Engineering Thermodynamics and 21st Century Energy Problems: A Textbook Companion for Student Engagement

SSYNTHESIS YNTHESIS L LECTURES ECTURES ON ON E ENGINEERING NGINEERING

AA Textbook Textbook Companion Companion for for Student Student Engagement Engagement Donna DonnaRiley, Riley,Smith SmithCollege College

Energy Energyisisaabasic basichuman humanneed; need;technologies technologiesfor forenergy energyconversion conversionand anduse useare arefundamental fundamentalto tohuman human survival. survival.As Asenergy energytechnology technologyevolves evolvesto tomeet meetdemands demandsfor fordevelopment developmentand andecological ecologicalsustainability sustainability ininthe the21st 21stcentury, century,engineers engineersneed needto tohave haveup-to-date up-to-dateskills skillsand andknowledge knowledgeto tomeet meetthe thecreative creativechallenges challenges posed posedby bycurrent currentand andfuture futureenergy energyproblems. problems.Further, Further,engineers engineersneed needto tocultivate cultivateaacommitment commitmentto toand and passion passionfor forlifelong lifelonglearning learningwhich whichwill willenable enableus usto toactively activelyengage engagenew newdevelopments developmentsin inthe thefield. field.This This undergraduate undergraduatetextbook textbookcompanion companionseeks seeksto todevelop developthese thesecapacities capacitiesin intomorrow’s tomorrow’sengineers engineersin inorder order to toprovide providefor forfuture futureenergy energyneeds needsaround aroundthe theworld. world. This Thisbook bookisisdesigned designedto tocomplement complementtraditional traditionaltexts textsin inengineering engineeringthermodynamics, thermodynamics,and andthus thusisis organized organizedto toaccompany accompanyexplorations explorationsof ofthe theFirst Firstand andSecond SecondLaws, Laws,fundamental fundamentalproperty propertyrelations, relations,and and various applications across engineering disciplines. It contains twenty modules targeted toward meeting various applications across engineering disciplines. It contains twenty modules targeted toward meeting five five often-neglected often-neglected ABET ABET outcomes: outcomes:ethics, ethics,communication, communication,lifelong lifelong learning, learning,social social context, context,and and contemporary contemporaryissues. issues.The Themodules modulesare arebased basedon onpedagogies pedagogiesof ofliberation, liberation,used usedfor fordecades decadesininthe thehumanities humanities and andsocial socialsciences sciencesfor forinstilling instillingcritical criticalthinking thinkingand andreflective reflectiveaction actionin instudents studentsby bybringing bringingattention attention to topower powerrelations relationsin inthe theclassroom classroomand andin inthe theworld. world. This Thisbook bookisisintended intendedto toproduce produceaaconversation conversationand andcreative creativeexploration explorationaround aroundhow howto toteach teachand and learn learnthermodynamics thermodynamicsdifferently. differently.Because Becauseliberative liberativepedagogies pedagogiesare areatattheir theirheart heartrelational, relational,ititisisimportant important to to maintain maintain spaces spaces for for discussing discussing classroom classroom practices practices with with these these modules, modules,and and for for sharing sharing ideas ideas for for implementing implementingcritical criticalpedagogies pedagogiesin inengineering engineeringcontexts. contexts.The Thereader readerisistherefore thereforeencouraged encouragedto tovisit visitthe the book’s book’sblog blogatathttp://smiththermo.wordpress.com. http://smiththermo.wordpress.com.

ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS AND AND 21ST 21ST CENTURY CENTURY ENERGY ENERGY PROBLEMS PROBLEMS ENGINEERING

Engineering EngineeringThermodynamics Thermodynamics and and 21st 21st Century Century Energy Energy Problems Problems

RILEY RILEY

Series SeriesISSN: ISSN: 1939-5221 1939-5221

M Mor Cl Morgan gan& Claypool aypool Publishers Publishers & C & Engineering EngineeringThermodynamics Thermodynamicsand and 21st 21st Century Century Energy Energy Problems Problems AA Textbook Textbook Companion Companion for for Student Student Engagement Engagement

Donna Donna Riley Riley

About AboutSYNTHESIs SYNTHESIs

& &

Mor Morgan gan

Cl Claypool aypool Publishers Publishers

wwwwww. .m moorrggaannccl laayyppooool l. .ccoom m

ISBN: ISBN: 978-1-60845-363-4 978-1-60845-363-4

90000 90000

99 781608 781608453634 453634

Morgan gan& & Cl Claypool aypool Mor

This Thisvolume volumeisisaaprinted printedversion versionof ofaawork workthat thatappears appearsin inthe theSynthesis Synthesis Digital DigitalLibrary LibraryofofEngineering Engineeringand andComputer ComputerScience. Science.Synthesis SynthesisLectures Lectures provide provideconcise, concise,original originalpresentations presentationsofofimportant importantresearch researchand anddevelopment development topics, topics,published publishedquickly, quickly,inindigital digitaland andprint printformats. formats.For Formore moreinformation information visit visitwww.morganclaypool.com www.morganclaypool.com

SSYNTHESIS YNTHESIS L LECTURES ECTURES ON ON E ENGINEERING NGINEERING

Engineering Thermodynamics and 21st Century Energy Problems A textbook companion for student engagement

Synthesis Lectures on Engineering Engineering Thermodynamics and 21st Century Energy Problems: A textbook companion for student engagement Donna Riley

2011

MATLAB for Engineering and the Life Sciences Joseph V. Tranquillo

2011

Systems Engineering: Building Successful Systems Howard Eisner

2011

Fin Shape Thermal Optimization Using Bejan’s Constructal Theory Giulio Lorenzini, Simone Moretti, Alessandra Conti

2011

Geometric Programming for Design and Cost Optimization (with illustrative case study problems and solutions), Second Edition Robert C. Creese

2010

Survive and Thrive: A Guide for Untenured Faculty Wendy C. Crone

2010

Geometric Programming for Design and Cost Optimization (with Illustrative Case Study Problems and Solutions) Robert C. Creese

2009

Style and Ethics of Communication in Science and Engineering Jay D. Humphrey, Jeffrey W. Holmes

2008

iii

Introduction to Engineering: A Starter’s Guide with Hands-On Analog Multimedia Explorations Lina J. Karam, Naji Mounsef

2008

Introduction to Engineering: A Starter’s Guide with Hands-On Digital Multimedia and Robotics Explorations Lina J. Karam, Naji Mounsef

2008

CAD/CAM of Sculptured Surfaces on Multi-Axis NC Machine: The DG/K-Based Approach Stephen P. Radzevich

2008

Tensor Properties of Solids, Part Two: Transport Properties of Solids Richard F. Tinder

2007

Tensor Properties of Solids, Part One: Equilibrium Tensor Properties of Solids Richard F. Tinder

2007

Essentials of Applied Mathematics for Scientists and Engineers Robert G. Watts

2007

Project Management for Engineering Design Charles Lessard, Joseph Lessard

2007

Relativistic Flight Mechanics and Space Travel Richard F. Tinder

2006

Copyright © 2012 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Engineering Thermodynamics and 21st Century Energy Problems: A textbook companion for student engagement Donna Riley www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781608453634 ISBN: 9781608453641

paperback ebook

DOI 10.2200/S00387ED1V01Y201110ENG016

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON ENGINEERING Lecture #16 Series ISSN Synthesis Lectures on Engineering Print 1939-5221 Electronic 1939-523X

Engineering Thermodynamics and 21st Century Energy Problems A textbook companion for student engagement

Donna Riley Smith College

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON ENGINEERING #16

M &C

Morgan

& cLaypool publishers

ABSTRACT Energy is a basic human need; technologies for energy conversion and use are fundamental to human survival. As energy technology evolves to meet demands for development and ecological sustainability in the 21st century, engineers need to have up-to-date skills and knowledge to meet the creative challenges posed by current and future energy problems. Further, engineers need to cultivate a commitment to and passion for lifelong learning which will enable us to actively engage new developments in the field. This undergraduate textbook companion seeks to develop these capacities in tomorrow’s engineers in order to provide for future energy needs around the world. This book is designed to complement traditional texts in engineering thermodynamics, and thus is organized to accompany explorations of the First and Second Laws, fundamental property relations, and various applications across engineering disciplines. It contains twenty modules targeted toward meeting five often-neglected ABET outcomes: ethics, communication, lifelong learning, social context, and contemporary issues. The modules are based on pedagogies of liberation, used for decades in the humanities and social sciences for instilling critical thinking and reflective action in students by bringing attention to power relations in the classroom and in the world. This book is intended to produce a conversation and creative exploration around how to teach and learn thermodynamics differently. Because liberative pedagogies are at their heart relational, it is important to maintain spaces for discussing classroom practices with these modules, and for sharing ideas for implementing critical pedagogies in engineering contexts. The reader is therefore encouraged to visit the book’s blog at http://smiththermo.wordpress.com.

KEYWORDS energy, thermodynamics, entropy, liberative pedagogies, critical pedagogy, feminist pedagogy, engineering education, climate change, engineering ethics, communication, lifelong learning, social context, contemporary issues, development, service learning

vii

Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Why College? Why Thermodynamics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Why this Book? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 A Textbook Companion: A Book of Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 An Open Discussion for Students and Teachers: Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . 4 Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Evaluating Student Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1

What and Why? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1

Module 1.1. Thermodynamics is About Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.1 Exploration: What is Energy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2

Module 1.2. Pedagogy: How to Learn Using this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.1 Exploration 1: Principles of Critical Pedagogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2.2 Exploration 2: Models of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.3

Module 1.3. US and World Energy Needs and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Exploration 1: Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Exploration 2: Women, Poverty, and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.3 Exploration 3: 1 kW per capita? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Module 1.4. US and World Energy Policies: What are the Issues? . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.4.1 Exploration 1: Copenhagen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.4.2 Exploration 2: The Cost of Energy [20] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.5

Module 1.5. Getting Education Right for a Sustainable Energy Future . . . . . . . . 28 1.5.1 Exploration 1: Power/Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.5.2 Exploration 2: What do Current Engineering Students Need to Learn to be Able to Work on Energy Issues? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

20 20 21 23

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

viii

2

The First Law: Making Theory Relevant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.1

2.2

2.3 2.4 2.5

3

35 36 37 38 38 39 41 42 46 48

The Second Law and Property Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.1 3.2 3.3

3.4 3.5

4

Module 2.1. Learning from History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Exploration 1: First Law in Western Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Exploration 2: De-Centering Western Thermo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 2.2. Energy Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Exploration 1: “Foreign” Oil Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Exploration 2: Energy Independence Reconceived . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 2.3. Evaporative Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 2.4. Hunger, Poverty, and Obesity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 2.5. Thermo to Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Module 3.1. The Limits of Efficiency: Heat Engines vs. Other Energy Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 3.2. Perpetual Motion Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 3.3. Entropy as a Social Construct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Exploration 1: Origins of Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Exploration 2: Entropy’s Philosophical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 3.4. Evaluating Entropy Analogies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 3.5. Making Math Relevant: Thermodynamic Relations in Context . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52 53 55 55 56 58 59 60

Thinking Big Picture about Energy and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.1 4.2

4.3

4.4

Module 4.1. Climate Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Module 4.2. Selection Criteria for Energy Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.2.1 Exploration 1: Developing Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.2.2 Exploration 2: Evaluating and Selecting Power Generation Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 4.2.3 Exploration 3: Evaluating and Selecting Transportation Technologies . . . 69 Module 4.3. Is it Green? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.3.1 Exploration 1: Nuclear Power as a Green Alternative? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.3.2 Exploration 2: Ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.3.3 Exploration 3: Coal Train [19] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Module 4.4. Home Energy Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.4.1 Exploration 1: Solar Cooker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

ix

4.5

4.4.2 Exploration 2: Refrigeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Exploration 3: Dean Kamen’s Stirling Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Module 4.5. Ethics of Energy Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77 78 79 81

Author’s Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Acknowledgments Many of the innovations in this book came from my own students in thermodynamics, and from friends and colleagues kind enough to help me think through the course and my pedagogy. In the early years it was Stefan Brueck and Sylvia Thorson-Smith who introduced me to bell hooks’s work and the critical pedagogy tradition. Colleagues at Smith including Lisa Armstrong, Alex Keller, Ginetta Candelario, Jennifer Guglielmo, and Marguerite Harrison have helped me think further about my teaching. In more formal settings colleagues participating in the Kahn Institute on Disorder and the Sherred Center Teaching Circles on Diversity and on the Gulf Spill have further helped me develop ideas in this book. I thank Kamyar Haghighi and the Purdue Engineering Education faculty for hosting me on sabbatical while I worked on this book, and particularly thank Alice Pawley and Julia Thomson for discussing the book with me at some length. I thank the Engineering, Social Justice, and Peace community, particularly George Catalano and Caroline Baillie, for the opportunities they have extended to me to develop ideas for this book, especially George’s grant from Campus Compact that resulted in the development of the module on hunger, poverty, and obesity. Some of the material in this book is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grants 0448240 and 1037655. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF. All along my students in the thermodynamics course have been great sports – whether they came along enthusiastically or reluctantly, I thank them for all they did to improve learning in my course over the years. Student researchers Lindsay Holle and Ally Gorin worked on this project with Smith College funding, and students from the Liberative Pedagogies Project and later the e-book Dissemination Project also contributed to this book. I particularly thank Nora Paul Schultz and Ida Ngambeki for their contributions to the development of modules in thermo, and Haley Dell’Orso and Amanda Nadeau for reviewing drafts of this book. I thank Lionel Claris and Eleanor Jaffee, my colleagues on the Liberative Pedagogies Project, for their immeasurable contributions to this project. In the early years of the project Lionel in particular helped shape many of the curricular innovations found in these pages. It was a joy and a delight to engage in this creative work with them both. Thanks to the faculty collaborators in the NSF E-book dissemination project who reviewed and tested out many of the modules in this book, and continue to help improve them in many ways. I could not have done this without the support of friends and family. Susannah Howe and Borjana Mikic, friends and colleagues in the Picker Engineering Program, were sounding boards for ideas in their infancy. Running partners Lisa, Daphne, Marybeth, Kim and Pam (and Susannah and

xii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Borjana) provided support and a much needed stress release. The Tribe (you know who you are) was there to listen and support me, and provide me with hilarity, excellent food and friendship along the way. My familiars Willow and Raven were constant companions through the writing of the book. I thank my family for offering me support and encouragement. Finally, to Phil, for being a fellow scientist who “gets it,” for cheering me on, for believing in me as I dream the impossible, for being at the center of the fullness of my life outside work, my deepest love and gratitude.

Donna Riley October 2011

1

Introduction Energy is a basic human need; technologies for energy conversion and use are fundamental to human survival. As energy technology evolves to meet demands for development and ecological sustainability in the 21st century, engineers need to have up-to-date skills and knowledge to meet the creative challenges posed by current and future energy problems. Further, engineers need to cultivate a commitment to and passion for lifelong learning which will enable us to actively engage new developments in the field. This undergraduate textbook companion seeks to develop these capacities in tomorrow’s engineers in order to provide for future energy needs around the world.

WHY COLLEGE? WHY THERMODYNAMICS? I usually start my thermodynamics class off by asking students why they are in college. Typically, my students are taken aback by the question; most haven’t thought about it, at least not recently. They describe college as a “logical next step,” as something expected of them, by parents who went to college as well as by those who did not. Some describe college as necessary to be credentialed for particular kinds of jobs that they view as desirable. I work with them to challenge their assumptions, to help them see college as a choice they have made, to take ownership over that choice. Only once every few years does a student draw on liberal education ideals in her/his/hir answer: she/he/ze is in college to learn, to develop her/his/hir intellect and abilities in independent and critical thought. After we discuss why they are in college, I also ask my students why they are taking my course in thermodynamics. The vast majority respond that they are there because it is required for the engineering major. I want students, and I want you, the reader, to have other reasons for engaging with this book: intellectual curiosity, and a commitment to engage with energy issues as future professionals and/or as citizens of the planet. I don’t want you to read this because it is assigned, but because energy matters. Energy availability, production, and use have enormous political and economic implications. The First and Second Laws are central organizing principles for science and technology, for industry and commerce. Using theoretical principles like these as well as mathematics to describe physical phenomena and to model or design useful products and processes goes to the very heart of what engineering is all about. With applications in such a breadth of areas – transportation, electric power, refrigeration, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), nutrition and exercise, manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, distillation of liquor and gasoline, analyzing behavior of contaminants in environmental media, and the list goes on – how can an engineering student not find something relevant to their lives and livelihoods, something of interest personally or professionally?

2

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

WHY THIS BOOK? Current engineering thermodynamics textbooks seem to adhere to an unspoken canon, grounded in 19th century developments of the steam engine in Europe, and subsequent fossil fuel technologies. While several texts have added updates, sidebars, and problems on more recent technologies, they do not frame their texts around what engineers need to know to innovate and lead society into a sustainable energy future. Alfred Carlson, professor of chemical engineering at Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology, commented in ASEE Prism, “Most thermo books either have no new info or outdated or useless material.”[1] This book takes a fresh look at the engineering knowledge and skills required for current and emerging technologies, and organizes learning around acquiring them. It incorporates innovative engineering pedagogies that foster intentional and independent learning, preparing students to face new problems and approach new energy technologies with a spirit of inquiry and confidence throughout their careers. Because our energy future is at least as much about political will as it is about technological know-how, it includes the fundamentals of energy policy analysis and assists engineering programs in meeting accreditation criteria related to the social implications of technology, communications skills, and professional ethics. The book’s distinguishing features include the following:  Liberative pedagogies and intentional learning – This book embodies the principles of critical, feminist, anti-racist and post-colonial pedagogies, which seek to empower students as independent learners and thinkers. Liberative pedagogies engage students where they are, starting from what students already know from their life experience, and connecting with the things they find relevant. Recognizing student authority builds confidence and de-mystifies esoteric material. With an inductive approach that fosters critical thinking and the development and pursuit of important questions, readers are encouraged to collectively and independently explore topics of individual or collective interest. Critical engagement with the world in the form of reflective action is the ultimate goal of liberative pedagogies, and to this end, exercises in the book encourage reflection on one’s own learning, and on our collective energy future. Readers are further challenged to take action as involved citizens and professionals on energy issues locally, regionally, nationally, and globally.  Sustainability – The ability to properly assess the ecological impacts of different energy technologies is increasingly important as sustainability becomes a basic design criterion for energy systems, in response to deepening concerns about environmental quality and global climate change. This book takes a critical approach to sustainability and seeks to examine definitions of sustainability in broader economic, political, and social context.  Global Perspective – As industrially developing nations plan to meet energy needs for economic growth, they are poised to make crucial and far-reaching decisions for developing new energy infrastructures. This is an exciting time for engineers, offering a teaching moment for students to consider the impacts of technology and the importance of forward-thinking design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is equally important that engineers learn to understand issues of power in the economic and political contexts of globalization, and this book encourages students to explore global issues in ways that take these dynamics into account.  Policy considerations – Politics drives our energy priorities, and our choices of energy technologies can drive our foreign and domestic political priorities. Engineers must have a working knowledge of policy and politics as it relates to energy technology.  Ethics and social responsibility – Energy poses ethical questions that must be confronted at multiple levels of analysis. Engineers face both individual and collective decisions as professionals with important ethical dimensions. Local, national, and international communities face ethical choices about energy systems and uses. Engineers need a set of analytical skills to understand the factors that influence their ethical decision making in all of these settings and roles. Presenting ethics and social responsibility provides realistic and significant professional and social context for technical material in thermodynamics.  A multidisciplinary approach – Today’s complex energy systems require a multidisciplinary approach that spans all engineering disciplines. Engineering Thermodynamics is typically taken as a required course (or multiple courses) by engineering undergraduates in specific disciplines. This book covers a range of applications across engineering disciplines; while applications are rarely specific to a particular discipline, the intent is to broaden the perspectives of engineers in every discipline.  History – The historical development of thermodynamics is important for engineers to understand. Historical presentations of information can provide insight and make the material approachable for some readers using the drama of discovery. Historical material is made relevant to students’ understanding of key concepts and to current issues in energy.

A TEXTBOOK COMPANION: A BOOK OF IDEAS There are many thermodynamics textbooks available for engineering classes today. This book does not replicate this effort, but is designed as a companion to these. It does not cover fundamentals or provide the typical practice problems found in traditional texts. It is designed for the Morgan and Claypool Synthesis series, such that students at subscriber institutions might be able to use the book in electronic form at no additional cost. Each module in this book is an idea that can be implemented in courses and classrooms any number of ways. It is up to professors and students to adapt these ideas as appropriate for different circumstances and learning settings. I have intentionally avoided being prescriptive; instead, modules represent suggestions that can no doubt be improved upon implementation.

