Groundwater in Fractured Rocks

GROUNDWATER IN FRACTURED ROCKS Few tasks in hydrogeology are more difficult than locating drilling sites for water wel...

Author: Jirí Krásný | John M. Sharp

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GROUNDWATER IN FRACTURED ROCKS

Few tasks in hydrogeology are more difficult than locating drilling sites for water wells in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Davis SN and DeWiest RJM (1966) Hydrogeology, p. 318. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York-London-Sydney. The hydrologist cannot blindly select a model, turn a crank, and accept the answers. He must devote considerable time and thought to judging how closely his real aquifer resembles the ideal. Ferris JG, Knowles B, Brown RH and Stallman RW (1962) Theory of aquifer tests, p. 102. Geol. Surv. Water-Supply paper 1536-E, Washington.

SELECTED PAPERS ON HYDROGEOLOGY

9 Series Editor: Dr. Nick S. Robins Editor-in-Chief IAH Book Series British Geological Survey Wallingford, UK

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF HYDROGEOLOGISTS

Groundwater in fractured rocks Selected papers from the Groundwater in Fractured Rocks International Conference, Prague, 2003

Edited by

Dr. Jirˇí Krásny´ Associate Professor, Charles University Prague, Czech Republic Scientific Programme Member and Chair of the Commission on Hardrock Hydrogeology, International Association of Hydrogeologists

Dr. John M. Sharp, Jr. Carlton Professor of Geology, The University of Texas, Austin, USA Treasurer, International Association of Hydrogeologists

LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

Cover photograph: Outcrop of the weathered granite in the Melechov region, Central Bohemia, Czech Republic. Fractured granite merges upwards into its regolith with granite blocks and a thin soil cover on the top (Photo: Jirˇí Krásny´). Deep parts of the Melechov Granite were selected as one of the places for possible radioactive waste disposal.

Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers. Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein. Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] www.balkema.nl, www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk, www.crcpress.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Groundwater in Fractured Rocks International Conference (2003 : Prague, Czech Republic) Groundwater in fractured rocks : selected papers from the Groundwater in Fractured Rocks International Conference, Prague, 2003 / edited by Jirí Krásny´, John M. Sharp, Jr. p. cm. – (Selected papers on hydrogeology ; 9) ISBN 978-0-415-41442-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Hydrogeology–Congresses. 2. Rocks–Fracture–Congresses. I. Krásny´, Jirí. II. Sharp, John Malcolm, 1944–III. Title. GB1001.2.G78 2007 551.49–dc22

ISBN 0-203-94565-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN13: 978-0-415-41442-5 (Hbk) ISBN13 e-Book: 978-0-203-94565-0

2007009818

Contents

XI

Preface About the editors Introductory paper: Hydrogeology of fractured rocks from particular fractures to regional approaches: State-of-the-art and future challenges

XV 1

Jirˇ í Krásny´ and John M. Sharp, Jr.

HYDROGEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OF FRACTURED ROCKS Chapter 1.

Hydrogeology of granite rocks in Sardinia

33

Giovanni Barrocu

Chapter 2.

Groundwater exploitation of fractured rocks in South America

45

Emilia Bocanegra and Gerson C. Silva Jr.

Chapter 3. Groundwater and tectonics – semiarid Northeast of Brazil

57

Benjamim B. de Brito Neves and José do Patrocínio T. Albuquerque

Chapter 4. Regional study of hard rock aquifers in Alentejo, South Portugal: methodology and results

73

António Chambel, Jorge Duque and João Nascimento

Chapter 5.

Groundwater in volcanic hard rocks

95

Emilio Custodio

Chapter 6. Regional transmissivity distribution and groundwater potential in hard rock of Ghana Philip K. Darko and Jirˇ í Krásny´

109

Chapter 7.

121

Hydrogeology of hard rocks in some eastern and western African countries Costantino Faillace

Chapter 8.

The fractured rocks in Hellas George Stournaras, George Migiros, George Stamatis, Niki-Nikoletta Evelpidou, Konstantinos Botsialas, Barbara Antoniou and Emmanuel Vassilakis

Chapter 9. Determining a representative hydraulic conductivity of the Carnmenellis granite of Cornwall, UK, based on a range of sources of information David C. Watkins

133

151

VI

Contents

Chapter 10. Estimating the change of fracture volume with depth at the Koralm Massif, Austria

163

Gerfried Winkler, Hans Kupfersberger and Elmar Strobl

CONCEPTUAL MODELS, GROUNDWATER FLOW AND RESOURCES IN FRACTURED ROCKS Chapter 11. Fractured Old Red Sandstone aquifers of the Cork Harbour region: Groundwater barriers between adjacent karstic systems

179

Alistair Allen and Dejan Milenic

Chapter 12.

Non-Darcy two-phase flow in fractured rocks

189

Giovanni Brighenti and Paolo Macini

Chapter 13. GIS based assessment of groundwater recharge in the fractured rocks of Namaqualand, South Africa

203

Julian Conrad and Shafick Adams

Chapter 14. The use of environmental isotopes to establish a hydrogeological conceptual model in a region with scarce data: the Table Mountain Group of South Africa as a case study

219

Arie S. Issar and Johanita C. Kotze

Chapter 15. Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale: an application to India

227

Jean-Christophe Maréchal, Benoît Dewandel, Shakeel Ahmed and Patrick Lachassagne

Chapter 16. Estimating groundwater recharge in fractured bedrock aquifers in Ireland

243

Bruce D.R. Misstear and Vincent P. Fitzsimons

GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN FRACTURED ROCKS Chapter 17. Interpreting the evolution and stability of groundwaters in fractured rocks

261

Adrian Bath

Chapter 18. Universal controls on the evolution of groundwater chemistry in shallow crystalline rock aquifers: the evidence from empirical and theoretical studies

275

Bjørn Frengstad and David Banks

Chapter 19. Factors influencing the microbiological quality of groundwater in Norwegian bedrock wells Sylvi Gaut, Atle Dagestad, Bjørge Brattli and Gaute Storrø

291

Contents

Chapter 20. Evaluating mineral water quality trends of Pedras Salgadas (Portugal)

VII

305

Carla Lourenço and Luís Ribeiro

Chapter 21. Questions and answers about the evolution of CO2-rich thermomineral waters from Hercynian granitic rocks (N-Portugal): a review

313

José M. Marques, Mário Andrade, Paula M. Carreira, Rui C. Graça, Luís Aires-Barros

Chapter 22. Origin of salinity in a fractured bedrock aquifer in the Central West Region of NSW, Australia

329

Karina Morgan and Jerzy Jankowski

Chapter 23. Isotope studies of a groundwater-flow system in granite, Middle Hungary

343

László Palcsu, Éva Svingor, Mihály Molnár, Zsuzsanna Szántó, István Futó, László Rinyu, István Horváth, György Tóth and István Fórizs

Chapter 24.

Structure conditional thermal springs in Central Brazil

355

Uwe Tröger

INVESTIGATION AND INTERPRETATION METHODS IN FRACTURED ENVIRONMENT Chapter 25.

Characterization of fractured porous media: Aquifer Analogue Approach

375

Ralf Brauchler, Martin Sauter, Christopher I. McDermott, Carsten Leven, Matthias Weede, Peter Dietrich, Rudolf Liedl, Heinz Hötzl and Georg Teutsch

Chapter 26. Application of the oriented core drilling/sampling method to an environmental site investigation

393

James P.G. Bunker

Chapter 27. Probabilistic delineation of groundwater protection zones in fractured-rock aquifers

405

Júlio F. Carneiro

Chapter 28. Interconnected flow measurement between boreholes using a borehole flowmeter

423

Lasse Koskinen and Pekka Rouhiainen

Chapter 29. Characterizing flow in natural fracture networks: comparison of the discrete and continuous descriptions

437

Tanguy Le Borgne, Olivier Bour, Jean Raynald De Dreuzy and Philippe Davy

Chapter 30.

New analysis of pump tests in fractured aquifers Gerard Lods and Philippe Gouze

451

VIII

Contents

Chapter 31. Estimating groundwater flow rates in fractured metasediments: Clare Valley, South Australia

463

Andrew Love, Craig T. Simmons, Peter Cook, Glenn A. Harrington, Andrew Herczeg and Todd Halihan

Chapter 32. Fracture networks in Jurassic carbonate rock of the Algarve Basin (South Portugal): implications for aquifer behaviour related to the recent stress field

479

Inga Moeck, Michael Dussel, Uwe Tröger and Heinz Schandelmeier

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON FRACTURED ENVIRONMENT Chapter 33. Using specific capacity to assign vulnerability to diffuse pollution in fractured aquifers in Scotland

495

Mark Betson and Nick Robins

Chapter 34. Environmental impacts of tunnels in fractured crystalline rocks of the Central Alps

507

Simon Loew, Volker Luetzenkirchen, Ulrich Ofterdinger, Christian Zangerl, Erik Eberhardt and Keith Evans

Chapter 35. Groundwater modelling approaches as planning tools for WISMUT’s remediation activities at the Ronneburg uranium mining site

527

Michael Paul, Manfred Gengnagel and Michael Eckart

Chapter 36. Active groundwater monitoring and remediation during tunneling through fractured bedrock under urban areas

541

Kim Rudolph-Lund, Frank Myrvoll, Elin Skurtveit and Bjarne Engene

NUMERICAL MODELLING OF FRACTURED ENVIRONMENT Chapter 37. A double continuum approach for determining contaminant transport in fractured porous media

553

Matthias Beyer and Ulf Mohrlok

Chapter 38.

Coupled hydro-mechanical modelling of flow in fractured rock

567

Philipp Blum, Rae Mackay and Michael S. Riley

Chapter 39. Hydrogeologic modelling with regard to site selection for an underground repository in a granite formation in Krasnojarsk, Russia

575

Christine Fahrenholz, Wernt Brewitz, Eckhard Fein and Matthias Schöniger

Chapter 40. Development and qualification of a smeared fracture modelling approach for transfers in fractured media André Fourno, Christophe Grenier, Frederick Delay and Hakim Benabderrahmane

587

Contents

Chapter 41. Sensitivity of fracture skin properties on solute transport and back diffusion in fractured media

IX

605

Terence T. Garner, Thandar Phyu, Neville I. Robinson and John M. Sharp, Jr.

Chapter 42. Averaging hydraulic conductivity in heterogeneous fractures and layered aquifers

617

Sassan Mouri and Todd Halihan

Chapter 43. Time-resolved 3D characterisation of flow and dissolution patterns in a single rough-walled fracture

629

Catherine Noiriel, Philippe Gouze and Benoît Madé Subject index

643

Author index

647

Series IAH-Selected papers

649

Preface Crystalline (igneous and metamorphic) and consolidated sedimentary rocks – so called hard or fractured rocks – are found in many regions of the world. They occur mainly in large areas – shields, massifs, and in cores of major mountain ranges. Their outcrops cover more than 20 per cent (i.e., approximately 30 million square kilometres) of the present land surface. In addition, these mostly old rocks form the basement of younger sedimentary rocks that are often concentrated into large basins. Thus, hard rocks represent at depths a continuous environment enabling extended, deep regional or even global groundwater flow. During past decades adequate attention had not been paid to groundwater in this specific hydrogeologic environment. The exception is in some arid and semi-arid regions where, under typical non-availability of surface water resources, groundwater represents the major water resource. In temperate climatic zones, groundwater users had paid attention mostly to sedimentary basins that can host aquifers of high yield. These are economically and technically more profitable than scattered, often small-yield wells common in hard rocks. In the last decade of the 20th century, however, there has been increasing interest in hardrock hydrogeology because of many theoretical and applied issues in both tropical and temperate climatic zones. These include:

•

•

•

•

Natural groundwater resources of hardrock terrains, mainly those in mountainous regions, have been shown to be very important in maintaining flow of surface water courses in adjacent piedmont zones during dry periods. They may also provide significant recharge to adjoining sedimentary systems. Therefore, understanding these resources is indispensable for sustainable integrated water management. As water demands increase in many regions, adequately sited water wells or other water intake systems in hardrock areas typically can meet requirements on water supply for small communities, industry, and irrigation and for domestic water consumption. In some areas, groundwater abstraction possibilities are sufficiently high to supply even small cities. Siting of wells in open fracture systems or thick permeable overburden and the evaluation of permeability with depth to assess well yields are some of the important issues of applied hardrock hydrogeology. Social and economic considerations of groundwater development help to decide and justify whether development of groundwater in hardrock areas is preferable to other water-supply options. Knowledge of groundwater flow and transport in fractured rocks is vital in addressing groundwater pollution and environmental protection. Impacts of industrialisation and urbanisation, landfills, deep hazardous waste repositories, and agricultural chemicals must be studied and monitored in hardrock environments. Knowledge of the complex groundwater flow and contaminant transport in weathered and fractured zones of hard rocks is decisive for siting both surface and deep waste repositories and the assessment of future environmental impacts of potential contamination sources. Clear hydrogeologic understanding and quantitative hydrogeologic assessments are important for many geotechnical and engineering-geological activities, such as construction of tunnels, building foundations, and utility systems as well as in mining. Recent studies of deep repository sites for radioactive, toxic and other hazardous

XII

• •

•

Preface

wastes, many involving crystalline rocks, have extended our hydrogeologic knowledge of these environments to depths of hundreds or even thousands of metres. These data present an important and useful concepts to compare with results provided by other hydrogeologic methodologies and techniques. Results of recently deep boreholes in crystalline rocks, mostly connected with geothermal studies, have re-opened the issue of deep-seated groundwater flow and brine occurrences and discussions on the origins of mineral and thermal waters often associated with hard rocks. Increasing available data has stimulated efforts to regionalise and generalise results from different hydrogeologic environments. Knowledge of hierarchy of inhomogeneity elements and of a scale effect influencing spatial distribution of hydraulic properties might enable us to simplify real natural conditions when defining conceptual and numerical models of groundwater flow and solute transport. Data on hydraulic properties, groundwater availability, and water quality, obtained by different methodological approaches in different regions of the Earth, offer possibilities for correlative hydrogeologic studies so that conclusions can be drawn to understand hydrogeologic properties of fractured rocks both in local and regional scales.

Many international meetings have reflected the increasing attention paid to groundwater in hard rocks. The 24th Congress of the International Association of Hydrogeologists (IAH) held in 1993 in Oslo, focused directly on hardrock hydrogeology. This has been followed by several other professional meetings covering similar topics. Recent IAH Congresses in Cape Town, South Africa (2000), in Munich, Germany (2001), in Mar del Plata, Argentina (2002), in Zacatecas, México (2004) and many other international conferences have contributed significantly to hardrock hydrogeology. Acknowledging the importance of groundwater in the hardrock environment, IAH established the Commission on Hardrock Hydrogeology to stimulate international co-operation and facilitate exchange of information between hydrogeologists and other specialists on groundwater issues in hard rocks (Commission web site: www.natur.cuni.cz/iah or www.iah.org/). The Commission assembles specialists from about 50 countries all over the world. In Europe, four regional working groups regularly convene workshops on different topics of hardrock hydrogeology starting from 1994. Thus, so far eleven workshops have been organised and all have published proceedings. Recently, a new South Asian regional working group was established. In 2003 the IAH International Conference on “GROUNDWATER IN FRACTURED ROCKS” was held in Prague. The Conference provided an effective professional forum for presentations and discussions of many issues of fractured rock hydrogeology. The conference proceedings (Krásny´ et al., 2003) published 206 extended abstracts selected from over 286 submissions from 52 countries. Primarily out of these materials, the editors of this volume requested 43 papers, taking into account their goals, originality, relevance, and technical quality. The selected papers cover a wide field of important issues of modern hydrogeology of fractured environments. These include sustainable groundwater development, protection and management, evolving methodological approaches, new concepts of hydrogeologic properties both on local and regional scales and both quantitative and qualitative aspects of groundwater flow. We also desired to consider different hardrock regions on all the continents. There could be discussion on whether or not all the published papers fulfil these criteria, but our intention was to select representative contributions on the

Preface

XIII

issues presented at the 2003 Prague conference. Three years have passed since the conference, and the authors were asked to update and/or extend their original findings. Some of these revisions were very extensive. As in the conference, the selected papers are subdivided into 6 sections as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Hydrogeologic environment of fractured rocks Conceptual models, groundwater flow and resources in fractured rocks Groundwater quality in fractured rocks Investigation and interpretation methods in fractured environment Anthropogenic impacts on fractured environment Numerical modelling of fractured environment.

We would like to thank to the reviewers that supported us in enhancing the submitted manuscripts. These include G. Barrocu, A. Bath, A. Chambel, J. Chilton, J. Conrad, E. Custodio, A.S. Engel, T.T. Garner, A. Grmela, K. Howard, Z. Hrkal, P. Kralj, R. Marrett, H. Marszalek, A. Mayo, A. Moench, H.S. Nance, P. Neill, L. Ribeiro, W.R. Robertson, P. Rouhiainen, T.K. Rubbert, K. Rudolph-Lund, K.-P. Seiler, R. Senger, C. Simmons, J. Slezák, D.T. Slottke, E. Steinhauer, G. Stournaras, U. Tröger, F. Villarroya, A. Voronov, J. Vrba, D. Watkins, and H. Wu, as well as many reviewers who chose to remain anonymous. We think that the volume is the representative monograph discussing key issues, methodologies, and techniques in the field of hydrogeology of fractured (hard) rocks as well as summarising the results achieved in recent years. It is our hope that this will stimulate new ideas and considerations and lead to advances in the hydrogeology of fractured hard rocks. It should be a valuable reference for studies in fractured rock hydrogeology worldwide. Prague-Austin, August 2006

Jirˇí Krásny´ and Jack Sharp Editors of the volume

About the editors Jirˇí Krásny´ has worked most of his professional career with the Czech Geological Survey and from 1991 with the Charles University Prague. He was at long-term hydrogeological missions in Iraq and Nicaragua. His main interests are regionalisation of hydrogeological data, hydrogeological mapping, mineral water investigations, and studies in different hydrogeological environments. He is the chairman of the IAH Commission on Hardrock Hydrogeology and the Scientific Programme Member of the IAH Council.

John M. (Jack) Sharp, Jr. is the Carlton Professor of Geology at The University of Texas. He and his students research a variety of hydrogeological issues, including flow in fractured rocks, free convection, karstic hydrogeology, decision support systems, urban hydrogeology, and application of hydrogeology to geological problems. He is the Treasurer of the IAH and the President of the Geological Society of America.

Hydrogeology of fractured rocks from particular fractures to regional approaches: State-of-the-art and future challenges Jirˇí Krásny´1 and John M. Sharp, Jr.2 1

Faculty of Science, Charles University Prague, Czech Republic Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, U.S.A 2

ABSTRACT: Groundwater flow and transport in fractured rocks are important for development of groundwater, petroleum, and geothermal fluids and also for understanding the movement of anthropogenic and natural solutes in geological settings. Relative permeabilities and storage properties differentiate fractured media into purely fractured media, fractured formations, double-porosity media, and heterogeneous media. A priori understanding of flow in these systems requires knowledge of geological controls on fracture orientations, connectivities, apertures, roughnesses, spacings/densities and skin effects. More geological input, geophysical techniques and the use of proxy data are needed to address challenges in fractured rock hydrogeology. We require greater insights into geological controls of flow and transport in fractured porous media; better predictions of solute transport and the influence of fracture flow on other fundamental geological problems; and how or if we can scale these properties. This compendium addresses these issues, presents new techniques, and evaluates groundwater in fractured rocks in a variety of hydrogeological settings.

1

INTRODUCTION

Fractured rocks present complex, heterogeneous, and anisotropic hydrogeological environments with irregular distribution of groundwater flow pathways. Fractured rocks and hard rocks are often used synonymously even though there is no general agreement among hydrogeologists on the precise definition of hard rock. It is commonly understood by geologists that hard rocks are crystalline (i.e., igneous and metamorphic rocks), and some hydrogeologists (e.g., Larsson et al., 1987) define “hard rocks” as igneous and metamorphic, nonvolcanic, and non-carbonate rocks. However, these definitions are restrictive and, in many hydrogeological studies, “hard rock” is used in a wider, but not precisely defined sense. This is because other rock types, such as well-cemented sedimentary rocks often occurring with crystalline rocks in shields and massifs have hydrogeological properties similar to crystalline rocks. In these terrains, it is often impossible to define exact boundaries between metamorphic (“crystalline”) and sedimentary rocks where metamorphic rocks grade into slightly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Similar situations occur where nonindurated deposits lose their primary (intergranular) porosity and transition into intensively cemented sedimentary rocks. Consequently, because of lithification and complex geologic processes, such as faulting and folding, intergranular primary porosity of clastic deposits can be altered to an

2

Groundwater in fractured rocks

intergranular-fracture (double) or to fracture-dominated porosity: Well-cemented claystones, shales, carbonates, and sandstones, occurring both in basins and in folded mountainous zones, can display hydrogeological properties comparable to crystalline rocks. Accordingly, we suggest the acceptance of the definition of “hard rocks” proposed by Gustafsson (1993): “Hard rocks include all rocks without sufficient primary porosity and conductivity for feasible groundwater extraction.” This implicitly highlights the most important hydrogeological property of hard rocks – fractures that are common to all hard rocks irrespective of their great variety of mineralogy, petrology, and stratigraphy. Hard rocks include magmatic rocks from granites to basic rocks, metamorphic rocks, and many sedimentary rocks, including fractured shales, graywackes, sandstones, conglomerates, and some carbonate rocks. Carbonate rocks, especially if karstified, and neovolcanic rocks (e.g., unwelded tuffs) may differ hydrogeologically from hard rocks, but there occur many common features and the methodologies used in carbonate and volcanic rocks can often be applied in hardrock environments. Hard rocks occur in all the continents. They often extend in geologically continuous areas – shields, massifs, and in cores of many mountain ranges. The largest areas belong to Canadian, Guyana, and Brazilian shields in the Americas and to extended areas in Africa, Asia and Australia. Some of these areas belong, at least partly, to arid or semi-arid zones with acute scarcity of water resources. In Europe, hard rocks occur in the Baltic Shield and in numerous smaller areas. Hardrock outcrops cover more than 20 per cent (i.e., approximately 30 million square kilometres) of the land surface. The total extension and volume of all fractured rocks (partly of double porosity), however, is much larger as old crystalline rocks commonly form the basement beneath sedimentary rocks including those in large sedimentary basins. Historically, hydrogeologists underestimated the occurrence and importance of preferential pathways for groundwater flow, represented by fractures and other heterogeneities. Simplified solutions were based on assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy. However, the importance of fractures and fracture networks on flow and solute transport is now recognised and has led in the last decades of the 20th century to a greater focus on the hydrogeology of fractured systems. This increasing interest in the hydrogeology of fractured rocks, especially in hard rocks, has led to a number of review papers and monographs. These are too many to mention all of them but the first may have been Davis and DeWiest (1966, Ch. 9) and IAHS/UNESCO (1967). These were followed by two UNESCO monographs (Larsson 1987; Lloyd 1999). Marinov (1974, 1978), Geothermal Resources Council (1982), LaPointe and Hudson (1985), Black et al. (1986), Evans and Nicholson (1987), Barton and Hsieh (1989), Ehlen (1990), Chernyshev and Dearman (1991), Wright and Burgess (1992), National Research Council (1996), Pointet (1997), Krásny´ (1999), Singhal and Gupta (1999), Faybishenko et al. (2000), Robins and Misstear (2000), Stober and Bucher (2000), Olofsson et al. (2001), Cook (2003), and Neuman (2005) are some of the more recent compilations. The 24th IAH Congress focused on the “Hydrogeology of Hard Rocks” (Banks and Banks, 1993); it initiated a world-wide scientific co-operation and led to eleven workshops convened by four European Regional Working Groups of the IAH Commission on Hardrock Hydrogeology (Krásny´ and Mls 1996; Bochenska and Stasko, 1997; Yélamos and Villarroya, 1997; Annau et al., 1998; Knutsson, 1998; Rohr-Torp and Roberts, 2002; Stournaras, 2003; Rönkä et al., 2005; Stournaras et al., 2005). Ten years after the 24th IAH Congress, the IAH Conference on “Groundwater in Fractured Rocks” in Prague (Krásny´ et al., 2003) demonstrated the variety of excellent research on fractured rock hydrogeology

Hydrogeology of fractured rocks from particular fractures to regional approaches

3

and led to this compilation of research papers that document the state of the art and recognition of future challenges in this field and that expand upon the concepts of hardrock hydrogeology to fractured rocks in general.

2

TOPICS

This compendium is grouped of papers that reflect the current status of the hydrogeological knowledge of hard or fractured rocks:

• • • • • •

Hydrogeological environment of fractured rocks Conceptual models, groundwater flow and resources Groundwater quality Investigative and interpretative methods Anthropogenic impacts, and Numerical modelling

In the first section, the hydrogeological environment of fractured rocks, the hydrogeology of different hard rock regions is summarized. Barrocu and Watkins discuss granitic rocks in Sardinia, Italy, and Cornwall, UK, respectively. Faillace presents a historical view and generalization of his many years developing groundwater supplies in Africa; Darko and Krásny´ evaluate hydrogeological properties and groundwater potential in Ghana; Bocanegra and Da Silva consider fractured rocks aquifers of South America and Brito Neves and Albuquerque discuss the relationships of tectonics and groundwater in northeast Brazil. European systems discussed include the Alentejo region of Portugal (Chambel et al.), the Aegean or Hellenic Arc encompassing Greece and the Aegean islands (Stournaras et al.), and the Koralm massif of Austria (Winkler et al.) where fracture network modelling is used in conjunction with discrete fracture models. Finally, Emilio Custodio characterizes groundwater in volcanic rocks in which flow is also fracture dominated. In the section on conceptual models of groundwater flow and water resources, Issar and Kotze use environmental isotopes to establish a conceptual model for flow in fractured metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Allen and Milenic evaluate the role of fractures in lowpermeability sandstone confining units. Conrad and Adams use GIS to assess groundwater recharge in fractured rocks in South Africa in areas with a paucity of data, while Misstear and Fitzsimons estimate recharge in Irish fractured aquifers using soil moisture budgets and stream gauging. Marechal et al. characterize hard rock aquifers in India at the catchment scale. Finally, Brighenti and Macini conceptualize non-Darcy two-phase flow in fractures. Water quality is a key water-resources issue in fractured media because of the speed and directions of solute transport. Bath interprets the evolution and stability of groundwaters in fractured rocks in England and Sweden as do Frengstad and Banks in Norway. Gaut et al. discuss factors controlling the microbial quality of such groundwaters. Two Portuguese studies discuss quality issues of mineral waters. Lourenço and Ribeiro evaluate trends in mineral water quality and Marques et al. review the evolution of CO2-rich waters in granitic rocks. Morgan and Jankowski investigate the origin of salinity in fractured rocks that is affecting agricultural activities. Palcsu et al. use isotopic analyses to infer flow systems in a granite massif to evaluate its potential as a waste repository. Finally, Troeger reports on structural controls on several Brazilian thermal springs and their water chemistry.

4


Methods of investigating in fractured rock systems are also evolving. Bunker discusses the use of oriented core drilling of environmental site investigations. Moeck et al. relate fracture networks and aquifer characteristics as related to the current stress field. Carneiro uses Monte Carlo methods of modelling to delineate groundwater protection zones for fractured-rock aquifers. Brauchler et al. use an aquifer analogue approach to characterize fractured porous media with a travel-time based tomographic inversion. Le Borgne et al. compare discrete and continuous descriptions for characterizing flow in fracture networks. Love et al. present a new method of borehole dilution with tracer tests to estimate flow horizontal and vertical rates in fractured metasediments in Australia. Of course, pumping tests are still the prime technique for gathering hydrogeological data. Lods and Gouze present a new method for pump test analyses in fractured rocks. Koskinen and Rouhiainen characterize groundwater flow in fractured crystalline rocks with borehole flow meters. Human effects on fractured rock systems are becoming increasingly important. Water quality issues are discussed in a previous section, but physical effects are also important. Betson and Robins use unit specific capacity to assess vulnerability of fractured aquifers to pollution. Loew et al. review unique case histories of the effects of tunnels on groundwater flow in crystalline rocks of the Swiss Alps. Rudolph-Lund et al. examine monitoring and remediation activities along tunnels through urban areas of Norway and Paul et al. discuss model prediction of the flooding of an underground uranium mine in Germany. The last section of this volume has 7 papers on various aspects of modelling. Beyer and Mohrlok use a double continuum approach for contaminant transport in fractured porous media. Because waste repositories are often planned in rocks of low primary permeability, fractures are a vital assessment item. 3 papers deal with these sites. Blum et al. use fracture data from the Sellafield (UK) site to define 3 important hydrogeological issues for modelling flow in fractured rock. Fourno et al. use a smeared fracture approach to predict post closure conditions, and Fahrenholz et al. discuss modelling and performance assessment at a site in Siberia with few hydrogeological data. Mouri and Halihan compare averaging of hydraulic conductivities for heterogeneous layered and fractured aquifers. Garner et al. model the transport of solutes in fractures in granites with fracture skins using an analytical model. Finally, last but not least, Noriel et al. use X-ray microtomography to measure fracture properties in a rough fracture undergoing dissolution. Even the wide range of topics and geographic areas included in this compendium do not exhaust the range of hydrogeological studies in fractured rock. For instance, we do not cover geophysical methods (surficial or borehole) or rock mechanics to any great extent. There is also no discussion of the role of flow in fractures in permafrost regions and its role in glacial processes. However, we think that this collection of articles is generally indicative of the wide and growing field of the hydrogeology of fractured and “hard” rocks. Many of the papers suggest future applied and theoretical research needs in this field of science.

3

GENERAL HYDROGEOLOGICAL FEATURES AND VERTICAL ZONING OF HARD ROCKS

Hardrock environment typically consists of three vertical zones, upper weathered, middle fractured and deep massive (e.g., Biscaldi 1968, Larsson et al. 1987, Chilton and Foster 1993, Rebouças 1993, Krásny´ 1996b, Faillace, this volume, and Maréchal et al., this volume). Hydrogeological knowledge and understanding of this intricate environment,


5

based on sound interdisciplinary geological, hydrogeological, hydrochemical, and geophysical studies are indispensable to provide adequate basis for theoretical considerations, development of methodological and technical tools, implementation of conceptual and numerical models, and many practical applications. Vertical sequence of the three zones is defined from the land surface downwards as follows: – Upper or weathered zone formed by regolith, colluvium, talus, etc. often juxtaposed with alluvial, fluvial, glacial, and lacustrine (mostly Quaternary) deposits. Intergranular (interstitial) porosity prevails. The usual thickness is several metres but under special conditions, mainly along deeply weathered fractures or in residual tropical soils this zone may be much deeper. – Middle or fractured zone usually represented by fractured bedrock to depths of some tens to hundreds of metres. Fracture aperture depends mostly on exogeneous geologic processes so permeability in this zone generally decreases with depth. – Deep or massive zone in massive bedrock where fractures, faults, or fracture-fault zones are relatively scarce and fracture apertures are commonly less than in the middle zone. Deep fractures may act as isolated, more or less individual hydraulic bodies. In a regional scale, however, these inhomogeneities may form interconnected networks enabling extended and deep, regional to continental groundwater flow reaching depths of hundreds or even thousands of metres. Under suitable structural conditions, mineral and thermal waters ascend along deep faults. This vertical sequence is common but, under specific conditions, the upper-weathered zone can be missing (e.g., in recently glaciated regions, the weathered zone and, in some cases, portions of the middle/fractured zone have been eroded). Intergranular porosity is important in the upper zone; fracture porosity dominates in the deeper zones. However, varying petrographic and mechanical properties of hard rocks can create in different hydrogeological characteristics. Permeability variations may reflect lithologically distinct intercalations and form stratiform aquifers that are more characteristic of sedimentary basins. Folded, fractured, and sometimes karstified layers of crystalline limestones (and marbles) and intercalations of other rocks (e.g., quartzites) may be more transmissive than the surrounding hard rocks but form part of the same aquifer systems. The upper and middle zones can form a regionally extended “near-surface aquifer” that is generally conformable to the land surface with a thickness of tens to more than 100 metres with permeability generally decreasing with depth. This aquifer usually offers the best groundwater abstraction possibilities. However, the thickness and character of this complex and heterogeneous aquifer changes spatially in relation to tectonic deformation (faulting and fracturing), lithologic facies, and weathering.

4

GEOMETRY AND PROPERTIES OF PARTICULAR FRACTURES

Fractures are the most important hydrogeological element in almost any setting and especially in hardrock environments. They control the hydraulic characteristics and solute transport. Without fractures, except for the upper-weathered zone, there is no significant groundwater flow in hard rocks. Therefore, understanding of the fluid-transmission properties in fractures is important for production of critical natural resources and environmental

6


protection as well as understanding of natural processes, such as formation of mineral and petroleum deposits, sediment diagenesis, the cooling of plutons, mass wasting, and the movement of nutrients and chemicals in the soil zone. Finally, fluid flow and solute transport in fractures is important in many geotechnical and mining issues.

4.1

Fractured media

Fractured media can be classified into four gradational categories (Figure 1) depending upon the relative hydraulic properties of the fractures and the blocks or matrix between the fractures. In purely fractured media, the hydraulic conductivity and fluid storage are completely in the fractures. The rock matrix has virtually no porosity or permeability. Examples include unweathered plutonic and metamorphic rocks, such as granites, gabbros, schists, gneisses, and slates. Some volcanic rocks are also purely fractured. With respect to their transport properties, even purely fractured formations may have “diffusional” porosity (Norton and Knapp 1977; Neretnieks, 1980) created by microfractures and defects along

Figure 1. Hydrogeological classification of fractured media (after Streltsova, 1975; Sharp, 1993). Kf and Km and Sf and Sm are the hydraulic conductivities and storativities of the fractures and matrix, respectively. A: purely fractured media. B: fractured formation. C: double porosity medium. D: heterogeneous formation. Especially, in cases A, B, and C, the fracture coating or “skin” may be in solute transport significant.


7

crystal boundaries that contribute significantly to transport on long time scales. In fractured formations, the flow is controlled by the fractures, but the fluid is stored primarily within the matrix. A fractured formation represents a common situation of great interest to the petroleum industry. Examples of fractured formations include “tight” gas sands, shales, and extrusive volcanic rocks, such as tuffs. In double porosity media, the relative permeability of the matrix can approach that of the fracture. Many aquifers, including sandstones, some basalts, and some carbonates can be considered double-porosity media. As in the fractured formation, most of the fluid is stored in the matrix. Double-porosity media constitute a particularly difficult challenge in modelling because flow in both the matrix and the fractures and interaction between the matrix and the fractures must be quantified. Finally, in some fractured rocks, the fractures are filled with material that is different in permeability than the matrix. This is termed a heterogeneous formation which may be modelled with standard equivalent porous medium techniques. Also shown in Figure 1 is the fracture “skin” – a fracture surface or thin zone immediately beneath the surface which is altered by mineral deposition or coating with detrital or “infiltered” clays (Moench 1984, Fu et al. 1994). Fracture skins may possess significantly different hydraulic properties from the unaltered matrix (Fuller and Sharp 1992; Robinson et al., 1998; Phyu, 2002; Garner and Sharp, 2004; Garner et al., this volume). Skin permeabilities, porosities, sorptivities, and diffusion coefficients can be considerably different from the unaltered fracture surface or matrix and can be important in solute transport. 4.2

Fracture characterization

We conclude that hydrogeological characterization of fracture systems is vital to the understanding of flow and associated processes. Some characterization procedures are well documented, but for many fracture parameters, characterization remains uncertain because requires data on the orientation of the fractures, their frequency (fracture density), size, flow characteristics (aperture, fracture roughness, and channeling characteristics), and interconnectivity. We also need to evaluate how these properties vary with geological heterogeneity, scale, changing in situ stresses, and, in the case of hazardous waste disposal, how these properties evolve over centuries or millennia. This is so difficult that some (e.g., Voss, 2003) have suggested that hydrogeological characterization of fracture systems a priori might be impossible. 4.2.1

Orientation

In most cases, the assumption is made that a fracture is planar or curviplanar so that fracture orientation can be defined by strike and dip. Orientations can be illustrated by rose diagrams, stereonets, or directly on geological maps. A wealth of fracture data can be inferred from geological maps and aerial photographs (e.g., Mayer and Sharp, 1998). Uliana (2001) and Sharp et al. (2000) used length weighted rose diagrams to predict the directions and relative magnitude of permeability as a function of azimuth. 4.2.2

Fracture density

Fracture density quantifies the number fractures per unit length (along a scan line), in a unit area, or in a unit volume of rock. The number of fractures which cross a scan line or traverse is called the fracture spacing. The correlation of fracture spacing with fracture density has been discussed by LaPointe and Hudson (1985), among others. Recent studies

8


by Marrett (1996), Marrett et al. (1999), and Ortega et al. (2006) extrapolate from thin sections or outcrop measurements to field scale. 4.2.3

Aperture

Aperture is the distance between the fracture walls. The discharge and hydraulic conductivity of a fracture with smooth parallel walls are proportional, respectively, to the cube and square of aperture. Apertures may follow a power law scaling, but aperture variability within a fracture (Mouri, 2005) may overwhelm the scaling attempts. Natural fractures do not have smooth, parallel walls; the irregularities on the fracture surface are termed asperities. Asperities create roughness to reduce fluid velocity and create channels of preferential flow. This process is well known, but it is not yet commonly considered in studies of flow and transport. 4.2.4

Channeling

Channeling in a fracture is where fluid flow takes a preferred path or channel so that flow velocities are highly irregular and the flow paths are difficult to predict. Channels may be anastomose or meandering, and channeled flow can occur without the saturation of the entire fracture. Channels are controlled by fracture geometry, roughness, the source and distribution of recharge to the fractures, and the hydraulic gradient. Tsang and Tsang (1987) suggest that, at depths of greater than 500–1000 metres, in situ effective stress causes all fracture flow to be channeled. The transport of solutes is also affected by channeling because effective porosity is reduced so that average linear velocity estimates for a given hydraulic gradient is greater (Mouri, 2005). Where diffusion into a porous matrix is an important attenuation mechanism for contaminants, channeling reduces the attenuation because the area for diffusive flux is reduced. 4.2.5

Fracture connectivity

How fractures are interconnected is critical importance in fractured media. Longer fractures have a better of chance of intersecting another fracture. Barton et al. (1987) defined a ternary diagram to plot abutting, crossing, and blind fracture terminations. Another ternary classification was proposed by Laubach (1992) who noted that fracture terminations may splay and may interfinger with similar “diffuse” fracture ends; he grouped terminations into blind, diffuse, and crossing (which includes abutting). Abutting and crossing fractures provide connectivity; diffuse terminations provide limited connectivity; and blind fractures provide neither. Sets of blind fractures may, however, greatly influence the permeability tensor. Examples of sets of subparallel blind fractures commonly include neotectonic fractures (Hancock and Engelder 1989) and fracture sets in lenticular sand bodies (Lorenz and Finley 1989) that were subparallel to regional structure. 4.2.6

Fracture skins

The movement of groundwater along fractures commonly alters the fracture surface. Fracture and vein fillings and altered fracture surfaces are observed in many rocks (Robinson et al., 1998); fracture skins are ubiquitous; they show that that fracture permeability and transport characteristics can change over time (Garner et al., this volume). 4.3

Hydrogeological properties of fractures

Key fractures parameters (including the hydraulic conductivity and the porosity both of the fractures and the fracture skins) are critical for estimating aquifer yields and transport


9

of mass and energy. Methods for the estimation of fracture or effective porosity in the field are improving, but may not yet be adequate for the task of characterization because of variation in fractures properties. Halihan et al. (2005) discuss the effects on fracture connectivity on these types of analyses. 4.3.1

Hydraulic conductivity

Conceptual models for hydraulic conductivity of fractured media follow well understood generalizations, but the quantitative estimation of the hydraulic conductivity tensor in such systems is not simple (Neuman, 2005). In hard crystalline rocks, valleys typically occur in areas of more intensive fracturing and, hence, higher permeability and fracture sets can impart a strong anisotropy. Greater numbers of fractures and more interconnected fractures will tend to reduce permeability anisotropy. Longer fractures, greater fracture densities, and greater apertures increase hydraulic conductivity, which also varies spatially (and temporally) because of geological constraints. The prediction of fracture domains, wherein fracture systems maintain some uniformity of hydrogeological properties and their hydraulic characteristics needs to be considered in simulation models, especially with regards to issues of upscaling. 4.3.2

Porosity

Porosity can be subdivided in several ways. Fracture versus matrix porosity is one distinction, but this is simplistic even for double-porosity systems. In a classic study of cooling plutons, Norton and Knapp (1977) differentiated “flow (i.e., effective) porosity” (the porosity which controls fluid flow, mostly in fractures) from: 1) diffusion porosity that contributes to fluid and mass flux but fluid flow) and 2) residual porosity (isolated pores). This classification recognizes the nature of the fractured formation and extends it under geological scales to purely fractured formations. In a fractured medium, the effective porosity may assume tensor characteristics (Khaleel, 1992; Neuman, 2005). Finally, analyses may need to consider fracture porosities corresponding to different size fractures and fracture sets, as well as matrix and fracture porosities. 4.4

Modelling of fracture systems

Approaches for modelling of flow and transport in fractured media include: analytical solutions for flow between parallel plates (slot flow); equivalent porous medium models; discrete fracture models; theoretical or synthetic fracture models; double-porosity models; and an equivalent parallel plate method. Models hybridizing these various approaches also exist (Neuman, 2005). 4.4.1

Parallel plate models

The discharge in fracture of a planar, uniform aperture per unit width (or height for vertical fractures) with no asperities is given by the cubic law (Lamb, 1932), expressed as: Q

b3ρw g 12µ

∇h

(1)

Where Q is discharge, b is aperture, ρw is fluid density, g is gravitational acceleration, µ is dynamic viscosity, and 䉮h is the hydraulic gradient in the plane of the fracture. The parallel

10


plate can be applied to fractured media by integrating fracture densities and apertures with parallel fracture sets into the hydraulic conductivity tensor. This simple approximation can be useful, but it is strictly valid only for laminar flow. However, it is used in most of the approaches discussed below. Equation 1 must be modified for fractures with channeling and asperities by adding the appropriate empirical coefficients. For instance, Lomize’s (1951) equation for hydraulic conductivity (K) is: K

1 b2 f 12ρw g

(2)

where f is a friction or roughness factor, which is either determined by field tests or an empirical formula based upon roughness data. When dealing with upscaling issues, how does one upscale Equation 2? 4.4.2

Equivalent porous media

The equivalent porous medium approach is commonly used in estimating flow and transport. It assumes a continuum and not ignores discrete fractures. Equivalent porous media models utilize estimates of hydraulic conductivity, storativity, and porosity that assume that a representative elemental volume (REV) can be defined at the appropriate scale. These models can yield adequate results when estimating discharge rates for a limited range of conditions, but they fail in calculating mass transport and, generally, in cases where the fractures are not efficiently interconnected. In this case, an REV may not exist (Shapiro and Bear, 1985). Scaling equivalent porous medium models is uncertain, but is attractive because it avoids data needed to characterize the actual hydraulic properties of the fractured media. 4.4.3

Discrete fracture models

These models input as much detail as possible, based upon field data, about the geometry and properties of individual fractures, sets, and zones into 3D networks (Sahimi, 1995; Zhang et al. 2002; Neuman, 2005). Each transmissive fracture is usually assigned a uniform aperture and hydraulic conductivity. Connectivities must be assumed among other characteristics. Mapping of fractures for hydrogeological studies is rarely sufficient because mappable exposures and techniques are limited. Although quantitative field data on fracture spacings and hydraulic properties are generally lacking, semi-quantitative or qualitative estimates can be made of expected hydraulic properties, including upscaling based upon fractal or power-law relationships (e.g., Marrett et al., 1999). The only means to date for the characterizing of discrete fractures systems are by cross hole testing or tracer tests (e.g., Illman, 2003). These are expensive and time consuming, and extrapolation to adjacent areas or different scales is also difficult. 4.4.4

Theoretical statistical models

Because of the limitations and disadvantages of the above approaches, theoretical models (e.g., Long et al. 1985; Blum et al., 1997; Hofrichter and Winkler, 2006) for flow in purely fractured and fractured formations have been developed to evaluate flow in fractures or fracture sets with synthetic distributions of apertures, orientations, spacings, and dimensions, centered on distributions of fracture nucleation points. However, application of these models to natural systems is limited because sufficient real data for input are generally lacking.


11

On the other hand, theoretical models increase our basic understanding of processes in fractured systems and we can use these models in an inverse-fashion to predict sets of more realistic conceptualizations. 4.4.5

Double-porosity models

Double-porosity systems include many aquifers and petroleum reservoirs, and require calculation of the flow and transport in both fractures and matrix, as well as the interaction between them (e.g., Moench, 1984; Beyer and Mohrlok, this volume; Garner et al., this volume). This interaction is commonly treated as empirical transfer used to make model outputs reasonable, but the actual conceptualization of how this flow takes place is difficult, and experimental verification of this process uncertain (Moench, 1984). Both “pseudosteady” flow between the matrix and the fractures and fully transient conditions, as well as fracture-skin effects, should be considered. 4.4.6

Equivalent parallel plate models

Equivalent parallel plate or integrated fracture density of apertures, IFDA (Singhal and Gupta, 1999), applies geological data or inferences on fracture systems to models of flow and transport, particularly on a regional basis or over time spans where tracer tests or cross-hole testing are impractical. The precision of these models will depend on data availability, the hydrogeological conceptual model, and modeller insights. Aerial photography, remote sensing data, published and field geological maps, borehole and tunnel fracture studies, and data from tracer, cross hole, and geophysical tests, as well as other, standard hydrogeological analyses can provide inferences on fracture set properties which can then be input using the classical techniques of Snow (1968, 1969) into a variety of models. IFDA gives insight into the geological controls of fracture systems (e.g., Mayer and Sharp, 1998), although there are not always sharp distinctions between the above models. Again, scaling uncertainty and model evaluation are issues that need to be addressed.

5

UPSCALING, REV, HIERARCHY OF INHOMOGENEITY

Hydrogeological studies must often scale data up from laboratory tests and local site-studies to a regional scale. Rats (1967) first determined the relation between the magnitude of inhomogeneity elements of rocks and the extent of the study area. This was hydrogeologically interpreted by Rats and Chernyshev (1967) and, later, by Kiraly (1975) and Halihan et al. (2000) who focus on karstic terrains. Consequently, hydraulic parameters might differ considerably depending on methods of their determination. Conspicuous changes in permeability typically occur at a local scale. These variations are evidenced by different yields of near-by wells drilled in the same rocks that might reach several (usually up to three but sometimes even four) orders of magnitude (Figure 2a) because of variously permeable fractures. Distinct character and frequency of faults, fractures, joints and bedding planes of different orientation are observed at rock outcrops or inferred with borehole logging techniques. Identification of these inhomogeneities is important for local hydrogeological studies, particularly in analyzing preferential flow pathways and spreading of groundwater contamination or in designing remediation procedures. By extending a tested area average permeability, based on either laboratory or aquifer tests, typically (Rovey, 1998; Schulze-Makuch and Cherkauer, 1998; Halihan et al., 2000)

12


Figure 2. Relation of size of inhomogeneity elements to the extension of a study area (after Krásny´ 2000). a – fractures and fracture zones in a local scale; b – (sub-) regional more or less regular fissuring representing hydrogeological background; squares 1–4 represent different statistical samples characteristic of usually similar mean transmissivity magnitude and variation; c – sub-regional inhomogeneities often following valleys with water courses: T1 – lower prevailing transmissivity, T2 – higher prevailing transmissivity; d – regional changes in transmissivity caused by different neo-tectonic activity; roman numbers express the class of transmissivity magnitude after Krásny´ (1993a).

but not always (e.g., Robins, 1993) increases in spite of significant local variability. It has been suggested (Clauser 1991) that at some sufficiently large scale in crystalline rocks, the average permeability remains roughly constant, irrespective the position of the tested area within the whole environment (Figure 2b). If so, this represents a regional permeability/ transmissivity background that corresponds to a representative elemental volume (REV), the smallest scale above which practically no change in mean values occurs. Then the average properties can be defined over scales larger than the REV. This is an important concept with consequences for groundwater protection and development as it suggests to what extent real, natural, or artificially influenced hydrogeological conditions can be schematized


13

when implementing conceptual and numerical models. Whether or not this concept can be extended either to solute transport or to noncrystalline fractured rocks is unclear. Occurrence of larger inhomogeneities, superposed upon a regional permeability background, however, may increase in permeability at greater than the REV scale. These are usually structural zones and/or belts of regional higher permeability along the river valleys. Important structural or tectonic features can form zones of higher permeability with transmissivities reaching 90–100 m2/d or more, an order of magnitude higher than regional transmissivity background. These are of importance for groundwater abstraction in hardrock environment. Various authors have noted differences in the permeability of rocks depending on distinct topographical or morphological position (LeGrand, 1954; Krásny´, 1974; Henriksen, 1995). Belts along river valleys may display 2 to 4.5 times higher permeabilities than surrounding areas represented by slopes and summits (Figure 2c). The position of valleys or depressions in tectonically-affected areas may be cause of this finding, and the position of recharge or discharge zones is another important factor (Krásny´, 1998). Consequently, hardrock terrains cannot be considered regionally homogeneous but rather a complex system where belts of regionally high permeability occur, usually following the valleys and depressions, in comparison with “intra-valley” blocks of lower regionally prevailing permeability. This is analogous to double-porosity medium, but at a large scale. Similar differences in regional permeabilities between valleys and slopes have been documented in other environments (Krásny´ 1998). Regional trends in transmissivity in some crystalline areas are reported in Norway (Rohr-Torp, 1994) and the Czech Republic (Krásny´, 1996c) that reflect distinct intensity of neotectonic activities caused in Norway by isostatic uplift after Quaternary glacial retreat and in the Bohemian Massif by tectonic stress due to Alpine-Carpathian folding (Figure 2d). Fractured environments are intricate hierarchic systems consisting of inhomogeneities on local, sub-regional, and regional scales and hydraulic parameters differing with different scale. Such a hierarchic system of permeability is expected in most, if not all, fractured media. Practical conclusions should be drawn for conceptual model implementation, groundwater flow and solute transport modelling, safe yield assessment, well siting, and studies on groundwater vulnerability and protection. Fracture properties also change with time. Permeability of fractures and of fault zones may decrease because of processes as hydrothermal alteration, mineral precipitation and mechanical clogging (e.g., Mazurek 2000). Soluble rocks as carbonates, gypsum and salt deposits are the exceptions to this general rule; their permeability typically increases with time and in karst can be very high. In fractured rocks, geologically young fractures are typically the most permeable. Differences in hydrogeological position (clogging in recharge zones and outwash of fine particles in discharge zones) can also change fracture permeability over time (Krásny´ 1998).

6

EXACT AND COMPARATIVE HYDRAULIC PARAMETERS AND CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSIVITY DATA

Most modern hydrogeological projects are of local or site-specific character. These include studies of water supply, contaminant and remediation, and groundwater problems in environmental planning, civil engineering, and mining. However, regional studies are indispensable for administrators, decision-makers, and hydrogeologists because regional

14


studies influence land-use planning and determine conditions for integrated groundwater/ surface water management, sustainable groundwater use, and groundwater protection. Based on results of regional hydrogeological studies, reasonable strategic decisions in regional, state, or even continental scales can be made. Regional studies enable us to compare hydrogeological conditions in different areas and to draw generalized conclusions. Small-scale maps offer excellent possibilities to exchange findings at regional, national and international levels. Data regionalisation is important in hard/fracture rock terrains, but such studies are not plentiful. Hydraulic parameters, such as hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storage, different types of porosity, etc., can be designated as exact parameters and are determined by laboratory and field tests, but few data, usually on hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity, are commonly available in quantities useful for analyzing regional distribution (Chambel et al., this volume). Sometimes only well yields are available. These data may not be precise enough for use in regional studies or statistical treatment (Fahrenholz et al., this volume). Although the data may not be sufficient to estimate the exact hydraulic parameters, they might be sufficient to provide general models of regional permeability. Therefore, comparative or regional parameters, expressing permeability and transmissivity, were introduced by Jetel (1964) and Jetel and Krásny´ (1968). Assuming that permeabilities and transmissivities are log-normal distributions indexes of permeability Z and of transmissivity Y were defined. Using these parameters simplifies data analysis. The two logarithmic parameters completed the system of comparative or regional parameters expressing permeability and transmissivity (Table 1). The specific capacity index or unit specific capacity is discussed by Betson and Robins (this volume). Although permeability, especially in hardrock terrains, is variable at even close distances, different averaged, estimated, or prevailing values of hydraulic parameters are used in hydrogeological studies. Hydraulic conductivity, originally derived to characterise granular porous media, is used to interpret results of aquifer tests in any setting. In fractured rock, this approach can be used, but should consider scale differences in pathways of groundwater flow and objectives of hydrogeological studies (Krásny´ 2002). In a typical well with a depth of several tens of metres in fractured rock, only few fractures might have significant permeability so the hydraulic conductivity represents an ideal non-existing mean value between highly permeable fractures and a lower, sometimes negligible, permeability matrix. Table 1. The system of hydraulic parameters expressing permeability/hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity (modified from Jetel and Krásny´ 1968). Property of aquifer or hydrogeological environment

Exact hydraulic parameters

Transmissivity Permeability

Comparative/regional parameters Non-logarithmic

Logarithmic

Coefficient of transmissivity T kM

Specific capacity q Q/s

Coefficient of hydraulic conductivity k

Specific capacity index* q Q/sM

Index of transmissivity Y Y log (106q) Index of permeability Z Z log (106q)

*The term used by Walton and Neill (1963); Q well yield; s drawdown; and M thickness of aquifer/length of open section of a well.


15

In contrast, transmissivity expresses the property of the entire thickness of an aquifer. Because the main objective of many hydrogeological studies is the characterization of water yields or prevention of inflows during underground construction, transmissivity is a useful parameter. Where sufficient data exist for statistical analysis, sample populations delimited by different rock types, hydrogeological units, areas, structural, geomorphologic and hydrogeological position of water wells etc. can be treated to determine the mean and standard deviation. Transmissivity data can be graphically represented in a probability paper by cumulative relative frequencies of transmissivity values (Figure 3). Thus, the comparative parameter expression of transmissivity, the index of transmissivity Y, can be used with advantage. To classify rock transmissivity, Krásny´ (1993a) presents a classification system of magnitude and variation. The range of transmissivity values is separated into six classes representing the orders of magnitude from very high (I class – transmissivity more than 1,000 m2/day) to imperceptible transmissivity (VI class – less than 0.1 m2/day) that indicate potential groundwater yields in different environments. Another important property of these data is their variation. This reflects permeability heterogeneity and, consequently, indicates the character of the hydrogeological setting.

Figure 3. Prevailing transmissivity of hard rocks as fields of cumulative relative frequencies (after Krásny´, 1993a, 1999). q specific capacity in L/s m , T coefficient of transmissivity in m2/d, Index Y index of transmissivity (Y log 106q), –x arithmetic mean, s standard deviation, x– s interval of prevailing transmissivity (transmissivity background) including approximately 68% of transmissivity values of a statistical sample, A, A, A, A fields of positive and negative anomalies (A, A) and extreme anomalies ( A, A), resp. outside the interval –x s of prevailing transmissivity. A – field comprising transmissivity values of the majority of hardrocks, B – field of transmissivity values in crystalline limestones and/or in other hard rocks of higher prevailing transmissivity, C – cumulative relative frequency of transmissivity of fluvial deposits along the Labe River in the Czech Republic (for comparison).

16


Transmissivity variation is also classified by six classes, which are designated a to f, based on a standard deviation. This classification assesses aquifer capability to produce groundwater in different areas and the factors causing regional differences in transmissivity. A – arithmetic mean, s standard deviarange of prevailing transmissivity values –x s (x tion of a statistical sample) represents the transmissivity background of a statisticallyanalyzed hydrogeological setting. Transmissivities outside the background are considered anomalies or extreme anomalies, both positive and negative.

7

PREVAILING TRANSMISSIVITY IN A REGIONAL SCALE, EXCEPTIONS AND DEPTH-RELATED CHANGES

Transmissivity distributions are similar in the near-surface aquifer of hard rocks in areas ranging from several to hundreds km2, including Korea (Callahan and Choi, 1973), Sweden (Carlsson and Carlstedt, 1977), Poland (Stas´ko and Tarka, 1996), the Czech Republic (Krásny´ 1999), and Ghana (Darko and Krásny´ 1998, Darko 2001). Represented as cumulative relative frequencies, most transmissivity data form more or less parallel lines having fallen into a relatively narrow field A (Fig. 3). These samples belong to classes IV(V,III) c,d (i.e., very low to intermediate transmissivity with moderate to large transmissivity variation). Therefore, despite irregular local permeability/transmissivity changes usually scattered in a wide interval of several orders of magnitude, regionally prevailing values – transmissivity background encompasses the most frequent transmissivity values in units m2/d up to slightly more than 10 m2/d. Comparison of regional prevailing transmissivity indicates only small differences in distinct hardrock areas. Therefore, except for certain rock types, influence of petrography on permeability and transmissivity spatial distribution is not significant because fracture distributions control the hydrogeology. There are exceptions of this general rule; crystalline limestones (marbles) are one conspicuous exception. Because of their mechanical and chemical properties – suitability to fracturing and karstification – the prevailing transmissivity of limestones is usually half to one order of magnitude higher than in other crystalline rocks (field B in Figure 3). Higher permeability of limestone intercalations is often indicated by larger springs than in other hardrock terrains. There are indications that relatively higher prevailing permeability/transmissivity may be expected in areas of basic igneous rocks (Havlík and Krásny´ 1998) that are subject to more fracturing. The gabbros complex of Beja in the south Portugal has been proved of water management importance (Chambel et al., this volume). On the other hand, phyllites may display lower regionally prevailing transmissivity (Krásny´ 1993b). Quartzite hydrogeological properties differ depending on their extension. If reduced in thickness and forming part of a hardrock sequence, their prevailing transmissivity is usually comparable with their surroundings. On the other hand, where extended and exposed to intensive fracturing, quartzite bodies, due to their rigid geomechanical properties, can form highly transmissive aquifer systems with intensive and deep (as indicated by elevated water temperatures) groundwater flow (Issar and Kotze, this volume; Tröger, this volume). Hydrogeological properties of acidic igneous rocks depend upon their position, geomechanical properties, weathering character. Depth-related decreasing permeability in granitic rock, orthogneisses, and migmatites is more significant than in metasedimentary rocks (Biscaldi and Derec, 1967: Krásny´, 1975; and Havlík and Krásny´, 1998). The regolith and


17

weathered zone of these rocks, often sandy and coarse-grained, is permeable; metasediment regolith is typically more clayey and not as permeable. Fracturing in granites is usually not intense and reaches shallower depths than in other hard rocks. However, granite exfoliation fractures form a unique hydrogeological setting. Depth-related changes in permeability can be used to predict productive depths of wells in hardrock near-surface aquifers (Davis and Turk, 1964; Read, 1982; and Darko and Krásny´, 2000). Presence of generally more permeable products of weathering, regolith, debris and other juxtaposed young alluvial, fluvial, and eolian sediments commonly create higher transmissivity of wells where they overlay hard rocks. Differences in geomechanical properties between granites and other hard rocks also exist in the deep/massive zone as indicated by thermal and mineral waters that typically occur in granitic or more generally, in acid igneous rocks, although uncertainty exists about the deep permeability distribution. The deep zone represents by far the largest volume of existing hard rocks, comprising the brittle part of the Earth’s crust, i.e., extended hardrock regions below the near-surface aquifer, the basement of hydrogeological basins, and rocks underlying sedimentary nappes in intensively folded, mountainous areas. Traditionally, this zone has received little attention, but, in recent decades, applied projects as construction of deep waste repositories, construction of deep tunnels and underground cavities, deep mines, geothermal investigation of non-traditional energy sources, and few ultra-deep boreholes have been carried out (e.g., Boden and Eriksson, 1987; Stober and Bucher, 2000). All these activities have extended our knowledge of hardrock environment up to the depths of many hundreds or even thousands meters. It has been found that hard rocks are permeable to some degree even in these depths. We do not know, however, whether any general regional scheme in permeability spatial distribution can be anticipated as depthrelated changes or dependence of hydrogeological properties with respect to petrographic composition and structural position of rocks. If we admit that general decrease in permeability within the fractured zone of a near-surface hardrock aquifer is mostly connected with exogenous processes that enlarge aperture of originally existing tight fracture network, we can suggest that permeability in deep hardrock zone should not decrease considerably downwards if such a decrease occurs at all (Krásny´ 2003).

8

GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

In most hardrock terrains, the regionally extended near-surface aquifer is generally conformably with the land surface. This is where the most intensive groundwater flow and groundwater resources occur in hard rocks. However, local hydrogeological setting determines the geometry and anatomy of the hydrogeological units and their parameters. The availability of groundwater resources depends upon: 1) the hydraulic properties and their distribution, and 2) climatic conditions. For instance, because of limited precipitation and high evaporation in arid and semi-arid regions, groundwater resources are commonly limited. Intensive withdrawals, especially for irrigation, can cause regional water-table declines, deterioration of water quality, and serious environmental impacts even in hardrock terrains of low transmissivity (Marechal et al., this volume). On the other hand, in temperate climatic zones, there is abundant potential recharge, but limited transmissivity represents the controlling factor groundwater extraction. Global natural groundwater resources and recharge by Struckmeier et al. (2004) and by Zektser and Everett (2004) offer general

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information on ranges of natural groundwater resources in different parts of the world and in distinct climatic zones. Depending on climatic and general hydrogeological conditions, a regional assessment of natural groundwater resources in hardrock terrains can be based upon:

• • • • • • •

Analyses of available climatic and hydrological data resulting in water balance estimations. Analysis of records from river gauging stations – e.g., methods by Castany et al. (1970), Kille (1970) – partly modified by Köpf and Rothascher (1980) and field measurements of changes in total runoff along river courses in dry periods. Application of regionally prevailing transmissivity and morphometric characteristics of the area (Krásny´ and Kneˇzˇek 1977, Buchtele et al. 2003) can be used to check up results based on hydrological measurements. Implementation of deterministic precipitation-runoff models to simulate total runoff and its components (e.g., Sacramento SAC-SMA – Burnash 1995). Point/local measurement of direct or indirect groundwater recharge (e.g., Lerner et al. 1990). Interpretation of results of (long-term) monitoring of spring yield and groundwater level fluctuations. Use of environmental and radioactive tracers.

In the temperate climates, most streams are effluent or gaining and, under natural conditions, the separation of the baseflow component of streamflow is an acceptable method to assess groundwater resources. Investigations in Europe have revealed the importance of a hardrock environment in groundwater resources (e.g., Karrenberg and Weyer 1970, Krásny´ et al. 1982, Apel et al. 1996, Bochen´ska et al. 1997, Kryza and Kryza 1997; and Watkins, this volume). Regional distribution of a long-term average groundwater runoff/baseflow within Central and East Europe was presented by Konopljancev et al. (1982). In hardrock terrains, groundwater resources depend on present recharge which, under comparable hydrogeological conditions, is controlled mainly by climatic conditions. The highest natural groundwater resources in hard rocks occur in mountainous areas due to favourable climatic and geomorphologic conditions. High precipitation and low evapotranspiration enable high and relatively equable recharge. Large hydraulic gradients of groundwater level often result in intensive groundwater flow in spite of prevailing low transmissivity of rocks (Figure 4). In summits of Centro-European mountain ranges, specific long-term average groundwater runoff can exceeds 10–15 L/s km2 that corresponds to 300–450 mm/a of recharge; maximum recharge may reach 20–30% of average annual precipitation. The highest values, however, should be viewed with caution, especially if snowmelt is important. On the other hand, snowmelt can positively influence the time distribution of groundwater runoff. The residence time based on isotope studies was estimated to be between half to one year for shallow flow systems and several up to ten years for deeper groundwater flow systems in crystalline rocks in the Krkonosˇ e Mts. in Czech Republic and in the Bavarian Forest in Germany (Martinec 1975, Seiler and Müller 1996). Thus, these aquifers have limited groundwater storage, but can maintain relatively intensive and continuous groundwater flow under favourable climatic conditions that helps maintain stream flows in the adjacent piedmont zones. Because of decreasing precipitation, higher evaporation rates, and generally lower hydraulic gradient with decreasing elevation, groundwater runoff diminishes (Figure 4). Relationships between climatic and hypsometric conditions and groundwater runoff in hardrock areas under temperate Central European climatic conditions are given in Table 2, which can be compared with other hardrock regions with similar climatic conditions.


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Figure 4. Groundwater flow and natural resources formation in the near-surface aquifer of mountainous hardrock terrains under temperate climatic conditions (after Krásny´ 1996a).

Table 2. Climatic and hypsometric conditions and groundwater runoff (baseflow) in hardrock areas of the Bohemian Massif (after Krásny´ 1996a). Morphological (hypsometric) unit

Approximate elevation (m a.s.l.)

Mean annual precipitation (mm)

Mean annual potential evaporation (estimation in mm)

Groundwater runoff (natural groundwater resources) (L/s km2)

Mountains Lower mountains Piedmont areas Flat areas, lowlands

1200–1600 800–1200 300–800 less than 300

1000–1200 800–1000 600–800 500–600

450 q p 650

10–15 7–10 3–7 1–3

Importance of hardrock terrains for groundwater resources in temperate climatic zones is demonstrates by studies from the Bohemian Massif (Krásny´ 1996a) where hard rocks cover only 68% of the area, but more than 71% of total groundwater resources are recharged there. In semi-arid and arid regions where few perennial streams exist, groundwater resources assessment is mostly based on water balance methods or on point/local measurements of direct or indirect groundwater recharge. Lerner et al. (1990), Struckmeier et al. (2004) and Zektser and Everett (2004) assess very low groundwater recharge that may be less than 20 mm/a in extended dry regions. It is even less than 5 mm/a in about 34% of the continent of Africa (Döll and Flörke 2005). In these arid climates, climatic zonality depending on surface elevation might be important as is shown in Table 2 for temperate conditions.

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9


GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN HARD ROCKS

Groundwater quality in hardrock near-surface aquifers, under comparable hydraulic properties, depends mainly on climatic and geomorphologic conditions. In the temperate climates, the dominant ions in groundwater are usually bicarbonate and/or sulphate and calcium. Total dissolved solids (TDS) are typically low, reaching up to 100–300 mg/L, somewhere even less. General decreases in TDS and pH (usually between 6.0 and 5.0) occur with increasing altitude, sometimes accompanied by higher relative content of sulphate that may be the result of acid rain contamination (Knutsson et al. 1995, Hrkal et al. 2006). Variations on this generalization can occur. Basic igneous rocks (gabbro, amphibolite, serpentine) are usually distinguished by higher magnesium and marbles (crystalline limestones) by pure bicarbonate-calcium types, higher hardness (and TDS), and pH about 7. This may be of practical importance for indication of limestone intercalations often representing zones of higher transmissivity. Higher sulphate and TDS are typical for some sedimentary rocks (especially shales) that may contain scattered sulphide minerals (e.g., pyrite). Hydrochemical or temperature anomalies appearing in some areas may indicate vertical upward flux of deep-seated mineral and thermal waters. Elevated concentrations of some minority and trace constituents are typical of some hardrock areas (e.g., Frengstad and Banks, this volume). High contents of trace elements can indicate occurrences of mineral deposits and, in mining regions, water pumped from mines or outflows from mining galleries or tailings may represent a threat to the environment (Bocanegra and Cardoso, this volume). Near-surface hardrock aquifers are often exposed to bacteriological pollution from the surface as reported by Gaut et al. (this volume). In semi-arid and arid climatic zones, groundwaters with low TDS contents occur only in areas with adequate recharge and relatively continuous natural groundwater discharge. Many hardrock regions in these climatic zones, however, have lost these processes because of human activities. Here (ground)water and soil are generally prone to salinisation. In arid regions all over the world (Africa, the Americas, Asia and Australia) there are naturally closed basins without any (ground)water outflow. This is often the case of hardrock terrains where outcrops of these rocks along topographic divides represent low permeable zones. Then, negative water balance results in accumulation of salts. Similar “closed basins” can form where large amounts of groundwater are abstracted for irrigation or water-supply purposes so that lowering of groundwater levels impede groundwater outflow. Thus, under these conditions groundwater salinity can increase on long-term scales. This situation concentrates groundwater constituents and may change groundwater chemical composition from originally prevailing calcium-bicarbonate-(sulphate) type to different highly concentrated Na-Cl-rich saline waters or brines. Anthropogenic factors can also increase in contents of various contaminants from municipal, industrial, and agricultural wastes. The process can be accelerated in areas with intensive irrigation return flows, urbanization, or artificial recharge.

10

COUPLING GROUNDWATER FLOW AND QUALITY

Groundwater flow and water quality (its chemical composition, TDS content, temperature, etc.) in different hydrogeological environments are closely coupled. In accordance with general hydrogeological concepts, extension, depth, and rate of groundwater flow, three vertical zones reflecting main general features of groundwater flow, had been schematized


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in hydrogeological basins by many authors, starting from Ignatovitsh (1945) to Chebotarev (1955), Marinov et al. (1978), Tóth (1988, 1999) and many others. The zones were designated, from land surface downwards, as local (intensive, shallow), intermediate (retarded) and regional (slow or negligible, deep, stagnant) as shown on Table 3. Similar to the vertical zonation of groundwater flow (vertical hydrodynamic zonality), vertical changes in groundwater quality, expressed by its chemical composition, were defined as vertical hydro(geo)chemical zonality in sedimentary basins. In the shallow zone, which is characterized by the more intensive groundwater flow, calcium/magnesium and bicarbonate/sulphate groundwater composition typically prevails, except in arid zones where soil and shallow groundwater salinisation can occur. Groundwater composition commonly changes with depth from calcium-bicarbonate or sulphate types to sodium-bicarbonate and finally to sodium(-calcium)-chloride types in the deepest zones of basins. Depth limits between particular zones might differ considerably depending on hydrogeological conditions. With depth chemical changes are typically accompanied by increases in temperature and TDS and with possible occurrence of CO2 and some hydrocarbon gases (Table 3). Similar vertical zonations are documented in hardrock terrains – hydrogeological massifs, which were found permeable even to depths of more thousand metres and where also brines occur – mostly of sodium(-calcium)-chloride types (e.g., Gavrilenko and Derpgol’c, 1971 who designated this globally extended zone as a “hydrochlorosphere”; Collins 1975; Ingebritsen and Sanford, 1998; Stober and Bucher, 2000; and Krásny´, 2003). Regardless of near surface groundwater systems, varying petrography, and different climatic zones, we find common hydrogeological conditions globally that are manifested by vertical hydrodynamical and hydrochemical zonality at depths. Deep permeable zones enable flow groundwater over geologic time-scales. The origin of these deep-seated brines is a challenge for hydrogeologists. In general, there are two opinions regarding brine origin: endogenous and exogenous. Brines of an endogenous origin are considered to have ascended as different hydrothermal fluids limited to unstable zones of the Earth’s crust. Water-rock interaction, often under specific pressure-temperature conditions and during

Table 3.

