Encyclopedia of the Antarctic

Encyclopedia of the

Antarctic

Encyclopedia of the

Antarctic VOLUME 1

A–K

INDEX

Beau Riffenburgh Editor

New York London

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CONTENTS Advisors

vii

List of Contributors

ix

Introduction

xix

List of Entries A–Z

xxiii

Thematic List of Entries

xxxi

Map of Antarctica

xxxvii

Map of the Antarctic Peninsula

xxxix

Entries A–Z

1

Appendices: Chronology of Antarctic Exploration

1109

The Antarctic Treaty

1115

Signatories to the Antarctic Treaty

1119

SCAR Code of Conduct for Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes in Antarctica

1123

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

1125

Scientific Research Stations in the Antarctic Region, Austral Winter 2005

1135

Antarctic Academic Journals

1137

Maps

1139

Index

I1

v

ASSOCIATE EDITOR Liz Cruwys Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

ADVISORY BOARD David K. A. Barnes British Antarctic Survey, United Kingdom Ian Boyd Sea Mammal Research Unit, University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom Steven L. Chown Department of Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Peter Clarkson SCAR, Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Stanley S. Jacobs Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University T. H. Jacka Australian Antarctic Division Martin O. Jeffries Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks Georg Kleinschmidt Geologisch-Pala¨ontologisches Institut, Universita¨t Frankfurt, Germany John Turner British Antarctic Survey, United Kingdom A. D. M. Walker Research Office and School of Pure and Applied Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa David W. H. Walton British Antarctic Survey, United Kingdom Eric J. Woehler University of Tasmania, Australia Gillian Wratt Director of the New Zealand Antarctic Programme and Chief Executive of the New Zealand Antarctic Institute, 1992–2002

vii

CONTRIBUTORS Roberto Bargagli Universita` degli Studi di Siena, Italy

David J. Agnew Imperial College, Royal School of Mines, United Kingdom

David K. A. Barnes British Antarctic Survey

David Ainley H. T. Harvey and Associates Ecological Consultant, San Jose, California

Susan Barr Directorate for Cultural Heritage, Norway

Ian Allison Australian Antarctic Division, Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre

William Barr University of Calgary, Canada

H. J. P. Arnold British Journal of Photography

J. E. Barrett Environmental Studies Program, Dartmouth College

Kevin Arrigo Stanford University, California

Bjørn L. Basberg Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration

Michael Ashley University of New South Wales, Australia

T. H. Baughman University of Central Oklahoma

Vernon L. Asper University of Southern Mississippi

Peter J. Beck Kingston University, United Kingdom

Angus Atkinson British Antarctic Survey

Igor Belkin Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island

Philip Ayres Monash University, Australia

Brian D. Bell Wildlife Management International Ltd., New Zealand

June Debenham Back Norfolk, United Kingdom

Dana Bergstrom Australian Antarctic Division

Peter G. Baines University of Melbourne, Australia Simon P. Balm Santa Monica College

Martha´n Bester Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Carlo Barbante Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Venice, Italy

Robert Bindschadler Hydrospheric and Biospheric Sciences Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight

Christophe Barbraud Centre d’E´tudes Biologiques de Chize´, France

Richard Bintanja Utrecht University, The Netherlands

ix

CONTRIBUTORS David Blake British Antarctic Survey

Iain B. Campbell Land and Soil Consultancy Services, New Zealand

Andre´s Boltovskoy Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Andrew M. Carleton Pennsylvania State University

Demetrio Boltovskoy Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Michael Castellini School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska

Claude Boutron Universite´ Joseph Fourier, France

R. Cervellati ENEA-Progetto Antartide, Italy

Ian L. Boyd Sea Mammal Research Unit, Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom

Gauthier Chapelle Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences

David Branagan The University of Sydney, Australia Angelika Brandt Zoological Museum, University of Hamburg, Germany Andy R. Breen University of Wales at Aberystwyth, United Kingdom Paul Bridge British Antarctic Survey Joe¨l Bried Centro do IMAR da Universidade dos Ac¸ores, Portugal Paul Broady University of Canterbury, New Zealand Emma J. Broos Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University Giorgio Budillon Istituto Universitario Navale, Italy David Burke Moss Vale, Australia

Zanna Chase College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University Steven L. Chown University of Stellenbosch, South Africa Brent C. Christner Montana State University John A. Church Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, Australia Peter Clarkson SCAR, Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Charles Cockell British Antarctic Survey Martin Collins British Antarctic Survey James W. Collinson Fort Collins, Colorado Kathleen E. Conlan Canadian Museum of Nature Peter Convey British Antarctic Survey

Robin Burns Victoria, Australia

John Cooper University of Cape Town, South Africa

Robert Burton Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom

Mike Craven University of Tasmania, Australia

Natalie Cadenhead Antarctica New Zealand

Robert J. M. Crawford Sea Fisheries Research Institute, South Africa

x

CONTRIBUTORS Louise Crossley Tasmania, Australia Liz Cruwys Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Herbert J. G. Dartnall New South Wales, Australia Fred Davey Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, New Zealand Herna´n De Angelis Stockholm University, Sweden Margaret Deacon Cornwall, United Kingdom Hugo Decleir Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium Gracie Dele´pine Biblioteque Nationale de France Robert Delmas Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Geophysique de l’Environnement (LGGE), France Guido di Prisco Institute of Protein Biochemistry, CNR, Italy Paul Dingwall Science and Research Unit, Department of Conservation, New Zealand Eugene Domack Hamilton College Zhaoqian Dong Polar Research Institute of China Greg P. Donovan International Whaling Commission Julian A. Dowdeswell Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Rod Downie British Antarctic Survey Mark R. Drinkwater European Space Agency, ESTEC, Earth Observation Programmes, The Netherlands

Hugh Ducklow School of Marine Science, The College of William and Mary John R. Dudeney British Antarctic Survey Hajo Eicken Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks David H. Elliot Ohio State University J. Cynan Ellis-Evans British Antarctic Survey Eberhard Fahrbach Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Sean Fitzsimons University of Otago, New Zealand G. E. Fogg University of Wales, United Kingdom Arne Foldvik University of Bergen, Norway William L. Fox National Science Foundation Antarctic Fellow, Burbank, California Jane Francis University of Leeds, United Kingdom Francesco Frati University of Siena, Italy Mervyn Freeman British Antarctic Survey Andrea S. Freire Lab. de Crusta´ceos/Plaˆncton, Depto. de Ecologia e Zoologia/CCB UFSC, Brazil Yves Frenot Universite´ de Rennes 1, France Peter Fretwell British Antarctic Survey Massimo Frezzotti ENEA Centro Ricerche Casaccia, Italy xi

CONTRIBUTORS Pierre William Froneman Rhodes University, South Africa Rosemary Gales Nature Conservation Branch, Department of Primary Industries, Water, and Environment, Australia Hartwig Gernandt Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Damien Gildea New South Wales, Australia Sarah T. Gille University of California, San Diego Pietro Giuliani Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide, Italy Raimund E. Goerler Ohio State University

Robert Harcourt Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University, Australia Colin M. Harris Environmental Research and Assessment, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom Jane Harris University of Tasmania, Australia David Harrowfield South Latitude Research Ltd., New Zealand Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith Kent, United Kingdom John Heap Cambridge, United Kingdom Gu¨nther Heinemann Meteorologisches Institut, Universita¨t Bonn, Germany

John W. Goodge University of Minnesota

Christoph Held Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany

Hugues Goosse Institut d’Astronomie et de Ge´ophysique Georges Lemaıˆtre, Universite´ Catholique de Louvain, Belgium

Hartmut Hellmer Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany

Shulamit Gordon Antarctic New Zealand

Ian N. Higginson Centre for History and Cultural Studies of Science, Rutherford College, University of Kent, United Kingdom

Damian Gore Macquarie University, Australia Susie M. Grant University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Mark A. Hindell Antarctic Wildlife Research Unit, University of Tasmania, Australia

William Green Miami University, Ohio

Richard C. A. Hindmarsh British Antarctic Survey

Penelope Greenslade School of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University

Peter Hodum California State University, Long Beach

Guy G. Guthridge Formerly of the Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Virginia Francis L. Halzen University of Wisconsin, Madison William R. Hammer Augustana College xii

Greg Hofmeyr Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, South Africa Martin Holdgate Cumbria, United Kingdom Takeo Hondoh Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Japan

CONTRIBUTORS Sascha K. Hooker Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom Ad H. L. Huiskes The Netherlands Institute of Ecology Christina Hulbe Portland State University Philippe Huybrechts Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Michael J. Imber Department of Conservation, New Zealand T. H. Jacka Australian Antarctic Division

Christopher C. Joyner Georgetown University Hidehiro Kato Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology Knowles Kerry Australian Antarctic Division John Killingbeck West Devon, United Kingdom Yeadong Kim Korea Polar Research Institute John C. King British Antarctic Survey Malcolm Kirton A.N.A.R.E. Club, Inc., Australia

Ute Jacob Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany

Georg Kleinschmidt University of Frankfurt, Germany

Stanley S. Jacobs Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University

John M. Klinck Center for Coastal Physical Oceanography, Old Dominion University

Thomas James Natural Resources Canada

Jerry Kooyman University of California, San Diego

Martin J. Jarvis British Antarctic Survey

Philip R. Kyle New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology

Joyce A. Jatko United States Environmental Protection Agency

Tom Lachlan-Cope British Antarctic Survey

Martin O. Jeffries Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks

Christian Lambrechts United Nations Environment Programme

Adrian Jenkins British Antarctic Survey

Johanna Laybourn-Parry University of Nottingham, United Kingdom

Kenneth C. Jezek Byrd Polar Research Center, Ohio State University

Raymond Leakey The Scottish Association for Marine Science, Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, United Kingdom

Alexa Johnston Auckland, New Zealand Nadine M. Johnston British Antarctic Survey Wilfried Jokat Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany

Wesley E. LeMasurier University of Colorado at Boulder Lisbeth Lewander Go¨teborg University, Sweden Ronald I. Lewis-Smith Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom xiii

CONTRIBUTORS Katrin Linse British Antarctic Survey

Gabriela Mataloni Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Roy Livermore British Antarctic Survey

Donald J. McEwen University of Saskatchewan, Canada

Olav H. Loken Canadian Committee for Antarctic Research

Melodie A. McGeoch University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

Jero´nimo Lo´pez-Martı´nez Universidad Auto´noma de Madrid, Spain

Sandra J. McInnes British Antarctic Survey

Gustavo Lovrich Centro Australe de Investigaciones Cientificas, Argentina

Frederick Menk University of Newcastle, Australia

Cornelia Lu¨decke Ludwig-Maximilians-Universita¨t Mu¨nchen, Germany Desmond J. Lugg NASA Valerie Lukin Russian Antarctic Expedition, The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Russia Amanda Lynnes British Antarctic Survey David I. M. Macdonald University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom Ted Maksym United States Naval Academy Sergio A. Marenssi Instituto Anta´rtico, Argentina Rosalind Marsden King’s Lynn, United Kingdom David J. Marshall Universiti Brunei Darussalam Gareth Marshall British Antarctic Survey William A. Marshall University of Nottingham, United Kingdom Robert A. Massom Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Antarctic Division and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre, University of Tasmania, Australia xiv

Mike Meredith British Antarctic Survey Gennady Milinevsky Ukrainian Antarctic Center Denzil G. M. Miller Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, Tasmania, Australia Gary D. Miller University of New Mexico Leif Mills Surrey, United Kingdom Harm Moraal North West University, South Africa Juan Moreno Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, Spain Erika Mutschke Universidad de Magallanes, Chile Alberto C. Naveira Garabato School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, United Kingdom Gabrielle Nevitt University of California, Davis Birgit Nja˚stad Norwegian Polar Institute Kevin J. Noone International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences F. I. Norman Arthur Rylah Institute, Australia

CONTRIBUTORS Paula A. Olson South West Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce

Robert L. Pitman South West Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United States Department of Commerce

Laurence Padman Earth and Space Research, Corvallis, Oregon

Markku Poutanen Finnish Geodetic Institute

Ricardo Palma Museum of New Zealand

David Pratt London, United Kingdom

Prem Chand Pandey National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Department of Ocean Development, Government of India

Hamish Pritchard British Antarctic Survey

Vladimir Papitashvili University of Michigan Nathalie Patenaude Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, New Zealand Donna Patterson-Fraser Polar Oceans Research Group, Sheridan, Montana David A. Pearce British Antarctic Survey John S. Pearse University of California, Santa Cruz

Petra Quillfeldt Halle, Germany Patrick G. Quilty School of Earth Sciences, University of Tasmania, Australia Stanislaw Rakusa-Suszczewski Zaklad Biologii Antarktykii, Poland Jane F. Read National Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton, United Kingdom Tim Reid Conservation International, Falkland Islands

Lloyd Peck British Antarctic Survey

Ian A. Renfrew School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, United Kingdom

Steve Pendlebury Bureau of Meteorology, Australia

Martin Riddle Australian Antarctic Division

Hans-Ulrich Peter Institute of Ecology, Polar and Bird Ecology Group, Jena University, Germany

Beau Riffenburgh Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Simone Pfeiffer Institute of Ecology, Polar and Bird Ecology Group, Jena University, Germany

Nigel Rigby National Maritime Museum, London, United Kingdom

John Pickard Graduate School of the Environment, Macquerie University, Australia

Eric Rignot Radar Science and Engineering Section, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA

Christo Pimpirev Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Bulgaria

Stephen R. Rintoul Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia

Alberto R. Piola Servicio de Hidrografia Naval, Argentina

Christopher J. R. Robertson Wellington, New Zealand xv

CONTRIBUTORS Antonio C. Rocha-Campos Universidade de Sa˜o Paolo, Brazil

Kazuyuki Shiraishi National Institute of Polar Research, Japan

Sofia Roger Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Christine Siddoway The Colorado College

Tracey L. Rogers Australian Marine Mammal Research Centre

Martin J. Siegert Bristol Glaciology Centre, School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Norbert W. Roland Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), Germany

Ian Simmonds University of Melbourne, Australia

Lisle Rose Edmonde, Washington

Brent J. Sinclair University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

Michael H. Rosove University of California, Los Angeles

Irynej Skira Nature Conservation Branch, Department of Primary Industries, Water, and Environment, Australia

Ricardo Roura Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

J. L. Smellie British Antarctic Survey

Jeff Rubin Oberlin, Ohio Egil Sakshaug Norwegian University of Science and Technology Lou Sanson Antarctica New Zealand

Andy J. Smith British Antarctic Survey Michael Smith East Sussex, United Kingdom Patrick Smith National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia

Ann Savours Kent, United Kingdom

Walker O. Smith, Jr. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary

Roland Schlich University of Strasbourg, France

Lauritz Sømme University of Oslo, Norway

Ludolf Schultz Max-Planck-Institut fu¨r Chemie, Germany

Colin Southwell Australian Antarctic Division

Patricia Selkirk Macquarie University, Australia

Peter Speak Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Jonathan D. Shanklin British Antarctic Survey Hilary Shibata Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom Amy R. Shields Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary xvi

Kevin Speer Florida State University Janet Sprintall Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego Antony A. Stark Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

CONTRIBUTORS Bernhard Stauffer Universita¨t Bern, Switzerland

Ann Todd Cambridge, United Kingdom

Peter T. Stevick Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom

Martyn Tranter University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Ian R. Stone Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Yann Tremblay University of California, Santa Cruz John Turner British Antarctic Survey

Bernard Stonehouse Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Roberto Udisti Universita` di Firenze, Italy

Bryan C. Storey University of Canterbury, New Zealand

Edward R. Urban, Jr. The Johns Hopkins University

John Storey University of New South Wales, Australia

Jose´ Valencia Instituto Anta´rtico Chileno, Chile

Colin Summerhayes SCAR, Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Michiel van den Broeke Utrecht University, The Netherlands

Charles Swithinbank Cambridge, United Kingdom

Jan A. van Franeker Marine and Coastal Zone Research, ALTERRA— Texel, The Netherlands

Erki Tammiksaar Karl Ernst von Baer Museum, Estonia

Nicole van Lipzig British Antarctic Survey

Geraint A. Tarling British Antarctic Survey

Alan P. M. Vaughan British Antarctic Survey

Martin Terry National Library of Australia, Canberra

David G. Vaughan British Antarctic Survey

Franz Tessensohn Adelheidsdorf, Germany

Cinzia Verde Institute of Protein Biochemistry, CNR, Italy

Russell Thompson South Wales, United Kingdom

Davor Vidas Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Norway

Janet W. Thomson North Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Warwick F. Vincent Universite´ Laval, Canada

John Thomson Hutt City, New Zealand

Ross A. Virginia Dartmouth College

Michael R. A. Thomson North Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Peter Wadhams University of Cambridge, United Kingdom

Vanessa Thorn School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, United Kingdom

A. D. M. Walker School of Pure and Applied Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa xvii

CONTRIBUTORS Diana H. Wall Colorado State University

Jan-Gunnar Winther Norsk Polarinstitutt, Norway

David W. H. Walton British Antarctic Survey

Eric J. Woehler University of Tasmania, Australia

Okitsugu Watanabe National Institute of Polar Research, Japan

Eric Wolff British Antarctic Survey

David Wharton University of Otago, New Zealand

Anthony Worby University of Tasmania, Australia

Christian Wiencke Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany

Roger Worland British Antarctic Survey

Jacek Wierzchos Universitat de Lleida, Spain David M. Wilkinson Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom

G. W. Yeates Landcare Research, New Zealand Yoshio Yoshida Japan Polar Research Association

Phil Wilkinson IPS Radio and Space Services, Australia

Xiaojun Yuan Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University

Rob Williams University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom

Jay Zwally NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

xviii

INTRODUCTION The Antarctic is unique: geographically, politically, and scientifically. It is the most remote, hostile, and naturally dangerous continent, while at the same time it is the most pristine and least developed. Antarctica is the only major part of the Earth’s landmass not directly governed by one nation; rather, it exists under the control of a carefully developed, although still evolving, treaty, which has a multitude of acceding nations. It is the only place in the world in which claims of ownership have been set aside. International agreements that ban nuclear testing contain damage to the environment under specific regulations and replace international competition with scientific investigations and organizations link nations in sustained, peaceful joint efforts. Despite its isolation and harsh environment, the Antarctic is home to, or major feeding grounds for, large populations of wildlife. The largest living animals on the Earth, blue whales, can be found there, as can a wide variety of other whales, seals, and many more species of marine life. Some of the world’s largest flying birds— wandering albatrosses with wing spans of 3 m and southern giant petrels—can be found in the region, as can a number of different species of penguins, including the emperor, which can weigh up to 35 kg. At the other end of the size spectrum, the terrestrial Antarctic hosts population densities of tardigrades between ten and one thousand times greater than those of temperate or tropical zones. There are also particularly abundant groups of microorganisms, many considered extremophilic, living under extreme conditions that they not only tolerate, but also need in order to exist. Another Antarctic visitor, in relatively modern times, has been humans. In the nineteenth century, the Southern Ocean surrounding the Antarctic continent was prized as a source of wealth in the form of whale and seal oil and blubber. Around a century ago, the mainland itself became the focus of geographical exploration and the compilation of scientific data. In more recent decades, particularly since the International Geophysical Year of 1957–1958, the major human emphasis placed on the terrestrial, ice, marine, and atmospheric aspects of the southern polar region has been on scientific investigation and increasing our knowledge of the Earth and beyond. In this way, the Antarctic has been shown to be much closer to the rest of the planet than had earlier been thought, because it is a key component of many global systems, including climate, weather, oceanographic circulation patterns, complex interactions in ecosystems, and the influence of the stratosphere (including the ozone layer) in the reception of solar radiation planetwide. Intriguingly, for an area of such importance, there is not a single, universally accepted definition for what the Antarctic is, because the region has variously defined boundaries for different purposes. Some consider it to be the continent itself, and there is debate as to whether the floating ice shelves that are seaward extensions of the continental ice sheet form an integral part of the ‘‘land’’ surface of the continent. There is also a question of whether this definition includes the islands immediately adjacent to the continent, many of which are attached to the continent by ice shelves. Along and above the Antarctic Peninsula, the off-lying islands are also sometimes regarded as part of the continent. A purely geographical definition of Antarctica is the area south of the Antarctic Circle (at 66
330 3900 S), below the latitude at which the sun does not rise on Midwinter Day and does not set on Midsummer Day. A political boundary is the area south of 60
S latitude, the northern limit of jurisdiction for the Antarctic Treaty, which became effective in 1961 with twelve original signatories and now has been acceded to by forty-five countries. Perhaps the consensus of Antarctic scholars is that the best boundary is the Polar Front (formerly known as the Antarctic Convergence), an irregular belt in the Southern Ocean some 20 miles wide occurring between 48
S and 61
S. This is where the cold, dense waters of the Southern Ocean sink beneath the warmer surface waters of the southern Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, marking a distinct change in the surface temperature and chemical composition, which in turn affects the creatures living on either side of it. This is both an ecosystem boundary for many marine species and an administrative boundary; it was chosen by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources for the extent of its jurisdiction. It is also the boundary adopted by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research because it is defined by natural features, including the northern limit of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

xix

INTRODUCTION Many, but not all, of the sub-Antarctic islands and island groups are within the Polar Front. Those islands and island groups lying south of the Polar Front, but not forming part of the Antarctic continent, include Bouvetøya, Heard Island, the MacDonald Islands, the Balleny Islands, Scott Island, Peter I Øy, South Georgia, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Sandwich Islands. All these definitions and aspects of the Antarctic are only small parts of the diverse, multifaceted, and hugely significant area of the world introduced, explained, and covered in detail in the Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. The two volumes of this work comprise overviews and in-depth discussions of people, historical events, places, wildlife, scientific research, our place in and use of the environment, technological developments, and geopolitics. They also explain the host of scientific studies for which the Antarctic has become an international center, including geophysics, glaciology, atmosphere and climate, solar-terrestrial physics, astronomy, human impacts, oceanography, terrestrial and marine biology, geology, botany, and sea ice. These volumes are the result of the combined efforts of more than three hundred international scholars and experts in many fields, most of whom have dedicated their lives to the study, understanding, and preservation of the Antarctic. All of this makes the Encyclopedia of the Antarctic a unique resource and tool for a wide readership of students, researchers, scholars, and anyone with a general interest in the region of the Antarctic, sub-Antarctic, and Southern Ocean. It both examines the broad, complex theoretical context and fills in the specific details of the existing knowledge about the Antarctic—its history, life forms, and influence on the rest of the Earth, as well as its place in our scientific understanding of the world. The goal of this project was to produce a comprehensive, multivolume work that would cover the entire scope of Antarctic knowledge. Of course, even in two volumes this is impossible, but the Encyclopedia of the Antarctic is larger, more thorough, and more inclusive than any previous work of its kind. The encyclopedia took shape through the contributions of many people, most importantly an advisory board consisting of internationally distinguished scholars who drew up lists of topics in their fields, determined suitable lengths for the entries, and suggested appropriate authors. This all reflected a degree of subjectivity, of course, which was tempered by the process of the advisors, each helping to refine the subsequent overall list of topics, and by the countless suggestions for improving the content that were received from scholars throughout the world. Several authors who were given assignments believed that other topics were of such importance that they voluntarily wrote and submitted extra entries, which were in turn assessed for their viability as part of the encyclopedia. Input from the advisors, authors, and other scholars around the world continued throughout the development and writing of the encyclopedia, and the list of entries was revised virtually until the volumes went to production, allowing it to provide a reliable, up-to-date view of the current state of scholarship about the Antarctic. The Encyclopedia of the Antarctic comprises 495 free-standing, alphabetically ordered entries of 500 to 6000 words in length. These range from factual, data-driven entries, such as biographies, wildlife details, and statements about national Antarctic programmes, to longer overviews on major themes and analytical discussions of issues that are of significant interest to both scientific researchers and the general public, such as climate change, conservation, geopolitics, biogeography, and pollution.

How to Use This Book Although each entry is self-contained, the links between the entries can be explored in a variety of ways. The Thematic List of Entries in the front matter of each volume groups the entries within broad categories and provides a useful summary. Cross-references (See also) given at the end of almost all entries refer the reader to other related topics within the encyclopedia. Each entry also contains a list of References and Further Reading, including sources used by the writer as well as additional items that may be of interest to and expand the knowledge of the reader. Seven Appendices, including the text of the Antarctic Treaty, and sixteen Maps further guide the reader in exploring the features of this vast region. A thorough, analytical Index provides a detailed listing of topics that help the reader navigate through the wealth of information provided within the entries.

Acknowledgments Numerous people contributed to making this encyclopedia possible. I would like to express my thanks to the members of the advisory board, all of whom have extensive knowledge of and experience in the Antarctic, for xx

INTRODUCTION their general guidance and advice, their valuable input in their fields of expertise, and their writing and editorial contributions. In particular, the efforts and support of David W. H. Walton and Associate Editor Liz Cruwys have been crucial to the success of this vast project. It has also been a pleasure to work with the authors of the entries in these volumes, many of whom assisted in a variety of ways above and beyond writing the articles that bear their names. I would particularly like to thank Robert Burton, Peter Clarkson, Ann Savours, Martin Siegert, and Ian R. Stone for such help. I would also like to give special mention to G. E. ‘‘Tony’’ Fogg, John Heap, Malcolm Kirton, and Irynej Skira, all of whom have passed away since contributing very valuable entries to this encyclopedia. I am enormously grateful to Gillian Lindsey, under whose supervision this project was initiated and a pattern for its ultimate completion was laid out. Without her contributions, this encyclopedia would never have begun. At Routledge, special thanks go to Development Editor Susan Cronin, who kept track of the progress of 311 contributors and oversaw the organisation of all of the materials that compose this work. A team of production assistants, copyeditors, and designers at Taylor and Francis/Routledge also deserve thanks for putting together the final product. I am also most appreciative of input from Mark Nuttall, the editor of the Encyclopedia of the Arctic. I would like to express my gratitude to Julian Dowdeswell, the Director of the Scott Polar Research Institute, where I was employed throughout the assignment and editing stages of the encyclopedia. He gave his unstinting support while these efforts were being carried out. Finally, I would like to thank Liz, my wife, and Ralph and Angelyn, my parents, for their patience, encouragement, and support throughout all of the stages of this enormous project. Beau Riffenburgh

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LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z Art, Antarctic Astronomical Observations from Antarctica Astronomy, Infrared Astronomy, Neutrino Astronomy, Submillimeter Atmospheric Boundary Layer Atmospheric Gas Concentrations from Air Bubbles Auckland Islands Aurora Auroral Substorm Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911–1914) Australia: Antarctic Program Aviation, History of

A Adaptation and Evolution Ade´lie Penguin Adventurers, Modern Aerobiology Air-Borne Ice Air Hydrates in Ice Aircraft Runways Albatross and Petrels, Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses: Overview Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Algae Algal Mats Amsterdam Albatross Amsterdam Island (Iˆle Amsterdam) Amundsen, Roald Amundsen-Scott Station Amundsen Sea, Oceanography of ANARE/Australian Antarctic Division ANDEEP Programme Anhydrobiosis Antarctic Accounts and Bibliographic Materials Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) Antarctic Bottom Water Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries Antarctic Divergence Antarctic Fur Seal Antarctic Ice Sheet: Definitions and Description Antarctic Important Bird Areas Antarctic Intermediate Water Antarctic Peninsula Antarctic Peninsula, Geology of Antarctic Peninsula, Glaciology of Antarctic Petrel Antarctic Prion Antarctic Surface Water Antarctic Tern Antarctic Treaty System Archaeology, Historic Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Russia Arctic Tern Argentina: Antarctic Program

B Balleny Islands Base Technology: Architecture and Design Base Technology: Building Services Beacon Supergroup Beaked Whales Belgian Antarctic (Belgica) Expedition (1897–1899) Belgium: Antarctic Program Bellingshausen, Fabian von Bellingshausen Sea, Oceanography of Benthic Communities in the Southern Ocean Biodiversity, Marine Biodiversity, Terrestrial Biogeochemistry, Terrestrial Biogeography Bioindicators Biological Invasions Birds: Diving Physiology Birds: Specially Protected Species Biscoe, John Black-Browed Albatross Blue Whale Books, Antarctic Borchgrevink, Carsten E. Bouvet de Lozier, Jean-Baptiste Bouvetøya Bransfield Strait and South Shetland Islands, Geology of Brazil: Antarctic Program

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LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843) British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition (1907–1909) British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition (1898–1900) British Antarctic Survey British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition (1910–1913) British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, Northern Party British Graham Land Expedition (1934–1937) British Imperial Expedition (1920–1922) British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition (1901–1904) British, Australian, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) (1929–1931) Bruce, William Speirs Bulgaria: Antarctic Program Byrd, Richard E.