3

4

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

AN OPEN DISCUSSION FOR STUDENTS AND TEACHERS: LEARNING OBJECTIVES This book is written with both students and instructors in mind. It is a principle of critical pedagogies to blur these roles intentionally. And so I hope that students as well as instructors will read this section on accreditation criteria as they relate to course design and learning objectives. As ABET’s educational outcomes criteria (Figure 1) have been implemented within engineering programs over the past decade, the need for textbooks that cover social context and professional ethics has grown. This book provides content to meet ABET criteria while co-existing with triedand-true textbooks. The book is designed to help students develop knowledge and abilities primarily related to outcomes (f-j): ethics, communication, context, lifelong learning, and contemporary issues. ABET OUTCOMES CRITERIA (a)

an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

(b)

an ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data

(c)

an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability

(d)

an ability to function on multidisciplinary teams

(e)

an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems

(f )

an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility

(g)

an ability to communicate effectively

(h)

the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global, economic, environmental, and societal context

(i)

a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in lifelong learning

(j)

a knowledge of contemporary issues

(k)

an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice.

Figure 1: ABET outcomes [2].

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

While thermodynamics instructors will note that this book does not emphasize ABET outcomes (b) (experiments and data), (c) (design), (e) (problem solving), or (k) (modern tools), most traditional thermo courses already heavily emphasize (e), also (b) and (k) when taught with a laboratory, and (c) if a design project is incorporated into the course. The teamwork outcome (d) can be addressed if the modules are implemented in teams. It is up to the instructor and students to implement modules in ways that fulfill this outcome if desired. Throughout the book modules that address particular ABET outcomes are identified with the icons shown in Figure 2.

a

c

e

f

g

h

i

j

SEM knowledge

design

problems

ethics

communication

context

lifelong learning

contemporary issues

Figure 2: ABET outcomes icons.

LEARNING PROCESS This book uses a modular format and employs a particular set of pedagogies to accomplish its learning objectives. All modules are laid out using a four-step process that draws on critical pedagogies (Figure 3). First, students engage a topic, usually through reading given material and/or searching for material on their own. Next, students analyze a process or situation related to the topic. Sometimes analysis is technical, sometimes social. Sometimes analysis is quantitative, sometimes qualitative. Then students reflect on a particular question or what they have learned from the analysis. Finally, students are challenged to initiate some change, either to their way of thinking or in the world at large as a result of what they have learned. This process is normally iterative, where the change may initiate another question to engage, and so on. This book will ask students to “do something,” to engage in learning and teaching in ways that might be unfamiliar and demand more responsibility than is familiar (more on this in Module 1.2). Some work may occur in the classroom as traditional assignments. Some of it, I hope, readers will choose to do independently out of a particular interest. The actions aren’t the same as most typical “hands on” work done in the lab or design shop. It might not be what most have thought of as “engineering” before. But this is part of the work we need to do if we want engineering and engineers to have something meaningful to say about the nation’s and world’s energy issues. Instructors and students should each understand the additional workloads that are required when exploring relevant material. There may be limits on what is realistically achievable, given available resources or institutional policies. Expanding these possibilities is part of the struggle for education. We need to acknowledge the power dynamics at work in our institutions, and become creative as we dismantle or work around constraints. This is a process that takes time. This book is

5

6

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Figure 3: Learning process for modules.

the result of 10 years of creative experiment and iteration. I recommend introducing modules from this book incrementally rather than all at once, and evaluating each effort, adapting the materials for particular students in particular settings. Some will argue that thermodynamics instructors already have too great a challenge before them in helping students understand the technical material. There is no time for these “extras,” which would be nice, but are not necessary. I believe skills in context, ethics, communication, and contemporary issues are absolutely essential, and underemphasized in engineering education today. So on one level, this may simply be a question of priorities and values. However, even if technical skills are considered of the utmost value, it has been my experience that teaching material in this book actually helps students with their technical understanding, by providing motivation and new perspectives on the material. Thinking in terms of synergy rather than zero-sum games reveals what these modules have to offer. It helps to remember that concerns about coverage can be counterproductive if insistence on coverage impedes learning overall. The question should be the following: what is really important for students to learn now? It is possible to prioritize in order to incorporate some of these important topics in the thermodynamics classroom? We need to work toward learning those things that are going to serve students and society best in the long run. With additional work for students, and with innovative pedagogies introduced into a classroom that is very reliant on traditional modes of learning, students should expect to feel challenged and uncomfortable at times, and instructors should expect resistance from students. To the extent that

REFERENCES

introducing these topics bucks institutional trends (department, institution, discipline…), expect resistance there as well. The best thing for both students and instructors to do is be transparent and intentional, always providing the motivation behind our decisions and actions. This does not remove the dynamic of resistance, but it moves the conversation forward. It is worth the extra effort if this book can contribute to the development of its readers as thinkers, leaders, ethical decision-makers and agents of social change.Ultimately, I hope each reader, instructor and student alike, will come away from this book having learned something new – about energy, or about learning itself. I hope the book leads us all to ask different kinds of questions, hard questions that change the world and change our own ways of thinking about the world.

EVALUATING STUDENT WORK Faculty assigning some of the modules in this book, and students undertaking these asignments, will find themselves outside their comfort zones – these are not problem sets. Even the modules that require quantitative analysis are open-ended and do not have a single right answer. Several modules are well suited to in-class discussions or other kinds of interactive activities. Some are suited to community-based learning projects. For instructors new to some of these teaching methods, it may be helpful to consult resources on techniques such as leading discussions. An excellent resource on this topic is the Canadian Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education (CSTLHE) Green Guide [3]. When it comes to assigning written work, I have found that the development and sharing of evaluation rubrics as part of the assignment prompt can help students perform better on these assignments, and remove some of the anxiety around what is perceived as more subjective evaluation of student work. Generally, I have used the ABET criteria on communication, context, contemporary issues, ethics, and lifelong learning as performance criteria on the rubric, specifying for each item what constitutes excellent, average, and poor work. Students sometimes need to iterate to learn the kind of depth of reflection and critical or original thinking required of lifelong learning, and here I have found that early feedback is particularly helpful. Many students need practice in developing and supporting effective arguments in written work, and writing in ethics often requires reminding students of the importance of using multiple, different ethical frameworks to build their arguments and explore the ethics of an issue in depth.

REFERENCES [1] Sharp, J.E.M. (2005). High Tech Text Books. Prism 15(3) (November 2005). Accessed June 6, 2011 from http://www.prism-magazine.org/nov05/tt_01.cfm. Cited on page(s) 2 [2] ABET (2011). Criteria for Accrediting Engineering Programs. Accessed May 31, 2011 from http://www.abet.org/Linked%20Documents-UPDATE/Criteria%20and%20PP/ E001%2010-11%20EAC%20Criteria%201-27-10.pdf. Cited on page(s) 4

7

8

REFERENCES

[3] Kustra, E.D.H. and Potter, M.K. (2008). Leading Effective Discussions. Green Guide, No. 9. London, Ontario: Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Ordering information accessed September 19, 2011 from http://www.stlhe.ca/resources/greenguides/. Cited on page(s) 7

9

CHAPTER

1

What and Why? This book is organized as a textbook companion. It is meant to supplement and complement other more technically focused thermodynamics textbooks. It is organized into stand-alone modules that parallel the general development of most thermodynamics texts, so that students and instructors can engage this book as little or as much as time permits. This chapter provides an introduction to the book, to the study of thermodynamics, and to energy problems on a local, national, and global scale. It asks readers to think about what students need to learn as engineers and as citizens of the planet, to build a sustainable energy future. The first module asks readers to develop their own definitions of energy and thermodynamics. The second module provides a hands-on, learn-by-doing introduction to the pedagogies used in this book. The third and fourth modules tackle big-picture questions: How much energy do we need? For what do we need energy? How do our energy needs relate to global problems such as climate change and war? The last module challenges readers to think about what’s in a thermodynamics textbook or syllabus, and whether that constitutes what engineers need to know about energy in the Twenty-First Century. Who decided what students should be learning, and what influenced that decision? What do you think students need to know? How will you pursue this knowledge? Module 1.1: Thermodynamics is About Energy. Module 1.2: Pedagogy: How to Learn Using this Book. Module 1.3: US and World Energy Needs and Uses. Module 1.4: US and World Energy Policy: What are the Issues? Module 1.5: Getting Education Right for a Sustainable Energy Future.

1.1

MODULE 1.1. THERMODYNAMICS IS ABOUT ENERGY

Thermodynamics is, and ought to be, the study of energy. For some reason, the word thermodynamics is daunting, off-putting, and esoteric. Thermodynamics is something your professor knows about, or other kinds of experts with many degrees in physics or chemistry or engineering. You hope they will tell you about it in class, or you will read about it in your expensive textbook, and you will write it down and practice solving problems and hopefully absorb some of what they know.

g

i

communication

lifelong learning

10

1. WHAT AND WHY?

This book is built on the premise that traditional learning, as the saying goes, “from professor’s notes to students’ notes and through the minds of neither” is the wrong way to go about learning thermodynamics. In fact, thermodynamics is nothing more than – and nothing less than – the study of energy. Most of us have been studying energy our whole lives; we know a lot about it from handson experience. The trouble is most thermodynamics textbooks only focus on a small, outdated slice of what energy is and how it is used in socio-technical systems. This book starts with the recognition that you already know about energy, and that you can speak with some authority about it. This book is also realistic in acknowledging that there is an existing curriculum in thermodynamics that will continue to exist for some time, perpetuated by textbooks, accreditation criteria, industry demand, and other forces.The book is therefore organized to parallel the organization of many typical thermodynamics textbooks, using the concept mapping of Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: A schematic of concepts in an Introductory Thermodynamics course.

Typically, courses start by covering four building blocks in thermodynamics. Clearly, the First and Second Laws are fundamental ideas that take up the bulk of time in a first thermodynamics course. The idea that energy is conserved and can be converted from one form to another is a central organizing principle for science and industry. Understanding how the Second Law limits achievable efficiencies in energy systems is crucial for realistic design. To put these two laws of thermodynamics to use, it is necessary to understand the properties of working fluids and other substances on a conceptual level (what are entropy, enthalpy, and internal energy? What is the difference between heat and work?). It is also necessary to be able to look up, calculate, and/or estimate property data

1.1. MODULE 1.1. THERMODYNAMICS IS ABOUT ENERGY

11

using equations of state and either computerized or printed data tables. While property relations are not emphasized in every first course on thermodynamics depending on mathematical preparation and other considerations, they play an essential role in developing an understanding of thermodynamic relationships and in making it possible to quantify properties that are difficult to measure from those that are easier to measure. These four areas can be thought to form a basis that is common among different “flavors” of thermodynamics in physics, chemistry, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, etc. The pyramids one might build on top of this foundation are many and varied. The most common sets of applications might be engine cycles common in mechanical engineering (including automobile and jet engines, electric power generation, and refrigeration cycles) or solution theory and phase and chemical reaction equilibria in chemical engineering. All of this may have begun to seem esoteric, full of new technical vocabulary and presented in the abstract.The following exploration returns us to concrete and familiar considerations, developing a clear definition of energy.

1.1.1

EXPLORATION: WHAT IS ENERGY? engage

change

Write down what you know or believe about energy, and why it Is necessary.

Can you develop your own definition of energy? Of thermodynamics?

analyze

reflect

Now look up several definitions of energy. You might want to check a few textbooks and Internet sources.

How do different definitions fit together? Do they address why energy is so necessary? What questions do you have about this?

Figure 1.2: What is energy? Old Faithful, a geyser in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA, is a dramatic example of geothermal energy. Photo by Jon Sullivan, Public Domain. http://pdphoto. org/PictureDetail.php?mat=pdef&pg=5274.

At this point, a traditional textbook would typically supply you with a definition of energy. Instead, this book asks you: what is energy? I think you already know. That doesn’t mean I think you

12

1. WHAT AND WHY?

can repeat a formal definition that will be the same as one an expert would write. It means I think in your life experience you have come to know what energy is. 1. Engage. Write down what you know about what energy is. Some of it may be what you remember from other classes you’ve had. Some of it may be what you’ve learned by experiencing the world. It’s ok if what you write is not 100% correct in expert terms – this is what learning is all about. 2. Analyze. Use your information literacy skills to gather a few different definitions of energy. You might want to start with your course textbook, or some reliable sources in the library or on the Internet. Write these down, and keep track of the source and page numbers, or the permanent URL and date accessed for Web resources. 3. Reflect. Evaluate these definitions. Don’t try to select a single most valid definition, though you may want to consider the reliability of different sources you have selected. Think about what value you draw from each definition, and how they might be related. What questions do you have about how different definitions you’ve read fit together? Do the definitions make clear why energy is such an important part of our world today? If not, how could they? 4. Change. Can you develop a definition of energy that brings together what you know, expert knowledge, and energy’s importance in life? Now move through steps 1-3 again to develop your own working definition of thermodynamics. Why do you think most engineering courses and textbooks are called engineering thermodynamics and not energy engineering? The previous module challenged you to develop your own definitions of energy and thermodynamics. It utilized a four-step process that included engagement, analysis, reflection, and some action for change. This process is somewhat different from the typical engineering design process, or engineering problem solving processes that would be commonly used in a thermodynamics course. What is the basis for this learning process, and why is it being employed here? The next module provides an opportunity to explore the development of the process and the educational theory behind it, contrasted with more familiar approaches to teaching and learning. Some of the learning activities in the next module involve theatre techniques that build an embodied knowledge of what it means to learn using different pedagogies. While it may be outside the experience of many students, and instructors may be apprehensive to incorporate acting into a course, creating opportunities to do the unexpected, even if it means leaving one’s comfort zone, can lead to breakthrough insights not achievable in routine and familiar settings.

1.2

MODULE 1.2. PEDAGOGY: HOW TO LEARN USING THIS BOOK

i lifelong learning

1.2. MODULE 1.2. PEDAGOGY: HOW TO LEARN USING THIS BOOK

13

You may have noticed that this book is written for students, yet these modules read a bit like something that might be considered a lesson plan. This transparency is intentional. The book is based on a set of learning techniques that have come to be known by labels such as critical pedagogy, feminist pedagogy, or liberative pedagogy. [1] It is based on the following principles: The point is not only to understand the world, but also to change it. [2] The study of energy should begin with real-world problems, addressing what matters now.Theory is explored as it relates to these real needs of people.Then those ideas are put to work in communities, and the experiences of communities contribute to new theories, and so on in a continuing conversation. “No education is politically neutral.” [3] In engineering in particular we tend to think we are just learning the facts about science and technology, and we don’t often notice the ways in which what we learn has a political bent. We therefore need to ask “Who benefits? Who loses? Who isn’t even at the table?” We not only ask this of the syllabus, of the text, of energy research agendas and energy company portfolios, but also we need to ask this of ourselves in the classroom. For example, thermodynamics textbooks focus centrally on the contributions of 19th century European males. A broader examination of history reveals important contributions to thermodynamics from every continent East to West, by men as well as women, of all races and ethnicities. In diverse classrooms, one can no longer assume a common base of knowledge acquired through a common cultural or social background, and one can no longer take a “one size fits all” approach to education. Instead, offering diverse learning opportunities and multiple points of access can build a strong foundation for everyone to share their strengths and learn from each other. Power relations are everywhere and the classroom is a perfect place to learn how power relations work and how to resist unjust power relations. For example, we want to challenge the idea that the professor knows everything, the students know nothing, and the professor makes deposits in students’ brains, which are hopefully retained and regurgitated later [4]. We want to explore what the opposite of this might be. Disrupting classroom hierarchies is an aspiration; although many forces work to resist this, working toward this goal is itself meaningful. Student responsibility for learning. If we take this project seriously, and students have more power in the classroom, it means more responsibility, and more work for you the student. But the work is different from endless grueling late-night problem sets. It is, or should be, work that matters – to you, and to your community, however that is defined in a given situation. A lot of things will be more open-ended than you are used to. There will not always be a single right answer, or a single right approach to a problem. You will wonder what it is you are expected to do. The way to approach such things is to try a little, see what happens, reflect on that in order to learn from it, and maybe try something else, and so on. One of the hardest things to put into a book form is the centrality of relationships to this kind of learning. This approach challenges the primacy of individualism – so you want to learn not

14

1. WHAT AND WHY?

only independently, but also interdependently in a community of scholars. In my classes, this means I am accessible to students, and they work with each other a lot. It is up to you to ensure that this element is present in your learning. It is absolutely at the heart of these pedagogies. The phrase “pedagogies of liberation” has caused some critics to ask what students are supposed to be liberated from (or to), and to challenge masculinist assumptions in the language of liberation [5]. However, Bell Hooks [3] has suggested that liberatory language has resonance in particular for some women of color, and takes on the phrase “education as the practice of freedom” as a central goal of her pedagogy. My students are sometimes anxious about this shift in the classroom in terms of both content and pedagogy. Year after year I am convinced by the results – students with deep understanding and confidence in their knowledge, and abilities that endure, as seniors return from their Fundamentals of Engineering exam and report that “I rocked the thermo part.” The following two explorations employ techniques of an approach closely related to liberative pedagogies known as Theatre of the Oppressed [6, 7]. Developed by Brazilian theatre practitioner and educator Augusto Boal in the 1960s, this set of practices explores relevant topics in an embodied way with “spect-actors” who participate in generating the performance, providing opportunities for individuals and groups to create, visualize, and live out scenarios for personal or social transformation. Using these methods, you will act out your understandings of traditional and critical pedagogies and explore what they might mean in engineering education.

1.2.1

EXPLORATION 1: PRINCIPLES OF CRITICAL PEDAGOGIES

1. Engage. Design a classroom experience in which learning is minimized. What does it look like? Act it out in a skit that illustrates your vision. 5 min. to brainstorm, 15 min. to plan, 10 min. for a couple of performances. 2. Analyze. Discuss the performances. What did you learn about effective pedagogies from viewing and/or acting out their opposite? 3. Reflect. What does it mean to learn? What is the goal of education? 4. Change. What would need to change about engineering education to fully apply the principles presented and that you’ve developed here? What are the primary obstacles to achieving these goals, and how might they be overcome?

1.2. MODULE 1.2. PEDAGOGY: HOW TO LEARN USING THIS BOOK

engage

change

Design a classroom experience in which learning is minimized. What does it look like? Plan and perform a short skit illustrating your vision.

What would need to change about engineering education to fully apply the principles discussed?

analyze Discuss the performances. What did you learn about effective pedagogy from viewing/acting out its opposite?

15

reflect What does it mean to you to learn? What is the goal of education?

Figure 1.3: Learning process.

1.2.2

EXPLORATION 2: MODELS OF LEARNING

1. Engage. Read the tableaus on the following pages. Assign one to each of three groups to act out for the others. engage

change

Read the Tableaus that follow. Create a frieze illustrating each learning model.

What would you change about each scene to align it better with the principles you’ve developed so far?

analyze

reflect

Identify the similarities and differences among the three scenarios.

What questions does the comparison raise for you about learning?

16

1. WHAT AND WHY?

Each group will create a frieze, or collection of actors “frozen” in the midst of a particular action or relationship, that illustrates each model of learning. Choose one person from each group who can narrate the scene and explain it to the others. 2. Analyze. What is similar about each of the three friezes? What are the differences among them? What does it mean to learn in each of these models? 3. Reflect. What questions arise for you in thinking about these different learning models? How does comparing the models change your own thinking about what learning means to you, or what learning might mean to society? 4. Change. What would you change about each scene to align it better with the principles of critical pedagogy as you understand them? What does this imply about what needs to change in engineering education? The modules in this book utilize the liberative learning processes explored here in order to help students explore some of the big questions about energy that have relevance to all of our lives. The rest of this chapter will explore world energy needs, uses, and policies, and then return to the question of what engineers need to know to work effectively in these contexts both now and in the future.