Vertical scheme of combined hydrodynamic and hydrochemical zonality.

Depth can reach up to

Groundwater flow

Main groundwater constituents

TDS

General increase with the depth in temperature and gas content p p p p p p p p

Basins

Massifs

hundreds of m few thousands of m thousands of m

several tens of m hundreds of m

local (intensive, shallow) intermediate (retarded)

Ca(Mg) HCO3(SO4) NaHCO3(SO4)

0.0x–0.x g/L several g/L

q many thousands of m p p p

regional (slow, deep, negligible – stagnant) global (planetary)

NaCl p p p Na(Ca)Cl p

several hundreds g/L

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long geologic periods, could result in brine origin in hardrock environments. In stable regions, often within the interior of tectonic plates, the exogenous concept can also explain origin of deep-seated brines. During geologic history, because of past plate-tectonic movement, different regions have been exposed to variable climatic conditions (Schwarzbach 1974). Under arid climates, salts had been accumulated in soils and water during long past geologic periods, typically in extended closed continental basins as presently occur in arid regions. Gradual long-term downward percolation from saline soils and different surface water bodies containing brines had occurred. During very long intervals and under all the time changing natural conditions, when geologic time-scales are to be considered (i.e., up to hundreds of million years), a complex and dynamic groundwater system developed, mostly as a result of a gravity-driven and density-driven flow. After the original idea of Filatov (1956) the concept was supported and substantiated by Marinov et al. (1974, 1978) and Tóth (1999). Such a complex hydrogeological – hydrodynamic and hydrochemical system forms part of a global (planetary) groundwater flow system where deep-seated crystalline rocks play important, perhaps decisive role (Krásny´ 2003).

11

FUTURE CHALLENGES

Understanding flow and transport in fractured rock has proven challenging (Sharp, 1993; Voss, 2003; Neuman, 2005). This is largely because high transmissivity fractures control flow and transport and we are limited in our ability to predict where they occur and how they connect with other features, particularly other fractures. We are also limited in our understanding of the flow within a fracture and generally assign some “equivalent” permeability for an idealized uniform aperture fracture. Therefore our models are only predictive for a limited set of hydraulic conditions; different conditions can lead to vastly different results as is commonly observed in karstic aquifers. In addition, we need evaluate fracture effects in a variety of geologic scenarios, including free convection, petroleum migration, and multiphase flow. Sharp (1993) addressed future challenges. For some, progress has been made in the past decade, as is summarized in many of the papers in this volume. We have new compendia (e.g., Krásny´ et al., 2003; Faybishenko et al., 2000) and textbooks on fractured rock hydrogeology; new analytical and numerical models have been developed; there have been some field studies useful in testing numerical predictions; and new geophysical, GIS, and tracer methods have been developed that may yet prove fruitful. These recent studies have extended our knowledge up to the depths of hundreds or even thousands meters and it has been found that hard rocks are permeable to some degree even at great depths. However, many of the challenges posed over a decade ago remain largely unresolved. Significant challenges include:

• • • •

Scaling – Can we scale up or down from measured or inferred properties at a given site? Field characterization of fracture domains – can we predict fracture properties a priori and the domain over which these properties are appropriate? Can we predict hydrogeological properties of fractures as a function of present and paleostress fields? Which are the depth-related changes in permeability of the deep/massive zone and what controls these changes?


• • • • • • • • • •

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Can we predict geomechanical properties of rocks that determine their hydrogeological feature (e.g., fracture frequencies and apertures) as functions of depth? What techniques can determine hydraulically conductive fractures (distinguishing impermeable and permeable inhomogeneities)? Can we utilize geological, petrological, geophysical, well logging, or other proxy data, including data on paleoflow systems to provide insight on the extent and rates of flow and transport in fractures? Can we assess how fracture surfaces and skins control key processes? Can we assess the effects on fracture networks on density-driven flow and transport? How have paleohydrogeological conditions influenced the origin and evolution of deep-seated brines? What is role of endogenous processes in omnipresent and almost uniform vertical distribution of deep saline waters, occurring under extremely variable geological and geochemical conditions? Can we develop numerical codes that can simulate local-dominant effects in regional or aquifer studies? How can we apply fracture rock hydrogeology to: – Ore body mineralization – Petroleum migration – Diagenesis With respect specific lithologies: – Plutons and massifs: 䊏 Do fracture skins vary with fracture orientation? 䊏 How does fracture roughness control flow and channeling? 䊏 Do there exist important petrographic/rock-mechanical controls in forming fractured systems? – Tuffs: 䊏 Does pre-existing topography control fracture patterns? 䊏 Can we use petrographic and geological data, such as degree of welding, to make a priori estimates of hydrogeological parameters? – Carbonate systems – How and what rates do these systems change from a fractured to a karstic system? – Consolidated sandstones and other rocks of sedimentary origin: 䊏 Can microfractures observed in thin section be upscaled to aquifer or reservoir properties? 䊏 Can we predict attenuation properties in these double-porosity systems and estimate the effects of fracture skins? 䊏 What is the hydrogeological role of quartzites in hydrostratigraphic sequences?

Perhaps, we need to assess again whether or not some general regional schemes in permeability distribution can be anticipated as depth-related changes or dependence of hydrogeological properties with respect to petrographic composition and structural position. 12

CONCLUSIONS

Fractured aquifers often contain important water resources and the groundwater flow and solute transport in porous media are key processes in groundwater contamination,

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petroleum and geothermal energy production, as well as fundamental geological problems. Three major vertical zones are common: an upper or weathered zone, a middle or fractured zone, and a deep or massive zone. The upper zone and part of the middle zone may form a near-surface aquifer that is regionally extensive with important ramifications for stream flows and water resources. Despite high spatial variability in fractured rock properties, reasonable generalizations can be made about regional hydraulic and chemical properties. These aquifers are critical in many arid zones of the world and recent consideration of hard rocks for waste depositories has demonstrated how much more we need to know. Fractured geological materials are subdivided into four basic types depending principally upon the relative permeabilities of the fractures and the matrix (intrafracture materials). These are purely fractured rocks, fractured formations, double-porosity systems, and heterogeneous systems. Characterization of this flow and concomitant transport of solutes requires a knowledge of fracture orientations, apertures, asperities, flow channeling, fracture connectivity, and the nature of fracture skins, if present. The primary hydrogeological parameters, hydraulic conductivity and effective porosity, are tensor properties and the concept of a representative elemental volume for the characterization of the parameters is difficult. A variety of modeling approaches estimate flow and transport in fractured aquifers, reservoirs, and fractured geological materials of low permeability. Each has advantages and limitations. However, a major deterent to understanding of fracture systems has been reluctance or inability to obtain and apply realistic geological, geochemical, and hydrological data to these models. Fractured rocks are vital water and environmental resources and they are being considered for new uses in waste disposal and in construction. There are many unanswered questions that require attention and, undoubtedly, new scientific questions will be posed in the next few decades. Administrative and legislative approaches must be based on general understanding and knowledge of hardrock hydrogeology and adequate professional terminology. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Acknowledgement is made to the National Science Foundation (Grant No. 0439806), the Petroleum Research Fund of the American Chemical Society (Grant No. 38949-AC9), the Geology Foundation of The University of Texas, the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (GACR – Grant No. 205/05/177) and Grant Agency of the Charles University Prague (GAUK – Grant No. 364/2004/B-GEO/PPrF) for partial support of this research. Reviews by members of the Physical Hydrogeology graduate seminar at The University of Texas are appreciated. REFERENCES Annau R, Bender S, Wohnlich S (eds) (1998) Hardrock hydrogeology of the Bohemian Massif. Proc. 3rd Internat. Workshop 1998, Windischeschenbach. Münchner Geol. Hefte B8: 79–86. Apel R, Klemm A, Rüdiger F (1996) Grundlagen zum Wasserwirtschaftlichen Rahmenplan, Naabregion, Hydrogeologie. Bayerisches Geologisches Landesamt. Banks D, Banks S (eds) (1993) Hydrogeology of hard rocks. Memoires, 24th Congress, Int Association Hydrogeologists, v. 24, 2 parts. Barton CC, Hsieh PA (1989) Physical and hydrologic properties of fractures. Field Trip Guidebook T385, International Geological Congress, Washington, DC.


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Hydrogeological environment of fractured rocks

CHAPTER 1

Hydrogeology of granite rocks in Sardinia Giovanni Barrocu Professor of Engineering Geology, University of Cagliari, Department of Land Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Piazza d’Armi, Cagliari, Italy

ABSTRACT: Hydrogeological investigations consisting of structural, petrographical and geomorphological studies, geophysical and drilling operations and pumping tests, have demonstrated that the groundwater in the granite rocks in Sardinia may occur in fracture zones, weathered parts of the rock, and microgranite dikes. It has been confirmed that structural analysis is a valid method for determining the local fracture pattern in the rock. Tensional, shear, and overthrust fractures were produced by lateral stresses related to the different tectonic phases that have affected Sardinia during the Caledonian, Hercynian and Alpine orogeneses. The state of openness is strictly dependent upon the type of fracture, and is maximum along the tensile cracks and overthrust zones, and is strongly influenced by weathering and hydrothermal alteration. The dimensions of the aquifers may be limited by the presence of lamprophyre dikes, which act as flow barriers between contiguous granite sectors. In cases where these dikes are frequent, the granite aquifers may have good hydraulic conductivity but their storage capacity is poor. The aquifers in the granite rocks of Sardinia may contribute decisively to solving local water supply problems.

1

INTRODUCTION

The problem of developing groundwater in hard rocks in Sardinia was systematically tackled in the late sixties by the Institute of Engineering Geology, at the University of Cagliari. The results of early investigations were discussed with scientists and technicians from different countries at the international symposium held in Cagliari in October 1971 (Montaldo et al., 1971). In 1973 the Regional Government of Sardinia financed a pilot investigation in different areas of Sardinia, which involved a group of researchers in Engineering Geology, Cagliari and the Department of Land Improvement and Drainage, Stockholm. The results were summed up in the report by Barrocu et al., (1974) and presented in two official meetings, in Stockholm, in April 1974, and in Cagliari, in October 1974. The cooperation between the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Cagliari and the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, continued into a second project financed by the Regional Government of Sardinia and the Swedish Board for Technical Development. The results of these investigations were the subject of the applied part of the International Seminar on Groundwater in Hard Rocks (Stockholm Cagliari, September 22–October 7 1977). The seminar was convened by UNESCO and organized in cooperation with the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm and the University of Cagliari, with the financial support of the Swedish International Development Authority and the Technical Cooperation Department

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of the Italian Ministry for Foreign Affairs and in collaboration with FAO and the UNESCOIHP Committees of Sweden and Italy, for the benefit of participants from developing countries. The two essentially scientific research projects aimed to identify the best methodology for the development of groundwater in hard rocks under the climatic conditions of Sardinia. A research methodology was adopted which has since proven effective and has become routine in groundwater investigations carried out so far in granite rocks, mainly for the benefit of local communities. The local interest for this type of investigation is evident if we consider that hard rocks, mainly consisting of granites, make up about one quarter of the total surface area of Sardinia (i.e., about 6,000 km2 of its 23,833 km2 or 24,089 km2 including the small coastal islands). There is a pressing need for rationally developing all the island’s water resources. Average annual rainfall for the region as a whole is not particularly low (about 660 mm/year in the period 1921–2002). Precipitation is concentrated in the cold periods and is highly variable from one year to another. In fact Sardinia has a typical Mediterranean climate. Because of the small rural centers and of the widely dispersed population in a rather rugged and scantily populated region (45 inhab/km2, disregarding the provincial capitals), it is economically important to exploit all available groundwater resources, especially where the user points are scattered to meet the needs of shepherds, farmers and seasonal vacation communities.

2

GEOLOGICAL OUTLINE

The granite rocks in Sardinia are mainly muscovite-biotite- and biotite-granites, granodiorites, diorites, gabbrodiorites, aplites, and their frequent microgranular, porphyritic and pegmatitic varieties. The granite bodies are often intersected by swarms of lamprophyre and microgranite dikes. They generally belong to the crystalline basement of the island, which from the late pre-Cambrian up to the present time has been affected by all the geodynamic events that have taken place in the Mediterranean basin, namely the Caledonian, Hercynian, and Alpine orogenesis. As indicated in the geotectonic map of Figure 1, the granite rocks make up the northern and northern-central part as well as the south-eastern corner of Sardinia. Other major outcrops are present in the south-west and along the east coast. On the whole, they are associated with the Caledonian and especially the Hercynian orogenesis. Observations on the relationships between the different rock types within the granite bodies have suggested that the latter might have been reactivated in some way during the different orogenic phases. The crystalline basement of Sardinia and Corsica, partially covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits, has also been strongly affected by the Alpine orogenesis. According to a number of authors (Zarudski et al., 1971; Montaldo et al., 1971; Van Bemmelen, 1972; Cocozza and Jacobacci, 1975; Pala et al., 1982 a, b; Ciminale et al., 1985; Egger et al., 1988), the Corsican-Sardinian block, which at the end of the Hercynian cycle formed part of Spain and France, in the late Cenozoic was separated along the present French-Spanish coast, and rotated 50° anticlockwise to its present position. This megatectonic process opened up two major tectonic trough structures, the western Mediterranean and the Campidano graben, in south-west-central Sardinia, interpreted as subparallel features of crustal extension. It has been suggested that the Campidano tectonic trough, as well as the Tyrrenian one, was produced by tensional actions (Barrocu and Larsson, 1977). Other secondary tectonic


Figure 1.

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Granite rocks in Sardinia.

troughs formed on both sides of the Campidano, to the north-east (Chilivani – Ozieri), central east (Tirso, Marreri-Isalle, Cedrino) and to the south-west (Cixerri). These physiographic features are the most representative of the tectonic pattern of Sardinia. Because of the up- and downfaulting of the different tectonic blocks during the Alpine orogenesis, the physiography of the crystalline basement has been rejuvenated and afterwards partly leveled by a strong denudation. At present, it is characterized by partly weathered, mostly rounded and almost flat-topped massifs, often separated by deep and intractable valleys. The scree covered slopes are bordered at the foot by piedmont deposits in the valleys and tectonic troughs.

3

METHODOLOGY OF GROUNDWATER INVESTIGATIONS

The hydrogeological investigations systematically carried out in different areas of Sardinia have consisted chiefly in determining the geological, petrographical, and geomorphological characteristics, structural analysis (field studies and photogeological interpretation), geophysical investigations, drilling operations, logging and test pumping, and hydrochemical analysis. In order to determine the different parameters of the hydrological cycle (rainfall, surface run-off, infiltration and evapotranspiration) in relation to the structural pattern under different climate conditions, the elementary basins of Santa Margherita (0.45 km2), Castiadas (3.37 km2) and Nuoro-Monte Ortobene (0.43 km2) were initially taken into consideration

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(Fig. 1). The first two basins are situated by the sea, respectively on the south-west and south-east coast, and the third near the top of a mountain in central Sardinia, at about 700 m a.s.l. All basins were equipped with recording rain gauges and V-notch and sharp crested weirs installed in concrete barrages. Water level recorders were placed in all weirs and recently also in two wells at Santa Margherita. Geophysical investigations (refraction seismic, earth resistivity, magnetic and VLF electromagnetic methods) were carried out only where strictly necessary, because of the high costs involved. The results indicated that the combined VLF electromagnetic and magnetic surveys, can provide a useful and economical support in interpreting the anomalies identified by seismic and earth resistivity measurements, namely in determining the nature of low velocity zones (Barrocu and Ranieri, 1977). Wells were drilled with a compressed air powered drilling rig operating with down-thehole hammer. As the rig was mounted on a wagon drill, it was possible to drill wells even in rather rugged areas, down to a maximum depth of 18 m in the weathered granite and 85 m in the fractures. Internal diameters ranged from 75 to 100 mm in the exploration wells and from 100 to 165 mm in the productive wells. The latter were generally steel or plastic cased in order to prevent them from collapsing. Structural analysis combined with geophysical surveying was generally adopted in subsequent investigations to identify the most favourable drill sites. Wells are generally drilled down to 50–80 m, but fresh groundwater was found down to a few hundred metres. In south-western Sardinia, in a tunnel of an old molybdenite mine, a constant fresh groundwater yield of 4.0 L/s was measured at 700 m in a shear zone crossing several tension fractures (Barrocu and Vernier, 1971). Using an iterative procedure, the conceptual model defining hydrogeological and hydrochemical processes should be defined and progressively updated in relation to the local structural pattern. Hydrostructure model definition generally requires expensive field investigations, and for this reason problems need to be carefully examined so as to minimize costs and maximize benefits.

4

GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE

Preliminary hydrogeological surveys carried out in the early seventies indicated that the granites in Sardinia first underwent plastic deformation during their intrusion, prior to being completely crystallized, and subsequently post-crystalline ruptural deformation (Barrocu and Larsson, 1977; Barrocu et al., 1974). The plastic deformation may be indicated by the orientation, sliding and rotational movements of certain crystals, especially biotite and quartz, and generally by tension cracks “en echelon” parallel to the main compression stress and perpendicular to the deformation axis (Sander, 1948; Larsson, 1968, 1972; Barrocu and Larsson, 1977). Tensional, shear and overthrust fractures were recognized as having been produced by lateral stresses associated with the different tectonic phases that affected Sardinia during the Caledonian, Hercynian, and Alpine orogenesis (Barrocu and Larsson, 1977). According to the deformation model proposed by Larsson, 1972 (Fig. 2), the postcrystalline deformations due to tangential stresses acting on a rock body consist of: (1) tensional joints, generally vertical and perpendicular to the axis of deformation,;


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Figure 2. Granite deformation model representing tension fractures (ac2), shears (hk0), and overthrusts (h0l) (Larsson 1972, slightly modified).

(2) shear fractures, usually vertical and oblique in relation to the tensional joints, often with slickensides, breccias, and mylonites; and (3) overthrust shear fractures from compression movements along sub-horizontal planes. Openness of fractures strongly depends on fracture type, and attains a maximum along the tensile cracks and overthrust zones. Since tensional fractures are well developed both lengthwise and depthwise, they tend to create empty spaces enabling the intrusion of lamprophyre, aplite and microgranite dikes and thus generally indicate tensional forces in the earth crust. Overthrust shear fractures, which indicate a shortening of the granite block in the direction of the main stress, may be distinguished by joints due to load release and cooling effects of the intrusive mass. They are often accompanied by slickensides and cataclastic phenomena, and their effective porosity consists of empty spaces clearly due to fracture gouge erosion produced by groundwater flow. Aquifer dimensions may be limited by the presence of lamprophyre dikes, consisting of hornblende-plagioclase-spessartite with minor interstitial orthoclase and quartz. We have found in several areas under different conditions that they usually act as underground barriers between contiguous granite sectors. The damming effect seems to be caused by: the sealing of open fractures by the intrusion of lamprophyric magma, and especially, the intense weathering of the lamprophyres, which are generally much more argillified than the granites of the wall rock. In areas where these dikes occur, granite aquifers between them may have good hydraulic conductivity but their storage capacity is poor, depending on fractured granite zone dimensions. The closer together the dikes are the fewer the possibilities of finding a good aquifer (Barrocu and Vernier, 1975). In conclusion, groundwater in the granite rocks of Sardinia may be found in fracture zones, weathered parts of the rock, and microgranite dikes. It may be difficult to determine the mutual relationship of the different type of aquifers because the groundwater reservoirs and the catchment areas do not often coincide (Barrocu, 2005).

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4.1

Aquifers in fracture zones

Larsson (1968) demonstrated that the tension cracks formed in the plastic stage, on account of their shortness and “en echelon” development, represent poor aquifers unless their original pattern has been disturbed by later deformations. On the other hand, the post-crystalline tension fractures, which are much longer, are potentially good groundwater reservoirs and collectors of the water stored in the smaller fractures communicating with them. Overthrust zones have high storativity as well, both because of their intense fracturing and of the fact that they are good conductors of surface infiltration, owing to their orientation in relation to the topography. The storativity of the shear fractures may vary considerably, depending on the state of weathering of the fractured rock. Fractured zone porosity may be greatly increased by relative rotational movements of the different blocks separated by faults as observed in Santa Margherita in the fracture zones between blocks A and B (Fig. 3). These phenomena may be surveyed using detailed structural analysis to determine the differential movements of the parts of a rock body. Similar block rotation effects, creating voids of hydrogeological interest, have also been recognized in other areas in northern and central Sardinia. When exploring for groundwater in granite rocks, one should understand that the structural model may be much more complicated than expected, especially if the granite bodies have been affected by several phases of post-crystalline deformation. For instance, at Castiadas and Santa Margherita, respectively on the south-east and south-west coast of

Figure 3. Postcrystalline deformations at Santa Margherita, southern Sardinia. Two ENE-WSW normal faults, perpendicular to a main tension fracture, displaced the southern part of the block in the two sub-blocks A and B, displaced en echelon, and sloping down into the coastal plain. Subblocks A and B, were rotated clockwise by nearly 10° (Barrocu and Larsson, 1977).


39

Sardinia, the granite bodies are crossed by swarms of N60°W–S60°E trending vertically dipping microgranite dikes, which, on account of their length (up to 1–2 km) and thickness (up to 40–50 m) seem to indicate an intense phase of post-crystalline deformation, which affected the whole crust at depth. It is possible that the intrusion of these dikes represents a reactivation phase of the granite batholiths. The lamprophyre dikes intersect them almost perpendicularly and may be associated with a successive deformation phase. Yearly rainfall is in the order of 1000–1100 mm in the highlands of northern and central Sardinia, and ranges between 500 and 600 mm in southern Sardinia on the coast. Surface water is rapidly absorbed into fracture zones. A surface runoff coefficient of 0.02 was measured in 1976 at the catchment of Santa Margherita with a yearly runoff of nearly 18,000 m3. In granite areas, potential evapotranspiration values ranging between 636 and 862 mm/year have been calculated. An average evaporation of 2,353 mm/year has been measured in the Lake Omodeo, in central Sardinia, and of 2,720 in the coastal pond of Santa Gilla, in southern Sardinia. Several wells drilled in the Rio Pagghiolu valley demonstrated that the most productive aquifer is hosted in a large shear zone, which crosses several granite sectors and acts as their drain (Barrocu et al., 1974). An inclined well drilled through this fracture in the summer of 1973, gave a yield of about 2.1 L/s (7.6 m3/h), and this value was confirmed in a pumping test in summer 1977. Further systematic in situ and laboratory investigations were carried out in the area, with a view to finding correlations between fracturing parameters, geomechanical characteristics, and permeability data measured down to 50 m below the land surface (Barrocu and Manca, 1979). A number of productive wells were drilled and groundwater has since been developed for a well known oligomineral water in Sardinia. The single granite sectors between the lamprophyre dikes, even if heavily fractured, form hydrological units quite independent of one another, with different water levels and a yield of only a few L/h. In an investigation carried out in the outskirts of Tempio to study the hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of the catchment area of the Rinaggiu oligomineral spring, the damming effect of the lamprophyre dikes was confirmed with several exploration and productive wells drilled spaced a few meters apart (Barrocu, Jacks and Vernier, 1976). In the area of Nuoro, in central Sardinia, which has average annual rainfall of 800 mm, the tectonic pattern is dominated by rather tight shear fractures. A storativity of 0.05% was determined. This figure would correspond to a bed storativity of about 4,000–7,000 m3/km2. The yield of a number of drilled wells ranged from 0.10 to 0.86 m3/h, the specific capacities being from 4.1102 to 2.9102 m2/h (Rosén, 1974). In the granite area of Santa Margherita di Pula, southern Sardinia, the main aquifer is represented by a tension fracture zone draining smaller cracks. Applying the Theis, Jacob and Cooper, and Chow methods, coarse fractures showed transmissivity T ranging from 8l06 to 3105 m2/s and storativity S from 0.3 to 2.2%. In the fine fractures transmissivity ranged between 1.5106 and 4.0106 m2/s, and storativity between 0.15 and 0.8%. The fracture pattern had an average storativity S 0.5%. Assuming a general coarse fracture depth of 10–15 m a storage capacity of 27,000–40,000 m3 was obtained in the experimental catchment area of 0.45 km2. Very rough calculations give storativity of about 50,000–80,000 m3/km2 for the fracture pattern of the granite. It was observed that the lag effect of precipitation on the drawdown during the recharge after the removal of water by pumping from the wells was very low, varying in relation to the soil moisture content according to previous rainfall and rain intensity. With a relatively dry soil the lag

40


effect is longer. The discharge is strongly affected by rainfall, which is rapidly absorbed in the fractures. Three wells drilled in the most open fractures yielded 0.4, 0.14 and 1.50 m3/h, the corresponding specific capacity being 0.02, 0.0067 and 0.063 m2/h. Unfortunately, in the area of Santa Margherita the groundwater drains into the sea by the same fracture zone along which the rainfall and surface runoff are absorbed.

4.2

Aquifers in weathered granites

Most of the granite rocks in Sardinia are covered with a weathered mantle, especially in the flat or gently sloping plateaux and valley bottoms. The maximum thickness of this mantle does not generally exceed 15–20 m, but in heavily fractured zones weathering effects have been observed at a depth greater than 60 m, especially along overthrust fractures (Barrocu, 1971). In the area of Milizzana, Tempio, northern Sardinia, several wells were drilled down to the bed-rock, at 15–17 m, in different semiconfined aquifers in weathered granite. Owing to the damming effect of the lamprophyre dikes, the mutual influence between the different wells, drilled very close to each other, is negligible. Yields ranging between 0.5 and 2.30 L/s (1.8–8.3 m3/h) have been measured in different periods in 1975–1977. The water has been found in heavily weathered fractured zones 30–40 m thick, interpreted as overthrusts. Barbieri and Vernier (1977) calculated a transmissivity ranging between 1.37104 and 1.67104 m2/s and a storativity S 0.33–0.49%. A hydraulic conductivity value K ranging from 2.74104 to 3.34104 m/sec was calculated. At Lula, central Sardinia, one productive and three observation wells were drilled in June 1973 in a mantle of weathered diorite, down to a maximum depth of about 12 m. The productive well yielded 1.4 L/s (5.04 m3/h) at a drawdown of 3.2 m (Barrocu et al., 1974). A hydraulic conductivity of about 5104 m/s was calculated, and a storativity of 2–3% was estimated. The average rainfall at Lula amounts to around 500 mm/year.

4.3

Aquifers in microgranite dikes

Investigations carried out at Santa Margherita, south-west coast, and Fonni, central Sardinia, showed that microgranite dikes can be locally important hydrogeological reservoirs (Barrocu and Vernier, 1975). The capacity of such aquifers is determined by the dike dimensions, the fracture pattern, the wall rock lithological and structural characters, and the recharge conditions, which can be continuous or discontinuous, depending on rainfall. Because of their brittleness, microgranite dikes generally appear to be highly fractured. On the other hand, they are not affected to any great extent by weathering. It was observed in different areas that they may act as good drains for wall rock fractures, unless hydrothermal effects related to the intrusion of the dikes are present. In such cases abundant clay products naturally seal the fractures in the granite, which may become even tighter if weathering occurs as well. Because of the rugged morphology and their peculiar shape, the recharge areas are quite small and do not generally coincide with the catchment areas. In a well drilled at Santa Margherita in a microgranite dike down to a depth of 36 m, groundwater issued from several 30–40 cm thick fracture zones, interpreted by the authors as overthrusts. After pumping for 72 hours, the yield remained stable for one week at 2 L/sec (7.2 m3/h) with a drawdown at 16 m, after which it slowly decreased down to a stable value


41

of 0.25 L/sec, after one month. Two observation wells drilled at the sides showed that slabs of argillified granite were included in the dike. Their yield was insignificant. Wells drilled for water supply in a microgranite dike in the area of Fonni, central Sardinia, at altitudes of 900–1400 m, after 48 hours of pumping tests exhibited a stable yield in the order of nearly 1–2 L/sec (3.5–7.5 m3/h) with a drawdown of 17–20 m, again fairly stable. In both cases the granite country rock is rather disintegrated because of intense fracturing and weathering. Values of transmissivity T ranging from 1.26104 to 1.72104 m2/s, storativity S0.15–0.45%, and hydraulic conductivity K ranging from 2.52104 to 3.34104 m/s were calculated. 4.4

Thermal groundwater

Very few deep boreholes have been drilled in Sardinia granite rocks, namely in the immediate vicinity of the major fracture zones where the thermal springs of Casteldoria issue groundwater at the temperature of 73.3 °C. Between 1956–63 systematic investigations for geothermal research were carried out in the area where two major N-S and E-W trending orthogonal faults cross in a graben which abruptly limits the north-western border of the Hercynian granite block of Gallura. The granite basement in the tectonic trough is overlaid by Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary and volcanic formations of Anglona (Fig. 1). Groundwater with a head of 12 m a.s.l. issuing from exploration wells drilled down to 100 m, located at 5 m a.s.l., was an early confirmation that it flowed from a deep syphon circuit. Drilling operations and borehole logging ascertained that the granite bedrock is very fractured down to 1,000 m, with repeated higher permeability levels, which can be interpreted as overthrusts. In two boreholes thermal groundwater with a temperature of 98 °C was found at a depth of 735 and 260 m below sea level, with a head of 18 m a.s.l. (Trudu, 1971). Subsequent geophysical investigations carried out in Sardinia identified deep thermal anomalies with temperatures of up to 150 °C at 2,000 m depth (Loddo et al., 1982). Major faults control thermal water circulation, with a downward movement schematically interpreted as a multi-cell system with relatively fast upward movement due to gas pressure (Panichi, 1982). Mixing of shallow groundwater with the deep saline water is marked by increasing TDS, in the range of 6,500–9,100 mg/L, decreasing Ca/Mg ratios, Na/Cl dominant character, and higher concentrations of B, and Sr. The Na/Cl ratios are close to values observed in seawater; and Cl, Na, K, B, and Sr show high correlation coefficients, indicating an origin from diluted, modified seawater (Caboi et al., 1986; 1993). The origin of thermal waters salinity can be chiefly attributed to sea level fluctuations during geologic history, especially during the Quaternary. Seawater saturated the deep fractures of the crystalline basement and is presently remobilised by circulating fluids. Isotope analysis results confirm that faults should be considered as always active circuits controlling mobility for water and gases in cratonic areas. Former active areas or quiescent areas are still producing hot water and deep gases (Angelone et al., 2005). 4.5

Conceptual models

Only the upper crust, where recent groundwater mostly circulates, is generally taken into consideration in groundwater investigations, but the conceptual model of fissured rocks

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may be rather complex and requires different methods of investigation, depending on the targets and scales of observation. It is known that meteoric waters may partly circulate in fractures at shallow depths, and partly infiltrate at depth along major fractures, along which old groundwater stored therein flows up towards the surface. The groundwater flow in major hydraulically connected vertical and horizontal fracture zones having considerable dimensions (several kilometers) can create flow systems which would be very difficult to recognize in fractured media. Fractured media may be so heterogeneous and complex with preferential pathways for groundwater and pollutants and with highly variable hydraulic conductivity and storage capacity so that modelling is a difficult task. Conceptual model uncertainty grade level is also high because of uncertainties in structure, boundary conditions, limits, and properties. Precipitation and surface waters that infiltrate through the soil and formations overlaying the basement, flow partly along the discontinuities of the upper crust issuing from springs and wells as fresh groundwater, and down in depth, where they are heated, to rise again along major fractures of the crystalline bedrock, issuing as thermal waters in a number of springs located along the major faults which dissected Sardinia into uplift and downlift tectonic blocks. The degree of interconnection between the flow systems of the fractured bedrock and the overlaying porous deposits defines, at the regional scale, the nature of the entire flow domain, and is a function of the hydraulic properties of the two components. These properties include fracture-network distribution, orientation, apertures, connectivity, sediment porosity and hydraulic conductivities of the entire bulk system.

5

CONCLUSIONS

The results of investigations carried out to date and those still in progress in different granite areas of Sardinia confirm the reliability and validity of a geomechanical approach on a local scale. Structural analysis has proven a useful method for determining the local rock fracture pattern. In the areas taken into consideration, the geological and structural studies, with the support of the photogeological interpretation and the use of geophysical methods (refraction seismic, magnetic, VLF electromagnetic and earth resistivity surveys) have made it possible to reconstruct the local tectonic pattern. Aquifer characteristics are strongly conditioned by the presence of dikes and effects of weathering and hydrothermal alteration. Dikes can be strongly weathered in depth, so that they act as underground barriers between contiguous granite sectors. The granite rocks of Sardinia may represent a valuable source of groundwater for farms and small rural villages as well as for tourist resorts along the coast. A well yield of 0.3–0.5 L/s (2.6–4.3 m3/day) may be sufficient to satisfy human and animal drinking water demand and provide irrigation of some hectares on the basis of a yearly demand estimated at 5 m3/ha. However, it is essential that the exploitation of these water resources be scientifically controlled in terms of safe yield considering local conditions. Data are not sufficient yet to evaluate the amount of effective infiltration which recharges fractured granite aquifers in the upper and lower crust. Land use and morphology strongly affect water budget parameters, particularly in fracture zone aquifers. Thus, they should be calculated with reference to representative areas kept in observation, especially as concerns effective infiltration and runoff.


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In certain cases the granite rocks can create fairly good reservoirs. In others, because rainfall is not very abundant and especially not evenly distributed throughout the year, yield tends to be fairly high after rainfall events, then decreasing as the groundwater finds its way to the sea. The investigations carried out so far have indicated that in certain cases the fracture zones and the microgranite dikes might be usefully and easily sealed off at their outlet, in order to create groundwater reservoirs.

REFERENCES Angelone M, Gasparini C, Guerra M, Lombardi S, Pizzino L, Quattrocchi F, Sacchi E, Zuppi GM (2005) Fluid geochemistry of the Sardinian Rift-Campidano Graben (Sardinia, Italy): fault segmentation, seismic quiescence of geochemically “active” faults, and new constraints for selection of CO2 storage sites. Applied Geochemistry, 20: 317–340, Elsevier. Barbieri G, Vernier A (1977) Subsurface hydrology – Tempio Pausania. “Geohydrological Investigations of Ground Water in Granite Rocks in Sardinia”, II 3:21A, Dept Land Impr Drain, R Inst Technology, Stockholm. Barrocu G (1971) Idrogeologia sotterranea dei graniti cataclastici della valle del Rio San Gerolamo fra Monte su Sinzurru e Monte Pauliara, Capoterra (Sardegna meridionale). Barrocu G (2005) – Groundwater investigation planning and management in fissured rocks. Keynote, Proc 7th Hellenic Hydrogeol Conf on Fissured Rocks Hydrology. Athens 2005, Oct. 4–6, II, 55–68, ISBN 960-88816-2-5. Barrocu G, Jacks G, Houtkamp H, Larsson I, Montaldo P, Vernier A, Wiberg L (1974) Geohydrological Investigations of Groundwater in Granite Rocks in Sardinia. Dept Land Impr Drain, R Inst Techn, Stockholm, I 3:15: 1–74. Barrocu G, Jacks G, Vernier A (1976) Hydrogeological and hydrochemical Investigations on the Spring of Rinaggiu, Tempio. Techn Report, Cagliari. Barrocu G, Larsson I (1977) Granite tectonics at groundwater prospection in southernmost Sardinia. In: Geohydrological Investigations of Groundwater in Granite Rocks in Sardinia. Dept Land Impr Drain, R. Inst Techn Stockholm, II 3:21A: 3–27. Barrocu G, Manca PP (1979) Geomechanical characteristics of a granite body at a dam site. In: Proc Int Symp IAEG on Eng Geol Probl in Hydrotechn Constructions, Tbilisi, URSS – Bull IAEG, 20: 32–35. Barrocu G, Vernier A (1971) Acque nella miniera di Perd’e Pibera (Sardegna sud-occidentale). In: Proc Int Sym on Groundwater in Crystalline Rocks. Cattedra di Geologia Applicata Fac Ing Univ Cagliari, 142–149. Barrocu G, Ranieri G (1977) Preliminary considerations on the utilization of very low frequency electromagnetic methods in hydrogeological investigations in a granite area “Atti Fac Ing Univ Cagliari”, 8. Barrocu G, Vernier A (1975) Notizie preliminari sulla idrogeologia di alcuni filoni di porfido in rocce granitiche della Sardegna. III Conv Int Acque Sott Palermo Nov 1975. In: “Atti Cattedra di Geologia Applicata Fac Ing Univ Cagliari”, 1–9. Caboi R, Cidu R, Fanfani L, Zuddas P (1986) Geochemistry of thermal waters in Sardinia (Italy). In: Proc 5th Int Symp WRI Reykjavik, Iceland, August 8–1, 1986. Caboi R, Cidu R, Fanfani L, Zuddas P, Zanzari AR (1993) – Geochemistry of the high-pCO2 waters in Logudoro, Sardinia, Italy. Applied Geochemistry, 8: 153–160. Ciminale M, Galdeano A, Gibert D, Loddo M, Pecorini G, Zito G (1985) – Magnetic Survey in the Campidano Graben (Sardinia): description and interpretation. Boll Geof Teor Appl, 27: 221–235. Cocozza T, Jacobacci A (1975) Geological outline of Sardinia. In Geology of Italy. The Earth Science Soc of the Lybian Arab Rep, Tripoli, II: 49–81. Egger A, Demartin M, Ansorge J, Banda E, Maistrello M (1988) The gross structure of the crust under Corsica and Sardinia. Tectonophysics, 150: 363–389. Larsson I (1968) Groundwater in Precambrian rocks in Southern Sweden. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Groundwater Problems. October, 1966, Stockholm.

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Larsson I (1972) Groundwater in granite rocks and tectonic models. Nordic Hydrology, 3. Loddo M Mongelli F, Pecorini G, Tramacere A (1982) Prime misure di flusso di calore in Sardegna. In: Ricerche Geotermiche in Sardegna con particolare riferimento al Graben del Campidano. PFE-RF 10, CNR-Rome 181–209. Montaldo P (ed), Proc Int Symp on Groundwater in Crystalline Rocks Cattedra di Geologia Applicata, Fac Ing Univ Cagliari, 115–126. Pala A, Pecorini G, Porcu A, Serra S (1982 a) Schema geologico strutturale della Sardegna. In: Ricerche Geotermiche in Sardegna con particolare riferimento al Graben del Campidano. CNRPFE-SPEG-RF10, CNR-Pisa 7–24. Pala A, Pecorini G, Porcu A, Serra S (1982 b) Geologia e idrogeologia del Campidano. In: Ricerche Geotermiche in Sardegna. CNR-PFE-SPEG-RF10, CNR-Pisa 87–103. Panichi C (1982) Carta delle temperature sotterranee. CNR-PFE-RF 10, CNR, Roma. Rosén B (1974) Subsurface hydrology. In: Geohydrological Investigations of Groundwater in Granite Rocks in Sardinia, Dept Land Impr Drain, R Inst Techn, Stockholm, II, 3:21A: 69–82. Sander B (1948) Einführung in die Gefügekunde der geologischen Körper, I Springler Verlag, Wien Insbruch. Trudu R (1971) Esami fisici in fori sonda per ricerche di aree termali in Regione Casteldoria (Sardegna). Proc Int Sym on Groundwater in Crystalline Rocks. Cattedra di Geologia Applicata, Fac Ing Univ Cagliari, 29–40. Van Bemmelen RW (1972) Geodynamic models, an evaluation and synthesis. “Developments in Geotectonics”, 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Zarudski EFK, Wong HK, Morelli C, Finetti IR (1971) Regional NW-SE seismic reflection profile across Tyrrenian. “Trans Am Geophys Union”, 52, 4.

CHAPTER 2

Groundwater exploitation of fractured rocks in South America Emilia Bocanegra1 and Gerson C. Silva JR.2 1

CIC. Centro de Geología de Costas y del Cuaternario Casilla de Correo Mar del Plata – Argentina 2 Departamento de Geologia, Instituto de Geociências – Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro. Ed. CCMN Sala Rio de Janeiro – RJ BRASIL

ABSTRACT: South America has a generous natural supply of water although it also has a notorious heterogeneous spatial distribution. Groundwater is an important resource that occurs mostly in sedimentary basins occupying 70% of the territory and in areas of igneous and metamorphic rocks that include mechanically fissured water bearing units of low permeability. Some study cases of intensive exploitation in fractured aquifers are presented in this paper, with examples of the semi-arid northeast of Brazil, in the large metropolis of São Paulo (Brazil), in the basin of the Bogotá river (Colombia), and in the city of Cuzco (Peru), among others. The knowledge of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical aspects of the fractured aquifers in South America is insufficient, so it is necessary to improve the study of their potentiality inasmuch as, in all cases, groundwater extracted from these aquifers constitutes an essential support for the development of economic activities.

1

INTRODUCTION

South America has a population of over 345 million living in an area of 17.8 million km2. The continent has significant water resources, with some of the more important and voluminous river basins of the world and a mean precipitation of 1600 mm/year, by far the bestranked continent in terms of absolute water availability. Rainfall shows, however, a notorious heterogeneity regarding its distribution, ranging from a few mm/year in southern Peru and northern Chile (the driest area on the planet), to more than 8000 mm/year in southern Chile and northeast Colombia. Large river basins with elevated rain modules such as the Amazonas and the Paraná River basins, as well as large wetlands, characterize South America. Sedimentary basins occupy approximately 70% of the territory, but some regions with acute water scarcity are located in crystalline terrains, where groundwater resources take place only in thin weathering mantles and rock fracture systems. Part of the hydrogeological properties and resources of the sedimentary aquifers is given by fracture systems, and sometimes close hydraulic interaction occurs between igneous rocks and sedimentary aquifers, as for example in the vast basalt lava flows of the Paraná and Amazon sedimentary basins. For this reason, sedimentary units where fracture systems play a significant role will be also considered in the present work, although most cases correspond to igneous and metamorphic fractured aquifers – crystalline

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rock aquifers. Crystalline basement rocks are commonly used as a source of groundwater because of their wide extent but yields are typically small and the low storage makes boreholes prone to drying up during drought (Morris et al. 2003). Figure 1 shows the distribution of igneous and metamorphic rocks across South America. Those types of rocks generally coincide with the distribution of the so called “hard rock

Figure 1. Distribution of igneous and metamorphic rocks across South America (adapted from UNESCO-IHP 1996).


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aquifers” or “fractured aquifers” although there are important exceptions, like for example Andean volcanic ashes and tuffs, which are igneous rocks that may have an important primary porosity; and also some low grade metamorphic rocks which behave hydraulically more like sedimentary bodies than crystalline rocks. Important examples of this type of rock are the metasediments of Itabira, Andrelândia and Araxá Groups, covering large portions of the Brazilian Shield. Fractured rock aquifers are present in extensive areas of South America, and comprise a variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks generally with a relatively low permeability and small storage capacity, but of enormous social and economic importance for some regions, like Northeastern region of Brazil and Northern Chile. However, as pointed out by Anton (1993), when groundwater is considered as a potential source of water for large populations concentrated in comparatively small areas, the spectrum of possibilities to use this resource is considerably reduced, as frequently happens in crystalline areas in Latin America. The proposal of this paper is to describe the location and main characteristics (extension, water quality and hydrodynamic aspects) of fractured aquifers in South America, with the presentation of some study cases of intensive exploitation of those resources.

2

FRACTURED AQUIFER OCCURRENCE AND USE IN SOUTH AMERICA

The hydrogeological map of South America prepared by UNESCO-IHP (1996) shows the identification of areas where fractured (also called “fissured”) aquifers dominate (see Figures 2 and 3). A large portion of the continent corresponds to outcrops of crystalline rocks, consisting mainly of granites and gneissic or migmatitic suites, sometimes covered by relatively thin and narrow Cenozoic sediments (alluvial deposits, coastal sediments and residual or transported soils). Those crystalline aquifers are present in the north portion of South America (Northern Shield), comprising eastern Colombia, southern Venezuela, northern Brazil, French Guyana, Suriname and Guyana; in the centre (Central Shield), encompassing the central portion of Brazil and eastern Bolivia, with small interesting reservoirs available only at a local scale; and also throughout the Andes Range, and along the Atlantic coast of Brazil (Oriental and Southern Shields).

Figure 2. Generic cross-section of South America showing the location of various important cities and the main types of aquifers associated: 1. Lima, Iquique, Mar del Plata, Natal, Salvador, Maceió, Fortaleza and several other cities on the Brazilian coast; 2. Lima, Villavicencio, San Juan, Mendoza, Maracaibo, Santa Cruz; 3. Cochabamba, Valencia, Maracay, Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Santiago; 4. Mexico City, Guatemala City, Managua, Quito; 5. Buenos Aires, San Nicolás; 6. Ribeirão Preto; 7. São Paulo, Santa Lucia (Montevideo) (adapted from Anton, 1993).

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Figure 3.

Hydrogeological units of South America (adapted from UNESCO-IHP 1996).

In the semi-arid northeast and humid southeast regions of Brazil (Oriental Shield), crystalline bedrock extends across approximately 3,000,000 km2. Aquifer zones are associated to fractures and lineaments, exploitation levels ranging from 50 to 150 m depth, and specific capacity ranging from 0.001 to 7 m3h1m1 (Celligoi and Duarte 1996). The Guarani Aquifer System, in Paraná sedimentary basin, is overlain by basaltic lava flows (Serra Geral Formation) that stretches throughout approximately 1,000,000 km2 in


49

central southern South America. When it outcrops, forms a semi-confined aquifer with a low permeability and low salinity water, though sometimes with a high iron, fluoride and silica content. Exploitation levels range between 100 to 150 m and specific capacity varies between 0.01 to 10 m3h1m1. In the Argentine Patagonia, in the south of the country, aquifers of low permeability are exploited in some sectors. Quaternary alluvial formations are found throughout the shield regions of South America, both in the valleys within the shields and at their periphery at the outlets of alluvial streams, with varying thickness (Figure 2). They are particularly well developed in the semi-arid Brazilian northeast following structural features like faults and important lineaments, and along the Brazilian coastal areas, as well as in the fluvial valleys of the Uruguayan-Río Grandense crystalline shield – the Southern Shield (Anton, 1993). Alluvial formation associated with fault zones are in fact the most important source of water in vast areas of the Brazilian shield, particularly in the dry Northeast, and the concept of the “fault-creek” has been useful for generations of groundwater prospectors: the association of fissured zones with the overlying alluvial deposits, formed by dissection of the shield and deposition of sediments in the more erodible fractured zones, enhances the possibility to obtain groundwater in both volume and quality acceptable in a region where none of those are easily achievable. It is important to consider that many important sedimentary units have their hydraulic behavior controlled by the fracture systems, since matrix permeability is low due to grain size or cementation of pores. In this regard, there are significant examples of those features in South America, even in some portions of the Guarani system, although unsatisfactorily mapped. Some study cases of intensive exploitation in fractured aquifers are hereby presented, from drilling data in the semi-arid northeast of Brazil, in the large metropolis of Sao Paulo (Brazil), in the basin of the Bogota River (Colombia), and in the city of Cuzco (Peru), where the exploitation takes place by filtrating galleries. 2.1

Brazil

Brazilian territory contains about 12% of surface fresh water resources of the world (United Nations, 1997). Although groundwater data is much more uncertain, it is estimated that about the same percentage of global renewable groundwater resources is available in the Brazilian territory (permanent reserves are probably even bigger than this figure). Nevertheless, huge contrasts in distribution prevail, with abundant and at times unexploited resources within the three big sedimentary basins of the country – units 5, 8 and 13 of Figure 3 – as compared to the densely populated areas of the oriental shield – unit 10 of Figure 3 – where groundwater resources are quite limited and insufficient to fulfil demand especially in the Northeast Region. For instance, the Northeast Region, with ca. 29% of the population, holds 3% of the country’s water resources (Campanili, 2003). Brazil is a nation of continental dimensions – more than 8.5 million km2 – under humid equatorial/tropical conditions in its largest portion. Climate settings in tropical or equatorial areas include an annual rainfall between 1000 and 3000 mm/year and mild to hot temperatures. Bedrock of crystalline rocks covered by weathered mantle or detritic sediments, with a 30–50 m average thickness, occurs in approximately 4 million km2. Sedimentary deposits take place in 3.9 million km2 of territory, with an average thickness close to 1000 meters. It results in perennial rivers in about 90% of the tropical territory. Nevertheless, in the central zone of Northeast Region, average rainfall varies between 500

50


and 800 mm/year and has a very irregular regime. Besides, combination of that climatic scenario with the domain of crystalline rocks reduces dramatically the permeability of the soil, resulting in a semi-arid climate, with periodic droughts. Along the southern coast, there are few large rivers because the divides are not far enough from the ocean to allow development of extensive fluvial systems. Coastal rivers in Brazil tend to be short, with small basins, and average flows are rather limited in spite of high local levels of precipitation. This has promoted the use of groundwater in these areas, sometimes resulting in the intrusion or upwelling of saline water in aquifers. 2.1.1

Northeastern Brazil

Northeastern Brazil has an area of 1.6 million km2, corresponding to 18.3% of the national territory and a population of 44.8 million (28.5% of the country population). In this region, the climate is semi-arid in 70% of the area. Regarding its groundwater resources, most of the area is dominated by a fractured aquifer in crystalline rocks with a very low permeability. Well yields are low, with a mean depth of 50 m, and discharges of about 1.5 m3/h. Another serious problem in this aquifer is salinization, TDS values reaching 5000 mg/L due to the intense evaporation and low rainfall rates. Groundwater in fractured crystalline rocks has an important function in terms of water supply systems of the Northeastern Brazilian structural provinces (Borborema to the north, São Francisco to the south), the greater part of which under semi-arid climatic conditions (Neves and Albuquerque, 2004). The total number of deep wells drilled in this aquifer is believed to reach 150,000 during the last 150 years, although data is scarce and unreliable. Notwithstanding, 30% of them are deactivated due to low production and poor water quality. Water consumptive use meets irrigation demands (59%), human consumption (22%), industrial and agricultural-industrial consumption (13%) and animal consumption (6%). Groundwater participation in this demand is complementary in some areas, although in others, mainly in small cities, is an almost exclusive source. In many areas of the Brazilian northeast region, intensive use of groundwater enhances risk of resources depletion, salinization and soil subsidence (Costa 2001). The effects of scarcity of water are strongly felt in the Brazilian northeast semiarid areas. Nowadays, the surface water per capita is insufficient for the 15 million people that inhabit the rural area. In the central zone of the Northeast Region the combination of poor rainfall rates with the geological bedrock, formed by sub-outcropping crystalline rocks with a very low permeability, results in temporary rivers and conditions of semi-aridity over about 10% of the national territory (Rebouças, 2000). On the other hand, high temperatures and winds in the region provoke an intense evaporation, impairing long-term water reserves. Those annual average rainfall values can be concentrated in only one month in drought years or in the 3–5 months of the rainy season in the normal years. In practice, the drought in this context leads to the virtual impossibility of subsistence, unleashing migration to the southern and richer parts of the country, deteriorating social conditions of the country as a whole. Northeast Region comprehends two different hydrogeological contexts: ca. 980,000 km2 outcropping or sub-outcropping crystalline rocks, with extremely low permeability except in zones with fractured rocks; and 648,130 km2 of sedimentary rocks, with large groundwater reserves (Rebouças, 1999). Sedimentary rocks are situated westwards from the “drought polygon” or in coastal zones of the region (units 8 and 16 in Figure 3). The crystalline area prevails in the inner portions in most the northeastern states, exactly where aridity is more pronounced (unit 10 of Figure 3).


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Groundwater from crystalline rocks in Brazilian Northeast generally present poor quality due to a complex association of water circulation and continuous evaporation in discharge areas in fracture zones. They have frequently a high salt content, except when associated to alluvial deposits with significant depth and extent. Alluvial formations, which are frequently formed of quartzic or arkosic sandy or gravelly material, may contain significant volumes of groundwater and can deliver relatively high yields because of their porosity and hydraulic conductivity. Several cities of northeast Brazil and the Atlantic southern coastal plains use groundwater from this type of aquifer. In the Northeast Region, as stated, groundwater is widely used because of the lack of surface water. Location of wells in the difficult conditions described above is a crucial component of the problem, especially when the high cost of perforations in hard rocks is considered. Many efforts have being carried out in the last few years to optimise well location and site selection, pursuing both quantity and quality. The best locations for water wells in crystalline terrains of semi-arid lands are narrow, densely fractured and altered belts, normally associated with fault zones and folding axes. Geophysical electrical methods have been tested and used with some success to prospect groundwater in this context (Medeiros and de Lima, 1990). Coriolano et al. (2000) re-evaluated methods to locate water wells in crystalline terrains aiming to improve the success rate of the drilling procedures. The authors describe a new approach tested in Rio Grande do Norte (NE Brazil), with emphasis in modern concepts on rock deformation and the regional tectonic framework, finding correlations between productive fractured zones remotely interpreted lineaments following drainages. In other cases, they found that the best locations are related to opening of foliation surfaces by weathering and their intersection with fracture sets and favourable recharge conditions provided by locally thicker, alluvial covers, forming a through-like structure. Silva and Jardim de Sá (2000) tried to set up relations between fracture chronology and neotectonic control of water wells in Brazilian northeast crystalline terrains (Equador region in Rio Grande do Norte State). The authors managed to establish apparently clear relations between fracture attitudes with different tectonic constraints to well productivity, in qualitative terms. A significant recent example comes from Pernambuco State, where Tröger et al. (2003) studied the crystalline fractured groundwater bearing units from qualitative and quantitative standpoints. The authors studied more than 500 chemical analyses coming from 297 water wells and verified that deep wells mainly have a poor quality and low production. The water quality and the highest production are with some exceptions linked to the shallow wells with up to 50 m depth. Tectonic features and location apparently showed minor importance in conditioning productive zones, since wells in tectonic structures produced less water than expected. Groundwater from these wells mainly has a tendency to poor quality. When alluvial sediments accumulate to over 20 m thickness, shallow wells have good production and a good water quality. The origin of the salt content in groundwater is still a subject of controversy, according to the same authors, but they suggest it could be related to dissolution of the rock matrix and minerals. The most effective wells in the crystalline-rock areas of western Pernambuco are located in paleo-valleys in the weathered rock. The best conditions are found in places where the water circulation is high and the minerals are leached and transported away with the surface water (Tröger et al., 2003). Although research efforts are important and enhance the comprehension of the fractured groundwater mechanisms and behaviour in the Northeast region, it is still a major task ahead to improve groundwater research methods and exploitation in semiarid crystalline rocks.

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2.1.2

São Paulo Metropolitan Area (Brazil)

The São Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA) has 17.5 million inhabitants on a territory of 5680 km2 (Figure 4) within the Atlantic Plateau, between two mountain ranges, the Serra da Cantareira (part of the Mantiqueira Range) in the north and the Serra do Mar in the south. Both Mantiqueira and Do Mar chains extend along thousands of km more or less parallel to Brazilian southeast shoreline. Groundwater resources play a central role in the complementary supply of the private sector in SPMA and constitute 11% of total consumption. The SPMA lies in the geomorphologic compartment corresponding to the Atlantic Plateau province, in the following zones: the Paulistano Plateau (where most of the territory is situated, including the sub-zones, São Paulo Hills and Embú Mountains); the North Crystalline Zone; the Paraíba Valley, which includes the Crystalline Hills sub-zone and the Ibiúna Plateau. Most of the urban area in São Paulo Metropolitan Area comprises the São Paulo Sedimentary Basin, which is about 75 km long (NE direction) and 25 km wide (NW direction). The basement is composed of granite and gneiss. The overlying Tertiary sediments are comprised of alternating clay, silt and sand layers of Resende, Tremembé, São Paulo and Itaquaquecetuba Formations (Prado et al. 2001). Two main aquifer systems occur in the SPMA: the Sedimentary Aquifer System and the Crystalline Aquifer System. The Sedimentary Aquifer System corresponds to the units of São Paulo Sedimentary Basin, behaving as free to semi-confined aquifers (specific capacity 0.5–0.9 m3h1m1), and is the most exploited one, although covering only 25% of

Figure 4. São Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA), Brazil, showing its location within São Paulo State and the various municipalities that comprise it.


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the SPMA. Many wells, though, due to the relatively small depth of the sedimentary basin, are dug and screened in both aquifers. The Crystalline Aquifer System is at or near surface along the borders of the São Paulo basin and in some portions of the inner territory and is made up of granitic as well as metamorphic rocks, with a variable permeability depending on the rock weathering (specific capacity 0.2–1.35 m3h1m1). The Crystalline Aquifer System may be subdivided in the Upper Aquifer and the Lower Aquifer, the first one comprising the weathering mantle up to approximately 50 m depth and the second subsystem the fractured rocks properly, which is heterogeneous, anisotropic and free to semi-confined in character (Hirata and Ferreira, 2001). It is estimated that a large number of industries, residential areas and others use aquifer resources through more than 9000 deep wells in operation, 2500 of which dug in the Crystalline Aquifer System. The number of hand dug wells is much higher, about 40,000 wells. There seems to be an increase at a rate of 1500 perforations per year due to the high fees on water service, which leads in some cases to amortize a 200 m perforation in only 6 months. Nowadays, there is interference between wells and a notorious decrease in the piezometric levels leading to a 50% reduction in the aquifer thickness. This has led to a rise in water costs, due to the greater electric energy consumption, perforation deepening and changes of pumping systems (Hirata et al. 2002). On the other hand, water from the crystalline aquifer in metropolitan area of São Paulo is considered as having a good or acceptable quality (the last one requiring some kind of treatment before consumption), except for some metals (Fe, Pb, Mn) and fluoride in a number of wells (Martins Neto et al., 2004). The excessive groundwater withdrawal and contamination pressure over the crystalline rocks in São Paulo Metropolitan Area is immense. Still, its wells constitute more and more an invaluable source of good quality water to a huge population. Protection work must be accelerated in order to prevent its loss. 2.2

Upper basin of the Bogota River, Colombia

Upper basin of the Bogota River is an intra mountain range basin of 4,300 km2, with a population of 848,000 inhabitants; aside from the 6,500,000 inhabitants living in the capital city of Colombia, Bogota. The main aquifer is composed of Neogene-Quaternary fluvial-lacustrine sediments. It is underlain by the Guadalupe Aquifer, of secondary importance; and made up of consolidated sandstone and siltite, locally fractured and of Cretaceous age. Guadalupe aquifer flow occurs mainly through fractures, and the transmissivity ranges from 5 to 536 m2/day. Storage coefficients range from 1,102 to 9,107; though the most frequent values are in the range of 1,104–1,105. In the south-western and central area of the basin, piezometric drawdown of as much as 20 m have been observed in these last 20 years; as well as an extension of the pumping cones towards the piedmont. The waters of the Guadalupe Aquifer are calcium-bicarbonated at the piedmont and sodium-bicarbonated in the area overlain by Quaternary sediments. The aquifer system exploitation counts on 5258 wells yielding 39.4 hm3/year, of which 10.9 hm3/year come from the Guadalupe Aquifer alone. Recharge in the Guadalupe aquifer is of 29.1 hm3/year, defining thereby a positive difference between abstractions and recharge of 18.1 hm3/year, the rest of it representing discharge from the aquifer. In the Quaternary Aquifer the difference between pumping and recharge is estimated at 1.

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1 hm3/year, indicating that it is going into intense exploitation (Castrillón Muñoz and Aravena 2002). This leads to significant changes in hydrochemical characteristics, like the dissolved organic carbon content rise in methane concentration and the estimated aquifer age. As commented before regarding the interaction between the Guarani aquifer and the overlying fractured basalt lava flow, it is evident the human impact in fractured aquifers due to actions in adjacent porous aquifers. They are particularly susceptible to changes in hydrodynamic and quality properties as a consequence of exploitation. 2.3 Cuzco Valley. Peru The city of Cuzco is located in the inter-mountain valleys of the Peruvian Andes’ Eastern Cordillera, at 3,400 m.a.s.l. The main sources of supply are 2 lagoons yielding 350 L/s, currently greatly exploited; they are reporting a water drawdown of as much as 5 m from their original level. The area is characterised by a rocky outcrop covering 90% of the total surface, where fissured aquifers of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary lie; and 10% shows fine recent deposits, of lacustrine- alluvial origin. The main fissured aquifer is 6,000 m thick, with transmissivity ranging from 500 to several thousands m2/day, the real velocity ranges from 100 to 800 m/year and the fracture density is in the order of 10 fr/m3. Waters are of the calcium-bicarbonate type, great hardness, low pH and acceptable potability. Fissured aquifers are the most important regarding urban and agricultural exploitation, using horizontal and slanted filtrating galleries whose length ranges from 150 to 300 m, and the flow rates varies from 20 to 65 L/s, allowing gravity supply, and minimising costs of maintenance and exploitation (Apaza et al., 1998). Once again the intrinsic characteristics of fractured aquifers make them prone to quality problems (bacteriological and chemical contamination) more easily than porous media. 2.4

Other cases

There are many other areas in South America, in addition to those cited in the present work, where fractured aquifers or fracture-conditioned groundwater circulation and recharge play a major role in supplying water to the population. It was not the aim of the work to make exhaustive descriptions of all areas, but it is important to mention some other relevant cases. In the extremely arid Northern Chile’s Atacama, some works have shown the importance of the fracture system in supplying a fresh water source to porous aquifers, even at far distance from recharge areas (Margaritz et al., 1990; Houston, 2001). It has been suggested that recent fresh water, in the centre of the Pampa del Tamarugal may have originated through deep fractures and faults interconnected to the neighbouring highland aquifers. On the other hand, fault system is responsible for the deposition of alluvial fans that store a great amount of groundwater. In Peru, as in Chile, Brazil and Bolivia, mining activities carried out in areas with occurrence of fractured aquifers has possibly imperilled groundwater resources due to potentially rapid propagation of contaminant plumes. Méndez (2005) has carried out extensive chemical analyses of water and sediment samples from the Rimac River Basin mining area in Peru. The results indicate low levels of contamination in river waters. However, significant levels of metal concentration in sediment samples were detected, putting eventually in risk groundwater resources.


3

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FINAL COMMENTS

Fractured aquifers in South America have a considerable groundwater potential, sometimes representing the only source of potable water available. Nevertheless, exploitation undertaken without proper management and exploration techniques leads to a high number of unsuccessful wells. In some areas of South America, water supply is obtained from surface sources that are being gradually exhausted. Groundwater may become the main source for expansion of urban supply systems in, for example, Montevideo in Uruguay, Recife and Salvador in Brazil, among others (Anton, 1993). All those are cases of cities located total or partially upon crystalline rocks. Groundwater from fractured rocks presents generally good quality, with low mineralization. Important exceptions are the crystalline rocks in the northeast arid region of Brazil, frequently with high TDS, and some waters from basalt lava flows in the western part of that country, which eventually have high fluoride contents, leading to fluorosis in some areas. The knowledge of the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical aspects of the fractured aquifers in South America is insufficient, so it is necessary to improve the study of their potentials inasmuch as groundwater coming from these aquifers constitutes an essential support for the development of economic – productive activities.

REFERENCES Anton, D (1993). Thirsty cities: urban environments and water supply in Latin America. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC. iv 197 p.: ill. Apaza, D, Subias, C, Mathieu, H. (1998). Explotación de acuíferos fisurados del Valle Cuzco, mediante galerías filtrantes, para abastecimiento poblacional. In: Proc. 4° Congreso Latinoamericano de Hidrología Subterránea, Montevideo, Uruguay (2): 621–637. Campanili, M (2003). No Brasil, há déficit no meio de abundância. Matéria publicada no jornal Estado de São Paulo, 16 de março 2003. Castrillón Muñoz, F, Aravena, R (2002). Algunas evidencias de explotación intensiva de los acuíferos en la Cuenca Alta del Río Bogotá, Colombia. Boletín Geológico y Minero, 113 (3): 283–301. Celligoi, A, Duarte, U (1996). Critérios hidrogeológicos na locação de poços tubulares em rochas basálticas da formação Serra Geral. Annals 2° Cong. Bras. Águas Subterrâneas – ABAS Salvador, Brazil. (in Portuguese) Coriolano, ACF, Jardim de Sá, EF, Silva, CCN (2000). Structural and neotectonic criteria for location of water wells in semi-arid crystalline terrains: a preliminary approach in the eastern domain of Rio Grande do Norte State, Northeast Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Geociências 30(2):350–352. Costa WD (2001). Água subterrânea no Brasil: um enfoque na regiao semi-arida. – Taller Aguas Subterráneas y Gestión Integrada de Recursos Hídricos. Global Water Partnership – INA. Mendoza. Argentina. 31 p. Hirata RCA, Ferrari LC, Ferrari LMR, Pede M (2002). La explotación de las aguas subterráneas en la cuenca hidrográfica del Alto Tiete (Sao Paulo, Brasil): crónica de una crisis anunciada. Boletín Geológico y Minero. 113 (3): 273–282. Hirata RCA, Ferreira, LMR (2001). Os aqüíferos da Bacia Hidrográfica do Alto Tietê: disponibilidade hídrica e vulnerabilidade à poluição. Revista Brasileira de Geociências. 31 (1):43–50. Houston J. (2001). La precipitación torrencial del año 2000 en Quebrada Chacarilla y el cálculo de recarga al acuífero Pampa Tamarugal, norte de Chile. Revista Geológica de Chile Santiago. 28(2): 163–177. Margaritz M, Aravena, R, Pena, H, Suzuki, O, Grilli, A (1990). Source of ground water in the deserts of northern Chile: evidence for deep circulation of ground water from the Andes. Ground Water, 28 (1): 513–517.

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Martins Netto, JPG, Diniz, HN, Joroski, R, Okamoto, FS, França, VCÇ, Tanaka, SE, Silva, VHA (2004). A Ocorrência de Fluoreto na Água de Poços da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo e novas tecnologias para sua remoção. In: Congresso Brasileiro de Águas Subterrâneas, 13., Cuiabá, 2004. Cuiabá: ABAS. CD-ROM. Medeiros, WE, de Lima, O (1990). Geoelectrical investigation for ground water in crystalline terrains of Central Bahia, Brazil. Ground Water. 28(4): 518–523. Méndez, W (2005). Contamination of Rimac River Basin Peru, due to Mining Tailings. MSc Thesis. TRITA-LWR Master Thesis LRW-EX-05-23. Lima, Peru. 31 p Ann. Morris, BL, Lawrence, ARL, Chilton, PJC, Adams, B, Calow RC, Klinck, BA (2003). Groundwater and its Susceptibility to Degradation: A Global Assessment of the Problem and Options for Management. Early Warning and Assessment Report Series, RS. 03-3. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya. Neves, BBB, Albuquerque, JPT (2004). Tectônica e Água Subterrânea em Rochas Pré-Cambrianas do Nordeste do Brasil – A Diversidade do Sistema Aqüífero. Série Científica Revista do Instituto de Geociências – USP. São Paulo, 4(2): 71–90. Prado, RL, Malagutti F°, W, Dourado, JC (2001). The use of shallow seismic reflection technique in near surface exploration of urban sites: an evaluation in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Geofísica. 19 (3): 112–120. Rebouças (1999). Groundwater resources in South America. Episodes, 22(3): 232–237. Rebouças (2000). O Potencial de água no semi-árido brasileiro: perspectives do uso eficiente. In: International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association Cong., 9, Recife, Brasil. Silva, CCN, Jardim de Sá, EF (2000). Fracture chronology and neotectonic control of water wells location in crystalline terranes: an example from the Equador region, Northeasternmost Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Geociências. 30 (2): 346–349. Tröger, U, Campos, JEG., Petersen, F, Vöckler, H (2003). Groundwater Occurrence in Fractured Metamorphic Rocks – Quality and Quantity, an example from North East Brazil. In: Krásny´ J, Hrkal Z, Bruthans J (eds) Proceedings, Int Association Hydrogeologists International Conference on ground water in fractured rocks, UNESCO IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater 7: 107–108. UNESCO – IHP (1996). Mapa Hidrogeológico de América del Sur. CPRM. United Nations (1997). Comprehensive Assessment of the World’s Freshwater Resources. E/CN.17/1997/9.

CHAPTER 3

Groundwater and tectonics – semiarid Northeast of Brazil Benjamim B. de Brito Neves1 and José do Patrocínio T. Albuquerque2 1

Instituto de Geociências da Universidade de São Paulo-SP, Brazil Centro de Ciências e Tecnologia – Universidade Federal de Campina Grande-PB, Brazil

2

ABSTRACT: Groundwater in fractured crystalline rocks plays an important role for water supply of the Borborema and São Francisco geotectonic provinces of the northeastern Brazilian Shield, where semiarid climatic conditions prevail. In the last 150 years about 150,000 water wells have been drilled in this region that covers almost one million km2. Only in the last 40 years have advanced processes for well location been used. This led to gradual improvement of results and decrease of the number of dry or abandoned water wells. The crystalline aquifer systems are very complex due to the varying geotectonical, physiographical and climatic conditions and different human interventions. Despite this diversity, however, certain combinations of structure and lithologic associations can be defined. This resulted in improved water well production in terms of their yield and groundwater quality. Thus, for this semiarid part of the Brazilian shield, seven different types of conditions (aquifer sub-systems) were distinguished. In spite of scarce hydraulic data available, prevailing specific capacity can be assessed ranging between 0.1–0.2 m3/h/m (the worst conditions in the cratonic basements and interior fold belts) and 0.5–1 m3/h/m (the best conditions in clastic cratonic covers).

1

INTRODUCTION

For several decades, wells have been drilled to provide water resources in different parts of eastern-northeastern South America in so called “Drought Polygon” (Fig. 1). This is a region of an area over 900,000 km2 marked by the incidence of many droughts during the last two centuries. In these areas, specific nuances and substantial differences have been recognized to determine the ideal well locations. The hydrogeological experience in these areas and available literature (sparse until the 1960s) were valuable, but not always applicable in other areas. This quest to understand the diversity of aquifer systems, within the same geological region (which has often been treated in a generic and simplistic way) motivated us to cross the threshold of Geotectonic Regionalization field, combining the tectonic research with other variables. Since the 1960s, importance of climate on groundwater quality and well yield has been recognised. As a result, several articles were written. These included a series of publications called “Basic Hydrological Inventory about Northeast” by SUDENE, from the end of the 1960s to the mid 1970s.

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Figure 1.

Geotectonic map of Northeast Brazil (for A, B, C, D , E, F, G see Table 2 and Figure 5).

