to

quite clear that Le Bon explains the condition of an individual in a group as being actually hypnotic,

make

it

does not merely make a comparison between have no intention of raising any the two states.

and

We

objection at this point, but wish only to emphasize the fact that the tw^o last causes of an individual

a group (the contagion and the heightened suggestibility) are evidently not on a par, since the contagion seems actually to be a manifestation

becoming altered

in

of the suggestibility. Moreover the effects of the two factors do not seem to be sharply differentiated in the text of Le Bon's remarks. may perhaps

We

best interpret his statement if we connect the contagion with the eftects of the individual members of the

group upon one another, source

for

w^hile

those manifestations

we

point to another of suggestion in the

group which are put on a level with the phenomena But to w^hat source? hypnotic influence.

We

.of

cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency when we notice that one of the chief elements of the comparison, namely the person

who

the hypnotist in the case of the group, in

Le Bon's

tinguishes

exposition.

between

But

he

is

is to replace not mentioned

nevertheless

this influence of fascination

dis-

which

remains plunged in obscurity and the contagious effect which the individuals exercise upon one another and

by which the

original suggestion

is

strengthened.

1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

4

Here

yet another important consideration for helping us to understand the individual in a group: Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of is

*

an organised group,

a

several

rungs

Isolated, he may be a a crowd, he is a barbarian

the ladder of civilisation.

in

cultivated individual; in

—

the

He possesses a creature acting by instinct. the the violence, ferocity, and also spontaneity,

the

enthusiasm

that

/

man descends

is,

and

heroism

'

of

primitive

beings.

He

then dwells especially upon the low^ering in intellectual ability which an individual experiences when (p. 36.)

he becomes merged in a group.^ Let us now leave the individual, and turn to the group mind, as it has been outlined by Le Bon. It

shows not a

would from

find its

any

difficulty

source.

Le Bon

by pointing

to

its

primitive people

A It

is

single feature

group

placing or in deriving himself shows us the way in

similarity with

and of children

is

impulsive,

led almost exclusively ^

which a psycho-analyst

the

(p.

mental

life

of

40).

changeable and

irritable.

by the unconscious.^ The

Schiller's couplet: ihn einzeln, ist leidlichklug und verstandig; Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.

Compare

Jeder, sieht

man

[Everyone, seen by himself,

When

is

passably shrewd and discerning; then straightway you'll find

they're in corpore,

he's

an

ass.]

Unconscious is used here correctly by Le Bon in the descriptive sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'. ^

'

'

Le

Bon' s Description of the Group

Mind

1

5

impulses which a group obeys may according to circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly, but they are always so imperious that no personal

not even that of self-preservation, can

interest, itself felt

Though is

41). Nothing about

(p. it

may

never so

verance. desire

desire

It

for

long,

cannot

and the

things for

it

it

is

premeditated.

passionately, is

make

incapable

yet this of perse-

any delay between its of what it desires. It has

tolerate

fulfilment

of omnipotence; the notion of impossibility ^ disappears for the individual in a group. group is extraordinarily credulous and open

a

sense

A

to

influence,

it

has

no

critical

faculty,

and

the

improbable does not exist for it. It thinks in images, which call one another up by association (just as

w-

they arise with individuals in states of free imagination), and whose agreement with reality is never checked

by any reasonable function \Instanz\? The_jeelings__of^ a group are always very simple and very exagger-'^ ated. S o that a group knows neifheP~doubt nor "

"""

~^

uncertainty.^" ^

Compare Totem unci Tabu, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und Allmacht der Gedanken.' [Totem and Taboo. New York, Moffat, 10 18. London, Kegan Paul, 19 19.]

^

^

[See footnote p. 69.]

^

In

the

interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we of unconscious mental life, we follow a

owe our best knowledge

technical rule of disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative

1

6

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

goes directly to extremes;

It

Ego

a

suspicion is expressed, it is instantly changed into an incontrovertible certainty; a trace of antipathy is turned into furious

hatred

(p.

if

56).^

extremes, a group can only be excited by an excessive stimulus. Anyone who wishes to produce an effect upon it needs no Inclined

as

adjustment

logical

itself

it

in

his

is

to

all

arguments; he must paint

dream, and of treating every element of the manifest being quite certain. We attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary dream-thoughts are of the

dream

.

as

not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part of of the day's residue which leads to the dream. Die TraumdeuHtng, 6. Auflage, 192 1, S. 386. \The Inter(See pretation of Dreams. Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 191 3, the

content

p. 409.]) ^

.

The same extreme

every emotion

and

it

of the

is

also

and

unmeasured

intensification

a feature of the affective

life

of

of children,

present as well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation single emotions in the unconscious, a slight annoyance

is

during the day will express

itself in

a

dream

as a wish for the

offending person's death, or a breath of temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the dream of a criminal action.

Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this point: 'If to discover in consciousness all that the dream has made

we try known

to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the microscope of analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' {Die

Tratmideutung,

S.

457. [Translation p. 493.])

Le the

in

and

Bon' 5 Description of the Group

most

forcible

must

he

Mind

1

7

he must exaggerate, same thing again and

colours,

the

repeat

again.

Since a group is in no doubt as to what constitutes truth or error, and is conscious, moreover, of

own

its

it

great sti-ength, obedient to authority.

be

only

regards

demands of It

as

merely its

It

influenced

slightly

a

heroes

form is

as

is

intolerant

force

respects

by kindness, weakness.

of

and can which

and

it

Fundamentally

is

it

What

wants to be ruled and oppressed and to fear

masters.

is

it

it

even violence.

or

strength,

as

entirely

its

conservative,

has a deep aversion from all innovations and advances and an unbounded respect for tradition (p.

it

62).

In order to

make a one

morals of groups, the

that

fact

group

individuals

come together in a fall away and all

their individual inhibitions

all

the cruel,

dormant

when

correct judgement upon the must take into consideration

brutal

and destructive

in individuals as relics of

are stirred

up to

find

instincts,

which

lie

a primitive epoch,

But under

free gratification.

the influence of suggestion groups are also capable of high achievements in the shape of abnegation, unselfishness,

and devotion to an

isolated

personal interest with groups it force,

only

ideal.

individuals

motive

prominent.

It is

possible to

speak

While with almost

is is

very

of an

the

rarely

individual

1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

8

having his moral standards raised by a group (p. 65). Whereas the intellectual capacity of a group is always far

below that of an

may

rise as

below

above

high

his

ethical

its

individual,

as

may

it

conduct

sink

deep

it.

Some

other

features

Le Bon's

in

description

a clear light how well justified is the identification of the group mind with the mind of primitive

show

in

In groups the most contradictory ideas can people. exist side by side and tolerate each other, without

from

the

any conflict arising between them. But

this is also the

conscious mental

of individuals, of children and of

life

logical

contradiction

case

in

the un-

neurotics, as psycho-analysis has long pointed out.^ ^

In

young

children,

who

attitudes towards those

for instance, ambivalent emotional are nearest to them exist side by

long time, without either of them interfering with expression of the other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the two, it is often settled by the side for a

the

child

making a change of object and displacing one of the

ambivalent emotions on

opment

Of a neurosis

to a substitute.

in

an

adult

The

will

history of the develshow that a sup-

also

pressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings

ego against what it has repudiated. The tolerated for quite a long time, until suddenly one phantasy as a result of an increase in the affective cathexis day, usually footnote of the phantasy, a conflict breaks out [see page 48]

on the part of the is

between

it

and the ego with

all

the usual consequences.

In the

Le Bon's

Description of the Group

Mind

19

A

group, further, is subject to the truly magical power of words; they can evoke the most formidable tempests in the group mind, and are also capable of

^Reason and arguments are incapable of combating certain- words and formulas.

them

stilling

117).

(p.

with

are uttered

They

solemnity in

the

presence of

and as soon as they have been pronounced an expression of respect is visible on every coun-

groups,

tenance,

and

are considered

are bowed.

heads

all

natural

as

It

forces,

By many as

they

supernatural this con-

in

is

only necessary powers.' (p. 117.) nection to remember the taboo upon names

among

people and the magical powers which they ^ ascribe to names and words.

primitive

And,truth.

finally,

groups

They demand

have

never

thirsted

after

and cannot do without

illusions,

process of a child's development into a mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its personality, a coordination of the separate instinctive feelings and desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The analogous

has long been known to us the sexual instincts into a definitive

process in the domain of sexual as

the

co-ordination of

all

life

genital organisation. {Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, 1 90 5. [Three Contributions' to the Sexual Theory. Nervous and Mental

Disease

Monograph

unification of the

of the that

of

libido is

men

ego

Series, is

No.

liable to

1910.])

same interferences

shown by numerous

of science

who have

Bible, and the like. * See Totem unci Tabu.