17 1.2. MODULE 1.2. PEDAGOGY: HOW TO LEARN USING THIS BOOK

Table eau 1: Ed ducation as Usu ual Excerptt from Paulo Fre eire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed [4]http p://www.webstter.edu/~corbe etre/philosophy y/education/freire/freire-2.html

The teache er talks about re eality as if it werre motionless, sttatic, compartm mentalized, and d predictable. O Or else he [sic] expounds on a topic comple etely alien to the existential exxperience of the e students. His ta e ask is to "fill" the students with the contents off his narration --- contents which are detached from reality, d disconnected frrom the totality tha at engendered d them and cou uld give them significance. Wo ords are emptie ed of their concreteness and become a hollow, aliena ated, and alienating verbosity. heir The outstanding o characteristic of tthis narrative ed ducation, then, is the sonority of o words, not th orizes, transforming power. p "Four tim mes four is sixtee en; the capital o of Para is Belem m." The student records, r memo and repeats these phrases w without perceiving what four tim mes four really means, or realizzing the true significance of o "capital" in the affirmation "th he capital of Pa ara is Belem," th hat is, what Bele em means for Para P and what Parra means for Bra azil…. Educ cation thus bec comes an act of o depositing, in which the stud dents are the de epositories and the osits teacher is the depositor. Inste ead of communicating, the te eacher issues co ommuniqués an nd makes depo n, in which the stud dents patiently receive, memo orize, and repea at. This is the `banking' concep pt of education which the sscope of action n allowed to the e students extends only as far as receiving, filing, and storing g the deposits. TThey do, it is true ysis, it is e, have the opp portunity to bec come collectorss or cataloguerrs of the things they t store. But in the last analy the people e themselves wh ho are filed awa ay through the lack of creativiity, transformatiion, and knowle edge in this (at best) misguided system. For apa erges art from inquiry,, apart from the e praxis, individu uals cannot be truly human. Knowledge eme only throug gh invention and d re-invention, through the resstless, impatientt continuing, ho opeful inquiry hu uman beings pursue in the world d, with the world d, and with eac ch other. In the banking co oncept of educ cation, knowled dge is a gift besstowed by thosse who consider themselves knowledge eable upon thosse whom they c consider to kno ow nothing. Projjecting an abso olute ignorance onto others, a processes of inquiry. The teacher characterisstic of the ideology of oppression, negates ed ducation and kknowledge as p ance absolute, he justifies his o presents him own mself to his stud dents as their ne ecessary oppossite; by considering their ignora existence. TThe students, allienated like the e slave in the Hegelian dialecttic, accept their ignorance as justifying the teacher’s e e teacher. existence -- but unlike the slave e, they never discover that the ey educate the

x 4? Can an nyone give me a story that cou uld go with this multiplication ...12 . There were w 12 jars, and d each had 4 butterflies b in it. ose about tho And if I did this multipliication and fou und the answer, what would I know k jars and d butterflies? erflies altogethe er. You'd know k you had that many butte

Okay, here h are the jarrs. The stars in tthem will stand for butterflies. Now, it will be easier for us to count al, the e think of the jars in groupss. And as usua how many m butterfliess there are alttogether, if we aw a loop around 10 jars.] mathem matician's favorite number for thinking aboutt groups is? [Dra 10.

The lesson progresses as the teacher a of four uping 10 sets o ntation of grou ctorial represen and students construct c a pic butterflies and a ampert ought of as lOxx4 plus 2 x 4. La group; they reco ognize that 12 x 4 can be tho ars not in the g having 2 ja then has th groups of 6 jars. mple, into two g he children expllore other wayss of grouping the jars, for exam

Sally:

Teacher:

The teache e for counting the t e Jessica’s story y and construc ct a procedure er and studentts next illustrate butterflies.

Jessica:

Teacher: Jessica: Teacher:

The teache er begins with a request for an example of a basic b computa ation.

Excerpt from m National Rese earch Council, How People Le earn [8:167]. “Ho ow many ?”http://www.na ap.edu/openbo ook.php?record_id=9853&pag ge=167 altogether?

Table eau 2: Le earner--Centere ed Educcation

18 1. WHAT AND WHY?

19 1.2. MODULE 1.2. PEDAGOGY: HOW TO LEARN USING THIS BOOK

Tableau 3: Liberative Learning [In January 2002 Mary Cowhey readClick, Clack, Moo: Cows That Typeby Debra Cronin to her first grade class. She describes the results of teaching with liberative pedagogies in this excerpt fromher book, Black Ants and Buddhists [9: 82,84] Thinking Critically and Teaching Differently in the Primary Grades. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers, 2006. Pp. 82,84.]http://books.google.com/books?id=EjxMiOQDF1UC&pg=PA243&lpg=PA243&dq=%22click+clack+moo%22+mary+ cowhey&source=bl&ots=V3WYlfIQPd&sig=s7fTPfbmkVfCV0uuguy2I3l13A&hl=en&ei=X1MSTObMAsWBlAedgsnXBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCEQ6AE wAg#v=onepage&q=%22click%20clack%20moo%22%20mary%20cowhey&f=false In the story, some cows find an old manual typewriter in their barn and teach themselves how totype. They type a letter to the farmer, asking for electric blankets because the barn is cold. The farmer refuses, so they write another note telling the farmer they are on strike until they get their electric blankets. When the farmer refuses, the chickens join the strike, refusing to lay eggs until they and the cows get electric blankets. My first graders had a lively discussion about demands, strikes, allies, negotiations, and solidarity. As the children made the transition to snacktime, I told my new student teacher, "You have to be careful when you read a book like this in class." As I often do, I sat down at a table of students to have my snack. They were excitedly talking among themselves about the idea of going on strike to demand more recess at school. I detected a note of nervousness among them, about whether they should keep this plot secret from me. Perhaps figuring their cover was already blown, they decided to ask my advice. David, an outspoken boy, asked me loudly. "Would that work, Ms. Cowhey? Can kids strike?" I said that was a good question, and thought about it. I told them about 15,000 South African students in Soweto who went on strike in 1976, how they refused to attend classes and demonstrated to protest having to learn Afrikaans, the language of the White minority that ran their country. The South African police fired without warning, killing and wounding many children. Curtis looked over at a poster of our pen pals at a rural school in South Africa. He said, "I think our pen pals would think we were crazy. They have to pay money to go to a school with hardly any books and no toilet, and we get to go to school for free. I'd be embarrassed to tell them we did it." John added, "I think kids in Afghanistan really want to go to school too, and they don't have any." Another student agreed, and David reconsidered, saying that maybe getting more playtime wasn't such a great reason to strike. A shy, thoughtful boy named Allan had been sitting quietly at the end of the table throughout this animated exchange. Very quietly, with his cracker near his mouth, he said, "Maybe we could do it to stop the war." David yelled, "What do you mean, stop the war?" Still looking intently at his cracker, Allan said softly but clearly, “Maybe kids could go on strike to stop the war in Afghanistan.”That took my breath away. In this brief dialog, these first graders moved from a perspective oriented toward their own desire for play and pleasure to a consideration of real political reasons that people, including children, might strike.

20

1. WHAT AND WHY?

1.3

MODULE 1.3. US AND WORLD ENERGY NEEDS AND USES

Most engineering thermodynamics books do not include much information about the overall US and World energy landscape.

a

e

g

h

j

SEM knowledge

problems

communication

context

contemporary issues

There are entire books and courses on this topic [10], but undergraduate engineers rarely encounter this material. Knowing that information changes rapidly, this module presents some basics about where things stand now and, most important, where you might go for updated information. We might begin by asking how much energy people need. Basic uses might include cooking, heating and space conditioning, lighting, and food storage. Providing clean water and sanitation systems consumes energy. Transportation of goods and people requires energy. Energy powers industrial and agricultural processes, including the production of building materials for shelter. Energy is further required for communication and commerce. The energy used for these activities can come from a number of different sources, and the amount of energy consumed varies widely. Energy analyst Amulya Reddy argues that rather than focusing on the sources and quantifying energy supply, we should think in terms of characterizing the demand for particular services that energy provides [11], and on meeting consumer requirements that energy be accessible, affordable, reliable, safe, of high quality, and ecological. The three explorations that follow address the issue of energy needs from different angles. First, we consider current energy use in different nations around the world, and consider why the United States is a disproportionate consumer, even among highly industrialized nations. Next, we take up the relationships among energy, poverty and gender inequality, critically questioning the conventional wisdom about the role of energy in development. Finally, we turn to the question of how much energy people need with a personal challenge to students in industrialized nations to live on one kilowatt per capita.

1.3.1

EXPLORATION 1: ENERGY USE

1. Engage. Find reliable sources of information on energy use in the United States and Worldwide. Places to start include the International Energy Agency [12], (http:// www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key_stats_2009.pdf), the World Resources Institute [13], (http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php? theme=6), and the BP Statistical Review of World Energy [14] (http://www.bp.com/ statisticalreview).

1.3. MODULE 1.3. US AND WORLD ENERGY NEEDS AND USES

engage Find reliable sources of information on energy use in the US and worldwide.

analyze Find or create useful representation of energy use.

21

change What are three best ways for the US to reduce energy use? Quantify your recommendations. Try to reduce to levels in Europe or Japan.

reflect What story do your data tell? Why is US energy use so much higher even than other industrialized nations?

2. Analyze. Find or create useful representations of energy use (for example, pie charts on uses in different countries; bar chart of energy use per capita in different countries). Think about the units presented in the reports and reconcile them for your best presentation; do different sources of data suggest very different usages? Think about why that might be, and dig for more information about their assumptions and exactly what they are measuring or estimating. 3. Reflect. What is the story that your data tell? Have you formatted your presentation to tell the story best? Compare US energy use to that of other nations, including industrialized and developing nations. Why is US energy use so much higher, even when compared with industrialized nations like Japan or Germany? Is this justifable? Why or why not? What responsibilities or duties fall to engineers to address this imbalance? 4. Change. What are the best opportunities the US has for reducing energy consumption? Find research that makes recommendations on this topic, and synthesize the findings of several authors to arrive at your own recommendations. To start you off, try Lester Lave’s article [15] here: http://www.nae.edu/File.aspx?id=14867.

1.3.2

EXPLORATION 2: WOMEN, POVERTY, AND ENERGY

1. Engage. Can we critically examine the connections between women, poverty, and energy? Read Reddy’s [11] chapter on women, poverty and energy: http://manowar.ma.ohost. de/UNWEa/chapter2.pdf. How does he connect poverty and energy in developing nations? How does gender play a role? How is the story the same or different in industrialized countries? Reddy argues that energy needs to be given serious consideration in development plans. What roles can energy play in development, according to Reddy?

22

1. WHAT AND WHY? engage What relationship does Reddy lay out among gender, energy, and poverty in the developing world and in industrialized nations?

change How will you gain knowledge about poverty and incorporate it into your professional practice?

analyze

reflect

Critique the argument that energy development plays a critical role in both poverty eradication and achieving gender equality.

Consider the energypoverty nexus in the Chicago Heat Wave of 1995. What do engineers need to know about poverty for ethical practice?

Figure 1.4: Woman with improved cookstove. Accessed June 2 from http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cameroon_2005_-_cooking_woman.jpg. Creative commons license 2.0 TreesForTheFuture, originally posted to Flickr as Cameroon2005.

2. Analyze. Engineers may jump to the conclusion that energy development will end poverty and benefit women – a win-win and a moral imperative that calls for immediate involvement. But the realities of the situation are far more complex. First, can energy development actually end poverty or improve the status of women, as Reddy argues? It may be helpful to compare Reddy’s argument with writing on gender and development such as NailaKabeer’s paper on gender and poverty eradication: http://www.unescap.org/esid/gad/Publication/ DiscussionPapers/13/Paper13.pdf. [16] What are the problems with reducing complex issues such as poverty or gender inequality to a single technical issue such as energy? What is the significance of Reddy’s discussion of productivity and women’s involvement in producing energy, as compared with a more traditional development model in which energy is provided for consumption by a community from outside? What do you make of the image presented here of a woman with a cookstove, from this perspective? Is she/he/ze producing or consuming energy? What opportunities does this use present for development or for poverty eradication? 3. Reflect. Consider the energy-poverty nexus in the case study of the Chicago Heat Wave of 1995: http://www.slate.com/id/2125572/. [17] What is the role of engineers in preventing such disasters? The author makes a connection to Hurricane Katrina, in which engineers also played a significant role. What do engineers need to know about poverty? How should they consider poverty in responsible professional practice?

1.3. MODULE 1.3. US AND WORLD ENERGY NEEDS AND USES

23

4. Change. What will you do to acquire knowledge about poverty and other critical social issues that surround your areas of expertise as an engineer? How will you incorporate these considerations in your professional practice?

1.3.3

EXPLORATION 3: 1 KW PER CAPITA?

In the 1980s, a group of development energy experts proposed that the world could meet basic needs and in fact reach the standard of living of 1970s Europe on 1 kW per capita – provided optimal use of available efficient technologies [18] (http://www.jstor.org/pss/4313148). Rather than focusing on developing nations’ energy development goals, these experts present a daunting challenge to residents of developed countries and particularly energy-intensive nations like the United States, which uses on the order of 10 kW per capita [12, 13]. The thought experiment that follows is aspirational and hopefully will also prove inspirational. What would it take for you to live on 1 kW? engage Track your energy consumption for a week and try to live on 1kW.

change How can you reduce your energy use to come closer to 1kW? How does this relate to your goals as an engineer?

analyze

reflect

Tracking your energy requires understanding where your energy comes from and efficiencies in its production.

What would you have to change about your lifestyle to live on 1kW? What things do you consider basic needs?

Figure 1.5: José Goldemberg, Brazilian physicist and educator, put forward the 1 kW per capita concept in 1985. Accessed June 2 from http://www.sect.am.gov.br/arquivos/imagens/noticias/ 20110117150231josegoldemberg.jpg.

1. Engage. Keep a journal or blog for a week or more. Can you live on 1 kW? (Hint: begin by thinking through the units here and be sure you understand where time comes into this picture.) 2. Analyze. Structure your analysis – think about energy services including transportation, lighting, refrigeration, computing, cooking, heating, and food manufacturing, preparation and consumption. How do one-time large energy expenditures, such as jet travel, impact your analysis?

24

1. WHAT AND WHY?

How do you estimate energy inputs for items you consume such as books, food packaging, clothing, etc.? 3. Reflect. What would you have to change about your lifestyle or about the infrastructure of society to live on 1 kW? What things do you consider basic needs? How would you evaluate the 1 kW proposal in terms of ethics or justice? 4. Change. Develop a plan to reduce your energy use. How close can you realistically come to 1 kW now? What structural changes can you work for in the future to help you get even closer? How does this relate to your goals as an engineer? Having explored energy needs and uses and their relationship to development, we next take up questions of national and international policy. Given these contexts of energy needs, and energy use and over-use, how do governments and multilateral institutions make decisions about energy?

1.4

MODULE 1.4. US AND WORLD ENERGY POLICIES: WHAT ARE THE ISSUES?

To comprehensively study a nation’s energy policy, or international energy policies, would require another volume, and another course.

f

h

j

ethics

context

contemporary issues

But engineers need to understand the national and global contexts in which we work in order to design technology in an informed way. Specific global and US energy policy questions are visited throughout this book in an attempt to connect critical policy issues with the existing curriculum in engineering thermodynamics. Here we explore the big picture briefly to motivate continued discussion of energy policy issues in a thermodynamics course. Governments must decide how best to build, maintain, and retool energy infrastructures for economic development (in both developing and developed nations). Energy cannot be considered in isolation because of its relationship to basic human needs, the economy, as well as to peace and security, generation of pollution, and global climate change. Traditionally, engineers respond to national priorities set by others. What role could engineers play nationally and internationally to inform the setting of these priorities? Is this desirable? Would engineers’ involvement in such questions represent a conflict of interest? Would engineers tend to support the status quo in order to maintain job security? As industrially developing nations are currently planning to meet energy needs for economic growth, they are poised to make critical and far-reaching decisions for developing new energy infrastructures. This is an exciting time for engineers, offering a teaching moment for students to consider the impacts of technology, global economic inequality, and the importance of forwardthinking design.

1.4. MODULE 1.4. US AND WORLD ENERGY POLICIES: WHAT ARE THE ISSUES?

25

While some of the modules found later in this book tackle questions of energy technology selection and development of renewable energy sources, government decision making is often not as straightforward as choosing and pursuing particular technologies. The two case studies that follow illustrate the complex contexts in which governments approach energy issues. In the first case, countries in the global South look to wealthier nations for commitments on carbon reduction and renewable energy development, which are largely resisted in the North. In the second case, the United States secures energy resources through costly military conflict.

1.4.1

EXPLORATION 1: COPENHAGEN engage

change

Read about the 2009 Copenhagen summit here and in other sources you can find.

What can you do to achieve greenhouse gas emission reductions on your campus, in your community, and at the state and federal levels?

analyze Were the actions taken by the nations at the Copenhagen summit ethical? Examine this from a number of ethical and stakeholder perspectives.

reflect Why was the United States particularly reluctant to agree to greenhouse gas emission reductions?

Figure 1.6: Global Day of Action for Climate, mass demonstration and march at the Copenhagen COP15 Climate Summit, December 12, 2009. Photo from Greenpeace Finland/Lauri Myllyvirta. Used under Creative Commons 2.0 license. Accessed June 2, 2011 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Global_day_of_action.jpg.

1. Engage. Read the following information about the Copenhagen Climate Summit [19], and seek out other sources on this meeting and subsequent and prior international climate meetings. Climate scientists have created models that predict numerous changes in climate caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide. While these changes are expected to be widespread across the planet, some changes will be more damaging than others, and some places will be hit harder than others. Many scenarios predict significant damage in the global South, where many people and their governments lack the resources needed to adapt to climate change. In 2009, at the Copenhagen climate summit,

26

1. WHAT AND WHY?

Lumumba Di-Apping, chair of the G77 group of developing nations, declared a 2 degree rise in global temperature a “suicide pact” for Africa. At Copenhagen as at both previous and subsequent international meetings on climate change, the South sought leadership from the global North in curbing emissions and in offering economic development funds for building renewable energy infrastructure. Wealthy nations committed to less than half the emissions cuts needed, and declined to offer development funds for renewable energy infrastructure. Europe offered to cut 20% by 2020, and the US 4% by 2020. 60% reductions are required in order to avoid a 2 degree temperature rise. Economics is a primary rationale for lack of action on climate change. The conventional perspective in the US and global North is that cheap energy derived from fossil fuels forms the basis for economic activity worldwide and must be maintained in order to compete with emerging economies such as China and India. Many governments in the global South view energy as essential to development, and want to have the chance northern countries did to use cheap energy to develop their economies. They argue this is necessary to lift people out of poverty, meet basic human needs, and to overcome the long history of colonialism that led to today’s global economic inequalities. 2. Analyze the ethics of the Copenhagen agreement (or lack thereof ) from a variety of philosophical standpoints and stakeholder perspectives. What duties or responsibilities do nations have to one another and to the planet, or the global North to the global South and vice versa? What would the principle of justice require of nations at this summit? What rights apply to nations in this context, and how are these balanced against responsibilities to the international community? As India, China and other nations develop energy infrastructure, they are drawing on their strengths, using resources available in country where possible – ought they do otherwise? Who should decide? 3. Reflect. Why is the United States particularly reluctant to cooperate with climate agreements, more so than other wealthy nations? Why are the US reductions so small compared to Europe, especially when Europe’s energy consumption and climate emissions are already so much lower on a per capita basis? 4. Change. What level of greenhouse gas reductions would you like to see your country achieve? Has your campus complied with this level of reduction? Has your local community? Where might a city begin to take action that would lead a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions? How does this scale up to larger groups of people? Take some action to expand the scope of reductions on a state, national, or international level.

1.4.2

EXPLORATION 2: THE COST OF ENERGY [20]

1. Engage. At the time of writing, the National Priorities Projectestimates the cost of war in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2001 at $1.26 trillion and total Defense and

1.4. MODULE 1.4. US AND WORLD ENERGY POLICIES: WHAT ARE THE ISSUES? engage Gather data on the cost of war to secure oil resources, the volume and cost of oil imports, and gasoline use in the United States.

27

change Propose some ways to reduce the price we pay for energy. Estimate their impact.

analyze

reflect

If monetary costs of war were paid for through a gas tax at the pump, how much more would we pay per gallon?

What about the nonmonetary costs of war? How else have we paid for oil that isn’t reflected in dollars per gallon?

Figure 1.7: Rumaylah Oil Fields, Iraq (April 2, 2003) – A US Army soldier stands guard duty near a burning oil well in the Rumaylah Oil Fields. US Navy photo by Photographer’s Mate 1st Class Arlo K. Abrahamson. Public Domain. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/ US_Navy_030402-N-5362A-010_A_US_Army_soldier_stands_guard_duty_near_a_burning_ oil_well_in_the_Rumaylah_Oil_Fields.jpg.