For the past decades, the main concern was with lithological assemblages, i.e. with the quest of lithology considered “favourable” to groundwater. After those pioneer works (Siqueira 1963, Cruz and Melo 1968, DRN/Brasil/SUDENE 1974) where the lithological importance was consigned, the effects of climate in well yield and water quality started to be recognized. Equivalent rock assemblages could present completely different results in terms of water well quality and quantity under different climatic and tectonic domains. Several examples were documented, in the semi-humid coastal area, the semiarid interior, and inside the semiarid domain, which is characterized by an irregular rain distribution, in time and space (Figure 2), and high index of potential evaporation (Figure 3). The notion of connections between morphology and groundwater was a knowledge that was gradually crystallizing. Thus, the correct handling of relief factor (the quest for more depressed areas, thalwegs, lowlands) became important. In this sense, the concern about thalweg lines commanded by fracturing (identification of “riacho-fenda” fracture controlled creek) was initiated at the beginning of the 1960s by Siqueira (1963). From the point of view of groundwater quality, the paper and maps by Cruz and Mello (1968) are pioneer works. They identified and analysed the factors that influence water quality variation (Figure 4). Their maps are still valid.

Groundwater and tectonics

Figure 2.

Annual rainfall rates (isohyets).

Figure 3.

Annual potential evaporation rates (mm/year). Outline of the drought polygon.

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Figure 4.

2

Groundwater quality, TDS in mg/L.

GEOTECTONICS

The Precambrian shield areas of Northeast of South America display two major elements: (a) The São Francisco Craton (to the south), with basement of Archean to Paleoproterozoic age, composed by high-grade metamorphic rocks (gneisses, granulites, minor supracrustals) and low-grade rocks (greenstone belts and alike). There are two important groups of moderately folded cover rocks, of siliciclastic (Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic) and pelitic-carbonatic (Neoproterozoic QPC assemblages) natures (Figure 1). (b) The Borborema Province (to the north) composed by a branched system of Neoproterozoic fold belts, separated by different kinds of basement inliers (high-grade gneissic-migmatitic terrains granitic plutonism). There are two major types of fold belts: quartzitic- pelitic-carbonatic (QPC) assemblages, or “marginal belts”, with low to medium grade of metamorphism, and distal (volcanic-terrigenous assemblages) belts, with many types of gneisses, meta-graywackes, mica-schists etc., pierced by Neoproterozoic granites.

Groundwater and tectonics Table 1.

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Main group of variables for crystalline aquifer systems.

1 – Geotectonics: Paleotectonics (internal dynamics) Neotectonics

2 – Climate and physiography (external dynamics)

3 – General characteristics of water well (human interventions)

Crustal type/ tectonic setting, Rock assemblages and their stratigraphic relationships, Structural Associations. Overprint of Cenozoic structural strain fields (including fracture controlled creeks). Modern sedimentary deposits Annual rainfall rates and distribution versus evapotranspiration rates. Air humidity, Runoff and recharge availability (infiltration), Morphological features (e.g., valleys, lowlands). Selection of well site (better placement) location (looking for the best hydraulic conductivity). Well design, construction and development Maintenance and usage

An additional element to be considered is the net of shear belts or lineaments, some of them very wide (up to 6 km) and long (up to 700 km), poly-cyclical in character, with predominance of cataclastic and mylonitic rocks. These shear zones are products of “escape tectonics” of the final phase of consolidation (Ediacaran/Cambrian) of the basement of the Borborema Province. A long history of Phanerozoic sedimentation and superimposed tectonics (including Cenozoic stress fields) has to be considered in the history of this part of the South American shield. Further geologic and geotectonic information can be found in Brito Neves et al. (2000), among others. Based upon these geotectonic elements and groundwater analyses (field experiences and available data), it was possible to identify 7 (61) different aquifer (sub-)systems or hydrogeological environments for the crystalline aquifer as a whole. The defined aquifer systems are:

• • • •

The basement of the craton and fold belts – F; The cratonic covers, siliciclastic – A, and pelitic carbonatic – B; The thrust-and-fold belts and marginal belts – C/D and the distal belts – E. An experimental additional sub-system (shear belts G) is proposed, in terms of “expectation”, up to now without critical mass of hydrogeological data.

The main litho-structural assemblages for these aquifer systems are described in Table 2 and schematically outlined in Figure 5. Additional information on tectonic setting, lithological assemblages, structural features etc., along with the discussion on the main hydrogeological features follows. Concerning geotectonics (structural geology and neotectonics), there has been a considerable progress in the last three decades in Brazil and in the Northeast. Groundwater research in crystalline systems, however, have achieved few accomplishments but with undoubted gains in some local systems (Silva et al 2000, Albuquerque 2003). A concern about the geotectonics diversity and the regional geologic conditions started in the 1960s (Brito Neves and Albuquerque 1977, 2004). Those preliminary and experimental classifications have been improved by continuous and systematic observations. The recognition of the importance of the geotectonics is a remarkable advancement (Table 1).

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Figure 5. Idealized cross sections to show the relationships between: • Cratonic basement (F, F and F) and cratonic covers of Mesoproterozoic (A) and Neoproterozoic (B) ages; • Marginal Belts and Thrust-and-Fold Belts (D, C) and the margin of the craton, as well as the gradational passage from Marginal belts (D) to interior belts (E / E); • An interior belt (E) with quartzitic (E) and granitic (E) ranges and high grade terranes as basement and a shear zone (G).

3

ANALYSIS OF FACTORS/VARIABLES

A single scheme of variables that affect water well productivity (Q/s, water quality) of the Crystalline Aquifer System (and sub-systems) is presented in Table 1. Geotectonic regionalization (Figure 1, Table 1, Figure 5) is one of the conditioning factors of hydrogeological variability of the crystalline aquifer systems. The geotectonic factors (tectonic setting, lithological assemblages, structures) are the first group of variables that allow to define particular crystalline sub-systems. Thus, under similar climatic and physiographic conditions, it is possible to differentiate aquifer subsystems in terms of conditions of storage and groundwater circulation and to identify the ideal well sites and predict yields. Climate and physiographic factors are also important. These include precipitation rates, evapotranspiration and morphological features. In many cases, even under ideal tectonic conditions, groundwater yields and quality are not sufficient if there are adverse climatic and physiographic conditions. On the other hand, even when the general tectonic conditions are not good, the results could be improved by favourable climatic and morphological (microclimates, altitude, proximity of the coastal areas) conditions.


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These sub-systems are being proposed only for the Northeastern region. For similar geotectonic conditions, such as in the Southern and Southeastern Brazil where the climatic and morphological conditions are different, the general behaviour is different. The third group of factors/variable is anthropogenic. Most selected well sites have not been supported by any kind of technical assistance. Many empirical and trial-and-error methods have been widely used. Well design is very rare. Maintenance services and rational usage count for only few local exceptions. Hence, it is necessary to take human intervention into consideration. This is part of a reality that we cannot rule out.

4

CRYSTALLINE AQUIFER SUB-SYSTEMS / HYDROGEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS

Seven (6 1) aquifer condition types (Table 2, Figure 5) of the crystalline system are postulated for the study region, the north-eastern part of the Atlantic shield (Table 2, Figure 5). The geotectonic systematization of different kinds of crustal and litho-structural associations (Hobbs et al. 1976; Condie, 1982, and others) requires recognition/ identification of other aquifer conditions in the region. This evokes and paraphrases the classical assertion by Read (as regarding granites): there are aquifer conditions and aquifer conditions in crystalline system to be taken into consideration. This identification and proposition of seven distinct types of aquifers (sub-systems, from “A” to “G”) is certainly a first approach to the problem. The proposition about aquifer system diversity possesses both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, we desire to advance beyond the systematic generalizations of crystalline aquifers, and stimulate the usage of new kinds of analyses and exploitation. 4.1

Siliciclastic Cratonic Covers – A

Siliciclastic rocks (minor carbonatic intercalations) from Espinhaço super group in Bahia and Minas Gerais (Figure 1) represent the platform covers of Neopaleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic ages. They are lithologic assemblages of QP C type (quartzites, pelites carbonates, as per Condie, 1982) of varied palaeographic origins (fluvial, eolian, transitional, shallow marine). These cover are found from moderately folded, forming extended landscapes of high plateaus ( 800 m), to intensely deformed (forming quartzitic mountain ranges), as in the Northwestern Espinhaço portion. The latter is characterized by a degree of variable thermodynamic transformation, from anchimetamorphism up to green-schist facies (rare mesozonal facies). Interstitial porosity, fractures, stratification joints, sedimentary contacts, and some local karstic features condition these aquifers. There are cases in which “real aquifers” (stricto sensu) are formed with other areas forming restricted aquifer zones. Regional water level is generally intercepted in valleys and depressions that dissect the orographic system; this facilitates the formation of many types of water sources (springs are very common). Unconfined aquifer conditions prevail, but there are locally confined aquifer levels (some wells with artesian discharge). Along a longitudinal extension of about 1200 km (see Figure 1), this landscape of quartzitic plateaus crosses different climate circumstances, with variable annual pluviometrical rates

Porosity of interstices, fractures, stratigraphic joints, contacts, unconformities Porosity of fractures and karst dissolution. Local slaty cleavage Same as above Metacarbonates dissolution and slaty cleavage are very important. Granitic and quartzitic hills and ranges are important (E and E ), as well as quartzites and carbonatic intercalations Granitic and quartzitic ranges may be locally important (F, F) “T” fractures are important. Overprint of modern tensional stress fields

QP C assemblages: Quartzite-metapelite carbonate

C QP assemblages: Carbonates, meta-pelites, slates, quartzites

QPC assemblages metadiamictites, meta-peliticcarbonatic rocks, metaturbidites Schists, meta-arkoses, metavolcanic (bimodal): BVAC assemblages QPC assemblages

High grade terrains: gneisses, migmatites. Minor supracrustals

Cataclastic rocks s. l. up to 10 km wide. Polycyclical behaviour

Siliciclastic cratonic covers (PaleoMesoproterozoic) (A)

Neoproterozoic cratonic covers (B)

Thrust-and-fold belts and Marginal belts (C and D)

Basement of cratons, “massifs” (inliers) and foldbelts.” Tough” subsystems (F, F, F) Shear Zones/ Lineaments (EdiacaranCambrian Escape Tectonics) (G)

Obs: “to” Maximum values. QPC Quartzites, pelites, conglomerates. BVAC Bimodal volcanics, arkoses, conglomerates

Interior (distal) Fold Belts (E, E, E)

Noteworthy features

Main litho-structural types

–

–

0–600

Water Quality TDS: mg/L

Additional Remarks

Potential sub-systems. There are not sufficient data to characterize this sub-system.

Shallow water tables are common. Locally, artesian conditions are possible 0.5–0.8 to 4.0–6.0 500–2,000 Q/s increases with the intensity of the folding and fracturing, as well as with karstification. 0.5–2.0 to 500–2,000 Same as above. Local 15.0–350.0 faulting very important. These could be the best aquifer sub-system. 0.1–0.2 to 1.5 2,000–5,000 to Generally, the toughest 20,000 conditions. Locally, orographic features and favourable lithology may attenuate the situation 0.1–0.2 to 1.5 2,000 to 10,000 Same as above

0.5–1.0 to 25.0

Specific capacity (Q/s) m3/h/m

Main crystalline aquifer (sub) systems and their hydrogeological characteristics – Northeast South America.

Aquifer system

Table 2

64 Groundwater in fractured rocks


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(ranging from 600 mm to higher than 1200 mm). Their frequent occurrence in interfluve zones, in which catchment facilities are many, results in a low demand for tubular wells. Groundwater is stored and circulates in this effective, diversified, and interlaced porous framework (interstitial porosity, joints etc.). Recharge occurs by infiltration of a small rate of rainfall and through losing steams that during some floods occasionally inundate the area. During drought periods discharge occurs in these same watercourses that become intermittent. The unconfined aquifer well (Q/s) yields are always higher than 0.5 m3/h/m (0.5 to 1.0 m3/h/m values are usual) with excellent chemical quality (TDS between 50 and 600 mg/L). Therefore, with the improvement of criteria for location and those of well construction, it is possible to increase these Q/s values considerably. Along the interaction zones with the cratonic cover and/or with the thrust-and-fold-belt (Figure 5, “A” subjacent to “B” or subjacent to “C”), there are other locals of interest for well locations, including some with the possibility of flowing artesian wells. There are the best characteristics/aquifer conditions (many types of empties) of “A”, “B” and “C”, complemented by the additional presence of the empties of an erosional and angular unconformity above “A”. 4.2 Neoproterozoic Covers – B São Francisco/Bambuí Supergroup mainly represents the Neoproterozoic covers, covering an area of 350,000 km2 of San Francisco Craton and exhibits several gradations from unfolded and gently folded rock-units to intensely folded and faulted contexts (of thrustand-fold-belts). The latter are mostly distributed along São Francisco craton peripheries that are related to centripetal vectors of vergence originated in the interior of the marginal fold belts. Predominant lithology are carbonates and pelitic-carbonatic rock-units (marine sequences of Sete Lagoas, Santa Helena, Lagoa do Jacaré formations etc.), with subordinate occurrences of diamictites and quartzites in the base of the sequence (D-QPC diamictitequartzite, pelite, carbonate). These basal glacial deposits were products of the Sturtian glaciation. They were followed by shallow marine invasions during the late Cryogenian and Ediacaran periods. The developed thicknesses vary because of basement erosional undulations and irregular faulting. The Neoproterozoic covers reflect that paleo-morphology, presenting values from some hundreds (more common) to some thousands of meters of thickness. Generally, these form unconfined aquifers where waters are stored by pluvial water infiltration that escape evapotranspiration and from surface runoff. The aquifer storage is function of an effective multi-interstitial porosity and fractured zones. Locally, there are confined conditions (lithological and structural injunctions), with occurrence of flowing wells. Water wells drilled in moderately folded portions of these covers have great variation in Q/s values, because karstic dissolution factor is important, and very variable, causing the alternation of some local excellent discharges and others of mediocre production. Values of Q/s between 0.5 to 0.8 m3/h/m can usually be considered representative averages for wells in this aquifer sub-system with TDS ranging from 500 to 1,000 mg/L. Climate is an important factor in these yields. Higher Q/s values are found in Minas Gerais (southern part of the region, where pluviometry ranges between 700–900 mm/year) in

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relation to those ones registered in central part of Bahia and northwards (annual pluviometry 700 mm/year). Passages to moderately folded domains can also be defined in terms of Q/s values. Deformation degree of tectonic-stratigraphic context is an indicator that can be tracked from less deformed zones (smaller Q/s) to those in strongly-folded thrust-and-fold belt context (larger Q/s, ca. 6 m3/h/m). Along the contacts between this sub-system (“B”) with that subjacent (“A”), excellent storage conditions and groundwater production are usually obtained (see Figure 5, upper part). 4.3

Thrust-and-Fold Belts – C and Marginal Fold Belts – D

There are several types of transitions between unfolded and folded Neoproterozoic covers (“B”). The transitions can be observed with the thrust-and-fold-belts (“C”, part of the marginal belt overthrusting the cratonic foreland) and marginal fold belts (“D”) (Figure 5). The lithological assemblages of “B”, “C” and “D” are from the same general origin and display similar rock types. In practical terms, “C” are allochthonous portions of “D” (marginal belts). From the perspective of lithological assemblages, D-QPC (diamictites – quartzites, carbonates, and pelites) types prevail. Structural features of folds and centripetally vergent thrusts faults occur in low green-schist facies at shallow crustal levels. Deformation, folding, and fractures are seen at hand, outcrop, and regional geologic/mapping analysis scales. In the cases of “C”, there are drags with significant deformation of sedimentary sequences that are detached from the cratonic substratum. This deformation formed nappes and recumbent isoclinals folds that increased intergranular porosity (including porosity associated with slaty cleavage) and fracture porosity. Recharge is about 5% annual precipitation Discharge forms many perennial streams. Climatic conditions is also very important in well production in these domains. There are reliable data that demonstrate higher well yields under similar geologic-structural conditions with higher annual average pluviometric rates. From central Bahia area to north of Minas Gerais State (Rio Verde Grande Valley), there is an increase of average specific capacities, ranging from 0.5–1.0 m3/h/m to 2.0 m3/h/m. Besides presenting excellent crystalline aquifer conditions (wells in 500 Q/s

2,000 L/h/m interval), there are local high water wells yielding up to 700.0 m3/h with small drawdowns (on the order of a few metres). In addition, there are the special cases of contact lines with the subjacent “A” – the siliciclastic covers. These usually provide the best general conditions for groundwater production. There are cases of deep wells exhibiting Q/s over 25.0 m3/h m. In general, groundwater quality is very good with TDS values reaching 500 and 10 00 mg/L. From the point-of-view of lithological assemblages, sub-systems “C” and “D” are differentiated as special (“miogeoclinal assemblages”), among crystalline aquifer subsystems. They are close to those of “B” (the almost autochthonous cratonic cover). They are superior aquifers that may be distinguished from the other environments/sub-systems (“E” and “F”, with volcano-sedimentary assemblages). Marginal belts display relatively simple folding systems (some are monophasic), verging to the craton, growing in intensity (together with metamorphism degree) with distance from the craton. Far away from the cratonic nuclei, the marginal belts gradually approach the litho-structural (polyphasic folding) and metamorphic conditions (amphibolite facies) of the interior belts (“E”). Fractures, karstic dissolution, slaty cleavage, and some interstitial


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porosity can lead to well yields in these fold belts of approximately 0.5 m3/h/m and occasionally up to 2.0 m3/h/m. Some belts retain sparse Cambrian-Ordovician covers, and post-orogenic deposits; they are generally considered as “mollasses” (see Figure 5). These erosional remnants, clastic sedi-ments may function as zones of enhanced recharge and may constitute an important auxiliary of the sub-system context. 4.4

Interior/Terrigenous/Volcano-Sedimentary Belts – E

Interior belts, distal of cratons, are constituted by varied (meta)sedimentary associations (minor QPC types) with predominant “BVAC” contents bimodal volcanic, arkoses, gneisses, schists, metagraywackes, local conglomerates etc. from shallow to deep waters, associated to diversified volcanism (acid, intermediate, and basic). They display variable metamorphic facies that range from green-schist up to high amphibolite facies. Migmatization is a common phenomenon. Poly-deformated metamorphic rocks crop out along areas of peneplains (some local pediplains) with little vegetation. They can be approximated as aquifuges (nearly impermeable rock units with minimum porosity). The aquifer portions from these rocks are restricted to local fracture permeability and are independent of porosity of the weathered mantles or alluvial cover, which Albuquerque (1984, 2003) denominated the “aquifer zone”, and Gustafson & Krásny´(1994) called “hydraulic conductor”. These interior belts (together with those of “F”) are among the most difficult regimes (so-called “tough crystalline”) in terms of groundwater occurrence and exploration. This occurs mainly in the zones where the climatic conditions are severe (low pluviometry, high evapotranspiration rates, etc.), which is the most common circumstances in the study area. In this tectonic-stratigraphic context (metamorphic and igneous rocks), we commonly seek more favourable rocks (quartzites, limestones, meta-arkoses, meta-conglomerate, meta-felsites, etc.) in exploring for groundwater. However, outcrops of these rocks are restricted (QPC BVAC) in these interior belts. In these situations, we seek potential aquifer zones by employing geotectonics and structural geology insights, remote sensing, aerial photos, or geophysical surveys, in the search for favourable sites circulation. These are generally located underlying valleys and lowlands. The recharge to this subsystem is problematic and is conditioned by a presence of an alluvial or weathering cover. These tectonic-stratigraphic domains/hydrogeological environments generally are of low hydrogeological productivity (Q/s varying from 0.1 to 0.2 m3/h/m, in most of wells, see Table 2). There are also great number of practically dry and abandoned wells, primarily because of insignificant Q/s and high salinity. A high percentage of wells with TDS 1500 mg/L is observed, many wells have up to 60 00 mg/L, and a few have TDS of nearly 20,000 mg/L. Despite of the generally unprolific nature of the Northeast experience, wells be successfully developed. Most existing wells were unfortunately located and drilled without considering technical criteria. Using intuition – even presumption–, and stubbornness (sometimes, two to three wells sometimes drilled at the same site with negative results. By and large, the lack of knowledge of all proposed basic fundaments of Table 1 prevailed. Had there been an experienced geologist adviser, more than half of these wells would not have been set or drilled. In these “tough crystalline” domains (“E” “F”), there are some special cases. There are areas in Northeast, where water wells with reasonable water quantity and quality are

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systematically obtained. This is particularly true for the Cabaceiras and Boa Vista zones (in Paraiba State), 150 km W of João Pessoa, under the realm of the more severe climatic conditions (see maps of Figure 2 and 3), and the case of Piancó Valley, in the far west of Paraiba State (300 km W from João Pessoa). In both cases, litho-structural contexts (where micaschists, metagraywackes and amphibolitic rocks prevail) are usually avoided for tubular wells. These are exceptional cases due to the maximization of general geotectonic factors (with emphasis of the neotectonic action (see Table 1) and the result of uncommon, persistent maintenance works (“good” human intervention), that for Northeast is important precondition as observed/highlighted in Table 1. Other features of the “tough crystalline” are authentic oases (often forming local microclimates) associated with quartzitic (E) and granitic (E) outcrops. Recharge waters take a long time to reach the regional water table, and so, some important local water resources may includes depression springs, diffuse seepage, etc. The difference between climate and physiography factors are also confirmed by the authors’ experiences in other Brazilian provinces. Under the same general geologic-geotectonic circumstances, from the south of Bahia State to the southernmost states, Q/s values may double those found in Northeast (Costa, 1986) and possess with superior water quality. These substantial differences of quantity and quality are the result of climatic factors, especially a better distributed pluviometry that favours recharge, circulation, and discharge. 4.5

Basement of Cratons and “Massifs” – F

General geologic conditions of cratonic nucleus (São Francisco) and “massifs” (basement inliers, inter-distal fold belts, and even intra-fold belts (Figure 1 and Figure 5) are very similar. They are tectonic-stratigraphic terrains originated from the break-up of the same Mesoproterozoic supercontinent – Rodinia-. They are litho-structural realms/domains of mainly Archean and Paleoproterozoic age and, for the special cases of “massifs”, there is frequent presence of granitic plutonism from the evolution of the Neoproterozoic Brasiliano Cycle. In general, high grade rocks (HGT) gneissic-migmatitic-granitic rocks prevail with mafic and ultramafic rocks subordinate, with some remnants of low-grade volcano-sedimentary (LGT) associations. The general hydrogeologic conditions are generally poor like those ones of the interior mobile belts (“E”). These rock assemblages play a regional aquifuge role with significant permeabilities limited to fractured/faulted zones and weathered intervals – “aquifer zones” of Albuquerque (1984) –. This condition is exacerbated by adverse hydroclimatic factors. This results in low well yields with very low Q/s values in the range of 0.1 to 0.2 m3/h/m and many dry and abandoned wells. Groundwater quality is similar to that found in the interior mobile belts (“E”). TDS values are usually higher than 2000 mg/L. Due to the fact that great part of these high grade rocks domains is a more arid climate, it is common to find the highest values of TDS (Cruz and Mello 1986, Figure 4). There are few exceptions to this generally adverse picture, such as oases in quartizitic ranges (F), syenitic and granitic “highs” (F), and local inselbergs. Particularly, it is worth mentioning the frequent presence of “granitic sierras” (Neoproterozoic in age) that pierce older (Paleoproterozoic) “massifs” and the interior orogenic belts of the Borborema Province. These are provide some good local good “lithological” and physiographic conditions for groundwater.


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It is necessary to stress the different conditions from domains in semiarid Northeast to those similar (geotectonic) settings in the central and southern parts of Brazilian shield with, where temperate climates occur. For instance, in the “iron quadrangle”, of the south of São Francisco craton, in Minas Gerais, groundwater is so abundant that it constitutes a serious problem in the mining industry.

4.6

Lineaments / Shear Belts – G

Important extrusion processes occurred in the end of the Brasiliano cycle (EdiacaranCambrian periods) that is responsible for the general geologic-geographical configuration of the province and for ordering the distribution of all interior belts and “basement massifs” (Figure 1). First, tectonic analyses for the interior Paleo-Mesozoic sedimentary basins of the province show these basins were conditioned by extensional movements of considerable dimensions. The preferential sites for these vertical extensional displacements were older shear zones. This is true for coastal basins (of Atlantic margin) and for some Tertiary basins from interior of the region. Some newer Phanerozoic fault lines are associated to these older shear zones. It is possible that some of these primary extensional fractures (“T”), associated to the main shear zones may create aquifer zones. This subject has never been object of systematic research, but there occur some wells located close to these zones with very high Q/s values. This regrettable lack of knowledge accounts for the separate treatment (“G”) of these special domains.

5

HYDRODYNAMIC PARAMETERS

Determination of hydrodynamic parameters for crystalline aquifer systems is a major challenge due to the complex conditions in terms of heterogeneity and spatial discontinuity, especially for “E” and “F” environments. Unfortunately, in Northeast Brazil, Q and Q/s values are the most widely used “hydrodynamic parameters” and some of these values were obtained from highly questionable pumping tests. In Brazil, Manoel Filho (1996) calculated these parameters based on Chaos Theory. He proposed a fractal model adapted to denominated “hydraulic conductor” (Gustafson and Krásný, 1994) that was composed by the set of well- rock blocks – associated fractures. Thus, the determined hydraulic characteristics are restricted to the fracture system (or hydraulic conductor) domain, not to the whole crystalline system. More than that, the values obtained from a pumping test are not representative of larger aquifer zones. The values then obtained by Manoel Filho are higher than those many others had already determined for other regions of the world (see Table 3). We emphasize that only a very small number of water wells have adequate pumping tests (in terms of duration, systematic measurements of drawdown and recovery, etc.). The common routine is the drillers using empirical methods for the measurements of discharges and specific capacities. Manoel Filho could select only 63 confiding pumping tests, 53 in Borborema Province and 12 in the cratonic area. The calculated parameters were: transmissivity, permeability, effective porosity, and fracture opening.

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Groundwater in fractured rocks Table 3. 1996).

Average and range for transmissivity values (m2/day) (Manoel Filhos,

Sub-systems

Average

Range of values

Sililiciclastic cratonic cover (3 wells) Neoproterozoic covers (9 wells) Marginal belts (granites) (9 wells) Interior/distal belts (7 wells) Basement cratons/massifs (14 wells)

3.65 224.64 2.74 0.72 1.46

1.33 to 5,961 0.95 to 1,192.32 0.54 to 6,670.08 0.32 to 1.39 0.07 to 6.10

These parameters were related to the rock units. However, significant relations are not developed in statistical terms because the small number of wells in each lithology and the sample sizes are different. This can affect “statistical measures”. There was only a case (for crystalline limestones) where lithological influence was patent in well productivity (improving it). Manoel Filho did not investigate the correlation between well productivity and tectonic style or structural type at any scale. Table 3 shows transmissivity values of crystalline aquifer sub-systems. Sampling values considered anomalous were culled statistics, however it does not mean such could not occur. Although the number of selected wells was very small, analysis of transmissivities representative in productivity conditions of these tests, reveals that the best well yields are in Neoproterozoic covers, followed by siliciclastic platform covers, and marginal belts. The worst yields are associated with interior fold belts, the basement of cratons and “massifs” (the “tough crystalline” terrains). This corroborates with the conclusions obtained from the geotectonic analyses (Table 2). Unfortunately, parameters from wells drilled in thrustand-fold-belts and shear zones sub-systems (lineaments) are not available. 6

ABOUT LOCATION CRITERIA

Criteria and technical care of well location in crystalline aquifer system are fundamental elements in locating wells with better yields and quality as well as better cost-benefit ratio. The diversity of hydrogeologic conditions in this and similar systems should be considered. Valid criteria for one sub-system may not be valid in others. The closer the geologist’s identification with variables from Table 1, the greater is the probability of water wells of high productivity. Lack of knowledge of or ignoring these criteria lead to many unsuccessful and abandoned drilled wells in this semiarid region. Lamentably, tentative methods or the lack of any scientific location methods is still practiced in many cases. This result is in frustrations of socio-economic demand supplying and enormous financial damages to public funds and private initiative. In the cases of “A” and “B” sub-systems, there are some preserved characteristics of sedimentary aquifers (interstitial porosity, etc.), and the definition of ideal sites for location does not constitute a difficult problem. Hydrogeologic thematic maps (including inventory of waterwells, piezometric maps, maps of saturated thickness, etc.), and even geologic maps (lithostragraphic, structural, sand/clay ratio, etc.) are usual tools aiding successful well location. For other crystalline aquifer sub-systems where it was difficult to access to hydrogeologic data, “riacho-fenda” (⬇ fracture-controlled creek) criterion proposed by Siqueira


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(1963) was employed for well locations, regardless of other hydrogeologic conditions of the study area. It had long been assumed that this fracturing originated subsequent to the rocks ductile deformation event and did not considered the fact that other tectonic efforts (of Phanerozoic times) were superposed upon those events. Cenozoic tectonism is present and occurring in shallow crustal levels. It is preponderantly extensional in character and is associated with post-Jurassic continental uplift and South American margin plate vectors. Albuquerque (1971) and Moraes Neto and Alkmim (2001) have related the origin of these fractures to a polyphasic tectonism, in which regional epirogenic uplifts play a fundamental role in the formation of aquifer conditions in crystalline basement domain. “Riachos-fendas” are actually fractions of streams positioned/captured in rectilinear fracturing and faults. They can be identified in aerophotos in 1/70,000 and 1/25,000 scales, which should be considered essential tools for field geohydrological surveys (specially studies targeted to well site location). All available databases should be consulted, but a specific investigation of the characteristics of existing wells in the area is indispensable to arrive at the rational decision. In the study area, there are available maps of groundwater quality in the crystalline system (see Figure 4). These are good indicators of water salinity for the case of future wells. In the field work, shape, nature, and intensity of fracturing (which used to be polyphasic) should be evaluated; the identification of the last phase of brittle deformation is the most important fact. In most cases, the best recharge conditions occur where alluvial sands cover the fractured rock unit (“riacho-fenda” the aquifer zone). Geophysics methods of research were employed in hydrogeological research with the objective of improving well site location in crystalline aquifer zones. Electrical resistivity, and in restricted cases, other methods (VLF) were employed in identifying fractures and formulating conceptual models. These studies have been complemented (in many phases) for important exercises of photo-interpretation and field mapping. In fact, the geophysical methods produced poor results, less than expected, but they should be improved and more explored for the future. A great effort to develop groundwater from crystalline rock systems in Northeast Brazil was accomplished by SUDENE. It put into practice technical criteria about location, drilling and well construction, and well design in the 1960s. Since then, private enterprises and state agencies assumed this task, but they gradually abandoned technical criteria, replacing it for political (mostly) and economic problems. The Research Centers and local universities are staffed with able people who can contribute to the issue of underground water in the region. The problem is that there are not enough funds/financial support from the state and federal agencies. Whenever those funds are obtained, they are little and provided in a discontinuous way. REFERENCES Albuquerque, J. P. T. (1984) Os recursos de água subterrânea do trópico semi-árido do Estado da Paraíba. Campina Grande, Master dissert. 183p.-Departamento de Engenharia de Minas, Universidade Federal da Paraíba (in Portuguese). Albuquerque, J. P. T. (1984) Contribuição ao conhecimento do sistema cristalino no Estado da Paraíba como meio aqüífero. In: Anais 3° Cong. Brasileiro de Águas Subterrâneas, Fortaleza-CE, pp. 489–506.

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Albuquerque, J. P. T. (2003) Contribution to the understanding of crystalline systems as aquifers – the experience of the State of Paraíba, Northeast Brazil. In: Krásny´ J, Hrkal Z, Bruthans J (eds) Proceedings, Int Association Hydrogeologists International Conference on groundwater in fractured rocks, UNESCO IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater, 7: 21–22. Brito Neves, B. B.; Albuquerque, J. P. T. (1997) Tectonics and Groundwater Research: Proterozoic Borborema Province, a semiarid region of Northeast Brazil. In: Proceedings Intern. Symposium on Engineering Geology and the Environment, 1997. Athens, Greece. Marinos, P. G.; Kouris, G. C. Tsiambaos, G. C.; Stournaras, G. C. (eds.), Bakelma/Rotterdam/ Brookfield: 1181–1186. Brito Neves, B. B. and Albuquerque, J. P. T. (2004) Tectônica e Água Subterrânea em Rochas PréCambrianas do Nordeste do Brasil – A diversidade do Sistema Aqüífero. Revista do Instituto de Geociências da USP, 4: 71–90. Brito Neves, B. B.; Santos, E. J.; Van Schmus, W. R. (2000) The tectonic history of the Borborema province. In: Cordani, U. G; Milani, E. J.; Thomaz Filho, A.; Campos, D. A. (eds). Tectonic Evolution of South America. Rio de Janeiro, 31th International Geological Congress, 2000.: 151–182. Condie, K. (1982) Early and Middle Proterozoic supracrustal sucession and their tectonic setting. American Journal of Science, 282: 341–357. Costa, W. D. (1986) Análise dos fatores que atuam no aqüífero fissural – área piloto dos estados da Paraíba e do Rio Grande do Norte, Ph D, 225p. Instituto de Geociências da Universidade São Paulo (in portuguese). Cruz, W. B. and Melo, F. A. C. F. (1968) Estudo geoquímico preliminar das águas subterrâneas do Nordeste do Brasil. Série Hidrogeologogia, 19: 147p (Recife, Brasil/SUDENE). DRN/BrasilL/SUDENE (1974) Atlas de Recursos Naturais do Nordeste. Ministério do Interior, Superintendência de Desenvolvimento do Nordeste, Departamento de Recursos Naturais, Recife: 8 maps. Guerra, A.M. (1968) Processos de carstificação e hidrogeologia do Grupo Bambuí na região de Irecê-Bahia. PhD, 132p. Instituto de Geociências da Universidade São Paulo (in Portugueses). Gustafson, G. and Krásny´, J. (1994) Crystalline rock aquifers: their occurrence, use and importance. Applied Hydrogeology, 2: 64–75. Hobbs, B. E.; Means, W. D.; Williams, P. F. (1976) An outline of Structural Geology. J. Wiley & Sons, New York. Mandelbrot, B. B. (1983) The fractal geometry of nature. Freeman, New York. Manoel Filho, J. (1996) Modelo de dimensão fractal para avaliação de parâmetros hidráulicos em meio fissural. PhD 197 p. Instituto de Geociência da Universidade São Paulo (in Portuguese). Moraes Neto, J. M. and Alkmim, F. F. (2001) A deformação das coberturas terciárias do Planalto da Borborema (PB-RN) e seu significado tectônico. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 31: 95–106. Passchier, C.W. and Trouw R. A. J. (1996) Microtectonics. Springer – Verlag, Berlin. Pinto, A. S.; Santos, P. R. P.; Almeida, J. A. B.; Matos, I . V. (1982). Critérios de locação e aspectos práticos da perfuração em rochas calcárias da região central do Estado da Bahia. In: 2nd Cong. Brasileiro de Águas Subterrâneas, Salvador, pp. 447–461. Santos, P. R. P. and Durães, A. M. M. (1986) Hidrogeologia do Grupo Chapada Diamantina e doGrupo Paraguassú. In: Anais 4th Cong. Brasileiro de Águas Subterrâneas, Brasília, pp. 106–119 Silva, A. B. (1984) Análise morfoestrutural, hidrogeológica e hidroquímica do aquífero cárstico de Jaíba, norte de Minas Gerais. PhD., 190p. Instituto de Geociências da Universidade São Paulo (in portuguese). Silva, A. B. (1986) Contribuição da geologia estrutural na explotação de águas subterrâneas do Grupo Bambuí na região norte do Estado de Minas Gerais. In: 4th Cong. Brasileiro de Águas Subterrâneas, Brasília, pp. 251–262. Siqueira, L. (1963) Contribuição da Geologia à pesquisa de água subterrânea no cristalino. Recife: Grupo de Trabalhos em Águas Subterrânea- GTAS, Departamento Recursos Naturais, DRN/ SUDENE (internal report), 53p.

CHAPTER 4

Regional study of hard rock aquifers in Alentejo, South Portugal: methodology and results António Chambel1, Jorge Duque2 and João Nascimento3 1

Geophysics Centre, Department of Geosciences, University of Évora, Apartado 94, Évora, Portugal Polytechnic Institute of Beja – High School of Agriculture of Beja, R. Pedro Soares, Apartado 6158, Beja, Portugal 3 CVRM Geosystems Centre, Technical Superior Institute, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1096 Lisboa codex, Portugal 2

ABSTRACT: Between 1997 and 2001 a Project called “Study of the Groundwater Resources of Alentejo Region” (ERHSA) was carried out in the region of Alentejo, southern part of Portugal. A great part of the area corresponds to igneous and metamorphic hard rocks. The areas of partly karstified crystalline limestones and a belt of sedimentary rocks on the western side. During ERHSA more than 7,000 data points were inventoried in hard rock aquifers. This extended study confirmed some results of previous studies, namely regarding the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer, and detected new productive or potentially productive areas within this region, namely the aquifers of the Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas, Pavia-Mora and the Évora-Montemor-Cuba. These last two systems mainly occur in gneissic or gneissic-migmatitic rocks, metamorphic volcanic-sedimentary complexes, and some tonalitic rocks. The difference between the hard rock aquifers and the less productive sectors are clearly related with the intensity of the fracturing net and the depth and type of the weathering layer. This distinguishes the gabbros and other basic or intermediate rocks (more productive) from the less productive granites. The weathering layers of the first ones can go to 30 m depth, against the normal 2 m in granites. The groundwater facies are mainly bicarbonate, except on the south part of Alentejo, where it is chloride-bicarbonate. The main cations are the magnesium, calcium and sodium, by this order, having most part of these waters a mixed cation composition between three or two of them. The northern part of Alentejo has waters with low levels of mineralization (average less than 400 µS/cm of EC). On the contrary, the south part has clearly the most mineralized waters (average more than that 1,300 µS/cm of EC). The future main task will be to conduct aquifer tests in order to have more hydrogeological parameters (transmissivity, permeability, and storage values), and try to understand relation between instant yields, steady state flow, abstraction and aquifer parameters.

1

INTRODUCTION

Between 1997 and 2001 a Project called “Study of the Groundwater Resources of Alentejo Region” (ERHSA, in Portuguese) was carried out in the region of Alentejo, southern part of Portugal (Figure 1). From the total area of Alentejo (26,931 km2), 21,245 km2 correspond to hard rocks. During the project more than 7,000 data points were inventoried in all hard rock aquifers of Alentejo. Most of them were wells or hand dug wells that are used basically

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Figure 1.

Location of Alentejo in Portugal.

for agriculture or domestic purposes. The most important abstractions in Portugal are related with agriculture. The actual number of public supply surface water points in Portugal is 459 (5% of the origins) and 8,900 groundwater points (95%). The total abstracted surface water volume is 627 hm3 and the groundwater volume is 404 hm3 (INAG 2006) for a total urban consumption of 529 hm3. The difference is related with losses on the supply systems or other uses. The consumption per capita is 169 L/inhab/day. Figure 2 (adapted from Ribeiro 2004) shows the distribution of ground- and surface water consumption in Alentejo, by municipalities.

2

GEOMORPHOLOGY, CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND INFILTRATION RATES

Alentejo is a flat area, at levels between 200 and 400 m a.s.l., with some little mountains, the highest being São Mamede, an elevation of about 1,200 m, on the northern part. All the other few mountains are less than 600 m high, and generally follow the Hercynian

Regional study of hard rock aquifers in Alentejo, South Portugal: methodology and results

75

Figure 2. Percentage of groundwater uses for public supply in Alentejo (adapted from Ribeiro 2004).

Orogeny geologic main direction: NW-SE. This plain is the result of the erosion that follows the Hercynian Orogeny and flattened the Hercynian chain, letting some thin layers of an ancient erosion platform over the igneous and metamorphic Iberian craton. The climatic conditions in Alentejo are Mediterranean type (except in the littoral west, which has the influence of the Atlantic climate), with the specific distribution of precipitation basically during winter, when the temperatures are low, and very low levels of precipitation in summer, when the temperatures are high (Figure 3). Alentejo is a semi-arid region, with the precipitation ranging from about 450 mm per year until near or more than 800 mm on the highest mountains, as can be seen in Figure 4 (Chambel et al. 1998). Mendes (1989) estimated the values of the Budyko Aridity Ratio (BAR), which represents the ratio between mean annual potential evapotranspiration and mean annual precipitation (Sankarasubramanian & Vogel 2003). Regions where BAR is higher than the unit

76

Groundwater in fractured rocks 80 70

Prec (mm)

60

Temp (ºC)

50 40 30 20 10 0 Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Figure 3. Average monthly precipitation and temperature distribution for the Alentejo climatic station of Vale Formoso, Mértola, South Alentejo (1971/72 to 1991/92 series) (Chambel 1999).

PRECIPITATION ISOLINES - district capital - isolines - uphill isolines 20 mm - equidistance between isolines

Portalegre

Évora

Beja

Graphic scale 0 km

20 km 40 km

Figure 4. Projection of annual average precipitation of Alentejo region.


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ALENTEJO REGION - South of Portugal BUDYKO ARIDITY RATIO (BAR) - BAR < 2(Sub-wet) - BAR 2 - 2.5(Semiarid) - BAR > 2.5(Semiarid)

- capital of district

Portalegre

Évora

Beja

Graphic scale 0km

Figure 5.

20 km 40 km

Budiko Aridity Ratio (BAR) distribution in Alentejo.

are boardly classified as dry, since the evaporative demand cannot be met by precipitation. Similarly regions where BAR is less than the unit are boardly classified as wet (Arora 2002). Figure 5 shows the BAR for Alentejo region. The littoral and the north are sub-wet. The continental area is semi-arid. This means that the desertification is taking place in the SE of Beja. The east region of Beja is one of the hottest areas of Europe continuous with the regions of Andaluzia and Extremadura in Spain. Comparing the annual average precipitation isolines map with the BAR distribution map (Figure 4 and 5), it is possible to see the high correlation between the semi-arid climate and the precipitation deficit in the SE zone of Alentejo (Chambel et al. 1998). The potential evapotranspiration is normally higher than 1,000 mm per year, causing a high water deficit in the soil. It’s a region of very warm and dry summer and the rainy season occurs on winter, with drought cycles sometimes during 2 or 3 consecutive years (Chambel et al. 1998). In summer (June, July and August) the rain corresponds to only about 4 to 5% of the annual precipitation. The agriculture requires intensive watering, due to high potential evapotranspiration during the productive cycle. The regional precipitation average in forty years, between 1958 and 1998 for all Alentejo, represented 604 mm (Chambel & Duque 1999). Henriques

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250000

Hydrographic basins Tejo Sado Guadiana Melides Barlavento Mira Arade

(m)

200000

150000

100000

50000 150000

200000

250000

300000

(m)

Figure 6.

River basins in Alentejo region.

Table 1. Annual average of the precipitation, evapotranspiration and infiltration of the Alentejo main rivers basins (Henriques, 1985). River Basin

Area (km2)

Tejo 9,612 Sado 8,217 Mira 1,689 Guadiana 11,855

Precipitation Evapotranspiration Infiltration Infiltration Groundwater (mm) (mm) (mm) (% of resources precipitation) (hm3/year) 686 678 682 581

438 480 481 426

50 51 19 28

7.3 7.5 2.8 4.8

481 411 84 593

(1985) had studied the first order river basins of Alentejo (Figure 6) and esteemed the average annual precipitation and real evapotranspiration for each one (Table 1). Also the infiltration values were calculated, showing that the average infiltration rates are between 2.8 and 4.8% of the total precipitation in the Mira and Guadiana river basins, and 7.3 to 7.5% in the Tejo and Sado River basins, involving in these last ones both sedimentary and hard rock aquifers.


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Table 2. Annual base flow linear regressions over annual precipitation by watershed groups (adapted from Oliveira, in press). Predominant lithological groups (watershed code)

Equation

r

Igneous rocks (19N08; 17L/01) Metamorphic rocks (27I/01; 30G01; 22G/02; 06P/01) Igneous metamorphic rocks (20I13; 18L01; 19N01) Igneous and/or metamorphic rocks sedimentary (21F01; 18I01) All watersheds (including 03D/01; 05E/01)

Fb 0.3987*(P 428.1)

0.952

Fb 0.1866*(P 405.9)

0.736

Fb 0.2394*(P 458.0)

0.894

Fb 0.2246*(P 330.5)

0.764

Fb 0.4703*(P 521.0)

0.955

r correlation coefficient

These values seems to be underestimated by the last works of Oliveira (in press), who calculated the linear regression equation relating precipitation (P) with infiltration values in hard rocks using average annual base flow (Fb) values of 13 watersheds in Portugal: Fb 0.5210*P 284 0.5210*(P 546)

(1)

The correlation coefficient (r) for this equation is 0.989. Even so, the precedent equation considers two very high surface runoff/precipitation watersheds on the north of Portugal. More representative of the south conditions must be equation 2, that doesn’t consider these two watersheds (Oliveira, in press): Fb 0.4107*P 214 0.4107*(P 520)

(2)

but on this one r 0.860. This implies that results taken from these analysis are very much conditioned by the inexistence of a uniform distribution of watersheds’ precipitations (Oliveira, in press). In both cases (equations 1 and 2), the average infiltration values are approximately 8% of the average precipitation values in Alentejo. This seems to be a better approximation to real values, where the infiltration values on the less permeable hard rocks can be between 3 and 7% and in the more productive ones, around 10% of the annual precipitation values, as it was considered in ERHSA Project (ERHSA 2001), values that were also based on the preliminary works of Oliveira. But Oliveira (in press) also calculated the linear regression equations relating precipitation with infiltration values in some groups of hard rocks, using average annual base flow values. The equations were calculated for basins with igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, both igneous and metamorphic rocks in the same basin, and igneous or metamorphic and sedimentary rocks also on the same basin. The resulting equations are presented in Table 2, considering only the most representative values for Alentejo region, which can be the basis for the calculation of infiltration rates in this area. The original table has more

80


equations, involving basins in the north of Portugal with high rates of precipitation, not representative of Alentejo conditions. Also weathering conditions of the rocks and the infiltration rates can be very different from north to south.

3

GEOLOGY

In terms of the geological features, the definition of the new aquifers was also based on the geo-structural divisions of Iberian Peninsula (Figure 7). The area is geologically complex, mainly the Ossa-Morena Zone. The northern part of Alentejo (Centre-Iberian Zone) consists basically of schists and greywackes, with some quartzitic ridges, and highly compact granitic rocks. The schists and greywackes have a scarce soil, being many times skeletic, mainly on the slopes near the most important rivers. The fractures are open only when quartz fractured veins are present. The quartzites form extensive narrow ridges without soil covering and present a dense net of open and clean fractures. The igneous rocks cross the border between Centre Iberian and Ossa-Morena Zones and have an incipient fracture net, with granite products of spherical jointing caused by weathering covering the land, and only less than one to few meters of soil cover in some more weathered parts. The Ossa-Morena Zone is formed by metamorphic and igneous rocks. The metamorphic ones are formed by schists, greywackes, gneisses, amphibolites, metamorphised volcanic rocks, and metamorphic limestones, in a great complexity, affected in some places by strong structural features that difficult the geological story interpretation of the area. The lithology of the igneous rocks is variable, going from granites to granodiorites, quartzdiorites, tonalitic rocks, diorites, gabbros, charnokites, andesites, etc. This knowledge is important on what concerns the analysis of the weathering layers deepness, directly associated to the aquifer volume, and to the water quality, that depends on the mineral constitution of the rocks: the most basic rocks have generally the most extended weathered layers. The South Portuguese Zone has also its complexity. It is composed mainly by metamorphic rocks, including the so called “Pyrite Belt”, a rich mineralised volcano-sedimentary complex. Most part of the area is formed by low metamorphic schists, greywackes, and conglomerates, with skeletic low productive soils.

4

INVESTIGATION METHODOLOGY

The lack of data on the hard rock aquifers in Portugal led to this study to establish differences of hydrogeological potential between different rock formations. This lack of data is more critical in hard rock aquifers because much drilling was done by companies characterized by lack of technical direction. In fact, this is due to the drilling techniques and to the economic lower values pay off that companies receive mainly when using the rotopercussion technique. On sandy aquifers, special techniques and more modern equipment are used and it is easier to find reliable reports. Also much drilling was done without permission of legal authorities so that, in this case, the environment authorities did not receive the final reports and even when the reports were submitted, the information can be insufficient, erroneous, and even false.


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Figure 7. Simplified geology of Alentejo. CIZ – Centre-Iberian Zone; OMZ – Ossa-Morena Zone; SPZ – South Portuguese Zone.

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Data should be collected and confirmed in the field in order to detect the misinformation or confirm the previous information. We collected data from governmental institutions and from drilling company archives, where it is sometimes possible to collect drilling data that were not recorded by the official authorities. With the names of the land owners, locations, or phone numbers, it was possible to identify location in the field and, talking with the owner, sometimes to obtain information about the initial yields, other information received from the drilling companies, such as drilling depths. Depths of the wells and position of pumping systems were recorded, when possible. Information about water use and the yields produced were also registered. Well withdrawals could sometimes be measured and information about how many hours per day or per week this water was used were recorded. All this information permits correction or confirmation of suspicious original data, particularly related to yields, lithological logs, etc.. Some aquifer tests were performed, but this was not easy due to the quantity of ropes, electric wires, etc., that are normally inside the wells, the lack of piezometric tubes, and also the opposition of many owners. In order to compare the different hard rock lithologies in terms of hydrogeological productivity, the yield values registered on the reports were considered very important. These yields were obtained using compressed air directed to the bottom of the well on the final of the drilling work and letting stabilize the abstracted yield. This stabilization can happen after some 5 to 15 minutes (in most of the cases) to some few hours in special cases. In some wells with low productivities, this method causes well dewatering so this is not a recommended exploration yield, and have been considered as instant yields by some Portuguese authors (Carvalho 2000; Mira and Chambel 2001), due to narrow time limitation of this tests, many times not supported by the longer conventional aquifer tests using submersible pumps. The practice show that normally the abstraction yields must not be higher than 30 to 50% of the measured instant yields. However, instant yield values can be used to compare with similar data on different aquifers. In this case, only the data from deep wells were considered. Unproductive wells were also inventoried, if data were available. This kind of information was obtained from company archives or directly from the land owners because these data are not usually registered by the public services. Most of the ERHSA time and money was devoted to the data inventory, which was the basis for the final report and also for several papers and BSc, MSc and PhD theses. The database, which integrates hydrochemical data, maintains its importance for professionals studying the hydrogeology of the region. The field work was organised with 5 to 7 hydrogeologists that coordinated the work on areas covering all Alentejo. More than 20 students participated on the data inventory and wrote their theses under instructions and supervision of the team. The task was to collect information on a minimum of one well in each 20 km2 in homogeneous geologic formations and a maximum of wells in specific geologic complex areas and in new identified aquifers. In the first approach, all the possible construction data, yield, well deep and diameter, and the first field analysis of water temperature, EC and pH were recorded. Based on this initial database, almost 2,000 data points were object of chemical and physical laboratory analyses. These represented deep wells, hand dug wells, and some springs. EC and other hydrochemical parameters were studied to evaluate the spatial distribution of hydrochemical facies that could help to delineate new aquifers. All the information was finally put on an easily accessible database to permit interface with hydrogeology software, data management, and use of geographic information systems


83

(GIS). The final project maps were organised on GIS, to allow the use of geographic bases in future development work. 5

RESULTS

Generally the hard rock aquifers of this area are considered of low productivity, with the recognized exception of the crystalline limestones, which are sometimes karstified. The metamorphic and igneous rocks have only a few meters of weathered layers (0 to 6 m deep) and a very incipient fracture system under these layers. More deeply, the bedrock has only a scarce net of fractures, where these fractures can be separated by tens or hundreds of meters under depths between 60 m (generally in igneous rocks) and more than 200 m (more likely in metamorphic rocks). In igneous rocks the wells have generally some water on the first 60 m deep, and it’s rare to find new productive levels under this depth. In metasedimentary rocks the probability of occurrence of new productive levels with depth increases in relation with igneous rocks, being equally possible to get water on the first 100 m or on the following 100 ones. Even so, an aquifer with special characteristics was already known in Alentejo (Figure 8): the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer (Paradela & Zbyszewski 1971) and it has been object of some thesis in the last years (Duque 1997; Duque 2005; Paralta 2001). Paralta is also preparing his PhD thesis on the same area. Here there is a median thickness of 26 m of weathered or fractured gabbro-dioritic rocks that can reach up to 80 m deep, with the groundwater flowing in fractures that are enlarged by chemical water attack. In 1971 in this aquifer, hand dug wells with a maximum of 20 m deep, much of them with 1.5 m high galleries in the bottom or at different levels under the piezometric level, and other wells with a maximum of 50 m deep, were used to abstract groundwater for human supply. The yields could reach 8 L/s, exceptionally 10 L/s, with the production clearly decreasing during the dry season. More recently, Duque (2005) has shown that the real productivity (including unproductive wells), for 1,067 well data, was about 3.34 L/s (average), 1.53 L/s (median) till a maximum of 36 L/s. The high productive levels vary between 1 and 78 m deep, being the major productive levels between the 12 and 20 m. Based on 1,030 well logs, the aquifer shows an average of 2 m of topsoil clays, a total weathered layer of 12 m and a fractured net till 27 m deep. In fact, the difference between the less productive hard rock aquifers and some more productive ones are basically the fracture density and, more importantly, the total weathered thickness. More than 10–15 m of weathered layers create a more productive aquifer, based on a higher porosity and an easier interconnection between fractures. That is why the most ancient rocks, subject to more orogenic processes, and affected by more recent orogenies are the most productive hard rock aquifers in Alentejo. During ERHSA studies, the information confirmed the existence of other aquifers with characteristics similar to those of the Gabbros of Beja (ERHSA 2001). One of the main conclusions was that gabbros, gneisses, migmatitic gneisses, some volcano-sedimentary, and tonalitic rocks were more productive than the other lithologies of the region. Three new aquifers were identified (Figure 8 and Table 3), now designated as: – Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas – Pavia-Mora – Évora-Montemor-Cuba, subdivided in 5 different sectors: Évora, Montemor, Escoural, Cuba-S. Cristóvão, Vidigueira-Selmes

84


Figure 8.

Hydrogeological cartography of Alentejo region, Portugal (ERHSA 2001).

Gneisses, migmatites, granodiorites and quartz-diorites

Migmatites, migmatitic gneisses, some granites, tonalites and hornfels

Leptinites, black quartzites, acid and basic meta-volcanites, meta-psamites, schists with high levels of quartz veins, calco-schists, crystalline limestones and amphibolites

Gabbrodiorites, granitic ortogneisses, a metapelitic-psamitic sequence, leptinites, black quartzites, metabasites and ortogneisses

Basic volcanites, granodiorites, gabbrodiorites, hornfels

Gabbros, diorites, serpentinites, meta-trondhejmites, meta-basalts, flasergabbros, amphibolites, piroxenites, dunites and peridotites

Gabbro metamorphized rocks, piroxenites, anortosites, diorites, quartz-gabbros and hornblendites in two different spots

Gneissic granitic and granitic gneissic rocks, granites, gabbros and diorites; the metamorphic rocks are less significant and represented by leptinitic gneisses, amphibolites, micaschists and crystalline limestones

Évora Sector

Montemor Sector

Escoural Sector

Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector

Vidigueira-Selmes Sector

Gabbros of Beja

Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas

Pavia-Mora

Aquifers Évora-Montemor-Cuba

Lithologic characteristics

(Continued)

Fractured media, with weathered layers generally less than 6 m deep

Extremely fractured and weathered rocks; no indications about the weathered zone extension

Average of 2 m of topsoil clays, an average of total weathered layer of 12 m and an average of the fractured net till 27 m deep; free to semiconfined aquifer

Fractures untill 20–30 m depth, free to semiconfined aquifer, with 4 to 8 m of weathered layer

Litologies are similar to other sectors of ÉvoraMontemor-Cuba Aquifer, but there are a big lack of information on this sector

Fractures occur until 80 m depth in some special rocks (quartzites, amphibolites), where the wells are more productive; low extension of the weathered zone; similar to the other sectors on the remaining lithologies

Similar to Évora sector

Maximum of 30 m, generally not more than 20 m of weathered and fractured rock, free to semiconfined aquifer

Aquifer characteristics, weathering and fracturing

Main geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics of aquifers and low poductivity sectors of Alentejo region, South Portugal (ERHSA 2001).

Aquifers and Hydrogeologic Sectors

Table 3.

Regional study of hard rock aquifers in Alentejo, South Portugal: methodology and results 85

(Continued)

Granitic rocks

Mainly schists and greywackes, and different kinds of igneous rocks, granites, granodiorites, quartz-diorites, tonalites, diorites, andesites, some gabbros, but also volcanic or porphyritic rocks

Mainly low metamorphic schists, greywackes and volcano-sedimentary In most of the area, skeletic soils, low complexes extension of the weathered layer and a great importance of the presence of quartz fractured veins linked to groundwater production

Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector

Ossa Morena Zone Sector

South Portuguese Zone Sector

Low extension of weathered layer and great importance of the presence of quartz fractured veins linked to groundwater production

At surface, the products of spherical jointing caused by weathering are visible, being the weathered zone in general terms less than 2 m deep and the fracture system very sparse

Skeletic soils; great importance of the presence of fractured quartz veins and faults filled with quartz

Mainly schists, lidites, quartzites, sandstone, clay schists, volcanoclasts, conglomerates and arkoses

S. Mamede Sector

Skeletic soils; great hydrogeologic importance of the presence of fractured quartz veins and faults filled with quartz

Aquifer characteristics, weathering and fracturing

Mainly phylites, meta-greywackes, pelitic schists, meta-conglomerates and hornfels

Lithologic characteristics

Amieira-Montalvão Sector

Low Productivity Sectors


Table 3.



87

On the remainder areas, some low productive sectors were identified (Figure 8 and Table 3): – – – – –

Amieira-Montalvão S. Mamede Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and Santa Eulália Ossa-Morena Zone (OMZ) South Portuguese Zone (SPZ)

The characteristics of all the aquifers and low productive sectors are defined on Table 3. Table 4 shows that the most productive aquifers have an average of instant yield values higher than 4.5 L/s and median values higher than 1.9 L/s (Évora and Montemor sectors of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer). The Escoural sector of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer, the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer and also the new identified aquifer of the Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas and Pavia-Mora have average instant yield values of more than 3 L/s. Only the Cuba-S. Cristóvão and Vidigueira-Selmes sectors seem to have lower values with average values over 2.5 L/s. The low productive sectors of Amieira-Montalvão, S. Mamede and of the Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and S. Eulália show average instant values less than 2 L/s, the last one with only 0.72 L/s. The low productive sectors of Ossa-Morena Zone and South Portuguese Zone display average values respectively of 2.01 and 2.42 L/s, which means that there are, in these sectors, some productive areas linked to fractured zones, like the Pyrite Belt in South Portuguese Zone, that need more investigation. Dividing the instant yield values by the depth of the wells, the same conclusion is possible (Table 5): the Évora, Montemor and Cuba-S. Cristóvão sectors of the Évora-MontemorCuba Aquifer and the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer have clearly higher productivities (more than 0.08 L/s/m drilled) when compared with Escoural and Vidigueira-Selmes sectors (more than 0.05 L/s/m drilled) or the Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas or Pavia-Mora sectors, under 0.03 L/s/m drilled. The other sectors, considered of low productivity, show average values under 0.03 L/s/m drilled. The depth of the wells can be a measure of the depth of the weathering zone, but also an indication of the difficulties to find water during drilling. Because the drillings are normally not assisted by hydrogeologists, the decision to stop is responsibility of the land owner and commanded many times by the necessities on water, by economic reasons, or intuition. As can be seen on Table 6, average values higher than 60 m deep are present of the sectors of Montemor, Escoural and Vidigueira-Selmes of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer, on the Pavia-Mora Aquifer, on the less productivity sectors of Amieira-Montalvão, S. Mamede, OMZ and SPZ. The more productive sectors of Évora, Cuba-S. Cristóvão, the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer, the Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas and the low productivity sectors of the Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and Santa Eulália present average values lower than 50 m, the first ones probably due to high productivities on the first tens of meters and the last one because it is practically impossible to get water under some few tens of meters deep. The Gabbros of Beja present the lowest of all the medium values (38.1 m). The justification to these results is on the fact that the most productive systems have a weathered and fractured rock layer on the first 20–40 m. Thus, prospection below this depth is less productive. Also the low productive areas of granites have the water mainly on the first tens of metres, many times on the first 10 m, motif why the prospection

Low Productivity Sectors Amieira-Montalvão Sector S. Mamede Sector Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector Ossa Morena Zone Sector South Portuguese Zone Sector

Aquifers Évora Sector Montemor Sector Escoural Sector Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector Vidigueira-Selmes Sector Gabbros of Beja Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas Pavia-Mora

Statistics of instant yield

1.39 1.25 0.48 1.20 1.49

0.72 2.01 2.42

1.67 1.38

3.03 3.20

1.64 1.46

3.33 1.94 1.53 1.11 1.11 1.52

Median (L/s)

5.54 4.47 3.97 2.75 2.61 3.33

Average (L/s)

0 0 0

0.28 0.06

0.42 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

Minimum (L/s)

5.56 40 19.4

6.94 4.00

33.3 27.8

27.8 41.66 26.39 26.39 28.75 36.1

Maximum (L/s)

0.99 3.00 2.68

1.62 0.88

5.16 5.79

6.02 6.92 6.07 4.19 4.76 4.82

Standard deviation

89 935 538

15 31

40 30

187 89 30 280 88 1,067

Number of deep wells with instant yield values

330 2,135 927

19 56

43 44

205 201 63 313 112 1,059

Number of deep wells

627 5,183 1,402

53 74

53 63

322 413 144 417 229 1,798

Total number of wells

0.2–30.8 0.6–7 0.07–18.3

0.8–60.6

40 1.7–432

37–373

Transmissivity values range (m2/day)

Table 4. Statistical results of instant value yields of the different sectors and aquifers in Alentejo region. The sectors of Évora, Montemor, Escoural, CubaS. Cristóvão and Vidigueira-Selmes are part of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer. Values from ERHSA 2001, Ghira 2002, Espada 2003, Furtado 2004, Ramalho 2004, Duque 2005, Ferreira 2005, Monteiro 2005, Rodrigues, in press.



89

Table 5. Comparative instant yield by metre drilled on the aquifer and other hydrogeologic sectors of Alentejo. The sectors of Évora, Montemor, Escoural, Cuba-S. Cristóvão and Vidigueira-Selmes are part of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer. Values from ERHSA 2001, Ghira 2002, Espada 2003, Furtado 2004, Ramalho 2004, Duque 2005, Ferreira 2005, Monteiro 2005, Rodrigues, in press. L/s/m drilled

Number of deep wells with both yield and depth values

Aquifers Évora Sector Montemor Sector Escoural Sector Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector Vidigueira-Selmes Sector Gabbros of Beja Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas Pavia-Mora

0.1238 0.0864 0.0604 0.0897 0.0590 0.0874 0.0275 0.0197

180 80 30 223 86 1,059 11 18

Low Productivity Sectors Amieira-Montalvão Sector S. Mamede Sector Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector Ossa Morena Zone Sector South Portuguese Zone Sector

0.0210 0.0274 0.0110 0.0289 0.0265

8 21 66 771 435

Minimum (m)

Maximum (m)

Standard deviation

Number of wells with data on depth

Number of deep wells

Total number of wells

Aquifers Évora Sector Montemor Sector Escoural Sector Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector Vidigueira-Selmes Sector Gabbros of Beja Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas Pavia-Mora Low Productivity Sectors Amieira-Montalvão Sector S. Mamede Sector Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector Ossa Morena Zone Sector South Portuguese Zone Sector

Median (m)

Total depth

Average (m)

Table 6. Statistical results of the depth of the drillings and deep wells in the aquifer and sectors of Alentejo. The sectors of Évora, Montemor, Escoural, Cuba-S. Cristóvão and Vidigueira-Selmes are part of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer. Values from ERHSA 2001, Ghira 2002, Espada 2003, Furtado 2004, Ramalho 2004, Duque 2005, Ferreira 2005, Monteiro 2005, Rodrigues, in press.

44.87 61.47 77.81 55.58 72.12 38.1

40 60 75 48.5 70 34

8 15 35 5 20 2

130 151 150 215 177 140

21.08 28.63 28.05 36.93 28.70 18.30

180 138 36 223 107 1,059

205 201 63 313 112 1,059

322 413 144 417 229 1,798

42.27 68.63

46 67

22 31

75 108

19.23 19.70

11 26

43 44

53 63

75.1 63.80

80 60

43 16

120 27.90 262.75 40.85

9 34

19 56

53 74

54.78 68.44 65

56.5 69 65

2 10 0

187 205 200

152 772 662

330 2,135 927

627 5,183 1,402

33.87 30.18 25.16

Aquifers Évora Sector Montemor Sector Escoural Sector Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector Vidigueira-Selmes Sector Gabbros de Beja Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas Pavia-Mora Low Productivity Sectors Amieira-Montalvão Sector S. Mamede Sector Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector Ossa Morena Zone Sector South Portuguese Zone Sector


Aquifers Évora Sector Montemor Sector Escoural Sector Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector Vidigueira-Selmes Sector Gabbros de Beja Charnokites of C. Maior and Elvas Pavia-Mora Low Productivity Sectors Amieira-Montalvão Sector S. Mamede Sector Granites of Nisa, P. and S. E. Sector OMZ Sector SPZ Sector


3.38 1.84 2.51 3.47 3.24 3.45 3.17 3.27 0.44 0.86 1.12 2.75 2.66

49 53 18 36 23 79 6 14

13 19

103 718 577

100 712 576

13 19

49 53 18 35 23 79 6 14

n

n

epm

Mg

372 168 253 745 1,311

35 28 319 2,754 870

Ca

868 484 585 849 927 820 816 1,401

µS/cm

127 237 96 118 127 79 17 32

n

Field EC

0.86 3.08 4.58

0.73 0.63

3.76 1.84 2.73 3 3.68 3.5 3.65 5.1

epm

35 28 319 2,438 775

80 241 98 122 127 80 17 21

n

Field pH

102 706 577

13 19

49 50 17 36 23 71 6 14

n

Na

6.6 6.47 6.5 7.37 7.04

7.62 6.97 7.16 7.45 7.7 7.53 7.78 7.21

0.96 2.3 6.25

0.99 0.48

3.13 1.68 1.93 3.07 2.52 1.81 0.59 5.19

epm

13 19 102 718 577

49 53 18 36 23 79 6 14

n

102 706 577

13 19

49 50 17 36 23 71 6 14

n

K

56 87 226 214 190

249 143 179 231 266 241 265 257

mg/L

Alcalinity

0.07 0.06 0.05

0.05 0.03

0.11 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.09

epm

13 19 101 714 577

49 53 18 35 23 79 6 14

n

104 718 577

13 19

49 53 18 36 23 79 6 14

n

CI

58 87 263 295 367

368 187 262 323 350 347 343 435

mg/L

0.86 2.91 8.05

0.5 0.43

2.79 1.52 2.34 2.82 2.22 1.43 1.25 4.81

epm

Total Hardness

104 718 577

13 19

49 53 18 36 23 79 6 14

n

SO4

12 18 98 661 547

48 51 18 35 22 72 2 14

n

CO2

0.15 0.35 0.87

0.06 0.09

0.56 0.32 0.43 0.5 0.49 0.64 0.42 0.35

epm

5.8 20 15.4 17.6 23.8

7.4 30.1 24.1 18.5 10.8 20 8.6 23.7

mg/L

29.5 13 31.5 25.9 16.2

27.6 28 34.3 27.1 23.2 21.4 36.6 35.8

mg/L

13 16 104 722 530

48 53 18 36 21 79 5 14

n

NO3

104 717 577

13 19

48 52 18 36 23 79 6 14

n

3.5 8.05 6.92

2.15 3.41

9.57 5.46 7.01 8.58 8.71 9.62 10.23 9.87

epm

2.5 12.3 14.8 39.2 25.7

79 33.8 33.4 42.4 42.9 57.9 64.9 52.3

mg/L

C-Ca-Na-Mg C-Mg-Ca-Na Cl-C-Na-Mg

C-Na-Mg C-Ca-Mg-Na

C-Mg-Ca-Na C-Mg-Ca-Na C-Mg-Ca-Na C-Ca-Na-Mg C-Mg-Ca-Na C-Mg-Ca C-Mg-Ca C-Na-Mg

Corrected HCO3 Facies

13 19 102 704 577

49 50 17 32 20 71 6 9

n

SiO2

Table 7. Hydrochemical characteristics of Alentejo groundwaters (ERHSA 2001), with the avarege values for the different parameters (n – number of samples). 90 Groundwater in fractured rocks


91

is not so deep in those areas. On the contrary, the schists can have productive fractures at any deep, at least on the first 200 m, so it’s possible to expect these wells to be deeper. Aquifer tests in some wells of these areas had show that the transmissivities in the gneissicmigmatitic complex of Évora Sector are between 37 and 373 m2/day (Fialho et al. 1998; ERHSA 2001). In 227 aquifer tests in the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer the median value was 40.8 m2/day and the maximum 432 m2/day (Duque 1997; Duque & Almeida 1998; Duque 2005). Values between 0.6 e 7 m2/day were registered in granodiorites and quartzodiorites of the low productive area of OMZ. Transmissivity on schists and greywackes of the low productivity area of SPZ are between 0.07 and 18.3 m2/day in 9 aquifer tests on schist and greywacke aquifers on the south-eastern part of the area (Chambel 1999). More recent aquifer tests, on the low productive sector of Amieira-Montalvão, show transmissivities between 0.8 and 12 m2/day on 5 aquifer tests on previous wells that were done without any scientific assistance, and between 15.2 and 60.6 m2/day on aquifer tests of new three wells located with geologic and hydrogeologic investigation and geophysic methods. Three aquifer tests on the less productive sector of Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and Santa Eulália led to results between 0.2 and 5.3 m2/day on the previous wells and 30.8 m2/day on the only productive well in three new excavated boreholes (two were considered unproductive, in spite they have some water, between 1,000 and 2,500 m3/h of instant yield values). Transmissivity values obtained in some common aquifer tests are also presented on Table 4, in order to compare with instant yield value statistics. About 2,000 water-quality analyses were made on all the Alentejo hard rock area. The results show that the north area (Centre-Iberian Zone) has the less mineralised groundwaters (Amieira-Montalvão Sector, S. Mamede Sector and Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and S. Eulália Sector), and the South Portuguese Zone and Pavia-Mora Aquifer have the higher mineralization rates (Table 7). The groundwater facies change with the different geologic units (Table 7): – In all the aquifers and less productive sectors, the facies are bicarbonate, except on the South Portuguese Zone, the Alentejo area with lower precipitation values and highest evapotranspiration rates, where the main anion is the chloride, immediately followed by the bicarbonate. – Most part of the aquifers have magnesium as the main cation, but very similar contents of calcium and sodium occur. Magnesium is often related with basic igneous and metamhorphic rocks, as it can be seen by the crossing of information between Tables 3 and 7. In some cases, calcium is the main cation, but always closely followed by another one (sodium or magnesium); in two cases, sodium is the main cation, followed by magnesium (Pavia-Mora and South Portuguese Zone). – Nitrate levels are high in practically all the aquifers because normally these correspond to the best soils and main irrigation areas in Alentejo. This is due to the fact that the better aquifers are those where weathering is more intense and the best quality soils exist. Together with the water availability, the nitrate use is more intensive there. The less productive sectors have generally lower nitrate average values.