Moreover, that the

7,

the

familiar

as that

instances, such as

preser\^ed their faith

in

the

20

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

them. They constantly give what is unreal precedence over what is real; they are almost as strongly influenced by what is untrue as by what is true. They

have an evident tendency not to distinguish between the two (p. ^^),

We the

life

have pointed out that this predominance of of phantasy and of the illusion born of an wish

unfulfilled

We

of neuroses. are guided

is

by

is

the ruling factor in the psychology have found that what neurotics

not

ordinary

objective

reality

A

but

based

hysterical symptom psychological reality. instead of upon the repetition of real upon phantasy experience, and the sense of guilt in an obsessional

neurosis

is

based upon the

is

was never carried dreams and in hypnosis,

which

of a group

the

function

fact

of an

evil

intention

Indeed, just as in in the mental operations for testing the reality of out.

things falls into the background in comparison with the strength of wishes with their affective cathexis.^

What Le Bon groups

is

says on the subject of leaders of less exhaustive, and does, not enable us to

make out an thinks that as

underlying

soon

as

principle

so

clearly.

are

He

gathered beings whether matter no numbers, together they are a herd of animals or a collection of human beings, they place themselves instinctively under the in

^

certain

[See footnote p. 48.]

living

Le

Bon's Description of the Group

authority of a chief ient It

herd,

(p.

134).

which could never

has such a thirst

for

A

Mind

group

21

an obed-

is

without a master.

live

obedience

that

it

submits

anyone who appoints himself its master. way the needs of a group carry Although half-way to meet the leader, yet he too must fit in

instinctively to

in this

it

with

it

in his

personal qualities.

He must

heldji-iascination by a strong order to awaken the group's faith

faith j

himself

be

(in an idea) in he must possess

a strong and inipnsing will, which the group, which has no will of its own, can accept from him. Le Bon then discusses the different kinds of leaders, and the means

the whole he believes that the leaders felt

On

by which they work upon the group.

by means of the ideas

in

make themselves

which they themselves

are fanatical believers.

Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to the leaders a mysterious and irresistible power, which he calls 'prestige'. Prestige is a sort of domination exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea. It entirely paralyses our 'critical faculty, and fills us

astonishment

with

and respect.

arouse a feeling like that (p.

148).

He

distinguishes

of

would

It

fascination

in

seem

to

hypnosis

between acquired or

arti-

and personal prestige. The former is attached to persons in virtue of their name, fortune and reputation, and to opinions, works of art, etc., in virtue

ficial

of tradition.

Since

in

every

case

it

harks back to

U"'

22

Group Psychology and

the past,

it

this

cannot be of

standing attached to a

means of thing

it,

the Analysis of the

much

Ego

help to us in underPersonal prestige is

puzzling influence.

few people, who become leaders by and it has the effect of making every-

obey them as though by the operation of some

magnetic

magic.

All

dependent upon success, and failure (p.

We

however,

prestige, is

lost in

the

is

also

event of

159).

cannot

feel

that

Le Bon has brought

the

function of the leader and the importance of prestige

completely into harmony with his picture of the group mind.

brilliantly

executed

Ill

OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE

We

have

way

of introduction,

our

own Psychology

made use

of

Le

because in

upon unconscious mental

the life.

Bon's it

fits

description in

by

so well with

emphasis which it lays But we must now add

that as a matter of fact none of that

author's state-

ments bring forward anything new. Everything that he says to the detriment and depreciation of the manifestations

by others equal

group mind had already been said before him with equal distinctness and

of the

and has been repeated statesmen and writers since

hostility,

thinkers,

in

unison

the

by

earliest

periods of literature.^ The two theses which comprise the most important of Le Bon's opinions, those

touching upon the collective inhibition of intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups, *

Die Psychologie der Kollektivitdien. B. Kraskovic jun. Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund von Posavec. Vukovar, 191 5. See the body of the work as well as :

the bibliography.

24

Group Psychology and

had been formulated

the Analysis of the

shortly before

by

Ego

Sighele.*

At

over as being peculiar to Le bottom, Bon are the two notions of the unconscious and of all

that

is

left

comparison with the mental life of primitive people, and even these had naturally often been

the

alluded to before him.

more, the description and estimate of the group mind as they have been given by Le Bon and the rest have not by any means been left

what

But,

is

undisputed. There is no doubt that all the phenomena of the group mind which have just been mentioned

have been correctly observed, but to

it

manifestations

other

is

also possible

of

the

group a in which formation, precisely opposite sense, operate and from which a much higher opinion of the group mind must necessarily follow. distinguish

Le Bon

himself was prepared to admit that in certain circumstances the morals of a group can be higher than those of the individuals that compose it, and that only collectivities are capable of a high of

degree isolated

prominent.' it

*

is

(p.

^

and devotion.

personal interest force, with groups it

individuals

motive

only that

unselfishness

is is

While with almost the

very

rarely

Other writers adduce the

65.)

only society which prescribes

any

fact

ethical

See Walter Moede *Die Massen- und Sozialpsychologie im :

Meumann and Scheibner's Zeitschrift fur pddagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pddagogik. 191 5, XVI. kritischen Oberblick.'

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life standards

at

all

for

the

while

individual,

25

he as a

one way or another to come up to its Or they point out that in exceptional high demands. circumstances there may arise in communities the rule fails

in

phenomenon of enthusiasm, which has made the most splendid group achievements possible. As regards intellectual work it remains a fact, that great decisions in the realm of

indeed,

thought

and momentous discoveries and solutions of problems are only possible to an individual, working in solitude. But even the group mind is capable of genius in intellectual creation, as itself,

It

as well as

by

is

shown above

by language and the like.

all

folk-song, folk-lore

how much

an open question, moreover,

remains

the individual thinker or writer owes

[to

the stimulation

of the group in which he lives, or whether he does more than perfect a mental work in which the others

have had a simultaneous share. In face of these completely contradictory accounts,

though the work of Group Psycholog}'were bound to come to an ineffectual end. But it

it

looks

as

easy to dilemma.

is

A

find

a

more hopeful escape from

number of very

different

the

formations have ^

'

probably been merged under the term group and may require to be distinguished. The assertions of Sighele,

Le Bon.

find the

short-lived character, hastily

rest relate to

which some passing

groups of a interest has

agglomerated out of various sorts of individuals.

26

Gro2ip Psychology

The

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

of revolutionary and groups, those of the great French Revolution, have especially influenced their descriptions. The opunmistakably characteristics

opinions owe their origin to the consideration those stable groups or associations in which

posite

of

mankind pass

their lives,

and w^hich are embodied

in

the institutions of society. Groups of the first kind stand in the same sort of relation to those of the second as a high but

choppy sea to a ground swell. McDougall, in his book on The Group Mind^ starts out from the same contradiction that has just

been mentioned,

and finds a solution

factor of organisation. '

for

it

In the simplest case,

in

the

he says,

'

group possesses no organisation at all or one He describes a group scarcely deserving the name. the

of this

crowd

kind of

without

a

as

human

groups many

at

and

of the

But he admits that a

come

can hardly

beings

possessing

an organisation,

'crowd'.

all

that

events

the

precisely

in

together rudiments of these

simple

fundamental facts of Collective

Psychology can be observ^ed with special ease (p. 22). Before the members of a random crowd of people can constitute something

the nature of a group in the psychological sense of the word, a condition has to be fulfilled; these individuals must have something in

common ^

with

in

one another, a

Cambridge University

common

Press, 1920.

interest

in

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life an object, a similar emotional bias or

and

other,

*

interpolate)

some

situation

I should like to^ ('consequently', of reciprocal influence degree

some

'

,

The

23).

in

27

the

of

'this

mental

(p. higher degree homogeneity', the more readily do the individuals form a psychological group, and the more striking

are the manifestations of a group mind. The most remarkable and also the

'

exaltation in

formation

intensification

of

it

(p.

of

of a

group Is the emotion produced

24).

men's emotions are stirred

opinion

that

conditions;

those

or

member

every

pitch

of the

result

portant

who

'

In

McDougall's

a group to a or never attain under other

they seldom

and

most im-

in

a

pleasurable experience for are concerned to surrender themselves so is

it

unreservedly to their passions and thus to become merged in the group and to lose the sense of the limits of their individuality. The manner in which

away by a common imexplained by McDougall by means of what

individuals

pulse

he

is

calls

by way that

is,

are

thus

carried

the 'principle of direct induction of emotion of the primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25),

by means of the emotional contagion with

we

are already familiar. The fact is that the of the of an emotional state is perception signs calculated automatically to arouse the same emotion

which

in

the person

who

number of people

perceives them. The greater the whom the same emotion can

in

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

28 \y

be simultaneously observed, the

does

stronger

this

automatic compulsion grow. The individual loses his power of criticism, and lets himself slip into the

same

But

emotion.

so

in

doing

he

the

increases

people, who had produced this effect upon him, and thus the emotional charge of the individuals becomes intensified by mutual

excitement of the

interaction.

other

Something

is

work in do the same as the at

unmistakably

the nature of a

compulsion to The others, to remain in harmony with the many. coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to spread through a group in this way (p. 39).