Homeland Security spending at $7.6 trillion [21]. According to the US Energy Information Agency, the US imported about 9 million barrels of crude oil per day in 2010 [22]. (http://www.eia.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/ company_level_imports/current/import.html) at an average price of about $78/barrel [23]. (http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET& s=WTOTWORLD&f=W). The trade group NACS estimates that the US consumes about 9 million barrels/day of gasoline and diesel fuel for highway use [24]. (A little more than half of a barrel of crude oil is processed into gasoline.) (http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/Resources/ campaigns/GasPrices_2011/Documents/GasPriceKit2011.pdf) Can you confirm and/or update this information? 2. Analyze. If the war costs were paid for by a gasoline tax instead of income tax, how much more would we pay per gallon of gas for “securing” oil in the Middle East? If our total Defense and Homeland Security budget were paid for with a gasoline tax, how much more would be pay per gallon? One might rightly observe that not all of the Homeland Security and Defense

28

1. WHAT AND WHY?

budget is related to middle east conflict. Using resource [21] and other sources, estimate what percentage is related, and calculate the cost per gallon of gas. 3. Reflect. The monetary costs of war do not begin to account for the total costs. What are the costs of war beyond dollars and cents? How else have American taxpayers paid for this access to oil in the region? What have been the non-monetary costs of US Homeland Security efforts? 4. Change. If each of the 200 million cars and light trucks in the US were traded in for replacement vehicles that saved 10 mpg, by what fraction would this reduce US oil imports? Each vehicle drives 12000 miles per year, on average. What other proposals can you make that would reduce US dependence on oil and military involvement to secure these resources in other parts of the world? The brief exploration of energy needs and energy policy in this chapter may feel unsettled or unsettling. How do we decide what we believe the relationships are between national security and energy? How do we know how much energy would meet basic human needs, or how best to achieve that? Many engineers retreat from these kinds of uncertainties into seemingly politically neutral equations and facts. Some feel that technology is a refuge where at least you can calculate things and know them for certain. Some even think that once you understand the technology, it will point you toward a correct policy solution. However, these approaches leave out – or worse, dismiss as unimportant – political and social realities that influence and are influenced by technology in countless ways. We will see throughout this book as we explore the history of thermodynamics and its contemporary applications that what we believe about energy, and what we believe is important to know or ask about energy, is influenced by social factors in much the same way as larger global questions about energy. The following module explores the question of what is important for engineers to know about energy and how answers to this question are themselves shaped by forces of power in the profession and in society.

1.5

MODULE 1.5. GETTING EDUCATION RIGHT FOR A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUTURE

Twentieth century social theorist Michel Foucault wrote about how, even in science, there is a dual relationship between power and knowledge.

h

i

context

lifelong learning

What becomes considered to be valid knowledge is laden with the decidedly political process of who gets to decide what is true or untrue. In turn, knowledge is used in the interest of power and powerful institutions. This is to be distinguished from the conventional Baconian belief that “knowledge is

1.5. MODULE 1.5. GETTING EDUCATION RIGHT FOR A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUTURE

29

power,” i.e., that coming into knowledge makes one powerful. Instead, Foucault posits that yes, knowledge is power, but power is also knowledge. He explains the ways in which institutions –

Figure 1.8: Michel Foucault. http://www.msa.ac.uk/mac/Assets/Embedded%20Websites/ Panopticon/Images/Michel_Foucault_Par23100007_130145833_std.jpg.

science, universities, government – play a role in validating knowledge. The following exploration is intended to stimulate your critical thinking about your own learning, course and curriculum content, and engineering in society. It lays the groundwork for connections made later to thermodynamic theory, especially the Second Law.

1.5.1

EXPLORATION 1: POWER/KNOWLEDGE

1. Engage. First, read this excerpt from Foucault on Truth and Power in science [25]: http://www.scribd.com/doc/10262971/Foucault-Truth-and-Powerin-Power-Knowledge (pp. 131–133). It’s important to acknowledge for those of you who have not encountered Foucault before that his work may seem abstract at first, but is in fact highly relevant when grounded in context. His writing is not linear or direct, and this is somewhat intentional. Derrida, Foucault’s contemporary, wrote about how language can impose constraints upon what we are able to say, reflecting and perpetuating a certain kind of power relations. Foucault consciously sought to challenge the power embedded in language. A wise colleague in film studies once told me that reading Foucault is a bit like surfing – you ride the wave for a while when you are in tune with his thoughts, but you do not have the same mind, so you necessarily slip off the board – and that is the point. But it was a great ride, and you can always get back on the board and go again [26].

30

1. WHAT AND WHY?

engage Read Foucault’s excerpt from “Truth and Power”

analyze What is Foucault’s regime of truth? How does science wield power in the construction of knowledge?

change How can you determine what you believe, given the institutional power structures that influence what is presented as truth?

reflect How have you seen power/knowledge dynamics operating in the world?

2. Analyze. Answer the following four questions: a. What does Foucault mean by “a regime of truth” and how does this fit with his definition of truth on p. 133? b. Foucault is often characterized assaying that truth is relative, but he is saying rather that truth is political. How are these two concepts different? c. Foucault focuses on science as an important institution appointed as the arbiter of truth in present day society. How does the institution of science wield power in the construction of truth? d. Foucault’s conception of power, which he writes on extensively elsewhere, is that power is NOT one-way or top-down, but rather one of power relations in which power necessarily produces resistance. How does this conception of power play out in the notion of power/knowledge? 3. Reflect.Think of a concrete example from your experience that illustrates the dual relationship between power and knowledge that Foucault discusses. Make sure the example shows not just knowledge supporting power, but also ways in which power constructs knowledge. How might power/knowledge manifest itself in a thermodynamics course, or in the engineering curriculum? For example, who controls what you learn in thermodynamics, or what courses you take in order to receive an engineering degree? 4. Change. How can you determine what you believe, given the institutional power structures that influence what is presented as truth?

1.5. MODULE 1.5. GETTING EDUCATION RIGHT FOR A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FUTURE

31

Given these power relations in engineering where accreditation and academic processes resist changes to the accepted body of knowledge in the field, this book explicitly seeks to challenge the engineering canon as it relates to thermodynamics and energy. It also seeks to encourage students to engage your power of resistance by taking responsibility for your own learning in a system that usually seems to remove a lot of student choice in order to adhere to a standard set knowledge. In the next exploration, you will identify what you think engineering students need to learn to be able to work on energy issues, and compare that curriculum to your current education. It may be tempting to resist the new ideas here and reinscribe traditional ideas about what belongs in a thermodynamics class; try to keep an open mind as you deliberate on these questions.

1.5.2

EXPLORATION 2: WHAT DO CURRENT ENGINEERING STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN TO BE ABLE TO WORK ON ENERGY ISSUES?

1. Engage. Make a list of what you think engineering students need to learn as undergraduates in order to prepare to work on energy problems. Think about what kinds of technical skills, professional skills, values or ethics, and ways of thinking will be essential in this work. 2. Analyze. Compare your list with what’s emphasized in your textbook, your course syllabus, your engineering curriculum overall, and ABET’s accreditation criteria (see Introduction, Figure 1). Refine your list if you come across items you’d like to add or take away. engage

change

Make a list of what you think engineering students need to learn today to work on tomorrow’s energy issues.

What else do you need to learn, and where will you find it? Develop a strategy to learn what you need to work on today’s energy problems.

analyze How does this list match or not match with ABET criteria, your textbook’s contents, and your engineering curriculum?

reflect How does the content of your thermo text (curriculum, ABET criteria) reinforce certain energy choices?

3. Reflect. How does the content of your thermodynamics textbook (or course syllabus, or accreditation criteria, etc.) reinforce certain energy choices? What material is not found in thermodynamics? Is it found in other engineering courses, or courses outside of engineering but required for the major, or is it not part of your curriculum at all?

32

REFERENCES

4. Change. What else do you need to learn, and where will you find it? Develop a strategy to learn what you need to know to work effectively on energy problems today and in the future. What can you learn on your own, and where do you need to seek assistance and guidance from a mentor?

REFERENCES [1] Darder, A., Maltodano, M. P., and Torres, R.D. (2008). Critical Pedagogy Reader, 3rd ed. New York: Routledge. Cited on page(s) 13 [2] Marx, K. [1845] (1976) Theses on Feuerbach. In K. Marx and F. Engels (Eds.), Collected Works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, 1845–47, Vol. 5: Theses on Feuerbach, The German Ideology and Related Manuscripts. New York: International Publishers, p. 8. Cited on page(s) 13 [3] Hooks, B. (1994) Teaching to Transgress. New York: Routledge, p. 37. Cited on page(s) 13, 14 [4] Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Seabury Press. Cited on page(s) 13 [5] Luke, C. and Gore, J. (1992). Feminisms and Critical Pedagogy. New York: Routledge. Cited on page(s) 14 [6] Boal, A. (1985). Theatre of the Oppressed. Translated by Charles A. and Maria-Odilia Leal McBride. New York: Theatre Communications Group. Cited on page(s) 14 [7] Boal, A. (1992). Games for Actors and Non-Actors. Translated by Adrian Jackson. New York: Routledge. Cited on page(s) 14 [8] National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.nap. edu/openbook.php?record_id=9853. Cited on page(s) [9] Cowhey, M. (2006). Black Ants and Buddhists: Thinking Critically and Teaching Differently in the Primary Grades. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers. Cited on page(s) [10] See, e.g., Shepherd, W. and Shepherd, D.W. (2003). Energy Studies, 2nd ed. London: Imperial College Press. Cited on page(s) 20 [11] Reddy, A.K.N. (2000).Energy and Social Issues. In World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability. New York: United Nations Development Program. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://manowar.ma.ohost.de/UNWEa/chapter2.pdf. Cited on page(s) 20, 21

REFERENCES

33

[12] International Energy Agency (2009). Key World Energy Statistics. Paris: IEA. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2009/key_stats_2009. pdf. Cited on page(s) 20, 23 [13] World Resources Institute (2011). EarthTrends Energy and Resources Database. Washington, DC: WRI. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_ db/index.php?theme=6. Cited on page(s) 20, 23 [14] British Petroleum (2011).Statistical Review of World Energy. London: British Petroleum. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.bp.com/statisticalreview. Cited on page(s) 20 [15] Lave, L. (2009). The Potential of Energy Efficiency: An Overview. The Bridge, 39(2): 5– 14. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.nae.edu/File.aspx?id=14867. Cited on page(s) 21 [16] Kabeer, N. (2003).Gender Equality, Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals: Promoting Women’s Capabilities and Participation. Gender & Development Discussion Paper Series No. 13, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Accessed September 17, 2011 from http://www.unescap.org/esid/gad/Publication/ DiscussionPapers/13/Paper13.pdf. Cited on page(s) 22 [17] Klinenberg, E. (2005). When Chicago Baked: Unheeded lessons from another great urban catastrophe. Slate, September 2, 2005. Accessed September 17, 2011 from http://www. slate.com/id/2125572/. Cited on page(s) 22 [18] Goldemberg, J., Johansson, T.B., Reddy, A.K.N., and Williams, R.H. (1985). Basic Needs and Much More with One Kilowatt per Capita. Ambio, 14(4/5): 190–200. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.jstor.org/pss/4313148. Cited on page(s) 23 [19] Livingstone, K. Copenhagen talks show south-north divide is alive, well, and ever-more polluting. Progressive London, Dec. 16, 2009. Accessed June 6, 2011 from http:// www.progressivelondon.org.uk/blog/copenhagen-talks-show-north-southdivide-is-alive-well-and-ever-more-polluting.html. Cited on page(s) 25 [20] Adapted from an assignment Frank von Hippel gave to Princeton University students in his course on Science, Technology, and Policy in the 1990s. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801938 Cited on page(s) vii, 26 [21] National Priorities Project. (2011). US Security Spending since 9/11. May 26, 2011. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://nationalpriorities.org/en/publications/2011/ us-security-spending-since-911/. Cited on page(s) 27, 28

34

REFERENCES

[22] US Energy Information Administration (2011). Crude Oil and Total Petroleum Imports. March 2011 Import Highlights. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.eia.gov/ pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/company_level_imports/current/ import.html. DOI: 10.1001/jama.292.10.1232 Cited on page(s) 27 [23] US Energy Information Administration (2011). Petroleum and Other Liquids. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=PET&s= WTOTWORLD&f=W. Cited on page(s) 27 [24] NACS (2011). Fueling America: Key Facts and Figures. Accessed June 10, 2011 from http://www.nacsonline.com/NACS/Resources/campaigns/GasPrices_2011/ Documents/GasPriceKit2011.pdf Cited on page(s) 27 [25] Foucault, M. (1980) Truth and Power. In: C. Gordon (Ed.) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviewsand Other Writings 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon, 131–133. Cited on page(s) 29 [26] Keller, A. (2005) Comments at Liberative Pedagogies workshop, used with permission. Cited on page(s) 29

35

CHAPTER

2

The First Law: Making Theory Relevant The First Law of Thermodynamics, the idea that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but is converted from one form to another, is familiar to many of us from our experience of the world. While the formal study of energy can quickly become abstract, the modules in this chapter are designed to keep our explorations rooted in topics that resonate with our lives. The first module explores the First Law in its historical context. This can make the material more accessible because its presentation follows the arc of scientific discovery. The histories raise many questions about the practice of science: Who gets to do science? Why are the Western European discoveries the ones that became enshrined in our textbooks? What are some alternatives? What does it mean for us doing science today that individuals who “had the science wrong” in that they subscribed to now-debunked ideas like the caloric theory or the animal theory of heat nevertheless made bold contributions to science? In the following three modules we consider applications driven by particular needs to provide real-world context for exploring the First Law in an open-ended way. Notably, each of these questions or needs is occurring (more or less) outside of a for-profit context and outside of military applications, which are the more common focuses in engineering. These modules raise the question of what is considered to be within our outside the bounds of the engineering discipline, and why. A fifth and final application allows you to choose your own setting for application of the First Law, perhaps something that is interesting and relevant to your life, or something you are curious about. Module 2.1: The First Law in Historical Context. Module 2.2.: Technology Selection for Energy Independence. Module 2.3: Evaporative Cooling. Module 2.4: Hunger, Poverty, and Obesity. Module 2.5: Thermo to Life.

2.1

MODULE 2.1. LEARNING FROM HISTORY

g

h

i

communication

context

lifelong learning

36

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT

While your engineering thermodynamics textbook may present thermodynamic theories as abstract principles and laws of nature, the particular ways in which these laws were discovered and articulated in history are rich and fascinating stories that can deepen our understanding and appreciation for thermodynamics. Different expressions of the laws of thermodynamics are grounded in particular historical times and places. Specifically, thermodynamics texts tend to rely on discoveries in Germany, England, and France in the 18th and 19th centuries. These stories (and the fact that these are the stories) tell us much about the process of science and the development of scientific knowledge, but the histories of thermodynamics from other times and places also deserve our attention. Therefore, the first exploration below considers the development of the First Law in Europe, while the second poses an opportunity to uncover other histories of thermodynamic discovery in other times and places.

2.1.1

EXPLORATION 1: FIRST LAW IN WESTERN EUROPE engage

Uncover histories of the development of the First Law in Western Europe.

change Where do we identify social privilege in the practice of science today, and how can we work for change?

analyze

reflect

Write a biography that places the contributions of those who developed the First and Second Laws in the context of their lives and times.

What does this analysis tell us about the political process of the production of scientific knowledge?

Figure 2.1: Sadi Carnot. Retrieved June 3, 2011 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/80/Sadi_Carnot.jpeg, Public domain.

1. Engage. Locate histories of the development of the First Law of thermodynamics in Western Europe. A good source is Hans Christian Von Baeyer’s book, Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: A history of heat. [1] He states that there were 12 different individuals who contributed to the discovery of the First Law, and discusses in detail the lives and work of Julius Mayer, Count Rumford, and James Joule, among others.

2.1. MODULE 2.1. LEARNING FROM HISTORY

37

2. Analyze. Choose one or more individuals to profile. Read their publications if available. For example, you can find Joule’s “On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat”[2] at http:// www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Joule-Heat-1845.html and Rumford’s “Heat is a Form of Motion”[3] at http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rumford-1798. html. Learn what you can about their lives. Write a short biography that provides context for their discoveries and explains their contributions. What enabled them to do the work they did? What did they know? What gaps in knowledge were they able to close, and what gaps remained? 3. Reflect. What does it mean that the laws of thermodynamics are not attributable to a single person, as Newton’s or Maxwell’s laws are? What was accepted as “truth” by the scientific establishment, and why were so many of the ideas surrounding the First and Second Laws initially rejected? What does it mean to be able to hold some ideas that have since been proven wrong, but still make a valid contribution to science? How did social privilege (gender, class, race) influence who was able to do science, and/or whose contributions are recognized today? What did people need to do science then? What is needed now? 4. Change. What do you take away from this for your own life doing science? How does social privilege persist in what you need today to engage in science? What can you do to address this problem?

2.1.2

EXPLORATION 2: DE-CENTERING WESTERN THERMO

1. Engage. Locate histories of the First Law (or thermodynamics more generally) outside of Western Europe. Think broadly as you select keywords for your search; histories of technology may be especially fruitful [4]–[8]. How did technologies make use of energy conservation and conversion, and how were these principles understood and discussed? 2. Analyze. Write a narrative about one or more contributions and explain the context of its development. Who are the main actors? What enabled them to do the work they did? What did they know? What gaps in knowledge were they able to close, and what gaps remained? 3. Reflect. How did you identify non-Western contributions to thermo? What does this tell us about what counts (and what ought to count) as science, or as scientific theory? 4. Change. How can non-Western contributions be made more visible in thermodynamics? Where else can you identify similar biases in your education, or your life? What can you do about them? While the histories of thermodynamic discovery are indeed dynamic and revealing, contemporary conversations may also capture readers’ imaginations. The next module therefore takes up contemporary conversations around energy independence in order to explore further the usefulness and relevance of the First Law.

38

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT engage

change

Uncover non-Western conceptions of/contributions to thermodynamics.

How can nonWestern contributions be made more visible in thermo? In other areas of your education or your life?

analyze Write a narrative about one contribution that explains its context and development.

reflect How did you identify non-Western thermo? What does this tell us about what counts (and what should count) as science or scientific theory?

Figure 2.2: Maria the Jewess, considered to be the first alchemist and inventor of the still, lived in Alexandria in the first or second century CE. From Michael Maier, Symbola aurea mensae duodecim nationum, 1617. Accessed June 3, 2011 from http://www.alchemywebsite.com/images/amcl111. jpg.

2.2

MODULE 2.2. ENERGY INDEPENDENCE

Contemporary conversations in the United States around energy independence have strong political resonance.

h

j

context

contemporary issues

This module critically examines claims made in the public arena about the goal of energy independence, and then entertains a reinterpretation of the concept of energy independence in local communities.

2.2.1

EXPLORATION 1: “FOREIGN” OIL INDEPENDENCE

1. Engage. US leaders have made much of the concept of energy independence on a national level. This phrase typically is used to mean independence from foreign oil sources. Watch a segment of the Rachel Maddow Show [9] (http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/# 37769319) that argues that “energy independence” as conventionally conceived in US politics is a myth.

2.2. MODULE 2.2. ENERGY INDEPENDENCE

39

2. Analyze. Why does Maddow argue that energy independence is a myth? Would it be possible to achieve independence from foreign oil? If so, how? Try to think of multiple ways to achieve this goal. 3. Reflect. How dependent are you on oil? How would your life change if that oil were entirely produced in your country? Think both in terms of the practical aspects of your life and your experience of national or international politics. 4. Change. Maddow’s vision is for the US to become oil independent altogether. How can engineers help make this happen? What would need to change structurally to make this a possibility? engage

change

Watch Rachel Maddow’s analysis of Energy Independence in US politics.

Maddow’s vision is for the US to become oil independent altogether. How can engineers help make this happen?

analyze Would it be possible to achieve independence from foreign oil? If so, how? Try to think of multiple ways to achieve this goal.

2.2.2

reflect How dependent are you on oil? How would your life change if that oil were entirely domestically produced?