C Campbell Islands Canada: Antarctic Program Cape Petrel Carbon Cycle Cartography and Charting Cetaceans, Small: Overview Challenger Expedition (1872–1876) Chanticleer Expedition (1828–1831) Charcot, Jean-Baptiste Chemical Oceanography of the Southern Ocean Chile: Antarctic Institute Chilean Skua China: Antarctic Program Chinstrap Penguin Christensen Antarctic Expeditions (1927–1937) Christensen, Lars Circumpolar Current, Antarctic Circumpolar Deep Water Climate Climate Change Climate Change Biology Climate Modelling Climate Oscillations Clothing Clouds Coal, Oil, and Gas Coastal Ocean Currents Cold Hardiness Colonization Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1955–1958) Conservation xxiv

Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora: Agreed Measures Continental Shelves and Slopes Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) Cook, James Copepods Cormorants Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Cosmic Rays Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) Crabeater Seal Crested Penguins Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet) Cryoconite Communities CryoSat Cryptoendolithic Communities

D Dallmann, Eduard David, T. W. Edgeworth Davis, John King de Gerlache de Gomery, Baron Adrien Debenham, Frank Deception Island Decomposition Deep Sea Deep Stone Crabs Desiccation Tolerance Discovery Investigations (1925–1951) Diseases, Wildlife Diving—Marine Mammals Dogs and Sledging Drake Passage, Opening of Dry Valleys Dry Valleys, Biology of Drygalski, Erich von Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar Dundee Whaling Expedition (1892–1893)

E Earth System, Antarctica as Part of East Antarctic Continental Margin, Oceanography of

LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z East Antarctic Shield Echinoderms Ecosystem Functioning Ecotoxicology Eddies in the Southern Ocean Ellsworth, Lincoln Emperor Penguin Enderby, Messrs. Exobiology

F Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition (FIDASE) (1955–1957) Ferrar Supergroup Fiction and Poetry Field Camps Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Filchner, Wilhelm Film Fin Whale Finland: Antarctic Program Firn Compaction Fish: Overview Fisheries and Management Flowering Plants Food Web, Freshwater Food Web, Marine Fossils, Invertebrate Fossils, Plant Fossils, Vertebrate Foyn, Svend France: Antarctic Program France: Institut Polaire Franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor (IPEV) and Terres Australes et Antartiques Franc¸aises (TAAF) French Antarctic (Franc¸ais) Expedition (1903–1905) French Antarctic (Pourquoi Pas?) Expedition (1908–1910) French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition (1837–1840) Fuchs, Vivian Fungi

G Gene Flow Gentoo Penguin Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica Geomagnetic Field

Geopolitics of the Antarctic Geospace, Observing from Antarctica German South Polar (Deutschland) Expedition (1911–1912) German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition (1901–1903) German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition (1938–1939) Germany: Antarctic Program Gigantism Glacial Geology Glaciers and Ice Streams Global Ocean Monitoring Programs in the Southern Ocean Gondwana Gough Island Greenpeace Grey-Headed Albatross Growth

H Hanssen, Helmer Health Care and Medicine Heard Island and McDonald Islands Heated Ground Hillary, Edmund History of Antarctic Science Hooker, Joseph Dalton Humpback Whale

I Ice Ages Ice–Atmosphere Interaction and Near-Surface Processes Ice Chemistry Ice Core Analysis and Dating Techniques Ice Crystal Size and Orientation Ice Disturbance and Colonisation Ice–Rock Interface Ice Sheet Mass Balance Ice Sheet Modeling Ice Shelves Icebergs ICESat Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–1917) India: Antarctic Program Insects International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) xxv

LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z International Geophysical Year International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) International Polar Years International Whaling Commission (IWC) Introduced Species Ionosphere Islands of the Scotia Ridge, Geology of Isotopes in Ice Italy: Antarctic Program

J Japan: Antarctic Program Japanese Antarctic Expedition (1910–1912)

K Kelp Gull Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen) Kerguelen Tern Kergue´len-Tre´marec, Yves-Joseph de Killer Whale King George Island King Penguin

L Lake Ellsworth Lake Vostok Lambert Glacier/Amery Ice Shelf Larsen, Carl Anton Larsen Ice Shelf Larvae Law, Phillip Leopard Seal Lichens Light-Mantled Sooty Albatross Liverworts Living in a Cold Climate

M Macaroni Penguin Macquarie Island Magnetic Storm Magnetosphere of Earth xxvi

Magnetospheric Convection Marginal Ice Zone Marie Byrd Land, Geology of Marine Biology: History and Evolution Marine Debris Marine Trophic Level Interactions Markham, Clements Marr, James Mawson, Douglas McMurdo Station McMurdo Volcanic Group Mega-Dunes Meteorites Meteorological Observing Microbiology Mineralization Minke Whale (Antarctic Minke Whale) Molluscs Mosses Mount Erebus Music, Antarctic

N Nansen, Fridtjof National Antarctic Research Programs National Institute of Polar Research, Japan Nematodes Neotectonics Netherlands: Antarctic Program Neumayer, Georg von New Zealand: Antarctic Program Nordenskjo¨ld, Otto Northern Giant Petrel Norway: Antarctic Program Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1949–1952) Norwegian (Fram) Expedition (1910–1912) Norwegian (Tønsberg) Whaling Expedition (1893–1895)

O Oases Oases, Biology of Oates, Lawrence Edward Grace Ocean Research Platforms and Sampling Equipment Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, USA

LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z Operational Environmental Management Ozone and the Polar Stratosphere

P Pack Ice and Fast Ice Paleoclimatology Palmer, Nathaniel Parasitic Insects: Lice and Fleas Parasitic Insects: Mites and Ticks Pelagic Communities of the Southern Ocean Penguins: Overview Peter I Øy Petermann, August Petrels: Pterodroma and Procellaria Philately Photography, History of in the Antarctic Phytoplankton Place Names Plasmasphere Plate Tectonics Poland: Antarctic Program Polar Desert Polar Front Polar Front, Marine Biology of Polar Lows and Mesoscale Weather Systems Polar Mesosphere Pollution Pollution Level Detection from Antarctic Snow and Ice Polynyas and Leads in the Southern Ocean Ponies and Mules Precipitation Priestley, Raymond Prince Edward Islands Productivity and Biomass Protected Areas within the Antarctic Treaty Area Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty Protozoa

R RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project Remote Sensing Reproduction Restoration: Sub-Antarctic Islands Riiser-Larsen, Hjalmar Rodinia Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1947–1948) Ross Ice Shelf

Ross Island Ross, James Clark Ross Sea, Oceanography of Ross Sea Party, Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–1917) Ross Seal Rotifers Royal Albatross Royal Geographical Society and Antarctic Exploration Royal Society and Antarctic Exploration and Science Russia: Antarctic Program Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition (1819–1821)

S Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) Scotia Sea, Bransfield Strait, and Drake Passage, Oceanography of Scott Polar Research Institute Scott, Robert Falcon Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–1904) Scurvy Sea Ice: Crystal Texture and Microstructure Sea Ice: Microbial Communities and Primary Production Sea Ice: Types and Formation Sea Ice, Weather, and Climate Seabird Conservation Seabird Populations and Trends Seabirds at Sea Sealing, History of Seals: Overview Seasonality Seaweeds Sediments and Paleoceanography of the Southern Ocean Sei Whale Shackleton, Ernest Shackleton Range Shackleton-Rowett Antarctic Expedition (1921–1922) Shearwaters, Short-Tailed and Sooty Sheathbills Shirase, Nobu Siple, Paul Skuas: Overview Snow Biogenic Processes Snow Chemistry Snow Petrel Snow Post-Depositional Processes Soils xxvii

LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z Solar Wind Sooty Albatross South Africa: Antarctic Program South Georgia South Korea: Antarctic Program South Orkney Islands South Polar Skua South Pole South Sandwich Islands South Shetland Islands South Shetland Islands, Discovery of Southern Elephant Seal Southern Fulmar Southern Giant Petrel Southern Ocean Southern Ocean: Bathymetry Southern Ocean: Biogeochemistry Southern Ocean Circulation: Modeling Southern Ocean: Climate Change and Variability Southern Ocean: Fronts and Frontal Zones Southern Ocean: Vertical Structure Southern Right Whale Spain: Antarctic Program Springtails Squid St. Paul Island (Iˆle St. Paul) Streams and Lakes Sub-Antarctic Fur Seal Sub-Antarctic Islands, Geology of Sub-Antarctic Skua Subglacial Lakes Surface Energy Balance Surface Features Surface Mass Balance Swedish South Polar Expedition (1901–1904) Swedish South Polar Expedition, Relief Expeditions Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems, Fronts and Jets

T Tardigrades Teleconnections Temperature Terns: Overview Terrestrial Birds Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulations in the Southern Ocean Thwaites and Pine Island Glacier Basins Tides and Waves Toothfish xxviii

Tourism Transantarctic Mountains, Geology of

U Ukraine: Antarctic Program ULF Pulsations United Kingdom: Antarctic Program United Nations United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) United States: Antarctic Program United States Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1941) United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1928–1930) United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1933–1935) United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842) United States Navy Developments Projects (1946–1948)

V Vegetation Victoria Land, Geology of Volcanic Events Volcanoes Vostok Station

W Wandering Albatross Weather Forecasting Weddell, James Weddell, Ross, and Other Polar Gyres Weddell Sea, Oceanography of Weddell Sea Region, Plate Tectonic Evolution of Weddell Seal West Antarctic Rift System Whales: Overview Whaling, History of Wild, Frank Wilkes, Charles Wilkins, Hubert Wilson, Edward Wilson’s Storm Petrel

LIST OF ENTRIES A–Z Wind Wisting, Oscar Women in Antarctic Science Women in Antarctica: From Companions to Professionals Wordie, James World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) World Conservation Union (IUCN) World Meteorological Organization Worsley, Frank

Y Yellow-Nosed Albatross

Z Zooplankton and Krill

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THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Gentoo Penguin Grey-Headed Albatross Introduced Species Kelp Gull Kerguelen Tern King Penguin Light-Mantled Sooty Albatross Macaroni Penguin Northern Giant Petrel Penguins: Overview Petrels: Pterodroma and Procellaria Royal Albatross Seabird Conservation Seabird Populations and Trends Seabirds at Sea Shearwaters, Short-Tailed and Sooty Sheathbills Skuas: Overview Snow Petrel Sooty Albatross South Polar Skua Southern Fulmar Southern Giant Petrel Sub-Antarctic Skua Terns: Overview Terrestrial Birds Wandering Albatross Wilson’s Storm Petrel Yellow-Nosed Albatross

Atmosphere and Climate Atmospheric Boundary Layer Climate Climate Change Climate Modelling Climate Oscillations Clouds Earth System, Antarctica as Part of Meteorological Observing Ozone and the Polar Stratosphere Paleoclimatology Polar Lows and Mesoscale Weather Systems Polar Mesosphere Precipitation Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems, Fronts and Jets Teleconnections Temperature Weather Forecasting Wind

Birds Ade´lie Penguin Albatrosses: Overview Amsterdam Albatross Antarctic Important Bird Areas Antarctic Petrel Antarctic Prion Antarctic Tern Arctic Tern Birds: Diving Physiology Birds: Specially Protected Species Black-Browed Albatross Cape Petrel Chilean Skua Chinstrap Penguin Cormorants Crested Penguins Emperor Penguin

Conservation and Human Impact Adventurers, Modern Antarctic Accounts and Bibliographic Materials Art, Antarctic Books, Antarctic Carbon Cycle Cartography and Charting Conservation Diseases, Wildlife

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THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Dry Valleys Fiction and Poetry Film Fisheries and Management Geopolitics of the Antarctic Marine Trophic Level Interactions Music, Antarctic Philately Pollution Tourism

Geography Amsterdam Island (Iˆle Amsterdam) Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries Antarctic Peninsula Auckland Islands Balleny Islands Bouvetøya Campbell Islands Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet) Deception Island Gough Island Heard Island and McDonald Islands Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen) King George Island Macquarie Island Mount Erebus Oases Peter I Øy Place Names Prince Edward Islands Ross Island South Georgia South Orkney Islands South Pole South Sandwich Islands South Shetland Islands Southern Ocean St. Paul Island (Iˆle St. Paul)

Geology Antarctic Peninsula, Geology of Beacon Supergroup Bransfield Strait and South Shetland Islands, Geology of Coal, Oil, and Gas Drake Passage, Opening of East Antarctic Shield Ferrar Supergroup xxxii

Fossils, Invertebrate Fossils, Plant Fossils, Vertebrate Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica Gondwana Islands of the Scotia Ridge, Geology of Marie Byrd Land, Geology of McMurdo Volcanic Group Meteorites Mineralization Neotectonics Plate Tectonics Rodinia Shackleton Range Sub-Antarctic Islands, Geology of Transantarctic Mountains, Geology of Victoria Land, Geology of Volcanoes Weddell Sea Region, Plate Tectonic Evolution of West Antarctic Rift System

Glaciology Air-Borne Ice Air Hydrates in Ice Antarctic Ice Sheet: Definitions and Description Antarctic Peninsula, Glaciology of Atmospheric Gas Concentrations from Air Bubbles CryoSat Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Firn Compaction Glacial Geology Glaciers and Ice Streams Ice Ages Ice–Atmosphere Interaction and Near-Surface Processes Ice Chemistry Ice Core Analysis and Dating Techniques Ice Crystal Size and Orientation Ice–Rock Interface Ice Sheet Mass Balance Ice Sheet Modeling Ice Shelves ICESat Isotopes in Ice Lake Ellsworth Lake Vostok Lambert Glacier/Amery Ice Shelf Larsen Ice Shelf Mega-Dunes Pollution Level Detection from Antarctic Snow and Ice Ross Ice Shelf

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Snow Biogenic Processes Snow Chemistry Snow Post-Depositional Processes Subglacial Lakes Surface Energy Balance Surface Features Surface Mass Balance Thwaites and Pine Island Glacier Basins Volcanic Events

History, Exploration, and History of Science Amundsen, Roald Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911–1914) Belgian Antarctic (Belgica) Expedition (1897–1899) Bellingshausen, Fabian von Biscoe, John Borchgrevink, Carsten E. Bouvet de Lozier, Jean-Baptiste British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843) British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition (1907–1909) British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition (1898–1900) British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition (1910–1913) British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, Northern Party British Graham Land Expedition (1934–1937) British Imperial Expedition (1920–1922) British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition (1901–1904) British, Australian, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) (1929–1931) Bruce, William Speirs Byrd, Richard E. Challenger Expedition (1872–1876) Chanticleer Expedition (1828–1831) Charcot, Jean-Baptiste Christensen Antarctic Expeditions (1927–1937) Christensen, Lars Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1955–1958) Cook, James Dallmann, Eduard David, T. W. Edgeworth Davis, John King de Gerlache de Gomery, Baron Adrien Debenham, Frank Discovery Investigations (1925–1951) Dogs and Sledging Drygalski, Erich von Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar

Dundee Whaling Expedition (1892–1893) Ellsworth, Lincoln Enderby, Messrs. Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition (FIDASE) (1955–1957) Filchner, Wilhelm Foyn, Svend French Antarctic (Franc¸ais) Expedition (1903–1905) French Antarctic (Pourquoi Pas?) Expedition (1908–1910) French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition (1837–1840) Fuchs, Vivian German South Polar (Deutschland) Expedition (1911–1912) German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition (1901–1903) German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition (1938–1939) Hanssen, Helmer Hillary, Edmund History of Antarctic Science Hooker, Joseph Dalton Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–1917) International Geophysical Year International Polar Years Japanese Antarctic Expedition (1910–1912) Kergue´len-Tre´marec, Yves-Joseph de Larsen, Carl Anton Law, Phillip Markham, Clements Marr, James Mawson, Douglas Nansen, Fridtjof Neumayer, Georg von Nordenskjo¨ld, Otto Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1949–1952) Norwegian (Fram) Expedition (1910–1912) Norwegian (Tønsberg) Whaling Expedition (1893–1895) Oates, Lawrence Edward Grace Palmer, Nathaniel Petermann, August Photography, History of in the Antarctic Ponies and Mules Priestley, Raymond Riiser-Larsen, Hjalmar Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1947–1948) Ross, James Clark Ross Sea Party, Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1914–1917) Royal Geographical Society and Antarctic Exploration Royal Society and Antarctic Exploration and Science xxxiii

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition (1819–1821) Scott, Robert Falcon Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–1904) Scurvy Sealing, History of Shackleton, Ernest Shackleton-Rowett Antarctic Expedition (1921–1922) Shirase, Nobu Siple, Paul South Shetland Islands, Discovery of Swedish South Polar Expedition (1901–1904) Swedish South Polar Expedition, Relief Expeditions United States Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1941) United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1928–1930) United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1933–1935) United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842) United States Navy Developments Projects (1946–1948) Weddell, James Whaling, History of Wild, Frank Wilkes, Charles Wilkins, Hubert Wilson, Edward Wisting, Oscar Women in Antarctic Science Women in Antarctica: From Companions to Professionals Wordie, James Worsley, Frank

Pelagic Communities of the Southern Ocean Phytoplankton Polar Front, Marine Biology of Productivity and Biomass Reproduction Seaweeds Squid Toothfish Zooplankton and Krill

Marine Biology

Oceanography

Benthic Communities in the Southern Ocean Biodiversity, Marine Biological Invasions Copepods Deep Sea Deep Stone Crabs Echinoderms Fish: Overview Food Web, Marine Gigantism Growth Ice Disturbance and Colonisation Larvae Marine Biology: History and Evolution Marine Debris Molluscs

Amundsen Sea, Oceanography of Antarctic Bottom Water Antarctic Divergence Antarctic Intermediate Water Antarctic Surface Water Bellingshausen Sea, Oceanography of Chemical Oceanography of the Southern Ocean Circumpolar Current, Antarctic Circumpolar Deep Water Coastal Ocean Currents Continental Shelves and Slopes East Antarctic Continental Margin, Oceanography of Eddies in the Southern Ocean Icebergs Ocean Research Platforms and Sampling Equipment

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Marine Mammals Antarctic Fur Seal Beaked Whales Blue Whale Cetaceans, Small: Overview Crabeater Seal Diving—Marine Mammals Fin Whale Humpback Whale International Whaling Commission (IWC) Killer Whale Leopard Seal Minke Whale (Antarctic Minke Whale) Ross Seal Seals: Overview Sei Whale Southern Elephant Seal Southern Right Whale Sub-Antarctic Fur Seal Weddell Seal Whales: Overview

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES Polar Front Polynyas and Leads in the Southern Ocean Ross Sea, Oceanography of Scotia Sea, Bransfield Strait, and Drake Passage, Oceanography of Sediments and Paleoceanography of the Southern Ocean Southern Ocean: Bathymetry Southern Ocean: Biogeochemistry Southern Ocean Circulation: Modeling Southern Ocean: Climate Change and Variability Southern Ocean: Fronts and Frontal Zones Southern Ocean: Vertical Structure Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulations in the Southern Ocean Tides and Waves Weddell Sea, Oceanography of Weddell, Ross, and Other Polar Gyres

Research Programs, International Organizations, Atlantic Treaty System Albatross and Petrels, Agreement for the Conservation of Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Germany Amundsen-Scott Station ANARE/Australian Antarctic Division ANDEEP Programme Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) Antarctic Treaty System Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Russia Argentina: Antarctic Program Australia: Antarctic Program Belgium: Antarctic Program Brazil: Antarctic Program British Antarctic Survey Bulgaria: Antarctic Program Canada: Antarctic Program Chile: Antarctic Institute China: Antarctic Program Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora: Agreed Measures Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA) Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)

Finland: Antarctic Program France: Antarctic Program France: Institut Polaire Franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor (IPEV) and Terres Australes et Antartiques Franc¸aises (TAAF) Germany: Antarctic Program Global Ocean Monitoring Programs in the Southern Ocean Greenpeace India: Antarctic Program International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) Italy: Antarctic Program Japan: Antarctic Program McMurdo Station National Antarctic Research Programs National Institute of Polar Research, Japan Netherlands: Antarctic Program New Zealand: Antarctic Program Norway: Antarctic Program Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, USA Poland: Antarctic Program Protected Areas within the Antarctic Treaty Area Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty Russia: Antarctic Program Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) Scott Polar Research Institute South Africa: Antarctic Program South Korea: Antarctic Program Spain: Antarctic Program Ukraine: Antarctic Program United Kingdom: Antarctic Program United Nations United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) United States: Antarctic Program Vostok Station World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) World Conservation Union (IUCN) World Meteorological Organization

Sea Ice Marginal Ice Zone Pack Ice and Fast Ice xxxv

THEMATIC LIST OF ENTRIES RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project Remote Sensing Sea Ice: Crystal Texture and Microstructure Sea Ice: Microbial Communities and Primary Production Sea Ice: Types and Formation Sea Ice, Weather, and Climate

Solar-Terrestrial Physics and Astronomy Astronomical Observations from Antarctica Astronomy, Infrared Astronomy, Neutrino Astronomy, Submillimeter Aurora Auroral Substorm Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation Cosmic Rays Geomagnetic Field Geospace, Observing from Antarctica Ionosphere Magnetic Storm Magnetosphere of Earth Magnetospheric Convection Plasmasphere Solar Wind ULF Pulsations

Technology and Transport Aircraft Runways Archaeology, Historic Aviation, History of Base Technology: Architecture and Design Base Technology: Building Services Clothing Field Camps Health Care and Medicine Living in a Cold Climate Operational Environmental Management

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Terrestrial Biology and Limnology Adaptation and Evolution Aerobiology Algae Algal Mats Anhydrobiosis Biodiversity, Terrestrial Biogeochemistry, Terrestrial Biogeography Bioindicators Climate Change Biology Cold Hardiness Colonization Cryoconite Communities Cryptoendolithic Communities Decomposition Desiccation Tolerance Dry Valleys, Biology of Ecosystem Functioning Ecotoxicology Exobiology Flowering Plants Food Web, Freshwater Fungi Gene Flow Heated Ground Insects Lichens Liverworts Microbiology Mosses Nematodes Oases, Biology of Parasitic Insects: Lice and Fleas Parasitic Insects: Mites and Ticks Polar Desert Protozoa Restoration: Sub-Antarctic Islands Rotifers Seasonality Soils Springtails Streams and Lakes Tardigrades Vegetation

MAP OF ANTARCTICA

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MAP OF THE ANTARCTIC PENINSULA

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A ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION

code is carried in the form of genes, which are specific sequences of nucleotides coding for a particular protein. All living organisms contain their own unique genetic ‘‘blueprint,’’ and it is this that is passed on to future generations in the various processes of reproduction that exist. During all forms of reproduction, these chains are copied to give rise to new individual organisms. However, the process is not perfect, and ‘‘copying errors’’ can occur, introducing variation. Furthermore, in sexual reproduction the DNA of the two parents is ‘‘mixed,’’ giving rise to new combinations of genes. This results in offspring that differ in (often minute) detail from their parents, and thus have different abilities to function effectively in their environment. Therefore, some are inevitably more successful than others and, importantly, can then contribute relatively more offspring of their own into the next generation. These offspring, or at least some of them, will carry the successful characteristic in their own DNA, providing a new starting point from which the process of change can continue. The process by which the influence of environmental characteristics on organisms leads to differential success is known as natural selection. Over time, the consequence that is seen (of gradual and, occasionally, rapid change) is described as evolution by natural selection. The related term adaptation is used to describe the features that have progressively developed in response to selection, and allowed some organisms greater success during the evolutionary process, while the term fitness is used to describe the relative success of an organism in passing on its genetic material to

The term evolution can be used with different interpretations, dependent on the context. Two broad generalisations are useful to recognise. First, in everyday use across many disciplines and subject areas within and outside science, ‘‘evolution’’ is often used simply to describe processes of change or development. Second, within evolutionary biology, its use is associated with very precise definitions. Here, it is used in the context of the fundamental processes by which biological change occurs, developing from concepts originally proposed in the nineteenth century and made famous by the mechanism of natural selection independently proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace. These recognise that the characteristics of living organisms are not simply determined by the environment around them, but also by features passed on or inherited from their parent(s). It is in the latter sense that the concept of evolution will be examined here in the context of Antarctic biology. It was many years after the lives of Darwin and Wallace before the mechanism of inheritance was discovered, through Crick and Watson’s pioneering work on the structure of the nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Nucleic acids such as DNA are very long polymer molecules, made up of chains of nucleotide subunits, and these chains provide the genetic code for all the proteins that, ultimately, contribute to all of an organism’s activities, from intracellular biochemical processes to their morphology and behaviour, and the interactions that are seen. This

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ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION future generations. It is important to note that, in terms of strict definition, this terminology can be applied only in circumstances where the biological features of concern are controlled in some part through heritable variations in genetic material (genotypic variation), and do not apply in circumstances where there is no heritable component and all variation encountered is only in direct response to the environment (purely phenotypic variation). Evolutionary processes ultimately underlie the patterns of diversity that are seen now (and also at any other time in the history of life), as progressive accretion of evolutionary changes may eventually lead to reproductive isolation and speciation. Here, the contrast between Antarctic terrestrial and marine environments provides a striking illustration. On land, diversity is low in all groups of biota, while on the marine continental shelf it is very high. Both these features are driven by the history of Antarctic glaciation over geological and evolutionary time. Even today, terrestrial habitats comprise a small proportion of continental surface area, and are generally individually of limited extent and often very isolated, while the marine continental shelf is extensive. At periods of peak glaciation and ice sheet extent, both would have been drastically impacted. On land this has resulted in considerable extinction, whereby many contemporary habitats were obliterated, and the severe environmental stresses permitted the survival of only a tiny proportion of the preglaciation fauna and flora. By contrast, in the sea, while it is now known that much larger ice shelves extended widely to the point of continental shelf drop-off, patterns of diversity present today indicate that this resulted in extensive fragmentation of marine habitats, rather than outright destruction. This fragmentation provides a classic mechanism that drives the generation of diversity through allopatric speciation—the independent evolution over time of isolated populations of an ancestral line. Although the overall difference between the terrestrial and marine environments is striking, it should be noted that the remnant terrestrial biota, often overlooked as insignificant, does show evidence of analogous radiation processes within the few groups that have persisted. Few would query the simple statement that Antarctica is an extreme environment, and it is easy to generate physical environmental statistics in support. This leads automatically to the view that Antarctica is stressful. However, it is prudent to avoid anthropomorphism—while conditions are genuinely stressful for humans, they may not be for an organism that has become adapted over evolutionary time to the conditions experienced there. Indeed, such an organism may rapidly experience rising stress levels as 2

conditions move away from those typical of its ‘‘extreme’’ environment towards a state that humans would regard as far more comfortable. Thus Ade´lie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae), with a circumpolar distribution that is one of the most southerly of all the penguins, show clear indications of heat stress even in the maritime Antarctic at the northern edge of their current range (between the northern Antarctic Peninsula and the South Sandwich Islands). Recent population decreases near the northern edge of this species range may indeed indicate range contraction in part linked with regional climate warming, demonstrating the importance of selection in defining geographical distribution. Over evolutionary time, responses to selection imposed by the Antarctic environment (particularly the abiotic stresses of temperature, extreme seasonality in radiation levels and, on land, low water availability and freeze-thaw cycles) have generated striking examples of the development of evolutionary adaptations. While biotic stresses (largely through competition for resources, or predation) are currently thought to be insignificant and outweighed by abiotic stresses on land (although based on limited data), this is not the case in the much more complex marine communities. Space does not permit an exhaustive survey of relevant studies; rather, a series of illustrations from very different Antarctic biota, environments, and physiological or biochemical processes is considered here. The challenges of life at low temperature provide clear examples of evolutionary adaptation in the terrestrial realm. Across the continent and the Antarctic Peninsula, virtually all habitats experience the twin challenges of short, cold summers and extended periods of winter freezing. Indeed, some habitats on inland continental nunataks may experience conditions suitable for biological activity for only a few days each year, and not at all in some summers. Studies of Antarctic terrestrial arthropods have revealed two basic adaptive strategies, those of freeze intolerance and freezing tolerance. The former strategy is utilised by the two most common groups of Antarctic terrestrial arthropods, the Acari (mites) and Collembola (springtails). Although the ability is not restricted to Antarctic members of these groups, it is very well developed in these and there is very little evidence of significant cost (‘‘chilling injury’’) or mortality being experienced before the freezing point is reached, as is the norm in temperate or tropical species. Freezing-tolerant invertebrates are represented in the Antarctic by some higher insects (Diptera, Coleoptera), as well as microscopic invertebrates such as nematode worms. In some freezing-tolerant invertebrates there is also evidence for the use of antifreeze or thermal hysteresis proteins, analogous

ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION but with a different evolutionary origin to those found in teleost fish, in stabilising the frozen state. Water stress, or desiccation, is at least as important as temperature in the biology of most Antarctic terrestrial biota. Desiccation tolerance is of great importance in terrestrial habitats worldwide, and has received considerable attention. The biochemical responses involve the same groups of chemicals as found in freezing tolerance and avoidance, leading to the proposal that desiccation tolerance is likely to have been an evolutionary precursor for cold tolerance in these invertebrates. While cold and desiccation tolerance features are not uniquely associated with Antarctic environments and species, their possession and evolutionary development has clearly been an important factor in the success of the major groups of biota now found in Antarctic terrestrial habitats. A linked consequence of short, cold, and unpredictable active seasons for terrestrial biota is that it is not normally possible to complete the life cycle within a single season, or even rely on development to a single specific overwintering or resistant stage. Thus, life history features such as obligate diapause and temporally synchronised development, familiar amongst invertebrates of lower latitudes (and even of the milder Arctic terrestrial habitats), are rare or nonexistent. Instead, life cycles often appear to be ‘‘free running,’’ and the switch between active and inactive states governed directly by local environmental conditions. This can be seen as Antarctic organisms gaining an evolutionary fitness advantage through the loss of ancestral features. However, extended life cycles per se are not seen as an evolutionary response to the stresses of the Antarctic environment, rather being the result of direct thermodynamic constraints. Indeed, within studies of biochemistry and ecophysiology, there is evidence of evolutionary developments to maximise the rates of biological processes during the short environmental windows that are available for growth and development. Extended life cycles and slow growth are also typical of Antarctic marine invertebrates and fish. However, endothermic marine vertebrates (birds and mammals) appear to show no such limitation. Considerable populations of birds, seals, and whales are present throughout the Southern Ocean, from the sub-Antarctic islands to the continental coast. While some, notably the great whales and seabirds such as skuas and gulls, migrate to and from the Antarctic annually and thus rely on the region’s marine resources only during the austral summer, others are present year-round. The Antarctic coast and pack ice are home to several species of seal (notably, leopard, Ross, and crabeater seals, the latter being one of

the most abundant mammals on Earth, in terms of biomass), and virtually unstudied species of the smaller whales. Two penguins (Ade´lie, emperor) breed around the continental Antarctic coastline, with emperor penguin colonies being virtually restricted to sea ice in this region. Whales, seals, and penguins display clear morphological and physiological adaptations to life in these frigid waters, in terms of particularly effective insulation (blubber, fur, feathers) and control of circulation to surface areas and limbs. Behavioural and life history adaptations are also present to maximise the chance of breeding success in the short window of opportunity provided during the Antarctic summer. Thus, Ade´lie penguins commence nesting earlier than any of the other Antarctic penguin species, even at locations where other species breed. Among the mammals, southern elephant and Weddell seals produce some of the richest milk known, and their young show some of the most rapid rates of growth and weaning seen in seals. Perhaps the most spectacular illustration of a life history adaptation driven by Antarctic environmental conditions is that of the life cycle of the emperor penguin. This species, the largest of the penguins living today, is the only vertebrate to spend the Antarctic winter on the continent, or at least the fast ice surrounding it. The short summer is insufficient to permit pairing, incubation, and development and fledging of chicks within a single season. Therefore, egg-laying takes place late in the austral summer, with the egg being incubated on the male bird’s feet and protected under a special flap of skin. The female returns to sea after egg-laying and spends the winter foraging. However, the male must remain in the colony, relying on resources of body fat stored during the previous summer. During the most extreme conditions of winter, the incubating male birds obtain some protection from the environment by huddling together in a tightly packed group, with constant movement of individuals away from the windward side, in order to maximise individual survival chances. This is possibly the only example of the complete breakdown of breeding and nesting territoriality known amongst birds. Finally, when the chick hatches later in winter, it is still several weeks before female birds can return with a fresh food supply, and the male provides sustenance in the form of a secretion from its crop. Even then, the timing of the female’s return is crucial as, by the end of winter, the male has used such a large proportion of his body’s resources that he must also return to the sea to feed. There is a narrow window within which the female must return if the chick is not to be abandoned. Low temperature presents very different challenges to life in the sea to that on land. The seas around 3

ADAPTATION AND EVOLUTION Antarctica are uniformly cold and, of most biological significance, thermally very stable. Around much of the continent annual variation in sea temperature is less than 2
C–3
C, and, in areas under permanent sea ice or ice shelves, it may be only fractions of a degree. Such stability over geological and evolutionary timescales has allowed biological processes to become tightly matched to their thermal environment, to the extent that any movement away from these stable conditions rapidly exceeds the tolerance limits of the biota. Thus, many Antarctic marine biota exhibit strong stenothermy, with little or no ability to tolerate thermal conditions outside a very narrow band. Such biota are obviously vulnerable to any large-scale process leading to rapid thermal change. Ice formation is a highly visible seasonal feature of the Antarctic marine environment, with the formation of surface sea ice roughly doubling the apparent area of the continent. However, this represents little threat to biota, unless they become entrapped within it. The formation of anchor ice on substrata in the shallow subtidal environment provides a more direct threat, and is often advanced as an explanation for the apparently low diversity or biomass present in this zone. Antarctic marine invertebrates have body fluids that are isosmotic with seawater (that is, they have the same chemical concentration) and, thus, are not threatened with ice formation unless their medium freezes. This is not, however, the case with fish. Their body fluids are less concentrated than seawater, and therefore in the absence of a protective mechanism would freeze before the freezing point of seawater (~–1.8
C) is reached. Yet fish body fluids are forced to make intimate contact with seawater during passage through the gills, while fish bodies are not insulated from their surrounding medium. This threat has led to the evolution, in Antarctic notothenioid fish, of an antifreeze protein that reduces the freezing point of their body fluids to that of seawater, allowing them to survive by supercooling. Detailed genetic and molecular biological studies have identified the precursor gene for this antifreeze protein, and followed its subsequent modification during the radiation of the notothenioids. Analogous antifreeze proteins are now known from some Arctic fish, with completely different precursors, illustrating the fundamental importance of this adaptation for the existence of teleost fish in polar marine waters. One group of notothenioid fish, the ‘‘icefish,’’ illustrates a further evolutionary adaptation that is unique amongst the vertebrates. These fish have lost the ability to synthesise the oxygen carrying pigment haemoglobin, otherwise ubiquitous across all vertebrates, and their blood contains no functional erythrocytes. That they can do so is a consequence of 4

their cold, stable thermal environment. Oxygen solubility in water is inversely proportional to temperature, and is maximal near to freezing point. However, biological maintenance costs (‘‘standard metabolism’’) simply increase with temperature, meaning that the cost of staying alive is minimum in seawater near to freezing. Thus, the balance between high oxygen content of Antarctic seawater and low maintenance costs has allowed icefish to dispense with the use of haemoglobin altogether, presumably also generating a significant saving in the costs of protein synthesis. The high oxygen content of cold seawater has also been proposed to underlie a completely separate evolutionary feature demonstrated repeatedly amongst a range of groups of Antarctic marine invertebrates— that of gigantism. Here, high oxygen content of Antarctic seawater represents one extreme of a continuum of availability levels throughout the Earth’s oceans (and freshwaters), with levels elsewhere along the continuum generating greater constraints on growth and development. Finally, it is clear that, as the environmental stresses experienced in Antarctica became more extreme following isolation from the other elements of the Gondwanan supercontinent, they exceeded the thresholds (biochemical, physiological, ecological) beyond which certain parts of the biota (species, higher groups, communities) could no longer persist. This is most striking in the terrestrial environment, where the vast majority of life found is limited to ‘‘lower’’ taxonomic groupings, and most of the ‘‘higher’’ and familiar groups from lower latitudes are simply no longer present. Thus, other than on the Antarctic Peninsula where two flowering plants and two dipteran insects (flies) are found, there are no higher plants (flowering and woody plants), higher insects, nonmarine mammals, or birds, and important ecological functional groups (e.g., obligate grazing animals, predators) are also absent or of little significance. In the sea, diversity patterns also illustrate that environmental conditions have led to reduced overall diversity or loss of some major familiar groups (e.g., reptant decapods—familiar as crabs at lower latitudes—and teleost fish), while others show considerably greater radiation than seen elsewhere (e.g., pycnogonids— sea spiders—and some molluscs). Whether the latter is an evolutionary consequence of reduced competition or the freeing of ecological space by the loss of the former remains debatable. However, a particularly interesting evolutionary example is provided by the remaining representatives of a group that is generally poorly represented—the teleost fish. One group of teleosts, the notothenioids, have survived in southern polar waters, and their subsequent evolution,

ADE´LIE PENGUIN now confirmed through molecular phylogenetic approaches, provides a particularly clear example of the development of a ‘‘species cloud.’’ This example also provides a good example of the importance of the evolution of a novel physiological adaptation (antifreeze protein) at the base of the group’s evolutionary radiation. PETER CONVEY See also Ade´lie Penguin; Antarctic Peninsula; Climate Change; Cold Hardiness; Crabeater Seal; Emperor Penguin; Fish: Overview; Flowering Plants; Gene Flow; Gigantism; Gondwana; Ice Shelves; Insects; Leopard Seal; Microbiology; Molluscs; Nematodes; Parasitic Insects: Mites and Ticks; Penguins: Overview; Ross Seal; Seals: Overview; Seasonality; South Sandwich Islands; Springtails; Temperature; Weddell Seal; Whales: Overview

ADE´LIE PENGUIN Ade´lie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae, Hombron & Jacquinot 1841) was named after a portion of the East Antarctic coast, Ade´lie Land, the first known visit to which was made in 1840 by the French expedition led by Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar Durmont d’Urville; the region was named after Durmont D’Urville’s wife, Ade´le. The first specimens of this species were collected there, at Point Ge´ologie, by the two naturalists/ surgeons of the expedition, who subsequently described the species. It is one of three species subsequently included in the genus Pygoscelis, meaning ‘‘rump-legged,’’ in reference to the penguins’ upright, bipedal means of walking. The ‘‘pygoscelids’’ are among the few penguins that actually have prominent tail feathers, with the Ade´lie having the longest, thus earning the alternative name, no longer used, of ‘‘long-tailed penguin.’’