CONCLUDING REMARKS This large study (ERHSA 2001) allowed to confirm some previous aquifer information regarding the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer and to detect new productive or potentially

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productive areas on this region, the aquifers of the Charnokites of Campo Maior and Elvas, Pavia-Mora and Évora-Montemor-Cuba. There are also some field indicators that some regions of porphyries, considered in the low productivity area of the Ossa-Morena Zone can also be very interesting aquifers, where fracturing is important. The main aquifers occur in gabbros, gneissic or gneissic-migmatitic rocks, metamorphic volcanic-sedimentary complexes and some tonalitic rocks, particularly where these rocks were affected by the Hercynian Orogeny. Understanding the vertical extension of the weathering materials and the fracture networks is essential to define the best aquifers in the hard rocks of Alentejo and perhaps elsewhere. This paper also reflects all the new data collected after ERHSA, representing some hundreds of new well data. The hydrochemical analysis shows that the groundwater facies are mainly bicarbonate, except on the South Portuguese Zone Sector where it is chloride-bicarbonate. This is probably due to the low level of metamorphism that has affected this area, permitting the presence of salts on the rock matrix of this previous marine environment and to the high concentrations of salts due to the high rates of evapotranspiration that affects this semiarid environment (Chambel & Almeida 1998). The main cations are the magnesium, calcium and sodium, by this order, having most part of these waters a mixed cation composition between three or two of them. For the future, the main task will be to conduct aquifer tests in order to have more hydrogeological parameters (transmissivity, permeability, and storage values), and try to understand the relation between instant yields, steady state flow, abstraction and aquifer parameters. Quantitative and more precise structural studies are necessary to understand the relation between productivity, transmissivity, storage and groundwater pathways, which are mainly defined by the fracture network. Also the weathering layer thickness and type, clearly related with fracture network, are essential to understand and quantify recharge and storage coefficient. Storage and transmissivity which are essential to define groundwater exploration and use in such semi-arid areas as South Portugal. REFERENCES Arora V (2003) The use of the aridity index to access change effect on annual runoff. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 265: 164–177. Carvalho J (2000) The impounding groundwater project in crystalline formations: some clues (in portuguese). University of Évora, Évora. Chambel A (1999) Hydrogeology of Mértola Municipality [in Portuguese]. PhD. Thesis, Évora: University of Évora, Évora. Chambel A, Almeida C (1998) Origin of highly mineralized waters in a semi-arid area of the South Portuguese Zone (Portugal). In: Gambling with Groundwater – Physical Chemical and Biological Aspects of Aquifer-Stream Relations, Brahana et al. (eds), Las Vegas, USA, 419–424. Chambel A, Duque J (1999) Hard rock aquifers of Alentejo Region (South Portugal): contribution to the water and land use management. Proceedings of the XXIX IAH Congress, Hydrogeology and Land Use Management, Miriam Fendeková & Marián Fendek Eds., Bratislava, Slovakian Republic, 171–176. Chambel A, Duque J, Matoso A, Orlando M (2006) Hydrogeology of continental Portugal [in portuguese]. Boletín Geológico y Minero, Madrid (Spain), 117 (1): 163–185. Chambel A, Duque J, Fialho A (1998) Groundwater in a semi-arid area of South Portugal. In: Gambling with Groundwater – Physical Chemical and Biological Aspects of Aquifer-Stream Relations, Brahana et al. (eds), Las Vegas (USA) 75–80.


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Chambel A, Duque J, Nascimento J (2002) Hydrogeology of the Crystalline Rocks of Alentejo: New Cartography based on the results of ERHSA Project [in Portuguese]. Proceedings of the 6th Water Congress – The Water is Gold, Porto, Portugal, CD-88. Duque J (1997) Hydrogeological characterization and mathematical modelling of the Gabbros of Beja aquifer [in Portuguese]. Master Thesis, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, 220. Duque J (2005). Hydrogeology of the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. PhD. Thesis, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, 420. Duque J, Almeida C (1998) Hydrochemical characterization of the Gabbros of Beja Aquifer System (in portuguese). In: 4th Congress of Water, The Water as Structural Resource of Development, Reports and Abstracts, Abstract: 193–194, Paper: CD-164. ERHSA (2001) Project “Study of groundwater resources of Alentejo region” (ERHSA, in portuguese). Coordination Commission of Alentejo Region, Évora. Espada J (2003) Hydrogeological definition of the low productivity Sectores of Amieira-Montalvão and S. Mamede [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 66. Ferreira M (2005) Hydrogeological definition of the eastern half of the Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 76. Fialho A, Chambel A, Almeida C (1998) Hydraulic characterization of fractured aquifers by double porosity models on Évora Municipality [in Portuguese]. In: Proceedings of the 4th Congress of Water, The Water as Structural Resource of Development, Reports and Abstracts, Abstract: 179, Paper: CD-128. Furtado P (2004) Hydrogeological definition of the low productivity Sector of Granites of Nisa, Portalegre and Santa Eulália [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 82. Ghira L (2002) Hydrogeological definition of the western half of Cuba-S. Cristóvão Sector of the Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 82. Henriques AG (1985) Evaluation of the water resources of continental Portugal. Contribution to territory management [in Portuguese]. Instituto de Estudos para o Desenvolvimento, Lisboa (Portugal). INAG 2006. Instituto da Água (Water Institute). http://insaar.inag.pt/index2_noflash.htm Mendes JC (1989) Desertification – Iberian problem? [in Portuguese]. Meteorologia y Climatologia Ibericas, Edition by C. Tomas & J. Labajo, Actas de las XVII Jornadas de la AME, Universidade de Salamanca, 21–25. Mira F, Chambel A (2001) Productivity of hard rock aquifers in Alentejo region, South Portugal. In: Proceedings of the XXXI IAH Congress: New Approaches Characterizing Groundwater Flow, Seiler & Wohnlich (eds), Balkema, Lisse (Holand), 2:1035–1039. Monteiro J (2005) Hydrogeological definition of Montemor Sector of Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 72. Oliveira MM (in press) The estimation of groundwater recharge of fractured rocks in Portugal using surface flow measurements. Proceedings of the “2nd Workshop of the Iberian Regional Working Group on Hard Rock Hydrogeology”, Portuguese Chapter of the International Association of Hydrogeologists (AIH-GP). Paradela P, Zbyszewski G (1971) General hydrogeology of the centre and south of Portugal [in Portuguese]. Guide-Book of the excursion n. 9 of the I Hispano-Luso-American Congress of Economic Geology, General-Direction of Mines and Geological Services, Lisbon, 123. Paralta E (2001) Hydrogeology and stochastic modelling of nitrate contamination in the Gabbrodioritic aquifer in Beja region [in Portuguese]. Master Thesis, IST, Lisbon, 159. Ramalho T (2004) Hydrogeological definition of the Vidigueira-Selmes Sector of Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, 66. Ribeiro L (2004) Groundwater in continental Portugal [in Portuguese]. In: Manual de Engenharia Águas Subterrâneas, GRUNDFOS, Lisboa (Portugal) 5–18. Rodrigues R (2006) Hydrogeological definition of the Escoural Sector of Évora-Montemor-Cuba Aquifer System [in Portuguese]. Water Resources Engineering Final Thesis, University of Évora, in press. Sankarasubramanian A, Vogel RM (2003) Hydroclimatology of the continental United States, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(7), 1363, doi:10.1029/2002GL015937.

CHAPTER 5

Groundwater in volcanic hard rocks Emilio Custodio Dept. Geotechnical Eng., Technical Univ. Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT: Volcanics include a large variety of rocks of magmatic origin with a wide range of chemical composition and emplaced on the Earth’s surface as molten or partially molten material. Tephra may dominate near explosive volcanoes, while away from the effusion centres, lavas are the main constituents. Dykes play a variable role, from a barrier to groundwater to a water-collecting element. Fresh lava breccias may be one of the most permeable geological formations, while lava cores and welded tuff behave as some of the less permeable materials. Permeability is fracture dominated and tends to decrease with depth, yet there can be noticeable exceptions. Volcanics can be thermally weathered to a low permeability rock by water, especially if CO2 is plentiful. Volcanic CO2 diffusing from the deep cooling magma chambers is an important chemical reactant that may produce Na-HCO3 waters.

1

INTRODUCTION

Volcanics represent a wide variety of rocks and formations that have taken their common origin from different types of magma poured on the Earth’s surface. In addition to these effusive rocks, typically lavas and tephra, they include also intrusive formations, linked to volcanism, such as dykes and sills, and also cooled magma chambers, weathering of sediments and rocks derived from volcanic materials, and complex sedimentary bodies directly associated to volcanic activity. Such a variety results in extremely diverse hydrogeological conditions of these rocks. Large volcanic formations have arisen at continents and islands over the Earth’s long history. These range from flood basalts of low viscosity that cover extended areas (Walker, 1980, Macdougall, 1988, Lin and van Keken, 2005), large fissural effusions that can be traced along up to tens of km, to more acid rocks (andesites, rhyolites) that do not form widespread formations but may be large and thick along long strips, as in the western parts of the Americas and in Japan. Rates of eruption may be up to one km3 of magma per year per volcano and several hundred km3 per series of events (Swanson et al., 1975; Versey and Singh, 1982). Flood basalts correspond to intense events that can be able to produce enormous, thick plateaus of more than 106 km3 in a few thousand years at rates of up to 0.15 m/year (Sen et al., 2006). The sea floor may be formed by thick volcanic formations, mostly basalts, resting on a densely injected dyke layer covering intrusive gabbro bodies (Wilson et al., 2006). In some cases, these formations now occur on continents or in islands after being tectonically uplifted (e.g., Cyprus).

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There are numerous volcanic islands; most of them consist on submarine volcanics topped by subaerial effusions (e.g., archipelagos of Hawaii, the Canaries and Azores; Tahiti, Iceland, Reunion), where they form some of the highest Earth’s mountains, up to some thousand metres from bottom to top. On the continents, volcanic materials pile up on older sediments and formations (Etna in Sicily, many of the Andean and Central America high volcanoes). This paper comments on general geologic properties of volcanics, with a special focus on their hardrock character, to give a background on their main differential hydrogeological characteristics. It utilizes experience gained in diverse projects and his exchange of knowledge with many professionals and experts, not directly cited herein but to whom the author credits much information. This report addresses volcanic rock hydrogeology in a broad sense but emphasizes the Canary Islands, which represent a varied and extraordinary example of volcanic rock formations in which difficult water supply circumstances has lead to extensive drilling and tunnelling to develop groundwater. Specific publications on volcanic rock hydrogeology are scarce and fragmental. What was presented in the UNESCO–PNUD sponsored meeting in Lanzarote Island in 1975 is summarized in Custodio (1978; 1987). The UNESCO publication on small islands (Falkland and Custodio, 1991) contains numerous references and comments on volcanic islands. Summary chapters and sections on the topic can be found in some classical textbooks (Davis and De Wiest, 1966; Freeze and Cherry, 1979; Walton, 1970; Custodio and Llamas, 1976; Kovalevsky et al., 2004). General information is not repeated here. Only specific aspects relevant to the understanding of the uniqueness of volcanic rock hydrogeology are analysed. Regional reports are scarce and most of them include volcanics as one of the existing formations. Good references to the United States are in Back et al. (1988) and just to Central America can be found in Losilla et al. (2001), Krásný (1996) and Krásný and Hecht (1998). References to other parts of the world can be found in the different volumes on groundwater published by the United Nations in the 1980’s under the guidance of R. Dijon (UN, 1979–1988). Very detailed studies have been carried out in the Yucca Mountains ignimbrites of Nevada, to evaluate the conditions for high-level radioactive waste disposal (e.g., Bodvarsson and Robinson, 2003).

2

VOLCANIC ROCKS: GENETIC ASPECTS OF HYDROGEOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Magmas may arise from the deep Earth’s mantle in convecting hot spots, the upper mantle along rift zones, or crustal material melting when pushed down at great depths due to the tectonic plate convergence along subduction areas. Magmas are complex mixtures formed by a liquid fraction laden with a crystalizing mass containing solids that may be partially separated by gravity to produce geochemical fractionation. The residual liquid may be progressively enriched in incompatible elements. The incorporation of sediments into the magma may increase the water and CO2 content and may produce less warm, more viscous, explosive magmas near the land surface. A wide variety of magmas and volcanic formations can be expected, even if coetaneous. Each volcanic formation is unique, although broad classes can be defined: hot-spot volcanism (Hawaii islands, the Canaries, Azores, Etna), plate ridge volcanism (Iceland, Kilimandjaro,


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submarine mid ocean ridges) and island–arc volcanism (Aegean islands, Japan, Java, the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the two Sierra Madre in Mexico and California, Central America). Large flood basalts are probably due to hot-spot volcanism. Island arc volcanism is more prone to produce viscous lavas and large quantities of tephra. There is a wide range of emplacement modes from the calmed pouring of molten rock (lavas) to highly explosive events that mostly produce fragments (pyroclasts or tephra) thrown into the air or into the water. Viscosity of the molten material and dissolved gas content (mostly water and carbon dioxide) play a key role in the eruption behaviour. Gases are released as pressure decreases. Their escape may be calm, producing scarce lava fragments, or may produce episodic violent explosions in high viscosity, almost solid effusions, in which most of the magma is fragmented and thrown away. Fragments (tephra) may vary from blocks and coarse pyroclasts, that remain and pile up close to the emission point, down to very fine dust particles that may be distributed over very large areas and even the whole Earth (Bindeman, 2006). The sudden and fast expansion of gas-rich magma may produce a fluidized, hot mass formed by gas, dust and particles that is able to flow on the land like lavas of very low viscosity and may cover large surface areas with tuff deposits (ash flows or ignimbrites). Ignimbrites may be intensively or partly welded due to the hot conditions during deposition, or remain more or less loose, with abundant vitreous particulate material. When ash-sized material cools before being deposited they form ash fall tuff, which is primarily nonwelded. Volcanic formations can be thin layers on the Earth surface that may be later incorporated on into sediments, or up to hundreds and even thousands of metres thick. In volcanic islands there is a large piling of submarine volcanics, topped by subaerial formations that contain lava flows and water-quenched fragmental material (hyaloclastites or aquagene tuff). They can be observed in areas with large upward vertical crustal movements, as in Troodos Mountains, Cyprus (Boronina et al., 2003). The extrusion of large magma volumes may be accompanied by subsidence if deep magma is not replaced; collapse calderas may be produced. The subsiding or collapsed areas and erosion gullies may be later on filled by reactivated effusions of magma and derived sediments. The ascending magma produces intrusive bodies and a dense swarm of dykes corresponding to the volcanoes’ feeders. These often concentrate along the rings limiting collapse calderas or defined rift zones. In hot-spot volcanoes rifting may be radial with 3 or 4 branches. Near the effusion centers, the structure of volcanic bodies is complex. Vertical dykes are abundant, and also large horizontal dykes (sills) may be found. Where formations are influenced by hot fluids derived from the magma, local rocks, including former volcanics, may be deeply altered and their properties intensively changed. Thermal convection of hot fluids may deeply alter the rock mass. With increasing distance from the effusion centers, complexity decreases in general and materials change into a less heterogeneous piling of lava flows or ignimbrites in which fall fragments proportion decreases, dykes are less frequent or absent, and the alteration effect of deep hot gases is small or nil. Volcanic formations may be extended in the flow direction but laterally limited. In areas of slow flow or lava ponding a central core of dense but sometimes vesicular rock is typically found with cooling joints and top and bottom brecciated zones due to cooling and drag (at the bottom), with vesicles of gas, especially near the top. The upper part may be smooth or reduced to a thin layer of breccia (pahoehoe lavas), but other times it may be highly brecciated (aa lavas), especially near the lava front. In warm humid climates, weathering

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produces a lateritic cover. This is common in India (Uhl and Joshi, 1986) and Brazil, but in the Canaries and Madeira and also in Andean and Central America, chemical leaching is not enough and dark-brown, iron oxy-hydroxide and kaolinite-illite rich soils typically occur (Tejedor Salguero et al., 1985; Van der Weijden and Pacheco, 2003; Deutsch et al., 1982). Occasionally a lava flow may keep a hot, partly degassed fluid core after the external part solidifies. A sudden rupture of the crust allows the fast emptying of the molten lava core to form a new lava flow, leaving a tunnel that may partly stand for some time. These are mostly ephemeral features since they collapse soon. These “lava tubes”, as well as other features such as cavities created by overtopping slabs of solid lava crusts or burned tree trunks have being compared to caves in karst. However, they have no similarity to karstic features, and certainly they do not behave like them; these local heterogeneities lack a network of conduits. They are often dry, although they may concentrate groundwater flow and discharge under suitable, humid conditions.

3

GROUNDWATER FLOW IN VOLCANIC HARD ROCKS

From a hydrogeological point of view, in most cases volcanic rocks are a heterogeneous and anisotropic environment. They possess significant porosity except for some vitreous and densely welded formations. Volcanics can be modelled as more or less permeable blocks separated by a network of conductive features such as fractures, coarse layers, and even sedimentary interlayers. The result may vary from a formation dominated by fracture permeability, as in dense lavas or densely welded ignimbrites, to porous-like formations as in fresh, coarse ash-fall formations (Smyth and Sharp 2006). In large enough volumes, volcanics may approach the behaviour of a continuous, anisotropic, relatively high porosity medium. In some volcanic formations, stratification may be conspicuous with changing thickness and preferential orientation according to the flow direction. The result is a macroscopic permeability anisotropy that in detail depends on features such as open fractures, breccia layers, interflow sediments, dykes, and faulting effects. The simple Jacob logarithmic method is the most commonly used interpretation tool for pumping tests with reasonable results for heterogeneous formations (Meier et al., 1998; Sánchez–Vila et al., 1999), combined with corrections for well capacity in case of large diameter wells (Cabrera et al., 2001; Sammel, 1974). Upscaling hydraulic properties to the volcanic formation cannot be done directly nor can they be downscaled to a given formation. Detailed scale permeability may vary by more than 7 orders of magnitude from one of the lowest known (densely welded ignimbrites) to one of the highest (recent lava flow breccias). Both porosity and permeability may be greatly changed by rock fracturing and especially by alteration. Alteration tend to smooth variations and to dramatically decrease hydraulic conductivity in zones that have been subject to hydrothermal fluids and magma injections. The role of dykes ranges from low-permeability barriers to horizontal groundwater flow to a highly permeable features. This depends upon the characteristics of the wall rock, the importance of fracturing (van Everdingen, 1995), and the degree of mineral infilling of the associated fractures (Boonstra and Boehmer, 1986). A compilation of data on hydraulic properties of volcanic hard rocks is not presented here, but some typical examples are instructive. The Deccan traps of Western India are one of the extensively studied areas (Athavale et al., 1983; Deolankar, 1980). Regional transmissivity is about 3 m2/day but may locally


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be to 15 m2/day, and up to 500 m2/day in exceptional cases for blocky and broken lava (Versey and Singh, 1982). Best conditions for flow are found in some of the vesicular and weathered layers separating the different lava flows. Boreholes often penetrate up to 10 lava flows and only 1 out of 6 interlayers yield exploitable water. Although productivity generally decreases with depth, good conditions are found deeper than 60 m (Uhl, 1979). Secondary fracturing seems to play a role in increasing transmissivity since dry wells are less frequent in valley bottoms then in flat uplands. The younger (Pliocene–Pliocene) but similar to Deccan traps volcanics the northwestern USA are an order of magnitude more productive. The widespread formations like the Paraná (Serra Geral) basalts in eastern part of South America behave as an aquitard with respect the underlying Botucatú sandstone formation of the Guaraní aquifer (Sarres Pessõa, 1982), but still is able to sustain flows averaging 2 L/s, sometimes decreasing to less than 0.6 L/s. Large acidic volcanics are found along the Mexican transvolcanic belt with deep layers affected by brittle tectonics. Transmissivity may vary between 200 and 800 m2/day for andesites with permeabilities of 0.03 to 1.0 m/day for unfractured and 0.8 to 40 m/day for fractured rocks (Carreón–Freyre et al., 2005). Ignimbrites tend to be clearly less permeable volcanics. Data from boreholes in Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Hinds et al., 1999) show permeability values of 103 to 107 m/day that increase to 105 to 107 m/day for welded tuff. But fracturing greatly increases these values when considered at the massif scale. In Central America extensive and varied volcanic formations are found, mostly from Tertiary to Recent (Losilla et al., 2001, Krásný 1996, Krásný and Hecht, 1998). They vary from basalts to andesites and even to rhyolites associated with large pyroclastic material deposits, both ash-fall and ash-flow, and frequent associated flows (lahars) and alluvium. They are up to several hundred metres thick. Permeability is primarily high in recent volcanics and decreases with depth. Transmissivity values can range up to 5000 m2/day but vary areally and may be less than 50 m2/day. The best conditions for water yield seem to be in thick, saturated, recent fall pyroclasts, but also recent lavas with brecciated tops. Similar conditions are found in volcanic islands. Young volcanics may be highly permeable, as in the Hawaii islands: a flowing well yielded 180 L/s in confined young basalts in coastal Oahu, and water galleries 320 L/s in Maui and up to 200 L/s in Oahu. In Madeira Island some galleries (levadas) yield more than 100 L/s and some of them are used to produce hydroelectricity. In Tenerife (Canarian archipelago) one of the numerous water galleries produced 150 L/s after being extended. In Lanzarote island (Canarian archipelago) coastal recent volcanics allow pumping 500 L/s with a drawdown of some decimetres. Pyroclastic material, except for very young to sub-recent deposits, is generally less permeable than young brecciated lavas. Older, altered volcanics, unearthed by erosion, are generally of low to very low permeability, especially when they are thermally altered. Generally little is known about their hydraulic characteristics because commonly they are in high, steep, sparsely inhabited areas and in humid environments, except in the Canaries. The springs in them reflect the discharge of younger volcanics on the top of the fractured upper part of them, as in Hawaii and Reunion. In the densely populated Canary Islands (especially Gran Canaria, Tenerife and La Palma) deep exploration by means of galleries, deep shafts and boreholes, with thousands of km of penetration, allow a detailed observation of deep volcanic rocks. Permeability, although small, is still noticeable at 1000 m below land surface. Examples of

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Table 1.

Permeability values of volcanics in the Canary Islands.

Island

Formation

m/day

Tenerife (1) Miocene (old) basalts – close to the structural axis – far from the structural axis * deep seated * shallow Plio–Quaternary (modern) basalt – in general – shallow, in some areas

0.02 0.02 0.05 0.75 2

Gran Canaria (2) Extracaldera, Miocene (old) basalts – “a–a” type – “pahoe–hoe” type Trachy–syenites and trachytes Phonolites and ignimbrites Phonolites of Telde area Phonolites of Amurga massif (selected wells) Caldera–rim materials “Roque Nublo” volcanic conglomerates Plio–Quaternary (recent) basalts, Telde area Quaternary (young) basalts

0.01–0.04 0.1–1 0.01–0.04 0.06–0.09 0.1–0.2 (up to 5) 0.5–5 0.002 0.15–0.45 25 (up to 100) 1

Famara massif Miocene basalts

0.05–0.02

Lanzarote (3) (1) Modified from Custodio (1985). Adjusted by means of a numerical model (2) Modified from Custodio (1985), Cabrera et al. (2001), Cabrera and Custodio (2003) (3) Modified from Custodio (1985)

permeability values for volcanic materials in the Canarian archipelago are given in Table 1 to show a wide range of volcanic materials in this area. Permeability of ophiolite complexes and crustal basalts is low, but it may be greatly changed by fracturing. About one third of the boreholes in old pillow lavas, sheeted dykes and gabbros are successful to yield water in Cyprus (Boronina et al., 2003), especially in the surroundings of fracture zones. Macroscopic porosity is about 5 1% but varies from about 1.5 0.5% for flows to 27 3% for pillow lavas, or reaches 15 2% if they belong to altered zone close to the sea bottom (Gillis and Sapp, 1977). Densely dyke-injected rocks properties are quite different from the original rock and may approach that of a densely fractured rock. Cold freshwater permeability of basaltic oceanic crust may be 109 to 104 m/day for the core of lava flows, and 105 to 1 m/day as determined by hydraulic tests in boreholes (Fisher, 1998; Manning and Ingebritsen, 1999) but can reach 103 to 100 m/day in highly fractured zones.

4

HYDROGEOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF VOLCANIC ROCK ARRANGEMENT

Properties of volcanic rocks vary with their position relative to the emission point or line. Distal formations tend to be free of pyroclasts and dykes, and are dominated by successions


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of lava flows with top and bottom breccias and intercalated sediments, fine ashes, and soils that may control groundwater flow. This occurs in large areas of flood basalts and at the periphery of large basaltic shield volcanoes and results in stratification of various hydrogeological bodies: aquifers and aquitards. Permeability typically decreases with depth due to alteration and compaction of scoriaceous layers. Close to volcanic vents and outflow fissures structure becomes more complex due to the abundance of pyroclastic material that may dominate in zones of explosive volcanism. Viscous acidic lavas tend to form mounds and thick bodies, yet in many cases they became ignimbrites that may cover large areas and be very thick. They may show a regular stratigraphy, broken by faults, as in the Yucca Mountain, Nevada. In the eruption areas increased presence of dykes, intrusions, and thermally altered materials can be followed. This is often the area of highest original elevation and, consequently, is often subject to intense erosion. The permeability is variable, from relatively high in lavas and young pyroclastic deposits to low and even very low in thermally metamorphosed rocks. The above also applies to volcanic islands. When these volcanic islands are the result of a hot spot a submarine mound is constructed, which often represents the largest part of the magmatic material, and forms a large shield volcano that finally may appear at the sea surface (Hildenbrand et al., 2005). Magma chemistry evolves from basalts to more acidic forms due to magma fractionation and contamination by crustal materials. Volcanic episodes become more violent, form abundant brecciated deposits and eventually large collapse calderas. Materials close to vents are highly altered by thermal and hydrothermal processes. The caldera collapse and large-scale landslides may trigger a reactivation of volcanic events with the formation of a second shield on the old one and the deposits may fill the caldera and even cover it. Around the caldera rim there is thermal metamorphism. This ends the eruptive period if new magma from the deep mantle is not added, and erosion progressively dismantles the island. Relatively minor volcanic events fed by remaining deep molten magma pockets may follow, although the results may still be spectacular by human standards, and of hydrogeological significance, as the six years of continuous activity in the “extinguished” Lanzarote Island (Canary Islands) in the 18th Century. The hot spot may be more or less geographically stable with successive large events in the same place, or change its relative position when the Earth’s tectonic plates move. In this case the successive supply of deep magma starts a new shield volcano at some distance. This is a well-known situation in Hawaii, Society, and Canarian archipelagos with old (drowned or uplifted) islands on one side and young islands on the other. Oahu is older than Hawaii, Reunion is older than Mauricius, and Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and Gran Canaria are older than La Palma and El Hierro. This migration can also be evident on a given island as in Reunion (Pic des Neiges relative to Piton de La Fourneuse) and La Palma (Cumbre Vieja relative to Cumbre Nueva). This has hydrogeological implications. The erosion of the older parts may expose the “core”. Vertical movements due to magmatism and local tectonics can also be important. In Hawaii Island subaerial volcanics were found down to 1800 m deep (García and Davis, 2001) or close to 1000 m in Lanzarote (Canary Islands), while in Fuerteventura and in Cyprus submarine lavas and oceanic crust crop out. Often, in volcanic islands there is a core of low permeability volcanics consisting of the thermally-altered parts containing dykes and intrusions with possible shallow volcanic chambers, where the emission of volcanic gases from the cooling and consolidating deep magma chambers may continue. Surrounding the central core there is an apron of lava

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flows and ignimbrites that may include landslides and laharic deposits, which constitute the largest surface area and may contain quite permeable materials. This pattern is what appears in the Canary Islands but also in the Hawaiian Islands, even if the interpretation given by some authors (see Liu et al., 1983) differentiates between basal aquifers (in the apron) and dyke-impounded aquifers (in the core). Actually there is only one volcanic groundwater body with largely contrasting permeabilities. In the apron, the water table (piezometric surface) is typically close to the land surface and with a small hydraulic gradient. In coastal areas saline waters can underlie fresh-water bodies even if the latter are confined below recent coastal and offshore sediments, as in Pearl Harbor, Oahu. Low permeability in the core produces very high hydraulic gradients, especially if recharge is high. This creates springs in the valley bottoms and at the foot of cliffs. High elevation, perched springs may occur due to high recharge on local, low permeable heterogeneities. This also happens in continental basalts such as the Columbia Plateau. However, many of these springs are probably outflows from the high main groundwater body in the core through permeable layers or fissured upper part. When volcanics overlay other pre-existing formations as in the case of the Etna in Sicily (D’Alessandro et al., 2004), the bedrock may play the role of the low permeability “core” or, on the other hand, behave as a drain, depending on relative hydrogeological properties. Thus, volcanics can behave as conductive and storage units or just as recharge collectors. Along the coast freshwater–saltwater relationships follow common behaviour in other coastal areas (Custodio and Llamas, 1976; Custodio and Bruggeman, 1985). The coastal platform is often steep in volcanic islands, and the materials there are transmissive, recent ones. This means an inland penetrating seawater wedge and a floating layer of freshwater with a mixing zone from thin to thick (Thomas et al., 1996), depending on groundwater flow, heterogeneity, recharge fluctuations, and tidal effects. Vertical changes in volcanics and sedimentary formations that may develop there may produce conditions for confined flow, as is well known in Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii islands. When the core area is at the coast, the floating freshwater body on sea water is less developed as happens in the Canarian and Cape Verde islands and also in the older of the Hawaiian islands (Izuka and Gingerich, 2003). The extent, nature and elevation of the core relative to mean sea level and the apron play a key role in explaining the conspicuous differences among the different volcanic islands. Along the coastal areas there is often a thin layer of ground freshwater that becomes easily contaminated by marine water from below, as in Easter Island, Chile (Herrera et al., 2004). Real situations in basalt-dominated islands are often more complex due to the existence of different volcanic centres and/or rift zones, of the same or different age (tree main volcanoes in Hawaii island, the north and south volcanoes of Reunion and La Palma islands) or recent volcanic stages covering older, deeply eroded previous ones (Gran Canaria and Tenerife islands). The core may include volcanic calderas, partly or totally filled with permeable lavas, as in Piton de la Fourneuse (Reunion), Las Cañadas (Tenerife), or the intracaldera formations of Gran Canaria. The flow pattern may be changed by large landslides that are common in high islands (Carracedo 1999; Carracedo and Tilling, 2003). Groundwater in the core area is subject to high hydraulic gradients and important vertical head components. The deep submarine volcanics of many islands are of low but not nil permeability. They may still contain permeable features, as found in Hawaii (De Paolo et al., 2001). The general behaviour is little known.


5

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GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN VOLCANIC ROCKS

Groundwater recharge conditions in volcanic formations are not unique and can be compared with other formations (see Simmers, 1997) and depend on climate, soil, and landslope. In the bare or slightly vegetated land of recent volcanics, infiltration of rain and snow melt can be important, although when very permeable there is enhanced air convection that increase evaporative loses. In low permeability volcanics fracturing and faulting may play an important enhancing role, especially if they are covered by a cap rock able to store water. Groundwater flow in the unsaturated zone is partly through fractures, and the space and time distribution may be quite complex (Faybishenko et al., 1991). How water penetrates is important, at least in the upper part of the unsaturated zone, where inflow may concentrate in fractures. Fractures become active for conducting water when inflow to them (e.g., from the surface or from the top soil) is greater than the inhibition capacity of the walls. This capacity is very low when the matrix is almost impermeable or is close to saturation. Otherwise most of the recharge flow is through the rock matrix. This is what seems to happen in volcanic rocks in many cases. Very detailed studies have been carried out in Nevada, in the arid Yucca Mountain (Fridrich et al., 1994; Wu et al., 2002; Finsterle et al., 2002; Flint et al., 2001; Sonnenthal and Bodvarsson, 1999; Bodvarsson et al., 2003) to study the feasibility of constructing a deep nuclear waste repository in the thick unsaturated zone of Miocene, densely fractured ignimbrites which are formed by a sequence of welded and nonwelded ash-flow layers. Some faults with offsets from 10 metres to some hundred metres go across the whole formation and have a decisive influence in the unsaturated zone water movement. They may be barriers or conductive features, depending on the circumstances. The formations of limited extent, perched saturated levels on top of low permeability vitreous layers favour the down-flow through fault planes in wet periods. Faults are conductive when they cross welded tuff, but not in the non-welded parts (Hinds et al., 1999).

6

SPECIFIC HYDROGEOCHEMICAL ISSUES

General principles of hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotopes in volcanic hard rock are the same applicable to other formations (Appelo and Postma, 1993; Custodio and Llamas, 1976; Mazor, 1991; Mook 2001). The high relief of many volcanic areas favours intense erosion resulting in outcrops of fresh rock. Altitude-dependent isotope changes can often be followed there (Scholl et al., 1996; Custodio and Custodio, 2001). Yet, volcanic rocks are often more chemically reactive than other hard rocks because of the presence of fine particles, large specific surfaces, and abundance of vitreous matter. Generally volcanic rocks change conspicuously with age for the most compact rocks when they have not been subject to high temperature environmental conditions. Groundwater flow enhances the weathering rate, which is faster the higher the temperature is. Rock weathering may be important in a few years in wet, tropical climate, especially for calcalkaline rocks. Groundwater in volcanic rocks has typically a low content of chloride, sulphate, and other solutes, even if of marine origin. Chloride can be used to calculate recharge if rainfall contribution is known (Gasparini et al., 1990; Custodio, 1992; Alcalá, 2006). However, old marine water may be trapped in raised low permeability formations (Herrera and Custodio, 2002) or some chloride may be contributed in areas receiving deep warm gases.

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High temperature alteration in zones subject to convective hot fluids produce new minerals and voids, and fractures may be totally or partially filled. Water and carbon dioxide, as well as other components, play a dominant role in these changes. Under low temperature conditions clay minerals are formed, especially if CO2 from deep formations or from decaying vegetation help in lowering the otherwise high pH of water. Smectite is formed, or kaolinite if CO2 availability is high. The rock frees Na that mostly dissolves in the water, and part of the K and Mg, depending on the type of clay that is formed. Na-HCO3 waters are often found. Ca may pass to the water or be precipitated as carbonate if pH is high, thus filling voids and fractures, and forming duricrusts (caliches) near the surface in dry climates, as in many dry areas of the Canarian and Cape Verde archipelagos. Submarine volcanics may have trapped marine sulphate after being reduced and precipitated as pyrite. Also they may contain sulphate and sulphur from disproportionation of volcanic SO2 (Embley, 2006). When subjected to subaerial weathering they release relatively high concentrations of SO4. Acid volcanism from very evolved residual magmas may concentrate incompatible heavy elements. When they are incorporated into the magma, they can be widely dispersed as part of the ash fall during the frequent highly explosive events of such type of volcanism. This may explain the association of rapidly weathered glassy ashes incorporated in sediments, producing poor groundwater quality, since ashes may be able to release relatively high concentrations of As and V, as it happens in large areas of the plains (pampas) of Argentina, or of F. Except for the small quantities of trapped CO2 in voids, volcanic rocks are carbon free, so they do contribute little to dissolved carbon. Thus, the recharge 13C and 14C contents are not affected. However, in areas with high flow of endogenic CO2 or sluggish groundwater flow this volcanic carbon may influence C isotopic values, and 14C dating and interpretation of 13C values may be difficult, even more if calcite is present in fracture infilling. This may be a serious handicap for dating long turnover groundwater reservoirs. For short turnover cases, tritium has been a good tool, and probably will be 85Kr, CFCS and SF6, but existing experience is limited.

7

CONCLUSIONS

Volcanics are partly hard rocks in which hydrogeological behaviour ranges from a typical fractured hard rock to a heterogenous anisotropic close-to-porous rock, depending on the genesis, degree of alteration, dyke density, effect of magmatic intrusions, presence of palaeosoils and intercalated sediments, and other features. They can form thick sequences of volcanic sediments that may preserve primary and secondary porosity and permeable features at great depth. This helps in producing potentially thick 3-D regional groundwater flow systems. There can be large differences in mean (prevailing) regional permeability between volcanics far from and close to effusion centres. In the effusion centres low permeability material may dominate, especially if erosion has exhumed the more altered, deeper parts. This means high piezometric gradients and in wet areas the existence of high elevation springs from the unsaturated zone. General hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and isotopic principles apply with the specificity of the often high relief and intense erosive effects, and the high chemical reactivity


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of volcanics if leaching is intense and the supply of soil CO2 is abundant. In some areas deep-originated CO2 may play an important role. Na-HCO3 waters are frequently found. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to the comments received by Dr. Jiri Krásny´ and Dr. Peter Seiler and the improvements suggested by Dr. John Sharp. REFERENCES Alcalá FJ (2006). Recarga a los acuíferos españoles mediante balance hidrogeoquímico. Doc. Thesis. Technical University of Catalonia. Barcelona. Appelo CAJ, Postma D (1993). Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution. Balkema: 1–536. Athawale RN, Chand R, Rangarajan, R (1983). Groundwater recharge estimates for two basins in the Deccan Trap basalt formation. Hydrol Sci J 28 (4); 525–538. Back W, Rosenshein JS, Seaber PR (1988). The geology of North America; hydrogeology. Vol. 0–2. Geol. Soc. Am.; 1–524. Bindeman IN (2006). The secrets of supervolcanoes. Sci. Am., June 2006: 26–33. Bodvarsson GS, Ho CD, Robinson BA (eds) (2003). Yucca Mountain Project. J Contam Hydrol 62–63:1–750. Boonstra J, Boehmer WK (1986). Analysis of data from aquifer and well tests in intrusive rocks. J. Hydrology 88: 301–317. Boronina A, Renard P, Balderer W, Christodoulides A (2003). Groundwater resources in the Kouris catchment (Cyprus): data analysis and numerical modelling. Hydrol J 271: 130–149. Cabrera MC, Custodio J, Custodio E (2001). Interpretación de ensayos de bombeo en el acuífero de Telde (Gran Canaria). En Las Caras del Agua Subterránea (Medina & Carrera eds). IGME Madrid. II: 609–614. Cabrera MC, Custodio E (2003) Groundwater flow in a volcanic sedimentary coastal aquifer: Telde area, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands Spain. Hydrogeol Journal, 12: 305–320. Carracedo JC (1999). Growth structure and collapse of Canarian volcanoes and comparisons with Hawaiian volcanoes. J Volc and Geotherm Research Special Issue 94 (1–4): 1–19. Carracedo JC, Tilling RI (2003). Geología y volcanología de Islas volcánicas oceánicas. Canarias–Hawaii. Ser. Publ. Caja General de Ahorros de Canarias 293 (Varios 15): 1–73. Carreón–Freyre J, Cerca M, Luna–González L, Gómez–González FJ (2005). Influencia de la estratigrafía y estructura geológica en el flujo de agua subterranean del Valle de Querétaro. Rev. Mex. Ciencias Geolog. 28(1): 1–18. Custodio E (1978). Geohidrología de terrenos e islas volcánicas. CEDEX Madrid Publ 128: 1–303. Custodio E (1985). Low permeability volcanics in the Canary Islands (Spain). In Hydrogeology of Rocks of Low Permeability. Mem. IAH, XVIII: 533–544. Custodio E (1989). Groundwater characteristics and problems in volcanic rock terreins. In Isotope Techniques in the Study of the Hydrology of Fractured and Fissured Rocks. Intern Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna: 87–137. Custodio E (1992). Coastal aquifer salinization as a consequence of aridity: the case of Amurga phonolitic massif, Gran Canaria Island. Study and Modelling of Salt Water Intrussion. CIMME–UPC. Barcelona: 81–98. Custodio E, Bruggeman GA (1987). Groundwater problems is coastal areas. Studies and Reports in Hydrology no. 45, UNESCO, Paris: 1–576. Custodio J, Custodio E (2001). Hidrogeoquímica del macizo fonolítico de Amurga (SE de la Isla de Gran Canaria). In Las Caras del Agua Subterránea (Medina & Carrera, eds). IGME, Madrid, II: 461–468. Custodio E, Llamas MR (1976). Hidrología subterránea. Ed Omega Barcelona 2 Vols: 1–2350. Davis SN, de Wiest JRM (1966). Hydrogeology. John Wiley, N.Y.: 1–520.

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Deolankar SB (1980). The Deccan basalts of Maharashtra, India: their potential as aquifers. Ground Water: 434–437. Deutsch WJ, Jenne EA, Krupka KU (1982). Solubility equilibria in basalt aquifers: the Columbia Plateau, Eastern Washington, USA. Chemical Geology, 36: 15–34. D’Alessandro W, Federico C, Longo M, Parello F. (2004). Oxygen isotope composition of natural waters in the Etna area. J. Hydrol., 296: 282–289. De Paolo DJ, Stolper E, Thomas, DM (2001). Deep drilling into a Hawaiian volcano. EOS 821 (13): 149–155. Embley RW, Chadwich NW Jr, Becker ET, et al. (2006). Long–term eruptive activity at a submarine volcano. Nature, 441: 444–447. Everdingen DA, van (1995). Fracture characteristics of the sheeted dike complex, Troodos Ophiolite, Cyprus: implications for permeability of oceanic crust. J Geophys Res 100 (B10): 19957–19972. Falkland A, Custodio E (1991). Guide on the hydrology of small islands. Studies and Reports in Hydrology no. 49. UNESCO, París: 1–435. Faybishenko B, Doughty C, Steiger M, Long JCS, Wood TR, Jacobsen JS, Lore J, Zawislanski PT (2000). Conceptual model of the geometry and physics of water flow in a fractured basalt vadose zone. Water Resour Res 36 (12): 3499–3520. Finsterle S, Fabryka–Martin JT, Wang JS 4 (2002). Migration of a water pulse through fractured porous media. J Contaminant Hydrology, 54: 37–57. Fisher AT (1998). Permeability within basaltic ocean crust. Reviews of Geophysics, 36 (2): 143–182. Flint A, Flint LE, Bodvarsson GS, Kwicklis EM, Fabryka–Martin J (2001). Evolution of the conceptual model of unsaturated zone hydrology at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. J. Hydrology, 247: 1–30. Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979). Groundwater. Prentice Hall: 1–604. Fridrich CJ, Dudley WW Jr, Stuckless JS (1994). Hydrogeological analysis of the saturated–zone ground–water system, under Yucca Mountain, Nevada J. Hydrology, 154: 133–168. García MO, Davis MG (2001). Submarine growth and internal structure of ocean island volcanoes based on submarine observations of Mauna Lao volcano, Hawaii. Geology. Geological Soc. of America, 29(2): 163–166. Gaspanini A, Custodio E, Fontes JCh, Jiménez J, Nuñez JA (1990). Example d’étude géochinique et isotopique de circulations aquifères en terrein volcanique sous climat semi–aride (Amurga, Gran Canaria, îles Canaries). J. Hydrology, 144: 61–91. Gillis KM, Sapp K (1997). Distribution of porosity in a section of upper oceanic crust exposed in the Troodos ophiolite. J Geophys Res 102 (B5):10133–10149. Herrera Ch, Custodio E (2002). Old marine water in Fuerteventura island deep formations. Proc 17th Salt Water Intrusion Meeting, Delft University of Technology, Fac Civil Eng. and Geosciences: 481–488. Herrera Ch, Pincheira M, Custodio E, Araguás L, Velasco G (2004). El contenido en tritio de las aguas subterráneas de la Isla de Pascua, como una herramienta para calcular la recarga al acuífero volcánico. Bol. Geol. Min., Madrid, 115(esp): 299–310. Hildenbrand A, Marlin Cln, Conroy A, Gillet PY, Filly A, Massault M (2005). Isotopic approach of rainfall and groundwater simulation in the volcanic structure of Tahití–Nui (French Polynesia). J. Hydrol., 302: 187–208. Hinds JJ, Ge Sh, Fridrich Ch J (1999). Numerical modelling of perched water under Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Ground Water 37 (4): 498–504. Izuka SK, Gingerich SB (2003). A thick lens of fresh groundwater in the southern Lihue Basin, Kauasi, Hawaii, USA. Hydrogeology Journal, 11:240–248. Kovalevsky VS, Kruseman GP, Rushton KR (2004). Groundwater studies: an international guide for hydrogeological investigations. UNESCO–IHP–VI Series on Groundwater, 3, Paris. There is a chapter on Hydrogeology of volcanic rocks (E. Custodio): 395–425. Krásny´ J (1996). El mapa hidrogeológico de la Zona Pacífica de Nicaragua. Asoc. Latino– Americana de Hidrología Subterránea para el Desarrollo, ALHSUD–Congreso México, 1996: 125–140.


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Walker GPL (1970). Compound and simple lava flows and flood basalts. Bull Volcanol. 35: 579–590. Walton WC (1970). Groundwater resource evaluation. McGraw Hill, N.Y.: 1–664. Wilson DS, Teagle DAH, et al. (2006). Drilling to gabbro in intact ocean crust. Science, 312: 1016–1020. Wu YS, Pan L, Zhang W, Bodvarsson GS (2002). Characterization of flow and transport processes within the unsaturated zone of Yucca Mountain Nevada, under current and future climates. J Contaminant Hydrology 54: 215–247.

CHAPTER 6

Regional transmissivity distribution and groundwater potential in hard rock of Ghana Philip K. Darko1 and Jirˇí Krásny´2 1

CSIR Water Research Institute, Accra, Ghana Charles University Prague, Czech Republic

2

ABSTRACT: Statistical assessment of specific capacity and transmissivity has made it possible to classify hydrogeologic units on a regional scale and to prepare regional transmissivity anomaly maps for the quantitative characterisation and prediction of borehole yields in hard rock aquifers in Ghana. In general, the rocks pertain to transmissivity classes IV and III, representing low to intermediate transmissivity magnitude. Mapping out areas of positive transmissivity anomalies delineates prospective zones for groundwater exploration. In such zones, the minimum expected yields range from 35 to 120 L/min in the various hydrogeological units. These yields are 6–15 times higher when compared with probable yields from regions of negative transmissivity anomalies (6 to 10 L/min). Detailed investigations in zones of positive transmissivity anomalies could reveal potential aquifers where large volumes of groundwater could be abstracted for local supplies. Natural groundwater resources, however, might represent an upper limit for regional groundwater development.

1

INTRODUCTION

In Ghana, many productive freshwater bearing aquifers are composed of weathered and fractured hard rocks, and increasing effort has been made to harness groundwater from these formations. The disparity in yield and transmissivity in boreholes drilled even in close proximity in similar hard rock types can be very considerable. This can be attributed to heterogeneity and anisotropy in related hydraulic characteristics that make predictions in hard rock areas very uncertain. Assessment based on statistical analysis of the transmissive capacity of aquifers could however, provide information on the general trends and conditions of groundwater resources. This information is essential for regional policy formulation and regulatory development of groundwater as a natural resource, and especially for targeting groundwater development and improving success rates in drilling programmes. To address the need for comprehensive regional hydrogeological evaluation to support groundwater development in Ghana, statistical analysis of specific capacity and transmissivity data has been carried out. By comparing with similar evaluations from other areas, the prevailing regional trends in transmissivity have been determined, and local anomalies delineated to depict prospective zones for groundwater exploration. The effect of the transmissivity distribution on the probable yields of wells has been expressed, based on a generally available drawdown.

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Figure 1.

2

Geological map of Ghana (simplified after various sources).

HYDROGEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

A complex of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks underlies about 45% of Ghana. Late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic rocks of the Voltaian System cover approximately another 35% of the country. Together, these constitute the hard rocks in Ghana. The Precambrian rocks include the Dahomeyan (gneiss and migmatite with quartz and schist), the Birimian (metamorphosed sediments) with associated granitoid intrusives, and the Tarkwaian rocks (slightly metamorphosed sediments). The rest are the Togo Series (sandstone, quartzite, schist, shale and phyllite) and the Buem Formation (shale, sandstone and volcanic rocks). The Voltaian System consists of consolidated sedimentary rocks, mainly sandstone, shale and mudstone, conglomerate and limestone. The geological map of Ghana (Figure 1) shows the distribution of the various formations.

Regional transmissivity distribution and groundwater potential in hard rock of Ghana 111 Table 1.

Yields and depths of successful boreholes in Ghana.

Geological formation Granite Voltaian Togo & Buem Birimian & Tarkwaian Dahomeyan

No. of boreholes 767 779 212 213 74

Yield (L/min)

Depth (m)

Mean

Median

Mode

Range

Mean

Range

67 121 94 126 50

40 50 60 98 30

15 15 20 50 10

5–607 5–1200 7–525 8–600 9–200

37 42 44 54 39

13–152 22–355 21–146 16–187 22–122

(Data source: WRI 1999)

The rocks are largely impervious but contain openings along joints and fractures, bedding and cleavage planes that enhance percolation of water to form limited groundwater reservoirs, which are structurally dependent and discontinuous in occurrence (Gill, 1969). Boreholes drilled in such hydrogeologic environments have a wide range of yields, with a significant failure rate (Darko 2001). The yield in the Voltaian rocks is highly variable and ranges from 5 to 1200 L/min, with an average yield of 121 L/min. The Dahomeyan gneiss and migmatite record the lowest mean yield of 50 L/min. Data on borehole yields and depths are provided in Table 1.

3

METHOD OF ASSESSMENT

Pumping test data from boreholes drilled across the country were compiled. On the basis of major lithology, age and location, the large data set was grouped into five main hydrogeologic units as given in Table 1. The data in each group was taken as a sample set for statistical analysis. Specific capacity data, which were readily available, were used to assess the water bearing and yield potential of the aquifers. Since all the boreholes were pump-tested for 6 hours, the specific capacity data were used to make comparisons among the various geological formations. Defined as the volume of water pumped per unit time (yield) per unit drawdown in the pumping well, specific capacity is an important hydraulic parameter that indicates the transmitting properties of an aquifer. Among others, Brown (1963), Razack and Huntley (1991) and Huntley et al. (1992) have discussed the use of specific capacity to estimate transmissivity. It accounts for the loss in head that is associated with pumping, and is preferred to yield as a measure of well productivity (Knopman & Hollyday 1993). It also provides initial estimates of potential for water abstraction in the hydrogeologic environment (Krásny´ 1993). Due to heterogeneity and anisotropy in hydraulic properties, the Theis equation and its numerous modifications often do not sufficiently represent the relationships between specific capacity and local and structural factors that are important in fractured media (e.g., local fault zones, degree of fracturing and fracture disposition, folding patterns, topography, etc.). A generalised deterministic model linking these features to hydraulic parameters does not exist. Nevertheless, flow in large enough volume of fractured medium may be reasonably represented by the equivalent continuum model, as demonstrated by Long et al. (1982), especially if the sample sizes tested are large enough and interest is mainly on volumetric flow,

112


such as for groundwater supply. Still the differences in size and hydrogeologic character of inhomogeneities, such as fractures and weathered zones, mean that the representative elementary volume to be used for equivalent continuum models changes considerably in distinct hardrock environments (comp. e.g., Krásny´ 2000). A statistical analysis of well records is the only practicable alternative for comparing and analysing the water-transmitting properties of fractured rocks and their causes on regional scales. 4

DATA ANALYSIS

The specific capacity was converted into an index of transmissivity Y, introduced by Jetel & Krásny´ (1968). The transmissivity index Y is given by the relation: Y log (106 C), where C is specific capacity (l/s/m). The index has the advantage when used as a comparative regional parameter because most populations of specific capacity values are log-normally distributed (Knopman 1990). Hence by converting the specific capacity values into index Y, the data set becomes normally distributed to allow descriptive statistical analysis. From the index Y, the coefficient of transmissivity, T (m2/day), was estimated by the conversion equation: T 86400 (10Y8.96). –) and standard deviation To find the prevailing (or background) transmissivity, the mean (x – s) of (s) of the index Y values in each hydrogeologic unit were determined. The range (x the index Y values (which accounts for about 68% of the data set) represents the prevailing transmissivity (transmissivity background) of the different units. The values outside this interval are considered as anomalies, which may be positive or negative. These anomalies have considerable practical importance in geological and hydrogeological investigations – s) and (x – 2s) is defined including environmental assessments. The interval between (x as the area of positive anomalies, and signifies more prospective zones for groundwater exploration when compared with the area of background transmissivity. On the other hand, – s) and (x – 2s) indicate areas of negative anomalies and these the values between (x represent less favourable zones. Such areas of very low transmissivity are needed when confronted with issues of waste disposal, and would require further investigation. Extreme – 2s). These areas may be important on one anomalies can be found outside the intervals (x side when looking for sites for toxic waste disposal (extreme negative anomalies) and, on the other side as potential areas for groundwater exploitation (extreme positive anomalies). The classification scheme of Krásny´ (1993), which is based on transmissivity magnitude and variation, was used to classify the various hydrogeological units (Table 2). The order of the transmissivity magnitude (or scale) depends on the percentage of the background transmissivity that belongs to a particular class, and the class variation is based on a standard deviation of interval 0.2. This classification scheme provides a practical quantitative method for evaluating the potential for groundwater abstraction in different areas. It also has the additional advantage of making it possible to express various regional hydrogeologic conditions and their comparison on hydrogeological maps. 5

TRANSMISSIVITY MAPS

The Kriging geo-statistical gridding method, which produces smooth surfaces and generates a good overall presentation, was employed to prepare the regional transmissivity maps

Regional transmissivity distribution and groundwater potential in hard rock of Ghana 113 Table 2. Transmissivity classification of hard rocks in Ghana and their regional hydraulic characteristics (modified after Darko & Krásny´ 1998). Hydrogeologic unit (Number of wells)

Transmissivity Transmissivity index (Y) (m2/day) – s) (x

–) (x

– s) (x

Granites (467)

4.8 4.3–5.3

6.6

2.1–20.2 0.3–114.1 IV-IIIc

Voltaian (332)

5.1 4.4–5.6

11.9 2.5–39.6 0.3–266.8 III-IVd

Dahomeyan (69)

4.7 4.3–5.1

4.5

1.7–11.9 0.3–42.2

Birimian & Tarkwaian (152)

4.9 4.3–5.5

7.4

2.0–27.3 0.2–118.7 IV-IIIc

Togo & Buem (53)

4.9 4.5–5.4

8.0

3.0–21.4 0.9–43.2

–) (x

Transmissivity Regional hydraulic (class and characteristics magnitude) Range

IV-(III)c

IV-IIIc

Low to intermediate transmissivity of moderate variation in fairly heterogeneous environment. Transmissivity is intermediate to low in magnitude with a large variation. Hydrogeological environment is considerably heterogeneous. Moderate variation in a fairly heterogeneous medium with low transmissivity. Low to intermediate transmissivity magnitude with moderate variation. Hydrogeological environment is fairly heterogeneous. Low to intermediate transmissivity with small to moderate variation in fairly heterogeneous environment.

–) sample mean, (s) sample standard deviation (Data sources: Gill 1969, WRI/CSIR, 1999). Explanation: (x

by contouring the irregularly spaced transmissivity data. Figure 2 presents the spatial distribution of boreholes that were used. Due to the scale of the map, a single point on the map could represent up to four boreholes. To increase the likelihood that the original data points were applied directly to the grid file, a large number of grid lines was generated and the non-drift linear variogram system with unit anisotropy ratio was used in the exact interpolating format, while averaging duplicate values. The regional classification of the various units was then carried out based on the classification scheme outlined earlier. Figure 3 shows the regional picture of transmissivity distribution in Ghana. The minimum curvature gridding method was used to prepare transmissivity anomaly maps for the respective hydrogeologic units. This method generates a weighted-average interpolated surface, which attempts to honour the data as closely as possible. The maximum residual parameter was set at 0.1 (i.e., 10% of the data precision) during iterations.

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Groundwater in fractured rocks -3

-2

-1

0

1

BURKINA FASO

11 Lawra

11

Bawku

Navrongo Tumu

Bolgatanga Gambaga

10

Yendi

Tamale Bole

T O G O

C O T E D' I V O I R E

9

Yagaba

Wa

10

Damongo

9

Salaga Bu i

8

8 Wenchi

Atebubu

Techiman Ejura

Sunyani

Berekum

Kete-Krachi

7

Hohoe

Kumasi

Oboasi

Wiawso

Ho

Juaso

Bibiani 6

7

Kpando

Mampong Goaso

Jasikan

Konongo Kade

Kibi

6

Koforidua

Dunkwa

Enchi

Keta Ada

Jamra

ACCRA Winneba

Tarkwa 5

Half Assini -3

Takoradi

Axim -2

5

Cape Coast -1

0

International boundary Major hydrogeological unit Borehole

0

32

1 64 km

Scale

Figure 2. Map of Ghana showing location of selected boreholes.

– s), areas with positive and negative By establishing the background transmissivity (x anomalies around a minimum of three boreholes were delineated. Figure 4 shows the areas of positive and negative transmissivity anomalies in the major hydrogeologic unit (Voltaian) in Ghana.

6 ESTIMATION OF YIELDS The effect of the transmissivity differences (anomalies) on the probable yields of wells has been expressed based on a generally available drawdown of 5 m. The expected yield was computed by multiplying the specific capacity value of each well by the available drawdown.

Regional transmissivity distribution and groundwater potential in hard rock of Ghana 115

Figure 3. Regional transmissivity trends in hard rocks of Ghana. Roman numerals, e.g. V-IV: classes of transmissivity magnitude (based on Krásny´ [1993] classification scheme).

The 5 m drawdown has been considered as a practical value for rural, domestic hand-pump based water supply systems (Darko & Krásny´, 2000). Table 3 gives the results of the expected discharges. 7

RESULTS

The transmissivity classification of the hydrogeologic units in Ghana is provided in Table 2. The Voltaian sedimentary rocks record the highest mean transmissivity coefficient of 12 m2/day with values ranging between 0.3 and 270 m2/day. These rocks are classified as

116


Figure 4. Map of Ghana showing positive and negative transmissivity anomalies in Voltaian consolidated sedimentary rocks (after Darko 2001). Table 3. Minimum expected yields in zones of transmissivity anomalies in hard rocks of Ghana. Hydrogeologic unit Voltaian Granite Birimian & Tarkwaian Togo & Buem Dahomeyan

Expected minimum yield (L/min) Negative anomalies

Positive anomalies

8 6 7 10 6

120 60 85 65 35


III-IVd. The Dahomeyan rocks have the lowest mean transmissivity coefficient of 4.5 m2/day, and belong to transmissivity class IV-(III)c. In general, the rocks pertain to transmissivity classes IV and III, representing low to intermediate transmissivity in magnitude. Figure 3 shows the general regional trends in transmissivity. The transmissivity anomaly map for the Voltaian formation is presented in Figure 4. The areas marked apparently by very low transmissivity of class IV-V are delineated as zones of negative anomaly. Generally, these areas are considered less favourable for groundwater exploration since probable yields would be less than 8 L/min (Table 3). The regions that belong to transmissivity class III-II represent areas of positive anomaly. These regions offer better prospects for groundwater abstraction with borehole yield expected to be more than 120 L/min. The areas underlain by granites are associated mainly with low transmissivity, and belong to transmissivity class IV. The areas noted with very low transmissivity are marked as zones of negative anomalies, with expected yield of about 6 L/min. The yield at locations of positive anomalies is expected to exceed 60 L/min (Table 3). The Birimian and Tarkwaian are characterised in many places by low to intermediate transmissivity of classes IV and III. The expected yield in zones of negative anomalies would be only 7 L/min or less. However, in those areas of positive anomalies the probable yields of wells would be more than 85 L/min. The Togo and Buem rocks also give intermediate to low transmissivity classes III-IV in most places (Figure 2). The probable yields in areas of negative transmissivity anomalies would be less that 10 L/min, whereas in zones of positive transmissivity anomalies, the expected yield will be at least 65 L/min. The groundwater potential of zones of negative anomaly in the Dahomeyan gneiss could be very low. The yield of wells would be less than 6 L/min, with little prospects for groundwater abstraction. At those areas marked as positive transmissivity anomalies yields are expected to be more than 35 L/min.

8

DISCUSSION

The analysis and results drawn from these specific capacity modifications are based mainly on statistical averaging on regional scales, without accounting for several other factors that could contribute to groundwater movement and storage in fractured and weathered rocks. Related variables such as topographic setting, structural factors, well construction and discharge, primary use of water and water quality should also be considered and investigated in detail before any conclusions on local scales could be made. The results presented are however, the sum total of the interplay of all these contributing factors on the accumulation and water-yielding properties of the fractured rocks on regional scale. The regional distribution of transmissivity and the transmissivity anomalies in the various geological formations generally follow the trend of borehole yields in Ghana, as obtained from yield maps reported by Dapaah and Gyau-Boakye (2000). The borehole yields are higher in zones of positive transmissivity anomalies and vice-versa. The effect of the transmissivity differences on the probable yields of wells has been expressed based on a generally available drawdown of 5 m. Though this could result in an underestimation of maximum possible yield, it provides a useful and robust estimation of sustainable yield for the test to which the aquifers were subjected.

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Using the same methodology, results obtained from transmissivity studies in hardrock areas in Ghana were compared with those from the Czech part of the Bohemian Massif (Darko and Krásny´ 1998). It was found out that the fields of prevailing transmissivity, expressed as cummulative relative frequences, of all the Ghanaian formations were shifted to the right, i.e. to higher values, compared with values from the Bohemain Massif. High transmissivity in some boreholes drilled in the Voltaian that are reported in hundreds of m2/day might be attributed to occurrences of sandstones and limestones. Other differences determined in prevailing transmissivity of hard rocks in Ghana and in the Czech Republic, however, cannot be unambiguously explained. They could be caused by different duration of pumping tests (shorter in Ghana). Differences in the type of weathering could be an additional factor. Weathering in a tropical country like Ghana has been more intensive and therefore disintegration of rocks might be deeper and more extensive than within the Bohemian Massif. Due to enormous variety of natural conditions in such an extended country as Ghana, detailed analysis and additional studies would reveal significant differences within particular geological formations depending on their petrology, structure, way of weathering, topographic and hydrogeological position etc. In future, such analysis should be made as one of the important approaches towards a quantitative regionalisation of hydrogeological data. Therefore, the presented results can be considered only as the first attempt of regional treatment of transmissivity data.

9

CONCLUSIONS

The quantitative assessment of specific capacity and its modifications has enabled the delineation of local transmissivity anomalies to depict prospective zones for groundwater exploration, and to estimate the probable yield of wells in the various hydrogeological units in Ghana. In zones of negative transmissivity anomalies, the probable yields range from 6 L/min in the Dahomeyan to 10 L/min in the Togo and Buem formation. These yields are not adequate to support a hand-pump based rural water supply since the minimum requirement is 13.5 L/min. The expected yields in zones of positive anomalies range from 35 to 120 L/min in the Dahomeyan and Voltaian rocks respectively. The yields expected from areas of positive anomalies are about 6–15 times higher when compared with yields expected from areas of negative anomalies (6–10 L/min). Detailed investigations in zones of positive transmissivity anomalies could reveal potential aquifers where large volumes of groundwater could be abstracted. Even though natural groundwater resources in the hard rock environment in Ghana usually do not represent a limit for groundwater development, in regions with high rock transmissivity recharge can be insufficient and might not support intense regional groundwater withdrawals. Under local climatic conditions in SW Ghana, only groundwater resources as high as 1.6 L/s/km2 could be considered the threshold of groundwater exploitation as assessed in the Pra river catchment by conceptual hydrological modelling (Darko 2002, Darko & Krásny´ 2003). The rainfall in Ghana, which grades continuously from the south to the north (annual totals changing from 2200 to 1000 mm), does not seem to strongly influence the regional transmissivity or distribution of yield. It can therefore be concluded that geology is much more important than climatic factors in rock transmissivity and groundwater potential.


REFERENCES Brown RH (1963) Estimating the transmissivity of an artesian aquifer from the specific capacity of a well. U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1536-I, pp 336–338 Dapaah-Siakwan S, Gyau-Boakye P (2000) Hydrogeological framework and borehole yields in Ghana. Hydrogeology Journal. V 6, pp 405–416 Darko PK (2001) Quantitative aspects of hard rock aquifers; regional evaluation of groundwater resources in Ghana. PhD Thesis, Charles University, Prague Darko PK (2002) Estimation of natural direct groundwater recharge in SW Ghana using water balance simulations. J.Hydrol.Hydromech, 50, 3:198–212 Darko PK, Krásny´ J (1998) Comparison of hardrock hydraulic parameters in distinct climatic zones: the Ghana and the Bohemian Massif areas. In: Annau R, Bender S, Wohnlich S (eds): Hardrock Hydrogeology of the Bohemian Massif. Proc. 3rd Internat. Workshop 1998, Windischeschenbach, Münchner Geol. Hefte, B8, 3–10, München Darko PK, Krásny´ J (2000) Adequate depth of boreholes in hard rocks: a case study in Ghana. In: Sililo O. et al. (eds): Groundwater: Past achievements and future challenges. Proc. 30 IAH Congress, Nov.26–Dec.1,2000, 121–125. Cape Town. Balkema Rotterdam Darko PK, Krásny´ J (2003) Quantitative limits for groundwater exploitation under natural conditions in southwest Ghana. In: Krásny´ J, Hrkal Z, Bruthans J (eds): Proceedings – IAH Internat. Conference on “Groundwater in fractured rocks”, Sept. 15–19, 2003. Prague. 141–142, IHP-VI, Series on Groundwater 7. UNESCO Gill HE (1969) A groundwater reconnaissance of the Republic of Ghana, with a description of geohydrologic provinces. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1757-K, Washington Huntley D, Nommensen R, Steffey D (1992) The use of specific capacity to assess transmissivity in fractured-rock aquifers. Ground Water, V 30(3), pp 396–402 Jetel J, Krásny´ J (1968) Approximative aquifer characteristics in regional hydrogeological study. Vest. Ust. Geol. V 43 (5), Prague, pp 459–461 Knopman DS (1990) Factors related to the water-yielding potential of rocks in the Piedmont and Valley and Ridge provinces of Pennsylvania. U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation Report 90-4174, pp 52 Knopman DS, Hollyday EF (1993) Variation in specific capacity in fractured rocks, Pennsylvania. Ground Water, V 31 (1), pp 135–145 Krásny´ J (1993) Classification of transmissivity magnitude and variation. Ground Water, V 31 (2), pp 230–236 Krásny´ J (2000) Geologic factors influencing spatial distribution of hardrock transmissivity. In: Sililo O et al (eds): Groundwater: Past achievements and future challenges. Proc. 30 IAH Congress, Nov.26–Dec.1 2000, 187–191, Cape Town, Balkema, Rotterdam Long JCS, Remer JS, Wilson CR, Witherspoon PA (1982) Porous media equivalents for networks of discontinuous fractures. WRR, 18(3), pp 645–658 Razack M, Huntley D (1991) Assessing transmissivity from specific capacity in a large and heterogeneous alluvial aquifer. Ground Water, V 29 (6), pp 856–861 Water Research Institute (1999) Groundwater resources assessment of Ghana. WRI/CSIR, Accra, Ghana

CHAPTER 7

Hydrogeology of hard rocks in some eastern and western African countries Costantino Faillace Via Bari, Ciampino (Rome), Italy

ABSTRACT: This paper outlines the drilling results and the hydrogeological conditions of some eastern and western African countries with special focus on Liberia, Uganda, Somalia, and Mauritania, with high, moderate, scarce and negligible rainfall, respectively. It also summarizes drilling results of a few other African countries. Rainfall regime and intensity, jointly with the geomorphologic conditions, have great importance in the occurrence of groundwater in hard rocks of the reported countries. Borehole yield from fractured rocks is generally low. It can, however, satisfy the water requirements of small villages and for watering livestock. The problems related to poor groundwater quality in hard rocks of arid and semiarid countries and the possible alternative solutions to secure the needy water are also indicated. Alternative solutions to solve the pressing water problems are to construct, wherever conditions are appropriate, underground dams across dry river courses, sand storage dams or rock catchments.

1

INTRODUCTION

Hard rock outcrops are widely extended in various parts of the world, and cover about 20% of the land surface. Until a few decades ago, not much importance was given to the development of groundwater from hard rocks due to the belief that their water potential was negligible. The rapid increase in world population, especially in Africa and Asia, coupled with periodic droughts affecting extensive sub-desert areas of Africa, and the introduction of more efficient and cheaper drilling technology, boosted the well drilling programs in many countries. The United Nations have greatly contributed with numerous groundwater projects in more that 10 African countries, thus acquiring a better knowledge of the groundwater potential in many areas, especially those characterized by water scarcity. The information contained in this paper derives mainly from the direct experience of the author in Somalia, Uganda, Kenya and Liberia during the 18 years he spent in those countries while working for international groundwater development projects.

2

HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASPECTS AND DRILLING RESULTS IN SOME AFRICAN COUNTRIES

Most of the results of groundwater exploration projects have shown that hard rocks neither receive nor transmit water unless they are fractured or weathered. The relation of groundwater

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to structure and topography is quite important because it may indicate promising hydrogeological conditions; the stream courses, in fact, may be active recharge and discharge zones, often marking fault and shear zones along which groundwater movement occurs. The concept of the aquifer is therefore related more to the structural aspects of the hard rocks than to their properties as groundwater conductors. The fractures, often highly developed along the fault lines, and the effect of climatic action, determine the hydraulic characteristics of these rocks, the primary porosity being nearly nil. Therefore, the possibility that the igneous and metamorphic rocks act as aquifers can be correlated to the existence of fracture lines that intersect each other, and to highly weathered granite rock, which acts as a porous medium. A statistical evaluation of the type of fractures and their origin may help to identify possible groundwater occurrence. Any type of system of fractures and fissures often tends to decrease and ends up sealing itself off completely. There are, however, cases of deep fissures, especially those connected with regional faults and shear zones, along which the movement of groundwater can be turbulent. The flow is fed by a number of small fractures and fissures having a laminar flow, while the rock surrounding the fault zone may be dry or yielding little water. Groundwater investigations in Africa, which included the inventory of the water sources, drilling, and geophysical methods, have shown that there are three main potential waterbearing zones in hard rocks: (1) the upper sandy-clay zone with residual blocks of rock, (2) the zone of weathered and fractured rock, and (3) the zone of fresh, rarely fractured rock. The electrical resistivity method has been extensively used in many African countries; it allows estimation of the approximate thickness of the weathered and fractured rock. The results, however, were not always of clear interpretation. The seismic refraction method, instead, gives more accurate information on the thickness and discontinuity between the fresh and fractured rock, and on the location of depressions in the compact, solid rock; in particular; it helps in identifying low-velocity zones, such as the shear zones, which are potentially water bearing. Bernardi (1973) reported the relation between the thickness of the aquifer and the well yield in 32 boreholes drilled in Togo and Upper Volta in depressions of the basement detected by the seismic refraction method. The results were the followings: – where the unfractured rock was deeper than 30 m, all boreholes were successful; in seven cases the yield was between 2 and 5 m3/h, and in 10 boreholes the yield was between 5 and 15 m3/h; and – where the unfractured rock was less than 20 m deep, 4 out of 5 boreholes had a very low yield, generally less than 1 m3/h. The upper section is generally dry, but it may be water-bearing wherever the water table is close to the surface. The middle section may be divided into the upper deeply-weathered part and in the lower fissured one, which is, in most cases, the major water-bearing section of the crystalline rock. Groundwater in the underlying solid rock may occur only in deep, occasional fissures. The main water-bearing areas are often characterized by the irregular distribution of the water level in wells and the rapid change in chemical composition in neighbouring wells.