EXPLORATION 2: ENERGY INDEPENDENCE RECONCEIVED

A different kind of energy independence is occurring in local cities in the US and elsewhere: independent, public ownership of utilities. With this model, local communities can create low-cost, sustainable energy alternatives. For example, in the state of Massachusetts, there are 41 cities that own their own municipal utilities (these mostly date back to the early 20th century). A recent state report found that these utilities offered significantly cheaper rates than industrially owned facilities, from 14% cheaper in 2004 to 30% cheaper in 2006. At the same time, municipal utilities were as reliable or more reliable than their industrial counterparts, with more local control to respond rapidly to outages [10]. Many towns support changes in state law that would lift barriers to municipalization, so that new municipally owned facilities can be added [11]. 1. Engage. Select a site near you that could be electrified using a new local energy resource.

40

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT engage Pick a site near you that could be sourced by a new local energy resource.

change What is needed beyond these constructs of “first law” and “efficiency” to help us select an appropriate energy technology?

analyze

reflect

Use first law analysis to compare solar, geothermal, wind, hydro, and local biomass as potential sources. Calculate efficiencies for each.

How do the forms of the energy equation change, and what does efficiency mean for each? Can you use this analysis to select one best?

Figure 2.3: Holyoke Dam, a municipally owned power generation facility in Holyoke, MA. Photo from US Fish and Wildlife Service, Public domain. Accessed June 3, 2011 from http://www.fws.gov/ r5crc/images/Fish/holyokedam.jpg.

2. Analyze. Use a First Law analysis (energy balance) to compare solar, geothermal, wind, hydro, and local biomass options for your plant. Calculate efficiencies for each. 3. Reflect. How do the forms of the energy equation change for each technology, and what does efficiency mean in each case? Can you use this analysis to select a single best technology? 4. Change. What is needed beyond the constructs of efficiency and energy balances to determine the best energy technology for municipal application? Where in your education can you learn these other pieces? What will you do to learn them? If municipalization represents a form of energy independence in the United States, what might energy independence look like in the global South? To explore one angle of this, consider that in development contexts, the notion of technology transfer can be controversial when wealthy nations in the North simply export their technologies to settings in the South without consideration for geographic or cultural differences, and often with economic strings attached. This traditional model of technology transfer can create dependence in a variety of forms, from reliance on imported parts and materials to foreign technical knowledge required to maintain continued operation. In the next module we consider examples of technologies emerging from the global South, utilizing the principle of evaporative cooling for refrigeration and space conditioning.

2.3. MODULE 2.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS

2.3

41

MODULE 2.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS

Evaporative cooling makes use of the First Law of thermodynamics.The process of water evaporation requires heat as water changes phase from liquid to gas.

c

e

h

i

design

problems

context

lifelong learning

Several technologies make use of this principle by drawing heat from an area one is trying to cool – a warm room, for example, or vegetables one is trying to preserve – cooling the area of interest while evaporating water from the system. This module explores applications of this principle in technologies originating in countries in the global South. engage Read about one of several evaporative cooler designs presented. How do they work?

change How could these technologies be used in your life to replace reliance on refrigeration or air conditioning?

analyze

reflect

Use first law analysis to estimate the cooling process for a typical scenario. How much water is used? How much cooling is produced?

What did you learn about these technologies? About the process of estimation and openended problem solving?

Figure 2.4: Zeer pot. Accessed June 3, 2011 from http://practicalaction.org/images/zeer6fresh.jpg.

1. Engage. Consider one of the many designs of evaporative cooling used in locales where electricity or electric refrigerators are unavailable. Although numerous clay pot designs have utilized evaporative cooling for centuries in many locations around the world, Nigerian Mohammad Bah Abba patented his design of a pot-in-pot refrigerator, generating international interest [12, 13]. There are also a number of designs for evaporative room coolers; for example, Myra Wong offers two versions [14] and Eric Rusten several more [15]. 2. Analyze. Use a First Law analysis to estimate the cooling process for a typical scenario. For the pot-in-pot case, assume typical outdoor temperatures on location, a typical pot size, and

42

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT

estimate how much water would be used to cool what mass of vegetables. For the room coolers, assume typical room sizes, and outdoor temperatures/humidity on location, and the specifications described to determine how much water would cool how much room air. Your thermodynamics textbook will have data that can help you with these calculations. Can you make this connection? 3. Reflect. What did you learn about these technologies? About the process of estimation and open-ended problem-solving? About the First Law and how to apply it in engineering design? 4. Change. What improvements if any would you suggest for the design you reviewed? How could these kinds of technologies be used in your own life context? Under what conditions if any could they, for example, replace refrigeration or air conditioning? We’ve seen how the First Law can be used in engineering design applications. The next module illustrates its usefulness in a very different applied context: hunger and nutrition.

2.4

MODULE 2.4. HUNGER, POVERTY, AND OBESITY

Betty Ann, of Nacogdoches, TX, posted the following comment to an online CNN article on food stamps:

a

f

i

j

SEM knowledge

ethics

lifelong learning

contemporary issues

Granted, $3.00 a day is not very much for food and of course those who are hungry should receive more, however; in a country where over-weight and obese thrive, lets make sure these people are really needing the food… I can not tell you how many times I have been in line at the grocery behind an obese person who used food stamps to pay. Should people have to “weigh in” to receive the food assistance?.... There needs to be more control over the food stamps. The ones who are truly starving should be the recipients [16]. Betty Ann has hit upon a common misperception about hunger in the United States. Being hungry means not being able to supply sufficient food for one’s self and family. Sufficient food is not defined in terms of a person’s size, and being a certain weight does not give us any information about that person’s access to adequate nutrition. In the United States, where processed foods abound, even in so-called “food deserts” where fresh produce is scarce, often the cheapest foods that are readily available are also the most Calorie-dense. This creates a situation where getting a large number of Calories (note that Calories in nutrional contexts is spelled with a capital C and denotes kilocalories in thermodynamic terms, so 1 Calorie = 1000 calories) does not necessarily result in sufficient mass or volume of food to fill one’s belly, or in sufficient nutrition to support good health. Can we use the First Law of thermodynamics to link hunger, poverty and obesity in order to challenge popular misconceptions about what hunger looks like?

2.4. MODULE 2.4. HUNGER, POVERTY, AND OBESITY

43

What is Obesity? Is it a problem? Public health studies tell us that obesity rates in the United States have been rising. In 1995, less than 20 percent of the population in each of the 50 states was obese. By 2005, only four states had populations in which less than 20 percent were obese, and three states had more than 30% obese people (Louisiana, Mississippi, and West Virginia) [17]. It is not a coincidence that in 2005 those states ranking 1st , 2nd , and 3rd in obesity ranked 50th , 49th , and 47th in personal income per capita [18]. The highest rates of obesity in the United States are found among those with the lowest incomes [19]. At first this may seem counterintuitive; worldwide, as countries develop economically, the population gains weight [20]. Why is it that in the United States, the highest rates of obesity are in low income groups? This is an important question, but it cannot be answered simply, as the relationship between the two is complex, and correlations do not imply causation. The link between obesity and health is also complicated and subject to a lot of misinterpretation. The Centers for Disease Control defines obesity as “having a very high amount of body fat in relation to lean body mass,” or a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30 or higher. The BMI is a measure of weight that accounts for different heights of individuals; to calculate the BMI, an adult’s weight (kg) is divided by the square of his/her height. A BMI ranging from 18.5-25 is considered healthy, while a BMI of 30 or more is considered obese [21]. Though a lot of evidence finds a correlation between high BMI and negative health outcomes including diabetes and cardiovascular disease, other public health researchers point out that direct measures of physical fitness are better predictors of health outcomes, and that physically fit obese people have better health outcomes than inactive people who are not overweight [22]. Feminists and others are quick to point out the dangers of a size-focused anti-obesity movement that heaps more stigma on a group already targeted for bullying and ridicule. [23] We have already seen in Betty Ann’s comment the way that fat stigma and classism combine in a vicious size-based judgment of a person’s worthiness to receive food stamps. So how do we make sense of the links among health, poverty, and obesity? Slate’s Daniel Engber [24] explores this question, concluding that health, poverty and obesity “are spun together in a dense web of reciprocal causality.” That is, being obese can make one poor as sure as being poor can make one obese, and both increase the likelihood of getting sick, and so on. Engber notes, importantly, that being poor is a stronger predictor of negative health outcomes than being obese. What is Hunger? In 2006, the US government stopped using the word “hunger” to describe the condition of not knowing where one’s next meal is coming from [25]. The current term is food insecurity. In 2005, the USDA reported that 12.6 million households (about 35 million people, or 12% of Americans) were food insecure, meaning that at some point during the year they were unable to afford sufficient food for their family [26]. While the average US household spends about $40 per person per week on food, a typical food insecure household spends about $30 [25]. Adam Drewnowski and associates study the energy density and energy cost of food [19, 26]. Energy density is defined as the ratio of energy provided by food (kcal) to its mass (g). Energy cost of food is the ratio of the amount paid ($) to the energy provided (kcal). Drewnowski and Darmon [26] considered the relationship between energy density and energy cost, and found that

44

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT

the cost per Calorie of “healthy” foods such as fresh produce was several thousand percent higher than “unhealthy” foods such as fats and sweets. Furthermore, they showed using linear programming models that when food expenditures are restricted, diets become more energy dense, with fewer vegetables and more fats. Results from a USDA study corroborate this finding. When asked what foods they would buy if they had more money, low-income respondents indicated they would buy more meats, eggs, cereals, and bakery products. People only increased the amount spent on fruits, vegetables, and dairy products when the income level rose above 30 percent over the poverty level [27]. Anecdotal experiences of hungry Americans also support this idea. Consider the following account from the wife of a Marine: My husband knew he was going to be in the field for three weeks. He also knew that I would be here by myself with very little money and no dishes or pots and pans. So he went down to McDonald’s on Sunday when hamburgers were thirty-nine cents and bought twenty-one of them. I’ve been eating one hamburger every day for the last twenty days [28]. engage

change

Explore a local grocery store. Gather data on cost and energy content of foods.

How would you critique thermo textbooks’ discussion of “biological systems,” based on what you have learned in this exercise?

analyze

Reflect

Plan a day’s menu for yourself using three alternative budgets, while still meeting basic nutritional guidelines.

Compare Pollan and Drewnowski’s takes on causes of (and ways to address) hunger. What do you think should be done? Why?

Figure 2.5: Smith Engineering students in the Fall 2010 Thermodynamics class created a graph similar to Drewnowski’s [16] based on data they collected from three food outlets in Springfield, MA. The graph relates the energy density of selected foods (MJ/kg) with energy costs ($/MJ). As with Drewnowski’s findings, the energy cost difference between processed foods high in sugar and fat compared with fresh vegetables is striking (note the log scale).

1. Engage. Explore a local grocery store.

2.4. MODULE 2.4. HUNGER, POVERTY, AND OBESITY

45

a. Search for the cheapest item in each of the pyramid groups (grains, fruits, vegetables, milk/cheese/yogurt, meats/beans) you can find and write down each one’s nutritional data from the USRDA label and cost. What is the energy cost ($/100kcal)? What is the energy density (kcal/kg)? b. Now find the most nutritious item you can find in each category in the store and write down their nutritional values and costs. What are their energy costs ($/100kcal) and energy densities (kcal/kg)? (Nutritious is a highly subjective term; use http://www. mypyramid.gov for some guidelines). c. Tip: make sure you write down information that can help you estimate the mass of food per serving. Don’t just copy what’s on the label, but think about what the real mass or volume of a serving will be, and whether the recommended serving on the label is realistic. 2. Analyze. Plan a day’s menu for yourself using each of three alternative budgets: a. $5 (maximum individual daily allotment for a food stamp recipient). b. $10 (low budget/student). c. Maximize nutrition regardless of cost. For each menu you must meet the national nutrition guidelines for a 21 year old female exercising less than 30 minutes per day, or 2000 Calories (kcal) [29] which including the following: 6 oz. grains, half of which are whole grains 2.5 c. vegetables, varied among dark green, orange, pea/bean, starchy, and others 2 c. fruits or fruit juices 3 c. milk, yogurt, cheese, or other calcium-rich food 5.5 oz. meat and beans Visit USDA’s website http://www.mypyramid.gov for more information. One question that will arise is whether one can buy bulk items, or any items with multiple servings. Can one assume that certain staples have already been purchased? You will need to make a reasonable judgment here. It is neither realistic to assume all costs are borne up front for a single serving, nor is it realistic to assume that costs can be infinitely prorated – people on a tight budget don’t have the luxury of affording the “family size” item of everything in order to save money in the long run. 3. Reflect. Read Michael Pollan’s New York Times article on the Farm Bill (http://www. michaelpollan.com/article.php?id=88) [30]. Why, in his view, are carrots more expensive than twinkies? Now consider Drewnowski and Darmon’s [27] supposition “that the rising obesity rates reflect an increasingly unequal distribution of incomes and wealth.” How might each analysis lead to different approaches to addressing hunger, poverty and/or obesity? What do you think should be done? Why? Provide at least two substantively different ethical arguments for your position. What specific action will you take as a result?

46

2. THE FIRST LAW: MAKING THEORY RELEVANT

4. Change. Many thermodynamics textbooks engage students with a discussion of “thermodynamic aspects of biological systems” and a series of related homework problems [31]. How would you critique this part of the textbook, based on what you have learned in this exercise? Can you think of a way to move the conversation forward about health effects of hunger, poverty and nutrition in the US without adding to social stigma around size or weight? Having explored the First Law in the contexts of developing strategies for national and local energy independence, designing evaporative cooling technologies, and understanding links among hunger, poverty, and obesity in the US, we now turn to a “free choice” module where you can explore the First Law in any application that strikes your interest and curiosity.

2.5

MODULE 2.5. THERMO TO LIFE

a

e

h

i

SEM knowledge

problems

context

lifelong learning

engage Explore and describe the thermodynamic aspects of an everyday life interest; pose a question to explore further.

change What might we change to improve the system, or our understanding?

analyze

reflect

Define a system and conduct an energy balance or other analysis employing thermodynamic principles that might address the question.

What does this analysis tell us about the phenomenon described? What did we learn? What new questions emerged as a result?

Figure 2.6: Inveneo’s Bicycle Powered Generator, 2005. Photo by Ho John Lee, used under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Accessed June 8, 2011 from http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inveneo_bicycle_powered_generator.jpg.

This module employs the idea of praxis, in which theory and practice are interdependent and inform one another, grounded in community and directed toward social change [32]. You will explore a question that arises from a social need related to energy, conduct an engineering analysis of that phenomenon, and take socially transformative action in response to what you have learned.

2.5. MODULE 2.5. THERMO TO LIFE

47

The goal is to pick a topic that you find relevant and interesting, and explore how the theory and analytical tools you are learning apply to your topic. 1. Engage. Choose a question that you have heard emerge from the community (you define community here – it could be the campus community, your home community, a local community, or any other group that has posed a relevant question). Example questions might include the following: What would it take for my community to be compliant with the Kyoto Protocol, or other proposed climate change policies? Is it feasible to be carbon neutral? What would that entail? What is the potential for using more human-powered machines in my community? What would be involved in, say, developing a human-powered television? How do igloos work, and what would it take to construct a working igloo in my community? What is the energy and nutritional content of local elementary school lunches? Some energy usage might be considered a basic human need, such as home heating in cold climates. How much energy goes to basic human needs locally, and how could we address the impact of rising energy costs, or the impact of policies such as a carbon tax, on the poor? What does it take to retrofit a car for biodiesel, or to refine biodiesel fuel in my community? Conduct an energy audit on a local building to identify opportunities for energy and cost savings. You want to be sure your question will also meet the other requirements of the assignment (can it be subjected to analysis, and ultimately result in transformative action?). Present a background description and a qualitative write-up that explains the thermodynamics in layperson’s terms and illustrates the potential transformative value of the work you will do. 2. Analyze. Perform some quantitative analysis on your selection – this will most likely be an energy balance, but you could also perform other calculations that illustrate how it works thermodynamically – for example, an engine cycle analysis, or chemical reaction equilibrium analysis, depending on your chosen system. Some of the topics may not have been covered yet in your course, but you should feel free to explore topics as they are relevant and learn what you can about them, driven by your interest. Thoroughly explain the thermodynamics behind how it works. Make reasonable assumptions where necessary. Be as realistic as possible, but make simplifications if needed. 3. Reflect. Think (do not write or type, just think) for 15 minutes about what have you learned from your engagement and analysis so far. What questions emerge for you? Write a short

48

REFERENCES

reflection on what you learned, and what you would like to explore further. Identify possible avenues of change or further exploration. 4. Change. Take some action that changes the situation. If your topic is policy-relevant, it may mean contacting your representatives and communicating with them about what you have learned. If your topic is local, it may mean communicating with the local community through pubic media or through private contacts. Perhaps you have an opportunity to suggest a design improvement and show either through calculations or some course of experimental action how your idea improves the artifact or situation. Be creative. Reflect on the potential or realized impact of your action. What else might you do in the future?

REFERENCES [1] Von Baeyer, H.C. (1999). Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: a history of heat. New York: Modern Library. Cited on page(s) 36 [2] Joule, J.P. (1845). On the Existence of an Equivalent Relation between Heat and the ordinary Forms of Mechanical Power. Philosophical Magazine. Series 3, Vol. xxvii, p. 205. Accessed June 12, 2011 from http://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Joule-Heat1845.html. Cited on page(s) 37 [3] Thompson, B. (Count Rumford) (1798). Heat is a Form of Motion: An experiment in boring cannon. Philosophical Transactions (vol. 88). Accessed June 12, 2011 from http://www. chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rumford-1798.html. Cited on page(s) 37 [4] Al-Hassan, A.Y. and Hill, D.R. (1986). Islamic Technology: an illustrated history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cited on page(s) 37 [5] James, P. and Thorpe, N. (1994). Ancient Inventions. New York: Ballantine Books. Cited on page(s) [6] Macdonald, A. (1992). Feminine Ingenuity: Women and Invention in America. New York: Ballantine Books. Cited on page(s) [7] Stanley, A. (1993). Mothers and Daughters of Invention: Notes for a Revised History of Technology. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Cited on page(s) [8] Andah, B.W. (1992). Nigeria’s Indigenous Technology. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Cited on page(s) 37 [9] Maddow, R. (2010). Oil Independence is a Myth. In B. Wolff (Producer), The Rachel Maddow Show, New York: MSNBC. June 17, 2010. Accessed June 12, 2011 from http://www.msnbc. msn.com/id/26315908/#37769319. Cited on page(s) 38

REFERENCES

49

[10] Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources. (2010). Municipal Utility Study. Technical Report. January 28, 2010. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://www.mass.gov/Eoeea/docs/ doer/publications/doer-municipal-utility-rpt.pdf Cited on page(s) 39 [11] Massachusetts Alliance for Municipal Electric Choice. (2011). Website. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://www.massmunichoice.org/. Cited on page(s) 39 [12] Practical Action (2011). How a Zeer Pot Fridge Makes Food Last Longer. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://practicalaction.org/?id=zeerpots. Cited on page(s) 41 [13] Elkheir, M. (2004).The Zeer Pot: A Nigerian invention keeps food fresh without electricity. Science in Africa, September 2004. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://www.scienceinafrica. co.za/2004/september/refrigeration.htm. Cited on page(s) 41 [14] Wong, M. (2003). An Evaporative Cooler. In Field Guide to Appropriate Technology, B. Hazeltine and C. Bull eds. New York: Elsevier Science. pp. 257–258. Accessed July 7, 2011 from http://books.google.com/books?id=kEAOTpIYFBcC&pg=PA257&lpg=PA257&dq= %22myra+wong%22+%22evaporative+cooler%22&source=bl&ots=Pe6C0Ic9jM&sig= TBe12l8tYxtUZogMvv6Nn69ySb4&hl=en&ei=riYhTO_jNMH98AaE-c2ZAQ&sa=X&oi= book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22myra %20wong%22%20%22evaporative%20cooler%22&f=false. Cited on page(s) 41 [15] Rusten, E. (1985). Understanding Evaporative Cooling. VITA Technical Paper #35. Volunteers in Technical Assistance. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://www.cd3wd.com/cd3wd_40/ vita/evapcool/en/evapcool.htm Cited on page(s) 41 [16] Anderson Cooper 360 Blog. Accessed June 15, 2007 from: http://www.cnn.com/ CNN/Programs/anderson.cooper.360/blog/2007/04/oregon-governor-triesliving-on-food.html. Cited on page(s) 42, 44 [17] Centers for Disease Control Obesity Trends. Accessed June 15, 2007: http://www.cdc.gov/ nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/trend/maps/ . Cited on page(s) 43 [18] US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, Survey of Current Business. Web: www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/spi/. Cited on page(s) 43 [19] Drewnowski, A. and Specter, S.E. (2004). Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79:6–16. Cited on page(s) 43 [20] Kumanyika, S., Jeffery, R.W., Morabia, A., Ritenbaugh, C. and Antipatis, V.J. (2002). Obesity prevention: the case for action, International Journal of Obesity, 26 (3):425–436. Cited on page(s) 43 [21] Centers for Disease Control Obesity Trends. Accessed June 15, 2007: http://www.cdc.gov/ nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/trend/maps/ Cited on page(s) 43