References and Further Reading Block, W. ‘‘Cold Tolerance of Insects and Other Arthropods.’’ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 326 (1990): 613–633. Chapelle, G., and L. S. Peck. ‘‘Polar Gigantism Dictated by Oxygen Availability.’’ Nature 399 (1999): 114–115. Chen, L. B., A. L. DeVries, and C. H. C. Cheng. ‘‘Evolution of Antifreeze Glycoprotein Gene from a Trypsinogen Gene in Antarctic Notothenioid Fish.’’ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 94 (1997): 3811–3816. Clarke, A. ‘‘Evolution, Adaptation and Diversity: Global Ecology in an Antarctic Context.’’ In Antarctic Biology in a Global Context, edited by A. H. L. Huiskes, W. W. C. Gieskes, J. Rozema, R. M. L. Schorno, S. van der Vies, and W. J. Wolff. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys, 2003, pp. 3–17. Clarke, A., and J. A. Crame. ‘‘The Origin of the Southern Ocean Marine Fauna.’’ In Origins and Evolution of the Antarctic Biota. London: Geological Society Special Publication No. 47, Geological Society, 1989, pp. 253–268. Convey, P. ‘‘How Are the Life History Strategies of Antarctic Terrestrial Invertebrates Influenced by Extreme Environmental Conditions?’’ Journal of Thermal Biology 22 (1997): 429–440. ———. ‘‘Antarctic Ecosystems.’’ In Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, vol. 1, edited by S. A. Levin. San Diego: Academic Press, 2001, pp. 171–184. Eastman, J. T., and A. Clarke. ‘‘A Comparison of Adaptive Radiations of Antarctic Fish with Those of non-Antarctic Fish.’’ In Fishes of Antarctica: A Biological Overview, edited by G. di Prisco, E. Pisano, and A. Clarke. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1998, pp. 3–26. Ring, R. A., and H. V. Danks. ‘‘Desiccation and Cryoprotection: Overlapping Adaptations.’’ Cryo-Letters 15 (1994): 181–190. Wharton, D. A. Life at the Limits: Organisms in Extreme Environments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Williams, T. D. The Penguins. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

General Characteristics The Ade´lie penguin is very much a marine organism, spending about 90% of its life at sea in the waters that encircle the Antarctic continent, not just those lying south of the Polar Front but also those that contain sea ice for at least several months of the year. In the latter, the species differs markedly from its two congeners, the Chinstrap (Pygoscelis antarctica) and Gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) penguins, which tend to avoid contact with sea ice as much as possible (they breed farther north and nest later in the summer). The Ade´lie penguin at sea occurs in small flocks, generally five to ten individuals; flock sizes are much larger near to colonies during the breeding season. Throughout the larger part of the year, fall to early spring, these groups spend most of the day resting on ice floes; individuals forage for only a few hours per day. Before spring migration, individuals begin to forage much more in order to build up the fat reserves needed for breeding. Later, in the autumn, at sea, they will forage intensively just prior to their annual moult. The Ade´lie is about the same size as the majority of penguin species, about 60–70 cm tall and weighing about 3.2–3.5 kg on average, depending on sex, in its leanest state. However, this species has the important ability to gain body mass by accumulating subcutaneous fat so that at times of the year, just before breeding and just before the annual moult, it reaches a mass of 7 kg among males and 6.5 kg among females. Males are slightly larger than females, perhaps most noticeable in the beak and with greater certainty when the two members of a pair are 5

ADE´LIE PENGUIN compared directly with one another. The back and head of the adult in fresh plumage are bluish-black, including the backs of the flippers; its stomach, breast, throat, and flipper undersides are white. The black color quickly loses its sheen, turning to jet-black. By the end of the summer, and just before the annual moult, the plumage has faded noticeably, with tips of feathers then appearing white to brownish. The fledgling and yearling are similar in color pattern, the fledgling of a bluish hue where the yearling is black; both have a white chin, which is lost during the first moult at about 14 months of age. Seemingly, the characteristic long tail of this species is used to increase maneuverability while moving through water usually congested with ice floes and brash.

Populations Total world population, as of the mid-1990s, is about 2,445,000 pairs, distributed among approximately 161 colonies located on continental headlands and offshore islands. Colony sites are characterized by icefree terrain, easy access from the sea (not cliffs), lack of persistent fast ice (continuous sea ice locked in place by an irregular shoreline or grounded icebergs), and plenty of small pebbles, which are used as nesting material. Colonies range in size from a few dozen to approximately 200,000 breeding pairs; only six colonies exceed 100,000 pairs. Colony populations are actually about 30%–40% larger than what is represented by breeders, owing to numbers of nonbreeders that spend much time at the colony, generally younger birds gaining initial experience in the breeding process. In recent decades, breeding colonies throughout most of Antarctica have been increasing in size in response to increasing divergence of sea ice and the size of polynyas, which are areas of minimal ice resulting most often from strong currents or winds. The majority of Ade´lie penguin colonies occur adjacent to a polynya. More divergent sea ice, perhaps a result of global warming, increases this species’ access to the sea and to food. In the very northernmost part of its range, on the northwest coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, sea ice is disappearing and this species is being replaced by its less ‘‘pagophilic’’ congeners. Increasing temperatures may also be providing additional nesting habitat for this species, as coastal glaciers and ice shelves retreat in the north leaving coastal land that was formerly ice covered. The history of this species since the last Ice Age glacial maximum (19,000 years ago) has been one of colonizing sites as

6

ice sheets retreated or as areas of fast ice became less persistent on an annual basis. The portion of the Antarctic Peninsula where the species is now retreating has been occupied only with the lower temperatures and more northerly sea ice that came with the Little Ice Age, which lasted from about 800 years before present until recent years. Genetically, there are just two forms of this species, one residing in the Ross Sea and the other occurring everywhere else. Although the species exhibits a high degree of philopatry (returning to breed at the place of hatching) under stable and unchallenging conditions, a phenomenon that encourages genetic differentiation, philopatry disappears when heavy sea-ice conditions make it a challenge to return to natal colonies. Such conditions occur sporadically but often enough in local areas that the world population, genetically, is relatively well mixed compared with seabird species elsewhere.

Breeding Biology Ade´lie penguins arrive at their colonies to breed beginning in late September at low latitudes (60
S) and by mid-October at high latitudes (78
S). The breeding process then requires about 125 days to complete, with the window of time allowed being slightly longer at lower latitudes. At high latitudes, it is much more critical for penguins to arrive as early as possible. Older birds, particularly males, arrive first. Any bird that arrives at the colony after about mid-November will not breed. Age of first breeding averages about 4.5 years of age (range 3–7) in females and 5.5 years (range 4–8) in males. The proportion of birds that attempt to breed increases with age, reaching maximum, 80%–90%, by age 6 in females and 7 in males. In almost all cases, an individual visits the colony at least 1 year previously before breeding. During that visit, much-needed experience in the breeding process is acquired. Nests are built of small stones, required to keep eggs above any meltwaters. Nests are grouped into subcolonies that occur on hummocks or ridges, again to avoid meltwater from snow fields or glaciers. Egg laying begins on about 1 November in colonies at low latitude and on 6 or 7 November farther south. Laying is then highly synchronous, with the large majority of eggs laid during a 10-day period. Few eggs are laid in the last week of November. Two eggs are laid in the vast majority of nests, although one egg is common among the very latest layers. As females age, they lay their eggs earlier in the season. Incubation averages

ADE´LIE PENGUIN about 35 days and involves trade-offs of incubation duties between members of the pair, with males spending slightly more days in that activity. Once the chicks hatch, members of the pair share equally in provisioning chicks. The newly hatched chick is completely covered in down and weighs on average about 85 g. Parents will guard their chicks, with just one parent foraging at any given time, for the first 22 or so days. The chick then begins to demand additional food, thus driving both parents away. Chicks left alone bunch together in the vicinity of their subcolony in groups called cre`ches. When parents return with food, giving a loud call upon reaching the nest, chicks will recognize the vocalization and go running to the nest. At 40–45 days, the chick reaches maximum mass, weighing 3.1– 3.3 kg, and begins to lose its down to show real feathers. It will fledge, losing about 15% of its mass and becoming independent of its parents, at around 50–55 days of age. Even though the vast majority of females lay two eggs, the average breeding success is about 0.9 chicks fledged per pair that attempt breeding. This figure varies depending on the severity of environmental conditions experienced by the parents. Following the breeding season, adults undergo a moult of their feathers. The process takes about 2–3 weeks during which they do not enter the water. Thus, they must gorge themselves in the few weeks before moulting, to build up large subcutaneous fat deposits. Most Ade´lie penguins moult while positioned on large ice floes, but in the northern part of the species’ range, where sea ice is not always available, individuals often return to their colonies to moult.

Foraging Behavior Ade´lie penguins employ several modes of travel. Over long distances, they swim at about 7–8 km per hour, although in bursts they can swim two to three times faster, being able to dart about almost like fish. Where there is extensive sea ice they walk at about 3 km per hour; pauses in long-range walks translate to a net speed of about 1–2 km per hour. Thus, individuals travel much more efficiently by swimming. This they do, using their flippers for propulsion, by passing underwater, 3–5 m deep, for a couple hundred meters, rising at intervals for a breath ‘‘on the fly’’; such a behavior is similar to the movement of porpoises and so this mode of travel is called porpoising. When about to make landfall, the frequency of surfacing, actually as they look for places to land, becomes

much higher. They also ‘‘toboggan’’ on their bellies over ice, pushing along using their feet; when a stiff breeze is blowing at an angle to their direction of travel (they are virtually ‘‘sailing’’), they attain speeds faster than walking. When leaving the water to reach the land or ice floes, they accelerate rapidly and are capable of attaining ledges of 2 m above the water surface. Where there are beaches, they walk or scramble ashore. As a colonially breeding species, Ade´lie penguins must radiate outward from the colony at sea in search of food. This scenario is known as ‘‘central place foraging,’’ and with it the problems of prey depletion or interference competition are important and vary directly with colony size. Therefore, at small colonies, foraging trips may take birds only 10–12 km away, compared with trips on the order of 100 km for birds residing at large colonies or those foraging where food availability is a challenge. Food may become depleted near large colonies. Throughout most of its range, during the breeding season, the species feeds principally on crystal krill (Euphausia superba) and Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum). In the few areas (e.g., Antarctic Peninsula) where continental shelves are narrow and the distance from colonies to the continental slope is near (tens of km), the summer diet is dominated by Antarctic krill (E. superba). Thus, composition of the diet changes depending on the degree to which the penguins are foraging in neritic versus pelagic waters. During winter, individuals dwell away from waters of the shelf at the outer edge of the largescale ice pack, north of the Antarctic Circle. Here there is an ample period of light each day allowing Ade´lie penguins to have a diverse diet composed of Antarctic krill, deep-water lantern fish (myctophids, especially Electrona antarctica), and squid (especially Psychroteuthis glacialis). In penguins, the duration and depth of diving is directly related to body size. This species is a highly capable diver, being able to hold its breath longer relative to its size than its congeners and most other penguin species, perhaps an adaptation allowing it to forage under vast ice floes where breath holding is an advantage in the search for prey. Foraging dives average 115–230 seconds, with the longest recorded being 350 seconds. Ade´lie penguins usually feed at 30–60 m depth but have been recorded to 170 m. When foraging during summer to feed themselves and at the same time provisioning chicks, Ade´lie penguins often dive continuously in bouts lasting 2–4 hours; several bouts often occur sequentially with periods of rest in between before returning with up to 1 kg of food for chicks.

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ADE´LIE PENGUIN

Predators At sea, Ade´lie penguins are preyed upon heavily by leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx), which catch them mainly by stealth, as the penguins are generally capable of eluding the seals in the open water. The seals wait by the edges of ice floes in areas where there are many penguins, or along beaches or benches of beach ice at colonies. They then grab the penguins as they swim by, or as they fall back into the water after failing to attain a high ledge. The seals also smash through thin ice to capture penguins walking overhead. For these reasons, Ade´lie penguins pause for long periods when they meet an ice crack or lead while walking, or when they are thinking about diving into the water, in order to be confident that there are no seals lurking in the vicinity. At colonies, skuas (Catharacta spp.) act mainly as scavengers, taking eggs and small chicks that are deserted or poorly defended by parents. Once penguin chicks enter into cre`ches, the skuas are able to kill the smaller and weaker chicks, especially when they become isolated from the cre`ches or subcolonies. Adult penguins will drive skuas away, not so much in an act of altruism, but in defense of their own chicks or in exercise of a general distaste for the close approach of these birds. DAVID AINLEY See also Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries; Antarctic Peninsula; Birds: Diving Physiology; Chinstrap Penguin; Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar; Fish: Overview; French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition (1837–1840); Gentoo Penguin; Ice Ages; Leopard Seal; Penguins: Overview; Polar Front; Skuas: Overview; Squid; Zooplankton and Krill References and Further Reading Ainley, D. G. The Ade´lie Penguin: Bellwether of Climate Change. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Ainley, D. G., C. A. Ribic, G. Ballard, S. Heath, I. Gaffney, B. J. Karl, K. R. Barton, P. R. Wilson, and S. Webb. ‘‘Geographic Structure of Ade´lie Penguin Populations: Size, Overlap and Use of Adjacent Colony-Specific Foraging Areas.’’ Ecological Monographs 74 (2004): 159–178. Lishman, G. S. ‘‘The Comparative Breeding Biology of the Ade´lie and Chinstrap Penguins Pygoscelis adeliae and P. antarctica at Signy Island, South Orkney Islands.’’ Ibis 127 (1985): 84–99. Taylor, R. H. ‘‘The Ade´lie Penguin Pygoscelis adeliae at Cape Royds.’’ Ibis 104 (1962): 176–204. Wilson, R. P. ‘‘Foraging Ecology.’’ In Bird Families of the World, the Penguins Spheniscidae, edited by T. D. Williams. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 81–106. Young, E. C. Skua and Penguin: Predator and Prey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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ADVENTURERS, MODERN

Adventure Tourism The term adventure tourism defines those activities conducted by nongovernment parties operating in Antarctica—either commercially or noncommercially —for the purposes of physical recreation, exploration, competition, private scientific research, or a combination of any of these. The most common examples from recent times are mountaineering and South Pole ski traverses.

Adventurer Numbers, Locations, and Access Very few people undertake these activities. For example, in the 2004–2005 season, of 30,232 tourists only 221 were transported inland for the more ‘‘adventurous’’ streams of tourism such as mountaineering and polar ski traverses (IAATO 2005). An even smaller number of climbers and skiers visit the Antarctic Peninsula aboard yachts. Other activities undertaken in recent years include running marathons, sea kayaking, scuba diving, and ballooning. The principal gateways for Antarctic adventure tourism are Ushuaia in Argentina, Punta Arenas in Chile, and Cape Town, South Africa. The majority of yachts leave from Ushuaia and the majority of tourist flights, either to the Antarctic Peninsula or inland, leave from Punta Arenas. Most of the yachts travel a certain distance down the peninsula, undertaking climbing, skiing, kayaking, wildlife watching, photography, diving, or any combination of these, their itineraries largely defined by time available and seaice conditions. Flights from Punta Arenas go to either King George Island or a summer-only base at Patriot Hills in the southern Ellsworth Mountains. From Patriot Hills expeditioners are flown either to Vinson Massif and environs for climbing, or to various starting points for South Pole ski traverses.

History of Adventure Tourism The first major modern private expedition—and still perhaps the most serious in its technical preparations and scientific contributions—was the Transglobe Expedition led by Sir Ranulph Fiennes from 1979 to 1982, the goal of which was to circumnavigate the

ADVENTURERS, MODERN Earth in a north–south direction while passing over both Poles. For the Antarctic section, a party of four wintered in Dronning Maud Land, not far from South Africa’s SANAE base, following which—from October 1980 to January 1981—Fiennes, Charlie Burton, and Oliver Shepard crossed the continent using snow scooters with air support, travelling some 2,800 miles. During this time Ginny Fiennes ran the base camp and conducted very-low-frequency radio research. The longest Antarctic traverse of any kind was the 1989–1990 International Trans-Antarctic Expedition in which six members, including Will Steger (US), Jean-Louis Etienne (France), and Geoff Somers (UK), journeyed by dogsled, with resupply by air, from the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula to the then-Soviet base Mirny on the coast of East Antarctica—3,741 miles in 222 days. The longest full ski traverse was undertaken in 2000–2001 by Norwegians Rolf Bae and Erik Sonneland, who traveled 2,350 miles from the Norwegian base Troll to Ross Island via the South Pole in 107 days, before leaving the continent by ship. Other notable efforts through the recent decades included the ‘‘Footsteps of Scott’’ expedition led by Robert Swan and Roger Mear in 1985–1987, the unsupported journey of Fiennes and Michael Stroud in 1992–1993, and the ski and sail traverse by Alain Hubert and Dixie Dansercoer in 1997–1998. Commercial ascents of Vinson Massif began in 1985–1986, and by the end of the 2004–2005 season around 970 individuals had climbed to the summit. The main factor for Vinson’s increasing popularity is its status as one of the ‘‘Seven Summits’’—the highest peak on each continent. The success rate for climbers has usually been around 95%, owing to the straightforward nature of the climbing and the generally reliable weather in the area. The first ski descent from the summit of Vinson Massif was made by Martyn Williams (UK) and Pat Morrow (Canada) in 1985, the first snowboard descent by Stephen Koch (US) in 1999, and the first parapente descent by Vernon Tejas (US) in 1988 (Gildea 1998). On the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands many of the significant peaks were first ascended by personnel from government programs. The area has, however, proved popular with adventure tourists since the 1980s, mainly due to its relative low cost and accessibility for an Antarctic destination. Most of these have traveled by yacht, many undertaking mountaineering and skiing, particularly in areas close to the coast, for reasons of logistics and weather. In recent years the area and peaks around Wiencke Island, Port Lockroy, Paradise Harbor, and the

Lemaire Channel have been particularly heavily visited. Since the early 1990s some significant climbing has been done in the various massifs of the Sor Rondane and Muhlig-Hoffman Mountains in Dronning Maud Land, usually accessed by flights from Cape Town to a blue-ice runway within sight of the mountains. Many of the expedition objectives here are extremely steep rock peaks that have produced the hardest technical climbing yet done in Antarctica. The other main adventure activity in Antarctica is skiing to the South Pole from one of a number of different starting points, usually close to a coastline, either inside or outside an ice shelf, with the merits of various parameters and styles a highly contentious topic within the adventure community. Expeditioners haul sleds containing their food, fuel, and equipment, sometimes resupplied at one or more points during their journey.

Solo Adventuring Perhaps the most significant feat of solo adventuring to date has been the Norwegian Borge Ousland’s continental crossing, when he traveled 1,760 miles in 64 days without resupply, from Berkner Island to Ross Island, obtaining great benefit from the use of sails, covering 140 miles in one 24-hour period. In the 1992–1993 season his fellow Norwegian Erling Kagge became the first to ski solo to the Pole, a feat that has since been repeated numerous times from various starting points. The current fastest time for a nonkiting traverse from any coast to the Pole was achieved in the 2003–2004 season when Briton Fiona Thornewill traveled unsupported from Hercules Inlet to the Pole in 42 days. Several significant solo climbs have been achieved, particularly in the Sentinel Range. The most noted of these were the American Terrence ‘‘Mugs’’ Stump’s climbs of the southwest face of Mount Gardner (4587 m) and the more difficult west face of Mount Tyree (4852 m) in November 1989. The only major Antarctic peak to have received a winter ascent is Mount Erebus, climbed solo by British alpinist Roger Mear on June 7, 1985.

Regulation There is currently no legal framework to enforce liability for costs incurred by national Antarctic programs in emergency rescues of private adventurers, a 9

ADVENTURERS, MODERN potential problem that has long been a prime concern for governments. To date there have been few such incidents, but all have had some impact on official programs. All adventurers are strongly advised to take out suitable insurance policies to cover rescues and emergencies, but there is no legal framework in any country to realistically enforce this other than by withholding of permits or prosecution of those who flout the law. In reality enforcement currently relies on cooperation by those operators, particularly those who are members of the International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators, who transport the expeditioners to the continent. Such tourist operators are bound by the 2005 Liability Annex to the Antarctic Treaty to hold suitable insurance to cover liability in the event of causing environmental damage in the course of their activities. Those adventurers not operating primarily within one of the regular programs of such operators, and whose nations are members of the Antarctic Treaty, are bound by the relevant domestic legislation of their country to give advance notice of their activities, submit an Initial Environmental Evaluation, show significant self-rescue or appropriate third-party search-and-rescue arrangements including insurance, and obtain permits for waste management and import of certain materials. DAMIEN GILDEA See also Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries; Antarctic Peninsula; Antarctic Treaty System; Aviation, History of; King George Island; Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty; Ross Island; South Pole; Tourism

References and Further Reading ANI/ALE Vinson Massif Summit List. Unpublished company records and private correspondence 1998–2005. Bastmeijer, K. The Antarctic Environmental Protocol and its Domestic Legal Implementation. Netherlands: Kluwer Law International, 2003. Fiennes, Ranulph. To the Ends of the Earth: The Transglobe Expedition. New York: Arbor House, 1983. Gildea, Damien. The Antarctic Mountaineering Chronology. Australia: Damien Gildea, 1998. IAATO. IP 82 IAATO’S Overview of Antarctic Tourism 2004–2005 Antarctic Season. ATCM XXVIII, Stockholm, 2005. http://www.iaato.org IAATO. IP 95 Report of the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators 2004–2005. ATCM XXVIII, Stockholm, 2005. http://www.iaato.org IAATO. IP 96 Adventure Tourism in Antarctica. ATCM XXVI, 2003. http://www.iaato.org IAATO, 2003. Regulatory Mechanisms that Address Antarctic Tourism. ATCM XXV. www.iaato.org

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Murray, Carl, and Julia Jabour. ‘‘Independent Expeditions and Antarctic Tourism Policy.’’ Polar Record 40 (215) (2004): 309–317. Sale, Richard. To the Ends of the Earth: The History of Polar Exploration. London: Harper Collins, 2002.

AEROBIOLOGY Aerobiology is the study of finely divided suspensions of particles of biological origin, or activity, in air. The passively airborne materials, which constitute bioaerosols, include microorganisms, pollen, spores, and fragments, or products of larger organisms. They occupy the size range circa 0.5–100 microns (aerodynamic diameter) and are collectively termed the air-spora. Aerobiology encompasses study of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the air-spora, including the identity, source, movements, survival, infectivity, toxicity, and allergenicity of particles. The Antarctic air-spora is characterized by low particle abundance and diversity, with a virtual absence of pollen. The density of the Antarctic air-spora (usually 200 1,500–1,700

300 ? 1,332 ? ?

1979/80 1984/85 2000 1984 1998 2000

increasing (1988/89–1999/2000)a increasing + 23% (1962/63–1987/88) + 20.1% (1962/63–2000/01) increasing increasing increasing increasing increasing increasing

Iˆle de la Possession (Iˆles Crozet)

67 234

? ?

1992/93 1999/00

Marion Island

251c 796c

1,205d 3,821

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Prince Edward Island

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2,000 15,523c

200 2000i >9,501 66,128

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South Georgia

14,000 feet) directly from sea level along the Ross Sea coastline. Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth Mountains is the highest point in Antarctica (5140 m). Antarctica today is largely surrounded by passive margins and spreading centers, but the TAM represent a significant intraplate mountain belt with a long history of events marking the tectonic evolution of West and East Antarctica. To the east, the TAM are flanked by igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Precambrian East Antarctic craton, although these rocks are mostly ice covered and known from scattered coastal outcrops and geophysical surveys. Westward, along the margin of the Ross Sea and in Marie Byrd Land, the TAM are bounded by heterogeneous crust of West Antarctica, composed primarily of Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks, as well as Cenozoic volcanics. Presentday topographic expression in the TAM is related to geologically recent extension along the Ross Sea margin, yet rocks exposed in the range reflect a protracted history of continental rifting, mountain building, and renewed crustal extension between late Precambrian and Mesozoic time. Sailing expeditions crossing from the southern Pacific Ocean first sighted high peaks of the TAM in the mid-nineteenth century, and the region was named Victoria Land by the British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) expedition (1839–1843) under James Clark Ross. A later British expedition (1898–1900) led by Carsten E. Borchgrevink made landings between northern Victoria Land and Ross Island, sampling volcanic rocks in the region. The first geological studies to penetrate inland in the TAM were carried out by members of early polar 1007

TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS, GEOLOGY OF

The Transantarctic Mountains.

exploring expeditions. Members of the British National Antarctic Expedition were the first to find their way through the TAM and onto the Polar Plateau. Then historically significant overland traverses were made into Victoria Land and onto the Polar Plateau by Ernest Shackleton’s British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition and Douglas Mawson’s Australasian Antarctic Expedition, which helped determine the position of the South Geomagnetic Pole. On their fateful return from the South Pole in early 1912, Scott’s polar party collected rock specimens along Beardmore Glacier, as had Shackleton’s 3 years before. Geologists accompanying US and Australian expeditions in the 1920s and 1930s did periodic reconnaissance. Comprehensive surveying, geological mapping, and study of rock exposures began in earnest with activities of the International Geophysical Year, begun in 1957. Active geological research in the TAM today is sponsored primarily by the national programs of Germany, Italy, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. No mineral deposits of economic value are known in the TAM. Large volumes of early Paleozoic and Jurassic igneous rocks underlie the mountain belt, including granites of continental-margin volcanic-arc affinity and gabbros found in mafic layered intrusions. Similar occurrences of igneous rocks host important

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economic mineral deposits in other parts of the world (for example, copper and platinum-group elements), but no indications of such mineralization are known here. Thin coal seams in Gondwana strata of the Beacon Supergroup are of low rank, making them of greater interest for paleoclimate reconstructions than as a potential economic mineral resource. The TAM sit astride the western limit of Precambrian crustal rocks representing the East Antarctic craton. This is one of Earth’s oldest continental assemblies, dating to nearly 4 billion years ago, and shows evidence of tectonic reactivation during mountain-building events about 1 billion and 600–500 Ma. Nearly the entire shield is covered by the modern East Antarctic ice sheet, so knowledge about its age and composition comes primarily from scattered coastal exposures. Presence of Precambrian basement underlying the TAM comes from rare exposures within the mountain belt and geophysical imaging of rocks beneath the adjacent polar ice cap. Exposures of Archean and Proterozoic basement in the TAM are restricted to the Nimrod Group, mapped in the central region of the mountain belt. Despite the effects of younger metamorphism and deformation during the Ross Orogeny, these highgrade metamorphic and igneous rocks record a rich Precambrian geologic history of the East Antarctic craton that spans 2.5 billion years of Archean to

TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS, GEOLOGY OF early Paleozoic time. Recognized events include primary Archean magmatism from 3150–3000 Ma, crustal stabilization and metamorphism from 2955–2900 Ma, partial melting at about 2500 Ma, deep-crustal metamorphism and magmatism from 1730–1700 Ma (Nimrod Orogeny), and basement reactivation involving high-grade metamorphism, magmatism, and penetrative deformation during the Ross Orogeny from 540–515 Ma. The presence of Precambrian cratonic basement along the eastern side of the TAM, where such rocks are not exposed, is revealed by geophysical methods that image through the ice cover. Gravity and magnetic data, for example, show that thick continental lithosphere beneath the ice cap traces the western limit of the modern TAM. East Antarctic lithosphere is thought to be a key part of the late Precambrian supercontinent of Rodinia, which formed by collision and amalgamation of several large continental cratons about 1 billion years ago (Grenville Orogeny). Beneath and to the west of the TAM, Antarctic lithosphere is thinner and younger. The coincidence of this change in lithospheric character with the TAM suggests that the modern mountain belt overlies an ancient continental rift margin. Geological, stratigraphic, and geochronological data from rare outcrops indicate that rifting occurred from about 750–680 Ma, separating what became East Antarctica to the east from a conjugate continental plate to the west. Some workers interpret paleogeographic and paleomagnetic data to indicate that East Antarctica rifted from present-day North America, but this interpretation is controversial. Although the identity of the conjugate margin to East Antarctica is debated, the geometry and nature of the late Precambrian rift margin in Antarctica shaped subsequent geologic events in the TAM. Between the time of rift separation and convergence associated with the Ross Orogeny, the paleo-Pacific continental margin of Antarctica was blanketed by late-Neoproterozoic clastic sediment, interlayered with minor volcanic material, culminating in deposition of thick Lower Cambrian reef carbonates deposited on a mature continental platform during a period of global sea-level rise. Marine fauna in the carbonates suggest that East Antarctica resided in a low-latitude position and was geographically linked with other extant continents. The western rift margin of East Antarctica coincided with the breakup of Rodinia, but formation of the Gondwana supercontinent transformed the TAM margin of Antarctica to an active convergent boundary. Subduction along this margin of Antarctica occurred in response to closure of the ancient Mozambique Ocean and collision within the East