Hydrogeology of hard rocks in some eastern and western African countries

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Rainfall, with its three factors of regime, intensity, and values of evapo-transpiration, plays a very important role in the availability of groundwater. This paper describes the hydrogeological conditions of hard rocks in four African countries: Liberia, Uganda, Somalia and Mauritania, with high, moderate, scarce and negligible rainfall, respectively, and reports the drilling results of some other African countries.

3

LIBERIA

Gneisses, shists and other metamorphic rocks, collectively referred as crystalline rocks, cover most of Liberia, West Africa. Rainfall ranges between 1,800 mm/year along the border with Guinea to 4,400 mm/year along the coast. The great availability of surface water obtained from various sources such as rivers and creeks, of springs and of shallow groundwater sources (e.g., in seepage zones and of various water holes and shallow hand-dug wells) has, to a certain extent, delayed the assessment of the groundwater conditions of the country. The bloody civil war that has been going on for more than 23 years has prevented the development of groundwater projects; consequently, the groundwater resources of the country have not yet been evaluated. Groundwater in Liberia can be easily tapped by shallow hand-dug wells in high rainfall areas along the coast, even if located in watersheds, so far as they have penetrated thick laterite or weathered rock cover. The mantle covering the crystalline rocks ranges between 3 to 15 m. 3.1

Hydrogeological conditions

A few pump tests of the laterite aquifer have shown that the yield of dug wells varies from 2 to 20 L/min. It seems that the mantle above the coarse-grained rock, if thick enough, will always yield sufficient water for domestic water supply. Crystalline rocks such as foliated coarse-grained granite rocks and quartz-feldspatic gneisses are generally water bearing. It is sometimes possible to increase the well yield by drilling to a depth of 100 m or more. Experience, however, has shown that in spite of the high rainfall, 50 out of 231 boreholes (21.6%) drilled in the late seventies for rural village water supply were reported dry. The successful boreholes, with depths ranging from 10 to 31 m, were located mainly in low-lying areas where water was met in laterite and in weathered and fractured rock. Boreholes with depths of less than 15 m found little water. Seventy-five percent of boreholes with an average depth of 30 m had a substantial yield, 15 of which had penetrated the bedrock; 25% of the boreholes yielded little water (Faillace, 1979). The four shallow test drillings for the Zwedru water supply, with depths ranging from 15 to 20 m, had a low yield, varying from 0.1 to 1.5 L/s (GKW, 1973). Deeper boreholes, drilled for the water supply of six towns, gave better results. In fact, in 50–60 boreholes that penetrated deep into gneiss, shists and other metamorphic rocks that cover that country, groundwater conditions were rather good compared to other African countries. In particular, 16 boreholes with an average depth of 105 m, drilled in Bhuchanan for domestic and industrial purposes, had an average yield of 5,000 L/h. In six additional exploratory boreholes drilled for the same town, the average yield was 7,400 L/h. Borehole No. 6, in particular, was pump-tested when its depth was 102 m, obtaining 9,500 L/h. Its yield increased to 18,200 L/h after it was deepened to 151 m, while

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its specific capacity rose from 190 and 260 L/m of drawdown. Groundwater conditions, however, vary from place to place, and even within short distances. The average specific capacity of wells in Bhuchanan was 0.423 m3/h/m, with a range between 0.017 and 2.240 m3/h/m (GKW, 1980). Not one of the deep boreholes was reported dry. The best results were obtained in coarse-grained, layered crystalline rocks where groundwater was found in more permeable layers acting as aquifers. 3.2 Water quality Water quality is characterized by a low salt content. However, high iron content and low pH are the main water problems in Liberia. Groundwater in the laterite mantle contains iron in solution in the ferrous state and, when it comes in contact with the oxygen of the air is precipitated as ferric oxide. If not removed, people will not accept it; furthermore, it may partly plug pipes and clog the screen with consequent reduction of the yield and shortening the life of the well. Another major problem is the low pH of the water, in most cases below 6.5 and as low as 3.5. The low pH affects all the metallic parts of the pump, with severe corrosion and consequent malfunctioning and breakdown of some parts.

4

UGANDA

The groundwater location in fissured rocks of Karamoja District, Uganda, was investigated by a UNDP project, using methods including exploration drilling, correlation of data from previously drilled wells, geomorphology, photo-interpretation, and electrical resistivity and seismic refraction methods. Karamoja covers an area of 30,000 km2, with igneous and metamorphic rocks; its average yearly rainfall is 800 mm, ranging from 500 to 1,140 mm/year. The rocks underlying the District belong to the metamorphic suite, including biotite gneiss, granulite, quartzite, and marble. Much of the Karamoja featureless plain is covered by black heavy soil, which facilitates a fast run-off during torrential rains and limits infiltration into the underlying basement complex. 4.1

Borehole location and drilling method

The 92 exploration boreholes drilled in the District were sited using various methods such as the resistivity and seismic refraction, photo-interpretation, geological analysis of the results of previous drilling. Most of the boreholes were drilled to check such methods and to test geo-morphological features. All boreholes were drilled by cable-tool rigs, which allowed the collection of very representative rock samples and enabled a precise detection of the sequence of water entries and bailer testing. All boreholes were wire-logged for temperature, resistivity, calliper, and gamma ray. Several boreholes were blasted to investigate the effect of blasting on the yield. 4.2

Geophysical results

Electrical resistivity profiling and sounding methods proved to be of little use as fissure systems could not be detected, and the true thickness of the weathered and fractured zone


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Figure 1. Schematic section representing vertical hydrogeological zonation of hard rocks in Karamoja, Uganda, also showing the hypothetical morphological location of boreholes and their yield results. Borehole No. 1, located on the slope, struck a number of dry fissures and a deep, isolated low-yielding water-bearing fissure with water under sub-artesian conditions. Borehole No. 2, located on a slope, met a number of dry fissures and solid rock without fractures. Borehole No. 3, located in a lower position, struck a moderate amount of water in the weathered and fractured rock and deep fissures of the underlying solid rock. Borehole No. 4, located at the base of the slope, struck a much higher amount of water from the highly weathered and fractured rock, which acts as a regular aquifer under sustained pumping.

could not be measured with any accuracy. Seismic refraction, instead, was quite useful to detect potentially water-bearing, “low-velocity zones” in metamorphic rocks. 4.3

Hydrogeological conditions

Three zones, potentially water-bearing under favourable geomorphological conditions, have been distinguished in hard rocks of Karamoja District (Figure 1): – the upper sandy-clay zone with residual blocks, which is generally dry unless the water table is close to the surface due to local conditions; – the middle weathered and fractured zone with its upper, deeply weathered part, and the lower fissured part. This is the main water-bearing section of the metamorphic rocks when located in bottom valleys, where it can be recharged directly by streams, rain water or lateral inflow. It is generally dry on divides, steep slopes and deeply eroded pediments; and – the deep zone with fresh, rarely fractured rock, where water, under sub-artesian conditions, is occasionally found in fissures, often not interconnected. Groundwater exploration from fresh rock resulted extremely difficult in Karamoja as it is not possible to predict striking water-bearing fissures in any given point.

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Figure 2. Examples of drawdown and recovery curves from pumped wells in metamorphic rocks in Karamoja, Uganda. Well CD2340 (left): yield decreased from 109 to 89.5 L/min; the abrupt breakdown of the drawdown curve indicates that the initial equilibrium between the pumping level (drawdown) and discharge was only apparent. Well No. 3645 (right): yield decreased from 156.6 to 147.5 L/min. The progressively steeping curve indicates that the aquifer is limited, bounded by barriers, and rapidly exhausted by the pumping.

It has been observed that when the dynamic water level is in the phreatic zone, the drawdown curve is smooth and gradual; but when this zone is dewatered, the drawdown in the underlying fresh rock drops rapidly to the point where the well cuts the first major deep fissure. This process will continue until the fissure system is de-watered, as in the case of borehole No. 3 in Figure 1. Some examples of drawdown and recovery curves from pumped wells in metamorphic rocks are reported below and represented in Figures 2 and 3. In most of the boreholes drilled in Karamoja, a decrease of specific capacity was observed when pumped at increased rates. Estimates of specific yield could be possible provided the water level was steady at points above the water entry. It has to be considered that the last water entry is the base of the active water-bearing section; it is therefore incorrect to estimate the specific capacity when the water level drops below this point. In some boreholes the dynamic water level was steady for a given yield for many hours, but after increasing the discharge rate of only a few gallons, the level dropped abruptly to the pump cylinder with a consequent severe drop of the specific capacity (see graph of well CD2340 – Figure 2, left). In borehole No. 4026 (Figure 3, left), the step drawdown pump test showed a drop of the specific capacity from 22.8 L/min during the first step to 18.8 L/min in the second step, with a further drop to 9.7 L/min in the third step. In boreholes tapping alluvial deposits and weathered and fractured rock, the saturated section acts as a normal phreatic aquifer and, therefore, the specific capacity was nearly constant while pumping at increasing discharge rates.


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Figure 3. Examples of drawdown and recovery curves from pumped wells in Karamoja, Uganda. Well No. 4026 (left): step drawdown curve – the specific capacity decreased with increased yield. Well No. 1006 (right): step drawdown pump test – the specific capacity increased with increased yield.

There have also been a few boreholes in which specific capacity increased with the increased discharge rate. In Well No.1006 (Figure 3, right) during the first step with a sustained flow of 53.3 L/min, the specific capacity was 2.58 L/min/m of drawdown; during the second step, with 98.89 L/min of flow, it rose to 3.33 L/min/m and, finally, during the third step, with 133 L/min, the equilibrium was not reached. This anomalous behaviour is attributed to the dewatering of large, deep cavities in the hard rock. In this case the initial recovery of the water level is quite slow as can be observed in Figure 3 as well. 4.4

Importance of geomorphology

The UN groundwater project drilled 92 exploratory boreholes located under the following five different geomorphologic conditions: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Flat Valley (F.V.) – well-defined bottom valley River Side (R.S.) – alluvial strip over basement along a river Flat Plain (F.P.) – open plain or flat pediment Pediment (P.) – junction between plain and hills Watershed (WS.) – in hilly country

The results are summarised in Table 1. The best results of the 71 successful boreholes (78.2%) were obtained in the bottom of small valleys, where storage was combined with good permeability and good recharge. The water entries in almost all the successful boreholes were above 100 m, with the exception of one case with water entry below 100 m. The best average yield and specific capacities were obtained between 45 and 78 m; however, considering the overall results, the optimum depth of the wells in the metamorphic rocks of Karamoja lies between 30 and 90 m. In most cases, the good results were due to deep weathering of the basement rock overlaid by alluvial cover. However, even in these conditions, well yields were very variable: large differences in yield occurred in boreholes located only a few meters apart, despite being drilled in similar conditions. This shows that the type of weathering and structural features, rather than rock lithology, determines water-bearing properties of metamorphic rock and crystalline rocks, in general.

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Table 1. Comparison of results of 92 exploratory boreholes located under different geomorphologic conditions in Karamoja, Uganda. Number of boreholes and their location

Average yield per borehole (L/min)

Average depth per borehole (m)

Number of failures

Percentage of failures

14 – F.V. 45 – R.S. 11 – F.P. 14 – P. 8 – WS.

228 126 65 40 28

85.96 91.75 96.32 111.26 121.92

1 6 3 6 6

7.1 13.3 27.2 42.6 75

4.5

Groundwater movement

The movement of groundwater in Karamoja is generally restricted to small and irregular areas. This has been demonstrated by: – the absence of any real groundwater chemical composition evolution along the hypothetical groundwater gradient; – the impossibility to produce a regional water table map, as adjacent wells often have quite different water levels; and – the large difference in yield occurring in adjacent wells.

5

SOMALIA

The basement complex in Northern Somalia covers extensive areas with a variety of metamorphic and intrusive rocks, often covered by an alluvial mantle through which rainwater seeps and recharges its fissures. Groundwater has a large variety of salinity due to the interrelation with bordering sedimentary rocks and to other local conditions. No systematic groundwater investigation, however, has been carried out in the basement complex. The basement complex in Southern Somalia is noteworthy for the outcrops in the “Bur Area”, a large peneplain of about 30,000 km2, with a number of impressive inselbergs of granite and granite-gneiss rocks (“burs”) which dominate the featureless plain. Most of the plain is covered by lateritic red sand and alluvial black clay overlying the eroded metamorphic rocks, which include quartzite, micashists and marble. The average rainfall of the area is 600 mm/year. Numerous large temporary rivers, with NNW-SSE direction, drain the area. The low infiltration due to alluvial black clay cover of large areas and the consequent fast runoff cause the over-flooding of large areas where water is lost by evaporation. 5.1

Groundwater investigation

Groundwater investigation was carried out by several projects and included the inventory of water sources, electrical resistivity surveys and exploratory drilling. About 90 boreholes were drilled during the period 1950–1990 for groundwater exploration, township water supply, or for watering stock. Drilling in the Bur Region has proved to be difficult and expensive. In fact, most of the boreholes were either dry or yielded brackish/salty water; only a few struck water of acceptable quality for the Somali standard.


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The deepest borehole, 123 m, was drilled for Madax Marodi where water of poor quality was struck at 80 m. The small freshwater-bearing lenses at the base of the “burs” are reliable sources of water for small communities during severe water shortages. Groundwater quality varies from place to place and even in the same locality, such as is the case of the following places: – Buur Akaba: the E.C. varies from 850 to 8,100 micromhos/cm in hand-dug wells, and from 1,140 to 49,000 micromhos/cm in drilled wells; – Diinsoor: in adjacent wells the E.C. values ranged from 2,000 to 16,000 micromhos/cm; The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of 70 water samples collected from both dug and drilled wells are summarised as follows: – – – –

2 g/L in 51% 2 to 4 g/L in 20% 4 to 8 g/L in 23% 5 g/L in 6%

Sodium chloride type of water was predominant in 44 samples, followed by sodium bicarbonate in 8 samples and calcium chloride in 6 samples, and various other types for the remaining samples. The temporary river courses store considerable amounts of water in their sand river beds; water quality, however, is highly variable, even within very short distances. The hundreds of rudimentary open holes and pits dug into their riverbeds are the main water sources for the nomadic people and their herds. 5.2

Main findings

The results of the groundwater investigation of the Bur Area concur with the findings that: – The best hydrogeological conditions in the area are along the temporary watercourses, the “Wadis”, where numerous open wells tap water from alluvial deposits and weathered rocks. Water quality varies from marginal to brackish, but people and livestock accept it. Water salinity increases rapidly just at short distances from the “sand river” beds. – The irregular distribution of the water levels in wells and the rapid change in chemical composition in neighbouring wells reflect the discontinuity of these small, locallyrecharged, groundwater bodies. In some cases, open wells in the headwaters of some streams yield water with a higher salinity than those located in the intermediate sections. – Prospects to construct shallow open wells and infiltration galleries along the temporary watercourses, as well as to construct small earth dams (with the dual objective of impounding water to be used locally for watering stocks or for mini irrigation), are good. These structures are also useful for recharging the downstream shallow open wells. – Additional water sources can be created by constructing: (a) underground dams to stop the underground flow of temporary streams; (b) small dams across rocky stream beds to store sand upstream of the dam, thereby creating small artificial aquifers. This type of dam is constructed in stages to allow, over the years, storage of enough water upstream of the dam. Stored water can be tapped by infiltration galleries to be constructed across the “sand river”, with the intake on the riverbank. (c) rock catchments, to impound runoff water in masonry or concrete walls, to be constructed in appropriate sites in selected Burs.

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Table 2.

Results of drilled boreholes from hard rocks of several African.

Country

Borehole depth, m

Rock type

Yield, m3/h

Botswana Cameroon Mali Mauritania Togo Upper Volta

40–240 10–45 40–45 10–70 17–70 20–55

Granite, quartzite Gneiss, granite-schist Dolerite, schist Weathered granite-gneiss Shist, granite, granite-gneiss Granite, granito-schist

4–55 0.5–20 0.5–6 0.5–4 0.2–10 0.5–6

6

MAURITANIA AND OTHER AFRICAN COUNTRIES

In Western Mauritania, characterized by extremely arid conditions with a rainfall of only 100 mm/year, four main sitings have been identified as favourable to the occurrence of groundwater: foothills, dykes, tectonic disturbances, and depressions located in closed drainage (Dijon 1977). The depth of the boreholes drilled mainly in granite and gneiss rocks ranged from 15 to 70 m, with an average of 30–40 m. Drilling results were very poor; in Amsaga only 15% of the boreholes struck water. Borehole yield ranged between 0.05 to 2 m3/hour. Groundwater, in most cases, was highly saline. In these conditions water-well drilling is a very expensive operation. Dijon also reports the drilling results of several other African countries, some of which are summarised in Table 2. In Cameroon, where rainfall ranges between 500 and 800 mm/year, shallow exploratory boreholes with depths of 15 to 30 m were drilled in fractured and weathered granito-gneiss rocks. Their yield was up to 2 m3/hour, while those drilled in sands overlying schists and granite ranged between 20 and 50 m3/hour. Out of 98 slightly deeper drilled boreholes (35–40 m), only 53 were productive (53%); with yields ranging between 0.5 and 4.0 m3/hour; in exceptional cases yields reached 10–15 m3/hour (Dijon 1977). 7

CONCLUSIONS

From the overall analyses of the groundwater conditions prevailing in hard rocks covering many African countries, the following general conclusions can be drawn: – Rainfall regime and intensity, jointly with the geomorphologic conditions, have great importance in the occurrence of groundwater in hard rocks of the reported countries. – Regional hardrock aquifers, in most cases, do not exist. – The groundwater occurrence is irregular and is related mainly to the weathering and fracturing of the rock, but not to its composition. – Water in solid, unfractured rocks may be found in deep, isolated fissures, occasionally interconnected. – The probability of striking water-bearing fissures decreases with the depth of the well. – Borehole yield from fractured rocks is generally low. It can, however, satisfy the water requirements of small villages and for watering livestock. – Depths of successful wells in hard rocks may range from 10 to 100 meters. – Promising hydrogeological conditions are found along river banks of well-defined, narrow alluvial plains where high-yield boreholes may strike water-bearing alluvial


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deposits and thick weathered and fractured hard rocks. Such boreholes, as well as largediameter open wells and infiltration galleries, are the main water sources for the irrigation of narrow alluvial riverine belts in hard-rock terrain. – Water-quality problems affect most of the areas characterised by arid and semi-arid conditions; alternative solutions to solve the pressing water problems are to construct, wherever conditions are appropriate, underground dams across dry river courses, sand storage dams or rock catchments.

REFERENCES Bernardi A. (1973) Ricerca di acqua nelle formazioni cristalline e metamorfiche dello zoccolo Africano – Possibilita’ e limiti dei metodi sismico a rifrazione, elettrico e magnetico. Proceedings of the 2nd Convegno internazionale delle acque sotterranee, Palermo, Italy. Biemi J. & Sarrot-Reynauld J. (1993) Infiltration and groundwater flow conditions in the fissured Pre-Cambrian basement (Ivory Coast). Proceedings of the XXIVth Congress of AH, Hydrogeology of Hard Rocks, Oslo, Norway. Dijon R. (1977) Ground-water exploration and development in hard rocks in Africa, International Seminar on Ground Water in Hard Rocks, Stockholm 1977. Faillace C. (1973) Location of groundwater and the determination of the optimum depth of wells in metamorphic rocks of Karamoja, Uganda, proceedings of 2° convegno internazionale sulle acque sotterranee, Palermo, Italy. Faillace C. & Faillace E. (1987) Water Quality Data Book of Somalia – Hydrogeology and Water Quality of Southern Somalia, GTZ , Eschborn, Germany. Faillace C. (1979) Evaluation of the rural water programme in Liberia. Internal report, UN Lir/77/004 Water Resources Policy, Management and Legislation, Monrovia, Liberia. GKW Consulting Engineers (1973) Liberia Water Supply. Feasibility study for six towns, Zwedru. Unpublished report. GKW (1980) Water sector study – Data collection and analysis. Report on groundwater resources. Planning for water supply system in Liberia. Unpublished report.

CHAPTER 8

The fractured rocks in Hellas George Stournaras1, George Migiros2, George Stamatis2, Niki-Nikoletta Evelpidou3, Konstantinos Botsialas1, Barbara Antoniou1 and Emmanuel Vassilakis1 1

University of Athens, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, Dep. of Dynamic, Tectonic and Applied Geology, Panepistimioupoli Athens Greece 2 Agricultural University of Athens, Lab. of Mineralogy-Geology, Iera Odos Athens Greece 3 University of Athens, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, Dep. of Geography and Climatology, Panepistimioupoli Athens Greece

ABSTRACT: The contribution deals with geotectonic position and hydrogeological behaviour of hard-fractured rocks (mainly igneous, metamorphic, but not karstified carbonate rocks, as defined by the I.A.H Commission on Hardrock Hydrogeology). In particular geotectonic zones within the Hellenic territory their lithological and structural conditions are characterised. The main aquifers are defined with general features of groundwater flow related to the formation of the rock mass fractures. Five typical hardrock areas were selected for a detailed hydrogeological analysis.

1

INTRODUCTION

In Hellas, hard-fractured rocks are extended in many areas (Figure 1). From a geotectonic point of view the territory corresponds to the Aegean or Hellenic Arc, in which the African plate converges to the European. The alpine orogenetic system of Hellas, the so-called Hellenides, is composed by a set of geotectonic zones, extended primarily in N-S direction, changing southwards, in an E-W direction. Hellenides are subdivided to the following zones (Figure 2): (a) Internal (eastern) Hellenides: Rhodope Massif, Servo-Macedonian Massif (or zone), Axios Zone, Pelagonian Zone, Sub-Pelagonian Zone or Eastern Hellas Zone; (b) External (western) Hellenides: Parnassos Zone, Pindos Zone (or Pindos-Olonos zone), Gavrovo – Tripolis Zone, Ionian Zone and Paxi Zone. At this point it should be mentioned that, in the frame of the Alpine orogenetic phase, some tectonometamorphic – tectonic units, have been created subparallel and transverse to Hellenides structures. The most significant of them is the Atticocycladic unit and the Olympos – Ossa and Almyropotamos tectonic windows, which geotectonically correspond to the external Hellenides. We find that the fractured rocks occur mainly in the Internal Hellenides related to metamorphic rocks and ophiolites (Mountrakis 1985, Ferriere 1982, Katsikatsos et al. 1986, Krásny´ 2002, Meyer & Pilger 1963).

134


Figure 1.

2

The fractured rock outcrops in Hellas.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GEOTECTONIC ZONES

(1) Rhodope Massif is characterized by the occurrence of gneiss (mainly orthogneiss), schists (mica-schist) and amphibolites, in alterations with marble horizons. The magmatic rocks are composed of Carboniferous to Cretaceous plutonic masses (granites, granodiorites, monzonites and diorites) and Eocene to Oligocene volcanic rocks (rhyolites, dacides, andesites and dolerites). The main aquifers of the Rhodope massif are related mainly with the metamorphic rocks, which are the typical fractured media included within the considered fractured rocks environment. Even in the case of the marble sequence, where karstification occurs, the horizons of schist and amphibolites into the sequence as intercalations could be included in the fissured rock sequence, and both plutonic and eruptive rocks are included within the considered fissured rocks. (2) Servo-Macedonian Massif (or zone) is composed by a thick metamorphic formation of marbles, schists and gneisses, with intercalation of amphibolites, which is crosscut by Paleozoic to Oligocene granites. In the upper part of the sequence metagabbros, metadiabases, amphibolites and bodies of serpentinites are tectonically emplaced. The composition of the Servo–Macedonian corresponds to the typical hydrogeological environment of the fractured rock aquifers. (3) Axios Zone is characterized by the intense tectonic events, where folding and thrusting occur and is subdivided (from E to W) in the sub-zones of: (a) Paeonia, (b) Paiko and (c) Almopia. The formations that occur are: (a) sedimentary and volcanosedimentary

The fractured rocks in Hellas

Figure 2.

135

Geotectonic sketch map of Hellenides.

formations of Mesozoic age. These formations are composed of cherts, limestones, volcanic beds and intrusions, tuffs, and pyroclastics. (b) ophiolitic formations, which are mainly ultrabasic rocks, gabbros, pyroxenites, and basaltic lavas with intercalations of pelagic sediments and (c) formations of altered schists, sandstones, conglomerates, and limestones that are of Upper Jurassic-Cretaceous age. Due to the intense tectonics and to the nature of the formations, Axios zone is a classic example of the fractured rocks hydrogeological environment. (4) Pelagonian Zone is composed by the following formations, from base to top: (a) crystalline basement consists of gneisses, granites/migmatites, schists and amphibolites; (b) Permian-Triassic meta-clastic sequence with volcanic rocks and tuffs; (c) TriassicJurassic carbonate sequences (marbles and dolomites) that correspond to the platform sedimentation of Alpine system. (d) ophiolitic formations that constitute an extent tectonic nappe; (e) Cretaceous formations composed of crystalline limestones and metaflysch. Gneisses, schists, granites, and ophiolites are typical example of discontinuous media included within this zone.

136


(5) Sub-Pelagonian Zone is characterized by the intense lithological transformations over its whole extent. The stratigraphy of the zone, from base to top, is: (a) Neo-Paleozoic formations that are composed of sandstones, phylittes and schists; (b) Lower-Middle Triassic formations that are composed of sandstones, basic volcanic rocks and intercalations of limestones; (c) Middle Triassic-Upper Jurassic neritic limestones that include radiolarites, pellites, clay schists, etc; (d) Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous clastic formations that are composed of radiolites, conglomerates, sandstones, and shales with olistostromes of ophiolites; (e) Pre-upper Cretaceous tectonic nappe, of volcano-sedimentary formations and ophiolites; (f ) Upper Cretaceous limestone and flysch formations. The Neo-Paleozoic formations and the pre-upper Cretaceous formations of the tectonic nappe constitute the principal fracture rocks environment in this zone. (6) Parnassos Zone is characterized by continuous Mesozoic neritic carbonate formations, typical karst configuration, and intense paleogeographic evolution, which fortmed three characteristic bauxite horizons. The carbonates pass upwards to flysch of Upper Cretaceous Lower Paleocene age. Pre-alpine basement is not recognized in this zone, and eruptive rocks are totally absent. The absence of crystalline or igneous rocks and the simultaneous presence of karst configuration in the neritic formations, excludes this zone from the typical hydrogeological environment of the fractured rock aquifers. (7) Pindos-Olonos Zone is the “backbone” of the Hellenides Mountains and is characterized by deep sea sedimentary formations. Lithologically, the older deposits are dolomites and limestones of Middle-Triassic age, which in some cases also overlie clastic rocks (sandstones) of Middle-Triassic age. Upper-Triassic limestones of pelagic phase are present with intercalations of cherts and shales. During the Jurassic, alteration of cherts, clay schists, pelagic limestones, and sandstones occurred. Lower Cretaceous altered breccias, conglomerates, sandstones,and shales are the dominant rocks with characteristics similar to those of the flysch. A second sequence of thin-bedded pelagic limestones overlies the first flysch until the start of Paleocene, where the typical flysch (alterations of sandstones, shales, with intercalation of conglomerates) occurs. Despite the absence of crystalline and igneous rocks in Pindos zone, thin bedded limestones, radiolarites, and some horizons of flysch (sandstone), due to the intense folding and thrusting, cause quick drainage of the groundwater. The aquifers in those formations present very similar properties with the typical hard rock aquifer, especially because these limestones are not significantly karstified. (8) Gavrovo-Tripolis Zone is composed by continuous neritic carbonates from the early stages to the end of Mesozoic. Limestones are thick-bedded to massive and are karstified. The carbonate rocks pass upward to the flysch formations of sand-stones, conglomerates, and shales. Groundwater flow in this zone is mainly controlled by large karstic conduits. Equivalent with this zone is the tectonic window of Olympos-Ossa. (9) Ionian Zone is characterized evaporates above which there is a thick Triassic carbonate sequence. The overlying Jurassic consists of altered cherts with marly limestones and shales overlain by red pelagic limestones with intercalations of cherts. The flysch (Upper Eocene-Lower Miocene) of Ionian zone is composed of altered marls and sandstones in its lower parts. The upper parts are composed of altered marls, marly limestones, and conglomerates. Despite the fact that this zone is characterized by the absence of crystalline or igneous rocks, some sequences present typical characteristics of hard rock aquifers due to the intercalation of cherts and of marly limestones.


137

(10) Attico-Cycladic Unit (Complex) consists of concatenations of tectonic covers and windows, of ophiolites and metamorphic rocks (schists, gneiss-schists, amphibolites, greenschists, and glaucophane schists). Plutonic intrusions of granitic composition are Miocene age. The Attico-Cycladic Unit corresponds to the typical hydrogeological environment of the fractured rocks. This is very important for the Cyclades Islands, where the fractured rocks are the principal aquifer in an environment of limited precipitation, strong evaporative conditions, and limited island surface.

3 CASE STUDIES (a) Xanthi area. The study area of the Xanthi region geotectonically is part of the Rhodope Massif and is characterized by marbles, gneisses, and schists (Figure 3) (Kronberg & Raith 1977, Meyer & Pilger 1963). The Rhodope Massif is subdivided into two tectonic units: (a) Sidironero with orthogneiss, micaschists, amphibolites, and intercalations of marbles and (b) Paggaeo, which consists of three sequences: (i) the lowest of orthogneiss, micaschists, schists and amphibolites (ii) the middle of marbles with intercalations of mica-schist and amphibolite, and (iii) the upper of schists and marbles. Plutonic rocks are granites, granodiorites, monzonites, and diorites. Their age ranges from Carboniferous to Cretaceous to Oligocene. The volcanic rocks of Rhodope are rhyolites, dacites, andesites, and dolerites,of Eocene-Oligocene age. The orientation analysis of the tectonic and microtectonic regime Rhodope Massif is shown on Figure 3(a).

Figure 3. Geological map of Xanthi area (western Rhodope): 1. Quaternary formations; 2. Neogene formations; 3. marbles; 4. schists and gneisses; 5. granites; 6. volcanic rocks (andesites and cacites); 7. ophilites (mainly ultra basic masses); 8. faults; 9. springs (S). (a) Rose Diagram of tectonic elements.

138


The fractured rocks encountered in the massif of Rhodope are: (a) metamorphic rocks: gneiss, schist, amphibolites, migmatites, and marbles; (b) plutonic rocks: granites, granodiorite, monzonites, and diorites); and (c) volcanic rocks: rhyolites, andesites, dacites, and dolerites. In the Xanthi study area springs emerge from marbles, volcanic rocks, granites, and schists. Thermal springs emerging from schists are also located (Table. 1, Figure 3). Springs emerging from marbles. At the northeastern part of Xanthi, schists are characterized by lenticular intercalations of marbles from which springs issue. Their chemical characteristics are shown in Table 1. Geochemically these springs are classified as normal geo-alkaline, (mainly bicarbonate) and belong to the hydrochemical type Ca—Mg—HCO3. The hardness ranges from 5.4 to 10.4°dH (German degrees), characterizing the water from soft to hard. TDS ranges between 179.6 and 350.0 mg/L with an average value of 250.0 mg/L. The dominant cations are the calcium and the magnesium the dominant anions are the bicarbonate and the sulfate. Generally, the waters are of good quality. Springs emerging from volcanic rocks. Volcanic rocks springs are characterized by low values of dissolved solids, low hardness, and their alkaline character. These waters contain few metals and are classified as geo-alkaline, corresponding to the hydrochemical type Ca Na Cl HCO3. Springs emerging from granites. The main characteristics of these springs are low dissolved solids, low hardness, and their alkaline character. They contain few metals and are classified as geo-alkaline, corresponding to the hydrochemical type Ca Na HCO3. Springs emerging from schists. The main characteristics of these springs are low dissolved solids, low hardness, and their alkaline character. The water is classified as normal geo-alkaline, corresponding to the hydrochemical type Ca Na Cl HCO3. The hydrogeological environment of these springs corresponds to the typical one of fractured rocks. Some of the springs emerge directly from fractures. In some other cases, groundwater percolates through the weathered mantle to the fractured zone and emerges through the intersection of the topographical surface and the fractured zone/bedrock contact. Thermal spring of Thermes. The thermal spring of Thermes (Figure 3, spring S5) is located in Xeropotamos basin and issues from schists. Its occurrence is strongly related to fracture pattern of the surrounding area. The water temperature ranges between 33°C and 43°C. The “Thermes” spring has the hydrochemical type Na Ca HCO3 (Table 1). The amount of the dissolved solids reaches 1200 mg/l. The spring has alkaline characteristics and, according to the temperature, is classified in the category of mesothermal springs. (b) Olympos–Ossa area. The geological composition of Olympos and Ossa mountains (Figure 4) is complicated. It is composed of several tectonic units, which are (Ferriere et al. 1998, Godfriaux 1962, Katsikatsos et al. 1982, Stamatis 1999, Stamatis & Migiros 2004): Olympos-Ossa Unit, which is a series of crystalline limestones and dolomites equivalent to the Gavrovo Zone, from Triassic up to Eocene. This series ends in slightly metamorphic flysch. Ampelakia Unit, which is mainly composed of schists, gneiss-schists, gneisses and prasinites, with some intercalations of marbles, meta-basalts, meta-greywacke and metapelites. The unit is characterized by blueschist phase metamorphism. From hydrogeological point of view, the formations of this unit present variable permeability connected to the presence of the gneisses or prasinites. Pelagonian Unit, which is a complex, entirely metamorphosed unit of gneisses, granites/ migmatites, amphibolites, schists, intercalations of marbles, and thrusts of metamorphosed

8,7 484 54,5 11,9 12,0 2,2 201,3 26,5

32,0 350,0 10,4 9,2 1,2

0,5 179,6 5,4 3,6 1,8

17,3

7,8 235 24,1 6,8 4,7 1,0 79,3 7,8

14,7

4,7 250,0 8,2 7,1 1,1

8,3 332 43,1 7,7 10,5 1,4 140,5 13,6

15,6 8,0 126 22,8 2,2 3,1 0,7 67,1 10,6 0 0,2 125,0 3,7 3,1 0,6

Min

Aver

Min

Max

Schists

Marble

8,1 185 27,6 2,4 4,0 1,3 88,4 12,4 0 17,0 135,0 4,4 4,1 0,3

Max

Hydrochemical characters of the springs the Xanthi area.

pH EC (µS/cm) Ca2(mg/l) Mg2(mg/l) Na(mg/l) K(mg/l) HCO 3 (mg/l) Cl(mg/l) SO42(mg/l) NO 3 (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) Tot. Hard.* Temp. Hard.* Perm. Hard*

T °C

Table 1.

8,0 156 25,2 2,3 3,6 1,0 77,8 11,5 0 8,6 130,0 4,0 3,5 0,5

Aver

8,8 11,5 8,8 1,5 9,2 4,1 32,9 5,3 2,5 0 81,5 2,8 2,8 0

Min

Granites

9,1 19,5 13,6 2,4 18,0 4,3 34,2 7,1 13,2 0 93,6 4,4 4,4 0

Max

9,0 15,5 11,2 2,0 13,6 4,2 33,5 6,2 7,8 0 87,6 3,6 3,6 0

Aver

7,5 61 6,0 1,0 5,2 0,9 12,2 5,7 38,4 0,0 37,9 1,1 0,1 1,0

Min

8,1 130 15,1 2,2 6,7 1,4 54,9 10,6 0,0 17,0 103,8 2,6 0,8 1,8

Max

Volcanic rocks

8,2 96 10,7 1,7 5,8 1,1 35,1 7,5 19,7 4,3 75,4 2,1 0,4 1,7

Aver

7,3 1369 136,4 10,0 171,8 19,6 652,7 64,5 144,5 1,0 1200 21,4 16,7 4,1

33–43

Thermal water

The fractured rocks in Hellas 139

140


Figure 4. Olympos-Ossa geological map. (a) Rose diagram of major fault, thrust and diaclase orientations of Olympos-Ossa region.

ophiolites (basic and ultra-basic rock formations). The gneisss are connected with improvement of the hydrogeological behavior. The main tectonic direction is N30°–60°W, which is combined with axes of structures, thrusts and faults. The direction N30°–70°E is a second major tectonic direction combined with axes of structures and faults. Related to the structural geology conditions that control groundwater flow within the fractured (hard) rocks of the given area, the rose diagram on Figure 4(a) shows that the orientation relation between folds and faults present a remarkable constancy. Some hydrogeological and hydrochemical characters of the discussed groundwater manifestations are given in Table 2. (c) Othrys area. Othrys is a mountain of Central Hellas consisting of Alpine formations that geotectonically belongs to the Sub Pelagonian zone. The fractured rocks are represented by the intercalations of basaltic lavas within a schist-chert sequence. Ophiolites and limestones are also present. The following sequences are encountered (Figure 5) (Ferriere 1982, Migiros 1990):

• • •

Chert-schist sequence. This is a thin-bedded formation of chert, clayey schist, siltstone, that is intensively tectonised and folded. Basaltic rock sequence. These are volcanic rocks, fractured and alternated with chert and siltstone intercalations. Ultrabasic rock sequence. Peridotites with variable serpentinization that are intensively fractured. In the base of the system gabbros, basaltys, and amphibolites are encountered.

The area’s faults and rupture surfaces are induced by the tensional post-orogenetic stresses.These are depicted in Table 4 and on Figure 5(a). Hydrogeologically, two groups of formations are distinguished at the base of their permeability. The first, mainly including

Aver

Min Max Aver

Ultrabasic Min Max

Metaflysch Aver

Min Max

Schists Aver Min

Max

Serpentinites Aver

Thermal water

14,9 13,63 11,5 17,6 13,83 6,5 12,3 9,8 9,6 13,6 11,98 11,4 14,6 13,2 7 7,2 7,1 14,5 7,4 7,2 7,3 7,5 7,43 7,1 7,9 7,48 6,8 8,2 7,3 6,7 7,6 7,3 7,1 7,5 7,3 5,3 465 375 250 375 317 65 436 259 203 582 314 162 505 334 234 348 291 2447,0 62,4 53,9 25,6 56 41,2 3,4 45 31,2 24 97,6 45,57 8,8 72,8 41,78 9,6 44,8 27,2 408,0 23 12,8 5,6 12,2 9,1 3,3 23,9 12,75 3,2 16,1 8,06 3,9 21,7 13,27 12,9 20,2 16,55 121,7 10,8 7,83 7,2 10,6 8,3 2,4 8,6 4,42 1,3 8,2 5,41 1,9 11,8 7,07 1,6 3,2 2,4 8,4 1 0,6 0,1 0,7 0,35 0,3 0,5 0,37 0,3 0,8 0,48 0,3 1,4 0,88 0,3 0,5 0,4 1,5 262,3 195,6 122 201,3 167,8 26,8 244 146,8 122 353,8 175,3 61 298,9 186,4 122,5 195,2 158,9 1750,7 24,8 15,2 14,2 24,8 18,6 3,5 17,7 12,4 5,3 17,7 12,3 5,3 28,4 14,9 5,3 7,1 6,2 14,2 26,9 22,47 2 43 16,13 4 33,5 12,23 4,5 27,5 12,71 6,2 24,1 16,4 8,6 9,5 9,05 4,0 8,7 3,37 0,4 3,1 1,18 0,2 4 1,07 0,2 3,4 1,04 1 7,2 2,51 0,2 0,3 0,25 0,5 408 312 190 341 262 48 374 221 184 521 260 109 457 283 171,0 270,0 220 2309,0 14 10,5 6,2 9,5 7,8 1,3 11,8 7,2 5 17,4 8,2 2,8 14,6 9,1 5,6 9 7,3 85,2 12 8,9 5,6 9,2 7,7 1,3 11,2 6,7 5,6 16,2 8,1 2,8 13,7 8,5 5,6 9 7,3 80,4 2 1,5 0 0,6 0,3 0 1,1 0,4 0 1,2 0,4 0 2 0,6 0 0 0 4,8

Min Max

Aver

Min

Max

Gneisses

Marble

Hydrochemical characters of the Olympos – Ossa area.

T°C 11,7 pH 7,1 EC (µS/cm) 277 Ca2(mg/l) 38,2 Mg2 (mg/l) 7,5 Na (mg/l) 5,3 K (mg/l) 0,4 HCO3 (mg/l) 136,6 Cl(mg/l) 7,1 SO42 (mg/l) 17,3 NO 0,2 3 (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) 213 Tot. Hard. °dH 7,1 Temp. Hard. °dH 6,3 Perm. Hard. °dH 0,8

Table 2.

The fractured rocks in Hellas 141

142


Figure 5. Geological map of Othrys Mt.: 1. Post Alpine formations, 2. Cretaceous formations, 3. Ultra basic masses, 4. Sedimentary-volcanosedimentary Triassic-Jurassic formations, 5. NeopaleozoicTriassic formations, f-f: Thrusts. (a) Rose diagram of tectonic elements. Table 3.

Hydrochemical characters of the springs in the Othrys area.

Electrical conductivity (µS/cm) pH Water temperature (°O) Air temperature (°O) Discharge (l/h) Permanent hardness °O dH Ca2 mg/l/meq/l Mg2 mg/l/meq/l Na mg/l/meq/l K mg/l/meq/l HCO 3 mg/l/meq/l Cl mg/l/meq/l SO42 mg/l/meq/l NO 3 mg/l/meq/l NO 2 mg/l/meq/l OH mg/l/meq/l SiO2 TDS

S1 A

S1 B

S1 C

S1 D

S1 E

565 11.1 22 28 226 6.18 43.2/2.1 0.5/0.04 21.6/0.9 0.78/0.02 0/0 27.66/0.8 2.4/0.05 0/0 0/0 25.16/1.5 4 153

532 11.1 20.8 28 226 6.12 42.4/2.1 0.7/0.06 21.6/2.1 0.78/0.02 0/0 26.6/0.7 3.36/0.07 0/0 0/0 23.80/1.4 6 152.97

540 11.0 19.2 28 1 5.5 38.4/1.9 0.5/0.04 29.4/1.3 0.78/0.02 0/0 30.1/0.8 4.80/0.10 0/0 0/0 23.46/1.4 19 171.79

729 10.9 24.2 28 960 2.13 15.2/0.7 0/0 111.3/4.8 2.35/0.06 0/0 90.4/2.5 21.61/0.45 6.20/0.10 0/0 22.44/1.32 36 345.17

385 10.8 23.5 29 50–100 4.55 32.4/1.6 0/0 19.78/0.8 0.78/0.02 0/0 23.05/0.6 3.84/0.08 0/0 0/0 13.7/0.8 19 143.28

the serpentinized peridotites, represent the most permeable sequence of the fractured rocks. The second group, including the chert-schist sequence and the volcanic rocks, represent the relatively less permeable sequence of the fractured rocks. Data from the wells and the springs of the Othrys area given in Table 3. (d) Euboea Island. Euboea Island is a complicated geological structure with the Pelagonian formations to the north, Sub-Pelagonian to the center and the tectonic window of Almyropotamos, equivalent to Olympos-Ossa, to the south. Therefore, we present the


143

Figure 6. Geotectonic map of Euboea-Attica and N. Cyclades: 1. Neogene and Quaternary formations; 2. Pelagonian zone; 2.1. Flysch; 2.2. Upper Cretaceous limestones; 2.3. Eohellenic nappe formations; 2.4. Middle Upper Triassic-Upper Jurassic limestones and dolomites; 2.5. Neopaleozoic-Middle Triassic formations; 2.6. Crystalline basement; 3. Neohellenic nappe; 3.1 Ochi unit; 3.2. Styra unit; 4. Autochthonous system; 5. Overthrust. (a) Lineament map of Central part.

hydrogeological conditions of the fractured rocks in two different areas, central and southern parts (Katsikatsos 1977, Stamatis & Gartzos 1999, Stamatis et al. 2005). (d1) Central part of Euboea Island. The central part of Euboea island corresponds to the typical structure of Sub-Pelagonian zone and consists of Palaeozoic basement covered by non metamorphic Mesozoic formations that present tectonic intercalations of ophiolites (Figure 6). The fractured rocks aquifers on the central (and north) Euboea mainly belong to the following sequences:

• • • •

The crystalline basement with a thickness over 800 m of gneiss and gneissic schist. The upper part is micaceous and amphibolitic schist; carbonate rocks are entirely absent. The Neopaleozoic sequence consists of sandstones, sandstones-schists, arkoses, graywackes, and clay schists. The Lower-Middle Triassic sequence consists of clayey-sandstones, basic volcanic rocks, and tuffs. The ophiolitic tectonic nappe is composed of volcano-sedimentary formations, ultra-basic bodies (serpentinized peridotites), gabbros, amphibolites, and basalts.

The main fractured aquifers are found in theophiolitic cover. Figure 6(a) depicts the lineaments in the ophiolitic cover, derived from a Landsat – 7 ETMimage, showing a NE-SW preferential orientation. (d2) Southern part of Euboea Island. The southern part of the island constitutes the Almyropotamos tectonic window, equivalent to the the Olympos-Ossa tectonic window (Figure 6). The Ochi and Styra units, corresponding to the Ampelakia unit, are composed of marbles, cipolines, schists and quartzites. The hydrogeological conditions of the southern part (Figure 7, 8), show that spring locations are related to fracture patterns and to the drainage network. Some hydrochemical data are given in Table 4.

144


Figure 7. Geology of the study area 2: 1. alluvium, 2. marbles and sipolines, 3. schists 4. quartz schists 5. orthogneisses and 6. metamorphic basic rocks, 7. faults.

Figure 8. Drainage network and sampling points of the study area (1. Drainage network, 2. Faults, 3. Spring locations, 4. Sampling springs, 5. Sampling wells and 7. Sampling boreholes).

(e) Cyclades Island Complex – Tinos Island. The islands of Cyclades arein the central Aegean and constitute the Cycladic plateau. The largest islands of Cyclades (Naxos, Andros and Tinos) are located at the eastern part of the plateau and have the highest elevation. There are four islands, Kea, Kythnos, Serifos, and Sifnos, located at the western edge that

The fractured rocks in Hellas Table 4.

145

Hydrochemical data of Southern Evoia.

Parameters

Springs

Wells

Marbles and Cipolines

T°C Q(m3/h) pH EC (µS/cm) Ca2 (mg/l) Mg2 (mg/l) Na (mg/l) K (mg/l) HCO 3 (mg/l) Cl (mg/l) SO2 4 (mg/l) NO 3 (mg/l) SiO2 (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) Total Hard. Temp. Hard. Perm. Hard.

Schists

Metabasites

min

max

aver

min

max

aver

min

max

aver

14.8 4.8 7.7 413 48.1 8.8 20.7 0.8 207.0 28.4 13.4 0.0 7.6 347.6 178.0 170.0 8.0

16.8 35.0 8.1 489 64.1 16.5 34.5 2.3 234.0 53.2 21.6 6.2 14.9 418.2 208.0 192.0 16.0

15.4 17.9 7.9 451 54.1 13.5 25.3 1.4 217.0 36.4 17.6 4.7 10.2 380.1 190.5 178.0 12.5

12.8 1.7 7.6 289 27.3 2.9 12.0 0.4 73.0 21.3 8.2 0.0 10.1 207.7 112.0 60.0 8.0

18.5 60.0 8.2 617 40.1 19.9 66.7 0.8 167.0 141.8 36.5 6.2 14.6 366.0 150.0 137.0 90.0

16.3 28.1 7.9 386 36.4 9.4 29.2 0.7 125.0 50.5 18.1 2.6 12.8 278.2 129.2 102.5 26.7

18.2 0.1 7.5 830 56.1 30.2 48.3 0.8 266.0 88.6 38.4 0.0 20.3 581.0 302.0 218.0 64.0

18.5 2.0 7.6 848 72.1 39.4 57.5 0.8 293.0 117.0 48.0 9.3 20.3 604.8 304.0 240.0 84.0

18.4 1.1 7.6 839 64.1 34.8 52.9 0.8 279.5 102.8 43.2 4.7 20.3 592.9 303.0 229.0 74.0

min 17.5

max

aver

20.9

18.9

7.2 8.4 587 1794 32.1 120.0 11.7 68.1 34.5 179.0 0.8 5.9 95.0 397.0 53.2 195.0 21.6 205.0 0.0 74.4 12.2 34.5 436.7 814.8 194.0 520.0 78.0 325.0 16.0 316.0

7.9 969 80.8 30.5 76.9 2.5 266.7 99.3 78.2 18.3 20.9 674.2 327.1 219.2 107.9

much smaller in size. The islands of Syros, Paros, Ios and Mykonos are located between these two groups of islands. The islands of Milos, Santorini and Amorgos are situated around the southern edge of the plateau and are peripheral expansions of the plateau (Botsialas et al. 2005, Leonidopoulou et al. 2005, Louis et al. 2005, Melidonis 1980, Melidonis & Triantaphyllis 2003, Stournaras et al. 2002, Stournaras et al. 2003). Geology. The islands of Cyclades are generally characterized by metamorphic rocks such as mica-schists, marbles, gneisses, amphibolites, glaucophane schists and plutonian rocks (Figure 9). The principal metamorphic events occurred during the Tertiary (Eocene, Lower Miocene). The structures of metamorphic rocks are dominated by isoclinic folding, thrusts and re-folding during the Eocene–Oligocene. Tectonics. The islands of Cyclades belong to the internal metamorphic zone of central Aegean that is part of the internal crystallic zone of the Hellenides. The recent tectonic history of Cyclades starts with the Eocene Alpine orogeny, a period of dominantly tectonic compression. This compression gave way to a tensile phase during Oligocene or Miocene; the result of this phase was the development of shallow normal faults. During Miocene, the sea depths at central Aegean were shallow with extensive emerging regions and small elongated basins, resulting from the intense compression. The compression resulted in the generation of a graben, which gave rise to the blueschists. During that period, low pressures transformed a mass of rocks into the greenschists. After the end of the faulting processes, the phase of low pressures was followed by granitic intrusions through the older faults. Volcanic activity in Cyclades took place mainly on the islands of Milos and Thira. In order to describe the relationship between faults and fractures and lithological units, rose plots have been created for each lithological unit in Figure 9(a) and 9(b). These show that the dominant orientation for the faults of all lithologies is NW-SE. In the carbonate rocks there is a second dominant orientation of NEE–WSW; the soft rocks appear to have an important number of faulting zones which are oriented normal to the dominant faulting

146


Figure 9. The main lithological units at Cyclades area. (a) Faults Rose Plot in soft rocks and (b) Faults Rose Plot in hard rocks in Cyclades area.

zones. The fissured rocks cover most of the Cyclades to explain the fact that the dominant faulting orientations are almost uniform for the whole area. Hydrogeology. Cyclades islands are small in extent and are characterized by low annual rainfall, high medium annual temperatures, and high sunlight; the developed aquifers are of low capacity. Simultaneously most aquifers are unconfined and discharge to the sea. The main water-bearing rocks of the region, apart from carbonate rocks, are the hard, fissured rocks (granites, schists, gneisses, etc.). Tinos Island. Tinos Island (Figure 10) belongs to the Attic-Cycladic Complex. Metamorphic rocks are classified into three tectonic units: (1) the Upper Unit composed of serpentinites, metagabbros, metabassalts, phyllites, and amphibolites, approximately 500 m thick; (2) Cycladic Blueschists more than 2000 meters thick and that cover the greatest part of the island. Meta-volcanic, clastic rocks and marbles also are present; (3) the Lower unit, derived from Mesozoic limestones, marls, shales, cherts, tuffs, basaltic vulcanite, and acidic rocks of probable volcanic origin. Magmatic rocks of the island are being classified into: (1) a complex of granite and granodiorite intrusion, which took place at early Miocene; (2) small outcrops of rocks of volcanic origin, with rhyolitic and andesitic composition. A study area (Figure 11) was selected in Tinos to investigate, the hydrogeological environment of the hard rocks aquifers. From July to August of 2003, a spring inventory was conducted in the study area. Topographic maps at the 1/5.000 scale were used to plot 150 spring locations. Their spatial distribution shows that 95.3% of the springs, are located in hard rock formations (gneisses, gneisschists, glaucophane schists, greenschists, ophiolites, and prasinites).


147

Figure 10.

Geological map of Tinos Island.

Figure 11.

Faults and lineaments of the study area. (a) Faults Rose Plot and (b) Fractures Rose Plot.

Discharge, varies from 0.5 m3/sec to 3.5 m3/sec in the humid periods of the year. The majority of the springs (69.34%) are located on or near the streams of the drainage network, which is heavily influenced by the tectonic regime of the island. 82% of the springs are located very close to faults, fractures, or the intersection of two or more fractures. This is a strong evidence of the influence of the hard rock environment on the groundwater flow in the study area.

148


In order to obtain a reliable picture of the groundwater flow, it was necessary to depict the fractures systems of the study area. GIS and remote sensing techniques were integrated along with results from field study. A map of fractures (Figure 11) was found 3178 features that correspond to map-scale faults and lineaments from aerial photographs and satellite images. Most of these lineaments are easily identified in the field as steeply dipping to vertical large scale fractures and as meso-scale faults. The criteria of interpreting image lineaments and identify them as indicators of fractured zones of hydrogeological interest are: (i) length, (ii) directional distribution, (iii) the detection of anomalous directions, (iv) intersection, (v) the existence of a constant distance between lineaments of a directional group and (vi) relation between fracture density and the density of lineament intersections. In most of the cases, the orientation of fractures is identical with the orientation of the preferential flow path. In Figure 11(a), the fractures rose plot shows that there are two sets of orientation. The main one has a NW-SE strike while the secondary one has NE-SW strike. The faults rose plot in Figure 11(b) reveals four orientation classes. The two main classes have NW-SE and NE-SW strike, and the secondary ones are of N-S and E-W strike. The conclusions that were obtained from this study are: (a) Four orientation classes of faults are located in the study area. The two main classes have NW-SE and NE-SW strike, while the secondary ones are of N-S and E-W strike. (b) Lineaments are trending at the same strike with the main fault systems (NW-SE and NE-SW). Exceptions occur, where ductile tectonics affect the development of fractures. (c) The occurrence of fractures is strongly linked with the proximity to the map scale faults. The majority of lineaments/fractures are located in the distance of 250 m to faults. (d) The fractures density and degree of interconnection is depended on the combination of brittle and ductile tectonics, on the thickness of the weathered mantle, and on the lithology. (e) Springs are strongly related or controlled by fracture location. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to thank the General Secretariat of Research and Technology (GSRT – Ministry of Development) for funding a part of the research leaded to this article (PENED Project). REFERENCES Botsialas K, Vassilakis E, Stournaras G (2005) Fracture pattern description and analysis of the hard rock hydrogeological environment, in a selected study area in Tinos Island, Hellas, 7th Hellenic Hydrogeological Conference – 2nd Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrology Athens pp 91–100. Ferriere J (1982) Paléogéographies et tectoniques superposées dans les Hellénides internes au niveau de l’ Othrys et du Pélion (Grèce). Thèse sciences Univ. Lille 1982 et Soc. Géol. Nord. Publ. No 8 970 p. Lille. Ferriere J, Reynaud J-Y, Migiros G, Proust J-N, Bonneau M, Pavlopoulos A, Houze, A (1998) Initiation d’ un bassin piggy-back: Le sillon Mesohellenique. C.R.Acad. Sci. Paris Sciences de la terre et des planetes – Earth & Planetary Sciences 326:567–574. Godfriaux I (1962) L’Olympe: une fenêtre tectonique dans le Hellenides internes. C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris 255 D 1761–1763. Katsikatsos G (1977) La structure tectonique d’Attique et de l’ île d’ Eubée. VI Colloquium on the Geology of the Aegean Region I pp. 211–228.


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Katsikatsos G, Migiros G, Vidakis M (1982) La structure géologique de la région de la Thessalie orientale (Grèce). Ann. Soc. Géol. Nord CI pp. 177–188. Katsikatsos G, Migiros G, Triantaphylis M, Mettos A (1986) Geological structure of Internal Hellenides (E. Thessaly, SW Macedonia, Euboea-Attica-Northern Cyclades Islands and Lesvos). Geol. & Geoph. Res. Special Issue I.G.M.E. pp 191–212 Athens. Krásny´ J (2002) Hard Rock Hydrogeology. 1st MEM Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrogeology Proceedings pp. 11–18 Athens. Kronberg P, Raith M (1977) Tectonics and metamorphism of the Rhodope Crystalline complex in the Eastern Greek Macedonia and parts of Western Thrace. N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Mh 11:697–704. Leonidopoulou D, Stournaras G, Maroukian H (2005) Morphmetric analysis and geoundwater regime in Falatados-Livada drainage basin, Tinos Island, Hellas. 7th Hellenic Hydrogeological Conference – 2nd Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrology Athens. pp. 141–150. Louis I, Botsialas K, Louis F, Stournaras G (2005) 2-D Resistivity imaging of weathering manles and fissured rock zones over metamorphic basement rocks of selected areas of Tinos Island, Greece. 7th Hellenic Hydrogeological Conference – 2nd Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrology Athens pp. 141–150. Melidonis MG (1980) The geology of Greece: the geological structure and mineral deposits of Tinos island (Cyclades, Greece). Inst. Geol. Min. Explor. Athens 13:1–80. Melidonis N, Triantaphyllis M (2003) Sheet Tinos–Yaros Islands. Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration Geological Map of Greece 1:50.000 Athens. Meyer, W, Pilger, A (1963): Zur Geologie de Gebietes zwischen Strymon und Nestos (Rhodopen massiv) in Griechisch Mazedonia. N. Jb. Geol. Palaont. Abh., 118, 272–280. Migiros, G. 1990. The lithostratigraphical – tectonic structure of Orthris. (Central Hellas). Ann. Greek Geol. Soc., XXVI, p. 270. Mountrakis, D. 1985 Geology of Greece. Univ. Studio Press, 207p., Thessaloniki. Stamatis G. (1999): Hydrochemical groundwater investigations of Ossa/E-Thessaly (Central Greece), Hydrogeologie und Umwelt, Heft 18, 26s. Stamatis G, E. Gartzos (1999): The silica supersaturated waters of Northern Evoia, and Eastern central Greece, Hydrological Processes, 13, pp. 2833–2845. Stamatis, G, Migiros G (2004). Relation of brittle tectonics and aquifer existence of Ossa Mt. hard rocks (E. Thessaly, Greece). Bull. Of Geol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI. Proc. of 10th Int. Con., Thessalonica, (in press). (in Greek). Stamatis, G Vitoriou A, Zaggana E (2005): Hydrogeological Conditions and quality of the groundwater, in the crystalline schist mass of Karystia area (S. Evoia). 7th Hellenic Hydrogeological Conference / 2nd Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrology, Athens, 2005. pp. 463. Stournaras G, Alexiadou, M Ch., Koutsi, R. Athitaki Th. (2002). Main characters of the schist aquifers in Tinos Island (Aegean Sea, Hellas), 1st MEM Workshop on Fissured Rocks Hydrogeology Proceedings, pp.73–81. Stournaras G, Alexiadou Ch., Leonidopoulou D (2003). Correlation of hydrogeologic and tectonic characteristics of the hardrock aquifers in Tinos Island (Aegean Sea, Hellas), International Conference on Groundwater in Fractured Rocks, Prague, pp. 103.

CHAPTER 9

Determining a representative hydraulic conductivity of the Carnmenellis granite of Cornwall, UK, based on a range of sources of information David C. Watkins Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, Tremough Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, UK

ABSTRACT: This paper reviews the data available on the range, distribution and variation in bulk hydraulic conductivity (k) of the Carnmenellis granite outcrop in SW England based on information drawn from a number of studies and sources. It is suggested that the granite aquifer can be characterised by four vertically distributed zones: an uppermost extremely weathered intergranular flow zone of very high k, up to 2 to 3 m thick; a high permeability upper zone, 30 to 100 m deep with k of around 105 m/s and 106 m/s; a moderately permeable middle zone extending to a few hundred metres in depth and exhibiting k in the region of 107 to 109 m/s; beneath this the granite may be considered effectively impermeable, with k of around 109 and 101 0 m/s, though water flow at depth can still be considerable within major discontinuities, providing local zones with k of 105 m/s or more.

1

INTRODUCTION

The introduction in the UK of Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) licensing by the Environment Agency for operations such as landfill sites requires comment on, and sometimes modelling of, the local groundwater conditions and flow paths. Whether used for comprehensive numerical modelling simulations or for analytical calculations of residence times, some knowledge or estimate of the effective bulk hydraulic conductivity of the rocks beneath operations such as landfill sites is required. The Carnmenellis granite outcrop in Cornwall, South West England, contains a number of abandoned and active quarries. Many closed quarries have been utilised as landfill sites, mainly for the disposal of inert waste materials. These still require IPPC licensing and associated hydrogeological studies. The introduction of IPPC requirements, coupled with generally increased environmental assessment of any new operations, means that accepted estimates of the hydraulic conductivity and of the nature of the groundwater flow conditions in the Carnmenellis granite are increasingly needed. At a recent planning inquiry into a landfill application, much of the hydrogeological argument was over whether the effective hydraulic conductivity of the granite was less than 109 m/s or whether it was many orders of magnitude higher. This argument was not resolved.

152


The Carnmenellis granite outcrop in SW England has been the subject of a number of hydrogeological investigations over many years, and for many different purposes. These include historic experience from the mining industry, geothermal energy exploration, deep borehole hydraulic testing, water well testing and recent environmental impact studies. Much of the information derived from these studies is recorded in relatively obscure publications and are not all readily available for reference. The objective of this paper is to review available information related to the bulk hydraulic conductivity of the Carnmenellis granite, obtained from a number of different sources, and to provide a description of the groundwater flow system that may be of benefit to future hydrogeological and environmental studies or modelling. Although the granite is predominantly a hard rock fractured aquifer, it is a representative bulk hydraulic conductivity, as an equivalent porous medium, that is sought here.

2

GEOLOGY

The Carnmenellis granite forms a plateau, 150 to 250 m above sea level. The outcrop is almost circular in plan, 10 to 15 km diameter and covering an area of 125 km2. It is located in the south west peninsular of Cornwall and its boundaries are within 1 km of the south coast, 6 km of the north coast and about 25 km from Land’s End to the west, which marks the south-westernmost extremity of mainland Britain, Figure 1. The Carnmenellis granite is one of a series of outcrops of the Cornubian batholith that underlies Cornwall and much of Devon in South West England, extending some 250 km

Bodmin Moor Cornwall

St Austell Moor

Land’s End

Carnmenellis

Figure 1.

Location map showing granite outcrops in Cornwall.

Determining a representative hydraulic conductivity of the Carnmenellis granite

153

from Dartmoor in the east to the Isles of Scilly in the west. The granite is Late Carboniferous in age and has been dated at around 290 Ma (Chen et al. 1993). A high degree of mineralization occurred during the Permian and this has provided the basis of extensive copper and tin mining industries, especially during the 18th and 19th Centuries. The granite is generally coarse grained, though medium to coarse grained toward the centre of the outcrop and with some fine grained intrusions. It is of feldspar-rich porphorytic muscovite-biotite composition and in places has been altered by tourmalinisation, griesenisation and kaolinisation (Edmunds et al. 1990). NW-SE trending features influenced deep weathering of the granite, and were probably initiated in late Tertiary times (Osman 1928). The most common set of steeply dipping joints trend NW-SE and ENE-WSW, parallel to major faults and mineral lodes, respectively (Ghosh 1934), and a subordinate pair trend WNW-ESE and NNE-SSW (Edmunds et al. 1990). In the uppermost 50 m, or so, horizontal joints are significant, though decreasing dilation with depth reduces their impact below this (Heath 1985). During periglacial conditions in the Pleistocene the top of the granite was exposed to extreme weathering and Head deposits make up the top few metres in some places. The Head consists of frost-shattered angular granitic fragments in a sandy matrix.

3

HYDROLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

Average annual rainfall varies from 1200 mm per year around the perimeter of the outcrop to 1500 mm per year at the centre. Potential evapotranspiration is around 530 mm per year (Smedley et al. 1989). The soils are generally thin and are mostly well-drained coarse sandy acid podzols. The high permeability of these soils results in high infiltration rates of 500–700 mm per year (Smedley et al. 1989), based on baseflow estimates derived from river and stream hydrograph separations. Four main rivers (the Red, Kennal, Argal and Cober) drain the plateau, outward from the centre. The courses of each of these rivers follow major fault lines and lineaments in the granite, parallel to hydraulically transmissive fractures known in the mining industry as cross-courses, Figure 2. These appear to have formed as tension cracks, some of which appear to have reactivated as wrench faults and have typical fracture spacings between 0.5 km and 2.0 km (Randall et al. 1990). The cross-courses impact on groundwater flows to great depths, forming flow paths for thermal brines issuing into the South Crofty mine at 820 m depth. According to Smedley et al (1989) a dominance of flow in joints and crosscourses is aligned in a NW-SE direction due to the present-day horizontal stress pattern, the contemporary horizontal stress fields lying at an angle with the cross-courses and lodes such that those aligned NW-SE remain open. Numerous elvan (rhyolite) dykes cross the area parallel to ENE-WSW striking mineral lodes. These contain microfractures that result in high permeabilities and preferential groundwater flow (Smedley et al. 1989). Three public supply reservoirs are located on the outcrop, impounded by dams. The rivers tend to show very high baseflow indices, of around 70%. This is probably due to the high permeability of the soils and uppermost weathered zones, promoting recharge, and possibly the hydrological impact of historic mining and mine drainage and also the fact that the rivers connect with the aquifer through the highly permeable major lineaments.

154


Figure 2. Major lineaments in the Carnmenellis granite outcrop (based on Edmunds et al. 1990), overlain by the courses of rivers and streams. The NNW-SSE trending features tend to be crosscourses whereas the SW-NE trending features tend to relate to mineral lodes.

The Carnmenellis granite is classified as being a minor aquifer, locally important for some private supplies (NRA 1992). The water table is rarely more than 10 m below the ground surface and is constrained by mine workings, springs and the elevations of streams and rivers. Borehole yields rarely exceed 100 m3/day and average around 50 m3/day with a 95% probability of striking water bearing fractures within 20 m of the ground surface (Edmunds et al. 1990). 4

HYDROGEOLOGICAL INFORMATION

Information on the hydrogeological characteristics of the granite were obtained from a number of sources, including: 4.1

Mining

The granite outcrop and surrounding area have been extensively mined, mainly for copper and tin. Over 3000 shafts are recorded in the area, mainly on the northern and southwestern parts of the outcrop. These reflect only a proportion of those actually present, as many of the older workings were not mapped. Alluvial and near-surface metal ores have been worked since the Bronze Age and deep mining is recorded from the 14th Century. Traditionally, mines have been dewatered using adits (near-horizontal drainage tunnels bored from the lowest nearby locations in river valleys to intersect mineral-rich lodes and drain the groundwater by gravity). Surface water power was also used to drive pumps to dewater mines from below adit level. During the 18th and 19th Centuries, steam power replaced water power and enabled mines to be driven to much greater depths, the water being pumped up to adit level from where it discharged to watercourses.


155

Whilst water above adit level tended to provide a fairly diffuse fracture inflow, deeper seeps tended to be controlled by major fractures along discontinuities and major fault zones. The NNW-SSE trending cross-courses were notorious within the mining industry as sources of inflow and for creating hydraulic connections between the drainage systems of adjacent mines. After the cessation of intensive mining activity at the end of the 19th Century, the majority of mines were abandoned and allowed to fill. Water now decants through the adit systems, into local watercourses. Historical mining activity still impacts strongly on the local groundwater flows through the lode structures, adits, shafts and cavities. Flooded mine workings affect the hydrogeology of the granite by increasing the overall storage and providing zones of preferential groundwater flow. By the 1980s, only four deep mines were still working in the area: South Crofty, Pendarves, Wheal Jane and Mount Wellington. South Crofty and Pendarves are located on the northwest edge of the granite outcrop whereas Wheal Jane and Mount Wellington are situated on the southeast margin of the granite pluton. The combined groundwater pumping rate was 76,000 m3/day (Burgess et al. 1982). The inflows to the working levels of Pendarves and Mount Wellington mines, at 200 m depth, were mainly through diffuse groundwater seepage, though discrete fissure flow is noted as well. The deeper working levels at Wheal Jane (300 m) and South Crofty (700–800 m) were drier with discrete inflows seeping through cross-courses and mineral lodes (Burgess et al. 1982), often described by miners as underground hot springs. The last working deep mine in Cornwall was South Crofty, which penetrated deep into the Carnmenellis granite. Operations ceased in 1997 and the groundwater rebound took over three years until the mine water decanted at adit level (into the Red River) in 2000. Prior to closure, pumping rates from the different levels to various stages in the mine were as follows: 350 m depth 70–120 litres/s; 600 m depth 40–70 litres/s; 680 m depth 30 litres/s; 750 m depth 10 litres/s, averaging about 25,000 m3/day in total. The ranges quoted above reflect seasonal variation, which reduces with depth. Whilst these inflows depend on the horizontal as well as the vertical extent of the mine workings, and cannot directly be related to permeability, they do show that significant inflows still occur at great depth and that lateral flow into the mine system occurs, as direct recharge is intercepted at the upper levels. Adams and Younger (2002) numerically modelled the groundwater rebound of the South Crofty mine system. They applied a hydraulic conductivity of 1010 m/s to intact rock regions and of 105 m/s to regions containing mine workings. 4.2

Water wells

Many small private water supply wells abstract from the granite for domestic and agricultural purposes. The wells are usually up to 100 m deep and there is rarely any benefit gained from drilling deeper. Unfortunately, on the granite outcrop only two wells have time-drawdown data recorded and held by the Environment Agency. These two wells were drilled to 46 m and 73 m depth and exhibited specific capacities of 8.1 m2/day and 1.3 m2/day, respectively. Analysis of the time-drawdown data using log-log and semi-log methods enable estimates of hydraulic conductivity to be made. The results show that for the two wells the hydraulic conductivities were around 106 m/s (0.08 m/day) and 107 m/s (0.01 m/day), respectively.