50

REFERENCES

[22] Blair, S.N. and Church,T.S. (2004).The fitness, obesity, and health equation: is physical activity the common denominator? JAMA 292 (10):1232–1234. Cited on page(s) 43 [23] Harding, K. and Kirby, M. (2009). Lessons from the Fat-o-Sphere: Stop dieting and declare a truce with your body. New York: Perigree Trade. Cited on page(s) 43 [24] Engber, D. (2009). Give me your poor, your tired, your big fat asses: Does poverty make people obese, or is it the other way around? Slate, Sept. 28, 2009. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http:// www.slate.com/id/2229523/. Cited on page(s) 43 [25] Williamson, E. (2006). Some Americans Lack Food, but USDA Won’t Call Them Hungry, Washington Post November 16, 2006. Accessed June 7, 2011 from http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/15/AR2006111501621. html. Cited on page(s) 43 [26] Nord, M., Andrews, M., and Carlson, S. (2006). Food Security in the United States, 2005, Economic Research Report No. (ERR-29) 68 pp, United States Department of Agriculture, November 2006. Cited on page(s) 43 [27] Drewnowski, A. and Darmen, N. (2005). The economics of obesity: dietary energy density and energy cost. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 82(suppl): 265S-273S. Cited on page(s) 44, 45 [28] Blisard, N. and Stewart, H. (2006). How Low-Income Households Allocate Their Food Budget Relative to the Cost of the Thrifty Food Plan Economic Research Report No. (ERR-20), United States Department of Agriculture, August 2006. Cited on page(s) 44 [29] USDA. MyPyramid Plan. Accessed August 23, 2007 from http://www.mypyramid.gov/ mypyramid/index.aspx. Cited on page(s) 45 [30] Pollan, M. (2007). You Are What You Grow. New York Times Magazine, April 22, 2007. Accessed August 23, 2007 from http://www.michaelpollan.com/article.php?id=88. Cited on page(s) 45 [31] Çengel and Boles. (2008). Thermodynamics: An engineering approach. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 193–200, 210–211. (Other texts have similar sections or sidebars.) Cited on page(s) 46 [32] Marx, K. [1845] (1976). Theses on Feuerbach. In K. Marx and F. Engels (Eds.), Collected Works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, 1845–1847, Vol. 5: Theses on Feuerbach, The German Ideology and Related Manuscripts. New York: International Publishers, p. 8. Cited on page(s) 46

51

CHAPTER

3

The Second Law and Property Relations This chapter explores the Second Law of thermodynamics and the related concept of entropy in practical, historical, and philosophical terms, and grounds the fundamental property relations of thermodynamics in relevant contexts.

The best you can do is break even.

Heat flows naturally from hot to cold.

The Second Law and the related concept of entropy are often challenging for students to grasp initially; students often see multiple statements of the Second Law that have been developed historically as well as colloquial statements intended to assist student understanding, although it often leads to confusion as students struggle to reconcile disparate statements and long for a single, concise, and correct one. No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a body of lower temperature to a body of higher temperature.

No process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion into work

This chapter is designed to help you with these new ideas by demonstrating their relevance in personal, professional, and philosophical terms. Using historical and social analysis to view the Second Law from multiple perspectives, you will gain insight into the concepts and their development, as well as into the scientific enterprise. The entropy of an isolated system (or the entropy of a system plus its surroundings) always increases (except for reversible processes where it remains constant).

52

3. THE SECOND LAW AND PROPERTY RELATIONS

The first module explores how we define efficiencies and what efficiency has to do with the Second Law.What do the limits of achievable efficiency mean in real terms for heat engines compared with other energy technologies? The second module considers the history of pursuit of perpetual motion in the United States and asks why so many are seduced by the idea even in contradiction of reason. The third module provides historical background on the development of entropy as a thermodynamic property and explores its philosophical implications. The fourth module tests the accuracy and helpfulness of entropy analogies used to help students with the concept of entropy. The fifth module demonstrates the relevance of the mathematical “guts” of thermo, the fundamental property relations, by challenging you to apply them in a context of your choosing. Module 3.1: The Limits of Efficiency – Heat Engines vs. Other Technologies. Module 3.2: Perpetual Motion. Module 3.3: Entropy: Origins and Implications. Module 3.4: Entropy Analogies in Textbooks… Module 3.5: Making Math Relevant: Thermodynamic Relations in Context.

3.1

MODULE 3.1. THE LIMITS OF EFFICIENCY: HEAT ENGINES VS. OTHER ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Efficiency is a central principle in thermodynamics; you may have been calculating the efficiencies of different systems as part of your problem solving in your thermo course.

a

h

SEM knowledge

context

You may also have noticed popular discussions of energy efficiency as part of energy conservation strategies. What do each of these discussions of efficiency have to do with the Second Law? This module guides your work to answer this question by comparing definitions of efficiency, as well as comparing the limits of efficiency, for different types of systems. 1. Engage. What does efficiency mean? What is the difference between thermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency? Which kinds of efficiency apply to which energy technologies? Seek out some definitions of efficiency from textbooks and other sources. What is your definition? Pay attention to qualifying terms such as thermal or mechanical efficiencies. What is being measured, relative to what? 2. Analyze. Find or develop specific definitions of efficiency for solar, geothermal, wind, hydro, and coal fired power plants. What is similar among them, and how do they differ? What is the difference in consequence (economic, environmental, social) of low (or high) efficiencies in each case? Can you conclude one technology is better than another based on efficiency figures? Why or why not? What is the maximum possible efficiency of each type? When does

3.2. MODULE 3.2. PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINES

engage

change

Write some definitions of efficiency as you understand it and as it is described in your textbook or other sources.

What are some other ways of presenting essential performance information that help us think about sustainable energy?

analyze Refine your definitions for specific energy systems. Characterize the impacts of low or high efficiency in each case. Can you compare systems?

53

reflect How is efficiency properly used in engineering design? In public conversations about energy?

Figure 3.1: Hoover Dam, Windmills in Lubbock, TX. What does efficiency mean? http:// www.windmill.com/images/Cluster_at_Sunset.jpg http://www.visitingdc.com/images/ hoover-dam-directions.jpg.

Carnot Efficiency come in to play, and when is it irrelevant? Does the Second Law still apply to systems that are not heat engines? If so, how? 3. Reflect. Based on this exploration, how do you think efficiency is properly used in the context of engineering design? How is it properly used in public conversations or political debates about energy? 4. Change. What are some other ways of presenting information about an energy system’s performance, particularly with regard to sustainability? Can any of these new methods help us compare different kinds of technologies better? Having explored achievable efficiencies, the limits of what’s possible, we now turn to the seductive pursuit of the impossible: perpetual motion machines.

3.2

MODULE 3.2. PERPETUAL MOTION MACHINES

For centuries, people have pursued machines that produce infinite energy.

g

h

i

communication

context

lifelong learning

54

3. THE SECOND LAW AND PROPERTY RELATIONS

Why have such pursuits garnered so much attention, even well after science’s widespread acceptance of the Second Law? engage Learn about and retell an incident of perpetual motion machines in history. Choose from examples below or find your own.

analyze How did the technology violate either the first or second law? Why were people fooled for a time?

change How can science help?

reflect Why are perpetual motion machines so seductive? Why do people readily distrust science in this and other areas?

Figure 3.2: An ironic t-shirt referencing the debate over teaching evolution in public schools urges us to “teach the controversy” of perpetual motion. http://controversy.wearscience.com/img190/ perpetual.gif. Used with permission.

1. Engage. Learn about an incident in history where perpetual motion or “free energy” was pursued. Retell the story in your own words. Choose from the following examples detailed by Bob Park [1], in which the United States Congress gave time and attention to these ideas, despite their lack of scientific merit: The 1989 Cold Fusion experiments of Fleischmann and Pons. The Newman Energy Machine. The Giragossian Energy Machine. 2. Analyze. How did the technology violate either the First or Second Law of thermodynamics? Why were people fooled for a time? How was the idea debunked? Both Newman and Fleischmann/Pons continue to have defenders to this day. Why do you think that is? 3. Reflect. Why are perpetual motion machines so seductive? What would be the social and economic consequences if we could operate perpetual motion machines? Think about other present-day cases where science is distrusted or discounted – for example, in approaching evolution or climate change. What social and economic consequences might be at stake, driving a discounting or distrust of science?

3.3. MODULE 3.3. ENTROPY AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT

55

4. Change. The notion of critical thinking or skepticism is held up by both sides in these debates. Supporters of Newman and others claim that the scientific establishment is closed to new ideas, and evolution proponents argue for “teaching the controversy” – allowing religious accounts to be taught alongside scientific accounts in biology classrooms.Why are such positions ultimately uncritical? Here we’ve applied some social analysis to understand why and how some well-proven scientific concepts go unaccepted and not understood by people at large. In the next module we take up the more challenging task of applying social analysis to the development and acceptance of concepts by the scientific establishment itself, examining how entropy came to be, and its implications for other fields of knowledge.

3.3

MODULE 3.3. ENTROPY AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT

Having encountered in the last module the persistence of challenges to the Second Law, it may be particularly provocative to title this section “entropy as a social construct.”

g

h

i

communication

context

lifelong learning

Let me be clear that I do not doubt entropy any more than I doubt gravity, but both concepts take on certain forms of expression that are shaped by the social and historical contexts in which they were developed, and are subsequently interpreted in new times and places. In this module we first consider the social forces influencing the historical development of the concept of entropy, then explore the implications of entropy as interpreted in contexts far afield of heat engines.

3.3.1

EXPLORATION 1: ORIGINS OF ENTROPY

1. Engage. Read historical accounts of the conceptual development of entropy by Rudolf Clausius; Von Baeyer’s is particularly readable [2]. Clausius’s key papers can be found at http:// www.humanthermodynamics.com/Clausius.html. Von Baeyer argues that the history of entropy illustrates some central points about the “thematic content of science”[3] – that science has certain preferences in expressing theoretical content for both universal theory and for parsimony (mathematical simplicity that can be expressed on a t-shirt like Maxwell’s Equations or Einstein’s E=mc2 ). These preferences and biases drove Rudolf Clausius’s attempts to express the Second Law of thermodynamics in ways that were both elegant and parallel, as well as his attempts to create entropy as a mathematical quantity to put into an equation, which ends up an inequality that doesn’t “balance. 2. Analyze. Reviewing your textbook and other sources, gather as many expressions of entropy and the Second Law as you can. Write a short essay reviewing how the thematic content of science plays out in these forms of expression. What does it mean that there are so many ways

56

3. THE SECOND LAW AND PROPERTY RELATIONS

engage How did the concept of entropy come to be? How did the preferences of scientific institutions shape this process?

analyze How does the thematic content of science play out in multiple expressions of the Second Law?

change What can you do to understand entropy better? Choose one thing and try it out.

reflect What have you struggled with most in coming to understand the second law or the concept of entropy?

Figure 3.3: Parsimony: Reducing Entropy to a symbol on a button http://rlv.zcache.com/ entropy_button-p145655327883250137t5sj_400.jpg.

of expressing the same concept? What does it mean to acknowledge that entropy is socially and historically constructed? 3. Reflect. Why do you think students find entropy difficult to grasp on a first encounter? How do the difficulties relate to the thematic content of science and our expectations to learn engineering concepts in certain forms? What have you struggled with most in coming to understand the Second Law, or entropy? 4. Change. What can you do to understand entropy better? Choose one action you can take and try it out. While entropy may be challenging to grasp at first, it is rewarding in its profundity. Consider for example, entropy’s ability to answer why it is that we experience time as moving ever forward, never backward.

3.3.2

EXPLORATION 2: ENTROPY’S PHILOSOPHICAL IMPLICATIONS

1. Engage. Read some descriptions of the arrow of time [6]. In the quotes above, both Einstein and Vonnegut reference Minkowski’s concept of space-time, in which forward and backward in time would be matters of convention… in theory. But the Second Law gives time a direction – how? A good place to start is Von Baeyer’s summary [2] of the work of several physicists

3.4. MODULE 3.4. EVALUATING ENTROPY ANALOGIES engage

change

How does one get from the expressions of the Second Law in thermo to concepts like the arrow of time?

What can you do to find or make deeper meanings in your work?

analyze

reflect

Explain how the Second Law shows that time moves ever forward… or at least almost ever.

How did the practical considerations of Carnot, Kelvin, Planck, and others lead to profound philosophical insights?

57

For those of us who believe in physics, this separation between past, present, and future is only an illusion, albeit a stubborn one. -Albert Einstein[4]

It is just an illusion we have here on Earth that one moment follows another one, like beads on a string, and that once a moment is gone, it is gone forever…. So it goes. -Kurt Vonnegut [5]

Figure 3.4: Albert Einstein (top) and Kurt Vonnegut (bottom) http://www.glsc.org/einstein/ images/einstein_3.jpg http://adreampuppet.files.wordpress.com/2007/04/vonnegut. jpg.

and mathematicians instrumental in developing a probabilistic and microscopic approach to the Second Law, including Maxwell and Boltzmann. 2. Analyze. How did Maxwell and Boltzmann come to characterize the Second Law in terms of probability, and at the molecular level? How did entropy come to be characterized as disorder? How do the work of Ehrenfest, Ruelle, and Boltzmann come together to show that the proof of the Second Law is not absolute but statistical in nature (albeit with an astronomically high probability of holding true)? How do these findings give time a direction? 3. Reflect. How did we get from Carnot’s, Kelvin’s, and Planck’s very practical investigation of steam engines to philosophical conclusions about the direction of time? What follows directly, and what is indirect, unrelated, or even metaphorical? 4. Change. Engineers aren’t known for producing deep philosophical insights, and yet these grand ideas can certainly be traced back to engineers. Can we cultivate an appreciation for the insights, and the questions around these deeper meanings, in engineering? What can you do to find or make deeper meanings in your work as an engineering student? Entropy is indeed an abstract concept, with implications waxing philosophical. It is not surprising then, that engineers in particular would seek to return the concept to concrete and practical considerations. We will see in the next module how some instructors and authors of thermo textbooks seek to make entropy more relevant through various analogies to common life experiences.

58

3. THE SECOND LAW AND PROPERTY RELATIONS

3.4

MODULE 3.4. EVALUATING ENTROPY ANALOGIES

1. Engage. Thermodynamics textbooks and other sources seeking to make thermodynamics relevant to everyday life will often use analogies to illustrate entropy. Some of these analogies are metaphorical, not literally true, while others have been developed as “entropy” in their own right, applied in other fields. For example, Çengel and Boles [7] discuss four different analogies: entropy in learning, in libraries, in rooms, and in armies. The concept of entropy is used in military science [8] and in information theory, the Shannon entropy represents missing information [9]. Neither of these is literally the same as thermodynamic entropy, and is instead an analogous concept, though there are strong theoretical connections between thermodynamic and information entropy that continue to be pursued [10]. 2. Analyze. Provide a critical discussion (as in critical thinking; you may defend or refute any part) of an entropy analogy from your textbook or another source. Include both thermodynamic and social considerations, discussing the following: Where do the analogies for entropy hold (thermodynamically and socially), and where do they fail? What are the (thermodynamic and social) implications of applying entropy in these ways, and of using these examples? What is

a

g

i

SEM knowledge

communication

lifelong learning

engage Find entropy analogies used in your textbook or another source.

change How else might you make entropy concrete for students?

analyze

reflect

Provide a critical discussion of the analogy. Where does it hold? Where does it fail, in both thermodynamic and social terms?

Are these analogies helpful for your learning? Why or why not?

Figure 3.5: Messy rooms are a misleading metaphor for students learning about entropy. http://www. roommatesusa.com/wp-content/wpuploads/2010/12/messy-room.jpg.

3.5. MODULE 3.5. MAKING MATH RELEVANT:THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS IN CONTEXT

the bias of the source; do they seem to have a position on entropy as good or bad, desirable or undesirable? Can you challenge their assumptions? 3. Reflect. How do these analogies help you learn? How might they get in the way of learning? 4. Change. How else could you make entropy more concrete for students learning thermodynamics? Supply either a new analogy that you think holds better, or devise a new way to help students relate entropy to everyday life. Entropy is not the only abstract entity thermodynamics students come across. Indeed, making entropy useful in many engineering applications requires an understanding of the fundamental property relations, mathematical relationships that help us derive expressions for thermodynamic properties of interest in terms of quantities that are known or readily measured. Thus, the next module revisits the “Thermo to Life” approach used in Module 2.5 finding relevant applications of the thermodynamic relations.

3.5

MODULE 3.5. MAKING MATH RELEVANT: THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS IN CONTEXT

This module seeks to demonstrate the usefulness of the thermodynamic relations.The goal is to pick a topic that you find relevant and interesting, where the thermodynamic relations can be applied. This is somewhat more difficult than in the Thermo to Life exercise in Module 2.5 because of the narrower applicability of the material considered here.

a

e

i

j

SEM knowledge

problems

lifelong learning

contemporary issues

1. Engage. Find and describe an application of the thermodynamic relations in everyday life. You may find your own or choose one of these: a. Calculating Entropy in terms of measurable quantities using Maxwell Relations. b. Predicting partitioning behavior of pollutants in soil, air, and water using Gibbs Energy and Fugacity [11]. c. How the Gibbs Energy is used to characterize Fuel Cell function [12]. d. Using the Gibbs Energy to describe fuel distillation or other separations processes (vaporliquid equilibrium). e. Using Gibbs energy and chemical reaction equilibrium to understand fuel combustion. f. Using Gibbs energy and chemical reaction equilibrium to understand environmental controls on power plants. g. Using Helmholtz energy to predict behavior of volcanic eruptions or other explosions.

59

60

REFERENCES engage Find and describe an application of the thermodynamic relations in everyday life; choose from the list below or find your own.

change What might we change to improve the system, or our understanding?

analyze

reflect

Show how thermodynamic property relations are used to analyze this system.

What does this analysis tell us about the system? What did we learn? What new questions emerged as a result?

Figure 3.6: Biodiesel processing equipment http://www.extremebiodiesel.com/photos/ articles/full-Processor.jpg.

2. Analyze. How is thermodynamic theory used to characterize your system? Which thermodynamic properties are relevant? On which measurable properties do these depend? Find or create an illustrative example that demonstrates the usefulness of the thermodynamic properties in characterizing your system. Thoroughly explain the thermodynamics behind how it works. Make reasonable assumptions where necessary. Be as realistic as possible, but make simplifications if needed. 3. Reflect. Think (do not write or type, just think) for 15 minutes about what have you learned from your engagement and analysis so far. What questions emerge for you? Write a short reflection on what you learned, and what you would like to explore further. Identify possible avenues of change or further exploration. 4. Change. Did your example provide a satisfactory case study explaining how thermodynamic theory can be useful in everyday life? If not, what would you explore further to establish a better link?