African Orogen beginning about 600–500 Ma (also known generally as the Pan-African Orogeny). The resulting Ross Orogeny in Antarctica refers to the period of latest Proterozoic and early Paleozoic tectonic activity related to continental-margin subduction like that occurring in the modern Andes Mountains. Initial deformation linked to Ross activity is preserved in deep-seated crystalline basement as well as in the older rift-margin deposits and can be traced to about 540 Ma. Some orogenic sedimentary deposits contain igneous detritus of similar age, suggesting erosion of a huge continental-margin batholith belt that is a central signature of Ross activity. The breadth and character of deformation, metamorphism, magmatism, and orogenic sedimentation suggest that the Ross Orogen was similar in scale to other large mountain belts, and it is well-exposed today as basement to the modern TAM. Orogenic features related to Ross shortening and magmatism can be traced from the Ellsworth and Pensacola Mountains to the Queen Maud and Queen Elizabeth mountains, then northward along the main spine of the TAM to Victoria Land; correlative tectonic features are found in the Delamerian Orogen in Australia. The principal characteristics of the Ross Orogen are regional contractional deformation, emplacement of widespread granitoid magmas, and variable metamorphism of both high-temperature and highpressure types. In detail, deformation was partitioned into both orogen-normal and orogen-parallel displacements, suggesting that convergence was oblique. The vast scale of magmatism forming the Ross batholith belt, including early alkaline compositions and main-phase calc-alkaline rocks, is most certainly a product of convergent-margin magmatism. As such, the calc-alkaline Ross-age igneous rocks represent significant primary magmatic additions to the Antarctic lithosphere. Evidence for eastward subduction of paleo-Pacific oceanic lithosphere beneath cratonic East Antarctica comes primarily from geochemical and isotopic variations in granitoid magmas, which show an eastward increase in continental signature. Ross-age igneous rocks span at least 80 million years during the orogenic cycle and include intrusions that predate deformation, are synchronous with it, or cut across deformation features. They intrude older metamorphic roots of the orogen, as well as young orogenic deposits. Ross metamorphism is highly variable in character, and includes high-temperature magmatic-arc metamorphism, high-pressure metamorphism due to crustal thickening and oceanic-arc collision, and low-grade metamorphism associated with seaward growth by plate-margin accretion. Regional metamorphism in pre-Ross sedimentary assemblages

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TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS, GEOLOGY OF is typically of medium grade, but high-temperature rocks and migmatites that formed by local partial melting occur in the Miller Range (Nimrod Group) and Mountaineer Range (Wilson Group); eclogites, rocks formed at very high pressures, in northern Victoria Land attest to profound crustal thickening during Ross convergence. Thick accumulation of orogenic clastic sediments (mainly deposited in forearc basins in northern Victoria Land, the central TAM, and the Pensacola Mountains) reflect significant erosion within the mountain belt, consistent with thermochronologic evidence of rapid late-orogenic denudation. Ross Orogen tectonic activity diminished through the Ordovician period (in most areas by about 480 Ma) and this region of Antarctica became tectonically quiet by the Early Devonian. Prolonged denudation reduced the Ross mountain belt to a continent-wide flat erosional surface, called the Kukri peneplain. This surface is well exposed in many places as an unconformity boundary separating basement rocks below from sedimentary and volcanic successions of the Beacon Supergroup above. It is an easily identifiable marker used to determine the magnitude of younger differential uplift. Some 2.5–3.0 kilometers of terrestrial sediment, mostly clastic sequences of quartz-rich fluvial conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone, were deposited between Devonian and Triassic time (over 150 million years). This well-known upper Paleozoic and lower Mesozoic Gondwana sequence includes Devonian to Carboniferous shallow-marine and nonmarine clastics; Upper Carboniferous to Lower Permian glacial and glacial-marine rocks; Lower Permian marine, deltaic, fluvial, and lacustrine rocks; Upper Permian fluvial, lacustrine, and deltaic coal measures; and a thick succession of Triassic fluvial rocks. Correlative successions extend from South America to Australia, Africa, and India, suggesting a broad network of terrestrial basins. Beacon strata contain rich plant, invertebrate, vertebrate, and trace fossil assemblages critical for paleogeographic and paleoenvironmental reconstructions marking the end of major glaciations on the Pangea supercontinent. These include Permian and early Triassic fluvial and lacustrine deposits containing extensive Glossopteris leaf-litter beds, petrified forests, and fossil crayfish and burrows, indicating a nearpolar terrestrial environment. By Triassic time, Antarctica had drifted northward to lower paleolatitudes along with its African and Australian craton neighbors. Deposits of this age contain tetrapod fossils of Lystrosaurus- and Cynognathus-type reptiles and amphibians, and anatomically well-preserved fossil plants and pollens, some as silicified remnants in petrified forests. Antarctica reached its most northerly 1010

paleolatitude position at the end of Pangea time, and the uppermost Beacon deposits of the TAM contain recently discovered Jurassic vertebrates, both dinosaur and pterosaur faunas, suggesting a moderateclimate terrestrial ecosystem. Thus, the Gondwana sequence of the TAM records a progressive terrestrial climate shift from glacial conditions to subpolar, wet–temperate, and arid conditions. Much of the present physiographic expression of the TAM can be traced to its Mesozoic history during early fragmentation of the Gondwana supercontinent, which resulted in continental rifting and separation of the Antarctic lithosphere from parts of present-day South America and Africa. In the TAM, the large-scale plate movements led to widespread Jurassic igneous activity and extensional deformation generally perpendicular to the modern trend of the mountain belt. Magmas collectively referred to the Ferrar Magmatic Province erupted as basaltic flows onto both wet and dry Beacon landscape surfaces and they were emplaced as individual subsurface intrusions. One of the most prominent of these, the Dufek intrusion, is similar to other mafic-layered intrusions worldwide except for a lack of known economic mineral occurrences. In many areas, Ferrar magmas were injected within Beacon strata as a swarm of laterally extensive sheet-like sills, enhanced in cliff exposures by glacial erosion. Geochronology shows that the Ferrar sills were emplaced over a geologically brief period about 175–180 Ma, yet they can be traced the entire length of the TAM. Individual sheets may be hundreds of meters thick and can be traced for tens and hundreds of kilometers. The Ferrar Magmatic Province extends over 3000 km along nearly the full length of the TAM and is contemporaneous with similar rocks in Australia, South America, and southern Africa. Ferrar magmas are thought to result from high-temperature melting of a mantle source, overlying mantle plumes or associated with back-arc spreading. Jurassic magmatism was accompanied by crustal extension, which displaced some basement rocks westward toward Marie Byrd Land and contributed to differential uplift within the present-day intraplate mountain belt. Mesozoic extension is expressed mainly by distributed, relatively small-offset fault arrays, and did not result in complete rifting of Antarctica along its paleo-Pacific margin. The amount and timing of Mesozoic extension is poorly known, but appears to be of similar magnitude to the Basin and Range province of North America. Extension continued episodically from Cretaceous into Cenozoic time, leading to crustal thinning and widening of the Ross Sea basin and movement along steep, orogen-parallel normal faults within the TAM.

TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS, GEOLOGY OF With few exceptions, major range-front faults are covered by the Ross Ice Shelf at the base of the mountains, but they are inferred to mark the sharp geomorphic break. Mapped faults define an asymmetric pattern formed mainly by down-to-the-west normal faults. Displacement on individual structures defining this rift-shoulder extensional system is up to several hundred meters, with cumulative vertical displacement of 5 km. Uplift attributed to this displacement started by about 120 Ma, but a major period of extension beginning about 55 Ma produced as much as 4 km of denudation over just the past 30 million years (since Oligocene time). Cenozoic volcanism in the eastern Ross Sea region is thought to be an expression of this extensional setting. Contrasting geologic units along the edges of modern large outlet glaciers suggests that extension was accommodated by transverse structures reactivated along earlier riftphase and Ross-orogen features. Geodetic data indicate that neotectonic uplift continues and active alkaline volcanism in the McMurdo area is attributed to residual intraplate extension between East and West Antarctica. Cenozoic volcanism along the western and southwestern Ross Sea margin of the TAM is marked by Oligocene and younger alkali basalt centers, the largest of which is Mount Erebus. Volcanism of the McMurdo Volcanic Group began about 25 Ma, but many of the volcanoes in the region are Pliocene to recent age and now dormant. Mount Erebus (about 3800 m) on Ross Island is the world’s southernmost historically active volcano. Its summit contains an active lava lake, contained within a composite caldera structure. Volcanic activity has been continuous since 1972, producing strombolian eruption of cinders and volcanic bombs on the crater rim. The modern TAM form a nearly continuous ice barrier between East and West Antarctica. Ice flows generally away from the mountain belt, except where high-standing ice of the East Antarctic ice sheet drains through individual outlet glaciers into the Ross Sea. Katabatic-type polar winds ablate relatively stagnant ice dammed against the mountain buttress, leaving behind a lag of rocky debris, including numerous meteorites. Modern and recent climate patterns are controlled in part by the balance of ice present in the major ice sheets to either side of the mountain belt. Although the modern alpine features of the TAM reflect ongoing glacial erosion, some parts of the belt, particularly in the Dry Valleys of Victoria Land, contain glacial deposits and landscape surfaces that suggest polar desert conditions extending back at least 17 million years. Present research is directed to the question of whether the East Antarctic ice sheet has existed continuously at the edge of the

TAM since Miocene time, or whether glaciation was episodic. JOHN W. GOODGE See also Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911– 1914); Beacon Supergroup; Borchgrevink, Carsten E.; British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843); British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition (1907–1909); British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition (1898–1900); British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition (1910–1913); British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, Northern Party; British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition (1901–1904); Coal, Oil, and Gas; Dry Valleys; East Antarctic Shield; Ferrar Supergroup; Fossils, Invertebrate; Fossils, Plant; Fossils, Vertebrate; Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica; Gondwana; International Geophysical Year; McMurdo Volcanic Group; Meteorites; Rodinia; Plate Tectonics; Victoria Land, Geology of; West Antarctic Rift System

References and Further Reading Barrett, P. J. ‘‘The Devonian to Jurassic Beacon Supergroup of the Transantarctic Mountains and Correlatives in Other Parts of Antarctica.’’ In The Geology of Antarctica, edited by R. J. Tingey. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 120–152. Collinson, J. W., J. L. Isbell, D. H. Elliot, M. F. Miller, and J. M. G. Miller. ‘‘Permian- Triassic Transantarctic Basin.’’ In Permian-Triassic Pangean Basins and Foldbelts Along the Panthalassan Margin of Gondwanaland, edited by J. J. Veevers and C. M. Powell. Boulder: Geological Society of America, 1994, pp. 173–222. Dalziel, I. W. D.‘‘Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic Geography and Tectonics: Review, Hypothesis, Environmental Speculation.’’ Geological Society of America Bulletin 109.1 (1997): 16–42. Davey, F. J., and G. Brancolini. ‘‘The Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic Structural Setting of the Ross Sea Region.’’ In Geology and Seismic Stratigraphy of the Antarctic Margin, edited by A. K. Cooper, P. F. Barker, and G. Brancolini. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1995, pp. 167–182. Elliot, D. H. ‘‘Jurassic Magmatism and Tectonism Associated with Gondwanaland Break-Up: An Antarctic Perspective.’’ In Magmatism and the Causes of Continental Break-Up, edited by B. C. Storey, T. Alabaster, and R. J. Pankhurst. London: The Geological Society, 1992, pp. 165–184. ———. ‘‘The Late Mesozoic and Cenozoic Tectonic History of Antarctica: Some Implications for Sediment Basin History, Sediment Provenance, and Paleoclimate.’’ Terra Antarctica 1 (1994): 445–448. Goodge, J. W. ‘‘From Rodinia to Gondwana: Supercontinent Evolution in the Transantarctic Mountains.’’ In Antarctica at the Close of a Millennium, edited by J. Gamble, D. A. Skinner, and S. Henrys. Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand, 2002, pp. 61–74. Goodge, J. W., and C. M. Fanning. ‘‘Precambrian Crustal History of the Nimrod Group, Central Transantarctic

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TRANSANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS, GEOLOGY OF Mountains.’’ In Antarctica At the Close of A Millennium, edited by J. Gamble, D. A. Skinner, and S. Henrys. Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand, 2002, pp. 43–50. Hammer, W. R. ‘‘Triassic Terrestrial Vertebrate Faunas of Antarctica.’’ In Antarctic Paleobiology: Its Role in the Reconstruction of Gondwana, edited by T. N. Taylor and E. L. Taylor. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp. 42–50. Kleinschmidt, G., and F. Tessensohn. ‘‘Early Paleozoic Westward Directed Subduction at the Pacific Margin of Antarctica.’’ In Gondwana Six: Structure, Tectonics, and Geophysics, edited by G. D. Mckenzie. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1987, pp. 89–105. Laird, M. G. ‘‘The Late Proterozoic-Middle Paleozoic Rocks of Antarctica.’’ In The Geology of Antarctica,

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edited by R. J. Tingey. Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1991, pp. 75–119. Stump, E. The Ross Orogen of the Transantarctic Mountains. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Taylor, T. N., and E. L. Taylor. Antarctic Paleobiology: Its Role in the Reconstruction of Gondwana. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990. Webb, P. N. ‘‘The Cenozoic History of Antarctica and Its Global Impact.’’ Antarctic Science 2 (1990): 3–21. Wilson, T. J. ‘‘Jurassic Faulting and Magmatism in the Transantarctic Mountains: Implications for Gondwana Breakup.’’ In Gondwana Eight: Assembly, Evolution and Dispersal, edited by R. H. Findlay, R. Unrug, H. R. Banks, and J. J. Veevers. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, 1993, pp. 563–572.

U UKRAINE: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM

state. At Vernadsky station, Ukrainian scientists carry out research in upper-atmosphere physics and geomagnetic field, total ozone observations, tide measurements, meteorology and climate, biology, glaciology, human biology and medicine, and ecology. The surface meteorology and hydrology observations, total ozone and tide measurements, ionosphere soundings, geomagnetic field registration, UV-B observation, electromagnetic signals observations in VLF, ELF, and HF bands (whistlers, Schumann and Alfven resonances, geomagnetic micropulsations, traveling ionosphere disturbances), and seismic–acoustic measurements are carried on year round to study the energy transfer processes from the Earth’s surface to geospace. The geomagnetic data from Vernadsky have been sent to the INTERMAGNET network. The total ozone measurements are provided to study the ozone hole and atmospheric planetary wave dynamics. Mass-balance and glacier displacement in the Antarctic Peninsula region is the glaciology topic. In biology the research and monitoring of marine mammal and bird population conditions and the genetic structure of the krill population is carried out. The geophysical monitoring of West Antarctica to study deep processes in the lithosphere, its influence on the environment, and construction of the evolution of the geodynamic model of region is studied. In ecology the waste management and radioactive contamination-reducing processes in the human organism during winter are studied. In logistics, R/V Ernst Krenkel was used for Vernadsky supply operation and scientific activity in 1997–1999, and R/V Gorizont sailed as the supply ship

The State Program of Ukrainian Research in Antarctica for 2002–2010 is the integrated program that defines the strategy of Ukrainian activity in Antarctica. The main tasks of the program are fundamental and applied scientific Antarctic research in the field of global climate change, space weather, and ecosystem monitoring. The program’s budget for science and infrastructure since 2000 equals US$1.3 million. The Ukrainian Antarctic Center (UAC) provides research in Antarctica within the Ukraine Ministry of Education and Science as national operator. The UAC staff consists of fifty people. The scientific division includes the groups of scientific support, informational support, and the Antarctic Treaty supervising, publicity, and publishing section. The logistics division involves the groups of logistical procurement, technical services, communications, and personnel training. The network of UAC includes five scientific laboratories in conjunction with institutes of the National Academy of Sciences and universities The Ukraine acceded to the Antarctic Treaty on September 1992, and in 1994 became a member of CCAMLR and an associate member of SCAR. In 2001 Ukraine adhered to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. In May 2004 Ukraine became the twenty-eighth Consultative Party in the Antarctic Treaty System. On 6 February 1996 the British Antarctic base Faraday was transferred to Ukraine and renamed Vernadsky station (65
150 S, 64
160 W). This event started Ukrainian Antarctic research as an independent

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UKRAINE: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM in 2000–2002. The Vernadsky supply scheme—air flight to Ushuaia and a ship charter across the Drake Passage—has been used since 2002. In 1997– 2002 the UAC Bulletin was edited as a scientific journal in which the Ukrainian Antarctic research results are published. In 2003 the Bulletin was transferred to the multidisciplinary Ukrainian Antarctic Journal. GENNADY MILINEVSKY See also Antarctic Treaty System; British Antarctic Survey; Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora: Agreed Measures; Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty; Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) References and Further Reading Clilverd, M. A., F. W. Menk, G. P. Milinevsky, B. R. Sandel, J. Goldstein, B. W. Reinisch, C. R. Wilford, M. C. Rose, N. R. Thomson, K. H. Yearly, G. J. Bailey, I. R. Mann, and D. L. Carpenter. ‘‘In Situ and GroundBased Intercalibration Measurements of Plasma Density at L ¼ 2.5.’’ Journal of Geophyical Research. doi: 10.1029/2003JA009866. Galushko, V. G., V. S. Beley, A. V. Koloskov, et al. ‘‘Frequency and Angular HF Sounding and VHF ISR Diagnostics of TIDs.’’ Radio Science 38 (2861) (2003): 1029–1039. Gritsai, Z. I., A. M. Evtushevsky, N. A. Leonov, and G. P. Milinevsky. ‘‘Comparison of Ground-Based and TOMSEP Total Ozone Data for Antarctica and Northern Midlatitude Stations (1996–1999).’’ Physical Chemistry of the Earth (B) 25 (5–6) (2000): 459–461. National Antarctic Scientific Center of Ukraine. http:// www.uac.gov.ua/index2.php Rushkovsky, S. R., V. F. Bezrukov, and I. R. Barilyak. ‘‘An Approach for Characterization of Individual Features of Karyotype Instability.’’ European Journal of Human Genetics 9 (1) (2001): 161. Ukrainian Antarctic Journal. http://www.uac.gov.ua

ULF PULSATIONS During magnetic storms the geomagnetic field is greatly disturbed, and consequently at polar latitudes a compass needle can wander on a time scale of seconds to an hour or longer, for example during auroral substorms. Intense work during the International Geophysical Year in 1957–1958 established that small, periodic oscillations of the geomagnetic field occur virtually at all times and across the globe. These variations are called geomagnetic pulsations, and their occurrence and amplitude peak at high latitudes. In records from magnetometers, the pulsations are generally of two types. Regular, sinusoidal oscillations with periods between about 0.1 and 1000 sec are called continuous pulsations (Pc), and usually 1014

occur during local daytime. They last for minutes to hours and have amplitude typically around 1 nanoTesla (nT) for 30-sec pulsations, but they are much smaller at shorter periods (for comparison, the main background geomagnetic field has an intensity of 50,000–60,000 nT). At local night the pulsations usually have a more irregular, transient appearance (called Pi) and are associated with auroras and radio noise. Geomagnetic pulsations have been extensively studied using arrays of high-precision magnetometers, using radars that reflect high-frequency radio signals from auroral features, and using magnetic and electric field measurements from spacecraft. It is now known that geomagnetic pulsations are the signature of ultra-low-frequency (ULF—frequency in the range of 1 mHz–10 Hz) waves that propagate through the magnetosphere of the Earth. These ULF waves result from the interaction of the solar wind with the geomagnetic field. The existence of such waves was first predicted in the theory of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), developed by Hannes Alfve´n, who was awarded the 1970 Nobel prize for this work. MHD describes electrically conducting gases in a magnetic field, such as the environment of the solar wind and the magnetosphere. These hydromagnetic waves propagate at what is called the Alfve´n speed, which in the magnetosphere is around 1000– 2000 km/sec. Thus ULF waves may travel through the entire magnetosphere to the earth in around 1 min. There is strong evidence that ULF waves enter the magnetosphere from the upstream solar wind and are also generated at the magnetopause boundary when it undergoes rapid deformation under the action of the solar wind. The waves typically have dimensions comparable to the size of the entire magnetosphere, and may therefore establish oscillations along the geomagnetic field lines that map from the earth’s surface into space like field lines from a bar magnet. Some waves are also generated locally within the magnetosphere, by gaining energy from charged particles orbiting the earth in the radiation belts. Finally, irregular ULF waves are associated with the transient magnetic fields generated by precipitating energetic particles responsible for auroras. ULF waves carry energy from the solar wind throughout the magnetosphere but can also be used to monitor processes in space. This includes space weather effects that can, for example, degrade the performance of radio communications, surveillance radars, and satellites. Space telescope images show that auroras occur on Jupiter and Saturn, and spacecraft have recorded ULF waves in the magnetospheres of those planets. FREDERICK MENK

UNITED KINGDOM: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM See also Aurora; Auroral Substorm; Geomagnetic Field; Geospace, Observing from Antarctica; International Geophysical Year; Magnetic Storm; Magnetosphere of Earth; Plasmasphere; Solar Wind References and Further Reading Arnoldy, Roger L., Laurence J. Cahill, Jr., Mark J. Engebretson, Louis J. Lanzerotti, and Allan Wolfe. ‘‘A Review of Hydromagnetic Wave Studies in the Antarctic.’’ Reviews of Geophysics 26 (1988): 181–207. D’Angelo, Nicola. ‘‘Plasma Waves and Instabilities in the Polar Cusp: A Review.’’ Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics 15 (1977): 299–307. Fraser-Smith, Anthony C. ‘‘ULF/Lower ELF Electromagnetic Field Measurements in the Polar Caps.’’ Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics 20 (1982): 497–512. Hargreaves, John K. The Solar-Terrestrial Environment. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Hughes, W. Jeffrey. ‘‘Hydromagnetic Wave Studies in the Magnetosphere.’’ In Solar Terrestrial Physics: Principles and Theoretical Foundation, edited by Robert L. Carovillano and Jeffrey M. Forbes. Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster: D. Reidel, 1983, pp. 453–477. Kivelson, Margaret G., and Christopher T. Russell, eds. Introduction to Space Physics. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Shawhan, Stanley D. ‘‘The Menagerie of Geospace Plasma Waves.’’ Space Science Reviews 42 (1985): 257–274. Stockflet Jo¨rgensen, Torben. ‘‘Micropulsations, Whistlers and VLF Emissions.’’ In Cosmical Geophysics, edited by Alv Egeland, Ø. Holter, and A. Omholt. Oslo, Bergen, Tromsø: Universitetsforlaget, 1973, pp. 301–310.

UNITED KINGDOM: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM Britain has a rich history of involvement in Antarctic affairs, which has shaped and set the context for how the programme is currently structured. The Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) was established, by public subscription, in 1920 within Cambridge University as a memorial to Captain Robert Falcon Scott and his four companions, who perished on their way back from the South Pole in 1912. It is now part of the Department of Geography of the University. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS), also located in Cambridge, developed from a secret military operation during World War II and is now a wholly owned component body of the UK Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). The Polar Regions Unit (PRU) of the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) has its roots in the British claim to Antarctic territory (the Falkland Islands Dependencies [FID]) lodged by Letters Patent in 1908, and more directly from the appointment of Dr. Brian Roberts (exBritish Graham Land Expedition) by the FCO in

1944 to deal with polar political problems and plan policy for the FID. The unit has been in existence in one form or another continuously since then. The Royal Navy has also had a long association with Antarctic affairs, extending back to the early explorations of James Cook and James Clark Ross, but in more modern times (since the Second World War) through the provision of an ‘‘Ice Patrol Vessel,’’ currently HMS Endurance, which deploys annually to the South Atlantic. The PRU is responsible for UK policymaking and representation in Antarctic matters in the international political arena. The PRU takes the lead at meetings of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), at the Council for Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), and at the other subsidiary conventions of the ATS. It also represents UK interests at political fora concerned with Arctic affairs. BAS provides the physical UK presence in Antarctica on behalf of the UK government. BAS has a dual mission: to undertake a world-class programme of science, and to sustain for the UK an active and influential presence and a leadership role in Antarctic affairs. BAS is funded from money provided by the British government for basic science that is channelled through the UK Research Councils. Since the funding is via this route the BAS science programme is not directly determined by government, and nowadays is set through a process of stakeholder and public consultation in the context of the broad strategic research aims of NERC, and subject to rigorous international peer review. The core programme is planned and resourced on a 5-year cycle between reviews. The BAS philosophy is to conduct research on global questions of concern to humankind using the opportunities offered to study the Earth system in the Antarctic setting. BAS also puts emphasis on maintaining key long-term observations of the environment and in continuing a programme of survey. It is enthusiastic about collaboration and maintains a strong programme of public engagement and outreach. Although BAS is within a research council, its dual mission has meant that it is not possible for its strategy to be decoupled from the primary interests of government. Thus the long-term strategic planning for BAS is dealt with by an interdepartmental group that has representation from the FCO, Treasury, the Office of Science & Technology (of the Department of Trade & Industry), NERC, and BAS. BAS is an integrated operation providing both the logistics and the scientific effort from within its own staff and resources, which makes it distinctly different from most other national operators. BAS operates two major year-round research facilities in Antarctica, at Rothera Point on Adelaide Island (Rothera Station) 1015

UNITED KINGDOM: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM and on the Brunt Ice Shelf in the southern Weddell Sea (Halley Station). In addition, two smaller yearround research stations are maintained on the subAntarctic Island of South Georgia (at King Edward Point and on Bird Island), and a summer-only station is operated on Signy Island (South Orkney Islands). The BAS has two ice-capable vessels: the Royal Research Ships Ernest Shackleton and James Clark Ross. The former is primarily for logistical support whilst the latter provides a very sophisticated ocean research platform. BAS operates a fleet of four DHC-6 skiwheel Twin Otter aircraft within the Antarctic and one DHC-7 (wheels only) aircraft whose primary role is to provide an intercontinental link between the Falkland Islands and Rothera Station. BAS provides expert advice to PRU for ATS and CCAMLR matters and is responsible for representation at the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes (COMNAP). For 2005, the overall budget of BAS was circa £40M and the staff was circa 475 people. The Royal Navy vessel HMS Endurance provides direct logistical support to BAS operations, primarily through the provision of her two helicopters. She is also engaged in a long-term programme of hydrographic survey around the Antarctic Peninsula, adjacent islands, and South Georgia. Although most of the funding for research is channelled through BAS, the NERC also operates a responsive mode competitive scheme, known as the ‘‘Antarctic Funding Initiative,’’ which provides funds for UK academics (and BAS staff) for Antarctic research using the BAS logistical capability. SPRI does not have an in-house logistical capability, but has a broad portfolio of research in both the Antarctic and Arctic, and carries out postgraduate teaching in polar matters. It is also the home of one of the finest polar libraries in the world (the Shackleton Memorial Library), the Thomas H. Manning Polar Archives, and a comprehensive collection of polar maps. The secretariat for the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) is based at SPRI, as are the World Data Centre for Glaciology and the International Glaciological Society. In addition, there is a museum of polar artefacts that is open to the public. There are also several other significant university groups in the UK carrying out research in, on, or related to Antarctica. The Royal Society is the British national academy for science. It has taken an interest in Antarctic research since it sponsored the expedition that established the first Halley station in 1956 as part of the UK contribution to the International Geophysical Year. This interest continues through the its National Committee for Antarctic Research, the forum for 1016

coordinating the UK involvement in SCAR comprising leading scientists from BAS, SPRI, and the broader UK academic community. JOHN R. DUDENEY See also Antarctic Peninsula; Antarctic Treaty System; British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843); British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition (1910–1913); British Antarctic Survey; British Graham Land Expedition (1934–1937); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR); Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP); Cook, James; Earth System, Antarctica as Part of; International Geophysical Year; Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR); Scott Polar Research Institute; Scott, Robert Falcon; South Georgia; South Orkney Islands References and Further Reading British Antarctic Survey. http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/ Fuchs, V. E. Of Ice and Men. London: Anthony Nelson, 1982. Headland, R. K. Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Scott Polar Research Institute. http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/

UNITED NATIONS In 2005, the sixtieth anniversary of the United Nations (UN) marked the organisation’s enduring, frequently significant role in international affairs. For many, the UN represents the obvious mechanism for resolving, or at least managing, international problems. Unsurprisingly, Antarctica, a region characterised by uncertain, indeed disputed, ownership and a perceived conflict potential, has often been presented as a prime case for UN treatment, especially given concerns about economic exploitation and conservation alongside a growing awareness of the continent’s integral role in global environmental systems. However, in practice, the UN has proven to be, and remains still, only a marginal player in Antarctic affairs. Instead, individual governments, acting both individually (e.g., through national scientific research programmes) and collectively through the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), have performed the principal roles. Despite occasional calls after 1945 for UN intervention, the governments active in Antarctica preferred a more direct approach, culminating in the 1959 Antarctic Treaty. Thenceforth, the region has been managed by the Antarctic Treaty parties (ATPs), working through the ATS. Nevertheless, in 1983, the Malaysian government and its supporters,

UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS) guided by environmental NGOs, placed the ‘‘Question of Antarctica’’ formally on the UN’s agenda. They argued the case for treating Antarctica, like the deep seabed, as the common heritage of humankind managed by a UN-based body in place of what was presented as the unaccountable, undemocratic, and nontransparent ATS. The participation of the apartheid South African government in the ATS was a further target for attack. By contrast, the ATPs asserted that Antarctica was managed by a valid, successful, and comprehensive regime open to accession by any UN member. Sharp divisions between ATPs and their critics meant that the UN’s initial consensus approach soon broke down in 1985. Restored in 1994, a consensus approach prevails still today. ATPs and nonATPs, albeit still agreeing to differ about how to manage Antarctica, accept the need to work for change within the ATS framework. The UN remains seized of the ‘‘Question of Antarctica,’’ but the critical campaign has lost much of its momentum. Thus, the topic is now placed on the UN agenda upon only a triennial basis—the last reference was in late 2005—and there is even growing speculation about Malaysian accession to the Antarctic Treaty. Although the UN’s post-1983 involvement in Antarctica has often been dismissed as somewhat ritualistic, the episode has encouraged a more informed appreciation upon the part of the broader international community of the nature and significance of Antarctica, the ATS, and polar science. Indeed, the UN Secretary-General’s reports, produced to guide each UN session on Antarctica, offer a useful up-to-date reference source. At the same time, the UN-based challenge, though treated by ATPs as a low priority, has fostered a greater sense of purpose and unity between them alongside an awareness of the need to do more by way of selling the ATS’s merits to a wider audience and the prudence of involving the UN’s specialised agencies, like the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its work. PETER J. BECK See also Antarctic Treaty System; Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC); Geopolitics of the Antarctic; Greenpeace; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS); United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) References and Further Reading Beck, Peter J. ‘‘Twenty Years On: The UN and The ‘Question of Antarctica,’ 1983–2003.’’ Polar Record 40 (214) (2004): 205–212.

Beck, Peter J. ‘‘Antarctica: A Case for the UN?’’ The World Today 40 (4) (1984): 165–172. Edmar, De´sire´e. ‘‘The Antarctic Treaty System and the United Nations.’’ In Antarctica’s Future: Continuity or Change?, edited by R. A. Herr, H. R. Hall, and M. G. Haward. Hobart: AIIA/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1991, pp. 189–192. Haron, Mohamad. ‘‘The Ability of the Antarctic Treaty System to Adapt to External Challenges.’’ In The Antarctic Treaty System in World Politics, edited by Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl and Willy Østreng. London: Macmillan, 1991, pp. 299–307. Harris, Stuart. ‘‘The Influence of the United Nations on the ATS: A Source of Erosion or Cohesion?’’ International Challenges 10 (1) (1990): 68–72. United Nations Documents. http://www.un.org/documents/ United Nations Dag Hammarskjo¨ld Library. http://www. un.org/Depts/dhl/index.html For the First Committee, which has been responsible for the ‘‘Question of Antarctica,’’ follow the links to ‘‘Disarmament.’’ Beck (2004) provides a guide to specific sources. Whittaker, David J. United Nations in the Contemporary World. London: Routledge, 1997. Woolcott, Richard. ‘‘The Legitimacy of the United Nations’ Challenge to the Antarctic Treaty.’’ In Antarctic Challenge III: Conflicting Interests, Cooperation, Environmental Protection, Economic Development; Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium July 7-12, 1987, edited by Ru¨diger Wolfrum. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1988, pp. 229–241.

UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS) The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was negotiated at the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), held from 1973 to 1982. The convention was opened for signature at Montego Bay, Jamaica on 10 December 1982. On that day it attracted 119 signatures, yet it took 12 years—until 16 November 1994—for the convention to enter into force. In following years the convention secured an almost universal participation: to date (1 June 2006) there are 149 parties to the convention. This was facilitated by the adoption, on 28 July 1994, of the agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the Convention, on the international seabed area. That aspect of the convention is related to the origin of the initiative for UNCLOS III and can be traced back to the 1967 UN General Assembly discussion of the concept of the common heritage of humankind and the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. However, when UNCLOS III eventually began in 1973, it started from a far broader platform: consciousness that the problems of ocean space are closely related and need to be considered as a whole.

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UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF THE SEA (UNCLOS) The result was the convention, consisting of 320 articles and 9 annexes, containing both codification of customary norms and progressive development of international law. Included are rules on various maritime zones and areas: territorial sea, contiguous zone, straits used for international navigation, archipelagic waters, exclusive economic zone, continental shelf, high seas, and the international seabed area. The convention also devotes special parts to enclosed/semienclosed seas and the rights of land-locked states. Protection of the marine environment, scientific research, technology transfer, and settlement of disputes are all addressed. New institutions were established under the convention: the International Seabed Authority, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. A meeting of states’ parties to the convention has been held annually since 1994, while the UN Secretary-General has reported annually since 1984 on key law-of-the-sea developments. Due to its features the convention is often referred to as the ‘‘Charter of the Oceans,’’ a framework treaty that governs all major issues of the entire ocean space. Part of that ocean space surrounds Antarctica. Here, however, the Antarctic Treaty and its related instruments also apply. Most of the current twentyeight Antarctic Treaty consultative parties are simultaneously parties to the convention, with the exception of three states: the United States, Peru, and Ecuador. While in defining the limits of maritime zones the convention relies on the notion of a coastal state, the entire Antarctic Treaty System is built around a delicate balance of positions of sovereignty claimants and nonclaimants. There can be no doubt that the convention does apply to Antarctic waters, yet serious questions have been raised regarding various aspects of that application, including the extent of the high seas, the proclamation of coastal zones, the application of Part XI, and, more recently, the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles. DAVOR VIDAS See also Antarctic Treaty System; Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR); Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (CRAMRA); Geopolitics of the Antarctic; Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty; Southern Ocean; United Nations References and Further Reading Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, United Nations. Official Texts of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 and of the Agreement Relating to the

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Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982. United Nations Publication Sales No. E.97.V.10. New York: United Nations, 1997. Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea, Office of Legal Affairs, United Nations. www.un.org/depts/los Dupuy, Rene´-Jean, and Daniel Vignes, eds. A Handbook on the New Law of the Sea. 2 vols. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991. Evensen, Jens. ‘‘Working Methods and Procedures in the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea.’’ In Recueil des Cours/Collected Courses, Acade´mie de Droit International de la Haye/Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 199, 1986-IV. Dordrecht, Boston, Lancaster: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987. Joyner, Christopher C. Antarctica and the Law of the Sea. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. Nordquist, Myron H., ed. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary. 6 vols. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1985– 2003. Orrego, Francisco Vicun˜a. ‘‘The Law of the Sea and the Antarctic Treaty System: New Approaches to Offshore Jurisdiction.’’ In The Antarctic Legal Regime, edited by Christopher C. Joyner and Sudhir K. Chopra. Dordrecht, Boston, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988, pp. 97–127. Vidas, Davor, and Willy Østreng, eds. Order for the Oceans at the Turn of the Century. The Hague, London, Boston: Kluwer Law International, 1999. Vidas, Davor. ‘‘Emerging Law of the Sea Issues in the Antarctic Maritime Area: A Heritage for the New Century?,’’ Ocean Development and International Law, Vol. 31, Nos. 1-2, 2000, pp. 197–222. Vukas, Budislav. ‘‘United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Polar Marine Environment.’’ In Protecting the Polar Marine Environment: Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention, edited by Davor Vidas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 34–56.

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMME (UNEP) UNEP was established in 1972 to provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. UNEP’s involvement in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean stems from the critical role they play in the global environmental system. Major processes of interaction between the atmosphere, oceans, ice, and biota affect the entire global system through feedbacks, biogeochemical cycles, circulation patterns, transport of energy and pollutants, and changes in ice mass balance. In addition, the region is of immense value for the conduct of research essential to understanding the global environment.

UNITED STATES: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM Through its various programmes, UNEP addresses assessment, management, and policy aspects of global and regional environmental issues, many of which are relevant to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. UNEP has closely linked global programmes on the conservation, management, and monitoring of the marine environment and its living resources. These programmes include the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Management and Utilization of Marine Mammals; the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities; and the Regional Seas Programme. Major periodic coordination meetings are organized among the regional seas to share experiences, to which the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources is also invited. The assessment programme of UNEP has responsibility for keeping under review the state of the environment. UNEP launched the fourth volume of the Global Environment Outlook series in 2004, where specific chapters are dedicated to the poles. UNEP administers the secretariats of various global conventions dealing with subjects directly relevant to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. They include the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer; the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants; the Convention on Biological Diversity; the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, under which the recent Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels was negotiated. UNEP has the responsibility of preparing the report of the United Nations Secretary-General on the Question of Antarctica, which is submitted every 3 years to the General Assembly of the United Nations. To this end, UNEP is invited to attend the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings as an expert organization. UNEP contributes to these meetings by the submission of technical papers that cover a range of issues including the practice of inspections, bioprospecting, and the status of conservation of Antarctic mammals and birds. UNEP’s involvement in polar areas requires policy guidance and coordinated inputs from UNEP substantive units, including UNEP’s Key Polar Centre, GRID-Arendal in Norway. To this end, a Polar Task Force has been established that convenes on an ad hoc basis to discuss and decide upon policy issues and to a lesser degree on operational matters in the poles. CHRISTIAN LAMBRECHTS See also Albatross and Petrels, Agreement for the Conservation of; Antarctic Treaty System; Convention

on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR); Earth System, Antarctica as Part of; United Nations References and Further Reading Cohen, H. K., ed. Handbook of the Antarctic Treaty System. Ninth Edition. Washington, D.C.: US Department of State, 2002. Edmar, De´sire´e. ‘‘The Antarctic Treaty System and the United Nations.’’ In Antarctica’s Future: Continuity or Change?, edited by R. A. Herr, H. R. Hall, and M.G. Haward. Hobart: AIIA/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, 1991, pp. 189–192. UNEP. Global Environment Outlook. New York: United National Environmental Programme, 2004.

UNITED STATES: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM The United States Antarctic Program is the principal expression of US interest in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. Its purpose, as a presidential memorandum states, is to maintain an active and influential national presence responsive to US scientific, economic, and political objectives; the presence is stated to include science in major disciplines and year-round occupation of the South Pole and two coastal stations. A later presidential directive states that fundamental aims in the Antarctic are to protect the environment, preserve research opportunities, maintain the peace, and conserve marine living resources. The US Congress authorizes public funding for the program in response to annual requests made by the President. The program helps the United States fulfill obligations under the Antarctic Treaty, to which the nation is signatory. Other international affiliations include the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs and the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. The National Science Foundation (NSF), an agency of the US Government, manages the US Antarctic Program. Using the funds that the Congress has appropriated, it finances nearly all US research and operational support conducted in the Antarctic. Spending in fiscal 2004 was US $265.56 million. Of this total, $45.20 million was for research grants, $152.29 million was for operations and science support, and $68.07 million was for logistics. These annual levels are typical. The Congress occasionally allocates additional funds to the NSF for special

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UNITED STATES: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM projects such as the rebuilding of Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. The NSF is not an Antarctic institute and does not perform research. Scientists employed by universities and other institutions throughout the nation perform these functions, having submitted proposals to the NSF to do so. A major contractor to the NSF provides operational support in the Antarctic, and other contractors provide specialized services such as helicopter operations. The US military provides logistics including intercontinental airlift, sealift, icebreaking, operational weather forecasting, and LC-130 ski airplane operations. While the United States has no central Antarctic institute, the NSF does fund specialized Antarctic facilities around the nation including an ice core laboratory, a marine geology research facility and core library, the Antarctic meteorite collection, a polar rock repository, and a center for maps, aerial photographs, and place names. The NSF’s web site (www.nsf.gov) provides information about the Antarctic program, and it lists and describes each research award. Regarding accomplishments, an NSF-funded organization compiles an online directory of data sources resulting from the NSF’s Antarctic grants. Publication of Antarctic research results is the responsibility of grantees and occurs mainly in the standard refereed scientific literature. The NSF-funded online Antarctic Bibliography, which abstracts and indexes all the world’s Antarctic research literature, contains grant numbers of listed publications that resulted from NSF support.

Richard E. Byrd’s hugely popular expeditions in 1928–1930 and 1933–1935 investigated West Antarctica from a wintering station on the Ross Ice Shelf and included, in 1929, the first flight to the geographic South Pole. In the late 1930s, the US Government established the US Antarctic Service Expedition, intended to be permanent but stopped in 1941 because of World War II. The 1946–1947 US Navy Antarctic Developments Project remains the largest Antarctic expedition, with 4700 personnel, 13 ships, and several aircraft; it made 15,000 mapping photographs. The US Navy Second Antarctic Developments Project and the privately financed Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition occurred the next season. These three expeditions yielded the region’s first medium-scale maps and influenced placement of research stations for the 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year (IGY). During planning for the IGY, the United States agreed to establish a research facility at the geographic South Pole. In December 1955 it began setting up Naval Air Facility McMurdo Sound on Ross Island as a seaport and base from which to fly supplies to the Pole. Amundsen-Scott South Pole and McMurdo stations have operated continuously, year round, since then. Five other US Antarctic stations built for the 18-month IGY are no longer used. In 1959, the nation established its modern United States Antarctic Program.

Early US Expeditions

Much US Antarctic Program research involves phenomena that are global. Stratospheric chemists at McMurdo demonstrated that man-made chlorinated fluorocarbons cause the ozone hole; this evidence helped the world community in 1987 decide to phase out these and related chemicals. Now US year-round stations monitor the ozone hole for, among other things, the anticipated reduction in size as a result of the 1987 decision. Research also provides understanding of the harmful effects on living organisms of the increased ultraviolet radiation that penetrates the Antarctic atmosphere as a result of the ozone hole. The West Antarctic Ice Sheet, which if melted would raise sea level some 5 m, is known to have disappeared millions of years ago, and portions now are changing rapidly. Scientists are using satellite data, surface sampling, seismic sensing, and other measures to try to predict future behavior of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. The annually deposited layers of the thick Antarctic ice sheet contain information about earlier climate

US sealers were in the South Shetland Islands as early as 1819. The sealer Nathaniel B. Palmer, who worked in the Antarctic Peninsula area in 1820 and after whom Palmer Land is named, was one of the first to record a sighting of the Antarctic. The first US scientist to work in the Antarctic was James Eights, who was naturalist aboard the United States Exploring Expedition of 1830, a voyage that the US Congress commissioned. Eights described some of the region’s biota and studied the geology of sub-Antarctic islands, where he discovered fossil plants. The six Antarctic papers he published influenced the work of other naturalists, including Charles Darwin. The United States Exploring Expedition, led by Lt. Charles Wilkes, US Navy, in 1839–1840, mapped 2500 km of the Antarctic coast south of Australia and proved thereby that Antarctica is a continent. 1020

Research

UNITED STATES: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM change. Russia, the United States, and France collaborated from 1989 to 1998 to retrieve and study ice core from Vostok, the Russian station in East Antarctica. The coring yielded the longest continuous annual climate record extracted from ice—420,000 years. Fossil discoveries by US scientists contributed to Antarctica’s geologic history and its former connections to other continents. They include the terrestrial Lystrosaurus, discovered in 1969 (the dominant taxon of a cosmopolitan fauna of low diversity that survived the great extinctions at the end of the Permian); a fossil mammal discovered in 1982 with Argentine scientists (establishing that Antarctica and South America were connected as recently as 40 Ma); and a dinosaur in 1991, proving dinosaurs lived on every continent. Research on the impact on biota of extreme cold and extended periods of light and dark is a focus. Some cold and dry areas of the Antarctic are studied as analogies to other bodies in the solar system and to the Late Precambrian Snowball Earth. Maps ranging from single-sheet maps of the entire continent to large-scale maps of selected areas are produced and published by the US Geological Survey. The entire continent—except some featureless areas— has been mapped at a scale of 1:500,000 or larger. Antarctica provides a platform for looking outward from Earth; astrophysics and astronomy are major emphases of the US Antarctic Program. Observations at South Pole Station through its cold, clean, dry atmosphere provide viewing in some wavelengths equal in quality to those made from space. Telescopes measure radiation emitted when the universe was young, before stars and galaxies began to form, providing clues about how the universe evolved into its present state. An instrument array beneath Amundsen-Scott Station uses the homogeneous, clear ice sheet (2900 m deep) as the medium for detecting neutrinos from deep space. Neutrinos carry information very different from that obtained via light telescopes and radio telescopes, and observing them opens a new window to help detect and explain the universe’s so-far-undetected forms of mass and energy.

Facilities and Operations By 1965, the program had its present suite of three year-round stations: two on the coast (McMurdo, as mentioned, and Palmer, on Anvers Island off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula), and the interior station on the ice plateau at the South Pole.

In summer (October–February), the approximate population of the US Antarctic Program on the continent (not including ships) rises from winter’s few hundred (349 in 2005) to about 1800. The approximate number of science projects rises from 10 in winter to over 125 in summer. About 2500 people a year participate. Air transport generally takes place only in summer, but it is extensive then, enabling rapid deployment of scientists and support personnel to and from the Antarctic via McMurdo Station, providing almost the totality of transport to and from the South Pole, and making possible the establishment each summer of research camps. Field camps away from the year-round stations are a major part of the US Antarctic Program, numbering in the dozens over summer, with their populations nearing 200. Camps are located as science requires throughout the Antarctic and vary in size from a tent to an installed facility with heated structures and even running water. The camps usually focus on geology and geophysics, glaciology, and biology. In a typical summer, aircraft flights to support these camps number in the hundreds. Although airplanes bring to Antarctica the scientists, some research equipment, and fresh food, ships deliver most of the cargo and all of the fuel. McMurdo receives one tanker and one cargo ship, both ice-strengthened but requiring icebreaker escort, each year. Palmer Station on Anvers Island by the Antarctic Peninsula is serviced entirely by ship (from southern South America) without icebreaker escort. Its location slightly north of the Antarctic Circle makes it accessible by ice-capable ship at any month of the year; the population varies from forty-five in summer to as low as ten in winter. The research emphasis is marine biology. Year-round automated data collection takes place at remote sites throughout Antarctica. In 2002, a typical year, fifty-two weather stations and six geophysical observatories operated unattended except for brief visits for maintenance. Southern Ocean research in marine geology and geophysics, marine biology, and oceanography has been extensive since the research ship USNS Eltanin (length 81.1 m) surveyed the region between 1962 and 1972, covering 410,000 nautical miles in an Antarctic circumnavigation of 55 cruises. The program’s present-day deep-water research ship is the purpose-built icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer (93.9 m), which entered service in 1992. This ship supports research in all parts of the Southern Ocean, with a focus on ice-infested areas. R/V Laurence M. Gould (70.2 m), ice capable, transports personnel and cargo to and from Palmer 1021

UNITED STATES: ANTARCTIC PROGRAM Station and supports oceanic research mainly along the western side of the Antarctic Peninsula and in the Drake Passage. Ships of the US academic fleet also have worked in the Southern Ocean on particular research questions. The international Ocean Drilling Program (Joides Resolution) and its predecessor Deep Sea Drilling Project (Glomar Challenger) have taken deep-sea sedimentary cores south of 60
S, providing information regarding past climates obtainable in no other way. Findings include the 1988 discovery that a much larger Antarctic ice sheet existed 35 Ma. Icebreakers in the US military fleet have participated in US Antarctic work since the beginning of the IGY, when Glacier (94.4 m) helped to establish McMurdo Station. While their primary role is to break channels in sea ice and to escort supply ships, the icebreakers also support research directly.

International Cooperation International cooperation in research and research support occurs extensively in the US Antarctic Program. At its most straightforward, a US scientist joins a non-US research team or vice versa. Russia and the United States exchanged wintering scientists throughout much of the Cold War. Other examples of international cooperation include joint research at a US Antarctic facility and entire projects planned from the beginning to be international, such as the Cape Roberts Project (seven nations, led by New Zealand), established to investigate and better understand climatic and tectonic history. Shared use of facilities and operations has included jointly planned aircraft missions to McMurdo with New Zealand, Italy, and others. The intention always is that, over time, the participating nations contribute effort and derive benefit in commensurate measure. GUY G. GUTHRIDGE See also Amundsen-Scott Station; Antarctic Peninsula; Antarctic Treaty System; Aviation, History of; Byrd, Richard E.; Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP); International Geophysical Year; McMurdo Station; Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, USA; Palmer, Nathaniel; Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1947–1948); Ross Ice Shelf; Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR); Sealing, History of; United States Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1941); United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1928–1930); United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1933–1935); 1022

United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842); United States Navy Developments Projects (1946– 1948); Wilkes, Charles References and Further Reading American Geological Institute’s Antarctic Bibliography. http://www.coldregions.org/ Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica 1775–1948. New York: American Geographical Society, 1971. National Science Foundation. U.S. Antarctic Program, 2004–2005. http://nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/treaty/opp05001/ index.jsp Sullivan, Walter. Quest for a Continent. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957. US Antarctic Program External Panel. The United States in Antarctica. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation, 1997. http://nsf.gov/publications/pub_summ.jsp? ods_key=antpanel Wheeler, Sara. Terra Incognita: Travels in Antarctica. New York: Modern Library, 1999.

UNITED STATES ANTARCTIC SERVICE EXPEDITION (1939–1941) Early in 1939, with war threatening around the world, President Franklin D. Roosevelt decided that the United States must, at least temporarily, abandon its historic practice of neither making nor recognizing territorial claims in the Antarctic. Roosevelt was doubtless galvanized by the presence in the far south that austral summer of a German expedition that explored by air somewhere between 135,000 and 230,000 m2 (350,000 and 600,000 km2) of the Antarctic continent directly south of Africa. While the German effort seems to have been little more than an attempt to validate existing whaling rights (some whale products were vital in Germany), Roosevelt clearly believed that a German presence near the Antarctic Peninsula posed a threat to the solidarity and defense of the Western Hemisphere should a second world war occur. At the same time, famed US polar explorer Admiral Richard Byrd was contemplating a third expedition south, as were several of his colleagues from former ventures. Indeed, Finn Ronne was on the verge of purchasing a ship, and Richard Black, working within the Department of the Interior, had aroused interest there in a US-sponsored expedition even before the president made his decision. Once Roosevelt signaled his intent, the elements of what would formally be designated the United States Antarctic Service Expedition of 1939–1941 (USAS) quickly fell into place. Byrd was first contacted by Department of the Interior and State Department officials in January 1939, and the following month he went to Washington, where he met with Roosevelt to lay preliminary plans. Ronne,

UNITED STATES ANTARCTIC SERVICE EXPEDITION (1939–1941) Black, Paul Siple, Tom Poulter, and others from Byrd’s two earlier private expeditions were swiftly recruited and got to work. Through aerial and ground exploration, Roosevelt wanted to reserve and confirm for possible claim the area stretching from Byrd’s earlier Little America bases in the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea over to the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent areas eastward along the Weddell Sea. While the President initially suggested a new Little America together with a second base somewhere south of Africa’s Cape of Good Hope (adjacent to Germany’s newly claimed ‘‘Neue Schwabenland’’), planners soon determined that fulfilling the basic mission objective would require establishment of an ‘‘East Base’’ somewhere on the peninsula. Roosevelt’s desire to keep the expedition a secret for as long as possible severely hindered both funding and development. When word at last leaked out in May 1939, Congress passed an initial US $10,000 funding bill, supplemented by a further $340,000 in July. This support proved so paltry that it was agreed to make the expedition part public and part private. The initial result was to pressure Byrd into contributing all personal resources to the venture, including the polar ship Bear. The Admiral and ‘‘his boys’’ soon ran afoul of public opinion as well. Byrd’s popularity had waned during the depression-ridden 1930s. He was increasingly accused of being nothing more than a glory- and publicity-seeking hound who mounted expensive adventures while millions of fellow citizens remained bound in want. Congress’s decision to transform the USAS into a mixed enterprise fanned public suspicion that the Admiral was looting both the government and the private sector for his own advantage. When the expedition at last scrambled away aboard two small ships (Bear and the modern, 3500ton, steel-hulled Alaska supply ship North Star) in the late autumn of 1939, war had come to Europe and public attention had shifted there. Accustomed to being sent off in a blaze of publicity, Byrd found his departure mentioned only in a brief squib at the bottom of page 38 of The New York Times. Nonetheless, the expedition got off to a fine start. Byrd and his men managed to cram a giant, wheeled ‘‘snow cruiser’’ on board, together with three aircraft: a large, long-range Barkley-Grow seaplane, an equally big Curtis-Wright Condor, and a small Beechcraft ‘‘satellite’’ plane designed to operate from the snow cruiser. A firm program of scientific research was in place as a result of several earlier meetings between the newly formed USAS Executive Committee (including Byrd and chief scientist-designate Alton Wade) and members of the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. And on the eve of Byrd’s departure, Roosevelt had given him

detailed instructions on objectives, centering around the making of claims, either by flags dropped from aircraft or by cairns on the ground. But, Roosevelt cautioned, neither Byrd nor any member of the expedition was to make any claim public without the express authorization of the Secretary of State. Employing his traditional route, Byrd took his two ships through the Atlantic and Panama Canal, across the Pacific to Dunedin, New Zealand, and then down to the Bay of Whales, where West Base was established under Paul Siple. Once unloaded, North Star went back to Valparaiso, Chile for further supplies and, in March 1940, joined Bear off the Antarctic Peninsula, where, after a rough several days of exploration, a suitable site for East Base was found on tiny Stonington Island in Marguerite Bay. Byrd (and apparently Roosevelt as well) contemplated that the two USAS bases would be occupied on a rotating basis for perhaps 5 or 6 years, despite (or perhaps because of) the fact that the world was at war. Roosevelt directed Byrd himself to return after establishing the bases in order to chair the executive committee overseeing the enterprise. In the event, the men were withdrawn and the bases shut down in March 1941 at the close of the austral summer. By this time, war was looming on the American horizon; fears that the Germans might exploit Antarctica for political or military purposes had proven baseless, and Congress could find many better places to spend money. Despite the widespread activities of the USAS in the ‘‘Pacific quadrant’’ of the Antarctic, the United States chose never to make claims, thus negating a major reason for the expedition. Nonetheless, the USAS accomplished a great deal of valuable science. Despite the failure of the snow cruiser to perform, Byrd and his men mapped by both air and sea the ice-bound and often foggy, cloudy Antarctic coast between the Ross Sea and the Peninsula, which had defied earlier efforts at discovery. Employing dog sleds and light tractors, five small survey, seismic, and geological reconnaissance teams from Little America supplemented and expanded Byrd’s aerial reconnaissance. Moving swiftly eastward across lands claimed by New Zealand, they explored much of the unclaimed Edsel Ford and Rockefeller ranges that lay inland from the coast. At Little America itself, Siple and his men did important research into frostbite and the wind-chill factor while performing valuable mid-winter auroral observations in temperatures that reached –60
F Siple later reported that aerial exploration of the Ross Sea area had resulted ‘‘in over a thousand useable aerial photographs.’’ Following severe weather, East Base commander Richard Black dispatched two field survey parties in 1023

UNITED STATES ANTARCTIC SERVICE EXPEDITION (1939–1941) the 1940–1941 summer. One was led by Finn Ronne and Carl Eklund and the other by Paul Knowles. These explored the base of the Antarctic Peninsula and the adjacent coast along the Weddell Sea. Although Knowles and his two companions never reached ‘‘the corner’’ where the Antarctic Peninsula turned into the Filchner (now Ronne) Ice Shelf, they reached farther south (71
510 S) than any exploring party to date from that area. Ronne and Eklund walked 84 days and 1200 miles (1920 km) through some of the most treacherous crevasse fields in Antarctica. In several flights, Black subsequently supplemented, confirmed, and, in the case of the far southeastern Peninsula, somewhat extended his colleagues’ ground treks and observations. In November 1941, the American Philosophical Society devoted its monthly meeting to the scientific results of the USAS. Wade and Siple were the chief speakers, and Wade confirmed that the expedition had been terminated the previous spring due to ‘‘existing and impending hostilities.’’ The USAS never formally expired. Meetings of its executive committee chaired by Admiral Byrd continued until allocated funds ran out in May 1942. But, smothered by wartime preoccupations, it was never revived. As with the first two Byrd expeditions, neither the USAS nor its government or private sponsors published a formal account of its scientific endeavors, although a few papers did appear during the war. Nor are there any books or articles devoted exclusively to the expedition. However, several accounts have been written within broader contexts. They are clearly based on the formal records of the expedition (including many detailed daily radio reports from the ‘‘ice’’) now housed in Record Group 126, ‘‘Records of the US Antarctic Service,’’ National Archives and Records Administration, in Suitland, Maryland, together with interviews with participants. LISLE ROSE See also Antarctic Peninsula; Byrd, Richard E.; Geopolitics of the Antarctic; German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition (1938–1939); Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1947–1948); Ross Ice Shelf; Siple, Paul

References and Further Reading Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica, 1775–1948. New York: American Geographic Society, 1971. Passel, Charles F. Ice: The Antarctic Diary of Charles F. Passel. Lubbock, Tx.: Texas Tech University Press, 1995. Ronne, Finn. Antarctica, My Destiny: A Personal History of the Last of the Great Polar Explorers. New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1979.

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Siple, Paul. 90
South: The Story of the American South Pole Conquest. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1959. Sullivan, Walter. Quest for a Continent. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957.

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1928–1930) Fresh from his aerial feats over the North Pole in 1926 and the Atlantic Ocean in 1927, Richard E. Byrd turned his attention to organizing a major expedition to Antarctica. It was to have three goals. First was for Byrd to fly over the South Pole. Second was to explore the interior of Antarctica, especially the areas near Roald Amundsen’s route to the South Pole. And third was to add to the scientific knowledge of Antarctica, in geography, geology, geomagnetism, and especially meteorology. In planning for the expedition, Amundsen, Byrd’s former rival for the North Pole, played an important role. Amundsen’s knowledge of the area and conditions at the Bay of Whales persuaded Byrd to build his base near where Amundsen began his journey to the South Pole. Amundsen himself recommended that Byrd buy Sampson, a Norwegian whaler, as his flagship; this Byrd did, renaming it City of New York. Finally, Amundsen encouraged Martin Ronne, who had been on the 1912 expedition, to join Byrd and contribute his experience in the Antarctic as a resource. The expedition challenged Richard Byrd as an organizer and a publicist. Costing more than a million dollars, this was the largest and most expensive expedition that had ever been mounted to Antarctica. Byrd purchased three airplanes and two ships, including a minesweeper, Chelsea, renamed Eleanor Bolling, in addition to City of New York. He contracted with two other ships to transport supplies and break through the ice. Besides recruiting volunteers, Byrd paid salaries for men with special and critical skills, such as pilots. As he had done in his quest for the North Pole, Byrd organized the expedition as his own enterprise. He used his fame—what he called ‘‘the hero business’’—to draw gifts of money, supplies, and equipment. Often, he received supplies from manufacturers in exchange for endorsements. Byrd also turned to people who had supported his North Pole expedition. John D. Rockefeller Jr. and Edsel Ford gave cash. News media paid for stories. The New York Times assigned a reporter, Russell Owens, to travel with the expedition and write stories that would be wired home for publication. Similarly, Paramount Pictures contracted with Byrd and sent two camera men on the

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1928–1930) expedition to film and create a documentary. Byrd named his base ‘‘Little America’’ and one of his airplanes Stars and Stripes to please the American public, even though Norwegians played important roles. The massive expedition reached the Ross Sea and entered the Bay of Whales on December 28, 1928. Days of unloading supplies and building shelters followed. At first, the expedition tried to use Ford trucks to transport supplies from the shoreline to Little America. However, the trucks proved unreliable, and the expedition resorted to dogs and sleds. Three airplanes needed unloading and assembly. One was a three-engine Ford, which Byrd named Floyd Bennett in honor of his pilot of the North Pole flight, who had died in 1928. Because of its three engines, this was the plane that Byrd wanted to use for the long flight over the South Pole. Another one-engine Fokker, Virginia, was to be a plane for rescue and exploration. The third airplane, a one-engine Fairchild, named Stars and Stripes, had large windows for use in aerial photography. Captain Ashley McKinley, who had written a textbook about aerial photography in World War I, had charge of the camera to photograph the terrain over which the plane flew. To fly the planes, Byrd hired pilots Bernt Balchen, Harold June, Alton Parker, and Dean Smith. Soon after landing on the ice, men began building Little America, a small town made of prefabricated buildings buried in the snow. Apart from an administration building and bunkhouse, the complex included three radio antenna towers, a mess hall, hangers for the airplanes, storage sheds, and a machine shop that contained the first generator of electricity in Antarctica. Telephone lines connected some of the buildings. The base sheltered forty-two men of varying temperaments, skills, and backgrounds. Besides the four pilots, there were three aircraft mechanics, three radio operators, five dog drivers, a doctor, three surveyors, a tailor, a carpenter, news media experts, a cook, and general hands. Four scientists took part in the expedition. Leading the scientists was the geologist Dr. Larry Gould, who also was appointed second-in-command. William Haines and Henry Harrison had responsibility for meteorology, while Frank T. Davies was in charge of geomagnetism. In addition, Malcolm Hanson was the expert in radio studies. For meteorological studies and weather forecasts, the expedition relied on Haines. This expedition shaped the career of young Paul Siple. He had earned a place on the expedition by winning a national contest to have a Boy Scout on the expedition. Siple would join in Byrd’s later expeditions and achieve prominence as a scientist. Already in January 1930, airplanes served as instruments for geographical discovery. On January 27,

Byrd and Bernt Balchen flew over Edward VII Land and discovered a mountain chain they named in honor of John D. Rockefeller Jr. Another flight in February enabled them to reach a new land that Byrd named Marie Byrd Land. Successful flights aside, danger and misfortune lurked. In March, the expedition lost Virginia when a windstorm destroyed the airplane while it was parked during a geological investigation of the Queen Maud Mountains. During the Antarctic winter of 1930, attention focused on planning Gould’s geological expedition to the Queen Maud Mountains and Byrd’s related flight to the South Pole. Depots of supplies for the geological expedition, marked with bright orange flags, helped in finding the route south. Gould’s party could radio news of the weather to Little America and could rescue the South Pole party in an emergency. Meanwhile, the plane would drop aerial photographs of the terrain in the distance to the ground party. Not until November 1929 did weather allow Floyd Bennett to drop the last depot of food and airplane fuel at the foot of Mount Nansen. On November 4, 1929, Gould and five men with dogs and sleds set out for the Queen Maud Mountains. Two weeks later, Byrd, Balchen, June, and McKinley took off from Little America in Floyd Bennett. Loaded with the camera, food, and fuel, the airplane struggled to climb over the Liv Glacier. Frantically, the men threw bags of food off the plane and, aided by the lightening of the load and a fortunate updraft, lifted the plane safely. On November 29, Floyd Bennett circled the South Pole, dropped the flag of the United States, weighted with a stone from the grave of Floyd Bennett, and then returned to the depot at Mount Nansen for refueling. Gould and his men returned to Little America on January 19 after a journey of more than 2 months and 1500 miles (2400 km). Exploratory flights and scientific investigations continued until the expedition left Antarctica on February 9, 1930. In the 13 months on the continent, the first Byrd Antarctic Expedition had carried out all of its objectives and more. Apart from the dramatic flight over the South Pole, Byrd and his men had made substantive achievements. They had proven that airplanes could fly to depots, refuel, and fly again. Their flights into the interior had found new mountains, which they named in honor of sponsors John D. Rockefeller and Edsel Ford. New land east of the 150
W longitude had been discovered and named after Marie Byrd. Using aerial cameras for the first time to develop maps, they had recorded nearly 150,000 m2 (390,000 km2). Gould and his party studied the geology of the Queen Maud Mountains and decided that they were related to the mountains of 1025

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1928–1930) Victoria Land. Meanwhile, at Little America, the men surveyed the outline of the Bay of Whales and conducted soundings for its depth. For 13 months, a continuous record of meteorological and magnetic observations had been maintained. Probably the greatest accomplishment of this expedition was in sowing the seeds for the next. The news stories, the books, and the film With Byrd at the South Pole, which followed the expedition, stoked public interest in Antarctica. Byrd would depend on his own popularity and public interest in financing another expedition. Finally, Byrd and other explorers would draw on the lessons learned in using airplanes, radio, and motorized transport in the work of exploration and science. RAIMUND E. GOERLER See also Byrd, Richard E.; Norwegian (Fram) Expedition (1910–1912); Siple, Paul References and Further Reading Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica, 1775–1948. New York: American Geographical Society, 1971. Byrd, Richard E. Little America: Aerial Exploration in the Antarctic, The Flight to the South Pole. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1930. Owen, Russell E. South of the Sun. New York: John Day, 1934. Gould, Laurence M. Cold: The Record of an Antarctic Sledge Journey. Northfield, Minn.: Carleton College, 1931. Rodgers, Eugene. Beyond the Barrier: The Story of Byrd’s First Expedition to Antarctica. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1990. Siple, Paul A. A Boy Scout with Byrd. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1931.