156


4.3

Geothermal energy research

A quarry close to the centre of the granite outcrop was the site of a deep drilling project to investigate the potential of hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal energy during the 1970s and 1980s. Two boreholes were drilled into the granite to depths of 2500 m. This has provided a wealth of information on the nature of the hydrogeology and fracturing of the granite at depth. According to Batchelor (1978) the primary permeability of the granite blocks is in the order of 1015 m/s to 1013 m/s (1010 to 108 Darcy). Taking into account the secondary permeability, Durrance (1985) provides a bulk hydraulic conductivity of around 2 107 m/s (0.02 Darcy). Hydraulic testing of the deep boreholes showed an in situ hydraulic conductivity of around 1.5 1010 m/s at 2000 m depth (CSM 1984) though this was increased by deliberate hydrofracturing to 1 108 to 5 108 m/s between 2300 m and 2400 m depth (Parker 1989). Randall et al (1990) mapped joint sets where the granite is exposed in nearby quarries. They report two steeply dipping sets striking NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW with a scatter in joint direction about these means of about 20°, while the dip may be 30° either side of the vertical. They found that typical joint spacings were in the range 0.5 m to 2.0 m for the smaller joints, with larger joints every few tens of metres. Randall et al (1990) also mapped the joint sets in two deep boreholes using geophysical methods and confirmed the consistency of the joint orientation with depth. They used hydraulic tests to estimate the equivalent hydraulic aperture size and spacing. These indicated mean aperture sizes in the order of 50 µm and 100 µm, in comparison to 500 µm as estimated by Andrews et al (1986) from radon measurements. They also mapped mean joint spacings of 1.5 m and 1.9 m for the NNW-SSE joint set and 3.9 m and 6.0 m for the ENE-WSW striking set, in the two boreholes. Burgess et al (1982) noted the significance of the deep penetrating cross-courses in the mechanisms for circulating and mixing of water between deep and shallow parts of the granite, resulting in thermal springs in deep mines. They base their observations on geochemical and isotopic data that indicates a mixture of young meteoric water with much older saline waters. 4.4

Deep packer tests

A series of deep boreholes were drilled up to 700 m depth at a quarry in the north west of the granite as part of a tracer test for research into fractured flow implications for underground nuclear waste repositories. Six boreholes were drilled in the quarry within a floor area of just 20 m by 20 m. Four of these were packer tested using 1 m sections; three were tested to about 200 m depth whilst the fourth was tested to 650 m depth (Heath and Durrance 1985). The results are shown in Figure 3. They generally show hydraulic conductivities in the range 109 to 105 m/s, with 108 to 107 m/s being more typical. It is worth noting that some of the highest flows were encountered at the deepest levels. 4.5

Shallow packer tests

More recently, an environmental impact assessment was conducted in relation to the proposed conversion of a quarry in the southeast of the granite outcrop to a landfill site.

Determining a representative hydraulic conductivity of the Carnmenellis granite Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

Hydraulic conductivity (m/s) 1.E-10 0

1.E-08

1.E-06

157

1.E-10 0

1.E-04

1.E-08

1.E-06

1.E-04

20 100

60

80

100

120

140

Depth below ground level (m)


40 200

300

400

500

160 600 180

200

700 (b)

(a)

Figure 3. Deep packer tests, data from Heath and Durrance (1985). (a) to 200 m depth and (b) to 700 m depth.

As part of the hydrogeological investigations, boreholes were drilled and hydraulically tested and groundwater monitoring undertaken (Knight Piesold 2000). As part of this, a series of comparatively shallow packer tests allow a profile in variation of hydraulic conductivity with depth and location to be made. The results are shown in Figure 4. The analysis of time-drawdown data in terms of pumping, recovery and slug tests conducted in these boreholes provided bulk hydraulic conductivities in the range 108 to 105 m/s (Knight Piesold 1999). 4.6

Numerical modelling

In connection with the environmental assessment of the site described above, a numerical model of groundwater flow in the region around the quarry was constructed and calibrated against piezometer monitoring data (unpublished by the author 2001). The model simulated

158

Groundwater in fractured rocks Hydraulic conductivity (m/s) 1.E-10 1.E-09 1.E-08 1.E-07 1.E-06 1.E-05 1.E-04 0


10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Figure 4. Shallow packer tests, data from Knight Piesold (2000).

the near surface movements of groundwater within the catchment area around the quarry, a region of 2 km 2 km, between boundaries provided by river systems, a reservoir and a perceived catchment boundary, and in steady state only. An areal infiltration recharge rate of 0.365 m/year was used (this value of 1 mm/day is considered to be conservatively low). By trial and error, a satisfactory fit with field data was obtained using a two-layer model with a 50 m thick upper layer (i.e., extending to 50 m below the surface topography) having a hydraulic conductivity of 105 m/s and a 350 m thick lower layer with a hydraulic conductivity of 107 m/s. The values used for hydraulic conductivity are on the upper limits of those obtained from borehole tests, and yet the recharge value is considered to be conservatively low. A higher value of recharge could be accommodated and the model still calibrated by using even larger values of hydraulic conductivity or layer thickness. The fact that the model requires values of hydraulic conductivity from the upper limits of those derived from small scale tests may reflect a scale dependent representative elemental volume due to the presence of sparse, but large, discontinuities – a common problem when applying an equivalent porous medium approach to fractured aquifers. The presence of major discontinuities in the form of cross-courses, lodes and dykes in addition to the joint sets may imply a multi-modal fracture distribution. Further numerical modelling work was undertaken in order to assess the potential hydrogeological implications of “unabandoning” and dewatering the South Crofty mine (unpublished by the author 2004). A 3D finite element model was used to represent a 5 km 4 km


159

Table 1. Properties of the vertically distributed zones used in a numerical model of the region around South Crofty mine. Zone

Description

Location

Hydraulic conductivity (m/s)

1 2 3 4

Soil/alluvium or head High permeability upper zone Moderate permeability middle zone Unweathered lower zone

Ground surface to 10 m depth 10 m depth to 100 m depth 100 m depth to 500 m depth 500 m depth to 1000 m below sea level

1 104 1 106 1 108 1 1010

region of the Red River catchment and the mine workings within it, from ground surface to 1000 m below sea level. Calibration of the model was achieved using 4 zones for the unworked parts of the domain as listed in Table 1. 4.7

Hydrochemistry

Shallow groundwater has a low salinity with total dissolved solids (TDS) of around 150 mg/l, a pH of 4.3 to 6.9 and a temperature of 10–12° C (Smedley et al. 1989, Edmunds et al. 1990). Deep groundwaters in the form of thermal springs encountered in mines have salinities up to 30,000 mg/l and temperatures up to 45° C (Smedley et al. 1989, Edmunds et al. 1990). The chemical composition of the deep groundwaters is dominated by mixing between shallow fresh waters and more saline deeper waters that have evolved without a marine influence (Burgess et al. 1982), the high salinities resulting from water-rock interactions. The complex mixing makes dating of the thermal waters difficult. Based on isotope studies, Burgess et al (1982) conclude that the age of the saline component must be in excess of 5104 years and could be up to 106 years.

5

CONCLUSIONS

The granite aquifer is dominated by two main sets of sub-vertical joints and one horizontal set. The horizontal fracture plane tends to be non-transmissive beneath depths of 50 to 100 m whilst the sub-vertical joints may be quite permeable at depths of hundreds of metres. Small scale fractures tend to have joint spacings of 0.5 to 2 m and larger fractures occur at about 10 m spacings. Large scale discontinuities, due to mineral lodes, faults and dykes, may be highly permeable, especially those oriented in a NNW-SSE direction. These have spacings at intervals of about 0.5 to 2 km. They are responsible for discrete inflows into mines and for mixing between shallow meteoric water and deep saline waters. Experience from mine dewatering indicates a generally regular inflow into the upper levels from uniform joint sets. With depth, however, the diffuse nature of the inflow diminishes and seeps become dominated by discrete inflows from faults and major fractures. At great depths, up to 800 m, the mines are relatively dry but with issues of thermal and saline water from cross-courses and other major discontinuities.

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Water wells provide minor abstractions from the top 50 to 100 m of the granite. The limited information available suggests a hydraulic conductivity of 106 to 107 m/s for the granite into which they penetrate. Research from HDR geothermal energy exploration shows that the fracture patterns encountered at surface extend to great depths. At 2000 m depth the hydraulic conductivity was found to be around 109 to 1010 m/s. Hydraulic testing of deep boreholes as part of a nuclear waste industry research study showed hydraulic conductivities between 50 m and 200 m depth varying between 109 m/s and 106 m/s, mainly in the range 108 to 107 m/s. A deep test also showed similar values to 650 m but with zones at 210 m, 275 m, 550 m and 650 m that reached hydraulic conductivities in the order of 105 to 104 m/s. Shallower hydraulic tests on boreholes, conducted as part of an environmental impact assessment show hydraulic conductivities in the range 109 to 105 m/s in the top 70 m. A numerical modelling exercise demonstrated that field values of phreatic levels and groundwater flow patterns may be simulated using a two layer model with the upper layer, 50 m thick, having a hydraulic conductivity of 105 m/s and the lower layer, 350 m thick, having a hydraulic conductivity of 107 m/s. The generally high conductivity values, in relation to those exhibited by borehole tests may indicate a scale influence, the distributed model encompassing a more representative range of fractures than those encountered in vertical boreholes. Further numerical modelling of a 3 dimensional block incorporating a deep mine system resulted in the use of four vertical distributed zones: (i) 0–10 m below ground surface with hydraulic conductivity, k, 104 m/s; (ii) 10–100 m depth, k 106 m/s; (iii) 100–500 m depth, k 108 m/s and; (iv) 500 m depth to 1000 m below sea level, k 1010 m/s. 5.1

Summary of results

In an attempt to provide a general description of the hydraulic conductivity of the granite aquifer, it may possibly be described in terms of four depth-dependent zones depending mainly on the degree of weathering: 1. Extremely weathered uppermost zone Flow here is intergranular due to the high degree of mechanical, periglacial, weathering of the granite resulting in frost shattered fragments in situ in a sandy matrix. This zone may be virtually absent or 2 to 3 m in depth. Its high permeability promotes groundwater recharge but has little other effect on the regional hydrogeology as it is generally above the water table. 2. High permeability upper zone Flow here is secondary through fractures but can generally be described as diffuse. This zone extends from surface (or the base of zone 1) to between 30 and 100 m depth. The hydraulic conductivity is generally around 105 m/s and 106 m/s. This is the dominant zone for shallow groundwater flow and for water abstractions from wells. Flow is dominated by closely spaced fracture sets including the horizontal plane. 3. Moderate permeability middle zone This zone extends from the base of Zone 2 to around a few hundred metres depth. The hydraulic conductivity is generally in the region of 107 m/s to 109 m/s, though regions of both higher and lower permeability exist within it. Horizontal fractures are generally closed or non-transmissive due to overburden pressures.


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4. Low permeability lower zone This zone extends down from the base of zone 3. For most intents and purposes, this zone may be considered impermeable; the hydraulic conductivity is around 109 m/s and 1010 m/s. However, deep discontinuities and fault zones exist within it allowing circulation and interaction with the upper zones. These zones may exhibit local hydraulic conductivities of 105 m/s or more, even at depth. The zones described above may provide a useful start in attempting to generalise the hydrogeology of the granite, particularly when embarking on regional numerical modelling studies, but may not be the most pertinent approach for all situations. As a note of caution the distinction between zones is not always clear and the zones do not always exist at all locations. Indeed, the middle zone (3) appears to crop out in some quarry exposures. Also, the ranges in hydraulic conductivity found may overlap between zones, or one zone may grade into another. For most regional modelling studies an equivalent porous medium approach can be taken, but (i) a higher value of hydraulic conductivity than those derived from hydraulic tests in boreholes may be required to account for scale-dependent fracture distributions and (ii) preferential flow paths caused by faults, mineral lodes and dykes may be present.

REFERENCES Adams R, Younger PL. 2002. A physically based model of rebound in South Crofty tin mine, Cornwall. In: Younger PL, Robins NS (Eds) Mine water hydrogeology and geochemistry, Geological Society of London Special Publication 198:89–97. Andrews JN, Hussain N, Batchelor, AS, Kwakwa K (1986) Rn solution by circulating fluids in a hot dry rock geothermal reservoir. Applied Geochemistry 1:647–657. Batchelor AS. 1978. The engineering properties of the south western granites related to artificial geothermal exploitation. Proc. Ussher Soc. 4:355–361. Burgess WG, Edmunds WM, Andrews JN, Kay, RLF and Lee DJ. 1982. Investigation of the geothermal potential of the UK. The origin and circulation of groundwater in the Carnmenellis granite: the hydrogeochemical evidence. Institute of Geological Sciences, NERC, London, 69 pp. Chen Y, Clark AH, Farrar E, Wastneys HAHP, Hodgson MJ, Bromley AV. 1993. Diachronous and independent histories of plutonism and mineralization in the Cornubian Batholith, southwest England. Journal of the Geological Society 150:1183–1191. CSM. 1984. CSM geothermal energy project. Low flow rate hydraulic tests Phase 2 report no. 2–52. Camborne School of Mines, UK, 110 pp. Durrance EM. 1985. Hydrothermal circulation and isostacy, with particular reference to the granites of southwest England. In High heat production (HHP) granites, hydrothermal circulation and ore genesis. Inst. Min. Metall., London: 71–85. Edmunds WM, Davenport MF, Smedley PL, Kay RLF, Robins NS, Collier C, Burfitt KA. 1990. The Carnmenellis Granite – hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and geothermal characteristics. British Geological Survey, Map. Ghosh PK. 1934. The Carnmenellis granite: its petrology, metamorphism and tectonics. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 90:240–276. Heath MJ. 1985. Geological control of fracture permeability in the Carnmenellis granite, Cornwall: implications for radionuclide migration. Mineralogical Magazine 49:233–244. Heath MJ, Durrance EM. 1985. Radionuclide migration in fractured rock: Hydrological investigations at an experimental site in the Carnmenellis granite, Cornwall. Commission of the European Communities: Nuclear science and technology, EUR 9668EN, 68 pp. Knight Piesold. 1999. Carnsew Quarry proposed landfill development planning application, Volume 3: environmental statement. Knight Piesold Limited, Ashford, UK. Held by Cornwall County Council.

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Knight Piesold. 2000. Carnsew Quarry proposed landfill development planning application: supplementary information. Knight Piesold Limited, Ashford, UK. Held by Cornwall County Council. NRA. 1992. South West regional appendix to the National Rivers Authority groundwater protection policy. Environment Agency, UK. Osman CW. 1928. The granites of the Scilly Isles and their relation to the Dartmoor Granite. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 84:258–290. Parker RH. 1989. Hot dry rock geothermal energy, Phase 2B final report of the CSM Project, Vol 1. Permagon Press, 677 pp. Randall MM, Lanyon GW, Nicholls J, Willis-Richards J. 1990. Evaluation of jointing in the Carnmenellis granite. In: Baria R (ed) Hot Dry Rock, Camborne School of Mines International Conference. Robinson Scientific Publications, London:108–123. Smedley PL, Bromley AV, Shepherd TJ, Edmunds WM, Kay RLF. 1989. Geochemistry in relation to hot dry rock development in Cornwall, Volume 4. Fluid circulation in the Carnmenellis Granite: hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical and paleofluid evidence. British Geological Survey Research Report SD/89/2, 117 pp.

CHAPTER 10

Estimating the change of fracture volume with depth at the Koralm Massif, Austria Gerfried Winkler1, Hans Kupfersberger2 and Elmar Strobl3 1,

Institute of Earth Sciences, Karl-Franzens University, Graz, Austria Institute of Water Resources Management, Joanneum Research GmbH, Graz, Austria 3 ZT Neubauer, Graz, Austria 2

ABSTRACT: The fracture network and its fracture sets predominantly determine the permeability and storage capacity of fractured aquifers. The hydrogeological effectiveness of fracture sets can be statistically characterised by analysing the geological spatial attributes (trend, plunge, frequency) and the hydraulic relevant attributes (aperture, length, linear degree of separation, termination) of fractures. Fracture attributes are recorded at an exposure and along a borehole in the area of Koralm, Austria, both belonging geologically to the Plattengneis unit of the Koralm Complex having three fracture sets. It could be shown with discrete fracture modelling that for this geological unit the fracture set volumes correlate with depth by an exponential function.

1

INTRODUCTION

For numerical modelling of fractured aquifers it is necessary to determine and quantify the hydraulic attributes and the spatial distribution of the fracture network. At exposures the fracture network can be recorded with the scanline method and subsequently statistically analysed. As a result the volume and subsequently the hydraulic effectiveness of the individual fracture sets can be estimated. Exposures and their fracture network are predominantly influenced by weathering and slope tectonics. Boreholes can give important complementary information for the interpolation of the fracture network and its attributes with depth. In this work it is tried to combine fracture data observed at an exposure with fracture data obtained along a borehole to improve the estimation of a three dimensional fracture network. With discrete fracture modelling it is tried to extrapolate the modification of the fracture set volumes with depth.

2

LOCATION AND GEOLOGIC SETTING OF STUDY AREA

The investigation area is located in the east of the Speikkogel which is the peak of Koralm Massif. The Speikkogel is situated on the border of Carinthia and Styria both federal countries of Austria. The Koralm Massif lies about 50 kilometres to the south-west of Graz. Figure 1 shows the location of the study area.

164


Figure 1.

Geographical position of the investigation area Koralm.

The investigation area belongs geologically to the Plattengneis of the Koralm Complex (Eastern Alps). The Koralm Complex is part of the Koriden Unit within the Middle Austroalpine nappe complex of the Eastern Alps incorporated into the Austroalpine nappe stack during the Early Cretaceous (Kurz et al. 2002). This collisional event formed several regionally important shear zones. The Plattengneis represents one of the major shear zones within the Koralm Complex. Its main extension can be observed in the Koralm Complex and the Plankogel Complex. The thickness of the Plattengneis reaches up to 500 metres. The Plattengneis is a schisted dark-grey to grey-brown gneiss. The weathering influenced rocks at the exposures tend to the grey-brown variation. Parallel to the foliation bright feldspar and quartz layers alternate with brown-grey biotite, garnet and muscovite layers. The thickness of the layers vary from a few millimetres to a few centimetres. The gneiss shows a distinct planar fabric (penetrative foliation) enhancing a perfect tabular fissility parallel to this foliation. Locally the Plattengneis tend to a variation of biotite gneiss. Its colour vary between dark-grey and grey-brown and the transitional zones are characterized by distinctly fewer feldspar and quartz layers.

Estimating the change of fracture volume with depth at the Koralm Massif, Austria

165

The Plattengneis is observed at exposure KOR20, located at an altitude about 1500 metres above Adria extending below a gravel road down to the altitude of 1440 metres. TB02/00 is drilled down at an enlargement of the gravel road at the top of exposure KOR20. The structural-geological analysis show three main fracture sets forming the fracture network of the Plattengneis in the investigation area as it is shown in the structural plot in Figure 2e. 3

METHODOLOGY

In a first step the fracture sets and their volumes at exposure KOR20 were detected and specified. The results of the exposure were carried forward to TB02/00 and were combined with the data recorded along the borehole. Both data sets were used to generate a three dimensional DFN (discrete fracture network). Between the surface and a depth of 300 m no additional data were available. 3.1

Data recording

The hydraulic effectiveness of fracture sets can be inferred from two groups of fracture attributes. The first group contains the geological spatial attributes like trend, plunge and the frequency of fractures. The other group includes the hydraulic relevant attributes like aperture, trace length and linear degree of separation of the fractures. At exposures the attributes of the fractures are recorded with the scanline sampling technique based on Priest (1993). In advance some recording guidelines were defined:

• • • •

the aperture should be measured on several points along one fracture and then averaged. fractures where the aperture cannot be measured are marked separately with “n.m.” (not measurable) for later statistical analysis. the total length is the complete measurable stretch of a fracture. the linear degree of separation is the sum of the trace length sections of one fracture where an aperture can be observed.

3.2 3.2.1

Statistical data analysis – orientation related fracture volumes Pre-processing

In advance to the statistical analyses some biases have to be corrected. Biases can be caused by a) the sampling technique itself (Kulatilake et al. 1993) b) the immeasurable attributes (aperture, length) of fractures forming the exposure and c) the varying orientation of scan lines to the orientation of the intersecting fractures. The maximum trace length is standardized by 2 metres and the maximum averaged aperture by 1 centimetre inferred from existing data. The fractures are weighted by their angle between the fracture and the scan line with gi

(

)

1 min (1/ xs , x i , 5 , ls

(0)

where ls is the length of the scanline on which the fracture is detected, xs and xi are the vectors of the scanline and the fracture pole on the unit sphere surface respectively. The

166


immeasurable fractures attributes on the exposed rock face are estimated using the attributes of similar orientated fractures (Harum et al. 2001). Another goal of the fracture analysis is the determination of the fracture set volume. Therefore the individual fractures are weighted by the attributes aperture oi and linear degree of separation di. We assume as a first approximation that the attributes recorded on the surface continue through the whole rock mass. So the area defined by the aperture and linear degree of separation can be regarded as a representative weighting value. Considering these assumptions the weights gvi are given by gvi oi * di.

(1)

Combining the two weights gi (0) and gvi (1) the total weight vi for one fracture yields vi gi * gvi.

(2)

This total weight describes the hydrogeological importance of a fracture based on the fracture volume. 3.2.2

Cluster analysis

The cluster analysis classifies objects into groups (clusters). The classification is based on the similarity and dissimilarity of the objects’ attributes. So we have to define the similarity or dissimilarity ( distance) between the objects which can be defined in many ways. The cluster analysis describes the similarity of two objects by the distance between the two objects. This means: the stronger the similarity the smaller the distance. The definition of different statistical distances is well discussed by many authors including Hammah & Curran (1998 and 1999) and Steinhausen & Langer (1977). For the spherical data we consider the sine-square distance and the Mahanalobis distance of spherical data. The common distance of numeric data is the Euclidean distance. To combine the different kinds of distances, Steinhausen & Langer (1977) propose a mixed distance dM. Let dr be the distance of the direction (sine-square or Mahalanobis of spherical data) and de the Euclidean distance, then dM is defined as dM =

m r d r m ed e + , m m

(3)

where mr is the number of the variables representing the direction (in the discrete demand mr 3), me is the number of variables included in the Euclidian distance (in the discrete demand me 2) and out of that m mr me. The agglomerative hierarchical clustering leads to an exact partition of objects. This means: that one object is sorted into exactly one group. At the beginning every cluster is defined by one object. The two clusters with the lowest distance are combined to a new cluster. So the total number of clusters is reduced by one. This step is repeated till the predefined number of clusters is reached. For the distance between two clusters we use the “mixed distance” as described above. After the first step one cluster can include one or more than one object. So we derive the distance between two cluster with the centroidmethod calculating the “mixed distance” between the mean of the clusters.


167

The fuzzy c-mean clustering differs from the hierarchical clustering in two points. The number c of cluster have to be determined before starting the cluster analysis and each object is classified to each cluster with a certain degree of membership. That means that the objects are not classified to one cluster but can be assigned to the cluster with the smallest distance. The results of both methods can now be compared. The result of the clustering is the definition of groups containing fractures with similar spatial and hydraulic attributes which can be regarded as homogenous groups (clusters). 3.2.3

Cluster attributes

The center of gravity describes the mean orientation of a fracture set (Wallbrecher 1986). The uncertainty of the center of gravity can be described by cones of confidence (95% and 99%). In the structural geology the cone of confidence is parametrically estimated. Therefore the data are assumed to follow a certain spatial distribution. One approach which is not bound on a certain spatial distribution is based on the nonparametric bootstrap method (Davison & Hinkley 1997). The advantage of that method is that the shape of the cone of confidence is a result of the empirical distribution of the data. So the shape of the cone of confidence is not bound on the shape of the assumed spatial distribution. The orientation related fracture volumes define the hydrogeological effectiveness of fracture sets. Multiplying the aperture and the standardized linear degree of separation (1) leads to the standardized area (equal to the weight gvi). Correcting the standardized area like the weights in (2) leads to a weighted area that is proportional to the fracture volume. So the sum of the weighted areas can be regarded as a first estimation of the fracture set volume.

4 4.1

SAMPLING AND PRE-PROCESSING Sampling

KOR20 and TB02/00 were selected to analyse the modification of the fracture network with depth. Both were assumed to belong to the same geological unit (Stainzer Plattengneis) with the same tectonic stress regime. The scanline sampling technique was applied for the data recording. Along 3 scanlines with a total length of 19.4 metres 79 fractures are recorded at exposure KOR20. In addition to the geological spatial and hydraulic relevant fracture attributes the terminations of the fractures are also recorded. Thus the termination index (ISRM 1978, Priest 1993) of the fracture sets can be calculated. This parameter gives important information about the interconnections between the fractures and is needed later to generate a discrete fracture model with the software FRACMAN. The TB02/00 extends to a depth of 651 metres below surface. TB02/00 was analysed with acoustic well-logging along the total length. 1495 structures and their spatial orientation could be identified with a Borehole Televiewer (BHTV). In four different depth sections (310–360 m, 427–446 m, 492–540 m and 570–647 m) the drill core is analysed cinematically in detail for tectonic features. Within these sections 154 fractures were recorded as probably open fractures and the aperture of 34 of these fractures could be measured. Therefore the apertures of all 154 fractures are calculated statistically based on the measurable data. With the result of the combination of these two

168


techniques we were able to define the geological spatial orientation and the aperture of the fractures. 4.2

Pre-processing

The later analyses are based on the assumption that KOR20 and TB02/00 belong to the same tectonic environment. So the exposure and the five depth sections (310–360 m, 434–448 m, 500–540 m, 570–615 m and 618–648 m) are analysed structural-geologically. For further analyses the fracture data of KOR20 and TB02/00 are plotted separately in Figure 2. Combining the fracture data of KOR20 and TB02/00 the analyses yield three clusters with a similar spatial orientation as the clusters of KOR20. The fracture sets CL01 and CL03 can be observed over the total length of TB02/00 with a slight variation in their plunge. It can be observed that along the borehole the number of open fractures parallel to the schistosity (CL02) is obviously reduced (Figure 2 b) and c)). This is considered as a result of the increasing overburden pressure. Additional to the three clusters of TB02/00 CL03a can be observed. This cluster is considered as a sub-cluster of cluster CL03 caused by stronger spatial distribution. Comparing the structural-geological plots of the total amount of the fractures along the drilling TB02/00 and the exposure KOR20 it can be derived that the fracture networks are similar (Figure 2). Both show three main clusters with the same spatial orientations. Therefore it can be derived that both KOR20 and TB02/00 are deformed by the same tectonic stress regime considering that the increasing depth cause an increasing overburden

(a) KOR20: structural data

(d) KOR20 + TB02/00: structural data of measured/ open fractures

(b) TB02/00: structural data (c) TB02/00: structural data of measured/ open fractures of potential open fractures

(e) KOR20 + TB02/00: structural data of all fractures

Figure 2. Structural plots of KOR20 and TB02/00; distributions of the fracture sets, three main cluster CL01, CL02 and CL03 can be shown. TB02/00 shows an additional cluster CL03a as a subcluster of CL03.


169

pressure. Thus the number of the open fractures parallel to the schistosity decrease but it can be ascertained that there are still open fractures below a depth of 600 metres.

5

BOREHOLE ANALYSES

5.1

Clustering analyses and estimation of the fracture volumes

The data of KOR20 are analysed statistically using fuzzy c-mean clustering. The analyses yield three different fracture sets (clusters). Two fracture sets dip nearly perpendicular striking N-S and W-E, the third fracture set (foliation) dip into NNE with an angle about 30°. Subsequently the fracture set volumes are calculated/estimated. Additionally the termination index, the mean length (linear degree of separation), the shortest and the longest fracture of the set and the mean aperture is calculated (Table 1). It can be seen that cluster CL01 has the largest weighted mean aperture and mean trace length and subsequently the biggest fracture volume (Table 1). Furthermore the termination index shows the best persistence and connectivity for CL01 compared to the others. The data logging of the fractures along the borehole yield the apertures and the spatial orientation of each fracture but no information about the fracture length, their linear degree of separation and the frequency distribution of the fracture length within one fracture set. The influence of weathering and slope tectonics cause in many cases the maximum loosening of the rock mass at the surface exposure. Therefore it is considered that trace lengths at exposures on the surface reach their maximum extension. So it is assumed that the exposure fractures are as large as the fractures along the borehole and that the trace length distribution within a fracture set is used. The frequency distribution of the aperture and the linear degree of separation of KOR20 is best fitted by an exponential function. So using the results of the data analyses of KOR20 it is possible to estimate statistically the lengths of the fractures of TB02/00. This enables to determine the spatial orientation, the linear degree of separation (length) and the aperture of the fractures for further investigations and calculations. So all essential fracture attributes are available for the clustering method and the estimation of the fracture set volumes. The cluster analyses of KOR20 and TB02/00 yield three clusters and their volumes for 5 depth sections between 300 m and 600 m and at the surface (Table 2). In all sections CL01 has the biggest fracture volume ranging between 0.06% and 0.02% and the other clusters

Table 1. Results of the statistical clustering of KOR20; three clusters with their spatial orientation, the types of trace terminations: Na fracture terminates at another fracture, No termination is obscured and Ni terminates at intact rock material, the calculated termination index (ISRM 1978) and the weighted mean apertures and lengths.

CL01 CL02 CL03

Trend Plunge Na

No

Ni Termination Mean Lmin index length (cm) (cm)

Lmax Mean (cm) aperture (cm)

Fracture set volumes

269 15 171

6 2 5

2 4.8 9 16.1 21 36.2

400 700 600

0.32 0.05 0.05

84 30 76

34 45 32

158.3 156.7 80.5

30 2 3

0.303 0.050 0.081

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Table 2. Results of the clustering and fracture volume analyses of KOR20 and the five sections of TB02/00. Cluster 02 foliation Cluster 03

Cluster 01

Cluster 04

Sum

Trend Plunge Vol% Trend Plunge Vol% Trend Plunge Vol% Trend Plunge Vol% Vol% Section 01 (310–360 m) Section 02 (434–448 m) Section 03 (500–540 m) Section 04 (570–615 m) Section 05 (618–648 m) KOR20 KOR20 TB02/00

280

83

0.06

–

–

–

90

83

0.02

106

71

94 269 94

–

–

–

167

63

0.01

–

–

–

0.07

31

0

167

72

0.01

–

–

–

0.01

–

–

–

177

55

0.01

7

77

0.01

0.04

0.02

29

21

0

189

46

0

13

73

0.01

0.03

83

0.02

46

51

0.01

–

–

–

–

–

–

0.03

84 88

0.32 0.12

15 17

30 33

0.05 0.03

171 176

79 70

0.05 0.02

– –

– –

– –

0.42 0.17

3

are obviously smaller (about 0,01%). The predominance of CL01 can also be observed at KOR20. CL02 which is orientated parallel to the foliation has the lowest volumes. For a continuing quantification of the fracture network modification with depth it is necessary to get additional data within the first 300 metres below surface which is approached by discrete fracture modelling. 5.2

Generating discrete fracture networks

The idea is to generate a discrete fracture network (DFN) of the recorded data to interpolate a DFN and its fracture set volumes in sections that are not observed. The data of the recorded and analysed fracture sets of KOR20 and TB02/00 are the data basis for the generation of the DFN. Furthermore it is controlled if the DFN and especially its fracture set volumes are reproducible with the sampling technique applied at the exposure KOR20 and the borehole TB02/00. Combining the interpolated DFN and the recorded data improves the estimation of the change of the fracture set volumes correlated to depth. 5.2.1

Methodology

For this approach the model region should contain the borehole TB02/00 and the exposure KOR20. The modelled DFN can be generated with the data of TB02/00 and KOR20. Subsequently the DFN is analysed with the same sampling techniques as the techniques used for the data recording at exposure KOR20 and TB02/00. Scanlines can be aligned on theoretical exposed rock faces and boreholes along which the intersecting fractures and their attributes can be recorded. Subsequently the recorded data is analysed statistically with the clustering method and subsequently the fracture set volumes can be calculated. So it is possible to calibrate the discrete fracture model iteratively at the observed sections of KOR20 and TB02/00 using the volumes of the fracture sets for calibration. Based on the calibrated DFN additional depth sections in the first 300 metres below surface can be imposed.


171

The calculated fracture set volumes which are listed in Table 2 show a modification correlated to depth. The reduction of the fracture set volumes are based on polynomial functions. The few data points (5 depth section) of each fracture set enhance the good fitting of the polynomial function (R2 range between 0.93 and 0.99). The fracture set volumes below 400 metres have approximately constant values ranging between 0.02% and 0.01% for each fracture set regardless of their orientation. CL01 is considered as the dominant fracture set with the highest hydraulic effectiveness. It can be observed that some fractures below a depth of 300 metres have apertures exceeding 5 millimetres. Therefore it can be deduced that the fracture apertures do not generally decrease with depth. So the reduction of the fracture set volumes seems to be predominantly a result of the reduced number of open fractures. 5.2.2

Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) Model

For the discrete fracture network generation the BART-Model (“Enhanced Baecher Model” in Dershowitz et al. 1999) is selected because of its parametrisation. The BARTModel uses a Poisson-point process to locate fracture centres in space randomly. No further input is required for the location model. The general shape of the fractures is defined by a sexangle. This sexangle is defined by the radius of a circular area which has the same dimension as the sexangle. The recorded trace lengths and their frequency distribution are the basis for the determination of the diameters of the circles and subsequently of the sexangles. The area of each fracture is dissolved into a finite element mesh where the finite elements are triangular shaped. With this refinement it is possible to determine and to quantify the interconnecting of the fractures. The DFN is generated with the software FRACMAN (Dershowitz et al. 1998 and 1999). The software version used in this work is based on an evaluation licence and has some limitations. Thus it was not possible to generate a DFN model for a region dimensioned by a slab of 30 30 650 metres surrounding the total length of TB02/00. So the model region is split into 6 DFN-cubes including 5 depth sections and one at the surface having 30 30 30 metres respectively. The DFN-cube at the surface simulates the exposure KOR20 to calibrate the generation of the DFN iteratively by comparing it with the fracture network of KOR20. The other 5 DFN-cubes are generated at the depth sections 30 m, 60 m, 100 m, 250 m and 400 m below surface. The depth sections 30 m, 60 m and 100 m below surface are selected for a better quantification of the influence of the weathering and slope tectonics near the surface. The depth section 400 metres below surface is regarded as another calibration depth of the DFN. The fracture network of each DFN-cube can be generated by data based on results of previous analyses (Tables 1 and 2). The previous analyses result in fracture sets with different geological-spatial and hydraulic relevant attributes. Each fracture set can be characterised by its mean aperture, mean linear degree of separation (trace length), the minimum and the maximum length, its spatial orientation, the termination index and its calculated volume related to a unit volume. The feature intensity is to be specified by the volume percentage {P33} regarded to an unit volume (Dershowitz et al. 1999). Thus the fracture set volumes control the fracture intensity. In advance some assumptions have to be met to generate the individual fracture networks:

•

As a result of the previous cluster analyses all the fracture networks consist of three fracture sets (Figure 2). The spatial orientations of the fracture sets are taken from the clusters of KOR20 and it is assumed that they persist for all the depth sections.

172

• • • • • •


Based on the structural-geological analyses all fracture sets (cluster) are characterized by a Fisher distribution generated in FRACMAN with the constant value “k 50” (Dershowitz et al. 1999). The fracture sets of all DFN-cubes are generated with the same fracture attributes determined in Table 1. The trace lengths of a fracture set are defined by the lowest, largest and mean values and an exponential distribution. The termination index is calculated for each fracture set and is constant for all depth sections. The fracture apertures of each fracture set are considered to be constant. So the weighted mean aperture is calculated for each fracture set. The reductions of the fracture set volumes with depth are based on polynomial functions. Because of the default trace length and apertures (described above under points 3. and 4.) the reduction of each previous calculated fracture set volume is controlled only by the intensity of open fractures.

Considering these assumptions the fracture networks of 6 DFN-cubes are generated, bound on their fracture attributes and on the volumes of the fracture sets. The intensity of the fractures depends predominantly on the calculated volumes. So the highest intensity of fractures is generated in DFN-cube 00 simulating exposure KOR20 with a total calculated fracture network volume of 0.42%. The lowest intensity is considered to be at DFN-cube 05 (the depth section 400 metres below surface) generated under respect of the total fracture network of 0.03% (Table 2). 5.2.3

Data recording

For the reconstruction of the DFN of the cubes their fractures have to be recorded with the same sampling techniques as the fractures at exposure KOR20 and TB02/00. The first logging is done by the cube 00 for the iterative calibration with KOR20. Then the fractures are recorded at the other cubes like the fractures of TB02/00 that means along simulated boreholes. The data recording of the generated DFNs is based on 4 scanlines at theoretical exposed rock faces of DFN-cube 00 and boreholes carried down in all 6 DFN-cubes. The boreholes are simulated as vertical scanlines with a length of 30 metres through the midpoints of the DFN-cubes. Figure 3 shows a cross section as an example of a theoretical exposed rock face of DFN-cube 00. Scanlines are aligned for the data recording at the “exposed rock face” (tracemap). The orientations of the scanlines are defined by the same aspects as at a natural exposure. The data recording of the top cube (cube 00 representing KOR20) result in 102 fractures along 48 metres of scanlines. Additionally 202 fractures are observed along the borehole in the 5 simulated cubes. The data of cube 00 comprise the apertures, the trace lengths (linear degree of separation) and the spatial orientation of the fractures. The data of the simulated boreholes comprise the aperture and the spatial orientation of the fractures. Therefore the trace lengths of the fractures along simulated boreholes have to be estimated deduced from the data of the scanlines at the simulated rock faces of cube 00. The clustering methods (fuzzy c-mean, hierarchical) are applied for the analyses of the data observed at cube 00 and subsequently their fracture set volumes are estimated. In further consequence the fracture set volumes of the 5 other cubes are calculated statistically in the same way.


Figure 3. logging.

6

173

An example of a simulated exposed rock face of DFN-cube 00 with 4 scanlines for data

ANALYSES AND INTERPRETATION

Within this approach it was tried to reproduce the fracture set volumes deduced from the polynomial approximation calculated from data of KOR20 and TB02/00. Therefore the fractures and their attributes of the model region are recorded and subsequently analysed. The analyses of the required depth sections (30 m, 60 m, 100 m, 250 m and 400 m) result in three clusters respectively. The calculated fracture set volumes (C.V.) are listed in Table 3. Additionally the table includes the fracture set volumes (O.V.) based on the polynomial approximation deduced from recorded data of KOR20 and TB02/00. The results of the clustering analyses and the volume estimations show that the new calculated fracture set volumes (C.V.) differ from the original fracture set volumes (O.V.) approximated by a polynomial function. The total volumes are characterized by approximately similar values and correlation factors (F) about “1” (Table 3). Combining the new calculated fracture set volumes with the recorded data of KOR20 and TB02/00 the modification of the fracture set volumes correlated to depth can be specified by an exponential function. The data are displayed in (Figure 4). Figure 4 shows that the highest reduction of the cluster volumes can be observed for cluster 2. Between the depth of 300 meters and the surface the variation of the individual cluster volumes comparing for each depth is much higher than below. This is strongly influenced by the persistent higher volumes of cluster 2 (black triangles in Figure 4). Below the depth of 300 metres all the cluster volumes range between 0.01 and 0.02%. So the cluster volumes have a different distribution below the depth of approximately 300 metres than above.

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Table 3. Depth sections of the simulated DFN cubes with the volumes of the individual fracture sets based on the polynomial function (O.V.) and the calculated values (C.V.) by the data of the simulated scanlines and boreholes. Additionally the correlation factor (F) is listed. Depth CL01

30 60 100 250 400

CL02

CL03

Total volume

O.V.

C.V.

F

O.V.

C.V.

F

O.V.

C.V.

F

O.V.

C.V.

F

0.043 0.038 0.031 0.001 0.001

0.11 0.04 0.1 0.02 0

2.55 1.06 3.22 16.7 0

0.288 0.257 0.221 0.107 0.040

0.18 0.16 0.12 0.08 0

0.626 0.621 0.547 0.746 0

0.046 0.044 0.040 0.003 0.025

0.09 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.03

1.94 0.916 1.241 16.37 1.186

0.377 0.339 0.291 0.112 0.066

0.38 0.24 0.27 0.15 0.03

1.008 0.708 0.928 1.346 0.454

Figure 4. Correlation of the fracture set volumes to depth based on the simulated exposure and boreholes surrounding TB02/00.

Weathering and slope tectonics influence surface-exposures by loosening the fracture network. So the reduction of the fracture set volumes following the exponential function seems to be a consistent approach considering the geological environment.

7

DISCUSSION

The aim of this approach is to combine fracture data observed at an exposure with fracture data obtained along a borehole to improve the estimation of a three dimensional fracture network. As a first result it was possible to detect and to specify fracture set (clusters) volumes along drilling sections deduced from the combined analyses of a surface-exposure and the drilling. So the clustering method developed in the first task could be applied successfully for interpreting borehole data. In further consequence the various fracture set volumes of different depth section along the borehole enhance the estimation of the volumes correlated to depth. Because of the limited data set it was not possible to detect the fracture set volumes in the depth between 0 and 300 metres. The generation of a DFN with a discrete fracture model (FRACMAN)


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and its calibration at KOR20 enhanced to interpolate fracture set volumes for additional depth section. Considering the recorded data at KOR20 and TB02/00 and the deduced information it can be approximated that the fracture set volumes are reduced exponentially with depth (Figure 4). It can be summarized that because of their linear character boreholes can be integrated into the estimation of a three dimensional fracture network as additional information. It can be worked out that the modification of the fracture set volumes is based on an exponential function in the required investigation area. It has to be considered that this is a first approach so the approximation is based on various assumptions which have to be investigated in more detail in the future considering various aspects including:

• • •

persistent data logging along the borehole to detect the fracture aperture along the boreholes more precisely with e.g. optical televiewer to control the assumption that the trace length recorded at the surface-exposure can be carried forward to the borehole fractures to compare various generating algorithms for the development of the DFN

8

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

•

Fracture networks have to be considered in the definition of hydrogeological units. So the first step of the presented approach was developed at exposures to characterize the individual fracture sets and to estimate their volumes. This approach combines the geological spatial fracture attributes with the hydraulic relevant attributes. Two different clustering methods, hierarchical and fuzzy c-mean, were applied to determine the fracture sets. The scan line sampling allows to integrate borehole data in the calculation and interpretation. The reduction of the fracture set volumes correlated to depth was modelled using a stochastic discrete fracture network model and showed an exponential trend for the investigation area Koralm. It could be shown that it is possible to determine and to quantify the modification of the fracture network with depth. This approach is based on several assumption that will be analysed in more detail in the future. Nevertheless this method can help in creating conditioned fracture networks including the spatial distribution of fracture attributes as an input for numerical modelling of flow in fractured aquifers. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This methodology was developed within a research project supported by the Federal Ministry of Transport, Innovation and Technology of Austria and JOANNEUM RESEARCH Forschungsgesellschaft mbH REFERENCES Davison, A.C. & Hinkley, D.V. (1997) Bootstrap Methods and their Application. Cambridge Series in Statistical and Probabilistic Mathematics.

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Dershowitz, W., Lee, G., Geier, J., Hitchcock, S., LaPointe, P., & Cladouhs, T. (1999) FracWorks95 Discrete Feature Simulator. User Documentation. Version 1.3. Golder Associates Inc., Seattle, Washington. 139 Seiten. Dershowitz, W., Lee, G., Eiben, Th., & Ahlstrom, E. (1998) Meshmaster Discrete Fracture Mesh Generation Utility. User Documentation. Version 1.55. Golder Associates Inc., Seattle, Washington. 44 Seiten. Hammah, R.E. & Curran, J.H. (1998) Fuzzy Cluster Algorithm for the Automatic Identification of Joint Sets. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Vol. 35, No. 7, pp. 889–905. Hammah, R.E. & Curran, J.H. (1999) On Distance Measures for the Fuzzy K-means Algorithm for Joint Data. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 32 (1), 1–27. Harum, T., Hofrichter, J., Kleb, U., Kupfersberger, H., Poltnig, W., Reichl, P., Reinsdorff, S., Ruch, C., Schön, J., Strobl, E., & Winkler, G. (2001) Erfassung von Fließprozessen zur hydrogeologischen Bewertung von klüftigen Festgesteinen: unpublished report, Joanneum Research GmbH, Graz, S. 124. ISRM International Society for Rock Mechanics (1978) Suggested methods for the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock mass. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences Vol. 15, 319–368. Kulatilake, P. H. S. W., Wathugala, D. N., & Stephansson O. (1993) Joint network modelling with a valiation exercise in Stripa Mine, Sweden: International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol. 30, pp. 503–526. Kurz, W., Fritz, H., Tenczer, V., & Unzog, W. (2002) Tectonometamporhic evolution of the Koralm Complex (Eastern Alps): constraints from microstructures and textures of the Plattengneis shear zone: Journal of Structual Geology, v. 24, p. 1957–1970. Priest, S.D., (1993) Discontinuity Analysis for Rock Engineering: Burg St. Edmunds, Suffolk, Edmundsbury Press Ltd. Steinhausen, D. & Langer, K. (1977) Clusteranalyse Einführung in Methoden und Verfahren der automatischen Klassifikation. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin New York. Wallbrecher, E. (1986) Tektonische und gefügeanalytische Arbeitsweisen: Enke-Verlag, Stuttgart.

Conceptual models, groundwater flow and resources in fractured rocks

CHAPTER 11

Fractured Old Red Sandstone aquifers of the Cork Harbour region: Groundwater barriers between adjacent karstic systems Alistair Allen1 and Dejan Milenic2 1

Dept. of Geology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Institute of Hydrogeology, Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro 2

ABSTRACT: The Cork Harbour area of SW Ireland consists of E-W trending Variscan anticlines and synclines, the former cored by Upper Devonian Old Red Sandstone (ORS), and the latter by karstified Lower Carboniferous limestones. The area is cut by vertical, N-S trending Variscan compartmental faults. Overburden, mostly glacial till of variable thickness overlies bedrock, but sand and gravel deposits also occur. Aquifers exist in both the bedrock and overburden. The ORS anticlinal ridges are fractured due to the Variscan deformation and are regarded on a regional scale as a fractured rock aquifer, forming a barrier between adjacent karstic systems. However, the N-S faults may provide interconnections between the two limestone aquifers. The storativity of the ORS sequence is relatively limited, characteristic well yields ranging from 100 to 500 m3/day. The chemical composition of groundwater from the fractured aquifer is HCO3-Ca type, with total dissolved solids ranging up to 300 mg/l.

1

INTRODUCTION

Ireland, situated on the NW fringe of Europe (Figure 1), consists of Precambrian to Lower Palaeozoic crystalline rocks around its generally mountainous rim, with a lowland interior largely underlain by Lower Carboniferous limestone. Late Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks are absent, apart from in the NE corner of the island, where they are preserved beneath the basalt plateau of the Tertiary North Atlantic Igneous Province associated with the opening of the North Atlantic. However, there is evidence that these were also deposited over much of the rest of the island, but were stripped away by the intense erosion and peneplanation that accompanied the opening of the North Atlantic. All of the Lower Palaeozoic and older rock units in Ireland have been deformed and metamorphosed during the ⬃400 Ma Caledonian orogeny, so all of these rock units are highly recrystallised and have little primary porosity. The Lower Carboniferous limestones, underlying 50% of the country, are primarily massive bioclastic and biomicritic reef limestones formed in marine shallow shelf environments, and are mainly buried beneath thick Holocene overburden deposits. Because of their predominantly biomicritic character, they

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also tend to have a poor primary porosity. However, all of the limestones are heavily karstified and have good secondary fissure porosity, particularly where the karstification process was promoted by the presence of more intense fracturing of the massive limestones such as in the southwest due to the effects of the Variscan orogenic episode. In addition, Upper Devonian sandstones and shales (ORS), derived mainly from erosional products of the Caledonian orogenic belt are widespread in the south of Ireland. In the southwest, Upper Palaeozoic units have been subjected to the Variscan Orogeny and have undergone extensive recrystallisation, so primary porosity has again been lost. Thus, most of the Irish bedrock has little primary porosity and groundwater generally resides in fractures and fissures. Ireland has a relatively wet maritime climate and does not depend primarily on its groundwater resources. Groundwater supplies only about 25% of the water requirements of the country, although in some rural areas, this may rise to more than 80%. Due to the absence of Permian or younger rocks, none of Irelands bedrock aquifers possess significant primary porosity, so the best bedrock aquifers are the karstified Carboniferous limestones, particularly where karstification has been enhanced within deformation zones. Intergranular overburden aquifers, in the form of Pleistocene fluvioglacial sand and gravel deposits, are locally important, and in some areas may even be of regional significance. In the southwest of Ireland (Figure 1), the dominant rock unit is ORS sandstone and shale, which forms higher ground, with locally intervening limestone underlying more lowland

Figure 1.

Location and geographical setting of the Cork Harbour area.

Fractured Old Red sandstone aquifers of the Cork Harbour region

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areas. Aquifers are relatively vulnerable to pollution as overlying confining layers are thin (0–3 m). As the EU Water Framework Directive requires national governments and local authorities to protect all surface and groundwater resources, it is incumbent to understand the relationships between the different water bodies. This paper, which arises from a research project funded by two local authorities to assess groundwater resources and quality within the Cork Harbour area (Allen & Milenic 2001, Milenic 2004), considers the hydrogeological characteristics of the ORS fractured aquifers, and their role as groundwater barriers between adjacent karst aquifers.

2

REGIONAL SETTING

Cork Harbour is one of the largest natural harbours in the world, a glacially eroded, almost completely enclosed body of water, connected by a narrow entrance to the Atlantic Ocean. Cork, situated at the mouth of the River Lee, which drains into Cork Harbour, is the second city in Ireland with a population of approximately 250,000 within its environs. The Cork area has undergone rapid industrial growth over the last two decades, posing a significant risk of groundwater pollution. Thus, the present investigation, covering an area of the order of 1,000 km2 encompassing Cork City and the Harbour area (Figure 1), was instigated.

3

GEOLOGY

The Cork Harbour area lies within the low-grade Rheno-Hercynian fold-thrust terrane of the late Carboniferous Variscan Orogenic Belt (Gill, 1962). The area is characterised by a series of E-W upright horizontal anticlines and synclines (Gill 1962; Cooper et al, 1986), the former cored by U. Devonian sandstones and shales and the latter by massive Lower Carboniferous reef limestones (Figure 2). The folded sequence is cut by low angle E-W thrusts and steep N-S compartmental faults (Cooper et al, 1986). Two major limestone-cored synclines occur in the Cork Harbour area, the Cork-Midleton Syncline and the Cloyne Syncline, which are separated by the intervening sandstone/shale-cored Great Island Anticline. Other sandstone/shale-cored anticlines, the Rathpeacon Anticline and the Church Bay Anticline occur to the north and south of the Cork-Midleton Syncline and Cloyne Syncline respectively. Overburden of variable thickness mostly glacial till, overlies bedrock, but sand and gravel deposits, particularly infilling deep buried valleys, also occur. The topography of southwest Ireland is controlled by the geological structure. The anticlines form uplands, ranging up to 1000 m in height and the synclines occupy broad lowland areas 0–50 m high (Figure 3). This geomorphological pattern developed during the Pleistocene glaciation (1.8 Ma–10 ka). Prior to this, the Devonian–Carboniferous succession was buried beneath Mesozoic cover, and the Tertiary land surface sloped gradually southwards, giving rise to southwards-flowing drainage systems (Nevill, 1963). Extreme Tertiary erosion completely stripped away the Mesozoic cover and exposed the U. Palaeozoic rocks, initiating a process of intense karstification of the Carboniferous limestones, and leading to the establishment of an entrenched N-S drainage pattern. This Tertiary drainage was truncated at the onset of Pleistocene glaciation by glaciers advancing outwards from the mountainous regions of western Ireland, preferentially exploiting the weaker karstified limestones forming the cores of the synclines. This resulted in the

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Figure 2.

Simplified geological map of the Cork Harbour area.

Figure 3. Block diagram of the Cork Harbour area viewed from the SW showing the Great Island Anticline with its watershed and consequent N-S streams rising and draining into the bounding limestone-cored synclines (modified after MacCarthy, 2001).

development of a number of broad u-shaped lowland areas 3–4 km wide that truncated the pre-existing N-S drainage patterns. Superimposed on these u-shaped lowlands, are a number of deep buried valleys infilled with sand and gravel, that formed at the peak of the last glaciation 15–18,000 years ago, when sea level fell to an estimated 130 m lower than at present (Mitchell, 1976; Pirazzoli, 1996). In the Cork Harbour area, these valleys represent important local ribbon aquifers. Cork Harbour was also created, probably also during the late


183

Pleistocene, by glacial scouring. In post-Pleistocene times, river capture of many of the E-W rivers created during the Pleistocene, by the N-S pre-Pleistocene river systems, has given rise to a trellised drainage pattern in the Cork Harbour area. The Old Red Sandstone is a thick heterogeneous sequence of terrestrial sandstone, ranging lithologically from grit to fine sandstone, with subordinate siltstone and shale. The unit was deposited in an alluvial plain environment by braided river systems, with intermittent finer-grained overbank deposits reflecting flooding episodes (MacCarthy, 1990). The ORS grades upwards through a transition sequence of shallow marine sandstones and calcareous shales into the L Carboniferous limestones of the Cork-Midleton and Cloyne Synclines. The ORS displays cross- and graded bedding and other sedimentary structures (MacCarthy, 1990). Deformation structures include a spaced fracture cleavage in the coarser beds and a penetrative slaty cleavage in the argillaceous layers. Primary porosity in both the ORS and the limestone was obliterated by recrystallisation associated with the Variscan deformation, but a secondary porosity developed due to intense fracturing, which in the limestones controlled later karstification. Three approximately orthogonal sets of fractures were developed, steep E-W fractures parallel to the axial planes of Variscan folds, steep N-S fractures parallel to the compartmental faults, and subhorizontal fractures, possibly reflecting stress release associated with thrust-related uplift and unloading. In the ORS, intensification of the E-W fracturing could be expected in the cores of the anticlines, and of the N-S fractures adjacent to the compartmental faults.

4

HYDROGEOLOGY

In southwest Ireland, the ORS is commonly considered a relatively low permeability fractured aquifer on a regional scale, so the anticlinal structures cored by the ORS represent hydrogeological barriers between the intervening karstic systems. However, the late Variscan N-S compartmental faults cut through both the ORS-cored anticlines and the limestone-cored synclines, so the faults may provide local leakage between the limestone aquifers. In the Cork Harbour area, an investigation has been made of the ORS-cored Great Island Anticline and its relationship with the two limestone synclines, the CorkMidleton and Cloyne Synclines, which border it to the north and south. Major groundwater aquifers occur in both the bedrock and in the overburden of the Cork Harbour area. The Cork-Midleton and Cloyne Synclines are cored by intensely karstified limestones, which have significant storage capacity and transmissivity properties. Overlying these bedrock aquifers, are important ribbon aquifers represented by the gravelinfilled buried valleys. These aquifers are a major resource.

5 5.1

THE FRACTURED AQUIFERS Aquifer delineation

Within the study area, the Great Island Anticline is 60 km in length and 2–5 km in width. It forms a steep-sided relatively flat-topped ridge rising to a maximum height of about 200 m. Soil cover is relatively thin, and overlies an approximately 10–15 m thick weathering zone.

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ORS cores the anticline, and transitional marine sandstones and shales occupy the steep margins of the ridge adjacent to the synclines. A fracture analysis of the ORS within the Great Island Anticline indicates that the dominant fracture set parallels the compartmental faults and is approximately perpendicular to the orogenic trend with a mean strike of 345°–165°. Less important folding-related fractures parallel to the regional strike have a mean orientation of 075°–255°. These two sets of fractures, which formed during the late Carboniferous Variscan Orogeny, provide the main storage for groundwater in the ORS and also control rates and directions of groundwater movement. Other groundwater reserves are located in the relatively thick weathered zone of this fractured aquifer. Because of the negligible primary porosity of the ORS sandstones and shales, storativity of the ORS is relatively low. The fractured nature of the aquifer suggests, however, probable deep circulation through the fracture network. Based on the fracture analysis, linear and areal coefficients of fracture density for the ORS have been determined. Surface values of up to 1% are indicated. Taking into account the effects on surface fractures of physical and chemical weathering processes, and the closure of fractures with depth due to confining pressure, an overall effective porosity for the fractured aquifer of around 0.1% is estimated. However, more intensely fractured and deeply weathered zones are associated with the compartmental faults, which have a spacing of about 1 km and are usually exploited by streams; effective porosity in these zones is probably considerably enhanced. 5.2

Recharge

The dominant recharge process in the fractured aquifers is through direct recharge by precipitation. The climate of the Cork area is dominated by the maritime influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the prevailing south-westerly wind flow. Rainfall is greatest in the mountainous areas adjacent to the Atlantic coast and decreases dramatically eastwards. At Cork airport, situated within the Great Island Anticline, the mean annual rainfall and evapotranspiration values measured over an almost 40 year period up to 2000, were 1222 mm and 486 mm respectively (Milenic, 2004). The trellised drainage pattern in the Cork area, defined by N-S consequent and E-W subsequent streams, reflects the dominant control of geological structure and the history of drainage development on present day drainage patterns. Surface run-off is strongly dependent on topography. In the Cork area the ORS-cored anticlines form relatively steepsided ridges, with incised valleys. Although precise measurement of the proportion of runoff is lacking, the large number of streams, which rise in the Great Island Anticline and feed the river systems of the synclines to the north and south suggest that the proportion of run-off is high, and it is estimated that 75% of the available rainfall may run off at the surface. Thus, for the Great Island Anticline fractured aquifer, the effective infiltration (ief) is estimated as 184 mm/yr. However, the fractured aquifer is overlain by a variable thickness of relatively impermeable clay-rich glacial till. Thus, percolation through the glacial till is slow and a significant proportion of the infiltrated precipitation may be held in the till as soil moisture so the proportion of infiltrated rainwater, which ultimately recharges the water table, may be quite small. The ORS forms the highest topography in the Cork Harbour area, so it is unlikely that there is any recharge from the adjacent limestone synclines and in fact it is probable that the fractured aquifer feeds the karst aquifers.


5.3

185

Groundwater discharge sources

Discharge from the Great Island Anticline fractured aquifer (Figure 3) occurs by a variety of processes:

• • • •

5.4

Minor springs – representing the sources of a number of streams rising in the Great Island Anticline (Figure 3), with discharges of the order of 0.1–1.0 l/s. Private water wells – over 150 registered wells, ranging in depth up to 130 m, with discharges of 0.1–6.7 l/s. Baseflow – most of the streams draining from the Great Island Anticline into the CorkMidleton and Cloyne Synclines are fed under normal low flow conditions by groundwater – up to 50% of the streamflow is probably derived from groundwater sources. Recharge of the karst aquifers – discharge into the adjacent karst aquifers of the CorkMidleton and Cloyne Synclines is probably significant, particularly via the N-S compartmental faults. Estimation of groundwater resources

Groundwater reserves were delineated applying the classical water balance formula. The fractured aquifer of the Great Island Anticline is subdivided into two zones, an upper weathered zone 10 m thick with an estimated porosity of 1% and a lower zone with a thickness of 100 m with a fracture porosity of 0.1%. Taking the length of the Great Island Anticline as 60 km and the average width of the aquifer as 3.5 km, the storage of the weathered zone of the fractured aquifer is 2.1 109 m3, and the storage of the fractures in the lower zone is also 2.1 109 m3, giving a total storage for the fractured aquifer of the order of 4.2 109 m3. Increased porosity within the compartmental fault zones, on average about 1 km apart within the Cork Harbour area, has not been included in this calculation so groundwater reserves may be greater than the above estimate. 5.5

Hydrochemistry

Hydrochemical data, representing a compilation of over 50 analysed samples from the Great Island Anticline, are presented in Table 1. Groundwater composition is HCO3-Ca type, with total dissolved solids ranging up to 300 mg/l (Figure 4). Most chemical components are present at low concentrations well within the maximum admissible concentrations (MAC) as specified by the Irish EPA. On the basis of oxygen and deuterium isotopic analyses, a meteoric origin is indicated for the groundwater of the fractured aquifers. 5.6

Groundwater vulnerability and protection

Rapid urban and industrial growth in the Cork area has led to an increased risk of groundwater pollution. In particular, urban spread of Cork City to the south into the northern flank of the Great Island Anticline, has created a huge potential for groundwater pollution both from housing estates and from commercial and industrial complexes. In line with other European countries subject to the requirements of the EU Water Framework Directive, the Geological Survey of Ireland in cooperation with the Irish EPA and the Dept. of the Environment has developed a general groundwater protection scheme methodology (DELG/EPA/GSI, 1999).

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Groundwater in fractured rocks Table 1.

Chemical composition of groundwater from the fractured aquifers

Parameter

Unit

MAC

Range of values

Temperature pH Na K Ca2 Mg2 HCO3 SO42 Cl NO3 Hardness EC Total Diss. Solids

°C – mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l CaCO3 µS/cm mg/l

– 6–9 150 12 200 50 – 250 250 50 – 1500 1000

12.0–14.0 6.2–7.9 8.50–24.77 1.23–8.33 25.57–48.72 3.86–13.51 62.83–250.10 6.17–27.74 17.25–34.59 3.38–32.27 82–224 246–492 162–325

Figure 4. Chemical composition of groundwater in fractured aquifer – Piper Diagram (black points – fractured aquifer, transparent points – other aquifers).

Currently, the GSI is in the process of producing a detailed groundwater vulnerability map on a 1: 50,000 scale for the South Cork region. Fractured aquifers are particularly vulnerable to pollution. Although they are blanketed by a layer of glacial drift, in the upland areas underlain by these aquifers, the drift is generally relatively thin. The upland areas are largely given over to farming; poor animal husbandry practices and land fertilisation are the major potential sources of groundwater contamination. However, the shallow aquifers are also vulnerable to pollution from a large number of private septic tanks, many of which are inappropriately sited too close to bedrock. The presence of


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total and faecal coliforms has been detected in some water samples from the fractured aquifers, demonstrating human sewage pollution. In addition a landfill has operated in the southern part of the Great Island Anticline for the past 20 years, although it is now in the process of closure. The landfill is sited in a valley exploiting a compartmental fault, and occupies a quarry used to extract fill for a deepwater port facility in Cork Harbour, so highly fractured bedrock is exposed, and the potential for pollution of groundwater is high. 5.7

Connection zone or barrier?

Because of negligible primary permeability, the fractured ORS aquifers of the Cork Harbour area behave on a regional scale as flow barriers between the karst aquifers they separate. Although, the local fracture network of the fractured aquifers could facilitate groundwater exchange between the karst aquifers, the anticlinal ridges are topographically higher than the intervening lowland areas underlain by the karstified limestones, so groundwater watersheds exist within the upland areas between the various limestone-cored synclinal structures. This is particularly so within the Great Island Anticline separating the Cork-Midleton and Cloyne Syncline karst aquifers, and coincides with the surface water watershed shown in Figure 3. Thus, local shallow groundwater flow between the two synclines almost certainly does not take place. The numerous N-S compartmental faults cutting the E-W Variscan folds of the Cork Harbour area may also provide possible pathways for groundwater flow between the karstic aquifers. Although again the groundwater watershed in the Great Island Anticline probably inhibits shallow groundwater movement between the limestone synclines via the compartmental faults, they may facilitate deep regional circulation between the two karst aquifers. 6

CONCLUSIONS

Devonian Old Red Sandstone bedrock in SW Ireland was recrystallised, folded and fractured during the Carboniferous Variscan Orogeny, and lost its primary porosity, but simultaneously developed a relatively strong secondary fracture porosity. In addition numerous late compartmental faults cutting the E-W Variscan folds imparted a further degree of secondary porosity. Although the least productive of the aquifers in the Cork Harbour area, the ORS fractured aquifers nevertheless provide some groundwater storage – in excess of 4.2 109 m3 within the Great Island Anticline alone, and within the Cork Harbour area, supports a large number of private wells with yields of up to 6.7 l/s. These fractured aquifers represent barriers to groundwater movement on a regional scale, particularly since they form upland areas, so both surface water and groundwater divides occur within them. Thus, no shallow groundwater movement between intervening karst aquifers occupying synclinal structures can take place. However, late Variscan N-S compartmental faults cutting through the Variscan E-W folds, may possibly allow deep regional circulation between karst aquifers separated by the ORS-cored anticlines. REFERENCES Allen AR, Milenic D (2001) Preliminary Assessment of Groundwater Resources and Groundwater Quality in the Cork City/Harbour Area, Ireland In: Seiler K-P, Wohnlich S New Approaches to Characterising Groundwater Flow. Balkema, Rotterdam, Vol 2, pp 1119–1123.

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Cooper MA, Collins DA, Ford M, Murphy FX, Trayner PM, O’Sullivan M (1986). Structural evolution of the Irish Variscides. J Geol Soc Lond, 143, pp 53–61. DoELG., EPA., GSI. 1999. Groundwater protection schemes. Government Printing Office, Dublin. Gill WD (1962) The Variscan Fold Belt in Ireland. In: Coe K (ed) Some Aspects of the Variscan Fold Belt, Manchester Univ Press, pp 49–64. MacCarthy IAJ (1990) Alluvial sedimentation patterns in the Munster Basin, Ireland. Sedimentology, 37, pp 685–712. MacCarthy IAJ (2001) The geological history of Cork City and Harbour region. Dept. of Geology, National University of Ireland-Cork Report Series, 01/1, 23 pp. Milenic D (2004) Evaluation of groundwater resources of the Cork Harbour area. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, National University of Ireland-Cork, Ireland, 486 pp. Mitchell GF (1976) The Irish landscape. Collins, London, 240 pp. Nevill WE (1963) Geology and Ireland: with physical geography and its geological background. Allen Figgis & Co., Dublin, 263 pp. Pirazzoli, PA (1996) Sea level changes-the last 20,000 years. John Wiley & Sons.

CHAPTER 12

Non-Darcy two-phase flow in fractured rocks Giovanni Brighenti and Paolo Macini University of Bologna, Department of Chemical, Mining and Environmental Engineering, Viale del Risorgimento, Bologna, Italy

ABSTRACT: The paper recalls the main cases in which the two-phase flow in fractured and porous rocks does not follow the classical extension of Darcy’s law to multiphase flow. In particular, here are highlighted some applications in the field of hydrogeology and of hydrocarbon reservoir engineering. Apart from the case (typical also of single-phase flow) of “high-velocity” flow, where inertial forces cannot be neglected with respect to viscous ones, the paper analyzes the typical cases of two-phase flow, where the interactions between the two phases can influence the flow behavior. It is also recalled that Darcy’s law does not hold in case of two-phase dispersed flow. Generally, it is pointed out that both natural porous media and fractured rocks may have very different features of the porous network. Natural porous media range from cemented sandstones to unconsolidated sand or loose gravel, with large variation of the geometry and interconnection of the porous network. Fractured rocks are characterized by a matrix (occasionally porous and permeable, depending on lithological types) intersected by a network of fractures whose opening can range between a few microns to several centimeters or more. In both cases, the dimensions of the flow channels may be very different, and hence the ratios among the forces driving the fluid flow (i.e., viscous, gravitational, inertial and capillary forces). It would therefore be of practical interest to study the laws of fluid flow in the above cases not based on the geological distinction between porous media and fractured rocks, but on the values of the ratio between viscous, gravitational, inertial and capillary forces driving fluid flow inside the porous or fractured network. Finally, it is pointed out that, notwithstanding the apparent differences between porous and fractured media, the study of fluid flow behavior inside both media can be performed with the same physical approach.

1

INTRODUCTION

Non-Darcian multi-phase flow has been investigated since long ago, with many studies, both theoretical and experimental. However, a complete and unitary theory on the subject still does not exist. In particular, the extension of Darcy’s law to multi-phase flow has not been yet completely probed either in the case of Darcian flow. For this reason, the present study is limited to the examination of the two-phase flow in Darcian and non-Darcian conditions. Until a few years ago, the study of underground multiphase flow was of practical interest only for reservoir engineers, both in the geothermal field and in that of oil and gas production, and for agricultural engineering applications, to study water flow in the unsaturated zone. However, these investigations have recently acquired practical importance also in the field of hydrogeology, to study aquifers in presence of gas, or in case of aquifer pollution by

190


Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPL), for the subsequent modeling, design and planning of the possible remedial operations. Depending on the circumstances, the fluids contained in the void spaces of natural rocks may have very different characteristics, and different may be the characteristics of the rocks where the fluids flow. When the void spaces are hydraulically connected, these are generally described as “porous” or “fractured” network. Here it is possible to distinguish between natural porous media (unconsolidated or cemented granular materials of sedimentary nature) and fractured rocks. In these latter, the fracture opening can range from micro-fractures of a few micrometers in size, to mega-fractures which can cover thousands of meters and can have openings sometimes several centimeters wide. Consequently, the factors affecting fluid flow can impact differently in different geometrical situations, following different flow laws, and giving rise to different fluid flow behaviors. At first sight, it would seem obvious that there can be different models for fluid flow in porous media and in fractured rocks. It can be seen, however, that the flow laws are strongly affected not only by fluids properties and their field of velocity, but also by the size of the flow paths, a size that may be more similar between a porous medium and a fractured rock than between two very different porous media or two fractured rocks. For example, the fluid flow within a fractured rock characterized by openings of a few millimeters is more similar to the flow inside a porous medium made up by coarse gravel than to that occurring inside a rock with micro-fractures. Also in this simple case, the validity of the extension of the Darcy’s law to the two-phase flow poses very complex issues, especially in presence of a porous fractured rock, or a fractured rock with two different families of fractures neatly distinguished by the size of the openings (and hence characterized by different capillary pressure) and by their spatial direction; here, the fluid behavior can be furthermore complicated by non negligible inertial and/or coupling effects. In the light of the above problems, it seems more correct and appropriate to examine the flow in fractured rocks and in porous media in a unitary manner, based on the size of the flow paths or, rather, on the relative importance (or the weight) of the forces governing fluid flow. In particular, the forces most important to drive fluid flow behavior, apart from wetting phenomena, can be classified into four main types: a) Viscous forces, proportional to µ v [N m1]; b) Gravitational forces, proportional to ρ g D2 [N m1]; c) Inertial forces, proportional to ρ v2 D [N m1]; d) Capillary forces, proportional to σ [N m1], where ρ and µ are the fluid density [kg m3] and dynamic viscosity [Pa s], respectively, v is the mean fluid velocity [m s1], D is a distinctive size of the flow channels [m], σ is the surface tension [N m1] and g is the acceleration of gravity [m s2]. The effect of each force on the fluids flow can be more precisely quantified in terms of three well-known dimensionless numbers, and namely: 1) Reynolds number (Re), 2) capillarity number (Nca) and 3) Bond or Eötvös number (Bo). These numbers express the ratio (and thus the relative importance) of inertial to viscous forces (Re), viscous to capillary forces (Nca), and gravitational to capillary forces (Bo), respectively. Many different expressions have been used in the literature to define these dimensionless numbers. The most common ones are the following: Re i

ρi v i D µi

Nca i

µivi σij

Bo

( ρi ρj )gD2 σij


191

Table 1. Typical values of Re, Nca and Bo in gas-liquid two-phase flow in coarse porous media, compared with values calculated for consolidated porous media (typical of oil recovery processes) and in piping. D represents pipe or particle diameter (from De Santos et al., 1991, modified). Solid support

Re

Nca

1/Bo

Coarse porous media (D 103–102 m) Consolidated porous media (D 107–104 m) Piping (D 102 m)

102–103 109–102 10–105

101–10 107–103 10–102

101–10 102–109 103–101

Here the subscripts i and j refer to the scalar and vectorial properties of the i-th and of the j-th phase, respectively. Values of these three parameters bring out the contrasts and can help to discriminate between two-phase flow through pipes, consolidated and coarse porous media. Typical values of the above dimensionless numbers in these cases are reported in Table 1 (De Santos et al., 1991), comparing Re, Nca and Bo values for both coarse porous media, consolidated porous media and piping. The effect of each driving force is particularly important when the fluid flow does not follow Darcy’s law extended to multiphase flow, i.e. when the inertial forces are not negligible compared to the viscous ones, or the capillary forces are not prevalent compared to some of the other forces and when the flow of the different phases is not co-current. Several studies have been carried out on this research field until recent times. However, due to the complexity of the phenomenon, so far it has not been possible to identify generally valid relationships, but only empirical ones, having limited validity. In many cases, the very dynamics of the phenomenon are still not completely clear. The present study is aimed to briefly recall the main cases in which the two-phase flow does not follow the usual extension of Darcy’s law to multiphase flow. The investigation takes into account some practical cases typical of the hydrocarbon reservoir engineering which, with proper modifications, can be applied to hydrogeological studies, by means of a systematic investigation and comparison between theoretical and experimental relationships. This study analyzes the simple effects due to the presence of not negligible inertial forces, the extension of Darcy’s law to the two-phase flow and the discussion of the Forchheimer relationship, one of the oldest and most utilized for this application. Finally the study analyzes the cases in which it is necessary to take into account also the direction of flow and the presence of a fluid in non-continuous phase.