REFERENCES [1] Park, R. (2000). Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud. New York: Oxford University Press. Cited on page(s) 54 [2] Von Baeyer, H.C. (1999). Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: The History of Heat. New York: Modern Library. Cited on page(s) 55, 56, 61

REFERENCES

61

[3] The idea of the “thematic content of science” is attributed to Horton, G. (1973). Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, p. 47. Cited in [2, p. 56]. Cited on page(s) 55 [4] Einstein, A. (1972). Letter to Michele Angelo Besso’s son after his father’s death, 1955. In P. Speziali, ed., Albert Einstein–Michele Besso Correspondence. Paris: Hermann, p. 538–9. Cited on page(s) [5] Vonnegut, K. [1969] (1991). Slaughterhouse-five, or, The children’s crusade, a duty-dance with death. New York: Dell, p. 27. Cited on page(s) [6] Eddington, A. (1929). The Nature of the Physical World. New York: MacMillan, p. 68ff. Cited on page(s) 56 [7] Çengel and Boles. (2008). Thermodynamics: An engineering approach. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Cited on page(s) 58 [8] Herman, M. (1998–9) Entropy-Based Warfare: Modeling the Revolution in Military Affairs. Joint Force Quarterly (JFQ) No. 20: 85–90. Accessed June 8, 2011 from http://www.au.af. mil/au/awc/awcgate/jfq/1620.pdf. Cited on page(s) 58 [9] Shannon, C.E. (1948). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27:379–423, 623–656. DOI: 10.1145/584091.584093 Cited on page(s) 58 [10] Von Baeyer [2] covers these connections. See also Maroney, O. (2009). Information Processing and Thermodynamic Entropy. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, E.N. Zalta, ed. Stanford, CA: Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information, Stanford University. Accessed June 8, 2011 from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ information-entropy/. Cited on page(s) 58 [11] Mackay, D. (1979) Finding Fugacity Feasible. Environmental Science and Technology, 13(10): 1218–1223. DOI: 10.1021/es60158a003. See also Mackay, D. (2004). Finding Fugacity Feasible, Fruitful, and Fun. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 23(10): 2282–2289. DOI: 10.1897/03–465. DOI: 10.1021/es60158a003 Cited on page(s) 59 [12] Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., and Abbott, M.M. (2001) Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th ed. New York: McGraw Hill. Cited on page(s) 59

63

CHAPTER

4

Thinking Big Picture about Energy and Sustainability The goal of the modules in this chapter is to create opportunities to think about complex, realworld issues in energy and sustainability. While the list of topics explored here is by no means comprehensive, each module is designed to help you learn how to consider technical and social contexts, engineering ethics, community needs, and public policy simultaneously. What should the United States do to curb its greenhouse gas emissions in order to mitigate climate change? Module 4.1 challenges you to develop and test out a concrete plan to achieve meaningful reductions. How does one choose a technology for a particular community or application in power generation or transportation? In Module 4.1 you will first define and refine selection criteria, then apply these to cases in the power generation and transportation sectors. Module 4.3 examines sustainability criteria, asking you to evaluate the “green-ness” of three scenarios: nuclear power generation, corn-based ethanol as a transportation fuel for the United States, and the transportation of western, low-sulfur coal to eastern power plants in the US. Module 4.4 takes up how consumers use energy in their homes, for cooking, refrigeration, and water purification. Finally, Module 4.5 asks how we understand large-scale disasters that have come to be common occurrences in our quest for energy, and work for their prevention. All of these questions require keeping the big picture in mind, even as detailed analyses are brought to bear on these topics. Module 4.1: Climate Action. Module 4.2: Selection Criteria for Energy Technologies. Module 4.3: Is it Green? Module 4.4: Home Energy Uses. Module 4.5: Ethics of Energy Disasters.

4.1

MODULE 4.1. CLIMATE ACTION

This module challenges you to move between a “big picture” contextual perspective and the focused, sometimes narrow world of engineering thought.

e

f

j

problems

ethics

contemporary issues

64

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

engage

change

Identify a set of significant actions that can be taken to reduce US Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 1000Tg CO2 eq / year.

Take some action toward making these reductions happen. Document and reflect on the impact of your action.

analyze

reflect

Justify your reductions strategy in quantitative, qualitative, and ethical/moral terms.

What are the limits of individual behavior strategies such as green consumerism on GHG reductions?

Figure 4.1: From Derrick Jensen and Stephanie MacMillan’s graphic novel As the World Burns: 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Stay in Denial [1]. Used with permission.

Learning to move between these frames is essential in forming sound engineering judgment. This assignment also challenges you to move between theory and action, between your life as a student and your life as a citizen of the planet. Integrating theory and action is the essence of engineering; engagement reminds us it is a false distinction we sometimes make between “College” and “The Real World,” between an academic subject like “thermo” and what we more generally refer to as our “life.” 1. Engage. Identify a set of significant actions that can be taken to reduce US greenhouse gas emissions [2]. Significant in this case means it must have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels, when the atmospheric global carbon dioxide concentration was 354 ppm. This is a significant reduction, but is also far from sufficient when one considers that global increases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion between 1990 and 2008 have been much higher, around 40%, compared to the US’s 15% [3]. Despite these emissions increases abroad, the US remains a grossly disproportionate emitter of CO2 , putting out 19% of global CO2 emissions from human activity (excluding deforestation) while comprising only

4.1. MODULE 4.1. CLIMATE ACTION

65

4.6% of the world population [3]. On this basis one could argue that US reductions need to be much deeper in order to be equitable and to allow developing economies to grow. 2. Analyze. Justify your choice by explaining what impact you expect your actions to have and put them in perspective. You must do this quantitatively, qualitatively, and in terms of ethical or moral argument. Quantitatively, estimate the total CO2 equivalent reductions your actions would bring about on an annual basis (see [2] for a definition of CO2 equivalents). The goal is to eliminate enough Tg of CO2 equivalent emissions per year to return the US to 1990 emissions levels. Keep track of uncertainty in your assumptions and present your estimated reductions with a sensitivity analysis (carry through +/- values that extend from a critical assessment of your own assumptions used in your estimates). Your sensitivity analysis should capture the range of emissions reductions that can reasonably be expected, given the uncertainty in your assumptions. Qualitatively, you need to describe why your proposed action is feasible in the time allotted, and why you expect it to be effective in the long-term toward bringing about the reductions targeted. Make an ethics-based argument for why your proposed action is necessary or justified, referencing multiple ethical frameworks (e.g., utilitarian, deontological, social justice, morally deep world, etc. – see [4]–[7] for more on ethics frameworks and how to apply them). 3. Reflect. How much can individual personal actions, such as using energy efficient light bulbs impact climate change? How likely are individuals to comply with behavioral strategies? What adjustments would you make to your calculations to make sure they are realistic? What kinds of collective actions that target structural and infrastructural issues might be more likely to bring about significant change? What are the barriers to individuals acting collectively for change? 4. Change. Take some action that demonstrates the effectiveness of your proposed reduction strategy or that works toward actually making these reductions happen. For example, you might implement one strategy on a small scale, which, if implemented widely, would result in the reductions claimed. Or you may work to bring about larger structural change through collective action – for example, working to pass national legislation. Document your actions and their short-term effects on yourself, your local community, and larger society. 5. Reflect. What are your accomplishments so far? Describe results quantitatively, qualitatively and in ethical or moral terms. What impact have your actions had globally, locally, and within yourself? What feedback have you received, and what new knowledge have you acquired as a result of your actions? How will you adjust your actions going forward, as a result of what

66

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

you learned? What opportunities for transformation lie ahead? What do you wish you had done differently? What future actions do you recommend or commit to do next? How did this exercise change you? What have you learned? How did this project connect to your learning thermodynamics? How will you use what you’ve learned in your future as a student? As a professional? As a citizen of the world? All climate strategies must take up the question of which energy technologies ought to be implemented to best support greenhouse gas reduction plans.The answers will be different depending on intended applications in specific communities. In the next module you will generate a set of criteria for energy technology selection, considering not only greenhouse gas emissions, but also other environmental, economic, social, and political considerations, and apply the criteria to uses in transportation and power generation.

4.2

MODULE 4.2. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

How does one determine the appropriate energy technology for a given application? Here you will generate a set of criteria to use in approaching this problem, and apply the criteria in transportation and power generation.

4.2.1

EXPLORATION 1: DEVELOPING SELECTION CRITERIA

1. Engage. Brainstorm a set of criteria you think society should use in making choices about an energy technology. Some possible criteria are presented in Table 4.1, and details on how different energy sources address some of these criteria can be found in energy studies texts, e.g. [8]. Are there any criteria you would add or take away? How is each criterion defined? Conduct background research to develop a working knowledge and critical understanding of what each criterion means in an energy context. Are terms different for different technologies, such that you can’t compare them directly? For example, efficiency means different things for different energy sources (see Module 3.1). Should it be included, and if so, how can it be used as a basis of comparison? A category like sustainability might have multiple criteria within it – air toxics, water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions – that cannot be compared directly. How sustainability is defined may itself be contested. What human impacts deserve consideration? Job loss or gain, displacement of people, quality of life, environmental racism or classism in citing of energy resource extraction, production, or waste facilities? How do energy systems require certain types of control and certain social structures to maintain them? See Langdon Winne’s classic article “Do Artifacts have Politics?”[9] http://zaphod.mindlab. umd.edu/docSeminar/pdfs/Winner.pdf. 2. Analyze. Devise a strategy for determining whether a given criterion has been met. Is the goal to meet a set standard (if so, what is the standard?), or to maximize or minimize that quality? Is

4.2. MODULE 4.2. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

e

f

h

j

problems

ethics

context

contemporary issues

engage Brainstorm the considerations involved in choosing an energy technology.

67

change Based on what you learned in your reflection, revise your decision-making plan to address ethical considerations.

analyze

reflect

How is each criterion defined and met? Devise a system for decision-making and test it with a few example energy technologies.

What difference does it make how the criteria are framed and evaluated against each other? What are the ethical considerations?

Figure 4.2: Generators at Hoover Dam, Jon Sullivan, PDphoto.org. Public Domain. http://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hoover_Dam%27s_generators2.jpg.

anything a go/no-go criterion where something must be met at a given level or the technology should be rejected? Which if any criteria can be traded off against another? Develop a process for deciding about a technology – be careful of tools such as weighted objectives trees [10] or cost-benefit analysis [11] that might not capture all considerations. Do a test run comparing several energy technologies – what comes out on top and why? 3. Reflect. How do different methods of decision-making, or different definitions of criteria, affect the choice that ends up on top? What ethical considerations come into play in setting up the rules of decisions? How do we currently make decisions about energy technologies? How should we? Who should devise criteria or decision-making plans, and who should apply them? 4. Change. Based on what you learned in your reflection, revise your decision-making plan to be more responsive to the ethical considerations you discussed.

4.2.2

EXPLORATION 2: EVALUATING AND SELECTING POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES

1. Engage. Select an energy technology to evaluate (this could be a real technology in use or an ideal cycle you are studying – see Table 4.2 for ideas). You may want to have each person in

68

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

Table 4.1: Some Suggested Criteria for Energy Choices. Cost Efficiency Scale Sustainability Reliability Safety Rate Human impacts Social structures required engage Select an energy technology to evaluate and gather basic information about it.

analyze Evaluate the technology according to specified criteria.

change What would you change about your course or textbook, given what you learned?

reflect What was difficult about the evaluations? What was surprising? What did you learn?

Figure 4.3: The Brazos Wind Farm, also known as the Green Mountain Energy Wind Farm, near Fluvanna, Texas. Public domain. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/ 8b/GreenMountainWindFarm_Fluvanna_2004.jpg.

the class choose a different one and compare results. For some technologies such as coal-fired power plants, there are many different designs with different characteristics – so you will need to be specific about the type of plant, and in some cases, the type of fuel as well. If you are doing the assignment individually, you might choose more than one technology or plant designs, so you can compare those. Research how the technology works and other information relevant for your evaluation and write a brief description.

4.2. MODULE 4.2. SELECTION CRITERIA FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

69

2. Analyze. Evaluate each technology using the criteria you developed. Try to take uncertainty into account by working with reasonable ranges of values where appropriate. 3. Reflect. What was most difficult about conducting the evaluations? What was most surprising? How do the social and technical merge, interrelate and overlap in these considerations, becoming the socio-technical? What did you learn? 4. Change. What would you change about your course or textbook to incorporate this material? Where does it fit? How would you teach it? Table 4.2: Possible Technologies to Consider for Evaluation and Selection.

3RVVLEOH7HFKQRORJLHVWR&RQVLGHU $BSOPU
$ZDMF
*EFBM
3BOLJOF
$ZDMF
3BOLJOF
$ZDMF
XJUI
4VQFSIFBU
3BOLJOF
$ZDMF
XJUI
3FIFBU
3BOLJOF
$ZDMF
XJUI
3FHFOFSBUJPO
'VFM
DIPJDFT
OBUVSBM
HBT
OVDMFBS
VSBOJVN
3BOLJOF
$ZDMF
XJUI
$PHFOFSBUJPO
QMVUPOJVN


DPBM
WBSZJOH
DPNQPTJUJPOT


HFPUIFSNBM
CJPGVFMT
XPPE
BMHBF
FUIBOPM


FUD
#SBZUPO
$ZDMF
*OUFHSBUFE
(BTJGJDBUJPO$PNCJOFE
$ZDMF
%JFTFM
$ZDMF
4UJSMJO
$ZMF
'VFM
$FMMT
IZESPHFO
TPVSDFE
GSPN
NFUIBOPM
HBTPMJOF
XBUFSy
8JOE
&OFSHZ
4PMBS
&OFSHZ

)ZESP
NJDSP
BOE
NBDSP
$POTFSWBUJPO
JODMVEJOH
EFDSFBTFE
EFNBOE
SFUSPGJUT
UP
JODSFBTF
FGGJDJFODZ
FUD


4.2.3

EXPLORATION 3: EVALUATING AND SELECTING TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES

1. Engage. Select a transportation technology to evaluate. Use Table 4.3; though not exhaustive by any means, it provides a place to start. Begin with choosing an intended application (passenger or freight, start and end points?). Then mix and match choices of vehicle types, power source, and thermodynamic cycle as appropriate. There are many choices and configurations; be specific, and be careful, as some choices aren’t appropriate for all combinations. Research how the technology works and other information relevant for your evaluation and write a brief description. 2. Analyze. Evaluate each technology using the criteria you developed. Try to take uncertainty into account by working with reasonable ranges of values where appropriate.

70

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

engage Select a transportation technology to evaluate and gather basic information about it.

analyze Evaluate the technology according to specified criteria.

change What would you change about transportation infrastructure or standards?

reflect What was difficult about the evaluations? What was surprising? What did you learn?

Figure 4.4: Traffic congestion, Brasilia, Brazil. Photo by Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz (Mariordo). Used with GNU Free documentation license http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ ec/Traffic_Congestion_Brasilia.jpg.

3. Reflect. What was most difficult about conducting the evaluations? What was most surprising? What was different about these considerations compared with power generation? How do you feel being put in the position of decision-maker here? Who should decide? Government? Technocrats? Consumers? Citizens? 4. Change. What would you change about transportation infrastructure or standards (e.g., CAFE standards or limitations on shipping emissions) based on what you learned? Engage in public advocacy of your position by connecting with a group that represents your interests, writing a public official or media outlet. The explorations in this module have made clear some of the complexities involved in evaluating and selecting particular technologies for specific settings. The next module considers in greater depth how one evaluates the environmental performance, or “green-ness” of three different energy technologies.

4.3. MODULE 4.3. IS IT GREEN?

71

Table 4.3: A Wide Array of Options for Transportation Technologies. Choose a Mode of Travel and Vehicle Type, Fuel, and Cycle. Mode Vehicle type

Fuel/Power type

Cycles

Road

Cars

Diesel (incl. 5-100% biodiesel)

Carnot

Tractor-trailers

Gasoline (incl. reformulations, oxygenates, up to 100% ethanol) Jet Fuel (conventional, biofuel) Electric (multiple sources) Electric Hybrid Steam (multiple sources) Hydrogen Fuel Cell (multiple sources) Wind Solar Human Power Natural Gas (fossil fuel or biodigested?) Biomass (wood, dung, grass, etc.)

Otto

Buses Bicycles Water Rowboats Motorboats Cargo ships Sailboats Cruise ships Air Passenger planes Cargo planes Rail Passenger trains Freight trains

4.3

Diesel Brayton Stirling Rankine 2-or 4-stroke?

MODULE 4.3. IS IT GREEN?

e

g

problems

communication

h

i

j

context

lifelong learning

contemporary issues

This module explores three instances where energy activities are labeled green, but upon closer examination, their claim to sustainability is perhaps more limited than previously assumed. Is nuclear power a green alternative to carbon-based power generation? Under what circumstances can ethanol be considered a sustainable fuel choice? When eastern power plants seek out low-sulfur coal from the western United States to control air pollution and acid rain, what environmental costs are introduced in transportation? In each case you are challenged to think more deeply about what sustainability might mean.

4.3.1

EXPLORATION 1: NUCLEAR POWER AS A GREEN ALTERNATIVE?

1. Engage. Patrick Moore [12] made waves when he published a “green” argument for nuclear power in 2006: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/ 04/14/AR2006041401209.html.

72

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

engage

change

Read widely on the debate over nuclear power as a green alternative. What are the arguments?

Advocate for your position in the public sphere. Join an action group, attend a rally, or write a public official.

analyze

reflect

Evaluate the best arguments on both sides and make an evaluative judgment whether nuclear power is green.

How did you make your decision? What criteria did you use in evaluating sources and their content?

Figure 4.5: Have a nice day. Is nuclear as green as it looks? http://www.ecosprinter.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2010/10/nuclear.jpg.

Greenpeace [13] disputed Moore’s claims of affiliation with their organization and pointed out his ties to the nuclear industry: http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/en/campaigns/ nuclear/patric-moore-background-inform/. While some environmentalists see nuclear power as an important part of addressing climate change, other environmentalists [14] take issue with the substance of Moor’s argument, pointing out the ways in which nuclear power is not green at all: http://www.counterpunch.org/montague11032008.html. Read these articles and search for additional material on the debate over whether nuclear energy is green. 2. Analyze. Evaluate the best arguments on both sides and make an evaluative judgment about whether nuclear power is green. In what ways is it green and in what ways is it not green? Be sure to include a range of conceptions of sustainability. Think holistically about the entire process from mining to waste disposal, and consider the environmental impacts of nuclear accidents. How do other “green” technologies such as wind, solar, and conservation/efficiency improvements compare? 3. Reflect. How did you make your decision? What criteria did you use in evaluating sources and their content? Are there considerations beyond the “green” aspect of nuclear power that affect its desirability? What are they? For example, does the fact that nuclear fuel presents a potential security risk raise issues of sustainability? Does the scale of a technology, or the amount of social control required to implement it, affect sustainability? Does its impact on marginalized communities, such as uranium mining on indigenous lands [15], affect sustainability?

4.3. MODULE 4.3. IS IT GREEN?

73

4. Change. Advocate for your position in the public sphere. Join an action group, attend a rally or other event, or write a public official to express your views.

4.3.2

EXPLORATION 2: ETHANOL

engage Read debates on ethanol in Science. What are the key issues?

change How will you take your independent learning strategies forward?

analyze

reflect

Write a dialogue among the paper authors to illustrate the key issues and authors’ main points.

What did you learn about reading the scientific literature to understand current topics in energy?

Figure 4.6: Corn is the primary source of ethanol in the US. But is it a green choice? http://blogs. princeton.edu/chm333/f2006/biomass/ethanol%20corn%20gas.jpg.

Is ethanol a green fuel? This is a surprisingly complex question to answer. It depends on what biosource is used to produce it, how it is produced, and perhaps most important, what is taken into account in the analysis, reflecting different definitions of what “green” means. In some cases, ethanol can provide a net benefit, and in other cases, a net loss for the environment. How can you, as a student, or as a technically educated person who may not be an expert in this particular area, sort through literally hundreds of studies on this topic and come to an informed conclusion? This exercise guides you through one approach. 1. Engage. One useful place to go to learn about a topic with this level of policy relevance is the journal Science, which includes sections with readable introductions to technical issues in their public policy context. While the development of these debates over many years is itself quite interesting, here we will consider only a few of the most recent discussions of this issue in the journal. Read the following three articles:

74

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

Scharlemann and Laurance, How Green are Biofuels? [16] DOI: 10.1126/science.1153103. Robertson et al., Sustainable Biofuels Redux [17] DOI: 10.1126/science.1161525. Tilman et al., Beneficial Biofuels: The Food, Energy, and Environment Trilemma [18] DOI: 10.1126/science.1177970. (Note: Some DOI links may be publicly available on the Internet, or you may need to authenticate through your campus libraries to access Science online.) 2. Analyze. Write a script that creates a dialogue (tri-alogue?) among the three articles to summarize their key positions and reflect the issues in the ethanol debate. Under what circumstances, if any, can ethanol be considered a sustainable fuel choice, and why? 3. Reflect. What did you learn from this exercise about using peer-reviewed articles to help you understand a current topic in energy? 4. Change. How can you take this independent learning strategy forward in other areas that spark your curiosity?