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1933–1935) The second Byrd Antarctic Expedition followed largely the model set by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition of 1928–1930. Both expeditions succeeded without governmental funding. Both used airplanes, motorized transport, and radio on an unprecedented scale. The second expedition resettled the base of the first, Little America, near the Bay of Whales at the Ross Ice Shelf. Like the first, the second expedition deliberately created stories for the mass media. The differences were that the second had more scientific investigations and a nearly fatal undertaking by Admiral Byrd to winter alone in the interior of Antarctica. According to Byrd, the goal of his second expedition was to answer questions of science and geography 1026

raised during the first one. The expedition sought to apply twenty different sciences, including biology, geology, glaciology, astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, and oceanography, to the region. In addition, Byrd and his men planned to add to the geographical knowledge of Antarctica by further exploring areas such as the Rockefeller Mountains and Marie Byrd Land, which were discovered during the first expedition. Finally, Byrd and his men intended to test and employ motorized transports more than previously. Fundraising proved more difficult for the second expedition than the first. Many Americans suffered financially in the Great Depression that had begun in 1929. A return to Antarctica, especially one that featured science so prominently, did not have the dramatic and popular appeal of the first flight to the South Pole. A wealthy few—Edsel Ford, William Horlick, Jacob Ruppert, Thomas Watson, and the National Geographic Society—gave significantly. However, most cash contributions were made in small amounts and amounted to only about $150,000, little more than one-tenth of the cost of the expedition. Companies granted equipment and supplies, and universities loaned scientific equipment. As in the first expedition, news and entertainment media proved critical on the financial front. Major investors were the Columbia Broadcasting System and General Foods. In exchange for financial support, Byrd arranged regular radio broadcasts from Little America—relayed through Buenos Aires, Honolulu, Long Island, and San Francisco—to homes in the United States. General Foods paid $100,000 for the opportunity to air commercials during the broadcasts while Americans listened to news from Antarctica in their living rooms. Byrd’s publicist, Charles Murphy, accompanied the expedition to make certain that good stories were ready for broadcast. In addition, Byrd persuaded a reluctant Paramount Studios, which doubted the commercial value of another film about Byrd and Antarctica, to invest by offering more flights and more drama. Like Byrd’s first expedition, the second proved to be a massive enterprise. Byrd leased for one dollar a year from the US Shipping Board a steel cargo vessel, Pacific Fir, which he renamed Jacob Ruppert. From the city of Oakland, California, Byrd bought at public auction an old icebreaker, Bear, which had been involved in the rescue of the Greeley expedition in 1884, for $1050. This he renamed Bear of Oakland. Airplanes were fundamental to all of Byrd’s expeditions, and he bought three airplanes and an autogyro, an early helicopter. One of the airplanes, named William Horlick, had two engines and served as the chief plane for exploration; the other two had single

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1933–1935) engines for shorter flights. The helicopter was for short survey. For ground transport, the expedition had more than one hundred dogs. However, the ships also carried two light snowmobiles presented by Ford, a tractor from the Cleveland Tractor Company, and three Citroen tractors. The second expedition had more people—fiftysix—winter in Antarctica than the first. Even as scientist Larry Gould had been second in charge in 1928, Byrd appointed another scientist, physicist Thomas C. Poulter, as second-in-command and chief of the scientific staff. Other scientists included two other physicists, two geologists, a geophysicist, two meteorologists, and three biologists. In addition, the wintering party had pilots, dog drivers, tractor drivers, a photographer, a motion picture photographer, a publicist, a surveyor, radio operators, carpenters, a cook, and a medical doctor. Paul Siple, who had been a Boy Scout on the first expedition, joined again as chief of the biologists. Roughly one-third of Byrd’s team had been with him earlier. Among the new members was David Paige, who joined as the artist of the expedition. Ice and weather severely delayed the expedition. Storms delayed the journey from New Zealand to Antarctica. On January 17, 1934, Byrd arrived at the Ross Ice Shelf and his former base, Little America. Ice from the shelf had broken into the sea. Through the years, pressure ridges had formed and made the trail—dubbed ‘‘Misery Trail’’—from the shore to Little America difficult. Unloading took more time than expected. Meanwhile, ice began cracking on the Ross Ice Shelf, and the men feared that Little America could fall into the sea. To store supplies in an emergency, they built another base farther inland, ‘‘Retreat Camp.’’ These difficulties changed one of the primary goals of the expedition: to set up a camp in the interior of Antarctica. The expedition had brought a prefabricated hut designed for three men—Mountain House—to bury in the snow at the foot of the Queen Maud Mountains, some 400 miles from the coast. From here, a team would spend the winter and record meteorological data. Byrd hoped this adventure and scientific ‘‘first’’ would supply stories to the news media and persuade General Foods to renew its advertising contracts. The delays at sea and in unloading, and the coming of winter, caused Byrd to change the plan. The expedition lacked time to transport enough supplies for three men or even to reach so far into the interior. Instead, Advance Base was built 123 miles from Little America. Byrd decided also that only one person— Byrd himself—would remain there. Many, including sponsors, questioned this decision. Isolated by

distance and the Antarctic night, one person at Advance Base would have no help in an emergency. To have the leader of the expedition away for 6 months threatened administration and planning at Little America. Nevertheless, Byrd insisted. At parting, he ordered that no one risk his life to rescue him. On March 22, 1934, Byrd flew to Advance Base and began his lonely adventure. He settled into routines of tending instruments that recorded winds, temperatures, and snowfall; viewing aurora; and freeing air ducts of snow and ice. Other routines included playing phonograph recordings, cooking, reading, and even taking walks in the Antarctic night by following poles connected with ropes. As promised, Byrd upheld a schedule of radio communications with Little America, using Morse code because his transmitter lacked the power to send his voice. Catastrophe almost happened on May 31, 1934, when Byrd fainted from carbon monoxide fumes. Byrd credited this to faulty ventilation of his oil stove and used it sparingly. Nevertheless, the poison had entered his body and he suffered from the carbon monoxide as well as the cold in his hut. Byrd reduced his radio schedule to Little America and aroused concern there. In mid-June Byrd encouraged Poulter to undertake a field trip from Little America to Advance Base through the Antarctic night as an opportunity to view aurora. After three efforts through darkness and over dangerous crevasses, Poulter led a team of three and reached Byrd on August 11. Two months later, Byrd had recovered enough to fly back to Little America. The adventure at Advance Base resulted in scientific data and a work of literature. In 1938 the harrowing account of Byrd’s experience appeared as Alone, which has remained one of the classic books of polar exploration. Less dramatic but just as important were the many other accomplishments of this expedition. It was the first to use motorized transport successfully to move people and supplies into the interior for scientific investigation. Another success was to use seismic equipment for the first time to measure the thickness of ice of the Ross Ice Shelf and on the Rockefeller Plateau. Biologists discovered lichens on Scott Glacier and in Marie Byrd Land. They studied the life history of the Ross Sea at the Bay of Whales as well as bird life. Among the geographical discoveries were that no strait existed between the Ross and Weddell seas; new peaks of the Queen Maud Mountains, the Rockefeller Mountains, and the Rockefeller Plateau were also discovered. They also successfully sketched the eastern edge of the Ross Ice Shelf. Geologists on motorized transport garnered evidence that the Ford Ranges were related to the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula. 1027

UNITED STATES (BYRD) ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION (1933–1935) In other ways, also, this expedition had significance. For Byrd, the experience had been so physically challenging that he would never winter again in Antarctica, even though he returned in 1947 and 1955. It would also be one of the last expeditions to Antarctica that would be privately financed. Apart from Finn Ronne’s expedition in 1947, the United States government would take responsibility for exploration and investigation in Antarctica. Finally, the expedition had importance for such members of the expedition as Finn Ronne and Paul Siple, who would return to Antarctica and further develop their own careers as explorers and scientists. RAIMUND E. GOERLER See also Byrd, Richard E.; Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (1947–1948); Siple, Paul

References and Further Reading Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica, 1775–1948. New York: American Geographical Society, 1971. Byrd, Richard E. Discovery: The Story of the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1935. ———. Alone. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1938. Siple, Paul. Scout to Explorer: Back with Byrd in the Antarctic. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1936.

UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION (1838–1842) Although the United States Exploring Expedition included Antarctica as only a part of its broad area of endeavor—it also surveyed the entire Pacific Ocean from Chile to Australia, as well as much of the Pacific Northwest—it nevertheless mapped 1,500 miles of previously unexplored Antarctic coastline and was the first to determine, based on its continuous line of sightings, that Antarctica is a continent. Led by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, a hotheaded, 40-year-old New Yorker nicknamed ‘‘Stormy Petrel,’’ the six-ship squadron comprising the Exploring Expedition, or ‘‘Ex. Ex.,’’ as it was widely known, sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on August 18, 1838. Its primary object was the promotion of commerce, including the major industry of Pacific whaling, by improving navigation, but the expedition was also charged with extending the bounds of knowledge where practicable. It was the first voyage of discovery paid for by the US government and the last circumnavigation made solely under sail. Wilkes commanded the flagship of the Ex. Ex., the 700-ton sloop of war Vincennes, with a complement of 1028

190. The 559-ton sloop of war Peacock (commanded by Lieutenant William L. Hudson, second in command of the expedition) had a crew of 130, while the 224-ton brig Porpoise (commanded by Lieutenant Cadwalader Ringgold) carried 65. Two pilot schooners, the 110-ton Sea Gull (commanded by Lieutenant Robert E. Johnson, who was succeeded by Passed Midshipman James W. E. Reid) and the 96-ton Flying Fish (commanded by Lieutenant Samuel R. Knox, who was succeeded by Lieutenant William L. Walker on the Antarctic cruise from Tierra del Fuego), each had 15 crew members. The 75-ton storeship Relief (commanded by Lieutenant Andrew K. Long) had a complement of 75. The naval expedition numbered 83 officers and 346 enlisted men—most of them quite young—but also included two civilian artists, Alfred T. Agate and Joseph Drayton, and seven civilian scientists, known as ‘‘the scientifics’’: botanists William D. Brackenridge and William Rich; conchologist Joseph P. Couthouy; geologist James D. Dana; naturalists Titian R. Peale and Charles Pickering; and philologist Horatio Hale. After stopping in Rio de Janiero, the expedition explored Tierra del Fuego, made an initial foray into the Antarctic, then cruised north along the western coast of South America and transited the Pacific via Tahiti and Fiji to Australia. After a layover in Sydney, a second thrust south to Antarctica was followed by further exploration of Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Hawaii, and the Pacific Northwest. The squadron then crossed the Pacific for a third time, to Manila and Singapore, before doubling the Cape of Good Hope and sailing the length of the Atlantic to New York City, reached on June 10, 1842. The expedition covered a total of more than 87,000 miles, visited 280 Pacific islands, and produced 180 meticulously drawn charts, more than any previous surveying expedition. Some of the charts were still being used as recently as the Second World War.

First Southern Cruise The first of Wilkes’s two penetrations south into the Antarctic was begun on February 25, 1839, dangerously late in the Antarctic summer to be heading into icy, unknown waters. Unfortunately, the Ex. Ex. ships were remarkably ill suited for polar work. Their open gunports constantly shipped seas, and their hulls were not reinforced or sheathed, leaving them unprotected from blows sustained in the pack ice. Other flaws of the hastily reconfigured ships were literally covered up

UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION (1838–1842) with several coats of fresh paint by unscrupulous naval shipyards. The ships’ crews were likewise extremely poorly provisioned, and the men suffered badly, often being reduced by their shoddy clothing and boots to wrapping their feet in blankets to stave off wetness and frostbite. After a rendezvous at Orange Harbor, northwest of Cape Horn, Wilkes divided the squadron into three parts. Vincennes and Relief were dispatched to survey the coast of Tierra del Fuego. Peacock—carrying Peale, the only time any of the scientifics sailed on an Antarctic cruise during the entire expedition—and Flying Fish were directed to sail southwest in an attempt to better Captain James Cook’s southing record of 71
100 S, which he made at 106
540 W. (Despite becoming separated in a gale and enduring great privation, Peacock reached 68
050 S, while Flying Fish attained 70
S.) Wilkes embarked upon Porpoise, which sailed with Sea Gull south across the Drake Passage toward the South Shetlands to see how far they could penetrate the pack ice. Icebergs and dense floes stopped them as they approached the northern reaches of the Weddell Sea around the northeastern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula but not before they deduced—catching a whiff of sulphur as they sailed to leeward—volcanic activity at Bridgeman Island. Facing the inevitability of oncoming winter, Wilkes ordered Sea Gull to return to Orange Harbor via volcanic Deception Island, where its crew spent a week in Port Foster, the island’s flooded caldera, collecting biological and volcanic specimens. Porpoise, surveying the eastern end of the South Shetland archipelago, narrowly escaped wrecking on Elephant Island in fog on March 7. With the exception of Sea Gull, which was lost with all hands off the coast of Chile shortly after departing Orange Harbor at the end of April, the squadron rejoined company in Valparaiso on May 17. The sluggish Relief was detached from the expedition and directed to depot supplies at Hawaii and Australia. After surveying the South Pacific, the remaining Ex. Ex. ships reconvened in Sydney in November.

Second Southern Cruise After a month’s recuperation in Australia, the four ships sailed south again on December 26, 1839, with Wilkes commanding Vincennes. Aboard was one of the first canine visitors to the Antarctic, a Newfoundland dog Wilkes acquired in Sydney and named after that port. Despite some modifications to the three naval vessels, including closing up the gunports,

nautical men in Sydney widely opined that the American ships would not survive their Antarctic voyage. Once again the squadron quickly became separated, and in early February Flying Fish gave up its search for the others and returned to New Zealand alone. The three larger ships managed to meet up, however, and on January 16, 1840, land was reported from Peacock’s masthead in the region of 157
E, although the sighting was, critically, not entered into the ship’s log by Hudson. More landfalls were made in the following days. Peacock narrowly escaped being wrecked on January 24 while on its own, when the ship was repeatedly blown backwards onto an ice floe, smashing its rudder. After pack ice floated in and trapped the ship, the crew was forced to drag Peacock through a narrow lead to open water, reached only after more than 24 hours of continuous effort. Upon return to Sydney for repairs in late February, it was found that the ice had battered parts of Peacock’s stem to a thickness of little more than an inch. Aboard Porpoise, meanwhile, the tricolors of the two French exploration ships commanded by Dumont d’Urville were sighted on January 30. Due to a misunderstanding of intentions, however, the French and Americans failed to pass within hail, each side sailing away believing that the other had snubbed it. After the American ships separated, Vincennes continued westward, sighting and charting discoveries until an icy barrier blocked his path. Wilkes named it Termination Land, marking as it did the end of his southern explorations; today it is known to be part of the Shackleton Ice Shelf. Having followed the Antarctic coast for nearly 1500 miles, Wilkes announced the discovery of the Antarctic continent upon his return to Sydney on March 11.

Legacy By the time the Exploring Expedition returned to New York in 1842 (minus Flying Fish, which was sold in Singapore, and Peacock, which foundered while trying to cross the bar at the mouth of the Columbia River in Oregon Territory), Wilkes’ Antarctic discoveries were already being questioned. James Clark Ross, leader of the British Antarctic expedition of 1839–1843 in Erebus and Terror, to whom Wilkes gave a manuscript copy of his tracing of the Antarctic coastline, announced that he had sailed over positions that Wilkes laid down as land 1029

UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION (1838–1842) on his chart. Ross was equally dismissive of Wilkes’ claim for an Antarctic mainland, but Wilkes insisted that he had indeed delineated a continent. Subsequent investigations have proven the accuracy of most of the Exploring Expedition’s delineation of the 1500 miles of Antarctic coastline it followed. Antarctic atmospheric conditions sometimes combine to create a phenomenon known as ‘‘looming’’ or superior mirage, in which geographic features beneath the horizon—as far as hundreds of miles distant— appear much closer than they are in reality. Wilkes was hardly the last Antarctic explorer to be misled by the occurrence, and aerial photo-mapping has confirmed the integrity of his Antarctic cartography. The US Ex. Ex. represented a ‘‘coming of age’’ for science in the United States. Not only was the expedition federally funded, but it also gathered such a mass of material—in aggregate, some 40 tons (although very little was collected in the Antarctic)— that the government was forced to create an organized collection to manage it. The expedition’s 4000 animal specimens, 50,000 botanical specimens, and thousands of shells, corals, fossils, and rock samples, along with 5000 ethnological and archaeological objects, became the foundation of the Smithsonian Institution, the national museum of the United States. JEFF RUBIN See also British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843); Dumont d’Urville, Jules Sebastien Cesar; French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition (1837–1840); Ross, James Clark; Wilkes, Charles References and Further Reading Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica, 1775–1948. Burlington, Vt.: American Geographical Society, 1971. Bixby, William. The Forgotten Voyage of Charles Wilkes. New York: D. McKay Co., 1966. ‘‘Centenary Celebration of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition of the United States Navy, 1838–1842, and Symposium on American Polar Exploration.’’ Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 82 (5) (1940): 519–800. Cleaver, Anne Hoffmann, and E. Jeffrey Stann, eds. Voyage to the Southern Ocean: The Letters of Lieutenant William Reynolds from the U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1988. Erskine, Charles. Twenty Years Before the Mast: With the More Thrilling Scenes and Incidents While Circumnavigating the Globe Under the Command of the Late Admiral Charles Wilkes 1838–1842. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs, 1896. Gurney, Alan. The Race to the White Continent: Voyages to the Antarctic. New York: Norton, 2000. Haskell, Daniel C. The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 and its Publications 1844–1874. New York: New York Public Library, 1942.

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Mawson, Douglas. Wilkes’s Antarctic Landfalls. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, South Australian Branch, Session 1932–1933, 34 (1934): 70–113. Mitterling, Philip I. America in the Antarctic to 1840. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1959. Philbrick, Nathaniel. Sea of Glory: America’s Voyage of Discovery—The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. New York: Viking Penguin, 2003. Philbrick, Nathaniel, and Thomas Philbrick, eds. The Private Journal of William Reynolds: United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. New York: Penguin Books, 2004. Poesch, Jessie J. Titian Ramsay Peale, 1799–1885, and His Journals of the Wilkes Expedition. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1961. Smithsonian Institution Libraries Digital Collection. The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. http:// www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/usexex Stanton, William. The Great United States Exploring Expedition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. Tyler, David B. The Wilkes Expedition: The First United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842). Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1968. Viola, Herman J., and Carolyn Margolis, eds. Magnificent Voyagers: The U.S. Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Wilkes, Charles. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 (5 vols). Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1845. Full text available online at Smithsonian Institution Libraries Digital Collection, The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838–1842 (see previous reference).

UNITED STATES NAVY DEVELOPMENTS PROJECTS (1946–1948) ‘‘Operation Highjump,’’ formally designated the United States Navy Antarctic Development Project of 1946–1947, was described by its nominal leader, Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, USN (ret.), as ‘‘the largest exploring expedition ever organized,’’ and it remains so to this day. Between the end of December 1946 and early March 1947, 4700 men in 13 ships divided into three groups—each built around either an aircraft carrier or a seaplane tender—mounted a comprehensive and benign assault on what remained the world’s last ‘‘secret land.’’ In the rapidly maturing Cold War environment of 1946, the US government stated flatly that Operation Highjump was to be ‘‘primarily of a military nature,’’ its chief objective ‘‘to train naval personnel and to test ships, planes, and equipment under frigid zone conditions.’’ As such, it would be the first officially sponsored US Antarctic expedition since Charles Wilkes had sailed south more than a century before. Soviet observers were quick to recognize Highjump’s significance. The official naval journal Red Fleet asserted

UNITED STATES NAVY DEVELOPMENTS PROJECTS (1946–1948) that ‘‘US measures in Antarctica testify that American military circles are seeking to subject the [polar] regions to their control...’’ While the charge was far from precise, it was not baseless. The Pentagon, already thinking about and planning for a possible Third World War, realized that polar combat would be an important element in any conflict with the Soviets. The US Navy had already conducted carrier operations in the Davis Strait, west of Greenland, the previous summer. While the long-standing question of formal US claims to the Antarctic continued to be held in abeyance, the Navy was eager not only to keep itself before the American public through spectacular exploits, but also to try out wartime technologies, especially the trimetrogon camera capable of overlapping aerial photography that could readily be translated into accurate maps. Byrd and the polar community were no less eager than the Navy to apply this new technology to their Antarctic playground. Penetrating the ice-choked Ross Sea with great difficulty, the Central Group under Admiral Richard Cruzen finally reached Byrd’s old base at the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea in mid-January and established Little America IV. Despite the presence of the icebreaker Northwind, the thin-hulled cargo and communications ships found the going so slow and rough through the ice pack that Cruzen at one point panicked, cabling Byrd that the entire operation should, in effect, be cancelled and all the ships withdrawn well before the end of the austral summer. Byrd overruled him, gently but firmly. At the end of January, with a temporary tent city well on the way to completion, Byrd and his party flew in from the carrier Philippine Sea in half a dozen R4D (DC-4) transport planes. Although small by contemporary standards, the aircraft would never have made it off a carrier deck or on and off an ice runway without special ski-wheel devices and JATO (Jet Assisted Take-off) bottles strapped to the wings. Once the foul weather cleared on February 7, the R4Ds began a frantic 200-hour aerial mapping campaign of the adjacent Marie Byrd and Victoria Land coastal and inland areas, together with flights down the Ross Ice Shelf to the Transantarctic Mountains and the polar plateau beyond. On February 15, Byrd himself made a nostalgic second flight to the South Pole, though it was not entirely frivolous because of the trimetrogon mapping cameras. Altogether, the R4Ds at Little America were able to make twenty-nine flights despite the increasingly chancy weather of a waning Antarctic summer and early fall. Meanwhile, the Eastern Group (Captain George Dufek) and the Western Group (Captain Charles Bond), centered around the seaplane tenders Pine

Island and Currituck, respectively, sailed around roughly 70% of the Antarctic coast. Despite one horrific crash of a big Martin seaplane from the Eastern Group very early—killing several crewmen and necessitating a dramatic rescue effort—Dufek and Bond together managed to get off a further thirty-five mapping flights. On one of the flights, Lieutenant Commander David Bunger of the Western Group, winging along the Queen Mary Coast of Wilkes Land, suddenly came upon what seemed a polar fairyland ‘‘of blue and green lakes and brown hills in an otherwise limitless expanse of ice.’’ Other such areas— most notably the Dry Valleys west of McMurdo Sound—were either known or would later be found dotting Antarctica, but ‘‘Bunger Oasis’’ generated understandable awe. In the midst of these flights, the Navy and a small cadre of civilian and military scientists, including such veterans of previous Byrd expeditions as Paul Siple, ‘‘Bud’’ Waite, and Vernon Boyd, conducted a variety of equipment tests and scientific observations. Several penguins were seized for leisurely research back home, and weather observations, oceanographic readings, and geological samples were taken while the Navy tested survival suits and amphibious tracked vehicles on both land and water. In the waning days on the ice, Boyd led a rushed and daring land excursion out to Mount Helen Washington in the Rockefeller Range, some 150 miles (240 km) east of Little America, using two 16-ton tracked vehicles. The very short stay, however, frustrated the scientists, who complained bitterly that naval and military requirements and desires constantly overrode invaluable polar science. Deteriorating weather and ice conditions forced Byrd to order the cargo and communications vessels out of the Bay of Whales as early as February 6, even as the R4D flights continued. Little America was hastily evacuated by the icebreaker Burton Island 17 days later. The Eastern Group and Western Group, not having to worry about getting out of a vast, icefilled bowl like the Ross Sea, were able to continue their work several weeks longer. By early March, however, they were gone. Byrd and his commanders believed that their aerial photographic missions had taken giant strides in unlocking the geographical and geophysical structure of Antarctica, and in some ways they had. Doubtless the signal achievement was proving through comprehensive observation that the Transantarctic Mountains were a single system bending around in an arc from Victoria Land to the Horlick Mountains and eastward to the Thiel Mountains. Quite soon, however, photo experts suggested that Highjump was not the success its commanders had 1031

UNITED STATES NAVY DEVELOPMENTS PROJECTS (1946–1948) hoped. Claims of the amount of territory actually seen and photo-mapped had to be dramatically scaled down; worse, what was actually seen and photographed and where it was often proved difficult to determine under careful analysis. Years later, it would become apparent to one alert observer that ‘‘Through lack of ground control, more than half the photographs were of no value.’’ Further confirmatory on-site work would be required to establish a ‘‘ground truth’’ sufficiently precise to make authoritative maps. Byrd and his colleagues, led by Paul Siple, immediately agitated for a Highjump II. In the event, the Navy settled for a far more modest ‘‘Second Antarctic Development Project’’ the following austral summer (1947–1948), informally known as ‘‘Operation Windmill.’’ It was an apt description, for the Navy employed yet another new technology, the helicopter, in an attempt to salvage the Highjump photographic record. Embarked on the icebreakers Edisto and Burton Island, the small, crude, first-generation Bell choppers were a mixed success at best in putting survey parties ashore to carefully triangulate known points. Starting late in the season just west of Bunger Oasis, the vessels and their aircraft ran into frequent storms and heavy ice. Survey and geological parties did get ashore at several points. They dramatically lessened the importance of the Oasis, which on the ground proved to be almost lifeless, and they managed to complete some good survey work west of the Ross Sea. East of Little America (which the vessels visited briefly at the end of January), however, deteriorating conditions effectively ended the operation before it could confirm or modify more than a

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fraction of the Highjump aerial record. Only the kind of permanent and widespread occupation of the continent first undertaken during the International Geophysical Year a decade later and carried forward by Operation Deep Freeze and similar foreign programs would realize the ambitions first set forth in the US Antarctic Development Projects. LISLE ROSE See also Antarctic Accounts and Bibliographic Materials; Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries; Byrd, Richard E.; Geopolitics of the Antarctic; Ross Ice Shelf; Siple, Paul; South Pole; United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842)

References and Further Reading Bertrand, Kenneth J. Americans in Antarctica, 1775–1948. New York: American Geographical Society, 1971. Byrd, Richard E. ‘‘Our Navy Explores Antarctica.’’ The National Geographic Magazine 92.4 (1947): 429–524. Dufek, George. J. Operation Deepfreeze. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1957. Kearns, William H., Jr, and Beverley Britton. The Silent Continent. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950. Rose, Lisle A. Assault on Eternity: Richard E. Byrd and the Exploration of Antarctica, 1946–47. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980. Siple, Paul. 90
South: The Story of the American South Pole Conquest. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1959. Sullivan, Walter. Quest for a Continent. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957. US Navy. Report of Operation Highjump: US Navy Antarctic Development Project, 1947, 3 vols. Antarctica: Highjump I Records. Suitland, Md.: National Archives and Records Administration.

V VEGETATION

ecological processes. The significance of climate and immigration potential in determining the differences in biodiversity of the two polar regions is perhaps best exemplified by the distribution of flowering plants. In the Antarctic there are only two species, the pearlwort Colobanthus quitensis (family Caryophyllaceae) and the hair grass Deschampsia antarctica (family Poaceae), both reaching 68o420 S. By comparison, more than 1000 species exist at this latitude in the Arctic, with almost 100 species extending to the northernmost extremity of land at 84
N in Peary Land.

The terrestrial vegetation of Antarctica comprises five major groups of organisms: phanerogams (seedproducing flowering plants); and the spore-producing bryophytes, lichens, algae, and blue-green algae or cyanobacteria. In the strict sense, lichens and cyanobacteria are microorganisms rather than plants. However, the severe climate and growing conditions, particularly with very low temperatures, critically during the summer, combined with oceanic isolation from the other Southern Hemisphere land masses, thereby reducing immigration, considerably restricts the diversity of the Antarctic flora. Despite the great land mass (c. 14 million km2) of the continent and its offshore islands, barely 1% is ice free, and of this very little provides favourable habitat for plant colonization. Much of it comprises wind- and ice-blasted rock faces and boulder fields, mineral soils rendered unstable by freeze–thaw action and erosion, substrates that rarely receive liquid water, coastal areas colonized by huge populations of penguins, and, beyond the Antarctic Circle, increasingly cold, dry, and sunless (in winter) landscapes with increasing latitude. Comparable environments in the High Arctic do not experience such severe growing conditions. There, the short summers are relatively warm, the permafrost thaws, there is generally no shortage of water, and the landscapes are connected to more southerly continental land masses, allowing unrestricted migration of flora and fauna northwards. This has led to a wide range of ecosystems with diverse plant, mammal, bird, insect, etc., biotas, and complex food webs and

Phytogeographic Zones The Antarctic has been variously divided into biological regions or zones. One of the most commonly used systems for terrestrial organisms is based on the distribution of plants, and in particular that of the phanerogams, which is a direct response to the prevailing summer climate. Thus the maritime Antarctic region comprises the western Antarctic Peninsula and island groups to the north (South Shetland, South Orkney, and South Sandwich islands, and Bouvetøya). Here the milder, wetter climate permits the occurrence of Colobanthus and Deschampsia, as well as a wide range of bryophytes, lichens, algae, and invertebrates, including the only two Antarctic higher insects. The colder, drier continent and the eastern Antarctic Peninsula together comprise the continental

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VEGETATION Antarctic region where flowering plants are absent and the diversity of other flora is greatly reduced. The sub-Antarctic zone to the north of the maritime Antarctic includes those islands (South Georgia, Prince Edward Islands, Iˆles Crozet, Iˆles Kerguelen, Macquarie Island, Heard Island, and McDonald Islands) with a much richer flora and fauna (especially flowering plants and invertebrates), greater range of communities, and greater complexity of ecosystems processes (notably peat formation and microbial decomposition) and trophic levels. Here, depending on the area of the islands, extent of ice cover, distance from other land masses, climate, etc., the number of higher plants varies from about ten to about forty, excluding many introduced species that have persisted. Unlike the cool, temperate islands lying well to the north of the Polar Front (e.g., Gough, Amsterdam, Campbell, Auckland), the sub-Antarctic islands do not possess any arboreal vegetation.