2

EXTENSION OF DARCY’S LAW TO TWO-PHASE FLOW

It is well known that for the case of laminar isothermal two-phase flow of Newtonian fluids in a uncompressible, homogeneous, isotropic porous medium, when it is possible to consider as null or negligible the coupled phenomena due to the presence of variations of electric potential, temperature and chemical concentration, when fluid phases have no chemical interaction with the solid matrix, are continuous and in condition of no-slippage (i.e., the Klinkenberg effect can be considered as negligible), then the following relationship is held to be valid: ui

k ri k ρ gradΦi , i i

i 1, 2

(1)

192


where ui is the volumetric fluid flow per surface unit of the porous medium of the i-th phase (also known as Darcy’s velocity) [m s1], k is the (intrinsic) permeability [m2], kri is the relative permeability of the i-th phase (i.e., the ratio between effective permeability ki and intrinsic permeability, dimensionless), ρi is the density of the i-th phase [kg m3], and Φi is the potential per unit mass [m2 s2], also known as Hubbert’s potential, referred to the i-th phase. In this simple two-phase case, in a first and basic approximation, the relative permeability kri can be considered as a function of wettability, saturation Si of each phase and local saturation history, i.e. the sequence of drainage or imbibition processes the porous medium has undergone (Honarpour et al., 1987). The linear relationship between the Darcy’s velocity ui and the potential gradient expressed by eq. (1) is adequate in ordinary underground fluid flow, where the inertial forces are negligible compared to the viscous ones, and the capillary forces are prevalent compared to all the others. In this case, a fluid cannot move until it has formed a continuous phase, and the ratio of the volumetric flow of the phases depends on the ratio Mij of the mobility λi of each phase, where λi ki/µi, and mobility ratio Mij λi / λj. In underground fluid flow, it is common practice to extend the notion of intrinsic and relative permeability to fractures and fractured rocks as well (Bear and Berkowitz, 1987; Bear, 1993). Nevertheless, while in the case of porous media the relative permeability in two-phase flow can be measured by routine laboratory measurements or by on-site tests, still very little is known about relative permeability in fractures and fractured rocks. The simple hypothesis proposed by Romm (1972), considering the two-phase flow inside a fracture as a segregated flow with kri Si, seems today acceptable only in few particular cases of fractures with smooth walls and constant openings. In general, Kazemi and Gilman (1993) do not consider the validity of these hypotheses, and proposes a dispersed flow model, where the relative permeability of each phase is expressed as: k ri

Si ∑ i Si µ i

i 1, 2

(2)

It is worthy reminding that in all probability the shape of relative permeability curves in fractured rocks is generally similar to the one measured in porous media, due to the presence of possible filling materials and of distinctive wall roughness (Sahimi, 1995).

3

INERTIA FORCES NOT NEGLIGIBLE COMPARED TO VISCOUS FORCES

For many years Darcy’s law has been considered the fundamental equation that governs liquid flow in porous media. However, it has been known for over a century that, in the case of single phase fluid flow (both in porous media and in fractures), in laminar flow condition, but at high velocity (or high Re), Darcy’s law no longer holds. It is a common practice to extend the criteria to discriminate between laminar and turbulent flow valid inside constant-section rectilinear pipes (i.e., based on the values of the Reynolds number Re), to porous and fractured media. However, it is interesting to recall that inside curved or variable-section pipes, the Reynolds number criterion does not hold any more. In fact, in this case, at high velocity the effect of inertial forces become significant, and the relationship between flow rate and head loss is no more constant. The same phenomenon is


193

likely to happen also inside porous media and fractured rocks, where true “turbulent” flow initiate for Re number at least one order of magnitude larger than the one marking the deviation from Darcian flow. Many researchers have used indifferently the term “turbulent” and “non-Darcy” to describe visco-inertial flow at high velocities in the vicinity of production and injection wells, especially gas wells in fractured reservoirs and in condensate reservoir. Although turbulence might be conceivable in gas saturated media, it can develop in liquid saturated media only under very special conditions. Liquids under similar conditions of “turbulence” most likely will flow in a laminar non-linear mode. Early researchers supposed that high velocity flow effects were due to turbulence. This opinion has been recently rejected by investigators who related these effects to inertial effects. The main causes are attributed: 1) to the convective acceleration and deceleration of the fluids traveling through pores and/or fractures, and 2) to movement through the tortuous path of the porous or fractured network (Firoozabadi and Katz, 1979; Ma and Ruth, 1997; Garrouch and Ali, 2001). This cannot be considered as true turbulence, and is defined as “non-Darcy” flow (Scheidegger, 1974; Belhaj et al., 2003), and can be justified by recalling that Darcy’s law does not consider the inertial forces (in this case no longer negligible), due to the continuous variations of pore and throat (and fractures) cross section and to the tortuous, winding and interconnected nature of the flow paths. More precisely, in this case the potential gradient is no longer a linear function of the flow rate, as expressed in eq. (1). To take into account these phenomena, many empiric and semi-empiric relationships have been studied. One of the simplest and most utilized is the well-known relationship proposed by Forchheimer (1901). In the case of single-phase flow, it is possible to write the Forchheimer’s equation as: gradΦ

µ u βu 2 ρk

(3)

where β is the Forchheimer’s coefficient [m1]. Different names have been used for the coefficient β, and it has been called the turbulence factor, the coefficient of inertial resistance, the velocity coefficient, the non-Darcy flow coefficient, the Forchheimer flow coefficient, the inertial coefficient, the Beta factor, etc. The coefficient β has the unit of inverse length, and so its dependency was attributed on media characteristics. It is interesting to recall that the Forchheimer’s coefficient of eq. (3) can be expressed as:

Fnd

1 ⎛ βkρ ⎞⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜1 u µ ⎟⎟⎠ ⎝

(4)

In this case, it is possible to re-write eq. (3) into the following form: u

k ρF gradΦ µ nd

(5)

The above equation is formally equivalent to eq. (1) with the addition of the non-Darcy flow coefficient Fnd.

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Many attempts have been made to derive eq. (3) from a theoretical point of view, in order to evaluate the coefficient β. These studies showed that β can be related in various ways to petrophysical properties rather than fluid properties, such as permeability, porosity, tortuosity, specific surface area, grains and pore size distribution, surface roughness, etc. (Belhaj et al., 2003). The coefficient β may be determined on-site by the analysis of multi-rate pressure test results, by calculating the skin factor at different flow rates, or by using correlations and determination discussed in the literature (Li and Engler, 2001). Various empirical and theoretical approaches have been presented, and many empirical correlations are available for single and two phase flow, although there is no theoretical evaluation for multiphase flow. Examples of some correlations proposed for the single-phase non Darcian flow are: β

c k 0.5 n1.5

(Irmay, 1958)

(6)

where: c constant, k permeability, n porosity. This relationship is valid for a parallel set up, i.e. a medium composed of a bundle of straight parallel capillaries of uniform diameter. For natural or artificial consolidated porous media, also tortuosity must be kept in account. In this case, other relationships are:

cτ kn

(Geertsma, 1974)

(7)

where: c constant, τ tortuosity β

3.1 1015 τ1.943 k1.023

(Cooper et al., 1999)

(8)

In the above correlation the permeability is expressed in millidarcy [mD] (1 mD 0.987 1015 m2), and the β coefficient is expressed in [m1]. In the case of two-phase flow, many empirical relationships have been proposed for both porous media and fractured rocks, with special reference to propped hydraulic fractures (Ma and Ruth, 1997; Ucan and Civan, 1996; Wang and Mohanty, 1999; Jin and Penny, 2000, etc.). For example, for a gas-liquid system where the liquid phase is immobile (e.g., in presence of residual water saturation Swr), Geertsma (1974) assumed that the β coefficient depends only on the voids occupied by the gas, and hence on porosity n, on gas saturation Sg 1 Swr, and on gas effective permeability kg krgk, proposing the relationship: βg

0.5 1 k 0.5 n 5.5 (1 Swr )5.5 k rg0.5

(9)

where again the units of permeability k is in [millidarcy], and the β coefficient is in [m1]. Further researches established similar empirical relationships, measured on-site or in laboratory, valid also in the case of flow of both phases. Some of these expressions have been


195

specifically validated for porous media or for fractured rocks, while other expressions are considered of general validity (Ma and Ruth, 1997; Ucan and Civan, 1996; Wang and Mohanty, 1999; Jin and Penny, 2000; Li and Engler, 2001, and references herein contained). In all the above relationships, the coefficient βi is always a function of porosity n, saturation Si, effective permeability ki or of some of these terms. However, the expressions are different both in form, exponents and coefficients. Accordingly to Li and Engler (2001), these differences might depend on the different geometry of the flow paths (mainly on dimensions and tortuosity), on the lithology, and possibly also on the fact that the parameters under consideration vary from case to case. Narayanaswamy et al. (1999) found that differences between laboratory and on-site measurements are probably due to heterogeneities of the considered media, bearing in mind also that heterogeneities increase with the increasing reference volume influencing the measurements. In the case of two-phase flow through beds of coarse particles many relationships have been proposed. The following is the one by Schulenberg and Muller (1987): gradΦi

µi 1 ui u2 k ri kρi η ri ηρi i

i 1, 2

(10)

where η 1/β is the inverse of Forchheimer’s coefficient, and ηri are coefficients depending on particle shape, on effective permeability ki and on saturation Si, to be determined experimentally. Many numerical models and theoretical studies have been developed for modeling single-phase and multi-phase non Darcian flow through heterogeneous porous and fractured rocks. In particular, Wu (2002) developed a formulation incorporating the Forchheimer’s equation, based on an integral finite-difference or a control volume numerical discretization scheme. The proposed model was then implemented into a three-dimensional, threephase flow simulator and is applicable to both single-porosity porous media and fractured rocks. For flow in fractured porous media, fracture-matrix interactions are handled using an extended dual-continuum approach, such as double- or multiple-porosity, or dualpermeability methods. The model, though formally valid, need to be verified for the assumptions and simplifications adopted in the physics of fluid flow.

4

COUPLING EFFECT

In the usual extension of Darcy’s law to two-phase flow (where relative permeability depends on fluids saturation and their distribution inside the medium), it is considered that each fluid flows through continuous flow paths and the flow of one phase interferes with the flow of the other only insofar as it takes up part of the flow paths, reducing the flow area of each phase. This does not take into account the fact that the two phases are flowing side by side in the porous medium and offer complex fluid contact surfaces. Thus, one phase can influence the flow of the others, and vice-versa (coupling effect). This phenomenon was first put in light by Yuster (1953), though still today many researchers consider it as negligible in almost all cases, or simply ignore it. A comprehensive discussion of this matter with an accurate bibliography can be found in Rose (1991, 1999, 2000), Rose and Rose (2004), Ayub and Bentsen (1999), Bentsen (2001).

196


Today the importance of the coupling effect seems proved by several theoretical and experimental studies. Accordingly to the majority of researchers, this phenomenon is consequent to the reciprocal viscous drag (in term of shear stresses at the fluid contact interface) that may affect significantly the flow of the contiguous fluid. Especially in the case of high velocity laminar flow, if the fluids have different velocities (in intensity, direction, or both), at the contact interfaces they deliver to each other tangential forces whose effect is all the more sensitive, the greater is the ratio of viscous to capillary forces, expressed by the capillary number. In this situation of coupled flow, the following relationships are supposed to be valid: ui (λii gradΦi λij gradΦj)

(11)

uj (λji gradΦi λjj gradΦj)

(12)

where λij is the coupling coefficient, and: λ ii

ρii k ii , µ ii

λ jj

ρ jjk jj µ jj

(13)

The coefficients λii, λjj, and λij are to be determined experimentally. Generally it is here assumed to hold the reciprocity relationship λij λji (Onsager, 1930). In granular porous media this effect is important for capillary numbers larger than 106 or 105 (Hughes and Blunt, 1999; Mott et al., 1999, 2000); in fractured rocks this effect has not been completely studied, but it might be significant because of the high flow velocity that can be attained in fractures, increasing the capillary number Nca. Hughes and Blunt (1999) report that in porous reservoirs usual values of capillary number are Nca 107 (with Nca ⬃ 103 in proximity of the borehole); on the other hand, in fractured reservoir usual values are Nca 105. So, it is clear that high flow velocity makes viscous and inertial forces dominant with respect to capillary forces. Experimental studies have clearly proved this phenomenon in the case of flow in both porous and fractured media. Here it has been found that the volumetric flows increase considerably when both fluids move in the same direction (co-current flow) compared to the case of countercurrent flows (Bourbiaux and Kalaydjian, 1990; De Santos et al., 1991; Fourar et al., 1993; Persoff and Preuss, 1995; Mott et al., 1999). Figure 1 reports an example of the different relative permeability curves measured through capillary displacement of oil by water (imbibition, in the case of co-current and countercurrent flow) in a porous medium, considering valid the conventional Darcy’s law. For the case of gas and gas-condensate co-current flow, Figure 2 reports the values of gas relative permeability krg vs. capillary number in a particular case of high rate flow and constant mobility ratio. It is worthy reminding that Houpeurt (1974) noticed that the curves of relative permeability measured on cores in routine laboratory tests, by imposing the same direction of the flow of the phases, are not applicable to the case of non co-current flow. This is typical for example, of oil reservoir producing for solution gas drive, where during the flow towards the well, the oil tends to flow downward and the gas tends to slip upward.


197

Relative permeability

0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 35

40

45

50

55

60

Water saturation

Figure 1. Co-current and countercurrent relative permeability curves in imbibition tests. Solid dots represent oil relative permeability kro (kro, 䊉 co-current, 䉱 countercurrent), while empty dots represent water relative permeability krw (krw, 䊊 co-current, ∆ countercurrent) (from Bourbiaux and Kalaydjian, 1990, modified).

1,00

Krg

0,80 0,60 0,40 0,20 0,00 1,0E-06

1,0E-04

1,0E-02

1,0E+00

Nca

Figure 2. Gas relative permeability Krg measured vs. different capillary number Nca at constant mobility ratio Mgo, in condition of co-current flow of gas and gas-condensate (from Mott et al., 1999, modified).

5 INERTIAL AND COUPLING EFFECTS While studying the flow of gas in the immediate vicinity of a gas-condensate well, where there is a strong saturation of liquid and where both the gas and the condensate move in the same direction, Mott et al. (2000) found that at a high velocity there are two competing phenomena which make the gas effective permeability rate-dependent. In this case, on one hand the gas effective permeability increases due to positive coupling (or stripping velocity) and on the other decreases due to the inertial effect. In this case, these authors have suggested introducing into eq. (3) an effective permeability of the gas: kg.eff kFnd krg(Sg, Nca)

(14)

⎛ ⎞⎟1 βkρg ⎜⎜ ⎜1 u g ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎠ µ g ⎝

(15)

where, recalling eq. (4):

Fnd


krg

198

1 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 0,0

0,2

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

So

Figure 3. Gas relative permeability at different velocity: ∆ curve “a”, low velocity; 䊊 curve “b”, high velocity excluding inertial effects; curve “c”, high velocity including inertial and capillary number effects (from Mott et al., 2000 modified).

Here, Fnd takes the inertial flow effects into account, while krg takes the coupling effect into account and is determined as a function of gas saturation Sg and of capillary number Nca. An example of these conflicting effects is illustrated in Figure 3, where the curve “a” is the usual gas relative permeability (at low velocity and low capillary number), while the curve “b” is the high-velocity gas relative permeability excluding inertial effect and finally the curve “c” is high-velocity gas relative permeability including inertial and capillary number effect. At high velocity, while at low liquid saturation, the inertial effect dominates, at high saturations the capillary number effect is the most important, so that gas relative permeability becomes larger than the one at low velocity and low capillary numbers. Similar results have been obtained by Henderson et al. (2000), always in the case of gas and gas-condensate flow in the vicinity of a wellbore. In this particular study, it has been performed more than 90 tests in limestone and sandstone samples, with permeability ranging from 10 to 550 millidarcy and gas-liquid interfacial tension ranging from 0.015 103 to 0.7 103 N m1. In particular, here it has been highlighted a transition from inertiadominated relative permeability curves with increasing velocity at low condensate saturation (low mobility ratio), to conditions where the positive coupling effect was dominant as the condensate saturation and mobility ratio increase. Relationships are also given to calculate relative permeability accounting for both inertial and positive coupling effects. Again, in the case of gas and gas-condensate flow, some researchers (Ali et al., 1997-a, 1997-b; Wang and Mohanty, 1999; Amili and Yortsos, 2002) noticed that by increasing Nca, the condensate turns from a continuous phase attached to the pore wall (with condensate ganglia) to a non Darcy flow condition. In this case, the liquid can move both as a continuous phase adherent to the medium wall surfaces, and as in the form of insulate droplets drawn by the gas flow (mist flow), whose dimensions are smaller than the pore throats, as shown in Figure 4. Droplets can be formed for both blow-up of the ganglia (Figure 4-a), and, as gas velocity increases, for viscous drag inside the liquid accumulated around the pore or by the fracture wall (Figure 4-b). By increasing furthermore the velocity, the flow attains the limit case of two-phase flow inside pipes, both in coarse porous media, and in fractures. In most of these cases it is likely that true turbulent flow conditions exist, though they are not explicitly indicated (Fourar et al., 1993; De Santos et al., 1991).


199

Figure 4. Representation of the formation of small oil-condensate droplets in proximity of pore throats, occurring when liquid ganglia blows-up. This mechanism is possible when there is a high velocity gas flow. Obviously, droplets dimension is smaller than the pore throats (modified from Wang and Mohanty, 1999).

6

FOAMY-OIL FLOW

It has been already mentioned that, according to Darcy’s law extended to two-phase flow, each fluid cannot move until it has formed a continuous phase. In this case the rate of the volumetric flow of the phases depends on the ratio Mij of the mobility λi of each phase. However, it has been noticed that this does not happen in many reservoirs of viscous oil which produce by dissolved gas drive. Here the wells produce a stable foam emulsion of gas in oil for a long time, and the gas to oil ratio (GOR) is much lower than it should be according to Darcy’s law, with a positive effect on the primary oil production of the reservoir (Maini, 2001; Kamp et al., 2001-a, 2001-b, etc.). According to Maini (2001, and references herein enclosed), the different behavior is associated not so much to super-saturation of dissolved gas in the oil, as to the distribution of the fluids in the medium. In fact, in the usual light oil reservoirs, the ratio of viscous to capillary forces is low and the distribution of the phases, which depends on the capillary forces, is the same under static and flowing conditions and is not influenced by the local pressure gradient. On the contrary, in this kind of reservoir, due to the high viscosity of the oil and to the high drawdown pressure used in cold production (i.e., during the production of heavy oil with no thermal enhanced processes), the ratio of viscous to capillary forces is high and such as to mobilize the micro-bubbles (i.e., bubbles much smaller than average fracture or pore-throat size). An alternative hypothesis is that the larger bubbles can break during the migration with the oil. The phenomenon becomes easier to detect when the gravitational forces do not induce rapid segregation of the phases (i.e., when there is a low Bond number) and the pore-body/pore-throat ratio is small, as, for example, in the case of well-sorted unconsolidated sands. Evidence indicates that, for all these cases, the classical Darcy’s law does not adequately describe the oil and gas flow. Several conceptual models have been proposed to study

200


physical mechanism driving the production of these reservoirs. The simplest model considers that the local oil and gas velocities are the same and the emulsion is homogeneous (homogeneous emulsion flow), and is characterized by an average density. In this case, the single-phase Darcy’s law still holds, considering the intrinsic permeability of the medium and the viscosity of the emulsion. Another model considers that part of the gas flows as a continuous phase in some of the flow paths, and the rest as a dispersed phase in the oil. Finally, a third model considers the flow of two continuous phases. Probably the first model is valid for low gas saturation values, and the second one for gas saturation values sufficient to allow the formation of a continuous gas phase in some flow paths. At last, the third model should be valid for high gas saturation values, where eq. (1) probably still holds. Many researchers have studied the issue and have suggested several approaches to it, but many questions still remain unsolved.

7

CONCLUSIONS

Non-Darcian multi-phase flow has been investigated since long ago, with many studies, both theoretical and experimental. However, a complete and unitary theory on the subject still does not exist. In particular, the extension of Darcy’s law to multi-phase flow has not been yet completely probed either in the case of Darcian flow. For this reason, the present study is limited to the examination of the two-phase flow in Darcian and non-Darcian conditions. The considerations discussed in this paper highlight the fact that, for two-phase laminar flow in porous media or in fractures, the generalized Darcy’s law does not apply in cases where: a) forces of inertia are no longer negligible compared to viscous forces; b) the flow of one phase is influenced by the forces transmitted by the other phase across the contact surface, when both phases are in motion (coupling effect); c) the distribution of the phases inside the medium does not depend so much on the capillary forces as on the viscous forces and gravity ones, a condition that takes place in foamy-oil flow when there is a high pressure gradient (and, hence, high velocity flow). The same conditions generally take place in the case of flow inside unconsolidated porous media or fractured media with small pore-body/pore-throat ratio, where there are different flow models, depending on the velocity of both phases and on the surface tension. It is believed that all the above hold for all porous and/or fractured media, since the flow model does not depend on the particular network of flow paths (pores and/or fractures), but mainly on the characteristics of the flow paths themselves (i.e., dimensions, tortuosity, cross-section variations, etc.). Flow paths inside a coarse-grained porous rock (gravel, coarse clean sand, etc.) are probably more similar to those of a fractured rock with aperture of a few millimetres than the flow paths inside a fine-grained cemented porous rock. In conclusion, it clearly appears that the flow model does not depend so much on whether the medium consists of porous or fractured rocks, but on the ratio between the forces driving the fluid flow (i.e., Reynolds number, capillary number and Bond number). When such ratios vary, the flow models move from those taking place in a capillary network to models that take place in a network of pipes.


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CHAPTER 13

GIS based assessment of groundwater recharge in the fractured rocks of Namaqualand, South Africa Julian Conrad1 and Shafick Adams2 1

GEOSS – Geohydrological and Spatial Solutions International (Pty) Ltd, TechnoPark, Stellenbosch, South Africa 2 Earth Science Department, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, South Africa

ABSTRACT: For protection and management of groundwater resources it is essential that groundwater recharge is calculated. In semi-arid Namaqualand (South Africa), a recharge assessment was conducted using a geographical information system (GIS). The approach taken was based on assigning recharge probabilities, based on field experience, to a number of data sets and then combining these layers. The data sets included: geological lineaments; lithology; land cover; soil type; soil thickness; soil texture; slope and depth to groundwater. A groundwater recharge percentage map was produced and the results were applied to the mean annual precipitation to obtain the spatial distribution of recharge. As the data processing is GIS based, new data sets can easily be included and the processing swiftly completed. The GIS based recharge results correlated closely with point recharge calculations. Although the approach simplifies groundwater recharge mechanisms, knowing the spatial distribution of recharge enables improved resource protection and management.

1

INTRODUCTION

The quantification of the rate of groundwater recharge is vital for efficient groundwater resource management or sustainable management of groundwater resources (Simmers, 1996, Bredenkamp et al., 1995). The prediction of sustainable yields of aquifers is dependent on the amount of water recharging the aquifers. Recharge is vital in basement aquifers that commonly have small storativities, and it becomes even more important if the basement aquifers occur in arid regions. Basement aquifers here include both the weathered zone and fractured rock aquifers. As a result, the need to assess recharge in these regions, using suitable methods, arises. The definition of recharge used in this report is: the portion of rainfall that reaches the saturated zone, either by direct contact in the riparian zone or by downward percolation through the unsaturated zone (Rushton and Ward, 1979). There are numerous recharge estimation techniques, and no two methods, even if applied to the same area, yield identical recharge rates. These methods are often limited to particular environments (i.e., humid or arid), and the availability of data (especially longterm monitoring data). Techniques are not often transferable from one environment to another and recharge estimation is one of the most difficult hydrogeological variables to

204


Figure 1.

The study area located in Namaqualand, western South Africa.

determine. Recharge is estimated by using known variables that are directly measurable to some degree of accuracy. Recharge can be estimated by determining the fluxes in the unsaturated zone or by estimating the net contribution to the saturated zone. Methods that are applicable in the different zones can be classified as chemical and isotopic methods, physical methods, and combination methods that can be integrated into mathematical and GIS models. Crucial to the estimation of groundwater recharge is a proper understanding of the aquifer system being investigated. Estimating recharge in the Namaqualand area is difficult due to the paucity of data. The study area is shown in Figure 1. This paper provides a base for future groundwater resource assessments. The approach of this paper is to use existing and easily obtainable data to estimate recharge in the area.

2

BACKGROUND

The South African climate is generally divided into a wet east coast and a drier west coast. The study area (Figure 1), in Central Namaqualand, is situated on the west coast of the subcontinent and experiences an arid to semi-arid climatic regime, brought about mainly by the topography of the area, as well as the climatic systems operating on the subcontinent. No perennial river systems occur in the study area. The Orange River, to the north of the study area, is the only perennial river in the primary catchment area. Most rural communities rely on groundwater for their existence. The Orange River is a major source of piped water supply for the larger towns (Springbok, O’kiep and Steinkopf) and for the largescale diamond and base-metal mining activities.

GIS based assessment of groundwater recharge in the fractured rocks

205

Groundwater development has been dominated by the need for rural community water supply subsidised by the government, the private water supply for domestic and agricultural activities and the exploitation of groundwater for mining activities. The development of the groundwater resource is a complex task given the complexity of the aquifer systems. Crystalline rocks are inherently poor aquifers because of low storage capacity and waterquality problems. In this study area we can divide the basement aquifers into weathered zone aquifers and fractured rock aquifers. Groundwater hydrology in South Africa has been chiefly concerned with supply of water to areas where surface water was not sufficient or too expensive to meet demand. Vegter (2001) gives a detailed account of the various stages through which South African groundwater hydrology passed. The current trend in groundwater studies is to focus on the field of integrated management of water resources which has arisen as a result of the National Water Act promulgated in 1998. Poor understanding of the aquifer systems and rates of aquifer recharge in Namaqualand led to poor management practices. The assessment of the groundwater systems and the socio-economic dynamics of the area have been the focus of research by the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of the Western Cape. One of the main constraints identified was that the processes and rates of aquifer replenishment/recharge were not fully understood. This paper reviews a study initiated to investigate the recharge characteristics of meteoric water to the aquifers of Central Namaqualand.

3

STUDY AREA

The study area (Figure 2) is located in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, and is situated in an area called Namaqualand. Copper and diamond mining occurs in the area. The area is also well known for its extensive display of flowers in the spring season. The area is classified as arid to semi-arid and the climate of the area is controlled by altitude, topography and distance from the sea. The mean annual precipitation (MAP) varies from 44 mm in the coastal zone area to 480 mm in the Kamies Mountains, for the period June 1999 to August 2001. Higher rainfall in the higher lying areas is a result of orographic rainfall. Rainfall occurs predominantly during the winter months. Snow in the Kamies Mountains is not uncommon during the winter. Potential annual evapotranspiration is between 12–15 times the MAP. The vegetation of the area is characterised by the Nama Karoo biome, which is dominated by a mixture of grasses and low shrubs. The area is characterised by three geomorphologic regions, (1) a coastal lowland, (2) an escarpment zone, which comprises of highland and lowlands within this zone and (3) the Bushmanland Plateau. Due to low rainfall over the semi-arid to arid region, most of the rivers are ephemeral. The most important ephemeral rivers in the area are the Buffels River, Groen River and Swartlintjies River. The area includes tertiary catchments F30, F40 and F50. Namaqualand can be subdivided into three major geological provinces (Tankard et al., 1982). These are: the basement rocks of the Namaqua Province; the volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Gariep Complex (Visser, 1989) in the northwest; and a Phanerozoic cratonic cover (Table 1). The geology of the area has been discussed in detail by Titus et al. (2002) and Titus (2003). The study area is predominantly underlain by Proterozoic crystalline basement rocks of the Namaqua Province. Cover rocks of the Nama group overlay the basement rocks to the north

206


Figure 2.

Study area and relevant features.

of the Buffels River catchment. The margins of the Namaqua Province are also obscured by younger cover rocks of the Gariep Complex to the north as well as by Cenozoic surficial sediments to the east and west. In the south, rocks of the Nama Group and the lowermost units of the Karoo Supergroup cover the rocks of the Namaqua Province (Albat, 1984). Groundwater occurs in three different aquifer systems in the Namaqualand area, they are: (1) fractured bedrock; (2) the weathered zone or regolith; and (3) the sandy/alluvial aquifers. The fractured bedrock and weathered zone aquifers are hydraulically linked; the weathered zone acts as a reservoir that is able to recharge the bedrock aquifers. The weathered zone

GIS based assessment of groundwater recharge in the fractured rocks Table 1.

207

Classification of major geological provinces (Tankard et al., 1982 and Visser, 1989).

Geological province

Group

Age

Hydrogeological characteristics

Cover Rocks

Sand, Alluvium and Calcrete Nama Group

Gariep Complex

Gariep Complex

Late Phanerozoic (Cenozoic) Late Proterozoic (Late Namibian) Late Proterozoic (Early/Middle Namibian)

Shallow to deep sand deposits – variable yield and quality Shale, limestone and quartzite, low yielding, variable quality Quartzites mainly – variable yield and quality

Namaqua Province Central Zone

Namaqua Middle Proterozoic Various metamorphic and igneous Metamorphic (Middle Mokolian) rocks – variable yields and quality Complex Western Zone Vioolsdrif Intrusive Middle Proterozoic Granitic rocks – low yields and Suite (Early Mokolian) poor quality

aquifers are generally considered to be the most productive groundwater zones (e.g., Tindimugaya, 1995; Acworth, 1997). Superimposed on the basement aquifers are the alluvial aquifers associated with the ephemeral rivers, paleochannels and the coastal plain. Alluvial aquifers associated with the river systems are usually very shallow (1–15 m) and in the coastal areas, tens of metres. Boreholes and large diameter wells drilled in Namaqualand are usually found in river courses and alluvium filled valleys. The alluvial aquifers are the main source of water supply for most villages. The alluvial aquifers are efficiently recharged during the rainy season. The alluvial aquifers, in turn, recharge other hydraulically connected aquifers.

4

PREVIOUS WORK

The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and Toens and Partners did most of the community water supply projects for the area, which led to numerous consultancy reports and monitoring data being produced. The Atomic Energy Corporation (AEC), now the National Energy Corporation of South Africa (NECSA), did hydrogeological work in and around the Vaalputs area (a radioactive waste repository) to the east of the study area. A detailed description of the groundwater resources and hydrogeology of the study area can be found in Titus et al. (2002). The recharge manual by Bredenkamp et al. (1995) gives an overview of recharge in South Africa, except for the crystalline basement aquifers. No detailed recharge studies, either published or unpublished, exist for the specific area. Toens and Partners (2001) estimated recharge in the Bitterfontein and Rietfontein areas to be between 0.9% (1.03 mm/yr) and 2.2% (3.62 mm/yr) of precipitation. Vegter (1995) cited recharge rates for the towns of Springbok and Garies of 7.3 mm/yr and 2.9 mm/yr respectively. Recharge in the Komaggas area was estimated at 9.6 mm/yr (DWAF, 1990). Verhagen and Levin (1986), using environmental isotopes in the Vaalputs area, noted that recharge is “minimal”, occurring only periodically during periods of above-normal rainfall.

208


Figure 3.

5

Geology of the study area.

METHODOLOGY

A number of recharge measurement methods were used in the study area (Adams et al., 2004). The chloride mass balance (CMB) method was used to estimate recharge on a local and regional scale using the saturated zone approach (Adams et al., 2004). The stable isotopes oxygen-18 and deuterium and the radiogenic isotope 14C were coupled with factor analysis and the GIS assessment method to delineate and constrain recharge. The saturated volume fluctuation (SVF) method (Bredenkamp et al., 1995) was used to estimate storage


209

Table 2. A listing of the data sets used in the GIS approach. Data Geology map (1: 1,000,000) 1. Lithology Land Type (1 : 250,000) 1. Soil type and clay content 2. Soil thickness 3. Land cover Landsat TM image (Analysis scale 1: 250,000) 1. Lineaments 2. Lineament intersections 3. Digital Elevation Model 4. Slope Topographical maps (1: 50,000) 1. Drainage density Climatological Data (1: 250,000) 1. Rainfall distribution and amount Hydrogeological data (Point data) 1. Water levels

coefficients and recharge (Adams et al., 2004). The cumulative rainfall departures (CRD) method (Bredenkamp et al., 1995) was used to estimate the recharge rates to the aquifers (Adams et al., 2004). This paper focuses on the GIS method followed. In validation of the GIS approach, however, comparison was made to the recharge values obtained using the other approaches mentioned above. The GIS approach involves the evaluation of different surface and subsurface features and their influence on natural groundwater recharge. The approach is mainly of a subjective nature where probability weights are assigned to features that may have a positive or negative effect on groundwater recharge. The approach is similar to the methodology of creating groundwater vulnerability maps. Different data sets that may be used in defining a recharge potential map were collated. The data sets are shown in Table 2 with overlays that can be derived. All data sets were imported into ArcView GIS and standardised to the UTM 34 (WGS84 datum) projection. UTM was chosen as all directions, distances, shapes, and areas are reasonably accurate to within 15° of the central meridian. As this projection is conformal, shape and angles within any small area are essentially true. The different components of the recharge potential map are subjectively weighted according to the probability of recharge occurring in the particular area. 5.1

Lithology

The geology of the area is considered the most important factor in that all the surface and subsurface features of the area are controlled by the different lithologies. The major drawback is the scale of the available geological map of the area (1: 1,000,000) compiled by the Council for Geoscience. The lithological ratings and recharge probability are shown in

210

Groundwater in fractured rocks Table 3. Lithology and recharge potential found within the study area. Geology – Lithology

Recharge probability

Gneiss Granite Limestone Quartzite Sediments Schist Sedimentary Shale

65 65 85 65 90 65 75 55

Table 3. Recharge probability is the likelihood of direct groundwater recharge occurring for a particular feature. A value of “100” indicates that all water reaching the upper surface will pass through that feature, whilst a value of “0” indicates complete impermeability. 5.2

Soil characteristics

The characteristics of the soils were derived from a 1: 250,000 land type data set obtained from the Institute of Soil, Climate and Water. The land types incorporate terrain form, topography, and microclimate. Although the data set does not include a soil map it does have information pertaining to the soil thickness, percentage clay and soil texture within each land type. The depth of the soil zone and its clay content are important factors due to the high evapotranspiration rates of the area. The soil layers over most of the coastal area are not considered significant aquifers due to the poor quality and quantity of the groundwater. An exception are the alluvial aquifers associated with the main drainage systems. Thick soil covers will inhibit the movement of water to the water table. A linear relationship is assumed, i.e. if no soil cover is present it is rated as having a 100% probability of recharge. The maximum soil thickness recorded in the land type data is 1.2 m and this is rated at 50%. Due to the arid nature of the area, soil moisture deficits are high and considerable rainfall is needed to initiate vertical groundwater recharge in thick soils. The soil characteristics over most of the area are a function of insitu weathering and transported material along rivers and paleochannels. The soil thickness map indicates that the soil depths vary across the mountainous areas. 5.3

Lineaments

Geological lineaments provide an indication of tectonic activity and may indicate fault or shear zones or geological weaknesses along which volcanic rock types have intruded. They may be zones of preferred groundwater flow or may be so weathered and fine grained that very little flow occurs. In the context of the Namaqua Province, they are considered significant and are thus taken into account. The process followed included a visual assessment of geological lineaments, mapped from the Landsat TM image (p176r081), acquired in December 1999. The Landsat TM scene did not cover the entire area of interest, but the bulk of the relevant lineaments did occur within the core region of the satellite


211

The classification system used for lineaments.

Type of lineament

Code

Description

Lineaments Shear zones Dykes Faults Geological contacts

1 2 3 4 5

Any linear feature that could not be classified A wide zone where lithological displacement is evident Zones of igneous intrusion A narrow zone where lithological displacement is evident Where differing lithologies come into contact, yet no displacement is apparent

Table 5.

Lineament intersection values.

Intersection

Recharge probability %

Buffer distance (m)

Low (50) low (50) Low (50) medium (70) Low (50) high (90) Medium (70) medium (70) Medium (70) High (90) High (90) high (90)

50 60 70 70 80 90

50 75 100 100 150 200

image. The lineaments were mapped at a scale of 1:250,000. The classification used is listed in Table 4. Once the lineament mapping had been completed, the entire image was reviewed at a scale of 1:125 000 and lineaments missed, inaccurate, or misclassified were updated. Only visible lineaments were mapped and no inferences were made if the lineament could not be seen. Many of the valley floors are filled with cover alluvial material and the linear nature of such valleys suggests that they are fault controlled. However, if the lineament could not be seen it was not mapped. In an attempt to assess the groundwater flow potential of each lineament, a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and a soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) was generated from the Landsat TM image. The SAVI was suggested by Kellgren et al. (2000) as a better index than the NDVI to use for this purpose, however for this particular area the difference between the NDVI and the SAVI was minimal. Lineaments associated with higher NDVI values were assumed to have more groundwater than is available for plants. The lineaments were also visually assessed in terms of groundwater flow potential and in conjunction with the NDVI, a qualitative value of high, medium and low were assigned to the lineaments. For the high flow lineaments a buffer distance of 200 m was assigned and this zone given a 90% probability for recharge potential. The medium flow lineaments were buffered by 100 m and assigned a 70% recharge probability and the low flow potential lineaments buffered by 50 m and given a 50% recharge probability. The buffering approach, which is the delineation of a zone, around a particular feature was used to give more “importance” and width to a feature that is considered to be a more favourable recharge zone. Based on field observations the occurrence of lineament intersections is considered important, as the probability of recharge occurrence is considered higher at these zones. The ratings used for the intersections are shown in Table 5.

212


Table 6.

Land cover types occurring within the study area and assigned recharge potential.

Land cover

Recharge probability (%)

Barren rock Cultivated: temporary – commercial dryland Cultivated: temporary – commercial irrigated Mines and quarries Shrubland and low Fynbos Thicket and bushland (etc) Unimproved grassland Urban/built-up land: residential Waterbodies Wetlands

100 90 93 100 95 70 97 85 100 100

Table 7. The relationship used between surface topography slope and percentage recharge potential.

5.4

Slope (degrees)


0–5 5–10 10–20 20–50 50–90

100 95 75 50 25

Land cover

For assessing the amount of precipitation interception and evapotranspiration, the national land cover data set was used. The land cover types are based on mapping done by the Agricultural Research Council and the CSIR from 1:250,000 Landsat TM images. The land classes occurring within the study area and associated subjective recharge probability ratings are given in Table 6. 5.5

Topography and slope

The slope was calculated from the digital elevation model. It is assumed that the steeper the slope is, the greater the rainfall runoff and the smaller the groundwater infiltration. Table 7 shows the values used in association with slope. 5.6

Depth to water level

The thickness of the unsaturated zone is considered a relevant factor in calculating recharge potential. The deeper the groundwater the more likely the adsorption of infiltrating surface moisture within the unsaturated zone and the more effective groundwater recharge is reduced. The values used for the depth to groundwater parameter are given in Table 8. The input data for the depth to groundwater level parameter needs to be carefully assessed before being used to generate groundwater level maps, so as to ensure that pumped water levels were not included in the same data set as rest water levels. The rest


213

Table 8. The relationship used between depth to water level and recharge probability. Depth to water level (m)


0–5 5–10 10–15 15–20 20–26

90 80 70 60 50

Table 9.

A listing of the data sets used.

Data set 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Lineaments flow potential (confirmed by NDVI/SAVI) Lineament density Lineament intersections Drainage density Land cover Soil type (clay content) Soil thickness Soil texture (% rock vs % soil) Slope (degrees) Depth to groundwater Lithology (geology) Rainfall distribution

water levels were used as the basis for generating the depth to groundwater surface. An Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) algorithm was used to generate the depth to water level map (Shepard, 1968).

6

RESULTS

For the generation of the final recharge map all the input coverages were converted to 50 m grids with the same area of extent. Each grid was then reclassified according to the classification table (Table 9) and then subsequently weighted according to how significant the individual factor was considered to be in contributing to groundwater recharge potential, based on the conceptual understanding of recharge for the study area. The recharge potential map gives an idea of direct vertical infiltration. Overlaying a map with the rainfall distribution and amounts, produces a map of recharge from direct rainfall (Figure 4).

7

COMPARISON OF A NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT APPROACHES FOR RECHARGE CHARACTERIZATION AND ESTIMATION

Assessing recharge to any aquifer depends on the type of area under investigation, the availability of data, the distribution of available data, and the ability to obtain meaningful

214


Figure 4.

Recharge potential map for the Central Namaqualand region.

data. Groundwater recharge rates over large areas are difficult to estimate due to problems associated with upscaling and data distribution. Two approaches were followed in this study whereby recharge was qualitatively and quantitatively assessed. The qualitative assessment involved using existing data from the area and applying statistical and spatial techniques to assess recharge processes and patterns. Applying the CMB method and water level to rainfall relationships gave quantitative estimates of recharge.


215

Comparison of results between the CMB, SVF, CRD and GIS methods.

Site

Ave. rainfall (mm/yr)

CMB (mm/yr)

SVF (mm/yr)

CRD (mm/yr)

MRT (yrs)

GIS (mm/yr)

Aquifer

Buffelsrivier

188

0.7

5.3

6.4

Modern

1.2

Bulletrap Klipfontein Komaggas

172 196 229

1.1 0.2 1.0

0.3 0.3 4.4

0.1 0.1 0.7

30,000 Modern

1.0 1.2 1.1

Leliefontein Rooifontein

395 138

2.2 0.4

1.9 2.6

2.3 3.06

5000

2.8 1.3

Spoegrivier Tweerivier Vyemond

200 296 239

0.2 3.5 –

0.2 0.6 0.05

0.1 1.8 0.09

2000

1.3 1.6 2.3

Alluvial/ Basement Basement Basement Alluvial/ Basement Basement Alluvial/ Basement Basement Basement Basement

The qualitative assessments of recharge, using statistical analysis and the GIS assessment techniques, identify areas that are receiving recharge and are favourable for potential artificial recharge. The statistical analysis indicates areas of localised artificial recharge through agricultural and domestic activities. The results of the quantitative analysis are shown in Table 10. Recharge was calculated as the average annual recharge. However, it is well recognized that only certain rainfall events during the wet winter season contribute significantly to recharge. Table 10 shows that higher rates of recharge occur in areas where groundwater is exploited from a combination of the alluvial and basement aquifers. Basement aquifers include both the weathered zone and fractured rock aquifers. The mean residence time (MRT) of groundwater is also indicated. The CMB method under-estimates recharge to alluvial aquifers associated with the ephemeral rivers in the vicinity of Buffelsrivier and Rooifontein). This may be explained by additional chloride input from run-on during periods of recharge. The current calculation of the CMB method lacks chloride data from run-on. The recharge rates also generally correlate with the 14C ages from individual boreholes; the Leliefontein sample does not fit the expected age and may be due to a sampling or analytical error. The scatter of estimates is probably due to the fact that the CMB, CRD and SVF methods measures recharge at different temporal scales. The CMB method estimates recharge over an extensive period, as opposed to the CRD and SVF methods that estimate recharge over shorter periods. The CMB method also depends on the degree of groundwater mixing within the borehole. It has been shown that the groundwater quality generally deteriorates with depth and 14C evidence suggests stratification of groundwater of different ages. The uncertainties in the degree of mixing and rainfall chloride can have a considerable effect on the error associated with an estimate. The recharge values obtained using the GIS approach compare well with the other results obtained, except where the groundwater age is relatively high. 8

SUMMARY

The GIS approach is an excellent tool for visualisation and spatial analysis. However, the method is more descriptive, less quantitative and subjective than rigorous analytical approaches to recharge calculations. The main shortcoming of the GIS approach is that it

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only assumes direct vertical infiltration and a number of assumptions are needed to arrive at a groundwater recharge probability map. The fracture-flow dominated mechanisms complicate the determination of effective groundwater recharge. However, by adopting a best estimate approach, an acceptable prediction of groundwater recharge can be arrived at and the spatial distribution and variation of recharge presented. The GIS generated results compare well with point estimates, using several different methods for calculating groundwater recharge. The groundwater recharge map provides valuable information for groundwater resource protection and management.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Water Research Commission is thanked for their support and funding to carry out this work.

REFERENCES Acworth RI (1987). The development of crystalline basement aquifers in a tropical environment. Quaterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 20, 265–272. Adams S, Titus R and Xu Y (2004). Groundwater recharge assessment of the basement aquifers of Central Namaqualand. WRC Report No. 1093/1/04. Water Research Commission, Pretoria. Albat HM (1984). The Proterozoic granulite facies terrane around Kliprand, Namaqualand Metamorphic Complex. Bulletin 33, Precambrian Research Unit. Dept. of Geology, University of Cape Town. Bredenkamp DB, Botha LJ, Van Tonder GJ and Van Rensburg HJ (1995). Manual on quantitative estimation of groundwater recharge and aquifer storativity. WRC Report TT 73/95. DWAF (1990). Grondwaterondersoek in die Komaggas-kleurling gebied, distrik Namakwaland. Tegniese Verslg GH 3654. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Kellgren N, Sander P, Blomquist-Lilja N, Groenewald J, Smit P and Smith L (2000). Remote sensing data for effective borehole siting. Progress report No. 3. Department of Geology, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteberg, Sweden. Rushton KR and Ward C (1979). The estimation of groundwater recharge. Journal of Hydrology, 41, 345–361. Shepard, D. (1968) A two-dimensional interpolation function for irregularly-spaced data, Proc. 23rd National Conference ACM, ACM, 517–524. Simmers I (1996). Challenges in estimating groundwater recharge. WRC: Groundwater – Surface Water Issues in Arid and Semi-arid Areas. Pretoria. Tankard AJ, Jackson MP, Eriksson KA, Hobday DK, Hunter DR and Minter WEL (1982). Crustal evolution of South Africa: 3.8 Billion years of earth history. Springer-Verlag, New York. Tindimugaya C (1995). Regolith importance in groundwater development. 21st WEDC conference. Kampala, Uganda. Titus R (2003). Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the basement aquifers in Namaqualand. PhD Thesis, University of the Western Cape. Titus RA, Pietersen KC, Williams ML, Adams S, Xu Y, Colvin C and Saayman IC (2002). Groundwater assessment and strategies for sustainable resource supply in arid zones – The Namaqualand case study. WRC Report 721/1/02. Water Research Commission, Pretoria. Toens and Partners (2001). Regional geohydrological assessment of the Bitterfontein and Rietpoort rural areas. Report No. 2001251. Vegter JR (1995). Groundwater resources of South Africa. An explanation of a set of National Groundwater maps. WRC Report No. TT 74/95. Water Research Commission, Pretoria.


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Vegter JR (2001). Groundwater development in South Africa and an introduction to the hydrogeology of groundwater regions. WRC Report No. TT 134/00. Water Research Commission, Pretoria. Verhagen B Th and Levin M (1986). Environmental isotopes assist in the site assessment of Vaalputs radioactive waste disposal facility. In Ainslie LC (ed) Proceedings volume – Conference on the treatment and containment of radioactive waste, and its disposal in arid environments. Atomic Energy Corporation of SA, Pretoria. Visser DJL ed. (1989). Explanation of the 1:1,000,000 geological map, fourth edition. Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs. Government Printer. ISBN 0-621-12516.

CHAPTER 14

The use of environmental isotopes to establish a hydrogeological conceptual model in a region with scarce data: the Table Mountain Group of South Africa as a case study Arie S. Issar1 and Johanita C. Kotze2 1

Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva Israel, Jerusalem, Israel Environmental Resources Management, Southern Africa Pty Ltd, Gallo Manor, Johannesburg, South Africa 2

ABSTRACT: The methodology of testing and verification of a hydrogeological working hypothesis in regions with scarce hydrological data is demonstrated in the case of the Table Mountain Group (TMG) of the Cape Provinces of the Republic of South Africa (RSA). The rocks of the TMG group have no primary porosity and were considered to be water bearing only in the uppermost shallow part near the surface. The existence of thermal springs along regional faults suggested an alternative conceptual model, in which the fault zones are fractured permeable media, enabling flow into great depths over long distances. Testing and verifying this conceptual model were done by sampling and testing for the environmental isotopic composition (oxygen 18/16, hydrogen 2/1) of the perched water table springs along a section from the sea to the mountains. This proved that the mountains are the areas of recharge of the thermal springs. The high temperature of the water is a function of flow to great depths along the regional fracture zones.

1

INTRODUCTION

In recent decades groundwater development has spread over many regions. In most areas the shallow aquifers are over-exploited by the local landowners. This worldwide trend, described as the “silent revolution’’, was encouraged by the fact that irrigation by groundwater is more efficient, technically and economically, than irrigation by surface water (Llamas and Martinez-Santos, 2005). Moreover in certain regions, as the Western Cape Province of South Africa, inconsistency of climate, such as a strong El Ninõ effect, causes drought and the failure of the water supply relying on dams. To allow the appropriate management of the over-exploited aquifers and also to provide additional groundwater resources, it is essential to explore alternative deeper aquifers. Such exploration involves the investment of time and money, which calls for the development of methods, which will shorten the research period, and of a number of exploration wells as suggested by Issar (1973) and Issar and Gat (1981) while investigating the water resources in regions with

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scarce hydrological data. The authors and their colleagues from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry of the Republic of South Africa (DWAF RSA) have applied and further developed these methods in the case of the Cape Province of the RSA.

2

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION

The Table Mountain Group (TMG) comprises most of the Cape Provinces of the Republic of South Africa (Figure 1). It crops out over an area of about 9,000 square kilometers, mostly mountainous, reaching elevations of 2500 meters. It has a Mediterranean type climate of winter rainfall, while summers are mostly dry. The precipitation falling on the outcrops varies extremely. On its northern borders the climate is arid, its annual precipitation does not exceed 200 mm, while in the southwestern region it may reach 2000 mm/y. The total thickness of the TMG is about 4000 meters (de Beer 2002) consisting of quartzitic sandstones of Ordovician to Silurian age.

3

3.1

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONCEPTUAL MODEL Conventional hydrogeological model

Until the late 20th century, the conventional hydrogeological model adopted by the official RSA water authorities was that only the upper-most part of the TMG, not exceeding a few tens of meters, should be considered as water bearing and be worth drilling. It was reasoned that because of the tectonic processes of intense folding which this region underwent since the Paleozoic Era the rocks are highly consolidated and of zero primary hydraulic conductivity. It was maintained that the rocks were permeable only near the surface where relaxation and weathering processes brought about fracturing and fissuring. 3.2

Preliminary observations suggesting a different conceptual model

A preliminary survey, invited by the DWAF RSA, was carried out by the senior author during the mid seventies. The survey included visits to the main thermal springs, which emerge from the TMG, as well as a study of the satellite images of the region. This survey showed that the thermal springs, with temperatures ranging between 37 to 64 degrees centigrade, are located along regional faults breaking up the TMG province into structural blocks (Figure 1, Table 1). No recent volcanic phenomena, which could explain these thermal anomalies was known in the TMG province. As these observations could not be explained by the conventional hydrogeological mode, mentioned above, an alternative model had to be considered. The hypothetical new model suggested that rather wide zones of fractured rock exist along the regional faults, as well as along the secondary faults that branch off from the major regional fault systems. Water infiltrating into these zones in the highland regions flows down to great depths along these fractured systems, which extend in some regions to more than a thousand meters, as depicted by the high temperature of the thermal springs. They emerge along these faults due to a combination of hydraulic and thermo-dynamic

The use of environmental isotopes to establish a hydrogeological conceptual model

221

Figure 1. Extension of outcrops of the Table Mountain Group, major faults, and location of thermal springs (Based on de Beer 2002). Table 1. Partial list of thermal springs in the TMG province of RSA. (Based on Harris and Diamond 2002). Spring

Temp. °C

Quantity m3/h

Altitude m. above MSL

Geology

Baden

37

137

280

Brandviei Caledon

64 50

455 33

220 360

Calitzdorp Citrusdal Goudini Montagu

52 43 40 43

97 104 40 130

200 250 290 280

Towenwater Warmwatenberg

44 45

40 32

800 500

TMG–Bokkveld Group contact near regional fault Ditto on regional fault TMG–Bokkveld Group contact near regional fault Ditto Fault in TMG Regional fault in TMG TMG–Bokkveld Group contact near regional fault Regional fault in TMG Ditto

forces. Thus the regional fault system should be considered from the hydraulic point of view as a permeable fractured media. As a result of these considerations the TMG fault zones should be regarded, as regional aquifers. 3.3

Testing of hypothesis

In order to test our hypothetical model samples of water were taken from fresh water springs emerging along sections assumed to be the recharge areas of the thermal springs from the sea to the mountainous regions. All the samples were analyzed for the environmental isotopes of oxygen 18 and deuterium. The results (Issar 1995) have shown that the water of the thermal springs is rather depleted in these isotopes and is similar to that of the local cold springs in the mountainous regions. These results were later confirmed by various other isotopic surveys, as for instance that by Harris and Diamond (2002) shown in Figure 2. As can be seen from the data, the environmental composition of the water of the thermal springs is definitely depleted in deuterium and a little heavier in oxygen 18 in relation to the composition of weighted average of the rainwater, which is near the Global Meteoric Line. Yet, as the oxygen 18 compositions are not heavier than many rain samples. Thus no special

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Figure 2. Isotopic composition of rainwater and thermal springs TMG province RSA (According to Harris and Diamond 2002).

explanation is needed for an oxygen shift due to temperatures exceeding 80 degrees centigrade, as, for example, in the Central Plateau of Mexico, where a similar trend was observed, (Issar et al. 1984). The depletion in deuterium is explained by the altitude effect, as the recharge regions extend over the mountainous areas. This is confirmed by the work of Harris and Talma (2002) who have shown that the oxygen 18 composition of the thermal springs correlates with the composition of borehole water located at altitudes exceeding 600 meters above MSL. (Figure 3) These results, as well as results of the research on the chemical and isotopic composition of the thermal springs by Mazor and Verhagen (1983) enabled the formulation of a more detailed conceptual model. Accordingly the TMG aquifer was suggested to consist of three interconnected zones of fissured and fractured rocks, namely: Zone 1. Local shallow systems of fissures related to the mechanical failure of the rocks, due to pressure release, and rock tension joints connected to local folds and faults. The recharge takes place mainly in the high altitude regions where precipitation is maximal and evaporation is low, as evidenced by the depleted composition of the environmental isotopes. The rainwater and surface flow, which infiltrates into these fractures form a shallow perched aquifer, which either emerges as small local springs or flows into Zone 2. Zone 2. A regional system of fissures and fractures, along the faults and folds, which break the tectonic blocks into secondary blocks. From this system the water flows into Zone 3. Zone 3. Inter-regional systems of fractures connected to the mega-faults along the major tectonic lines dividing the TMG province into tectonic blocks (Figure 1 & Figure 4). At


223

Figure 3. Oxygen 18 composition of water of boreholes and thermal springs versus altitude (Harris and Talma 2002).

Figure 4.

Schematic conceptual hydrogeological model of the TMG.

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certain low altitudes, outflows take place either as thermal springs or directly to the sea along the mega-faults. 3.4

Verification of working hypothesis

In accordance with Issar’s recommendations the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry of RSA adopted a long-term program of research, exploration and development of the TMG. One of the regions in which intensive hydrogeological and hydrochemical research was carried out was the Klein Karoo province in the central part of the TMG belt (Kotze 2001). Simultaneously, intensive investigation proceeded in other regions. The results verified the hypothetical conceptual model, as for example at Citrusdal in the Western Cape Province, where a series of wells was drilled as a precaution against drought in case of a strong El Ninõ effect. Wells drilled to depths of between 174 and 348 meters yielded quantities of 35 to 450 m3/h. Oxygen 18 and 2H (deuterium) analyses have shown that the composition becomes lighter with depth (Hartnady and Hay 2002), confirming the above-mentioned conceptual model. One of the main problems faced during the quantitative stages of the hydrogeological research was the determination of the hydraulic parameters of the aquifers. This is because the classical methods of deriving these parameters from pumping tests were based on the assumption of laminar flow in a porous homogenous media. The TMG was neither porous, nor homogenous and the flow in the open fractures in the vicinity of the pumping wells could have become turbulent. Yet the various investigations have shown that on the average, conventional pumping tests, coupled with other method of evaluation such as analysis of spring flow, together with data available from engineering tests of hydraulic properties for dam foundations etc. give a range of hydraulic coefficients. The average of these values could be applied to calculate preliminary regional hydrological balances. This could provide the order of magnitude of the volume of water flowing through a certain section and stored. Thus TMG hydraulic conductivity coefficients (K) ranged from 1.99 m/d to 0.002–0.005 m/day, while transmissivity (T) values of a few hundred m2/day characterized productive fractured zones. When it comes to storativity coefficients (S), 0.001 was found to be “a fair estimate for the bulk storativity of the Peninsula and Nardouw formations” (Weaver et al., 2002), which are the two most arenitic formations and thus with the highest potential of being fractured and becoming groundwater bearing. On the basis of these values Rosewane estimated that there are a few tens of billions of cubic meters of groundwater stored in the TMG aquifer. Yet, in the opinion of the present authors this may be an overestimation and further investigation, as detailed in the following paragraphs, is needed to reach a more precise value. The impact of groundwater extraction on the surface water is another aspect which has to be taken into account when the reduction of available reserves is planned. In other words, the possibility has to be considered that massive pumping will dry up many springs in the Cape Mountains. On the other hand, field observations by the present authors have shown that there are sections along the western coastline of the Cape Province where TMG rocks continue into the sea. Along these sections groundwater which could be tapped inland. These uncertainties and observations call for a massive investment in an intensive program of investigations aimed to quantify in a more dependable way, the TMG aquifer coefficients of storage, permeability and recharge. These investigations should include the


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additional drilling of deep exploration wells along the regional fault zones above regional spring outlets, as well as along the regional fractures extending into the sea. These wells will be tested for their hydraulic coefficients and will be part of a national hydrological observation network. In addition it is recommended to map the temperature, salinity and environmental isotope composition of the seawater along the shoreline where TMG rocks outcrop. 4

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Data concerning the environmental isotopes (especially oxygen 18 and deuterium) composition of the water at various stages of the hydrological cycle along its way from recharge to discharge zones enables a general understanding of the characteristics of this cycle. Thus in order to develop a basic conceptual hydrogeological model to optimize investments in research budgets and cost of exploration drilling, data about these isotopes have to be collected and processed. This together with the geological data, which may be obtained from analysis of satellite images, and preliminary hydrological data obtained from the survey of springs and wells, and detailed geological mapping and cross-sections will enable the development of a preliminary framework for long-term aquifer management policies. The next stage of the hydrogeological investigation must aim at the construction of computerized flow models. This stage should be promoted despite the constraints already discussed concerning determination of the hydraulic parameters. These constraints can be solved through trial and error procedures while calibrating the models to fit field data. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The permission of Prof. Chris Harris, Department of Geological Sciences University of Cape Town, RSA, to present Figures 2 and 3 is thankfully appreciated. The editorial remarks of the reviewers and editors as well as the help of Ms. Marcia Ruth in editing the article are thankfully acknowledged. REFERENCES De Beer Ch (2002) The Stratigraphy, Lithology and Structure of the Table Mountain Group. In Pietersen K, and Parsons R. (eds.) A Synthesis of the Hydrogeology of the Table Mountain Group – Formation of a Research Strategy. WRC Report No TT 158/01, Water Research Commission, Pretoria, R.S.A 9–18. Hartnady CJH and Hay ER (2002) Boshkloof Groundwater Discovery. In: Pietersen and Parsons (eds.) ditto. 168–177. Harris C and Diamond RE (2002) The Thermal Springs of the Table Mountain Group: A Stable Isotope Study. In: Pietersen and Parsons (eds.) ditto. 230–235. Harris, C and Talma AS (2002). The application of isotopes and hydrochemistry as exploration and management tools. Water Research Commission (SA) TMG Special Publication 59–67. Issar A 1973. Methodology of groundwater investigation in regions with scarce hydrological data. Proc. of the International Symposium on Water Resources Development, Madras, India, pp. 1–6. Issar A, Gat J 1981. Environmental Isotopes as a tool in hydrogeological research in an arid basin. Ground Water, 19(5):490–494. Issar JL, Quijano JL, Gat J, Castro M (1984). The isotope hydrology of the groundwater of central Mexico. J. of Hydrology, 71:201–224.

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Issar AS (1995) On the Regional Hydrogeology of South Africa. Unpublished Report no. 3. The Directotrate of Geohydrology DWAF SRA. Kotze JC (2001) Hydrogeology of the Table Mountain Sandstone Aquifer in the Little Karoo. Ph D Thesis, University of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein. Llamas MR and Martinez-Santos P (2005) Values and Rights in the Silent Revolution of Intensive Groundwater Use. Proceedings International Water Conference, Ramallah, Palestinian Authority, May 2–5 2005. Mazor E, Verhagen BT and Rosewarne P (2002) Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Table Mountain Group Aquifers In: Pietersen K, and Parsons R. (eds.) etc. ditto. 33–44. Weaver JMC, Rosewarne P, Hartnady CJH, Hay, ER (2002) Potential of Table Mountain Group Aquifers and Integration into Catchment Water Management. In: Pietersen and Parsons (eds.) etc. ditto. 239–240.

CHAPTER 15

Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale: an application to India Jean-Christophe Maréchal1, Benoît Dewandel2, Shakeel Ahmed3 and Patrick Lachassagne1 1

BRGM, Water Division, Resource Assessment, Discontinuous Aquifers Unit, Montpellier, France 2 BRGM, Water Division, Resource Assessment, Discontinuous Aquifers Unit, Indo-French Centre for Groundwater Research, Hyderabad, India 3 National Geophysical Research Institute, Indo-French Centre for Groundwater Research, Hyderabad, India

ABSTRACT: The structure and the hydrodynamic properties of the weathering profile of a granitic area (53 km2 Maheshwaram catchment, state of Andhra Pradesh, India) were characterized in detail and mapped from observations on outcrops, vertical electric soundings, and data from borewells. The structure of the weathering profile results from a multiphase process: an ancient weathering profile was partly eroded down to its fissured layer. It was later re-weathered more or less parallel to the current topographic surface. The hydrodynamic properties of the weathered-fractured layer of the profile are characterized using hydraulic tests at different scales and a comprehensive hydrodynamic model is proposed. A water budget approach is developed to estimate specific yield and natural recharge in the aquifer with significant seasonal water table fluctuations. Water table fluctuations are due to distinct seasonality in groundwater recharge. These techniques constitute a first step towards the modelling at catchment scale in hard-rock aquifers.

1

INTRODUCTION

In India hard rock constitutes more than two-thirds of the total surface and is a great example of the nexus between water scarcity and the occurrence of hard-rock aquifers. The groundwater boom during the Green revolution of the seventies lead to a complete inversion of the irrigation scenario with groundwater now sustaining almost 60% of irrigated land (Roy and Shah, 2002). As discussed by Bredehoeft (2002), sustainable groundwater development usually depends on the dynamic response of the system to development. The principal tool to evaluate the sustainability of management scenarios for hydrosystems is groundwater modelling. Major prerequisites for establishing the reliability of such models are an accurate knowledge of the geometry and the hydrodynamic properties of the aquifer, and a reliable estimate of boundary conditions. This constitutes a challenging task in hard-rock aquifers given the heterogeneity of these environments.

228


This summarizes a set of methodologies applied on a pilot watershed located in rural India to overcome these difficulties: – geological and geophysical mapping for aquifer geometry determination; – hydraulic tests at various scales for hydrodynamic properties characterization; – groundwater budget and water table fluctuation for boundary conditions estimation.

2

GEOMETRY OF THE WEATHERING PROFILE

The Maheswaram pilot watershed (Figure 1), 53 km2 in area, is located 35 km south of Hyderabad, State of Andhra Pradesh, India. The area is characterized by relatively flat topography with altitudes between 670 and 590 m above sea level and the absence of perennial streams. The region experiences a semi-arid climate controlled by the periodicity of the monsoon (rainy season: June to October). Mean annual precipitation is about 750 mm of which more than 90% falls during the Monsoon season. The mean annual temperature is 26°C, but in summer (March to May) the daily maximum temperature approach 45°C. The geology of the area (Figure1) is composed of Archean granites. The weathering profile of these granites is observed in hundreds of dugwells (up to 20 m in depth) located throughout the watershed area. Dugwells provide mainly information on the upper part of the weathering profile (i.e., the laminated layer) and cuttings from 45 observation boreholes drilled during the research project (down-to-the-hole hammer), up to 64 m in depth, provide deeper information.

Figure 1.

Simplified geological map of the study area with location of observation wells (IFP).

Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale

229

From the top to the bottom, the profile generally shows (Figure 2): – a thin layer of red soil (10–40 cm), – a 1–3 m thick layer of sandy regolith, which is locally capped by a lateritic crust (50 cm in thickness), – a 10–15 m thick layer of laminated saprolite. This layer is characterized by a penetrative millimetre-spaced horizontal laminated structure and an unusual network of preserved mainly subhorizontal and some subvertical fissures partially filled up by clayey mineral. Both sandy regolith and laminated saprolite layers contain a few granite corestones (preserved fresh rock). While such fresher blocks are only occasionally present in the biotite granite, they are very common in the leucocratic granite, – the fissured fresh granite that occupies the next 15–20 m, where weathered granite and a few clayey minerals commonly partially fill up the fissures, – the unfissured granite (bedrock). Because of the very low ratio sandy regolith/saprolite, 0.1–0.2 instead of 0.5–0.7 in the “classical” profile, the small thickness of fissured layer compared to that of saprolite (ratio of 1 instead of 2) and the presence of fissures (numerous) within the laminated saprolite, it differs from the “classical” weathering model and questions the regional weathering processes in South India. Geophysical investigations using eighty vertical electrical soundings and geological observations have been used to build cross sections and map the spatial distribution of the layers constituting the weathering profile at the watershed scale (Dewandel et al. 2006). They show that bottoms of laminated and fissured layers more or less follow the current topography and thus that their thicknesses are relatively constant at the watershed scale (Figures 2 and 3). This particular structure also differs from the classical stratiform weathering model. It appears that the structure of the weathering profile results from a multiphase process: an ancient weathering profile was partly eroded, down to its fissured layer. It was later reweathered more or less parallel to the current topographic surface. This peculiar structure

Figure 2.

Weathering profile in Matheshram watershed (from Dewandel et al. 2006).

230

Groundwater in fractured rocks Fissured layer 202 257 188 150 206

140

1902000

83

120

123

156

229 180 192

Variogram

62

1901000

132 178

100

236 255 164 256

164

80 46

60 58

40

1900000

236

UTM - North

20 0

1899000

0

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

Lag Distance

1898000

Elev. of the bottom of the fissured layer [m]

1897000

640 1896000

630 620 610

1895000

600

1894000

IFP VES

1893000

590 580 570

224000 225000 226000 227000 228000 229000 230000 231000 232000 233000

UTM - East

Figure 3. Kriged maps (45 borewell lithologs and 80 VES interpretations) of elevation (in m above sea level) of the bottom of the fissured layer (or the top of fresh and unfissured basement).

is linked to the geodynamic history of the Indian Peninsula that underwent alternative weathering and erosion-dominated phases.

3 HYDRODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF THE WEATHERED-FRACTURED LAYER Hydraulic tests at different investigation scales were used to determine the hydrodynamic properties of the weathered-fractured layer. Slug tests, injection tests, flowmeter tests, and pumping tests are interpreted using specific techniques for fractured media (Maréchal et al. 2004). Hydraulic conductivity, storage coefficient, anisotropy, connectivity, fracture density, conductivity and radius of the fractures are investigated using various analytical solutions (Table 1). Only flowmeter tests and long duration pumping tests using double porosity and anisotropy methods are here below described. For other applications, refer to Maréchal et al. (2004). The application of flowmeter profiles during injection tests determines the vertical distribution of conductive fracture zones and their permeabilities. Seventeen flowmeter tests were conducted in the most permeable observation wells according to the sensitivity of the flowmeter, the total injection flow during the test being higher than 25 l/min. In the absence of core samples in such a fractured aquifer, it is not possible to determine if the identified conductive layers (which ones where the net radial flow is not nil) are constituted

Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale Table 1.

231

Characteristics of techniques used for the interpretation of hydraulic tests.