This mechanism for the intensification of emotion is

favoured by some other influences which emanate

A

from groups. a

group impresses the individual with sense of unlimited power and of insurmountable

peril.

For

human

society,

moment

the

which

whose punishments the

is

replaces the the wielder of

it

individual fears,

sake he has submitted to so

many

and

whole

of

authorit}^,

for

inhibitions.

whose It

is

him to put himself in opposition to it, and it will be safer to follow the example of those around him and perhaps even 'hunt with the In obedience to the new authority he may pack'. out of action, and so conscience put his former clearly perilous

for

'

surrender to the that

is

hibitions.

certainly

On

'

attraction

obtained

the

whole,

of the increased pleasure from the removal of intherefore,

it

is

not

so

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

we

that

remarkable

should

see

29

an individual

in

a

group doing or approving things which he would have avoided in the normal conditions of life; and in this

way we may even hope

the

mystery

which

word

enigmatic

so

is

to

often

clear

up a

little

covered

of

the

by

*

suggestion'.

does

dispute the thesis as to inhibition of intelligence in groups the collective He says that the minds of lower intelligence (p. 41).

McDougall

down The

bring level.

not

those

of a

latter

are

higher order to their own obstructed in their activity,

general an intensification of emotion creates unfavourable conditions for sound intellectual

because

work,

in

and further because the individuals are intim-

by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is a lowering in each idated

sense of responsibility

of his

individual

for

own

his

performances.

The judgement

which

with

up the psychological behaviour of a simple is nised' group no more friendly than

Le Bon.

Such a group

impulsive,

extreme tions

and

the

careless

incapable

is

excessively

displaying only

less

of

refined in

the

unorgathat

of

but

the

emotional,

irresolute

coarser

sentiments;

deliberation,

any

^

*

inconsistent,

fickle,

in action,

suggestible,

ment,

violent,

sums

McDougall

hasty

and

emo-

extremely in

simpler

judg-

and

imperfect forms of reasoning; easily swayed and led,

30

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and of sense of responsibility, and apt to be carried away

by the consciousness of tends

to

learnt to expect

the

all

produce

its

own

any irresponsible and absolute behaviour is like that of an unruly

power.

an untutored passionate savage

its

situation, rather than like that of its

the worst cases

it is

McDougall

in

a strange

average member; a wild beast,

like that of

human

beings.'

contrasts

the

rather than like that of

Since

it

of

child or

in

that

we have

manifestations

Hence

and

so

force,

(p.

45.)

behaviour

of a

highly organised group with what has just been described, we shall be particularly interested to learn in

what

factors

/ ^

this is

it

^

consists,

organisation

and

The author enumerates

produced. '

conditions

principal life

what

by

for

raising

collective

five

mental

to a higher level.

The

first

should be

and fundamental condition

some degree

for

some time;

that there

of continuity of existence in be either material or formal:

This may the group. the former, if the same

group

is

individuals

and

the

persist

latter,

if

the

in

there

is

developed within the group a system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of individuals. The second condition is that in the individual

member formed

of the group some definite idea should be and of the nature, composition, functions

capacities of

the group,

so

that

from

this

he

may

Other Accounts of Collective Alental Life develop whole.

an

The

emotional

the

to

relation

3

a

as

group

i

group should be brought into interaction (perhaps in the form of rivalry) with other groups similar to it but differing from it in third

is

many respects. The fourth

that the

group should possess and especially such as

the

that

is

customs and habits,

traditions,

determine

the

of

relations

members

its

one

to

another.

The

fifth

is

group should have a the specialisation and

that the in

structure, expressed

entiation of the functions of

to

According are

group

these

if

McDougall,

psychological formation are removed.

differ-

constituents.

its

the

fulfilled,

definite

conditions of

disadvantages

The

the

lower-

collective

avoided by withdrawing ing the performance of intellectual tasks from the group of intellectual ability

and reserving them It seems to

McDougall

cure for

were

the

us

group

the

that

the

as

of the

his

own

of

organisation

be

those

individual

continuity,

which '

in

described

how

features

and

his

to

a in

pro-

which

which

extinguished in him by the formation of the For the individual, outside the primitive

possessed

it.

condition

consists

precisely

of

'

justification

The problem

characteristic

members

for individual

designates with more

group can another way.

is

are

group.

group,

self-consciousness,

Group Psychology and

32

the Analysis of the

Ego

and customs, his own particular funcand position, and kept apart from his rivals.

his traditions

tions

to his entry into an

^

'

unorganised group he had lost this distinctiveness for a time. If we thus recognise that the aim is to equip the group with the

Owing

attributes

of

of a valuable

the

individual,

remark of

we

shall

be reminded

Trotter's,^ to the effect that

the tendency towards the formation of groups is biologically a continuation of the multicellular character

of

the higher organisms.

all

^

Instincts

of the Herd in Peace and War. Fisher Unwin, 1916.

I

IV

SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO ^

We

started

individual in a

to

what

the

group

is

fundamental

alteration

its

influence

in his

His emotions become extraordinarily while his intellectual ability

reduced,

both

processes

an

that

fact

subjected through

often a profound

is

activity. sified,

from

mental inten-

becomes markedly

being

the

in

evidently

direction of an approximation to the other individuals in

by

the group; and this result can only be reached the removal of those inhibitions upon his instincts

which are peculiar

to

each

resigning those expressions are especially his own.

individual,

of his

We

and

by

inclinations

his

which I

have

heard

that

these

unwelcome consequences are to some extent least prevented by a higher of the organisation

often

*

at

group; fact

of

but

this

Group

does not contradict

— Psychology the

the intensification of the

intellect

'

the fundamental

two theses as to of the emotions and the inhibition

in primitive

groups.

Our

interest

is

34

Group Psychology and

now

directed to discovering the psychological explan-

the Analysis of the

of this mental change which the individual in a group. ation

It

b}'

the

in-

which has

timidation of the individual

mentioned,

experienced

that rational factors (such

clear

is

is

that

is,

Ego

as

already

been

instinct of self-

the action of his

preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena. Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation

by is

authorities

upon Sociology and Group Psychology

always the same,

names,

Tarde

and that

is '

calls

it

agreeing with

a

even though

— the

magic '

imitation

writer

;

who

but

given various

is

it

w^ord

'suggestion'.

we

protests

cannot that

help

imitation

comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in Le Bon traces back all the fact one of its results.^ factors: puzzling features of social phenomena to two the mutual suggestion of individuals and the prestige But prestige, again, is only recognizable of leaders. for

McDougall evoking suggestion. for a moment gives us an impression that his prinmight enable ciple of primitive induction of emotion

by

its

capacity

'

'

But us to do without the assumption of suggestion. on further consideration we are forced to perceive that this principle says no more than the familiar assertions

*

about

imitation'

Brugeilles: 'L'essence

Revne philosophiqne,

1913,

or

'contagion',

du phenomene

XXV.

except

social: la suggestion.'

Suggestion for

a

There which, tion

in

decided is

no

stress

doubt

that

something exists in us aware of signs of an emo-

when we become someone else, tends it,

resist

the

to

often

make do we

emotion,

Why,

opposite way?