Impact of Climate and Climate Change on Antarctic Vegetation The biological groups and their species composition in the Antarctic are, to a large extent, dependent on the past and present climate. Those species that succeeded in reaching the southern polar regions had to be physiologically preadapted to colonize and survive the severe environmental conditions (notably low summer temperatures, long periods of desiccation, high levels of solar irradiance and ultraviolet radiation, long winters, a short summer growing season, long periods of winter darkness, and continual summer daylight south of 67
S). Such conditions become progressively more extreme with increasing latitude. Survival and spread are dependent on the physiological tolerance of the plants and on relatively stable environmental conditions. However, much of the Antarctic, like most other biomes of the planet, is experiencing climate change. From a biological point of view, particularly on land, the increasing air temperatures that have been occurring since the middle of the twentieth century have had a significant impact on the state of the environment, and hence of plant habitats. Regional climate change has been greatest in the maritime Antarctic, where the mean annual temperature is now 1
C–2
C higher than it was 50 years ago, much of this increase occurring since the mid-1980s. Although only a relatively small change, it has had a significant impact on the rate of melting in spring and summer, resulting in the breakup of ice shelves and the rapid retreat and thinning of 1034

glaciers and ice caps. On land this has created more extensive glacier forelands, and new surfaces are becoming exposed through permanent ice. On Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, for example, about one-third of the ice cover has disappeared, and the glaciers and ice cap have thinned by up to 15 m since about 1970. Such changes are much more localized in continental Antarctica. Loss of ice cover creates new surfaces for plant colonization.

Vegetation History and Immigration The Antarctic flora and vegetation appear to have remained remarkably unchanged throughout the past c. 5000–10,000 years (i.e., since the end of the last major ice age). Palynological studies (analysis of pollen, spores, and fragments of plants in soil, peat, ice, and lake sediments) have so far indicated that no plants appear to have existed during the Holocene that do not occur there now. Nevertheless, it is likely that some species, especially the environmentally more sensitive bryophytes, may have become established and later extinct without leaving any trace of their existence. Many new immigrant species will have reached the isolated land mass of Antarctica and its offshore islands over the past few millennia to produce the diversity that now exists. Many species, including the two flowering plants, had colonized the maritime Antarctic by c. 5000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of moss in peat deposits suggests that terrestrial peatforming vegetation began development around 5500 years ago in the maritime Antarctic. Subfossil aquatic mosses of that age have also been found in maritime lake sediments (James Ross Island), while in continental Antarctica a sample has been dated at about 8500 years old (Clear Lake, Vestfold Hills). However, in many areas where no peat-forming vegetation ever developed, very sparse colonization by cold-adapted mosses and lichens probably occurred much earlier, shortly after ice-free habitats became available. Radiocarbon dating of the surface of moss turf in various sites exposed by receding ice on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, has indicated that former vegetation was covered by advancing ice during several periods of colder climate over the past several thousand years. The vegetation was therefore exposed to several major climate-change events, lasting many centuries, which caused glacial advances and retreats. The last of these advances was the ‘‘Little Ice Age’’ that ended in the mid- to late 1800s, although there have been at least two minor advances in the twentieth century, lasting only a few years (1920s and 1940s). The gradual increase in species diversity with time is exemplified by

VEGETATION two prominent moss species (Polytrichastrum longisetum and Polytrichum piliferum) that appeared on Signy Island in the mid-1980s. Both colonized newly exposed soil adjacent to a receding ice cap; neither was known from the archipelago previously, and one (P. longisetum) was new to the Antarctic. On Deception Island, South Shetland Islands, three species also previously unknown in the Antarctic (Funaria hygrometrica, Leptobryum pyriforme, and the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha) appeared on ash within a year of its being deposited by the 1967–1970 volcanic eruptions. All became extinct within a few years after the geothermal effect ceased, but P. longisetum colonized this ash at one site in the late 1990s. The transoceanic immigration of plant propagules (any biological structure, spore, or seed capable of generating a new plant) is a continuous process and is dependent on atmospheric circulation patterns. Spores in particular are dispersed into the atmosphere at a source (southern South America, Australasia, or even farther afield). Under certain weather conditions they are swept to high altitude and carried over great distances. If such wind patterns reach Antarctica, dust particles and spores may be deposited over land, with only a very small proportion landing directly on an ice-free substrate suitable for colonization. However, most are inevitably deposited on ice and remain there in perpetuity, but some will eventually reach ice-free ground in melt water. Spores have a remarkable longevity and many are capable of germinating decades or even centuries after being preserved in ice or soil. The accumulation of viable propagules in the soil and ice is referred to as the propagule bank or reservoir, and occasionally propagules will germinate or develop to produce new plants if conditions are favourable for this. Very rarely a species new to the area or even to the Antarctic may appear. The composition of this reservoir of potential colonists can be shown by culturing soil at various temperatures in the laboratory and noting those species that grow. Larger, heavier propagules, such as seeds and viable plant fragments, cannot be transported by wind over long distances, but these are important in local distribution of species already established in the Antarctic. However, long-distance dispersal of these larger propagules does occur, if rarely, by their becoming attached to feathers and feet of some migratory birds, although few propagules ever reach the Antarctic by this means. Skuas and gulls, in particular, are believed to be responsible for much of the spread of the grass Deschampsia antarctica throughout the maritime Antarctic, as they often pull up rooted pieces of the plants for nesting material, sometimes from locations several kilometres from their

nest. Skuas may also be responsible for introducing the liverwort Clasmatocolea grandiflora to its only known Antarctic location south of the South Sandwich Islands (Deception Island), where it is abundant over a few square metres at a geothermal site. Within this unique bryophyte stand is a skua’s nest. The skuas probably make annual crossings of Drake Passage to and from Tierra del Fuego, where the liverwort is locally common.

Colonization, Succession and Community Development Ice is an important repository of both propagules and nutrients, accumulated on and within it over long periods. As it melts, these are deposited along the receding ice margins, and, if the substrate is reasonably stable, colonizing organisms become established. This succession of organisms commences with imperceptible soil microorganisms (bacteria, cyanobacteria, unicellular algae, and fungi), followed within a few years by filamentous algae, bryophytes (principally mosses), and, at maritime Antarctic sites, occasionally the two flowering plants. Finally, after a decade or two (but much longer in dry continental locations), lichens become visible, although the complex process of the fungal component’s ‘‘lichenizing’’ the algal component, or development from specialized vegetative propagules, will have been inconspicuously proceeding for many years before this stage is reached. During this microbial and plant succession an increasing diversity of invertebrates colonizes the soil as the amount of organic matter accumulates. Depending on the nature of the habitat these associations of organisms develop distinct communities, defined by the plant composition. Where several closely related communities develop, each differing because a specific environmental feature allows one or a few species to become predominant, the association of communities defines a particular ecosystem (e.g., fellfield, bog, moss turf bank, encrusting lichen, etc.). Recently created habitats resulting from ice recession are sparsely colonized in the early stages, but in time may become extensively covered by mosses and, in seepage areas, sometimes by mats of cyanobacteria (notably black Nostoc commune and pink-red Phormidium spp.). Wet, nutrient-enriched areas close to penguin colonies are typically colonized by stands of the green alga Prasiola crispa. As the terrain evolves, matures, and stabilizes, a range of ecosystems, each comprising several different but closely related plant

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VEGETATION communities, develops. Thus, wetter ecosystems (bog) support various moss-dominated communities, while drier ecosystems (fellfield) are typically dominated by various lichen-dominated communities. Under a stable climatic regime, once the mature community typical of a particular suite of environmental conditions (soil or rock type, nutrient regime, water availability and drainage, microclimate, etc.) has developed, and one or a few species established as the dominants, the composition and status of the species is unlikely to change, unless some major circumstance happens to alter the equilibrium. Many species are sensitive to minor changes in the hydrological, geological, soil, and nutrient regime of their habitat. Thus, environmental changes result in ecological gradients, which are reflected in a sharp change from one community type to another, producing a series of narrow communities, often within a small area. Prominent examples in the maritime Antarctic include the abrupt change in vegetation from acid rock and soil (e.g., Andreaea, Rhizocarpon, Usnea spp., etc.) to calcareous marble and soil (e.g., Schistidium, Syntrichia, and Caloplaca spp.), and from the margin of melt streams (e.g., Brachythecium austrosalebrosum, Bryum pseudotriquetrum, Sanionia uncinata, Warnstorfia sarmentosa) through boggy seepage ground (S. uncinata, W. sarmentosa, W. fontinaliopsis) to dry fellfield (Andreaea, Usnea, and many crustose lichens). In continental Antarctica a common gradient from wet to dry substrata is accompanied by a sharp change from Bryum spp., Ceratodon purpureus, or Schistidium antarctici to a community dominated by the lichens Buellia frigida, Pseudephebe minuscula, Umbilicaria decussata, and Usnea sphacelata. With the current trend of climate change, especially in the maritime Antarctic, new species may be expected to colonize and become components of established communities, while the status of some existing species may change, causing a shift in dominance. However, as yet there is little evidence of this. RONALD I. LEWIS-SMITH

References and Further Reading

See also Algae; Amsterdam Island (Iˆle Amsterdam); Antarctic Peninsula; Antarctica: Definitions and Boundaries; Auckland Islands; Biogeography; Bouvetøya; Campbell Islands; Climate Change; Climate Change Biology; Colonization; Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet); Deception Island; Flowering Plants; Fungi; Gough Island; Heard Island and McDonald Islands; Ice Ages; Insects; Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen); Lichens; Liverworts; Macquarie Island; Microbiology; Mosses; Polar Front; Prince Edward Islands; Skuas: Overview; Soils; South Georgia; South Orkney Islands; South Sandwich Islands; South Shetland Islands; Volcanoes

Introduction

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Aleksandrova, Vera. The Arctic and Antarctic: Their Division into Geobotanical Areas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Beyer, Lothar, and Manfred Bo¨lter, eds. Geoecology of Antarctic Ice-Free Coastal Landscapes. Ecological Studies 154. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2002. Gimingham, Charles, and Ronald Lewis Smith. ‘‘Bryophyte and Lichen Communities in the Maritime Antarctic.’’ In Antarctic Ecology, vol. 2, edited by Martin Holdgate. London: Academic Press, 1970, pp. 752–785. Kanda, Hiroshi, and Vera Koma´rkova. ‘‘Antarctic Terrestrial Ecosystems.’’ In Polar and Alpine Tundra, edited by Frans Wielgolaski. Special issue of Ecosystems of the World 3 (1997): 721–761. Lewis-Smith, Ronald. ‘‘Terrestrial Plant Biology of the Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic.’’ In Antarctic Ecology, edited by Richard Laws, 1 (1984): 61–162. ———. ‘‘Signy Island as a Paradigm of Biological and Environmental Change in Antarctic Terrestrial Ecosystems.’’ In Antarctic Ecosystems: Ecological Change and Conservation, edited by Knowles Kerry and Godhilf Hempel. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990, pp. 32–50. ———. ‘‘Dry Coastal Ecosystems of Antarctica.’’ In Dry Coastal Ecosystems: Polar Regions and Europe, edited by Eddy van der Maarel. Ecosystems of the World 2A. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1993, pp. 51–71. ———. ‘‘Terrestrial and Freshwater Biotic Components of the Western Antarctic Peninsula.’’ In Foundations for Ecological Research West of the Antarctic Peninsula, edited by Robin Ross, Eileen Hofmann, and Langdon Quetin. Antarctic Research Series 70. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1996, pp. 15–59. Longton, Royce. ‘‘Terrestrial Habitats—Vegetation.’’ In Key Environments: Antarctica, edited by Nigel Bonner and David Walton. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1985, pp. 73–105. ———. Biology of Polar Bryophytes and Lichens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

VICTORIA LAND, GEOLOGY OF

Victoria Land straddles the northernmost segment of the Transantarctic Mountains adjacent to the Ross Sea. Uplifted in geologically young time, this mountain range provides one of the best-exposed geological sections in Antarctica. No wonder it was also among the first areas of Antarctica studied by geologists (David and Priestley 1914; Ferrar 1907). Two rather different plate-tectonic events are responsible for the geological record in the area, the Paleozoic mountain-building process of the Ross Orogeny c. 500 Ma and the Cenozoic continental

VICTORIA LAND, GEOLOGY OF

Geological sketch map of Victoria Land. South Victoria Land and the Wilson Terrane (WT) of northern Victoria Land consist mainly of crystalline rocks and are of a similar character. The volcano-sedimentary Bowers Terrane (BT) and the turbiditic Robertson Bay Terrane (RBT) are unique to northern Victoria Land. The Rennick Graben (RG) is a geologically young feature related to the rifting of the Ross Sea.

split in the form of the Ross Sea rifting (40 Ma). In between, a tectonically quiet period is recorded by the deposition of terrestrial Gondwana sediments followed by extensive outpourings of plateau lavas. The exposed rock sequence of the Transantarctic Mountains of southern Victoria Land (SVL) is thus comparatively simple, containing the following three subdivisions from bottom to top: . . .

A basement of metamorphic and granitic rocks of the Early Paleozoic Ross Orogen A flat-lying cover of the Devonian to Jurassic terrestrial Gondwana deposits A wide range of Cenozoic rift-related volcanic products

This simple sequence becomes more complicated in northern Victoria Land (NVL) because of additional low-grade fossiliferous terranes in the basement, an additional Mid-Paleozoic granite generation, and Cenozoic graben tectonics onshore. On a geological map, the basement rocks of the Ross Orogen are exposed mainly on the lower slopes of the mountains in the form of a relatively narrow strip following the coast. In NVL, the exposed area is much wider. The cover rocks of the Gondwana sequence occur in a parallel strip further inland, mostly above 2000 m and close to the inland ice. These rocks show the regional tilt most clearly as the layers dip one or two degrees to the west. The young, rift-related volcanism occurs mainly on the Ross Sea coast with volcanic plateaus and small intrusions in NVL, stratovolcanoes around Terra Nova Bay and McMurdo Sound, and numerous small plugs in the areas in between. Some of the volcanoes are still active, like Mount Erebus on Ross Island.

The Basement Rocks of the Ross Orogen During the Paleozoic, subduction processes similar to those under the present Andes formed a 3000-kmlong mountain chain, the Ross Orogen of Antarctica. It consists of folded rock series that, under conditions of high temperature and low pressure, were metamorphosed (baked) to a varying degree and intruded by granitic bodies. In SVL, the metamorphic rocks comprise a series of marbles, schists, metavolcanics, and intercalated gneisses with a general northwest strike and northwesttrending fold axes. These rocks are exposed east of the Skelton Glacier and in the foothills of the Royal Society Range and the southern Dry Valleys. Towards the north, they are replaced by gneisses. Granitic intrusions with generally calc-alkaline composition are present as local bodies in the entire area. The basement is made up completely of granitic rocks from Granite Harbour, which has given the name for the whole suite, northward into NVL. In NVL, comparable basement rocks occur in the Wilson Terrane, the innermost of the three terranes (Bradshaw, Weaver, and Laird 1985) and the direct continuation of the SVL basement. In addition to shallow marine metasediments, there are also turbiditic deep-water series in the Wilson Terrane (e.g., in O’Kane Canyon, the Morozumi Range, and the Berg Mountains). High-grade gneisses and migmatites are present in the coastal areas from Terra Nova Bay to Mount Murchison (GANOVEX-ITALIANTARTIDE 1991) and along the west side of the Rennick Glacier from the Outback Nunataks to the Wilson Hills (GANOVEX Team 1987; Stump 1990). Granulite 1037

VICTORIA LAND, GEOLOGY OF facies gneisses and migmatites are reported from the Campbell Glacier and the Wilson Hills. In the entire area of Victoria Land, the metamorphic rocks show two to four episodes of folding. Granite Harbour Intrusives in NVL are restricted to the Wilson Terrane. The two outer terranes in NVL are of a very low metamorphic grade and contain fossils, the first Cambrian fossils found in Victoria Land (Laird et al. 1972). The central Bowers terrane occurs in a narrow strip extending from the Pacific Coast to the Ross Sea. The exposed rocks form three major subunits (from bottom to top): .

.

.

A basal part of mainly submarine volcanics alternating with clastic marine sediments and partly volcanogenic turbidites Intermediate fossiliferous limestone–mudstone– sandstone–conglomerate sequences (Middle to Late Cambrian) A thick fluviatile to deltaic quartzite sequence at the top (Late Cambrian)

The top and bottom series are not directly dated. In suitable rock sequences the Bowers Supergroup is regularly folded (one episode), and the terrestrial quartzites form a box-like syncline more than 100 km long. The deformation in the basal volcanogenic sequence is more irregular. The outer Robertson Bay Terrane contains a turbiditic sequence several kilometers thick. It is regularly folded around horizontal axes (one episode) and does not contain volcanic intercalations or coarse conglomerates. The turbidites are of distal character and contain sole marks and trace fossils. The base of the succession is nowhere exposed. The top may be present on Handler Ridge on the north side of Trafalgar Glacier, where large exotic blocks of limestone are found within the turbidite succession. These limestones have yielded a Lower Ordovician (Tremadocian) fauna of trilobites, conodonts, crinoids, brachiopods, and ostracods, so far the only occurrence of marine Ordovician sediments in Antarctica. The three terranes of NVL are separated by belts of schistose rocks several kilometers wide. The parent rocks in these schist belts can generally be correlated with rocks of the adjacent terranes. There is an additional phase of deformation in the schist belts. There is an ongoing discussion as to whether the outer terranes are far travelled or local products. The Lanterman-Mariner suture forms one of the most interesting features in the basement geology of Victoria Land (Tessensohn and Ricci 2003). The suture as trace of an ancient subduction zone traverses NVL from the Lanterman Range to the Mariner Glacier and coincides with the Wilson-Bowers terrane 1038

boundary. It is accompanied by a number of peculiar features. A belt of high-pressure metamorphic rocks accompanies the boundary in the Wilson terrane. Flattened conglomerates in the Lanterman Range contain clasts of boninite, a rock type found in the vicinity of primitive oceanic island arcs. A belt of strongly sheared granitoids occurs in the Mariner Glacier area. Lenses of ultramafic rocks are found as tectonic slivers in both areas. Some of these lenses have an eclogitic core. All these features have been interpreted as being typical for a subduction zone. This was recently confirmed by the discovery of coesite (Palmeri, Talarico, and Ricci 2003) in samples from the eclogites. This high-pressure quartz modification requires a depth of formation of at least 90 km. The few other examples of coesite reported from a similar setting come from the Alps and the Himalayas. The age of the metasediments in Victoria Land is poorly restricted. In the Skelton Glacier area, metasediments showing two phases of deformation are cut by a granite intrusion of 550 million years. This puts the parent rocks and an early deformation back in time before the Cambrian. In SVL, there are several other granites with a comparably early age. The main granite-forming igneous event in SVL and NVL took place around 500 Ma (510–480) at the boundary of the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. It was accompanied by widespread thermal metamorphism. A few late-stage bodies followed between 470 and 460 Ma.

Devonian–Carboniferous Admiralty Intrusives These post-Ross, high-level intrusions with cooling ages of around 360 million years occur on all three terranes and also crosscut a terrane boundary (Mt. Supernal). The formation of this granite generation is not well understood, because in NVL there is no accompanying tectonic event. Similar rocks occur in Marie Byrd Land and Tasmania.

Gondwana Sequence After the Ross period of mountain building, the rocks were eroded over a long period of time. The entire Silurian period is not represented. Erosion resulted in the formation of a peneplain cutting through the different units of the Ross orogen. The first new rocks laid down on this unconformity were Devonian

VICTORIA LAND, GEOLOGY OF sediments in SVL and subaerial volcanic rocks in NVL (Gallipoli Volcanics). The freshwater sediments containing fish remains and the first plants in Antarctica form the lowest horizon of the thick terrestrial Gondwana sequence that in Antarctica is called the Beacon Supergroup (Barrett 1971). The Gallipoli Volcanics in NVL are also associated with plant-bearing beds. The rocks are the surface equivalents of the coeval Admiralty Intrusives (360 million years). The Carboniferous is missing in Victoria Land. The next sedimentary product in the sequence is a tillite (solidified moraine) of the Late Paleozoic glaciation, which, as fragments of Gondwana, affected all the southern continents. The glacial beds are followed by mainly fluviatile sandstones with intercalated shaly horizons. The shales contain leaves of the Glossopteris flora represented on all southern continents. Large trees are preserved, sometimes in growth position. Coal seams several metres thick developed, sometimes very close above the glacial tillites. The Triassic Beacon sequence does not differ fundamentally from the preceding Permian, but the Glossopteris flora are replaced by fernlike plants like Dicroidium. Like on the other southern continents, the terrestrial Gondwana sequence provides a record of climate and environmental conditions for one of the largest land masses that ever existed on the planet. The tectonically quiet sedimentation period lasted for a total of more than 200 million years. It came, however, to a rather abrupt end, when Gondwana started to break up in Jurassic times. An enormous event of lava production took place in southern Africa, Antarctica, and Tasmania. Lavas and pyroclastic rocks are particularly well exposed in the Rennick graben of NVL. In SVL, similar rocks occur at Carapace Nunatak. However, the main products preserved from this episode are the widespread Ferrar sills, horizontal sheets of lava intruded between the sandstone layers of the Beacon sequence. The sills are several metres to several hundreds of meters thick and are found across the entire continent, from Queen Maud Land to NVL.

Cenozoic Rifting The extensional graben formation of the Ross Sea Rift during the Cenozoic is related to the final breakup process of Gondwana. The high Transantarctic Mountains can be regarded as the uplifted shoulder of the rift. With a summit elevation of c. 4000 m, they form the highest rift shoulder known on earth. With

more than 10 km of sediments (Cooper and Davey 1987), the basins are also exceptionally deep. The igneous activity related to the formation of the rift is alkaline in character, as in most other continental rifts on earth (e.g., the East African rift or the upper Rhine Graben) (Tessensohn and Wo¨rner 1991). The volcanic Adare, Hallett, and Daniell peninsulas and Coulman Island were probably formed over the master faults along the northern Ross Sea coast in NVL. Stratovolcanoes are found where the coastline steps back to the west at Terra Nova Bay (Mt. Melbourne, Mt. Overlord) and McMurdo Sound (Mt. Erebus, Mt. Terror, Mt. Mourning, Mt. Discovery), probably due to the opening of transfer faults. Parallel to the northern one of these transfer faults, the Meander Intrusives form a series of alkali-granites, syenites, and gabbros, the only known Cenozoic intrusive rocks. The Malta Plateau north of Mariner Glacier consists of felsic peralkaline rocks. Other volcanic rocks occur in the coastal areas of Victoria Land in the form of small cones, vents, and plugs, on volcanic islands in the Ross Sea (Ross Island, Beaufort Island, Franklin Island, Possession Islands) and, as shown by geophysical surveys and in drill cores, in the western basin of the Ross Sea. The oldest Cenozoic igneous rocks are the Meander Intrusives in NVL with ages from 25–38 million years. They are followed by peralkaline dikes (14–18 million years) and the peralkaline rocks of the Malta Plateau and other locations (7–11 million years). The basaltic plateaus are between 5 and 14 million years old, followed by the volcanic plugs and vents and the stratovolcanoes. However, all these age groups overlap each other to a certain extent. In SVL, volcanism starts around 19 Ma.

Structural Evolution The Ross Orogen is the product of subduction of oceanic crust under the supercontinent Gondwana. Partial melting of the crust led to the formation of a magmatic arc, the Granite Harbour Intrusives. A pile of late Proterozoic sediments was deformed and metamorphosed during these processes. The former continent–ocean boundary is preserved in the form of a suture in NVL. On the oceanic side of this suture, two Cambrian terranes were accreted slightly later. After a tectonically quiet period, the first breakup event of Gondwana produced large volumes of plateau lavas and sills. Related to the final breakup split of Antarctica and Tasmania, the continental Ross Sea rift developed. A master fault between the Transantarctic Mountains and the Ross Sea led to 1039

VICTORIA LAND, GEOLOGY OF down-faulting of the basins under the sea by more than 10 km and uplift of the Transantarctic Mountains by up to 4 km. The master fault and corresponding fault systems provided passageways for the young volcanism, which is still active today. A branch of the Ross Sea structures crosses NVL in the form of the Rennick Graben system, which has preserved the plateau lavas of the Mesa Ranges and brings down the Gondwana sequence almost to sea level. FRANZ TESSENSOHN See also Beacon Supergroup; British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition (1907–1909); British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition (1901–1904); Coal, Oil, and Gas; David, T.W. Edgeworth; Dry Valleys; Ferrar Supergroup; Fossils, Invertebrate; Fossils, Plant; Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica; Gondwana; Mount Erebus; Plate Tectonics; Priestley, Raymond; Transantarctic Mountains, Geology of; Volcanoes References and Further Reading Barrett, Peter J. Stratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Beacon Supergroup in the Transantarctic Mountains. Second Symposium on Gondwana Stratigraphy. Capetown, 1971. Bradshaw, Margaret A. ‘‘Geological History.’’ In Antarctica: The Ross Sea Region, edited by Trevor Hatherton. Wellington: DSIR Publishing, 1990. Bradshaw, John D., Stephen D. Weaver, and Malcolm G. Laird. ‘‘Suspect Terranes and Cambrian Tectonics in Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica.’’ In Tectono-Stratigraphic Terranes of the Circum-Pacific Region, edited by D. G. Howell. Circumpacific Conference for Energy and Mineral Resources. Earth Science Series 1. Houston, 1985. Cooper, Alan K., and Frederick J. Davey, eds. The Antarctic Continental Margin: Geology and Geophysics of the Western Ross Sea. Earth Science Series 5B. Houston: Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources, 1987. David, T. Edgeworth, and Raymond E. Priestley. Glaciology, Physiography, Stratigraphy and Tectonic Geology of South Victoria Land, British Antarctic Expedition 1907–1909. Reports on the Scientific Investigations Geology I. London: W. Heinemann, 1914. Ferrar, H. T. ‘‘Report on the Field-Geology of the Region Explored During the ‘Discovery’ Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904.’’ Natural History I, Geology. London: British Museum, 1907. Hatherton, Trevor, ed. Antarctica: The Ross Sea Region. Wellington: DSIR Publishing, 1990. GANOVEX Team. ‘‘Geological Map of North Victoria Land, Antarctica, 1:500000—Explanatory Notes.’’ Geologisches Jahrbuch B 66 (1987). GANOVEX-ITALIANTARTIDE. ‘‘Preliminary Geological Structural Map of Wilson, Bowers and Robertson Bay Terranes in the Area Between Aviator and Tucker Glaciers (Northern Victoria Land—Antarctica).’’ Memorie della Societa´ Geologica Italiana 46 (1991). Laird, Malcolm G., Peter B. Andrews, Philip R. Kyle, and P. Jennings. ‘‘Late Cambrian Fossils and the Age of the Ross Orogeny, Antarctica.’’ Nature 238.5358 (1972).