4.3.3

EXPLORATION 3: COAL TRAIN [19]

1. Engage. Read the essay “Coal Train” in John McPhee’s book Uncommon Carriers [20]. Why did the Clean Air Act of 1970 reinvigorate the railroading industry? Why don’t all eastern power plants use higher-Btu coal from nearby West Virginia and Pennsylvania as opposed to Wyoming? 2. Analyze. Perform a back-of-the-envelope calculation based on information in McPhee’s chapter. If a coal train weighs 3000 tons empty, and 19,000 tons when loaded with low-sulfur coal from Powder River Basin, and travels 1800 miles from Wyoming to Georgia: a. How much energy does it take to haul the coal this distance? Make simplifying assumptions for an initial estimate. b. How much energy is in the coal being hauled? 3. Reflect. Under what conditions is it the “right” thing to do to move coal across the country? What criteria are you using to determine whether it is “right” or not? What other criteria that you haven’t considered might change the outcome of your evaluation? 4. Change. How does what you’ve learned here change your views on energy, if at all? How (if at all) does it change your consumption of energy?

4.4. MODULE 4.4. HOME ENERGY USES

engage Read John McPhee’s chapter on the Coal Train in Uncommon Carriers [20].

75

change How does this change your views on energy, if at all? How does it change your consumption?

analyze

reflect

Estimate the energy required to move a trainful of coal from Wyoming to Georgia, and how much energy that coal provides.

Under what conditions it is “right” to move coal across the country? What criteria influence this evaluation?

Figure 4.7: Union Pacific coal train with two locomotives (at the end) in Converse County close to Douglas, Wyoming USA. July 20, 2010. Photo by Wusel007. Used with permission under GNU Free Documentation License version 1.2 from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Union_ Pacific_Coal_Train_Douglas_WY.JPG.

4.4

MODULE 4.4. HOME ENERGY USES

So far in this chapter we have primarily considered industrial and commercial uses of energy in electric power generation and transportation.

c

h

design

context

This module turns our focus to applications in the home. It is interesting to note that engineering has traditionally focused on large-scale industrial and commercial applications, preferring these settings over the home environment. Historically, areas traditionally considered “women’s sphere” such as the home, or “women’s work” such as cooking or cleaning, were excluded from the engineering field altogether, categorized instead as “home economics”[21]. Alice Pawley [22] has pointed out that the field of engineering therefore looks something like Swiss cheese – certain areas that ought to be considered engineering are excluded, leaving holes. This module takes up to three explorations related to home energy uses: solar energy in cooking, three alternatives for refrigeration, and a Stirling-powered electrical generator combined with water filtration. All three explorations have some potential and some limitations for sustainability, as well as applications in developed and developing nation settings.

76

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

4.4.1

EXPLORATION 1: SOLAR COOKER engage

Learn about designs of solar cookers. How do they work? What are the different types of designs available?

analyze Design and build a solar cooker from scavenged objects.

change What would you change to improve your solar cooker for next time?

reflect Demonstrate your design. What worked well? What do you wish worked better? How does it fit or not fit with your culture’s cuisine and lifestyle?

Figure 4.8: Solar cooker or solar barbecue Alsol 1.4 made in Spain: more information on http:// www.solarcookingatlas.com. Public domain. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ed/ALSOL.jpg.

1. Engage. Learn about designs of solar cookers. How do they work? What are the different types of designs available? What principles of heat transfer apply to their functioning? 2. Analyze. Design and build a solar cooker from scavenged or borrowed objects and tools that can bake a cookie (recommended temperature: 350◦ F, 160◦ C; minimum temperature: 100◦ C). Make sure the cooker is of adequate size, easy to use and convenient, with low startup and cooking times. It should be durable and stable during operation. It should be aesthetically pleasing and achieve the highest quality construction possible, subject to the design constraints. Consider the ability of the cooker to collect sunlight at different times of day. You will need a method or device to help you determine whether the oven is aimed directly at the sun (do not look directly at the sun!) 3. Reflect. Demonstrate your design. What worked well? What do you wish worked better? How does it fit or not fit with your culture’s cuisine? With your physical setting? With your lifestyle? (Or you could choose an application setting different from your own for this same evaluation.) Compare solar cookers to biomass stoves, natural gas stoves, or electric stoves, considering criteria from Module 4.2. 4. Change. What would you change to improve the design of your cooker in terms of its technical performance and/or its suitability for use in your culture?

4.4. MODULE 4.4. HOME ENERGY USES

4.4.2

77

EXPLORATION 2: REFRIGERATION

engage Learn about evaporative coolers, vapor-compression refrigeration, and absorption refrigeration.

analyze Estimate design requirements for a single family using each refrigeration technology.

change What else do you need to know to complete a refrigeration design for a particular application?

reflect Should the analysis you did be considered engineering? How did your systems compare? Why does the US have mostly vapor-compression?

Figure 4.9: Old Refrigerator, Restaurant, Mandeville, LA. Photo by Ingfrogmation of New Orleans. (Multi-license with GFDL and Creative Commons CC-BY 3.0) http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Mandeville_Maxens_refrigerator.JPG.

1. Engage. Learn about evaporative coolers (see Module 2.3), vapor-compression refrigerators, and absorption refrigerators. How does each work? What are they used for, and why are these uses important? What materials and energy are required for each? What are their typical operating temperatures? 2. Analyze. Select an application for each type of refrigeration in different home settings. Provide a back-of-the envelope estimate of the design requirements for a single family application in each setting. Give dimensions of the refrigerated space, amount of food that can be cooled, approximate temperature of the food, and energy requirements. Make reasonable and justified assumptions. 3. Reflect. Should the analysis you just did be considered engineering? Why or why not? How did the energy requirements compare for your different systems? Why do you think we have mostly vapor-compression systems in the United States and not other technologies? (See Ruth Schwartz Cowa’s history [23] at http://epl.scu.edu/∼stsvalues/readings/cowan2. pdf for an answer.) What recommendations would you make for home refrigeration in different settings?

78

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

4. Change. What (else) would you need to know in order to complete a full design for a particular application

4.4.3

EXPLORATION 3: DEAN KAMEN’S STIRLING ENGINE engage

Learn about Dean Kamen’s Stirling Engine that simultaneously creates household electricity and purifies water.

analyze Evaluate the inventor’s claim about the performance of the engine.

change How would you change the project? How has the project changed since the article was written?

reflect Is Kamen’s technical claim reasonable? What other factors are important for implementation in the developing world?

Figure 4.10: Dean Kamen’s Stirling Engine produces both electricity and heat to purify water in the Slingshot water filter. http://www.geekologie.com/2008/04/22/water-cleaner.jpg.

1. Engage. Consider the following excerpt from a recent article in the Manchester, NH Union Leader [24] http://forums.segwaychat.com/archive/index.php/t-286.html. NH inventor Kamen eyes Stirling Engine. By KATHARINE McQUAID, Union Leader Staff. Inventor Dean Kamen is inching closer to the creation of a Stirling Cycle Engine that can create enough electricity to run a few household appliances, while at the same time making contaminated water drinkable.... Kamen said he imagines the device will give people in remote villages of India and other third world countries a constant source of clean, safe, drinking water, as well as a central source of electricity. ‘‘It could be used to make a central place where people go to charge batteries for computers or cell phones, where people

4.5. MODULE 4.5. ETHICS OF ENERGY DISASTERS

79

could get access to electricity so that they could have light at night and, all the while, it could be turning 10 gallons of just about anything into potable water,’’ Kamen told Rather. The version unveiled by Kamen on last night’s program creates about 300 continuous watts of electrical power, according to Rather. 2. Analyze. Evaluate this claim by considering an ideal Stirling engine with helium as the working fluid (Kamen’s patent states that helium could be used). Suppose it operates at one cycle per second, between temperature limits of 300 K and 1500 K, and pressure limits of 150 kPa and 1.5 MPa. Assuming the mass of the helium used in the cycle is 0.1 kg, determine the thermal efficiency of the cycle, the amount of heat transfer in the regenerator, and the work output per cycle. Assume that water purification is achieved by boiling off all the water once, and that no heat is recovered through condensation. 3. Reflect. Is Kamen’s claim reasonable? Why or why not? What other considerations are necessary to determine whether this technology is suited to the proposed application? What else would you need to know? 4. Change. How would you change the project, either the device or implementation plan? How has the project changed since this article was written? Having explored the engineering involved in home uses of energy, the next module connects consumer energy choices with large scale energy disasters such as oil spills and nuclear accidents.

4.5

MODULE 4.5. ETHICS OF ENERGY DISASTERS

This module examines connections between the ethics of two energy disasters: The BP Oil Spill following the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon rig in April 2010, and the meltdowns at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant following the earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 2011.

f

j

ethics

contemporary issues

Each disaster has parallels with past disasters that exclude it from being considered an “isolated incident.” As with mining accidents for energy resources such as coal and uranium, these disasters form patterns that repeat, in this case it seems every few decades. Social scientists who have studied engineering ethics cases such as the Ford Pinto case [25] or the space shuttle Challenger disaster [26] have pointed out the ways in which the cases don’t boil down to individual decisions of professional engineers, but have at their heart institutional and organizational norms (and beyond these, political and economic forces acting on organizations) that produce these outcomes as a matter of course.

80

4. THINKING BIG PICTURE ABOUT ENERGY AND SUSTAINABILITY

engage

change

Learn about the BP oil spill and Fukushima meltdowns. In what ways could they have been predicted 30 years ago?

Develop an effective concrete strategy to prevent future energy disasters, focusing on the collective nature of the disasters.

analyze

reflect

What are the structural forces that shaped the engineering of each facility? Were events preventable or inevitable?

Given that we can anticipate that things we can’t anticipate will occur, what kinds of preventive design strategies should engineers employ?

Figure 4.11: Deepwater Horizon Offshore Drilling Unit on Fire, April 21, 2010. US Coast Guard photo, Public domain. http://cgvi.uscg.mil/media/main.php?g2_view=core.DownloadItem&g2_ itemId=836364&g2_serialNumber=5.

1. Engage.Watch the Rachel Maddow Show segment “That was then, this is then”[27] (http:// www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/) from May 26, 2010. What are the similarities between the BP Spill and the Ixtoc 1 Spill in 1979? Read the March 15, 2011 New York Times article [28] on the Mark I containment system used at the Fukushima Daiichi reactors: http:// www.nytimes.com/2011/03/16/world/asia/16contain.html. What were the problems identified in the early 1970s with the Mark I containment system? 2. Analyze. Watch a January 11, 2011 Maddow segment [29] in which a government report labels the BP disaster foreseeable and preventable with regulatory oversight. http://www. msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/#41026520.Then watch this March 25, 2011 segment [30] that exposes regulators issuing new deep water drilling permits with the same blowout preventer device found to have a flawed design: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/# 42278768. In what sense are these events preventable? In what sense are they predictable, or even inevitable? Watch “A is for Atom” a BBC documentary on nuclear power’s history [31]: http://www. bbc.co.uk/blogs/adamcurtis/2011/03/a_is_for_atom.html. While the entire documentary is of interest, key segments are at minutes 20-29 and 36-42. What structural forces shaped the scale and safety system designs of nuclear plants in the United States?

REFERENCES

81

3. Reflect. Sarah Pfatteiche’s book on the ethics of engineering and the 9/11 collapse of the World Trade Center asks a number of questions in the wake of that tragedy that can be translated for these and other energy disasters [32]. To what extent are energy disasters “business as usual?” Should they be prevented? Can they be prevented? Who is responsible to prevent them? It can be argued that in both cases considered here, energy companies believed they were taking sufficient care and protecting people and the environment “to the extent possible.” What makes such measures possible or impossible? Are economics and a company’s desire for profit-making legitimate constraints on the health, safety, and welfare of the public? Why or why not? Do engineers have a duty to design for the unanticipatable? That is, if we know things will go wrong that we can’t predict specifically (and thus design for), can we design out some of the problems – for example, by working at a smaller scale in the case of nuclear power, or not as deep in the case of ocean oil drilling? Can better regulation prevent disasters, or are other changes required? What are the responsibilities of individual engineers? Of their management? Of energy companies? Of government? Of consumers/citizens? 4. Change. Develop a strategy for change – among energy consumers, corporate culture at an energy company, or governmental regulations and oversight – that would best prevent future energy disasters.

REFERENCES [1] Jensen, D. and MacMillan, S. (2007). As the World Burns: 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Stay in Denial. New York: Seven Stories Press. Cited on page(s) 64 [2] Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). US Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report. Accessed June 8, 2011 from http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/ usinventoryreport.html. Cited on page(s) 64, 65 [3] International Energy Agency. (2010). CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights. 2010 Edition. Accessed June 8, 2011 from http://www.iea.org/co2highlights/ CO2highlights.pdf. Cited on page(s) 64, 65 [4] Catalano, G.D. (2006). Engineering Ethics: Peace, Justice and the Earth. San Rafael, CA: Morgan and Claypool. Cited on page(s) 65 [5] Harris, C.E., Pritchard, M.S. and Rabins, M.J. (2005). Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases. 3rd ed. Stamford, CT: Thomson Wadsworth. Cited on page(s) [6] Martin, M.W. and Schinzinger, R. (1996). Ethics in Engineering. 3rd ed. New York: McGrawHill. Cited on page(s) [7] Whitbeck, C. (1998). Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research. New York: Cambridge University Press. Cited on page(s) 65

82

REFERENCES

[8] Shepherd, W. and Shepherd, D.W. (2003). Energy Studies. 2nd ed. London: Imperial College Press. Cited on page(s) 66 [9] Winner, L. (1986). Do Artifacts have Politics? In The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for limits in an age of high technology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 19–39. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://zaphod.mindlab.umd.edu/docSeminar/pdfs/Winner.pdf Cited on page(s) 66 [10] Dym, C.L., Little, P., and Orwin, E.J. (2009). Engineering Design: A Project-Based Introduction. New York: Wiley. Cited on page(s) 67 [11] Fischhoff, B. (1977). Cost Benefit Analysis and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. Policy Sciences, 8: 177–202. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://sds.hss.cmu.edu/media/pdfs/ fischhoff/CostBenefitAnalysisMotorcyc.pdf. DOI: 10.1007/BF01712294 Cited on page(s) 67 [12] Moore, P. (2006). Going Nuclear: A Green Makes the Case. Washington Post, April 16, 2006. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ article/2006/04/14/AR2006041401209.html Cited on page(s) 71 [13] Greenpeace USA. Patrick Moore Background Information. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/en/campaigns/nuclear/patric-moorebackground-inform/ Cited on page(s) 72 [14] Montague, P. (2008). Is Nuclear Power Green? Counterpunch, November 3, 2008. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.counterpunch.org/montague11032008.html Cited on page(s) 72 [15] Brugge, D., deLemos, J.L., Bui, C. (2007). The Sequoyah Corporation Fuels Release and the Church Rock Spill: Unpublicized Nuclear Releases in American Indian Communities. American Journal of Public Health, 97(9): 1595–1600. Accessed June 12, 2011 from http://www.sric.org/Churchrock/SFCChurchRockAJPH2007.pdf DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.103044 Cited on page(s) 72 [16] Scharlemann, J.P.W. and Laurance, W.F. (2008). How Green are Biofuels? Science 319(5859): 43–44. DOI: 10.1126/science.1153103 DOI: 10.1126/science.1153103 Cited on page(s) 74 [17] Robertson, G.P., Dale, V.H., Doering, O.C., et al. (2008). Sustainable Biofuels Redux. Science, 322 (5898): 49–50. DOI: 10.1126/science.1161525 Cited on page(s) 74 [18] Tilman, D., Socolow, R., Foley, J.A., Hill, J., Larson, E., Lynd, L., Pacala, S., Reilly, J., Searchinger, T., Somerville, C., and Williams, R. Beneficial Biofuels—The Food, Energy, and Environment Trilemma. Science, 325 (5938): 270–271. DOI: 10.1126/science.1177970 Cited on page(s) 74

REFERENCES

83

[19] Michael Greenfield, Chemical Engineering, University of Rhode Island had the idea for this exploration. Cited on page(s) viii, 74 [20] McPhee, J. (2006). Uncommon Carriers. New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, pp. 185–236. Originally published in two parts (Coal Train I: Disassembling the Planet for Powder River Coal and Coal Train II: Going into Thunder) in The New Yorker, October 32005, p. 72, and October 10, 2005, p. 62. Cited on page(s) 74 [21] Bix, A. (2002). Equipped for life: Gendered technical training and consumerism in home economics, 1920–1980. Technology and Culture, 43: 728–54. DOI:10.1353/tech.2002.0152. DOI: 10.1353/tech.2002.0152 Cited on page(s) 75 [22] Pawley, A. (2012). What Counts as “Engineering:” Towards a Redefinition. In Engineering and Social Justice: In the University and Beyond. C. Baillie, A. Pawley, and D. Riley, eds. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. Cited on page(s) 75 [23] Cowan, R. S. (1985). How the Refrigerator Got Its Hum. In D. MacKenzie & J. Wajcman, (Eds.),The Social Shaping Of Technology. Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp. 202–218. Accessed May 18, 2011 from http://epl.scu.edu/˜stsvalues/readings/cowan2.pdf. Cited on page(s) 77 [24] McQuaid, K. (2002). NH inventor Kamen eyes Stirling Engine. Union Leader (Manchester, NH) November 14, 2002, P. A1. Available June 8, 2011 at http://forums.segwaychat. com/archive/index.php/t-286.html Cited on page(s) 78 [25] Lee, M.T. and Ermann, M.D. (1999). Pinto “Madness” as a Flawed Landmark Narrative: An Organizational and Network Analysis. Social Problems 46(1): 30–47. Accessed March 30, 2011 from http://www.jstor.org/pss/3097160 DOI: 10.1525/sp.1999.46.1.03x0240f Cited on page(s) 79 [26] Vaughan, D. (1996). The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture, and Deviance at NASA, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cited on page(s) 79 [27] Maddow, R. (2010). That was then, this is then. In B. Wolff (Producer), The Rachel Maddow Show, New York: MSNBC. May 26, 2010. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.msnbc. msn.com/id/26315908/ Cited on page(s) 80 [28] Zeller, Jr., T. (2011). Experts had long criticized potential weakness in design of stricken reactor.New York Times, March 15, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.nytimes. com/2011/03/16/world/asia/16contain.html. Cited on page(s) 80 [29] Maddow, R. (2011). Gulf Spill Report Shows String of Failures. In B. Wolff (Producer), The Rachel Maddow Show, New York: MSNBC. January 11, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/#41026520. Cited on page(s) 80

84

REFERENCES

[30] Maddow, R. (2011). Dubious Assurances on Deepwater Drilling Safety. In B. Wolff (Producer), The Rachel Maddow Show, New York: MSNBC. March 25, 2011. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/#42278768. Cited on page(s) 80 [31] Curtis, A. (Writer and Producer) (1992). A is for Atom [documentary] London: BBC. Accessed June 9, 2011 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/adamcurtis/2011/03/a_is_ for_atom.html Cited on page(s) 80 [32] Pfatteicher, S.K.A. (2010). Lessons Amid the Rubble: An Introduction to Post-Disaster Engineering. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Cited on page(s) 81

85

Author’s Biography DONNA RILEY Donna Riley is a founding faculty member and Associate Professor in the Picker Engineering Program at Smith College, where she has been teaching thermodynamics for over 10 years. She received her B.S.E. in Chemical Engineering from Princeton University and a Ph.D. in Engineering and Public Policy from Carnegie Mellon University. Her technical research combines methods in engineering and the social sciences to characterize and communicate chemical risk. She seeks to integrate quantitative modeling of chemical risks (from sources to exposure endpoints) with an understanding of the ways in which human beliefs and behavior influence risk. Past projects have involved characterizing the risks of mercury use as part of religious and folk traditions in Latino and Caribbean communities, and developing improved consumer-product warnings. She is currently collaborating with chemists at Smith and the University of Massachusetts on developing a community-oriented air quality research lab. In 2005 Riley received a CAREER award from the National Science Foundation for implementing pedagogies of liberation, based on the work of Paulo Freire, bell hooks, and others, into engineering education. Aspects of critical pedagogies that are operationalized in Riley’s classrooms include connecting course material to student experience, emphasizing students as authorities in the classroom, integrating ethics and policy considerations in the context of social justice, problematizing science as objectivity, and incorporating contributions from women, people of color, and people living in the global South. This is Riley’s second book with Morgan and Claypool, having published Engineering and Social Justice in 2008.