35

emotional factor.

the

upon

same emotion; but how oppose

and Libido

us

fall

into the

and

not successfully react in quite an

do

w^e invariably give

therefore,

way to this contagion when we are in a group? Once more we should have to say that what compels us to obey this tendency is imitation, and what induces the emotion in us is the group's suggestive

Moreover, quite apart from this, McDougall does not enable us to evade suggestion; we hear

influence.

from him as well as from other writers

that

groups

are distinguished by their special suggestibility. shall therefore be prepared for the statement

We

that

suggestion

actually an

(or

more

correctly

irreducible, primitive

damental fact

in

the

mental

life

suggestibility)

is.

a fun-

phenomenon, of man. Such,

"*

too,

was the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishing \ arts I was a witness in the year 1889. But I can^ remember even then feeling a muffled hostility to tyranny of suggestion. showed himself unamenable

this

*

I

What said

a

patient

who

was met with the shout:

are you doing? Vous vous contresuggestionnez!\ myself that this was an evident injustice

to

and an act of violence. a right

When

to

For the

counter-suggestions

if

man

certainly

had

they were trying to

Group Psychology and

36

the Analysis of the

Later on

subdue him with suggestions.

my

Ego

resistance

took the direction of protesting against the view that suggestion, which explained everything, was itself to

be preserved

from

repeated the old conundrum

of

Thinking

explanation.

it,

I

^ :

Christoph trug Christum, Christus trug die ganze Welt,

wo

hat Christoph Damals hin den Fuss gestellt?^

Sag'

Christophorus Christum,

sed Christus

sustulit

orbem:

Constiterit pedibus die ubi Christophorus?

Now

once more

approach the riddle of suggestion after having kept away from it for some thirty years, I find there is no change in the situation.

To

this

that

I

can discover only a single exneed not mention, since it is one

statement

ception, which

I

I

which bears witness to the influence of psycho-analysis. I

notice

particular

efforts

are

being

made

to

suggestion correctly, that to fix the conventional use of the name.^ And this

formulate is,

that

*

the

concept

Konrad Richter:

1896, Acta Germanic a, V,

of

'Der deutsche

S.

Christoph.'

Berlin,

i.

*

Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole did Christopher then put his foot?'] where world; Say, ' Thus, McDougall: *A Note on Suggestion.' Journal of ^[Literally:

Neurology and Fsy chop aihology, 1920, Vol.

I,

No.

i.

Suggestion and Libido

37

by no means superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and a looser and and will soon come to designate looser meaning,

is

any sort

where

influence

ot

'

'

as

whatever, just

and

to suggest

'

'

in

English, correspond to

suggestion our nahelegen and Anregung. But there has been no explanation of the nature of suggestion, that is, of

the conditions under which influence without adequate logical foundation takes place. I should not avoid the task of supporting this statement by an analysis of the literature of the last thirty years, if I were not aware that an exhaustive inquiry is being undertaken

hand which has

close at

very task. Instead of the

this

this

make an attempt

shall

I

of libido

concept

view the fulfilment of

in

the

for

purpose

at using of throwing

a concept which has the study of psycho-

upon Group Psychology, done us such good service in

light

neuroses.

Libido of

the

an expression taken from the theory

emotions. as

(regarded at

is

present

a

We

call

the

that

actually

name

the energy though not

magnitude, mensurable) of those

quantitative

which have to do with

under

by

word Move'.

instincts

may be comprised The nucleus of what we

all

that

(and this is what is called love, and what the poets sing of) But we in sexual love with sexual union as its aim.

mean by commonly

love

naturally consists

I

Group Psychology and

38

do not separate from share in the

and

on

friendship

*

name

the

and love

'

in

has a

self-love,

love for

Ego

— what case — on the oneany hand,

this

love

other,

the Analysis of the

for

parents in

humanity

and

children,

and

general,

also

devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas. Our justification lies in the fact that psycho-analytic research has taught us that all these tendencies are

an

expression

relations

way towards are

they

of the

same

instinctive

between the sexes these sexual union

from

diverted

from reaching

but

in

aim

this

though

it,

^

always

activities;

in

instincts force their

other circumstances or

are

prevented

preserving

enough

of their original nature to keep their identity recognizable such features as the longing for (as in proximity, and self-sacrifice). are of opinion, then, that language has carried out an entirely justifiable piece of unification in

We

^

'

love with its numerous uses, and creating the word that we cannot do better than take it as the basis

of our scientific to

By coming

discussions this

and expositions as

decision,

well.

psycho-analysis has

let

a storm of indignation, as though it had been Yet psychoguilty of an act of outrageous innovation. analysis has done nothing original in taking love in loose

*

this

wider

'

sense.

In

its

origin, function,

and

relation

^

sexual love, the Eros' of the philosopher Plato coincides exactly with the love force, the libido, of to

psycho-analysis,

as

has

been

shown

in

detail

by

and Libido

Suggestion

Nachmansohn and in

famous

his

above

all

'

'

wider

not

39

and when the apostle Paul,

Pfister;^

the

Corinthians, prizes love else, he certainly understands it in the same epistle

only shows that men do great thinkers seriously, even

But

sense.^

take

alw^ays

to

this

their

when they

profess most to admire them. Psycho-analysis, then, gives these love instincts the name of sexual instincts, a potiori and by reason

The majority

of their origin.

of

'

educated

'

people

insult, and regarded have taken their revenge by retorting upon ps3^cho-

have

this

nomenclature

analysis with the reproach of

who

sex as

considers

miliating

of the

human

to

as

an

^

Anyone

pan-sexualism'.

something mortifying and hu-

nature

at liberty to

is

make use

more genteel expressions 'Eros' and

*

erotic'.

might have done so myself from the first and thus have spared myself much opposition. But I did not 1

want

for

to,

I

lead one; one gives

by

being ^

avoid

One can never

heartedness.

little

to

like

way

ashamed

of

sex;

I

to

faint-

tell

where that road

may

in

words, and then

little

first

substance too.

in

concessions

cannot see any merit

the

Greek

word

in

*

Eros',

Nachmansohn: *Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der

Platos'. Internationale Zeitschrift fiir Psychoanalyse, Bd. in; Pfister: 'Plato als Vorlaufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 192 1, Bd. VII. ['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. International Journal of Psycho- Analysis, 1922, Vol. III.]

Eroslehre 191 5,

^

'Though

have not love,

I

I

men and of angels, and as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'

speak with the tongues of

am become

40

Group Psychology and

which

is

soften the affront,

to

more than a and

[love];

make no

We position

the Analysis of the

translation

finally,

is

of our

in the

Ego

end nothing

German word Liebe

he whq knows how to wait need

concessions. will

that

try

our fortune,

love

relationships

neutral expression,

emotional

essence of the group mind. the authorities

What would

with

then, (or,

to

the

sup-

use a more

also constitute the

ties)

Let us remember that

make no mention correspond

cealed behind

of any such relations. to them is evidently con-

the screen, of suggestion. support in the first instance

the shelter,

Our hypothesis

finds

from two passing thoughts.

First,

that

a group

is

clearly held together by a power of some kind: and to what power could this feat be better ascribed

than to Eros, who holds together everything in the world? Secondly, that if an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group and lets its other members influence

him by suggestion,

it

gives

one the

im-

pression that he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony ^ith them rather than in opposition it

to

them

— so

that perhaps

after all

he does

^ihnen zu Liebe'} ^

[An idiom meaning

of them'.

— Translator.]

*for their sake'.

Literally: *for lore

V

TWO

ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE

CHURCH

AND THE ARMY

We

what

from

recall

may

morphology of groups that

it

is

we

know

of

possible to distinguish

very different kinds of groups and opposing their

development.

and extremely

There

are

the

lines in

very fleeting

groups

homogeneous ones, made of individuals, and unhomoge-

lasting ones;

up of the same

sorts

neous ones; natural groups, apd artificial ones, requiring an external force to keep them together; primitive groups, and highly organised ones with a definite structure.

explained a distinction given

too

leaderless

for reasons which have yet to be should like to lay particular stress upon

But

we

to

little

v/hich

the

attention;

groups

I

refer

and those with to

the

have

authorities

to

that

leaders.

between

And,

we

usual

rather

in

shall

complete opposition practice, choose a relatively simple group formation as our point of departure, but shall begin with highly

not

organised,

lasting

and

artificial

groups.

The most

Group Psychology and

42

the A^ialysis of the

Ego

—

example of such structures are churches communities of believers and armies. A church and an army are artificial groups, that

interesting

is,

a

—

certain

external

force

is

employed to prevent

them from

disintegrating and to check alterations in structure. As a rule a person is not consulted,

their

or

given no choice, as to whether he wants to such a group; any attempt at leaving it is

is

enter

met with persecution or wdth severe punishor has quite definite conditions attached to it. ment, It is quite outside our present interest to enquire

usualty

need such special safeguards. are only attracted by one circumstance, namely that certain facts, which are far more concealed in these

why

associations

We

can be observed very clearly in those highly organised groups which are protected from dissolution in the manner that has been mentioned.

other

cases,

In

a

church

(and

we may

with advantage take

Church as a type) as well as in an army, however different the two may be in other respects, the same illusion holds good of there being a head in the Catholic Church Christ, in an army its Commander-in-Chief who loves all the individuals

the

Catholic

—

in

the

—

group

with

an

equal _^ Love.