Hydraulic test

Interpretation method

u/c1

t/s2

Parameters obtained (Scale effect)

Slug test

Solution for unconfined aquifers Classical Dupuit (1848, 1863) solution Classical Dupuit (1848, 1863) solution for confined aquifers corrected for unconfined aquifers Double porosity (Warren and Root, 1963)

u

t

Local permeability

u

s

Permeability

u

s

Permeability and density of CFZ3

c

t

Bulk permeability and storage of blocks and fractures Permeability and storage, degree of permeability anisotropy Radius of fractures

Injection test Flowmeter test Pumping test

Pumping test

Anisotropy (Neuman, 1975)

u

t

Pumping test

Single fracture (Gringarten, 1974) Fractional dimension flow (Barker, 1988)

c

t

c

t

Pumping test

Flow dimension, generalized transmissivity and storage

1

hypothesis on aquifer property in the analytical solution (u: unconfined, c: confined) analytical solution type (t: transient, s: steady-state) 3 CFZ: conductive fracture zones (see later for more information) 2

by a single fracture, several fractures or a fractured zone. Therefore, in order to avoid any confusion, the results are referred to “conductive fractures zones (CFZ)” without any hypothesis concerning their exact nature (single fracture, multi-fractures, etc.). According to the geometry of the well and the observed drawdowns, the sensitivity of the flowmeter limits the identification of fractures zones to those with a hydraulic conductivity higher than 1 105 m/s (hydraulic transmissivity T 5 106 m2/s), corresponding to a net radial flow of about 5.5 l/m/min in a 0.5 meter-thick layer. This means that the technique gives information only on the most conductive fractures zones. The geometric mean of available data is KCFZ 8.8 105 m/s. The vertical profile of fracture zones distribution (Figure 4a) shows the occurrence of conductive fractures between 9 and 39.5 meters, with higher concentrations of fractures between 15 and 30 meters. However, observations are limited at shallow depths by the presence of unperforated casings in the boreholes, and by the bottom of the well at deeper depths. Thus, it is necessary in the interpretation to consider a statistical bias of the data introduced by unequal representation of the depth ranges for the investigated boreholes. The curve on Figure 4b shows that observations between 15 and 42 meters can be considered as representative, the percentage of investigated wells being higher than 50% (for a given aquifer portion, ratio between the number of available observations and the total 17 possible measurements, Figure 4b). The low number of observations at shallow depths (down to 15 meters) suggests that the apparent decrease in fractures density above 15 meters

232


is an artifact due to a lack of observations (ratio decreasing much, Figure 4b). Consequently, it can be assumed that the weathered-fractured layer extends above the upper limit of observations, which is consistent with field and well geological observations. The bottom of the weathered-fractured layer is better constrained by the quality of the available observations. The number of fractures starts to decrease between 30 and 35 meters (Figure 4a) and is followed by an absence of fractures below 35 meters while the quality ratio of observations remains high down to 39 meters (Figure 4b). This depth roughly corresponds to the top of the fresh basement as identified by geological observations during the drilling of the wells, and also to a sudden decrease in drilling rates at this depth. Figure 4c shows a profile of the arithmetic average of the hydraulic conductivities (including those less than 1 105 m/s, which are considered nil) obtained from flowmeters for each 0.5 meter-thick layer in all tested wells. It demonstrates the effect of the number of fractures on hydraulic conductivity, with the more highly transmissive zone located mainly between 9 and 35 meters. These observations mean that in the watershed area the weathered-fractured layer has a limited vertical extent (e.g., from the bottom of the weathered mantle down to maximum 35 meters depth). For each well, the vertical density of the fracture zones is the ratio of the number of conductive fracture zones to the thickness of the investigated weathered-fractured layer (equal to the difference between the final water level during the injection test and the bottom of the weathered-fractured layer as defined above). The density varies from 0.15 m1 to 0.24 m1. This range of density of conductive fracture zones in such a weathered-fractured layer leads to a vertical persistence (e.g., the distance between two consecutive CFZ, equal to the inverse of the density) between 4.2 and 6.8 meters. The ‘‘U’’ shape of the derivatives curve during long duration pumping tests suggests that the application of the double porosity method (Warren and Root 1963) is justified for this data set. The results of the application of this model to all the pumping tests are summarized in Table 2. The fracture network commonly used to match the observed data is a horizontal fracture set cross-cut by a vertical one (N 2), suggesting the existence of a network complementary to the horizontal one as observed in the dugwells. The (geometric) mean of the hydraulic conductivity of the fracture network is Kf 2.1 105 m/s, 400 times higher than that of the blocks (i.e., Kb 5.1 108 m/s). This last value is similar to the lowest of the hydraulic conductivities estimated from slug-tests. These low values were measured in three wells probably drilled in an unfractured area where only the hydraulic conductivity of the blocks contributes to the flow. However, it is quite probable that a primary network of fractures (PFN) also affects the matrix, accounting for the high value of the hydraulic conductivity (108 m/s) of the blocks compared to those measured on rock samples of the same lithology (matrix permeability Km 109 1014 m/s, de Marsily, 1986). At this stage, the use of the term “primary” refers only to the small scale (block-level) of the fracture network and does not imply any consideration on the specific origin of the PFN. That point will be considered in the final discussion. Together, the horizontal and the vertical sets of fractures observed in dugwells and designated in the double-porosity model constitute the secondary fracture network (SFN) at the borehole scale. The total storage coefficient (specific yield in this unconfined aquifer, obtained from the sum of fracture (Sf) and block (Sb) storage coefficients) is equal to Sy 6.3 103, a value quite consistent with those evaluated from other interpretation methods: Neuman technique (see below) or the water-table fluctuation techniques (see below). Storage in the primary fractures network (PFN) affecting the matrix accounts for the bulk

Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale Nb- fractures 2

4

K- fractures [m/s]

Quality ratio [%] 0

6

50

1.00E-07 1.00E-05 1.00E-03

100

0

0

0

2

2

2

4

4

4

6

6

6 8 10

12

12

12

14

14

14

16

16

16

18

18

18

20

20

20

22 24

22 24

Depth [m]

8 10

Depth [m]

8 10

significant data

Depth [m]

0

233

22 24

26

26

28

28

26

30

30

32

32

32

34

34

34

36

36

36

38

38

38

40

40

40

42

42

42

44

44

44

28 30

Figure 4. Interpretation of flowmeter-measurement profiles in 0.5-meter-thick layers in the aquifer from 17 wells. (a) The number of hydraulically conductive fractures identified. (b) Quality of observation expressed as the ratio between the number of available observations for each aquifer portion and the total 17 measurements (c) Averages of the fracture permeabilities.

(91%) of the total storage of the aquifer; the secondary fracture network (SFN) contributes the rest (9%). In accordance with geological observations, using the method of Neuman (1975) for anisotropic unconfined aquifer, the interpretation of the data from the observation wells (Table 3) arises an anisotropy of the permeability tensor: the horizontal permeability Kr is systematically higher (9 times on average) than the vertical Kz. This result is consistent with the observation of many horizontal fractures in dugwells (Maréchal et al., 2003). The average value of the vertical permeability (Kz 1.3 106 m/s) is much higher than the permeability of the blocks obtained from the application of the double-porosity model. This confirms that the second set of sub-vertical fractures belonging to the secondary

234


Table 2. Values of matrix and fracture media hydrodynamic properties calculated using the doubleporosity (DP) model (l: mean distance between fractures, determined from flowmeter tests; Tf: transmissivity of the fracture network; Tb: transmissivity of the blocks). Known parameters

Parameters calculated by adjustment on DP model

l (m)

N

Tf (m2/s)

Kf (m/s)

Sf

Kb (m/s)

Sb

Sy

Well IFP-1 IFP-1/1 IFP-1/2 IFP-8 IFP-9 IFP-9/1 IFP-16 IFP-20 BD-8 BD-10 Mean1

7.1 7.1 7.1 2.3 5.5 5.5 0.9 1.9 2.4 2.4 3.7

2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 –

6.0E-5 2.3E-5 2.6E-5 1.2E-3 7.6E-4 7.3E-4 1.4E-3 9.2E-4 1.8E-3 5.6E-4 3.5E-4

2.8E-6 1.0E-6 1.2E-6 7.4E-5 1.0E-4 1.0E-4 5.9E-5 5.1E-5 7.5E-5 2.3E-5 2.1E-5

– 9.0E-4 1.0E-6 – – 3.0E-4 – 1.0E-4 2.0E-3 2.0E-4 5.8E-4

2.6E-8 1.3E-7 6.9E-10 1.7E-8 9.6E-9 8.2E-7 2.6E-7 3.9E-8 2.1E-7 1.7E-7 5.1E-8

– 3.4E-3 2.6E-3 – – 5.0E-3 – 4.4E-3 1.8E-2 1.2E-3 5.7E-3

– 4.3E-3 2.6E-3 – – 5.3E-3 – 4.5E-3 2.0E-2 1.4E-3 6.3E-3

Table 3. Permeability and degree of anisotropy determined at the observation wells using anisotropic (AN) model (r: radial distance from pumping well, b: initial saturated thickness of aquifer. Observation well

IFP-1/1 IFP-1/2 IFP-9/1 IFP-20 BD-8 BD-10 Mean1

Known parameters

Parameters calculated by adjustment on SF model

r (m)

b (m)

S

Sy

Kr (m/s)

Kz (m/s)

1/KD

28 27.5 30.7 14.6 85 50 –

21.8 21.8 7.3 18 23.9 23.9 –

7.0E-5 3.7E-5 7.1E-4 1.1E-3 8.3E-4 1.7E-4 4.8E-4

1.6E-3 1.5E-3 3.4E-3 7.8E-3 9.7E-3 1.9E-3 4.3E-3

8.5E-7 8.0E-7 8.9E-5 3.7E-5 7.0E-5 1.4E-5 1.1E-5

5.2E-7 1.0E-7 3.0E-6 5.6E-6 4.4E-6 1.3E-6 1.3E-6

1.7 8.0 29.5 6.6 15.8 10.9 8.7

fracture network (VSFN) is less permeable than the horizontal and that it also affects the entire aquifer by ensuring its vertical permeability and drainage. The advantage of the Neuman technique is the ability to determine both specific yield (Sy) and elastic storage coefficient (S). The values obtained for the specific yield (Sy 5 103 as an average) are consistent with an unconfined aquifer of low drainage porosity, as also suggested by water-table fluctuations analysis at the watershed scale (see below). The storage coefficient (S 5 104) is one order of magnitude lower than the specific yield. Because the observed drawdowns are most of the times low (25%) compared to the thickness of the aquifer, the application of analytical solutions for confined aquifer to the unconfined aquifer of the study area is possible without introducing any inaccuracy. This is confirmed by the comparison between the values obtained for specific yields and hydraulic conductivity using double porosity model (confined aquifer solution)


235

Figure 5. Hydrodynamic model of the weathered-fractured layer of hard rock aquifer. (from Maréchal et al. 2004).

and anisotropic model (unconfined aquifer solution). The difference between the average values is less than 30% for both parameters, which is very low compared to uncertainties usually existing in the determination of storage and permeability. Consequently, although the aquifer is clearly unconfined, a few techniques for confined aquifers are applied in this study. The good connectivity of fractures networks is shown by fractional dimension flow solutions (Maréchal et al. 2004). The absence of scale effect in the study area suggests that the hydraulic conductivity at the borehole scale is laterally homogeneous. Many geological and hydrogeological indicators suggest that a continuous and laterally homogeneous weathering process is responsible for the origin of the fractures and permeability encountered in the aquifer. These results confirm the major role played by weathering in the origin of fractures and on resulting hydrodynamic parameters in the shallow part of hard-rock aquifers. Gathering all the hydraulic tests results, a comprehensive hydrodynamic model of the weathered-fractured layer of the hard rock aquifer is presented at Figure 5. Two different scales of fractures networks are identified: the primary fracture network (PFN), which affects the matrix on a decimeter scale by contributing to an increase in the permeability and storage capacity of the blocks, and the secondary fracture network (SFN), which affects the blocks at the borehole scale. SFN is composed of two sets of fractures. The main set of horizontal fractures is responsible for the sub-horizontal permeability of the weatheredfractured layer. A second set of less permeable sub-vertical fractures insures the connectivity of the aquifer at the borehole scale.

236

4


GROUNDWATER BUDGET AT CATCHMENT SCALE

The Maheshwaram watershed is a representative Southern India catchment in terms of overexploitation of its hard-rock aquifer (more than 700 borewells in use), its cropping pattern (rice fields dominating), rural socio-economy (based mainly on traditional agriculture), and agricultural practices. Groundwater resources face a chronic depletion that is observable by the drying-up of springs and streams and a declining water table. Water table is now 15 to 25 m deep and is disconnected from surface water : no spring, no baseflow, no regular infiltration from surface streams beds is observed. Therefore, the knowledge of boundary conditions (pumping rate, natural recharge and irrigation return flow) is essential prior modeling. The employed methodology is based on applying the water table fluctuation (WTF) method in conjunction with the groundwater basin water budget method. The water budget method focuses on the various components contributing to groundwater flow and groundwater storage changes (Figure 6). Changes in groundwater storage can be attributed to recharge, irrigation return flow and groundwater inflow to the basin minus baseflow (groundwater discharge to streams or springs), evapotranspiration from groundwater, pumping, and groundwater outflow from the basin according to the following equation adapted from Schicht and Walton (1961): R RF Qon ET PG Qoff Qbf ∆S

(1)

where R is total groundwater recharge (sum of direct recharge Rd through unsaturated zone and indirect and localized recharge Ril respectively from surface bodies and through local pathways like fractures), RF is irrigation return flow, Qon and Qoff are groundwater flow onto and off the basin, ET is evaporation from water table, PG is the abstraction of groundwater by pumping, Qbf is baseflow (groundwater discharge to streams or springs) and ∆S is change in groundwater storage.

Figure 6. schematisation of flow components of the groundwater budget in a depleted unconfined aquifer (modified after Maréchal et al. 2004).


237

Due to the significant thickness of the unsaturated zone overlying the unconfined aquifer in the Maheshwaram basin – on average more than 17 m – the following simplifications can be made to the water budget: – Groundwater discharge to surface water, Qbf, via stream discharge or springs does not exist (Qbf 0). All groundwater discharge is via groundwater pumping. – Transpiration from the water table is negligible due to large depth to groundwater higher than the depth of trees roots evaluated to maximum 10 m in this area from borewells and dugwells observation. Therefore, this flow can be neglected and the evaporation (E) from the water table has been estimated according to the water table depth using the relation proposed by Coudrain-Ribstein et al. (1998) for semi-arid areas. Equation (1) can be rewritten: R RF Qon PG E Qoff ∆S

(2)

The main advantage of the groundwater budget method compared to the classical hydrological budget is that evapotranspiration from the root zone of soils – already included in the natural recharge – which usually constitutes a major component with large associated uncertainties is not present in Eq (2). The methodology used to determine the unknown groundwater storage is the Water Table Fluctuations method (WTF), which links the change in groundwater storage ∆S with resulting water table fluctuations ∆h: ∆S Sy.∆h

(3)

where Sy is the specific yield (storage) or the fillable porosity of the unconfined aquifer. The WTF method, applicable only to unconfined aquifers, is best applied to shallow water tables that display sharp water-level rises and declines. Deep aquifers may not display sharp rises because wetting fronts tend to disperse over long distances (Healy and Cook, 2002). In the study area, the monitoring of water table between 2000 and 2003 using ten automatic water level recorders shows that the aquifer displays well-identified large seasonal water-level fluctuations due to percolation of water during monsoon period through a rather thick unsaturated zone and small daily fluctuations due to pumping cycles. The Kharif season, during which the water table level rises several meters due to rainfall recharge, is followed by the Rabi season during which the water level drops due mainly to groundwater pumping. Therefore, the hydrological year can be divided into two distinct seasons each with a distinct water level rise or decline. To each of these seasons, the WTF method can be applied separately. Combining the water budget equation (2) with the WTF method expressed in (3), we obtain: R RF Qon PG E Qoff Sy∆h

(4)

As is typical for semi-arid basins with irrigated agriculture, two terms that cannot be evaluated independently without extensive in situ instrumentation are the basin-average natural recharge rate, R and the basin-average, effective specific yield, Sy. By applying (4)

238


separately to the dry season, during which R 0, and to the wet season, we obtain two equations with two unknown parameters: RFdry Qondry PGdry Edry Qoffdry Sy∆hdry

(5)

R RFwet Qonwet PGwet Ewet Qoffwet Sy∆hwet

(6)

which can be solved sequentially, first by obtaining Sy by solving (5), then by solving (6) for R, given the season-specific values for the known parameters:

Sy

dry PG dry Qdry RFdry Qdry on E off

∆h dry

wet E wet PG wet Q wet R ∆h wet .Sy RF wet Qon off

(7)

(8)

Equation (7) known as the “water-budget method” for estimating Sy (Healy and Cook, 2002), which is the most widely used technique for estimating specific yield in fracturedrock systems, probably because it does not require any assumptions concerning flow processes (Healy and Cook, 2002). Maréchal et al. (2006) described the methods used for obtaining the “known” parameters in equations (7) and (8), which are needed for the estimation of Sy and R. The flow components are considered to be spatially distributed throughout the groundwater basin on a 200 200 meter cells-length grid with measurements taken from June 2002 until June 2004. A Geographical Information System is used to compute all parameters in (7) and (8) cell by cell which are then aggregated at the groundwater basin scale. Qon and Qoff are reliably determined only at the larger basin scale through the basin boundaries; hence Sy and R can only be computed at groundwater basin scale. The WTF method requires a very good knowledge of the piezometric level throughout the entire basin. This could be achieved owing to a very dense observation network (99 to 155 wells, Figure 7a) provided mainly by defunct or abandoned agricultural borewells. Standard deviation of the error on the water table fluctuation measurement has been calculated by geostatistics. Admitting a Gaussian statistical distribution of errors, it defines the 66% confidence interval of the error. The relative error on water table fluctuation logically decreases with the increasing number of measurements. Water table elevations are computed by difference between ground elevation from a Digital Elevation Model obtained by a couple of satellite images stereoscopy treatment (grid resolution: 30 m; accuracy: 1 meter) and water depth obtained from piezometric measurements. The water table maps were then interpolated using the kriging technique. The map was then critically evaluated. The automatic interpolation technique gave satisfactory results owing to the very dense observation network and to the fact that there is no surface water capable of locally modifying the water table. The map for June 2002 (Figure 7a) shows that the water table roughly follows the topographic slope, as is usually observed in flat hard-rock areas. However, local water table depletion is observed in highly pumped areas where natural flow paths are modified by groundwater abstraction. Water table levels fluctuate between 610 and 619 m, which indicates that the water table is always in the fissured aquifer layer.

Hard rock aquifers characterization prior to modelling at catchment scale (a)

239

(b)

Figure 7. Water table map (a) and annual (June 02 to June 03) groundwater budget expressed as water table fluctuations.

Basin-wide effective specific yields obtained from (7) were 0.014 0.003 for both dry seasons (Table 4). Because these values reflect an effective basin-wide process, they are insensitive to local heterogeneities in the fractured rock aquifer system, in comparison with locally obtained values using lab samples or local aquifer testing, which are highly variable and relatively unreliable (Bardenhagen, 2000). Therefore, for water resource assessment at the watershed scale, this methodology for specific yield estimation is much more sound than the aforementioned punctual techniques. Error on specific yield (⬃20%, Table 4) has been computed cumulating all the sources of errors described above. The specific yield obtained is realistic for fissured granite and is of the same order of magnitude as values estimated at the well scale using pumping data in the fissured layer itself. Higher values obtained with the water budget method can be explained by the fact that the upper part of the weathering cover (saprolite with specific yield much higher than in the fissured zone) can be partially saturated in some areas after Monsoon, which increases the global storage at the watershed scale. Heterogeneity effects can also explain this apparent increase of Sy with scale. It is generally assumed that specific yield varies with depth–especially in hard-rock aquifers where fracture density and porosity change with depth, namely between the different layers constituting the aquifer (Maréchal et al., 2004). Water budget results in 2002 and 2003 indicate that the specific yield does not vary. In fact, the water table is located mainly in the fissured layer of the aquifer and water table fluctuations are small enough so that the water table remains in the same portion of the aquifer, characterized by a constant specific yield. Equation (8) was used to estimate natural recharge (Table 5). Natural recharge is determined at the watershed scale, not cell by cell like other budget components, and is therefore

99.3 5 123.8 6.2

37.9 3.2 53.7 3

Date

RFwet (mm)

PGwet (mm)

Ewet (mm)

wet Qwet on – Qoff (mm)

613 889

Annual rainfall

RFTOT (mm/yr) 68.9 7.8 86.3 7.6

R (mm/yr)

70.5 15.8 156.5 37.5

Groundwater balance during two hydrological cycles.

2002–2003 2003–2004

Year

Table 6.

0.6 1 1.3 1

Edry (mm)

dry

dry

0.3 1 1.0 1

Qon – Qoff (mm)

R (mm)

1.1 2 2.30 2

ETOT (mm/yr)

4.4 0.35 5.1 0.23

∆hdry (m)

0.3 2 0.1 2

QonTOT – QoffTOT (mm/yr)

45.5 9 45.8 8

BAL (mm/yr)

43 54

P

3.2 0.62 3.2 0.55

∆hTOT (m)

0.13 0.03 0.19 0.05

(–)

R

0.0140 0.0029 0.0138 0.0027

Sy [–]

Seasonal rainfall Rainy days (mm)

1.2 0.27 70.5 15.8 543 8.3 0.32 156.5 37.5 824

∆hwet (m)

183.5 9.2 194.6 9.7

PGTOT (mm/yr)

Kharif 2002 Jun02–Nov02 31.0 4.6 84.2 4.2 0.5 1 0.0 1 Kharif 2003 Jun03–Nov03 32.6 4.6 70.8 3.5 1.0 1 1.2 1

Season

PGdry (mm)

RFdry (mm)

Groundwater balance during monsoon seasons, estimation of natural recharge and absolute errors.

Nov02–Jun03 Nov03–Jun04

Rabi 2003 Rabi 2004

Table 5.

Date

Groundwater budget during the Rabi seasons, estimation of specific yield and absolute errors.

Season

Table 4.



241

not spatially distributed. Relative error on natural recharge (22–24%, Table 5) has been computed cumulating all the sources of errors described above. At Table 5, the recharge is compared to precipitation (P) during the monsoon (seasonal rainfall) between June and November. During both hydrological years of monitoring, the recharge coefficient R varies between 0.13 and 0.19. This is similar to recent results P obtained in India under the same climate conditions. Its fluctuation, year to year, depends mainly on the intensity and temporal distribution of rainfall events during the monsoon. Notice that the recharge coefficient increases with the number of rainy days during the monsoon (Table 5). The “double water table fluctuation method” consists in aggregating dry and rainy season water budgets. The annual groundwater balance was calculated from June 2002 to June 2004 (Table 6) and we see a respective deficit and excess of water due to discrepancies between annual rainfall and an average rainfall of about 740 mm/year (average in Maheshwaram since 1985). Considering the uncertainty on the components of the budget, this suggests that the balance should be lightly negative for an average rainfall. Historical water level data shows a global depletion of the aquifer at a rate of about one meter per year in pumped areas, confirming that the overexploitation threshold has been reached in such areas. Moreover, given the abstraction rate in the basin, any deficient monsoon (the 2002 monsoon, for example) causes a significantly negative balance followed by a drop in the water table, which can be fully or only partially replenished by the next heavy monsoon. In spite of the fact that the pumping areas represent only 25% of the 1324 cells of the basin (Figure 7b), the entire balance is negative.

5

CONCLUSION

Classical distributed models are often not considered adaptable to heterogeneous and anisotropic hard rock aquifers. A hard-rock system has been fully characterized in order to provide, at the watershed scale, the necessary elements for a classical modelling approach. Heterogeneity and geometry of the aquifer are regionalised using geological and geophysical investigations. The hydrodynamic properties of the weathered layer are characterised in details. The groundwater budget at the watershed scale allows determination of important flows and specific yield at the relevant scale. Further developments have been done on models to simulate various groundwater exploitation scenarios and to develop a decision support system for groundwater management. In the specific context of high pressure of population on the resources, the careful use of this tool can be associated to socio-economic scenarios for impact assessment within integrated approaches.

REFERENCES Bardenhagen I (2000) Groundwater reservoir characterisation based on pumping test curve diagnosis in fractured formation. In: Sililo O. (ed) Groundwater: past achievements and future challenges, Cape Town, South Africa Balkema, Rotterdam: 81–86. Barker JA (1988) A generalized radial flow model for hydraulic tests in fractured rock. Water Resources Research 24(10): 1796–1804.

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Bredehoeft JD (2002) The water budget myth revisited: why hydrogeologists model. Groundwater 40(4): 340–345. Coudrain-Ribstein A, Pratx B, Talbi A and Jusserand (1998) Is the evaporation from phreatic aquifers in arid zones independent of the soil characteristics ? C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sciences de la Terre et des Planètes 326: 159–165. Dewandel B, Lachassagne P, Wyns R, Maréchal JC, and Krishnamurthy NS (2006) A generalized 3D geological and hydrogeological conceptual model of granite aquifer controlled by single or multiphase weathering. Journal of Hydrology 330 (1–2): 260–284. Dupuit J (1848) Etudes théoriques et pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux dans les canaux découverts et à travers les terrains perméables [Theoritical and practical studies on water flow in open channels and through permeable terrains], 1st ed., Dunod, Paris. Dupuit J (1863) Etudes théoriques et pratiques sur le mouvement des eaux dans les canaux découverts et à travers les terrains perméables [Theoritical and practical studies on water flow in open channels and through permeable terrains], 2nd ed., Dunod, Paris. Gringarten AC and Ramey HJ (1974) Unsteady-state pressure distribution created by a well with a single horizontal fracture, partially penetrating or restricted entry. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. 257: 413–426. Healy RW and Cook PG (2002) Using groundwater levels to estimate recharge. Hydrogeology Journal 10: 91–109. Maréchal JC, Wyns R, Lachassagne P, Subrahmanyam K and Touchard F (2003) Anisotropie verticale de la perméabilité de l’horizon fissuré des aquifères de socle: concordance avec la structure géologique des profils d’altération [Vertical anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity in fissured layer of hard-ricj aquifers due to the geological structure of weathering profiles.], C.R. Geoscience, 335: 451–460. Maréchal JC, Dewandel B and Subrahmanyam K (2004) Use of hydraulic tests at different scales to characterize fracture network properties in the weathered-fractured layer of a hard rock aquifer, Water Resources Research, 40 (11): Art. No. W11508. Maréchal, JC, Dewandel B, Ahmed, S, Galeazzi, L and Zaïdi FK (2006) Combined estimation of specific yield and natural recharge in a semi-arid groundwater basin with irrigated agriculture, Journal of Hydrology, 329, 1–2, 281–293, DOI: 10.106/jjhydrol.2006.022. Marsily G de (1986) Quantitative Hydrogeology, San Diego, California, Academic Press. Neuman SP (1975) Analysis of pumping test data from anisotropic unconfined aquifers considering delayed gravity response, Water Resources Research 11(2): 329–342. Roy AD and Shah T (2002) Socio-ecology of groundwater irrigation in India, Intensive Use of Groundwater: Challenges and Opportunities. R. Llamas and E. Custodio. Lisse, A.A. Balkema: 307–335. Schicht RJ and Walton WC (1961) Hydrologic budgets for three small watersheds in Illinois, Illinois State Water Surv Rep Invest 40, 40 p. Warren JE and Root PJ (1963) The behaviour of naturally fractured reservoirs. Soc. Petroleum Eng. J. 3: 245–255.

CHAPTER 16

Estimating groundwater recharge in fractured bedrock aquifers in Ireland Bruce D.R. Misstear1 and Vincent P. Fitzsimons2 1

Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, Clearwater House, Heriot Watt Research Park, Edinburgh, EH14 4AP, UK (formerly of the Geological Survey of Ireland, Beggar’s Bush, Hadington Road, Dublin 4, Ireland) 2

ABSTRACT: Recharge assessment has become increasingly important in Ireland in response to recent European legislation. The reliability of groundwater recharge estimates is influenced by the complexity of the geology – fractured bedrock aquifers with a thick covering of superficial deposits, generally glacial tills, often of low permeability – and by the relative scarcity of hydrometric and hydrogeological data. The two main approaches applied to recharge estimation are the soil budgeting method and river baseflow analysis. A recent study of the soil moisture budgeting approach showed that the recharge estimates are more dependent on the characteristics of the till cover (especially hydraulic conductivity) than on the particular soil budgeting method applied or the assumptions concerning land use and crop root constant (readily available water). A sensitivity analysis of baseflow separation parameters highlighted the importance of having a good conceptual model of the various subsurface pathways contributing flow to a river in order to achieve realistic baseflow results. The baseflow separation can be improved by comparing the flow data against borehole water level hydrographs, and by also calibrating the output against both major summer recessions and short term winter recessions

1

INTRODUCTION

The main impetus for the current study of recharge in the fractured bedrock aquifers of Ireland was the introduction of the European Union Water Framework Directive (European Commission, 2000). Prior to the directive, recharge received little attention in Ireland, primarily because the total groundwater usage was small (in national terms), the resource was not regarded as being under pressure and because there was no permitting system for well abstractions. Due to the implementation of the directive, with its emphasis on an integrated approach to managing and protecting water resources and dependent ecosystems, there is now a greater emphasis on acquiring estimates of recharge. Reliable estimates of recharge are needed for many purposes, including: quantifying groundwater resources within river basins; issuing abstraction licences; determining groundwater vulnerability; assessing the groundwater contributions to rivers (baseflow) and to sensitive wetland habitats, and hence protecting these resources. The paper considers the two main approaches used for estimating

244


groundwater recharge in Ireland: soil moisture budgets and river baseflow analysis. The results obtained are examined both in relation to the assumptions made in the analysis, and also with regard to the influence of the geology.

2

LANDSCAPE, CLIMATE AND GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE

In general terms, Ireland’s topography has a saucer-like shape, with a mountainous rim and a flat or gently undulating centre. The coastal mountains rise to around 1,000 m above sea level and consist of Precambrian and Lower Palaeozoic igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, often with a thin covering of peat or glacial deposits on the plateau areas and lower hill slopes. The lowland areas of central Ireland are mostly underlain by Carboniferous limestones and other sedimentary rocks. These are generally covered by a blanket of tills and other glacial deposits, which can reach thicknesses of several tens of metres (these superficial deposits are termed subsoils in Ireland). The country has a temperate maritime climate, with annual precipitation varying from less than 800 mm on the east coast to over 2,500 mm in the mountains along the western Atlantic coast. Potential evapotranspiration is typically between 450 and 500 mm, and the majority of the rural landscape is under grass pasture. The bedrock aquifers in the Republic of Ireland are all characterised by fracture flow – there is negligible primary porosity. The main bedrock aquifers are found in the Carboniferous limestones and dolomites in the midlands, southern and western parts of the interior lowlands. The most important of these aquifers – termed “regionally important” in the Geological Survey of Ireland classification (Misstear and Daly, 2000) – show varying degrees of karstification, have transmissivities generally in excess of 500 m2 d1 and specific yields of around 1 or 2%. Where karstification is well-developed, groundwater flow rates can be rapid – with measured velocities of up to 200 m h1 in some cases (Drew and Daly, 1993). Other regionally important bedrock aquifers occur in Ordovician volcanic and Devonian and Carboniferous sandstone formations. Though significant water strikes can occur to depths of 100 m, most flow occurs within the top 30 m to 40 m of bedrock. This is primarily due to the predominance of fracture flow and to the effects of karstification, which become decreasingly important with depth. With low specific yield allied to relatively high transmissivity, the regionally important fractured bedrock aquifers show much more pronounced water level fluctuations during recharge and recession periods than gravel aquifers, which have specific yield values in the region of 12 to 20% (Figure 1). Not all of the bedrock aquifers are “regionally important”. In over half of the country’s area – comprising most of the upland areas as well as extensive parts of the lowlands – the bedrock aquifers are poorly productive, with transmissivities generally less than 100 m2 d1. Nevertheless, these poorly productive aquifers are important in Ireland, as there are a great number of small private well sources, many of which tap such aquifers – it has been estimated that 138,000 Irish households have a private well source (Loughman, 2005), a large number of wells in a country with a population of only around 4 million. Again, groundwater flow in these poorly productive aquifers is via fractures, but the flow pathways are generally concentrated within the upper few metres of the aquifer, or in isolated fracture zones, and are more localised than those in the regionally important aquifers. The shallow nature of much of the groundwater flow in these bedrock aquifers poses difficulties when trying to estimate recharge by river baseflow separation methods, since it can be difficult to

Estimating groundwater recharge in fractured bedrock 4

70 Gravel aquifer. Curragh, Co. Kildare Karstified Ballyadams limestone. Woodsgift, Co Kilkenny

GW level, m

8

60 50

10 40 12 30 14 20

16

10

18 20 24-Jul-98

Eff. precip. (mm)

6

245

0 24-Jul-99

23-Jul-00

Figure 1. Water level hydrographs showing the rapid response to effective precipitation in a fractured limestone aquifer compared to a gravel aquifer.

distinguish between the contribution to total runoff from shallow groundwater and that from interflow or bank storage, as discussed later on in this paper. A further challenge is that there are usually few data available on the characteristics of the poorly productive fractured rock aquifers, including few pumping test or water level monitoring records. 3

GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION

Recharge in Ireland occurs both by direct infiltration of rainfall and by infiltration following surface runoff, the latter being especially important in karstic areas. Most recharge studies in Ireland have focused on direct recharge only, or have estimated the total recharge for a catchment without attempting to distinguish between the contributions from the direct or indirect sources. The approaches adopted can be categorised (Misstear, 2000) into: 1. Inflow methods, including soil moisture budget methods, Darcy flux analyses and tracer studies. 2. Aquifer response methods, including well hydrograph interpretation and throughflow calculations. 3. Outflow methods, specifically river baseflow analysis. 4. Catchment water balance and numerical modelling methods. The majority of studies have been based on either soil moisture budgeting methods or river baseflow analyses (Daly, 1994; McCarthaigh, 1994; Aslibekian, 1999). The soil moisture budget methods provide an estimate of the effective precipitation. The effective precipitation is the excess of precipitation over actual evapotranspiration, and when the soil is at field capacity effective rainfall is available for either downward percolation or for surface runoff. Not all of the downward percolation will necessarily result in recharge to the water table; some of the infiltrating water may be diverted to lateral flow within subsoil layers, for example, and so be “lost” as interflow. Because of the important role of subsoils, the concept of a recharge coefficient has been introduced, which is defined as the proportion of effective

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precipitation that becomes recharge (Fitzsimons and Misstear, 2006). This is similar to the concept of recharge factors applied by Rushton (2005) to recharge through Drift (i.e., tills) for aquifers in the UK.

4

SOIL MOISTURE BUDGET APPROACH

In Ireland, effective precipitation predictions have been most commonly based on the estimation of soil moisture surplus through soil moisture budgeting techniques. The PenmanGrindley (Penman, 1949 and Grindley, 1970) and Aslyng (1965) models are two related budgeting techniques which have been used (Cawley, 1994; Daly, 1994). In both these models, the amount of soil moisture surplus or soil moisture deficit is estimated from precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (PET) data, the latter calculated from the Penman or Penman-Monteith formulae. A key challenge is the derivation of actual evapotranspiration (AET), which is assumed to equal PET unless the soil moisture deficit is below a critical threshold beyond which the vegetation has difficulty in transpiring, termed the root constant. For more information, the reader is referred to Lerner et al. (1990), Rushton and Ward (1979) and Fitzsimons and Misstear (2006). Hulme et al. (2001) and Rushton (2003, 2005) have described changes to the PenmanGrindley model. These involve changes to the relationship of AET to PET during times of low soil moisture, the incorporation of evaporation from bare soil (where appropriate) and the replacement of the root constant concept with a similar concept of readily available water, using information about crop water requirements from the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO, 1998). Due to this closer linkage to agricultural science, this method has been widely adopted in the UK and is being increasingly applied in Ireland. However, Fitzsimons and Misstear (2006) highlighted the relatively limited sensitivity of effective precipitation estimations to variations in the main soil budgeting parameters and methods. This was due to the combination of relatively wet climate and to the dominance of grassland in Ireland. This combination results in only limited development of soil moisture deficits in excess of the root constant in the summer months. It is during episodes when soil moisture deficits exceed the root constant (or the related parameter of readily available water) that variations in crop parameters and soil moisture budgeting methods are most evident. The authors derived a baseline estimate of average annual recharge for a set of parameters and meteorological data that were representative of grassland in the southeast of Ireland, one of the driest parts of the country. Using a sensitivity analysis based on a range of methods, and reasonable ranges in the key crop parameters, the authors went on to conclude that effective precipitation in conditions typical of Irish fractured aquifers is likely to be insensitive to the key soil moisture budgeting parameters, with simulated effective precipitation ranging from 101% to 95% of the baseline estimate. The authors indicated that recharge estimates in Ireland are much more sensitive to the permeability of the strata overlying the aquifer, particularly in the extensive areas of Ireland where the aquifers are overlain by glacial till. Reasonable ranges in till permeability and vertical hydraulic gradient produced a substantial range in simulated recharge coefficients from 80% to 2% of the baseline estimate of effective precipitation. This range reflected the range identified from a literature review of recharge estimates in till areas from the UK and Ireland. The greatest sensitivity to permeability lies in the range from 0.001 m d1 to 0.01 m d1 (Fitzsimons and Misstear, 2006).

Estimating groundwater recharge in fractured bedrock

5

247

RIVER BASEFLOW ANALYSIS

The assessment of the groundwater component of river hydrographs has developed in recent years from relatively simple baseflow separation techniques to the modelling of the “fate” of all waters in a catchment, including elements such as evaporation, rapid runoff, interflow and deep groundwater flow. Early examples of the latter can be found in Serenath and Rushton (1984), where relatively simple routing models were used. More recently, workers such as Bradbury and Rushton (1998) have incorporated these concepts into more complex numerical models. These types of analyses, when undertaken appropriately, are a clear improvement on simple baseflow separation exercises as they can replace the assumptions and generic constants inherent in these exercises with quantifications which are based more closely on the features of specific catchments. However, there is still a role for baseflow separation, particularly in the early stages of conceptual modelling or in situations where complex numerical modelling is not feasible or not justified. These situations are common in Irish fractured rock aquifers, where there are often limited data available for modelling and where abstraction is rarely significant when compared to the overall recharge resource. In these scenarios, simple baseflow separation exercises can provide useful supporting evidence in the assessment of recharge. In suitable aquifers, and for appropriately located gauges, it may be reasonable to assume that the proportion of baseflow to total runoff (often termed the baseflow index) provides an approximation to the recharge coefficient described in previous sections of this paper. There are several assumptions inherent in using runoff flow records to estimate recharge (Halford and Mayer, 2000): 1. There is a direct relationship between the timing of groundwater and surface runoff peaks. 2. The evapotranspiration from lakes, rivers and wetlands is insignificant compared to the total volume of groundwater baseflow. 3. Bank storage and river recharge effects are also insignificant. 4. There is minimal interaction between the shallow and deeper aquifers. Most of these assumptions are generally valid in Irish fractured rock aquifers. For example, an examination of Figure 1 shows the typical rapid response of the hydrograph from a fractured aquifer in comparison with a gravel aquifer example. Figure 2 provides an example of how the responses of river flow and groundwater levels to effective precipitation can be similar (outside the main recession periods). The assumption relating to bank storage and river recharge effects may require more detailed consideration, along with the related effects of groundwater releases from shallow subsurface pathways, such as peat, glacial tills, and weathered rock. In some cases, these shallow effects may be significant and may require careful consideration if we are to conceptualise adequately groundwater-surface water interactions on a catchment scale. Figure 3 provides some hypothetical examples of different subsurface pathways and their contribution to the overall hydrograph. The examples were derived from effective precipitation data, by calculating moving averages of 3 day, 10 day and 30 day duration. In this hypothetical example, overland flow is assumed to be insignificant and all contributions to the runoff hydrograph are assumed to come from the three subsurface pathways described above. The shorter duration moving averages were assumed to represent the more shallow subsurface pathways such as release from peat or interflow within glacial till. The longer duration averages were taken to represent a higher component of flow from the deeper aquifer pathways.


Dec'93

Jun'94

Dec'94

Jun'95

Dec'95

Jun'96

Dec'96

Jun'97

Dec'97

Water level in borehole (mOD)

Jun'98

Dec'98 -15

145

-10 135 -5 125 0 115 5

River flow and recharge (mm/dayovercatchment)

248

10

105 Groundwater Level in the Woodsgift borehole River flow for the Kilkenny lowlands (negative values on y-axis) Effective precipitation -15 day moving average (positive values on y-axis)

Figure 2. Nore River catchment between upstream and downstream gauges. A comparison of the response of surface water and groundwater to effective precipitation.

Note that Figure 3 provides an example of how subsurface pathways of varying duration can interact to produce a typical storm hydrograph. It does not represent an attempt to model the runoff hydrograph. The meteorological and runoff data used in this example are from the Kilkenny lowlands in southeast Ireland (the area shown in Figure 2). The meteorological dataset was calculated using a soil moisture budgeting approach, with daily rainfall and potential evaporation data being taken from a weather station at Kilkenny City. More information is provided in Fitzsimons and Misstear (2006). The runoff data were taken from a hybrid dataset, calculated from the three gauges shown in Figure 2. Daily data were calculated from the difference in daily flows between the two upstream and one downstream gauge on the river. This hybrid dataset was generated in order to focus assessments on runoff generated in the catchment area between these three gauges. This area is relatively small (1140 km2) compared with the catchment of the downstream gauge (2778 km2). As a consequence, the data provide more hydrogeological control than is usually possible in Ireland, where the hydrogeology is highly variable. The hydrogeological system comprises a fractured limestone/dolomite aquifer


249

Figure 3. A hypothetical case depicting contributions of differing subsurface release pathways to the runoff hydrograph of a typical winter storm.

overlain by thin, moderate permeability tills. The river floodplain is occupied by a productive sand and gravel aquifer. The simulations provided in Figure 3 follow a relatively obvious pattern. The early part of the overall storm hydrograph is dominated by short term subsurface releases (e.g., from bank storage or interflow). The main portion of the hydrograph is dominated by contributions from intermediate term releases (e.g., from weathered rock) while the latter part is dominated by longer term release (e.g., from deeper portions of a bedrock aquifer). All three simulations presented in Figure 3 could be termed baseflow, but all are reflecting very different elements of the hydrogeological regime. Of the variety of automated baseflow separation methods available, most employ empirical parameters. Depending on the parameter selected, the baseflow result may actually incorporate a number of different subsurface pathway elements. This can be an advantage where the subsurface pathways have been adequately conceptualized and where it is clear which types of baseflow is under investigation. However, it can lead to significant errors where automated techniques are applied without due consideration of the subsurface pathways.

5.1

Sensitivity analysis of the link between subsurface pathways and baseflow separation parameters

A sensitivity analysis was carried out to examine the potential effects on baseflow estimates where there has been insufficient conceptualization of the groundwater system, and the various subsurface pathways present. A commonly used baseflow separation technique was employed across three catchments representing a range of hydrogeological regimes. Workers such as Nathan and MacMahon (1990) point out that automated baseflow separation techniques are useful only for deriving broad indices and, as such, should not be used to derive recharge estimates from particular storm events. Nevertheless, a simple sensitivity analysis such as this is considered useful in helping to demonstrate the effects of mixing deep and shallow effects into the same baseflow estimate. The actual baseflow estimates derived using the sample methodology are of less importance – it is recognised that the use of different techniques would lead to a different set of estimates.

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5.2

Methodology

Three catchments were selected for this study: the Scart, the Dinin and the hybrid catchment for the Kilkenny lowland described earlier in this paper (and shown in Figure 2). These represent a range in hydrogeological regimes, from “locally important” fractured sandstones overlain by thin glacial deposits, to locally important fractured sandstones overlain by valley gravels and low permeability glacial deposits, to “regionally important” karst limestone and dolomite aquifers overlain by valley gravels and moderately permeable glacial deposits. The baseflow separation method used is the automated baseflow separation method developed by the Institute if Hydrology (now Centre for Ecology and Hydrology). Estimates were made over the period from 1990 to 1998. The method has been used previously in Ireland, and it is probably the most commonly used method in the UK, forming a key part, for example, of the national hydrological classification of soil types (Boorman et al., 1995). This method involves the identification of runoff minima at fixed time intervals and the selection of key “turning points” from these minima (IOH, 1989). The length of this time interval is termed the ‘time base’ for the purposes of this paper and can be considered to represent the number of days after a peak in the hydrograph when runoff is assumed to cease. The value of the time base is normally set to 5 days, but for the purposes of this simple sensitivity analysis, the time base was varied to reflect the relevant hydrogeological regime. The range in time base selected was constrained using three controls: 1. The time base was not allowed to vary by more than 2 days from that predicted from catchment size alone, using the equation N A0.2, as cited by Linsley et al. (1975). In this equation, N is the time base of surface runoff, and A is the drainage area. 2. For the Kilkenny catchment, a suitable borehole hydrograph was used to help judge the suitability of the various timebase responses. Borehole hydrographs can be used to identify recharge events which, in rapid flow systems such as those in Ireland, could be expected to correspond in time with discharge peaks in the baseflow hydrograph. Therefore, appropriate borehole hydrographs can potentially be used to help calibrate baseflow simulations, through a comparison of the timing of recharge events. 3. For the remaining catchments, borehole hydrograph data were not available and hence hydrogeological judgment was applied to eliminate those simulations that appeared unrealistic. 5.3

Results of baseflow sensitivity analysis

The results of the sensitivity analysis are presented in Table 1. Even when using only one baseflow separation technique, there is a significant variation in predicted baseflow index across all three catchments. The largest sensitivity to time base parameter occurs in the Dinin Catchment, which is a consequence of its upland location, the poorly productive nature of the aquifers and the thick covering of low permeability subsoils. The runoff hydrograph is particularly “flashy”, with significant variation in daily mean discharge values. In view of these factors, the estimated BFI range for the Dinin catchment is significantly higher than would seem reasonable. The lowest sensitivity to the time base parameter occurs in the hybrid Kilkenny catchment where the cover is generally thinner, and of moderate permeability, resulting in a smaller fluctuation in mean daily runoff values and hence in the range of derived BFI values.

Upland. Thin subsoils. Locally important fractured sandstone aquifer.

Poor to locally important aquifers. Generally low permeability subsoils of varying thickness. Small gravel body occurs close to central river.

Scart

Castlecomer

3

3

Dinin (153 km2)

4

Nore (1140 km2)

Kilkenny Blackwater (108 km2)

Estimate of time base (N) from N catchment Area0.2

Catchment of gauge

1, 3

1, 3

3, 5

Range in time base values (N)

Note: Baseflow index (BFI) is the ratio of average annual baseflow to average annual runoff. Baseflow was estimated by the IOH method (IOH, 1989).

Lowland. Typically moderate permeability till (⬃5 m thickness) and some high permeability gravel subsoils.

Hybrid flow record: derived from upstream and downstream gauges

1

Hydrogeological setting

Examples of the sensitivity of groundwater baseflow to the time base parameter.

Gauge

Table 1.

46% to 65%

60% to 76%

58% to 68%

Range in baseflow indices1

Estimating groundwater recharge in fractured bedrock 251

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Figure 4 provides an example of the baseflow separation outputs for the Kilkenny lowlands hybrid catchment. Using a time base of 5, the predicted baseflow in Figure 4 does not appear to represent the appropriate frequency of recharge events within the aquifer during the winter storms of early 1995 (as shown by the borehole water level data). The frequency of these events is better predicted using smaller time bases of 3 or even 1. In terms of the volume of baseflow, results from winter estimates appear to be more sensitive to time base than results from summer estimates. It appears that most sensitivity arises from the fact that each simulation is, in effect, modelling a different combination of the various subsurface pathways. Shallower pathways would be expected to release water more rapidly into the river system. It is therefore considered that the time base values of 1 and 3 provide a baseflow estimate that includes significant shallow as well as deep groundwater contributions. In this study area, the shallower pathway contributions might include bank storage release from the alluvial gravels, interflows in the glacial till and groundwater within the upper and highly fractured portion of the bedrock aquifer. The time base value of 5 includes a larger contribution from deeper groundwater sources. 5.4

Discussion of baseflow sensitivity analysis

Significant variations in predicted baseflow can be generated by varying the selected time base component in the Institute of Hydrology method. In hydrogeological regimes similar to those found in Ireland, it is likely that the sensitivity to the time base parameter will be greatest in catchments supported by aquifers of a lower productivity or by aquifers overlain by thick low permeability strata. These systems tend to have more “flashy” flow regimes and will often have multiple subsurface groundwater pathways including, for example, peat, glacial tills and weathered rock. Lower productivity aquifers in Ireland will generally have thin unsaturated zones and there can be a distinct hydraulic separation between weathered rock and deeper fractures. As a consequence, hydrogeological regimes associated with these aquifers will tend to be more complex close to surface, with the potential for a wider range of subsurface pathways. The sensitivity to the time base parameter will be greatest also in the winter months, when storms arrive much more frequently. In these periods, it is much more difficult, using simple automated techniques, to identify situations where groundwater flow and river flow are the same. To derive a realistic baseflow estimation, it is necessary to a) understand conceptually the various subsurface pathways contributing flow to a river and b) to understand which pathway is of interest in terms of the baseflow output. Though the tests in this paper have focused on the IOH method, most automated baseflow separation methods employ empirical parameters, and the resulting baseflow estimate will be sensitive to variations in these parameters. Regardless of the technique chosen, it is likely that greatest care will be required when dealing with aquifers of a lower productivity, or where aquifers are overlain by thick low permeability strata. Methods such as the Boughton two-parameter algorithm (Chapman, 1999) have recently been used in Ireland as part of a study into the links between groundwater recharge and groundwater vulnerability (Misstear and Brown, 2005). These analyses have been calibrated using summer hydrograph recessions, in order to ensure that the empirical parameters adequately reflect the real situation. The Boughton method, when applied to poorly productive aquifers overlain by thick low permeability tills, can yield realistically low values of BFI.


Figure 4.

Influence of time base variation on baseflow estimates.

253

254


Based on the sensitivity analysis described in this paper, it is considered important that predictions adequately take account of winter baseflow. This can be achieved by a combination of borehole hydrograph analysis and assessment of short term winter storms. In low storage, rapid flow situations, borehole hydrographs can provide a means of assessing whether the separation method is adequately representing the response to recharge in the aquifer. Clearly, the borehole data will only be of value if they represent the recharge response in that portion of the subsurface pathway which is under consideration. Winter recessions will often be difficult to isolate, particularly in higher rainfall areas where recessions will often be truncated by the arrival of new storms, and before releases from deep groundwater can become apparent. For long hydrograph records, the longestablished concept of the master recession curve could be used to help identify key winter recessions. In this method, a characteristic recession slope for the whole record is derived from an examination of suitable recessions. For deep aquifer studies, the most suitable recessions will be the longest, but recessions can be selected to reflect shallower pathways, as appropriate. The resultant master slope will be defined by an exponential decay constant and, as such, the slope will be relatively shallow at lower flows in the summer months but relatively steep at higher flows in the summer months. This slope can then be used in a curve-fitting algorithm to help identify recessions across the whole record. These recessions will then form the foundation upon which to construct a baseflow separation. In the example presented in Figure 5 below, the recessions have been joined using Nathan and McMahon’s digital, filtering approach (1990), but any appropriate method could be adopted. In effect, the method is similar to the IOH (1989) method in that both methods identify key points on the hydrograph before joining these together into an estimation of baseflow. The difference is that the IOH method examines flow minima to approximate points where groundwater inputs comprise 100% surface water flows, while the slope fitting

Figure 5. Example of the use of slope fitting techniques to select appropriate winter recessions, Dinin River catchment.


255

method examines slope minima to approximate periods where groundwater inputs comprise 100% surface water flows.

6

CONCLUSIONS

The recent work by the authors on soil moisture budgets, summarised in the first part of this paper, highlights the critical importance of the subsoil cover in determining recharge to the fractured aquifers of Ireland. The work shows that, in the Irish climate and vegetation conditions, recharge estimates are much more strongly influenced by the properties of the tills, than by the budgeting method adopted or by the detailed assumptions made about land cover or root constant. The till property of most importance is the hydraulic conductivity. The proportion of the effective precipitation determined from the soil moisture budget that leads to recharge – the recharge coefficient – can be as little as 2% where the aquifer is covered by thick, low permeability tills. With regard to the estimation of recharge from river hydrograph analysis, the main points to note from the sensitivity analysis are: 1) Significant variations in predicted baseflow can be generated by varying the selected time base component (using the Institute if Hydrology method). In hydrogeological regimes similar to those found in Ireland, it is likely that the sensitivity to the time base parameter will be greatest: • in catchments supported by aquifers of a lower productivity or by aquifers overlain by thick low permeability strata; • in the winter months when storms arrive much more frequently and it is therefore much more difficult to isolate discrete recessions for calibrating baseflow estimations. 2) In order to derive a realistic answer it is necessary to have a clear conceptual model of the various subsurface pathways contributing flow to a river and also to know which pathway is of most interest in terms of the baseflow output. Most automated baseflow separation methods employ empirical parameters, and the resulting baseflow estimate will be sensitive to variations in these parameters. It is recommended that the parameters should be calibrated against borehole hydrographs (where suitable hydrographs are available). It is also recommended that the output should be calibrated against major summer recessions and short term winter recessions. The need to assess winter flows is not necessarily intuitive, as baseflow is normally associated with summer recessions. However, this is an important part of the assessment as baseflow predictions can be particularly variable in the winter months. A method to identify slope minima has been proposed to assist in this process. 3) Classic baseflow separation techniques are being superseded to an increasing degree by advances in numerical modelling techniques. Nevertheless, there is still merit in undertaking baseflow separation, particularly in the early stages of conceptual modelling or in situations such as diffuse pollution studies, where complex numerical modelling is either not feasible or not justified. Where methods are used inappropriately, or where the subsurface pathways leading to baseflow are not properly understood, the potential sensitivity of automated techniques to variations in their component parameters could generate significant errors. On the other hand, where there is an adequate understanding of the methods employed, and where there is a good initial conceptual

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model, the sensitivity of baseflow estimates to the various parameters can actually be an advantage, allowing the assessment of a variety of baseflow scenarios which can be used to help improve the conceptualisation of the catchment characteristics.

REFERENCES Aslibekian O (1999) Regional assessment of groundwater recharge. GSI Groundwater Newsletter, 35: 8–11. Aslyng HC (1965) Evaporation, evapotranspiration and water balance investigations in Copenhagen 1955–64. Acta Agriculture Scandinavica xv: 284–300. Boorman DB, Hollis JM, Lilly A. (1995) Hydrology of soil types: a hydrologically-based classification the soils of the United Kingdom. Institute of Hydrology Report No. 126, 137p. Bradbury CG, Rushton KR (1998) Estimating runoff-recharge in the South Lincolnshire Limestone. Journal of Hydrology 211: 86–99. Cawley A (1994) Application of monthly water balance models to Irish catchments. In: Agmet Conference Proceedings, September 1994. Chapman T (1999) A comparison of algorithms for stream flow recession and baseflow separation. Hydrological Processes 13: 701–714. Daly EP (1994) Groundwater resources of the Nore River basin. Geological Survey of Ireland, RS 94/1 Drew D, Daly D (1993) Groundwater and karstification in mid-Galway, south Mayo and north Clare. Geological Survey of Ireland Report RS 93/3. European Commission (2000) Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water resources. Official Journal of the European Community, L327. Fitzsimons VP, Misstear BDR (2006) Estimating groundwater recharge through tills: a sensitivity analysis of soil moisture budgets and till properties in Ireland. Hydrogeology Journal 14: 548–561. Food and Agriculture Organisation (1998) Crop Evapotranspiration: guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 56, Rome, Italy. Grindley J (1970) Estimation and mapping of evaporation. IAHS Publication No. 1, 200–213. Halford KJ, Mayer GC (2000) Problems associated with estimating ground water discharge and recharge from stream-discharge records. Ground Water 38: 331–342. Hulme P, Rushton, KR, Fletcher S (2001) Estimating recharge in U.K. catchments. In: Impact of Human Activity on Groundwater Dynamics. International Association Hydrological Sciences Publ. 269: 33–42. Institute of Hydrology (1989) Flow Regimes from Experimental and Network Data (FREND). NERC, Wallingford. Lerner DN, Issar AS, Simmers I (1990) Groundwater recharge: A guide to understanding and estimating natural recharge. International Contributions to Hydrogeology 8, Heise, Germany. Linsley RK, Kohler MA, Paulhus JLH (1975) Hydrology for Engineers. McGraw-Hill, New York. Loughman E (2005) Groundwater and health issues. In: Proc. 25th Annual Seminar on “Groundwater in Ireland” (Irish National Committee of the International Association of Hydrogeologists), Tullamore, 19–20 April 2005, 101–108. McCarthaigh M (1994) Summary details of water balances in Glyde, Dee, Finn and Blackwater (Monaghan) catchments for the period December 1975–November 1977. Environmental Protection Agency, Dublin. Misstear BDR (2000) Groundwater recharge assessment: a key component of river basin management. In: Proc. National Hydrology Seminar on River Basin Management (Irish National Committees of the International Hydrology Programme and the International Committee for Irrigation and Drainage), Tullamore, 21 November 2000, 52–59. Misstear BDR, Brown L (2005) Investigating the link between groundwater vulnerability and recharge. In: Proc. of the conference “Where waters meet” (Jointly convened by the New Zealand Hydrological Society, the International Association of Hydrogeologists, Australian Chapter, and the New Zealand Society of Soil Science), Auckland, 28 November to 2 December 2005.


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Misstear BDR, Daly D (2000) Groundwater protection in a Celtic region: the Irish example. In: Robins NS & Misstear BDR. (eds) Groundwater in the Celtic Regions: Studies in Hard Rock and Quaternary Hydrogeology. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 182, 53–65. Nathan RJ, MacMahon TA (1990) Evaluation of automated techniques for baseflow and recession analysis. Water Resources Research 26:1465–1473. Penman HL (1949) The dependence of transpiration of weather and soil conditions. Soil Sci., 1: 74–89. Rushton KR (2003) Groundwater hydrology: conceptual and computational models. John Wiley & Sons. Rushton KR (2005) Estimating recharge for British aquifers. Water and Environment Journal 19: 115–124. Rushton KR, Ward C (1979) The estimation of groundwater recharge. J. Hydrol. 41: 345–361. Serenath DCH, Rushton KR (1984) A routing technique for estimating groundwater recharge. Ground Water 22: 142–147.

Groundwater quality in fractured rocks

CHAPTER 17

Interpreting the evolution and stability of groundwaters in fractured rocks Adrian Bath Intellisci, Willoughby on the Wolds, Loughborough, UK

ABSTRACT: Groundwaters in fractured rocks have variable hydrochemical and isotopic compositions which are indicators of how these low permeability flow systems have evolved over short and long timescales in response to normal evolution and to episodic perturbations which might have affected hydrodynamic stability. Interpreting these geochemical signals (for example, salinity gradients and groundwater ages) is problematic because the effects of external perturbations on stability are dispersed and diluted by subsequent evolution. Hydrochemical and isotopic data from groundwaters in fractured rocks in Britain and Sweden illustrate these interpretations and the associated uncertainties. Understanding the evolution of such groundwaters is of general interest and is specifically relevant to considering the stability of these groundwater systems with respect to waste containment and contaminant movement.

1

INTRODUCTION

Hydrodynamic stability implies unchanging water flow, in terms of rate and direction, and may be a determining factor in hydrochemical stability. The most likely driving forces that would change water flow rates and/or directions are groundwater pressures at the system boundaries. One of the main ways of assessing hydrodynamic stability is by understanding groundwater movements in the past (i.e., palaeohydrogeology). The main approaches to studying palaeohydrogeology and long-term groundwater stability are:

• • •

Numerical modelling of hydrodynamics with parameters and boundary conditions that have been set according to expert judgement of past climate impacts (e.g., Hartley et al., 2005); Deductive interpretation and geochemical modelling of present-day groundwater chemical and isotopic compositions to deconvolute the “signatures” of past infiltration conditions and the mixing of water masses that characterises palaeohydrogeology; Characterisation and geochemical/isotopic analyses of recently-formed secondary minerals and their fluid inclusions to obtain information about the groundwaters from which they were precipitated (e.g., Bath et al., 2000; Degnan et al., 2005).

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This paper is concerned with the second approach – interpretation of hydrochemical and isotopic data such as:

• • • 2

Groundwater masses with different compositions whose spatial distribution can be interpreted as evidence of past flow and boundary conditions; Groundwater compositions that can be interpreted as mixtures of originally-distinct water sources; Isotopic compositions of groundwaters that can be interpreted to provide absolute or relative ages and thus evidence of the timescales of change and heterogeneity. STABILITY OF GROUNDWATERS IN FRACTURED ROCKS

A stable groundwater system (which may or may not be at steady state) is not readily perturbed from its present state i.e. present flux and flow direction are relatively less responsive to potential changes in driving forces within the system and at the system boundaries. Stability is therefore not an absolute concept and does not mean that a groundwater system is inert. Greater groundwater stability is not necessarily directly correlated with lower permeability, since aquifers can also have inherently stable groundwater conditions. Stability of a groundwater system must be considered in terms of the timeframes for perturbations of driving forces and for the consequent responses of the groundwater system. In a low permeability groundwater system, transient conditions are likely to prevail because the responses in terms of mass transfer of water lag behind the perturbations of driving forces which are pressure changes at the boundaries of the system. Putting past groundwater changes into an absolute or relative timeframe is one of the aims of geochemical and isotopic investigations in palaeohydrogeology. Three divisions of timescale are consistent with climatic periods and with information provided by isotopic interpretations: 0 to 100 years, 100 to 104 years, and 104 to 2 106 years. 0 to 100 years can be called the “modern” period which includes the occurrence of anthropogenic isotopic tracers due to nuclear activities in the last 50 years. 100 to 104 years covers the Holocene period since the end of the last glaciation in northern Europe. 104 to about 2 106 years covers the major part of the Quaternary period during which northern Europe experienced several ice age episodes that would have affected groundwater recharge, movements and hydrochemical evolution. In addition to the tectonic (i.e., crustal depression) and hydrological (i.e., melt water) effects of episodic cover by ice sheets, there were also considerably longer periods in the Quaternary when permafrost might have affected groundwater evolution.

3

GEOCHEMICAL INDICATORS OF HYDRODYNAMIC STABILITY

Geochemical indicators provide two basic types of information about palaeohydrogeology and hydrodynamic stability: (i) the physical processes of chemical mixing that are linked with water movements, and (ii) the timing and rates of water movements (Bath and Strömberg, 2004). The spatial scale of homogeneous water compositions in a groundwater system is determined by flow rates, mixing distances (i.e., dispersion and diffusion) and the timescale for which hydrodynamic conditions have been stable. The hydrochemical and mineralogical parameters that are required for palaeohydrogeological interpretations about (i) the physical process of chemical mixing that is linked with

Interpreting the evolution and stability of groundwaters in fractured rocks

263

Table 1. Data for groundwaters that provide information about hydrochemical mixing, water movements and boundary conditions in the past. Data

Information

TDS

Total mineralisation ( salinity) is correlated with density which affects hydrodynamic stability via the effect on groundwater pressures. Non-reactive solutes Non-reactive (i.e., conservative) solutes and isotopes are tracers of water and isotopes: Cl, Br, components in groundwater mixtures. Component compositions may be 18 16 O/ O, 2H/1H identified by data analysis using linear mixing graphs or statistical analysis using Principal Components Analysis. Component compositions may be “signatures” of water sources, e.g. Br/Cl and 18O/16O signatures for sea water. Other solutes: Na, K, Ca, Solutes that may have varying degrees of reactivity; expert judgement is Mg, SO4, Sr, I, Li, B, etc. required to assess possible alteration by water-rock reaction. Table 2. Data for groundwaters that provide information about the timing and rates of water and solute movements and mixing. Data

Information

14

Indicator of age of water since recharge or travel time along flow paths, showing the hydrodynamic structure of groundwater system Indicator of post-1950 recharge in water; indicates if modern water flows to depth in natural or perturbed system Qualitative indicators of distinct water sources that are also “signals” of climate at the time of recharge Ratio approaching that for secular equilibrium with respect to in situ production suggests hydrodynamic stability over timescale of ca. 1 Ma High values (1) indicate radioactive decay series disequilibrium which might relate to relatively slow water movement Cumulative indicator of groundwater residence in contact with rock source of He. High contents are a qualitative indication of stability and a semi-quantitative estimate of water age Dissolved noble gas data give semi-quantitative “signals” of temperature (i.e., climate) at the time of recharge

C (carbon-14) of DIC and DOC 3 H (tritium), 85Kr and CFCs 18

O/16O, 2H/1H

36

Cl/Cl of dissolved chloride

234

U/238U

4

He contents

Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe contents

water movements, and (ii) the timing and rates of water movements, are listed and described briefly in Tables 1 and 2. Movements of groundwaters within the modern timescale can be detected with anthropogenic tracers, such as atmospheric tritium and krypton-85 (3H and 85Kr) and industrial chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Carbon-14 (14C) dating of groundwaters gives useful information for ages up to about 3.5 104 years, i.e. the Holocene and late Pleistocene periods, and is the most prominent geochemical method for dating groundwater evolution through the last glacial period. Stable oxygen (18O/16O) and hydrogen (2H/1H) isotopic ratios fingerprint water that originated as rainfall or snowfall at different temperatures, and therefore differentiate cold-climate recharge from Holocene and other interglacial recharge waters. The term “cold-climate recharge” describes water originating from any of the glacial periods during

264


the Quaternary, prior to 104 years ago of which the most recent was the late Pleistocene (Weichselian) glaciation. Dissolved atmospheric noble gas concentrations are also dependent on the temperature at recharge and are a complementary tool for tracing climatic conditions at time of recharge. Chlorine-36 (36Cl) and the uranium-thorium (U-Th) isotopic decay series provide the main geochemical tools for detecting groundwater evolution and stability in a timescale up to 2 106 a. However various complexities in interpretation of these isotopic data often decrease their quantitative reliability. A stable groundwater system in low-permeability fractured rocks will mix by advective dispersion and diffusion so that old groundwater masses may no longer be distinguishable in terms of discrete sources and ages. In such a system, there is usually a pattern of vertical stratification of groundwater masses with the possibility of rapid increases in water age with increasing depth. Vertical segregation of water masses may be controlled by changes in permeability and by the decay of topographic head with increasing depth, and may be reinforced by density stratification where groundwaters have varying salinities.

4

4.1

ILLUSTRATIVE DATA FROM FRACTURED ROCKS IN BRITAIN AND SWEDEN Fractured metavolcanic basement rocks, northwest England

Boreholes were drilled at Sellafield on the Irish Sea coast of northwest England to investigate groundwater conditions in the fractured metavolcanic basement rock, the Borrowdale Volcanic Group (BVG), which was being investigated as a potential host for a nuclear waste repository until the project was stopped in 1997. Sedimentary rocks, mainly sandstones of the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone Group (SSG), cover the basement over most of the area and are about 500 m thick in the centre of the area. Within the investigated area, the top surface of the basement dips from outcrop in the north-eastern part at 160 m above sea level to more than 1,500 m below sea level at the southwestern corner. The regional hydraulic gradient is generally directed westwards through the area, from the high ground of inland hills towards the coast. The conceptual model has three main groundwater components which are related to hydrodynamics: a shallow fresh water aquifer which is topographically driven, a coastal and offshore basinal brine, and basement groundwaters which are mixtures of topographically-driven fresh water and deeper saline water, with the possibility of density variations being significant at depth. This area experienced glaciation and permafrost during the Quaternary up to 14 ka ago. This would have affected the groundwater system to some extent and geochemical data from water samples in deep boreholes were interpreted in terms of the perturbation due to glaciation and potential melt water intrusion and the degree of stability that is reflected by the stratification of waters with different origins, salinities and densities (Nirex, 1997; Bath et al., 2006). Water samples were collected by pumping from 163 tests in discrete intervals in nineteen deep boreholes to a maximum depth of 1,950 m. Overall uncertainties in estimating in situ values for 3H, 14C and δ13C were dominated by the impacts of contamination by drilling fluids. The inorganic carbon system and specifically 13C/12C and 14C were affected non-linearly by the drilling water additives. In a few cases of very low contamination, upper limits on 14C have been inferred that provide minimum model ages.

Interpreting the evolution and stability of groundwaters in fractured rocks

265

Figure 1. NE-SW section through the Sellafield area, showing some of the deep boreholes and contours of groundwater salinity (as mg/L TDS). The boundary at the base of sedimentary rocks and the top of the BVG basement rocks is shown; major faults are also shown schematically (adapted from Nirex, 1997).

The variations of salinity across the Sellafield area are illustrated in Figure 1. Groundwater compositions are: (i) fresh to brackish waters in relatively shallow groundwaters in the sedimentary aquifer strata (mostly down to at least 300 m depth), (ii) saline waters in BVG basement rocks at the eastern part of the area, and (iii) brines in the deep sedimentary and underlying basement formations at the western edge of the area where the thickness of sedimentary strata increases westwards under the coast. The gradient with depth of chloride concentrations, Cl, in groundwaters in the BVG basement rocks in the eastern part of the Sellafield area is compared with the Cl gradient in the deep sedimentary formations in western parts of the area in Figure 2. Data from outcropping basement crystalline rocks in southwest England and northern Scotland are also shown. The salinity gradients in basement rocks that outcrop or are overlain by relatively thin sedimentary cover are lower than the gradient in deep sedimentary formations and underlying basement at Sellafield which is similar for other Permo-Triassic basinal sedimentary sequences in the UK. Salinity in the sedimentary sequence originates from the dissolution of evaporite minerals (mainly halite). The high salinity gradient in Figure 2 reflects equilibrium between the maintenance of high salinities at great depth due to dissolution of halite, upwards mixing of saline water by advective and diffusive mixing, and flushing of saline water by natural groundwater circulation. Therefore the regularity of the salinity gradient is an indication of, amongst other factors, the stability of the large scale regional hydrodynamic conditions. Integrated interpretation of geochemical indicators of stability, water ages and solute residence times suggests that brines in the basinal sedimentary sequence and in the underlying fractured basement rocks underneath the present-day coast at Sellafield are probably between 2 and 10 million years old and that movements of both sub-sea brine and onshore saline groundwater are directed towards the mixing zone and then upwards into shallow groundwaters underneath the coastal area. Salinity in basement rocks at Sellafield is considered to have originated by downwards movement of dense brines from overlying sedimentary strata in the past, subsequent dilution during circulation of overlying fresh water, and chemical modification by water-rock

266

Groundwater in fractured rocks Chloride, mg/L 0

50000

100000

150000

200000

0 deep Sherwood Sandstone at west of site, Sellafield sedimentary formations below Sherwood Sandstone metavolcanic basement, Sellafield

500

granite and metasediment, Altnabreac, Scotland Carnmenellis granite, Cornwall, England Permo-Triassic basins, S England and N Ireland

Depth, m

1000

Basement rocks overlain by thick (>800 m) basinal sedimentary rocks in the western part of Sellafield

1500

2000

Basement rocks overlain by relatively thin ( NC < 1 (CFL criterion) and Fo 2 2 ω∆ ω∆ q q ), where ∆t is the time step and ∆ the regular mesh size. Ratio D df ≈ ω ω between both expressions corresponds to grid Peclet: ∆

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