Everything

depends upon this. illusion; if it were to be dropped, then both Church and army would dissolve, so far as the external force permitted love was expressly enunciated

them

to.

This equal *

by

Christ:

Inasmuch

Two Artificial Groups: done

as ye have

my

the Church

unto one of the least of these

it

ye have done

brethren,

and the Army 43

He

unto me.'

it

stands

members

of the group of believers in the relation of a kind elder brother; he is their

to

the

individual

All the demands that are made surrogate. the individual are derived from this love of

father

upon

A

Christ's.

the

democratic

is

everyone share

a

equal,

is

family

themselves

no

It

love

doubt

in

and

that

Christ,

the

Christ

is

tie

an

good

of

father

who

reason

is,

loves

they

of his officer

it

of the

The

like

The Commander-in-Chief his soldiers equally,

each

and

tie

holds is

a

for that

comrades among themselves. The structurally from the Church in being

up of a

as

all

unites

are

differs

army built

ai'my.

them. There

cause

which unites them with one another.

call

brothers

is,

for

which the

also

believers

that

which Christ has

that

with

individual

is

invoked,

brothers

the

through is

through very reason that before Christ and that everyone' has an equal

not without a deep reason similarity between the Christian communit}'' love.

his

in

that the

and

the

for

Church,

runs

character

series

of such groups.

Ever}^ captain were, the Commander-in-Chief and the father

company, of

his

and so section.

is

It

every non-commissioned true that a similar

is

in the Church, but it hierarchy has been constructed does not play the same part in it economically; for

more knowledge and care about

individuals

may be

^

44

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

attributed to Christ than to a

Ego

human Commander-in-

Chief/ It

is

to

be noticed that

groups each individual

An

^

of the

is

in

these two

bound by

libidinaP

artificial

ties

on

objection will justly be raised against this conception next foot-note] structure of an army on the

libidinal [see

ground that no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's country, of national glory, etc., which are of such in holding an army together. The answer is that a dififerent instance of a group tie, and no longer such a

importance that

is

simple one; for the examples of great generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such ideas are not indisshall presently touch pensable to the existence of an army.

We

upon the possibility of a leading idea being substituted for a leader and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of this libidinal factor in

an arrny, even when it is not the Only factor not merely a theoretical omission but

operative, seems to be also a practical danger.

unpsychological

as

Prussian militarism, which was just as

German

science,

may have had

to suffer the

We

know that the war the great war. neuroses which ravaged the German army have been recognized as being a protest of the individual against the part he was ex-

consequences of this

in

pected to play in the army; and according to the communication of E. Simmel [Kriegsneurosen und Psychisches Trauma'. Munich, 191 8), the hard treatment of the men by their superiors may be considered as foremost among the motive forces of the disease. If the importance of the libido's claims on this score had been ^

better appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's fourteen points would probably not have been believed

so easily, and the splendid instrument would not have broken in the hands of the German leaders. ^

[Here and elsewhere the German ^hbidinos' is used simply Libido' adjectival derivative from the technical term ^

as

an

\

Two

Artificial

Groups : the Church and the

the one hand to the leader (Christ, the in-Chief)

and

on

members

of the

the

hand

other

How

group.

Army

Commanderother

the

to

two

these

45

ties

are

whether they are of the same kind and the same value, and how they are to be related to each other,

described

reserved

psychologically

— these

we

But

subsequent enquiry. ture even now upon a mild reproach

ven-

shall

against

the

appreciated psychology of

the

for not having sufficiently

authorities

importance of the group, while our investigation It

position.

must be

questions

for

leader

own

in

the

choice

of a

first

brought us into a more would appear as though we has

the

object for favourable

were

on

the right road towards an explanation of the principal phenomenon of Group Psychology the individual's

—

lack of freedom in

bound

in

we

tie,

a group. If each individual is two directions by such an intense emotional

no

shall find

difficulty

in

to that

attributing

circumstance the alteration and limitation which have

been observed

A

a group lies be found

a

studied

group

'libidinal' is

to avoid

dinous'.

same

hint to the

to

best

in his personality.

the

of

effect,

that

the

essence of

in the libidinal ties existing in in

the

in

military

that

phenomenon

kind

groups.

becomes

it,

is

also

of panic,

which

is

A

arises

if

panic

disintegrated.

Its

accordingly introduced in the translation in order highly-coloured connotation of the English 'libi-

— Translator\

46

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego are

characteristics

that

none

orders

the

of

listened

are

any longer superiors that each individual is only solicitous

by

on

given

to,

his

and

own

and without any consideration for the rest. The mutual ties have ceased to exist, and a gigantic account,

and senseless is

it

[Angst]

is

set

free.

At

this

objection will naturally be made rather the other way round; and that the

point, again,

that

dread the

dread has grown so great as to be able to disregard of consideration for others. all ties and all feelings

McDougall has even

(p.

24)

made

use of the case

of panic (though not of military panic) as a typical instance of that intensification of emotion by contagion

much

('primary induction') upon which he lays so emphasis. But nevertheless this rational method

The ver\^ inadequate. dread has the question that needs explanation is why become so gigantic. The greatness of the danger of explanation

here

is

quite

cannot be responsible, for the same army which now to panic may previously have faced falls a victim equally

great

success;

it

is

danger with complete greater the very essence of panic that it

or of

bears no relation to the often

breaks

out

upon

danger that threatens, the

most

trivial

If an individual in panic dread begins to

own

be

and

occasions. solicitous

account, he bears witness in so doing to the fact that the emotional ties, which have hitherto made the danger seem small to him, have

/only

on

his

Two

Artificial Groups: the

ceased to

exist.

Now

Church and the

that he

is

Army

by himself

47

in facing

the danger, he may surely think it greater. The fact is, therefore,, that panic dread presupposes a relaxation in it

the libidinal structure of the group and reacts to in a justifiable manner, and the contrary view

—

that the

owing

libidinal

ties

to dread in

the

the

of

face

group

of the

are

danger

destroyed can be

—

refuted.

The contention

that dread in a

group

ed to enormous proportions by means (contagion)

is

is

increas-

of induction

not in the least contradicted

by these

McDougall's view meets the case entirely when the danger is a really great one and when the remarks.

group has no strong emotional are

fulfilled, for instance,

ties

when a

— conditions

fire

which

breaks out

in

a

a place of amusement. But the really instructive case and the one which can be best emtheatre

or

ployed for our purposes is that mentioned above, in which a body of troops breaks into a panic although the danger has not increased beyond a degree that is usual and has often been It is previously faced. not to be expected that the usage of the word *

'

should be clearly

and unambiguously determined. Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even dread in an individual panic

when

it

exceeds

all

seems to be reserved of

dread

is

bounds,

and often

for cases in

not warranted

the

name

which the outbreak

by the occasion.

If

we

48

Group Psychology and

take

word

the

dread,

we

Dread

in

an

'

in

panic

can

the

sense

of

Ego

collective

a

establish

individual

is

far-reaching analogy. either provoked by the

danger or by the cessation of emo-

of a

greatness

'

the Analysis of the

tional ties (libidinal cathexes^ \Libidobesetzungen\)\ the latter is the

of

case

same way panic

neurotic

arises

either

dread.^

owing

In

to

just

the

an increase

common danger

of the

of the emotional

and the

ties

latter case

or owing to the disappearance which hold the group together;

is

analogous to that

of neurotic

dread.^ from the Greek 'Katexco', 'I occupy'. The ^Besetzung' has become of fundamental importance in the exposition of psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at a short ^

['Cathexis',

German word

is likely to be misleading, but speaking very loosely, we may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge, and that it means the concentration or

definition or description

accumulation of mental energy in some particular channel. Thus,

when we speak

of the existence in

someone of a

libidinal cathexis

shortly, of an object-cathexis, we mean that his libidinal energy is directed towards, or rather infused

of an object, or,

into,

more

the idea {Vorstellung) of some object in the outer world. to obtain a more precise knowledge of the

Readers who desire

are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus and the essays on metapsychology in Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlekre, Vierte Folge. Translator.^

term

*

—

^

See Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Psychoanalyse. XXV, 3. Auflage, 1920. {Introductory Lectures on Psycho- Analysis. Lecture XXV. George Allen and Unwin, 1922.] ^

fantastic

v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat 'Panik und Pankomplex'. Imago, 1920, Bd. VI. paper

Compare Bela

Two

like

Anyone who, a

Church and the

Artificial Groups: the

one

as

panic

'

McDougall

the

of

(1.

Army

describes

c),

functions

plainest

49

of

the

'

arrives at the paradoxical position that group mind this group mind does away with itself in one of its It most striking manifestations. is impossible to doubt that panic means the disintegration of a group; ,

it

involves

the

cessation

of

members

sideration which the

all

the

feelings

of con-

of the group otherwise

show one another. is

The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic very much as it is represented in Nestroy's parody about Judith

of Hebbel's

play cries aut

soldier

and thereupon

' :

all

and

The general has

head

lost his

mutual

ties

appear, their

leader. flask

Bologna

The

birth

outbreak of

the the

same;

between the members of the group

as a rule, at the

same time

The group when its top

dissolution of a

vanishes is

religious

the dis-

as the tie with in

broken

' !

The

the Assyrians take to flight. some sense or other, the

loss of the leader in

of misgivings about him, brings on panic, though the danger remains

A

Holofernes.

dust,

like

a

off.

group

is

not so

A

short time ago there came into my hands an English novel of Catholic origin, recommended by the Bishop of London, with the title

easy to

When

observe.

It

Was Dark,

It

gave a

clever and,

as

it

seems to me, a convincing picture of such a possiThe novel, which is bility and its consequences.

50

Group Psychology and

the Analysis of the

Ego

supposed to relate to the present day, tells how a conspiracy of enemies of the figure of Christ and of faith succeed in arranging for a the Christian

be

to

sepulchre

discovered

an inscription,

sepulchre

is

mathaea

confesses

that

in

which Joseph

in

for

In

Jerusalem.

reasons

of

this

of Ari-

piety

he

removed the body of Christ from its ^rave day after its entombment and buried it The resurrection of Christ and his in this spot. divine nature are by this means disposed of, and the

secretly

on the

third

of this archaeological discovery

result

is

a convulsion

and an extraordinary increase in all crimes and acts of violence, which only ceases when the forgers' plot has been revealed. The phenomenon which accompanies the dissoin

European

lution that

civilisation

is

here supposed

to

overtake

a religious

not dread, for which the occasion is wanting. Instead of it ruthless and hostile impulses towards

group

is

other people make their appearance, which, owing to the equal love of Christ, they had previously been But even during the kingdom of unable to do.^ Christ those people

who do who do

munity of believers, he does not love, stand *

not belong to the comnot love him, and whom

outside this

tie.

Therefore

the explanation of similar phenomena after the of the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P. Federn's Die vaterlose Vienna, AnzengruberGesellschaft.

Compare

abolition

Verlag, 1919.

Two a

Groups : the Church and the

Artificial

even

religion,

if

it

calls

itself

the

Army

religion

5

I

of love,

must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it. Fundamentally indeed every religion is in this same way a religion of love for all those

whom it embraces; while cruelty and intolerance towards those who do not belong to it are natural to every religion.

However

we ought

personally,

not

difficult

to

we may

find

it

reproach believers too

account; people who are unbelieving or indifferent are so much better off psychologically severely on

this

in this respect.

shows turies,

itself

If

to-day that

so violent and

we can

intolerance

cruel

as

no longer

former cen-

in

scarcely conclude that there has been human manners. The cause is rather \

a softening in to be found in the undeniable weakening of religious / feelings and the libidinal ties which depend upon

them.

If

/religious

another group

one — and

the

tie

takes

socialistic

so —

of the

the

place

tie

seems to be

then there will be the doing same intolerance towards outsiders as in the age of the Wars of Religion; and if differences between

succeeding

in

scientific opinions

cance

for groups,

repeated with

this

could the

new

,

ever attain a

same

result

similsir

motivation.

BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK LIBRARY

signifi-

would again be

VI

FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK

We

have

hitherto

and

have

found

emotional

considered

that

One

ties.

they

are

two

artificial

groups dominated by two

of these, the tie with the leader,

events for these cases) to be more of a ruling factor than the other, which holds between the members of the group.

seems

(at

all

Now much

remains to be

else

examined and

We

should the morphology of groups. described have to start from the ascertained fact that a mere in

collection of people ties

have not been

have to admit that

in

any collection of people the

form a psychological group may very should have to give become prominent.

tendency easily

not a group, so long as these established in it; but we should

is

to

We

our attention to the different kinds of groups, more or less stable,

that arise spontaneously,

and

to study

the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution. should above all be concerned with the distinction

We

and Lines of Work

Fu7'ther Problems

53

between groups which have a leader and leaderless We should consider whether groups with groups. leaders

not be the

may

whether

the

in

more

an idea,

others

not be substituted for the to

and complete,

primitive

an abstraction,

leader

which religious groups, with

may

(a state of things

their

invisible

head,

form a transition stage), and whether a common tendency, a wish in which a number of people can have a share, may not in the same way serve as a This

substitute.

or

less

abstraction,

completely embodied

we might

might be more

again, in

the

figure

of what

secondary leader, and interesting varieties w^ould arise from the relation between the call

a

idea and the leader.

The

leader or the leading idea might also, so to speak, be negative; hatred against a particular person or institution might operate in just the same unifying way, and might call up the

same kind of emotional Then the question would

ties

really

But have

these

all

been

dealt

Group Psychology, interest

will

in

whether a leader

essence of a group

—

which may, moreover,

part

in

not succeed

the in

literature

of

diverting our

from the fundamental psychological problems

confront

us

our attention

will

that

questions, w^ith

positive attachment.

also arise

indispensable to the and other questions besides. is

as

And the structure of a group. first be attracted by a consideration in

which promises to bring us

in the

most direct way

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

54 ^to /

j

/

a proof that

libidinal

ties

are

the

Ego

what characterize

a group.

Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the emotional relations which hold between men in general. According to Schopenhauer's famous simile of the freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate approach to his neighbour.^ The evidence of psycho-analysis shows that almost every intimate emotional relation bets^^een two people which lasts for some time marriage, friendship, the

—

—

leaves a parents and children^ sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility, which

relations

have

first

between to

be eliminated by

repression.

This

is

less disguised in the common wrangles business partners or in the grumbles of a subordinate

between

*A company of porcu'^ines crowded themselves very together one cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save themselves from being frozen to *

close

But scon they

death.

felt

one another's

And now, when

quills,

which induced

warmth separate again. once evil arose the second them nearer brought together again, more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they could most tolerably exist' {Parerga und Paralipomena, II. Teil, XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.) them

to

the need for.

^

Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a to her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by subsequent rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary

mother

attempt at sexual object-choice.

j

Further Problems and Lines of Work at his superior.

The same

thing happens

come

in

units.

together thinks

than is

the

the

time

Every

two

the South

superior

most jealous

races

to

or

of

better

of

birth

Of two neighbouring towns each

other.

other's

related

the

itself

down upon

looks

when men

become connected by a marriage, each

families

them

larger

55

rival;

every

little

the others with contempt.

one

keep

another

at

canton Closely

arm's

length; the North German, every kind of aspersion upon

German cannot endure

Englishman casts

the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese. are no longer astonished that greater differences should lead to an almost insuperable repugnance,

We

such as the

Aryan

for

feel for the German, the and the white races for the Semite,

Gallic

the

people

coloured.

When who of

this

hostility

are otherwise loved feeling;

we

and

directed

is

we

describe

explain

the

it

against people as ambivalence/

1

fact,

in

what

is

probably far too rational a manner, by means of the numerous occasions for conflicts of interest which arise

precisely

undisguised feel

in

such

antipathies

intimate

and

aversions

In

the

which

people they have to do expression of self-love— of

towards strangers with

we may

relations.

whom

recognize the narcissism. This self-love works for the self-assertion of the

rence

and behaves as though the occurdivergence from his own particular

individual,

of

any

f

s

Group Psychology mid

56

of

lines

development

and a demand

why such just

details

that

a

involved

We

in

them

do not know

should have been directed to

of differentiation; this

Ego of

criticism

for their alteration.

sensitiveness

these

takable

the Analysis of the

whole

but

connection

is

it

unmis-

men

give

evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness, the source of which is unknown, and to which one is

tempted to ascribe an elementary character.^ But the whole of this intolerance vanishes, tem-

porarily or permanently, as the result of the formation

group, and in a group. formation persists or so far as

So long

of a

it

as a group

extends, individuals

tliey were uniform, tolerate other people's peculiarities, put themselves on an equal level with them, and have no feeling of aversion towards

behave as though

Such a limitation of narcissism can, according our theoretical views, only be produced by one Love for factor, a libidinal tie with other people.

them. to

oneself for

knows only one

objects.^

The

barrier

question

— love

will

at

for others, love

once be raised

*

In a recently published study, Jenseits des Lustprinzips International Psycho(1920) [Beyond the Pie astire Principle, I No. have attempted to connect the Analytical Library, 4],

polarity of love instincts of life as the purest

and hatred with a hypothetical opposition between and death, and to establish the sexual instincts

examples of the former, the

instincts of

life.

^See *Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus', 19 14. Kleine Schriften znr Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 191 8.

Further Problems and Lines of Work

57

whether community of interest in itself, without any addition of libido, must not necessarily lead to the

\

of other people and to considerateness for This objection may be met by the reply that

toleration

them.

no

nevertheless effected

in

this

lasting

limitation

since

way,

of

narcissism

is

does not

tolerance

this

longer than the immediate advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the practical

persist

less than might be has shown that in cases of experience libidinal ties are regularly formed be-

importance of the supposed,

for

collaboration

discussion

is

tween the fellow-workers which prolong and solidify the relation between them to a point beyond what is

merely profitable.

social

relations

analytic

as

The same thing occurs in men's has become familiar to psycho-

research in the

course of the

The

of the individual libido.

libido

development

props

itself

upon

the satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as its first objects the people who have a share in that process.

And

whole, just the civilizing

the

in

as

in

factor

from

development of mankind as

individuals, in

to

the

love

sense

altruism.

change egoism both of the sexual love

for

alone

that

And

it

acts

a'l

as

brings ry is true

this

women, with

all

the

obligations which it involves of sparing what wornen are fond of, and also of the desexualised, sublimated homosexual love for other men, which springs from

Avork in

common.

I

5

Group Psychology and

8

therefore

If

to

subject

Ego

groups narcissistic self-love is which do not operate outside

limitations

cogent evidence that the essence of a formation consists in a new kind of libidinal

that

them,

group ties

in

the Analysis of the

among

is

the

But our question as

which

exist

of neuroses

members of the group. now leads us on to

interest

to in

what may

the

In

groups.

we have

the pressing be the nature of these ties

hitherto

psycho-analytic study

been occupied almost

exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those love instincts which still pursue directly sexual aims. In

groups there can evidently be no question of sexual aims of that kind. are concerned here with love

We

instincts

which have been diverted from

their original

though they do not operate w^ith less energy on that account. Now we have already observed aims,

range of the usual sexual object-cathexis [Objektbesetzung] phenomena w^hich represent a di-

within

the

of

version

have

and

the

described

have

from

instinct

them

as

degrees

that

recognized

encroachment

the

our

closely

upon attention more

its

they

ego. to

sexual

aim.

We

of being in love, involve a certain

We

shall

these

now

turn

phenomena of

expectation of finding in them conditions which can be transferred to the ties

being that

know know

in

love,

in

the

firm

But we should also like groups. whether this kind of object-cathexis, as

exist

it

in

in

sexual

life,

represents

the

to

we

only manner

Further Problems and Lines of Work

59

people, or whether we must take other mechanisms of the sort into account. of emotional

As

tie

with

other

we

from psycho-analysis that there do exist other mechanisms for emotional ties,

a matter of fact

learn

the so-called identifications^

insufficiently-known

processes and hard to describe, the investigation of which will for some time keep us away from the subject of

Group Psychology.

VII

IDENTIFICATION

Identification

known

is

to

psycho-analysis emotional tie with

as

the

another expression of an It a in the early history of the person. plays part little boy will exhibit a special Oedipus complex. earliest

A

interest

in his father;

he would

like to

grow

like

him

We

him, and take his place everywhere. may say simply that he takes his father as his ideal. This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or

and be

like

feminine

males

in

it

general);

masculine.

complex,

towards

attitude

It

for

in

fits

which

At the same

is

father

his

on

very

the well

(and

towards

contrary typically with the Oedipus

helps to prepare the way. time as this identification with his it

boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his mother according He then to the anaclitic type \Anlehnungstypus\} father, or a little later, the

*

'

[Literally, leaning-up-against type *I

lean

up

against'.

In

the

first

';

from the Greek* dvaicXCva'

'

phase of their development the

61

Identi/ication exhibits,

two psychologically

therefore,

distinct

ties:

a straightforward sexual object-cathexis towards his mother and a typical identification towards his father. The two subsist side by side for a time without any mutual influence or interference. In consequence ol the irresistible advance towards a unification of mental life

come

they

complex

Oedipus

The

little

way

with

on a

father then takes identical

to

his

that

mother.

and

last;

from

originates

boy notices his

at

together

his

His

normal

the

confluence^

their

stands

father

identification

hostile colourincr

in

his

with

his

and becomes

with the wish to replace his father in regard

mother

as

well.

ambivcdent from the

in

Identification,

very

first;

it

can

turn

fact,

is

into

an

expression of tenderness as easily as into a wish for someone's removal. It behaves like a derivative the in

first oral phase of the organisation of the libido, which the object that w^e long for and prize is

by eating and

assimilated as such.

The

cannibal, as

is

in that

we know,

way

annihilated

has remained at

sexual instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction; they do so by propping themselves upon or Meaning up against' the

self-preser\'ative

sexual object this

path;

is

that

is,

discussion

The

be of the

of the

individual's first choice of a

'anaclitic type'

when he choses

same person who has full

instincts.

said to

satisfied his early

anaclitic

and

when

it

follows

as his first sexual object the

non-sexual needs. For a

narcissistic

choice compare 'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus'.

of

object—types Translator.']

62

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

this

standpoint;

he has a devouring affection only devours people of whom

and

enemies

for his

he

is

fond.^

The subsequent the father

the

easily

It

may happen

inverted,

and

taken as the object of a feminine object from which the directly sexual

father

an

attitude,

lost sight of.

Oedipus complex becomes

the

that that

may

history of this identification with

be

is

look for satisfaction; in that event the identification with the father has become the precursor of an object tie with the father. The same holds good, instincts

with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter as well. It

easy to state

is

between

an

identification

in

a formula the distinction with

the

choice of the father as an object.

father

one's father

second

he to

what one would

is

what one would

that

distinction,

taches

is

the

The former

is

is,

In the first case

like to be^

to

like

and

in the

have.

The

depends upon whether the

tie

at-

subject or to the object of the ego. therefore already possible before any

sexual object-choice has been made.

*

and the

It is

much more

See Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, and Abraham's

*

iiber die friiheste pragenitale Entwicklungsder Libido', Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse, 1916, Bd, rV; also included in his Klinische Beitrdge zur Psycho-

Untersuchungen

stufe

analyse 1921).

(Internationale

psychoanalytische

Bibliothek.

Nr.

10,

63

Identification difficult

of

tion

to give a clear metapsychological representathe distinction. can only see that

We

identification

mould a person's own of the one that has been taken

endeavours

after the fashion

ego

to

as a 'model'.

Let us disentangle the

structure

identification

as

occurs

it

symptom from

of a neurotic

its

complicated connections. Supposing that a (and we will keep to her for the present)

in

rather

little^ girl

—

develops

identification

may come

same painful symptom as her mother for instance, the same tormenting cough. Now this may come

the

about

from a

various ways.

in

the

hostile

mother's

Oedipus complex; in that case desire on the part to girl's

and

place,

object love tow^ards a realisation, under ^

her

of

guilt,

desire

You wanted

are the

The

— anyhow

father,

influence

to

take

far

as

her

mother,

the

of

signifies

take

her

expresses

her

and brings

her the

mechanism

complete

symptom

be your

to

as

the

it

pain the

of

a

mother's

and

about

sense

of

place:

now you

This goes'. structure of

is

a

symptom. Or, on the other hand, the symptom may be the same as that of the person who is loved (so, for instance, Dora in the

hysterical

—

'

Bruchstiick

father's

*

einer

cough);

in

her imitated Hysterieanalyse'^ that case we can only describe

\Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre. Zweite Folge.]

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

64

102.

in,

56, 81,

131

Hypnotist, 13, 77, 95-9. Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5. Idealisation, 74.

59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, III, 125. Ambivalent, 61. in hysterical symptom, 63-5.

Identification,

mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82. Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33,

Regression of object-choice

41-2, 80, 82, 90. Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.

with a lost or rejected object,

psychological

character

of,

6-32.

psychology,

1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4,

37, 45, 53, 59, 92-4, 112, 114. Revolutionary, 26.

loi,

Sexual instincts and, 120. spirit, 87. Stable, 26, 41, 84, 10 1.

84,

loi.

Guilt,Senseof,20,63,65,84, 106.

56.

Herd, 83-5,

89.

instinct,

Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70. Individual: a member of many groups, lOI. in,

114.

Inferiority,

3,

83-6, 105, 121.

Delusions

of, 57,

106-7. Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99. Inhibition Collective, of intellectual :

functioning, 23, 33.

123.

Horde Primal, 89-95, 99,

1 1

3-14,

Removal

of,

17, 28,

33.

Instinct:

120.

of Father.

47-8.

Mental change in a group. 6-14, 33-4,45, 56,81, 102, Psychology, 1-2, 92-3, 112,

46-7. Infection, mental, 64-65.

Hero, 17, 113-15Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94,

Father

the father, 60-2. the hero, 115. the leader, iio-ii.

Induction of emotion, 27, 34,

Gynaecocracy, 113. Hatred, 53, Hebbel, 49.

67-8, 108-9. Christ, iii.

with with with with

Dread

11, 13, 35,

Suggestibility 84-5. Transient, 25, 41, of,

to, 64.

the.

See

under

Hypnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81,

Herd,

3,

inhibited 1 1

83-6, 105, 121. in aim, 72-3, 78,

5-26.

95-100, 125-6, a group of two, 78, 100.

Life and death, 56.

and

Nutrition, 85. Primary, 84-5.

sleep, 79, 98. of terror, 79.

Love,

37, 39,

58.

1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

32

Instinct (continued)

:

Libido,

vSelf-preservative, 34, 85.

Sexual,

19,

vSocial,

56,

39,

71-8,

115-26.

85-5, 94, 3.

unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.

Unconscious,

33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83, 102, III, 116, 119, 123, 126. Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125. Oral phase of, 61.

theory, 57, 83, 125. Unification of, 19.

Withdrawal

10.

Intellectual ability," lowering of, in groups, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29. 31. 33. 81.

of,

108.

Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108, 122.

Introjection, of object into ego, 65, 67-8, ^6.

a factor of civilisation, 57, 93. and character formation, 94, 118-20.

Jealousy, 121.

Being

and hatred, Kings, Mana in, 96. Kraskovic, B. jnr., 23. Kroeger^ 90.

56.

58,

in,

71-9,

120-1,

124-6. Child's,

1

16-17.

Christ's, 43.

Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.

Language,

25,

Latency, period

Pauline,

71.

i'^,

of,

72, 117,^ 120.

126.

Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82, 85, 89, 92, 99, no. as substitutes

Abstractions

Equal love

of,

Identification

93, 95. with, iio-ii.

of,

the group ideal, 100, 102, Tie with, 49, 52, 66. 5-25,

1

10.

29, 34, 82, 84,

100- 1. Libidinal structure of the group, 37, 40, 44-5,47, 53, 7o, 79-8o, :

102-3.

The word, ties,

in

44,

Sublimated homosexual, 37-9, 71. 75.

Unsensual, 73.

Magnetic influence, 11. Magnetism, animal, 96. Mana, 96. Mania, 106-9. Marcuszezciez, 68. Marriage, 54, 120. Melancholia, 68, 106-9. Metapsychology, 63, 118. Moede, Walter, 24. Moliere,

44.

56-8,

57.

The word,

I, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84. Magical power of words, 19.

49.

Negative, 53. Prestige of, 21-2.

Le Bon,

Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117. Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.

McDougali,

Killing the, 90.

Loss

118.

See under Narcissism.

Unhappy,

53.

for,

Self-.

65,

93,

100.

the group, 45, 51, 54.

119.

IMorality, of,

Totemism

90.

the origin

Index Mother

deities,

^^llticellularit^',

Myth,

1 1

113, 7,

133

Panic, 45-9.

115.

Pan-sexualism, 39. Paul, Saint, 39, 118.

32, 83.

3-1 5.'

PJister,

Nacluiiansohn, 39. Names, Taboo upon, 19. Napoleon, 44. Narcissism, 2, 38, 54-8, 69, 74-5, 93, 94,

104.

Nestroy, 49. Neurosis, 18, 20, 37, 44, 63, 103-4,123-26. Nietzsche, 93. Nutrition, Instinct of, 84.

Object,

57-8,

58,

62,

68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127. cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76. Change of, 18, 119, 121.

Child's, 72. -choice, 54, 62^ 64, 74, III, 119, 121. Eating the, 61-62.

39, 119. Plato, 38. Poet, the first epic,

Power,

15,

9,

113-114.

28.

of leaders, 21. of words, 19. Prestige, 21-2, 34. Primitive peoples, 14, 18-19, 24, 92, 96, 105. Psycho-Analysis, 4, 7 14, 18, 36, 38-9. 59-60, 84, 97.

Psychology: Group, i-4,

6, 25-6, 33-4, 37» 45. 53. 59. 92, 94, loi. Group and individual, 1-2,

92-93, 112, 114.

Psychoses, ^^, 103. Puberti% ^^, 72-73-

Races, repugnance between

'

Hyper-cathexis

of,

Identification with ego, 108. Less or Renunciation of, 68, 108. -love, 56, 63, 74, III.

Relations with the ego, 65, 67-8, 70, 76. Sexual, ^^, 72-3, 116. Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80,

of,

Oedipus complex, 60-61,

69. 63,

66,

the libido, 61.

Organisation in groups, 26j 41-2,

Function for testing, 20, i']. Contrast between Objective

and Psychological, 20. Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121, 126.

Religion, 51, 90. of,

51.

Repressed Sexual tendencies, :

74,

117,

117-18, 126. 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120, Resistance, 84, 104.

The,

Oral phase of organisation of

33,

Reality:

123-4.

117. Inverted, 62.

30-1,

114.

Rapport, 97.

Wars

103, 125.

Observation, delusions

Orgy, 121.

related, S5. Otto, 112,

Rank,

76.

80,

82,

90.

10,

Repression,

104, 9,

54,

Responsibility, Sense 29-30.

of,

9-10,

1

34 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

Rickter,

Konrad,

Suggestibility, u, 13, 35, 84-5. Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.

36.

Sachs, HannSy 16, 115.

Schopenhauer, 54.

Counter-, 35.

Self-

Definition for, 100.

:

Mutual, 12, 27, 34, 82.

consciousness, 30-1, depreciation, 107. love. See under Narcissism. observation, 69.

Taboo,

preservation,

Tarde, 34.

11,

sacrifice,

15,

34,

84-5.

38, 75.

121.

58,

72.

Diversion of

instinct from, 58. Infantile, 72. Obstacles to, 120. life,

Totemism, 90,

112. 1

12-13.

:

clan, 95.

:

act, 92,

aims,

19, 96,

Totemistic

Sex, 39.

Sexual

Superman, 93.

19, 72.

over-estimation, 53-5. Tendencies, Inhibited and unhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 1 1 5-16, 125-26. union, 37-8.

Shaw, Bernard,

121.

Sidis, Boris, 84.

Sighele, 24-5. Simmel, E., 44. Sleep, 98, 104.

community of brothers, exogamy, 122. Tradition, 17, 21. of the group, 31. of the individual, 32. Transference, 97-8. Trotter,

32, 83-5, 89,

15-16. interpretation in dreams, 15-16. Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72,97.

Groups led by,

Social:

instincts,

duties, 88, 95. relations, 2-3, 57. Socialistic tie, 51.

Le

Dread

of,

100,

104. 14.

10.

Bon's, 10, 14, 24. of children, 18, 117. of neurotics, 18. Racial, 9.

10.

Sociolo^. See under Group

Wallenstein, 44.

Psychology. Speech, 84. Sublimated:

Wcir neuroses, 44. War, The, 44.

devotion, 17, 75.

homosexual Sublimation,

105.

Uncanniness, 95, 99, Uncertainty, absence in groups,

and hypnosis, 98. Smith, Robertson, 70.

Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.

112.

love, 57. 118.

Wilson, President, 44.

Wishes, Affective cathexis

of,

20.

Words, magical power

of,

19.

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