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LeMasurier, Wesley E., and Janet W. Thomson, eds. Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Ocean. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1990. McPherson, John. Footprints on a Frozen Continent. Wellington: Hicks Smith & Sons, 1975. Palmeri, Rosaria, Franco Talarico, and Carlo Alberto Ricci. ‘‘Ultra-High-Pressure Metamorphism at the Palaeo-Pacific Margin of Gondwana: The Lanterman Range in Antarctica.’’ Ninth International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Sciences, Programme and Abstracts. Potsdam: Terra Nostra, 2003. Stump, E., ed. Geological Investigations in Northern Victoria Land. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1990. Stump, Edmund. The Ross Orogen of the Transantarctic Mountains. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Tessensohn, Franz, and Carlo Alberto Ricci, eds. ‘‘Aspects of a Suture Zone, Mariner Glacier Area, Antarctica.’’ Geologisches Jahrbuch B.85 (2003). Tessensohn, Franz, and Gerhard Wo¨rner. ‘‘The Ross Sea Rift System, Antarctica: Structure, Evolution and Analogues.’’ In Geological Evolution of Antarctica, edited by Michael R. A. Thomson, Allister J. Crame, and Janet W. Thomson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

VOLCANIC EVENTS Antarctic volcanoes belong to the ‘‘Ring of Fire,’’ a belt of volcanic systems surrounding the Pacific Ocean: Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand, Transantarctic Chain, Antarctic Peninsula, Andes, Galapagos, Central America, Rocky Mountains, and Alaska. The volcanic areas nearest to Antarctica are the South Sandwich Islands, South America, and New Zealand. Antarctic volcanic systems are located in the Antarctic Peninsula and in Victoria Land. The majority of the South Shetland Islands (Antarctic Peninsula) had a volcanic origin. Deception Island is a horseshoe-shaped caldera, still active (several eruptions occurred in 1967–1970), with several thermal springs, fumaroles, and steaming beaches. Mount Erebus (3790 m) is the largest of the four volcanic cones that form Ross Island. This volcano is fully active and the major historically known eruption occurred in 1984–1985. Mount Melbourne (2732 m, Northern Victoria Land) presently shows only weak geothermal activity. Beyond local volcanism, Antarctica plays an important role in scientists’ understanding of the climate–volcanism relationship, because the ice cap constitutes a natural archive of volcanic aerosols. The fact that the Antarctic ice sheet has a greater remoteness than even Greenland from active volcanic fields makes it more suitable for providing information on global events, potentially recording explosive volcanic eruptions that have occurred up to 20
N

VOLCANIC EVENTS latitude. The explosivity of many volcanoes depends critically on the enrichment of volatile substances in near-surface magma reservoirs, where water (H2O) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) can form free gases at low pressure. During very explosive (Plinian) eruptions, more highly evolved derivative magmas are expelled with very high mass eruption rates (107–109 kg s–1). Plinian eruptions form a spectacular column of the mixture of gas and particles, which forms a convective zone rising up to 40 km, because of the positive buoyancy in the atmosphere. Such eruptions inject ash and gases (mainly SO2, HCl, and HF) directly into the stratosphere, where their residence time is up to 3 years, allowing their diffusion on a global scale. The photochemical reactions of SO2 with H2O and OH radicals in the stratosphere lead to the formation of micron- and submicron-sized sulphuric acid droplets. Depending on the geographical position of the source and the season of the year, volcanic aerosol layers form continuous veils (several km thick) at a height in the atmosphere of 20–30 km. Stratospheric sulphuric aerosol is a major forcing factor for climatic and environmental changes. It generally contributes to a cooling at the Earth’s surface by solar radiation back-scattering and absorption. On the contrary, the absorption of sunlight and infrared radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface causes a stratospheric warming. This radiative forcing results in massive changes in atmospheric circulation that, in turn, strongly affect tropospheric temperatures. Tropospheric and stratospheric temperature variations impact the climatic system by (1) changing midlatitude surface temperature with a possible seasonal pattern (summer cooling and winter warming) that depends on the eruption latitude, (2) causing differences in the temperature gradient between the equator and the poles and in the intensity and timing of the polar vortex, and (3) affecting climatic hemispheric conditions by variations of advective transport of air masses. Stratospheric sulphuric aerosol also changes the stratospheric chemistry, acting as a catalytic surface for heterogeneous reactions that change NOx into nitric acid and inactive anthropogenic chlorine reservoirs in the stratosphere (ClONO2, HCl) into reactive chlorine (Cl, ClO). Such substances are effective in breaking up the O3 molecule. The consequent ozone depletion constitutes a negative feedback of the surface cooling effect but heavily affects biota. A single volcanic eruption can perturb the climatic system with temperature changes on the same order of magnitude as other forcing factors, such as greenhouse gases and global anthropogenic sulphur emissions, but for shorter time periods. High-frequency volcanic activity could affect the climatic system for longer times (decennial to secular scale) and, if it occurs in climatically

critical conditions, could act as a forcing factor, priming or speeding up climate mode changes via a positive feedback. In this view, the possibility of reconstructing a reliable volcanic history from ice-core stratigraphies of volcanic markers is highly relevant in assessing the climate–volcanism relationships. Volcanic deposition the on Antarctic ice sheet can be revealed by detection of increased snow acidity, caused by deposition of acidic species such as H2SO4, HCl, and HF, or detection of sulphate levels anomalously higher than background values (tuned by biogenic emissions). In the former, conductivity measurements are carried out on melted (solution conductivity) or solid (electro-conductivity measurements [ECM]) ice-core sections, as well as by dielectric profiling (DEP) of solid ice. Specific measurements of sulphate (by ion chromatography) allow a better quantification of the volcanic deposition because sulphate is a conservative substance and is not affected by changes in snow acidity (e.g., neutralization processes with dust in glacial conditions) or interferences from other nonvolcanic conductive species. The direct measurement of sulphate allows a reliable estimation of the climatic impact of a volcanic eruption, independent of its explosivity. In fact, only the stratospheric sulphuric aerosol plays a relevant climatic role, ash having a short atmospheric residence time. The different sulphur concentration in the magmas is what is important, and small explosive events can inject more SO2 into the atmosphere than large explosive eruptions. The El Chichon eruption (Mexico, 1982; 0.35 km3 magma) emitted a very much larger SO2 quantity than the Mount St. Helens eruption (USA, 1980; 0.5 km3 magma), due to the larger concentration of sulphur in the magma (about 100 times larger). Volcanism is recorded in ice cores up to a year after the relevant eruption, because of the time necessary for the sulphuric aerosol migration and deposition to the ice sheets. These peaks are correlated with temperatures deduced from oxygen isotope ratios in order to define climate connections. The main advantages of a reliable reconstruction of the paleo-volcanism can be summarised as follows: (1) assessing the climatic and environmental impact of single major volcanic eruptions (mega-eruptions) and of high-frequency volcanic activity; (2) evaluating the stratosphere/troposphere interchange processes using stratospheric aerosol load as a marker; (3) using volcanic emissions to simulate other forcing factors, such as ‘‘nuclear winter’’ or meteoric impact; (4) setting and checking ice-core dating from seasonal marker stratigraphies or flow models by using volcanic signatures as known temporal horizons; and (5) synchronising the time scales of different ice cores (also in the different hemispheres) in order to understand whether 1041

VOLCANIC EVENTS climatic and environmental global changes occurred simultaneously in the two hemispheres or which hemisphere leads. This latest topic is very important in understanding driving forces and feedback factors of glaciation and deglaciation processes. The cause–effect relationship between climate and volcanism is still controversial. On one hand, megaeruptions or high-frequency volcanic activity seem to constitute a driving force for climate changes; on the other, the idea that the isostatic loading and unloading of the lithosphere, by accumulation and successive melting of the ice sheet, can generate instabilities in the Earth’s mantle, and then volcanism, is an intriguing hypothesis. ROBERTO UDISTI See also Climate; Climate Change; Earth System, Antarctica as Part of; Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica; Ice Ages; Ice–Atmosphere Interaction and Near-Surface Processes; Ice Chemistry; Ice Core Analysis and Dating Techniques; Isotopes in Ice; Neotectonics; Ozone and the Polar Stratosphere; Paleoclimatology; Pollution Level Detection from Antarctic Snow and Ice; Precipitation; Snow Biogenic Processes; Snow Chemistry; Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems, Fronts And Jets; Volcanoes References and Further Reading Budner, D., and J. Cole-Dai. ‘‘The Number and Magnitude of Large Explosive Volcanic Eruptions Between 904 and 1865 AD: Quantitative Evidence from a New South Pole Ice Core.’’ In Volcanism and the Earth’s Atmosphere, edited by A. Robock and C. Oppenheimer. Geophysical Monograph 139. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2003, pp. 165–176. Castellano, E., S. Becagli, J. Jouzel, A. Migliori, M. Severi, J. P. Steffensen, R. Traversi, and R. Udisti. ‘‘Volcanic Eruption Frequency in the Last 45 kyr as Recorded in EPICA-Dome C Ice Core (East Antarctica) and Its Relationship to Climate Changes.’’ In Global Planetary Change, in press. Clausen, H. B., C. U. Hammer, C. S. Hvidberg, D. DahlJensen, J. P. Steffensen, J. Kipfstuhl, and M. Legrand. ‘‘A Comparison of the Volcanic Records over the Past 4000 years from the Greenland Ice Core Project and Dye 3 Greenland Ice Cores.’’ Journal of Geophysical Research 102 (C12) (1997): 26707–26723. Coffey, M. T. ‘‘Observations of the Impact of Volcanic Activity on Stratospheric Chemistry.’’ Journal of Geophysical Research 101 (D3) (1996): 6767–6780. Hammer, C. U., H. B. Clausen, and W. Dansgaard. ‘‘Greenland Ice Sheet Evidence of Post-Glacial Volcanism and Its Climatic Impact.’’ Nature 288 (1980): 230–235. Hammer, C. U., H. B. Clausen, and C. C. Langway Jr. ‘‘50,000 Years of Recorded Global Volcanism.’’ Climatic Change 35 (1997): 1–15. Rampino, M. R., and S. Self. ‘‘Historic Eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963),

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Their Stratospheric Aerosols, and Climatic Impact. Quaternary Research 18 (1982): 127–143. ———. ‘‘Climate-Volcanism Feedback and the Toba Eruption of 74,000 Years Ago.’’ Quaternary Research 40 (1993): 269–280. Robock, A. ‘‘Volcanic Eruption and Climate.’’ Review of Geophysics 38 (2000): 191–219. Rosenfield, J. E. ‘‘Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Stratospheric Ozone Recovery.’’ In Volcanism and the Earth’s Atmosphere, edited by A. Robock and C. Oppenheimer. Geophysical Monograph 139. Berlin: Springer-Verlag 2003, pp. 227–236. Schwander, J., J. Jouzel, C. U. Hammer, J. R. Petit, R. Udisti, and E. W. Wolff. ‘‘A Tentative Chronology for the EPICA Dome Concordia Ice Core.’’ Geophysical Research Letters 28 (22) (2001): 4243–4246. Simkin, T., and L. Siebert. Volcanoes of the World, second edition. Tucson: Geoscience Press, 1994. Udisti, R., S. Becagli, E. Castellano, B. Delmonte, J. Jouzel, J. R. Petit, J. Schwander, B. Stenni, and E. W. Wolff. ‘‘Stratigraphic Correlations Between EPICA–Dome C and Vostok Ice Core Showing the Relative Variations of Snow Accumulation over the Past 45 kyr.’’ Journal of Geophysical Research 109.D08101 (2004). doi:10.1029/ 2003JD004180. Udisti, R., S. Becagli, E. Castellano, R. Mulvaney, J. Schwander, S. Torcini, and E. W. Wolff. ‘‘Holocene Electrical and Chemical Measurements from the EPICA–Dome C Ice Core.’’ Annals of Glaciology 30 (2000): 20–26. Wolff, E. W., I. Basile, J. R. Petit and J. Schwander. ‘‘Comparison of Holocene Electrical Records from Dome C and Vostok.’’ Annals of Glaciology 29 (1999): 89–93. Zielinski, G. A. ‘‘Use of Paleo-Records in Determining Variability Within the Volcanism-Climate System.’’ Quaternary Science Review 19 (2000): 417–438. Zielinski, G. A., P. A. Mayewski, L. D. Meeker, S. I. Whitlow, and M. S. Twickler. ‘‘A 110,000-Yr Record of Explosive Volcanism from the GISP2 (Greenland) Ice Core.’’ Quaternary Research 45 (1996): 109–118.

VOLCANOES Volcanoes are known from three areas within the Antarctic continent, and the oceanic islands in the surrounding Southern Ocean are mainly volcanic. Most of the volcanoes are extinct but there are a number that are considered active. The term ‘‘active volcano’’ usually applies to volcanoes that have erupted in historic times and have had their eruptions witnessed and recorded by people. As Antarctica was mainly unoccupied until the last 50 years, within Antarctica, active volcanoes are those that have had witnessed eruptions but also those showing evidence of recent eruptive activity. Evidence includes volcanic ash layers in the surrounding ice; very young ages (less than a few thousand years) determined on eruptive products; and geothermal features with temperatures above the ambient air. The following discussion

VOLCANOES is limited to the last 20 million years of geologic history, even though volcanism has occurred throughout the known geologic history of Antarctica. In the Southern Ocean there are seventeen volcanic islands situated on the Antarctic tectonic plate. Big Ben volcano on Heard Island (53
060 S, 73
300 E) is active and lava was erupted on Marion Island (46
540 S, 37
450 E) in 1980. Eruptive columns were reported in the nineteenth century at the Balleny Islands (66
160 –67
380 S, 162
150 –164
440 E). St. Paul Island (38
430 S, 77
330 E) and Bouvetøya (54
250 S, 3
210 E) have fumaroles. Volcanic plumes were observed from the McDonald Islands (53
020 S, 72
360 E) during the 1990s and satellite images show a doubling of the size of the island between November 2000 and 2001. Active volcanoes within the Antarctic continent occur in West Antarctica, the Antarctic Peninsula/ Ellsworth Land, and the western Ross Sea. Volcanoes in West Antarctica are found in Marie Byrd Land, where eighteen major and thirty small satellitic volcanic centers have been identified. The volcanoes occur in an intraplate tectonic setting and are on the flank of the West Antarctic Rift System, a region extending across West Antarctica through the Ross Sea in which the crust has been thinned by extension. Most of these impressive volcanoes are covered in snow and their bases are buried beneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Mount Sidley (77
S, 126
W) is the tallest volcano in Antarctica at 4181 m high, rising 2200 meters above the surrounding ice level. Only Mount Berlin (76
S, 136
W) is considered active, as it has a steaming fumarolic ice tower and an underlying ice cave with elevated air temperatures. It is also the source of a 10,000-year-old and many older ash layers in ice on Mount Moulton (76
S, 135
W), a volcano 25 km to the east of Mount Berlin. Mount Takahe (76
150 S, 112
W) has a youthful appearance, is 3460 m high, and appears to be the source of 7000-year-old volcanic ash in an ice core drilled at Byrd Station. There is also a possibility that an eruption is currently ongoing beneath the ice of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Airborne studies have shown a circular depression consistent with melting of the ice by a volcanic vent. The presence of a volcano beneath the depression is further evidenced by studies that show magnetic rocks typical of volcanoes. In the western Ross Sea region, most volcanism occurs on or along the front of the Transantarctic Mountains and the volcanic rocks are known as the McMurdo Volcanic Group. Numerous magnetic anomalies detected beneath the Ross Sea are interpreted as small volcanic vents, but none of these vents is currently active. A very young-looking extrusive volcanic dome occurs among a group of volcanic

cones and domes called The Pleiades (72
400 S, 165
300 E) on the Transantarctic Mountains in northern Victoria Land that probably erupted less than 1000 years ago. Fumaroles occur on a recently recognized active volcano, Mount Rittmann (73
280 S, 165
370 E), in north Victoria Land. Mt. Melbourne (74
210 S, 164
420 E), near Terra Nova Bay, has warm ground that steams near its summit, and an ash layer exposed in ice on the volcano’s flank suggests that it erupted less than 200 years ago. Mount Erebus (77
320 S, 167
100 E) on Ross Island is the southernmost active volcano in the world and contains a persistent lake of molten anorthoclase phonolite magma. Small strombolian eruptions are common from the lake. At the base of the Antarctic Peninsula and along the Ellsworth Land coast, eleven volcanic centers have been identified, but none of these volcanoes is currently active. Fourteen volcanic centers are known from the northern Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent offshore islands. Bridgeman Island (62
030 S, 56
450 W) has fumaroles and is here considered active. Seal Nunataks (65
S, 60
130 W), on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula, may be active but there are conflicting reports on the nature of the volcanic activity. Deception Island (63
S, 60
400 W) lies at the southern end of Bransfield Strait, which is a marginal basin associated with subduction of the Pacific tectonic plate beneath the South Shetland Islands, which lie on the Antarctic tectonic plate. Deception Island is the second-most-active volcano in Antarctica, after Mount Erebus, and had significant eruptions in 1967, 1969, and 1970. The island is round, 14 km in diameter, and breached at the southeast end, allowing seawater to fill the large central caldera. Three new craters and an island were formed in the 1967 eruption. Volcanic ejecta were erupted from a fissure in ice on the caldera wall in February 1969 and resulted in significant meltwater and ice debris flows. A Chilean base was destroyed and a nearby British station severely damaged by the eruption. A chain of new craters was formed in August 1970 and the volcanic ejecta formed a strip of new land inside the caldera. Hot springs near the shoreline of the caldera provide a perfect location for swimming and bathing and have become a popular destination for tourists on tour ships. PHILIP R. KYLE See also Antarctic Peninsula, Geology of; Balleny Islands; Bouvetøya; Deception Island; Heard Island and McDonald Islands; McMurdo Volcanic Group; Mount Erebus; Plate Tectonics; St. Paul Island (Iˆle St. Paul); Transantarctic Mountains, Geology of; West Antarctic Rift System 1043

VOLCANOES References and Further Reading LeMasurier, W. E., and J. W. Thomson, eds. Volcanoes of the Antarctic Plate and Southern Oceans. Antarctic Research Series 48. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union, 1990. Rubin, Jeff. Antarctica. Third edition. Lonely Planet Publications, 2005.

VOSTOK STATION Vostok Station, an inland station of the Russian Federation in Antarctica, was opened on December 19, 1957 to implement the USSR scientific program during the International Geophysical Year (IGY). The station was named after the sloop Vostok—one of the ships of the First Russian Antarctic Expedition of Fabian von Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev (1819–1821), and the first to see the Antarctic continent. The station is located on the Antarctic Plateau of East Antarctica at the point with coordinates 78
280 S and 106
480 E at a height of 3488 m above sea level. The distances from the coastal stations are: Mirnyy (Russia), 1410 km; Progress (Russia), 1350 km; Casey (Australia), 1360 km; Dumont d’Urville (France), 1705 km; Mario Zucchelli (Italy), 1470 km; and McMurdo (USA), 1305 km. The distance from Amundsen-Scott (USA) is 1250 km and from Dome C (Italy–France) is 620 km. The choice of locality was determined by the plans for permanent helio-geophysical and aero-meteorological observations at the earth’s South Geomagnetic Pole. The station coordinates corresponded to the pole position according to scientific knowledge of the time. The areas called ‘‘polar caps’’ in geophysics are situated around the geomagnetic poles in both hemispheres. The magnetic field lines, along which the ‘‘solar wind’’ energy fluxes propagate, are directed towards the poles, leading to increased geomagnetic perturbation here. Organization of permanent observations of geomagnetism and the state of the ionosphere in ‘‘polar caps’’ make it possible to investigate the character of physical processes and internal relations in the ‘‘solar wind–magnetosphere–atmosphere’’ system. In the end, these data will explain the influence of solar activity and its variability on the formation of climate and weather conditions on Earth. The importance of these studies and a complicated character of cause–effect natural mechanisms of influence of the sun’s physical state on the earth’s atmosphere also necessitated continuation of research at Vostok station after the end of the IGY program. The choice of the station location proved to be especially successful, as in this area the largest of the 1044

known subglacial lakes on earth was discovered. It was also called Vostok. Until 2005, Vostok and Amundsen-Scott stations remained the only year-round operating stations on the Antarctic continent. The annual logistics support of Vostok station (similar to its establishment in 1957) is by means of sledge-tractor traverses from Mirnyy station. Personnel, fresh products, and scientific equipment are delivered by airplanes from the coastal stations. An airstrip 3500 m long, which is suitable for receiving ski-equipped aircraft, including the LC-130 aircraft, is maintained at Vostok Station. In the late 1970s, the station was rebuilt. At present its structures include four buildings of aluminum panels, a glacialdrilling complex of veneer panels with heat insulation, an emergency electric power station (60 kW), and a base of fuel lubricants. Power supply is provided by three diesel generators with a capacity of 100 kW each. The station is capable of accommodating eighteen people in the wintertime and up to thirty in the summer. The telecommunications equipment is represented by satellite communication terminals and HF and UHF transceivers. At Vostok, observations of geomagnetism, the state of the ionosphere, surface atmosphere, solar radiation, total ozone, and adaptation of the human organism are carried out on an annual basis. Until 1991, regular observations of the free atmosphere state (upper-air sounding) were conducted. During the seasonal period, the programs expand to include glaciological studies of ice cores from deep boreholes and snow–firn cover, study of the subglacial Lake Vostok parameters by geophysical methods (seismic sounding, seismology, radio-echo sounding), and geodetic methods (ice-cover dynamics, including drift and tidal motions), and studies of biodiversity of microorganisms at the station in the snow cover and ice cores. An important type of activity beginning from 1970 was deep ice-sheet drilling by specialists of St. Petersburg Mining Institute (SPMI). In 1998, drilling was stopped at a depth of 3623 m, as it was first necessary to develop an ecologically clean technology for penetrating the water layer of the subglacial lake. Such technology was jointly elaborated by specialists of SPMI and AARI and presented to the international community in 2002 and 2003 at XXVI and XXVII ATCM. As of June 2006, the borehole at Vostok station is the deepest of all boreholes drilled on the Earth’s glaciers. A complex of geophysical studies at Vostok is aimed at investigating the magnetosphere in the south polar cap of the planet. To assess its state, a universal PC-index was developed. Its application allowed derivation of a law that relates the PC-index value to the electric-field characteristics of

VOSTOK STATION ‘‘polar caps.’’ A sharp increase in the PC-index shows the development of a magnetic substorm, making it possible to use it for operational prognostic purposes. It was determined that geomagnetic perturbations have a synchronous character at the magnetically conjugated points of the Southern and Northern hemispheres. Thus, constant observations at Vostok Station allow a practical use of operational information in the northern regions of Russia. The latitudinal and altitudinal location of Vostok Station determines its extremely severe climatic characteristics. Vostok is currently the ‘‘Pole of Cold’’ of our planet. The mean monthly air temperature ranges from –32.0
C (December) to –68.2
C (August), being above –60
C only for 4 months of the year (November–February), while its mean minimum values of below –70
C persist for 6 months (April–September). The absolute minimum air temperature ever measured on the planet was recorded at Vostok (–89.2
C on July 21, 1983). An absolute maximum of –12.2
C was observed on January 11, 2002. Relative air humidity throughout the year is close to 70%. Mean monthly atmospheric pressure varies between 618 mb (September) and 634 mb (January). Mean monthly wind speed is about 5 m s–1, with the west-southwest direction predominating. The discovery of the subglacial Lake Vostok resulted from comparison of the experimental data on seismic surveys, radio-echo sounding of the icesheet strata and the underlying surface character, and satellite altimetry of the glacial surface with theoretical thermodynamic models of the glacier. The outcome of this generalization was first presented at the

SCAR Congress in Rome in 1994, and the first publication about this natural water body appeared in 1995. Beginning at this time, the RAE started comprehensive systematized studies of Lake Vostok. The lake presents an oblong knee-shaped water body elongated from north to south. Its length is 300 km, the width is 15 km, and the water table area is about 16,000 km2. Its western shore is irregular, forming numerous bays and peninsulas, whereas the eastern shore is relatively rectilinear and precipitous. The southern lake area presents a deep water trough with a maximum water-layer thickness of 1200 m, while the northern area is shallow. The maximum thickness of bottom sediments (up to 330 m) is observed in the deep-water trough. The ice-sheet thickness above the lake water layer changes from 3400 m in the southern part to 4350 m in the northern area. Directly beneath Vostok Station, the ice thickness is 3750  25 m, the water layer thickness is 600 m, and the bottom-sediment thickness is 330 m. VALERIE LUKIN See also Antarctic: Definitions and Boundaries; Bellingshausen, Fabian von; Climate; International Geophysical Year; Ionosphere; Lake Vostok; Russia: Antarctic Program; Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition (1819–1821); Solar Wind; South Pole; Temperature

References and Further Reading Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. http://www.aari. nw.ru/default_en.asp SCAR. http://www.scar.org

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W WANDERING ALBATROSS

are loosely colonial and breed in dispersed groups in open or patchy vegetation. The single egg is laid in a large truncated cone nest constructed of vegetation and mud. Laying occurs during December and February, and the parents share the 11-week incubation period. The chick hatches in March–April and is tended by the parents for 40 weeks before fledging occurs between November and February. The breeding season therefore for adults that successfully raise a chick extends over a 55-week period, requiring this species to be a biennial breeder, with no successful adults returning to breed the following year. Successful birds typically return to breed 2 years later, but some birds may elect not to return for 3–4 years. Unsuccessful birds usually attempt to breed in the successive year, but again some may defer for 2–3 years. Most wandering albatrosses remain at sea for 5–7 years before returning to their natal island. Breeding generally commences between 8 and 11 years of age, although a decrease in the age of breeding has been reported for the decreasing Bird Island population. Birds from this population have also shown substantial reductions in both adult and juvenile survival rates, with longline fishing being implicated as the major source of the increased rates of mortality. Wandering albatrosses forage widely over the Southern Ocean, and there is overlap in foraging distributions of birds from different colonies within the same ocean sectors. Typically, wandering albatrosses exploit sub-Antarctic and subtropical waters, and they forage over both neritic and shelf waters. Wandering albatrosses have minimal ability to dive and

Wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) are among the longest-winged flying birds with a wingspan of over 3 m. Wandering albatrosses weigh between 7 and 12 kg, with males about 20% heavier than females. Consistent with their feeding and flight characteristics, in addition to their long wings adapted for gliding flight, wandering albatrosses display massive pale bills and short tails. Adults have a characteristic white body and upper-wing plumage, the dark vermiculations diminishing with age. Juvenile birds have darkbrown plumage with white faces, their dark body plumage lightening with maturity. Wandering albatrosses are a globally threatened species classified as ‘‘vulnerable’’ because of an overall decrease of 30% in numbers over three generations (70 years). Wandering albatrosses breed at five island groups (South Georgia, Prince Edward Islands, Iˆles Crozet, Iˆles Kerguelen, and Macquarie Island) with an estimated annual breeding population of 8500 pairs in this biennially breeding species. The total population is equivalent to about 28,000 mature individuals, with the Bird Island (South Georgia) and Crozet populations accounting for 30% of the species. These two populations indicated significant population decreases during the 1970s and 1980s, after which the Crozet population showed slight recovery before stabilising. The tiny population on Macquarie Island has recovered from precariously low levels to stabilise at the current level of about ten pairs breeding each year. Wandering albatrosses return to their natal islands in November, about a month before egg laying. They

1047

WANDERING ALBATROSS feed predominantly by surface-seizing their prey of fish and squid. Wandering albatrosses are also prodigious scavengers and are perhaps the most aggressive of seabirds that forage on offal and discards behind fishing vessels. This propensity to scavenge during fishing operations makes them extremely susceptible to being drowned after ingesting baited hooks. Birds from South Georgia are likely to be most at risk from fisheries operating in the South Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans, whereas the Iˆles Crozet, Prince Edward Islands, and Macquarie Island populations are likely to interact more with fishing operations in the Indian Ocean and Australian region. Widespread adoption of effective mitigation measures across a range of fleets is therefore required to safeguard the survival of this species. ROSEMARY GALES See also Albatrosses: Overview; Antarctic Important Bird Area Inventory; Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet); Fish: Overview; Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen); Macquarie Island; Prince Edward Islands; Seabird Conservation; Seabird Populations and Trends; Seabirds at Sea; South Georgia References and Further Reading BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World 2004. CD-ROM. Cambridge: Birdlife International, 2004. ———. Tracking Ocean Wanderers: The Global Distribution of Albatrosses and Petrels. Results from the Global Procellariiform Tracking Workshop, 1–5 September 2003, Gordon’s Bay, South Africa. Cambridge: Birdlife International, 2004. www.birdlife.org Brooke, M. Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal. Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1992. Marchant, S., and P. Higgins, eds. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1990. Robertson, G., and R. Gales, eds. Albatross: Biology and Conservation. New South Wales: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 1998. Tickell, L. Albatrosses. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000. Warham, J. The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. London: Academic Press, 1990.

WEATHER FORECASTING Weather forecasting for the Antarctic is becoming much less of an art and very much more of a science as knowledge of the various physical processes that occur in the Antarctic environment develops and as our armoury of forecasting tools increases. This said, 1048

the relative paucity of weather observations over Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, and an ocean– ice–atmosphere environment that results in weather varying from calm and sunny conditions to howling blizzards, present the forecaster with considerable challenges. Most of the twenty-nine or so National Antarctic Programs have subprograms related to meteorology (COMNAP 2005), with some Antarctic stations having a forecasting role, for example Marambio (Argentina); Casey and Davis (Australia); Frei (Chile); Great Wall (China); Neumayer (Germany); Terra Nova Bay (Italy); Mirnyy (Russia); SANAE IV (South Africa); Rothera (UK); Vernadsky (Ukraine); and McMurdo (USA). However, for most Antarctic stations there is no dedicated weather forecasting service available on a year-round basis. Occasionally, in ‘‘winter,’’ a station might request ad hoc forecasts to support a traverse or a similar venture. Usually, however, station activities proceed on the basis of station management, insisting that expeditioners take all possible care when going about their outdoor tasks and in particular keep their own close watch on the weather. During the ‘‘summer’’ period many stations have their numbers increased due to an influx of scientific and maintenance personnel. Field camps are established from which scientists conduct their research, aircraft are ferrying people and cargo between stations, ships, and field camps, and there is an increase in recreational activity by staff enjoying a break. This increases the demand for weather forecasts, and some stations issue routine forecasts through the summer period. In preparing weather forecasts, Antarctic meteorologists use a variety of forecasting techniques. The mean sea level (MSL) chart (showing lines of equal pressure at mean sea level) is still a key forecasting aid. It shows the positions of centres of low- and high-pressure systems, the air-pressure gradient between them, and the location of frontal systems (boundaries between air masses with different characteristics). While routine observations of air pressure, air temperature, and wind speed and direction are essential for the preparation of the MSL chart, such synoptic data are sparse over Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. However, data from satellites do provide invaluable information for the construction of weather charts. The MSL chart becomes of less use just a few kilometres inland of the coast of Antarctica, where the terrain rises steeply. Normalising pressure to sea level is problematical over such a depth of the atmosphere (the average elevation is around 2000 m). Here the forecaster might resort to using streamline charts, which show the direction along which the air is flowing. The forecasting task is four-dimensional, with the prediction of weather elements at some time in the

WEDDELL, JAMES future for a location in an atmosphere that has vertical and horizontal extent. Increasingly, the simple MSL chart is being supplemented or replaced by the output from numerical weather prediction (NWP). This has become a prime forecasting tool in Antarctica, as indeed it has worldwide. In the Antarctic context, NWP gives guidance from the broad-scale synoptic environment down to local weather phenomena affecting Antarctic stations. Paradoxically, while there are fewer conventional weather observations available in the Southern Hemisphere compared to north of the equator, the vast expanses of southern oceans coupled with the effectiveness of satellite data and the relatively simple orography in the Southern Hemisphere means that the NWP output from most global models is now of similar quality for each hemisphere. NWP over Antarctica and the Southern Ocean may have some skill up to a week ahead, but terrain plays an important role in defining the surface wind flow over the Antarctic continent, and many operationally available computer models do not adequately resolve topographic and orographic features. While the NWP output might provide good general synoptic guidance, the accurate prediction of individual weather elements over the Antarctic continent is often the province of local knowledge and ‘‘nowcasting’’ techniques (in which extrapolation of observed trends is limited to the very short term). This is particularly the case in areas of steep or complex terrain. Whatever the forecasting technique used, the main aim is usually to provide information that will increase the safety of humans in what is often a very hostile environment. A ‘‘blizzard’’ (where blowing snow reduces visibility to 100 m or less, the air temperature is freezing, and the surface wind speed is gale force or greater) is the archetypal Antarctic weather phenomenon. With strong winds and low temperatures comes ‘‘wind chill,’’ the cooling of a person’s body due to the combined effects of cold surroundings and wind carrying the heat away from the body. Antarctic explorers Paul Siple and Charles Passel first attempted quantification of wind chill in 1939. Another, more insidious phenomenon is that of ‘‘whiteout,’’ which occurs in uniformly overcast conditions over a snow-covered surface. It is associated with diffuse, shadowless illumination that causes a lack of definition of features on a snow surface. The resulting lack of horizon definition can make it difficult for a person to even walk safely, let alone operate vehicles or land an aeroplane. The prediction of white-out might be achieved by using NWP output to predict potential for cloudiness, supplemented with satellite imagery or direct human observations of cloud bands to extrapolate the movement of actual cloud features in the short term. NWP might also be used as a guide

to the general environment for windy conditions. Often forecasts of snow drift will depend on a nowcasting approach (by considering whether snow has fallen recently and whether the forecast wind is strong enough to raise that snow to a sufficient height). Some decades ago operators in the Antarctic might have been forgiven for looking at the latest Antarctic forecast with a jaundiced eye. Nowadays, while it still pays to ‘‘hope for the best but prepare for the worst,’’ improvements in understanding of the relevant physical processes, satellite data, and NWP mean that weather forecasting skill for the Antarctic (even for phenomena such as blizzards, wind chill, and whiteout) are on par with forecasting for lower latitudes. STEVE PENDLEBURY See also Field Camps; Ice–Atmosphere Interaction and Near-Surface Processes; Polar Lows and Mesoscale Weather Systems; Precipitation; Siple, Paul; Synoptic-Scale Weather Systems, Fronts and Jets; Temperature; Wind

References and Further Reading Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP). http://www.comnap.aq/ Karoly, David, and Dayton Vincent, eds. Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1998. King, John, and John Turner. Antarctic Meteorology and Climatology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Parish, Thomas, and John Cassano. ‘‘Diagnosis of the Katabatic Wind Influence on the Wintertime Antarctic Surface Wind Field from Numerical Simulations.’’ Monthly Weather Review 131 (2003): 1128–1139. Simmons, Adrian, and Anthony Hollingsworth. ‘‘Some Aspects of the Improvement in Skill of Numerical Weather Prediction.’’ Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society 128 (580) (2002): 647–677. Turner, John, and Steve Pendlebury, eds. The International Antarctic Weather Forecasting Handbook. Cambridge: British Antarctic Survey, 2004. Freely available in PDF format from the British Antarctic Survey. http://www. antarctica.ac.uk/met/jtu/ftpinst.html Twitchell, Paul, Erik Rasmussen, and Kenneth Davidson, eds. Polar and Arctic Lows. Hampton: A. DEEPAK Publishing, 1989.

WEDDELL, JAMES Weddell was primus inter pares in the group of sealing captains who accomplished so much exploration of the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic in the early years of the nineteenth century, and whose achievements were recorded for posterity. During his great voyage of 1822–1824, he discovered the sea now named after 1049

WEDDELL, JAMES him and penetrated it to the then-astonishing latitude of 74
150 S. As with so many of his contemporaries, much of Weddell’s early life is obscure. His father was a prosperous Scottish-born upholsterer trading in London, and his mother, to whom he was deeply attached throughout his life, was a Quaker. Although it is known that he was born in 1787, his place of birth is uncertain. London would seem likely, but both Ostend and Massachusetts are possible. His father died early, and Weddell, following a brother into the Royal Navy, became a ‘‘boy, first class’’ on board HMS Swan on June 1, 1796. He was soon discharged and entered the merchant service, where he remained until he rejoined the Royal Navy in 1810 as an able seaman. Promotion then became rapid, as Weddell was a highly competent seaman. He was acting master within 1 year and received his warrant as master within 2. With the peace following the Napoleonic Wars, Weddell left the navy and reentered the merchant service. After a few unremarkable years, Weddell arranged for the firm of Strachan & Gavin, of Leith, together with other investors—of whom one seems to have been Weddell himself—to outfit the brig Jane (160 tons) for sealing in southern waters, under his command. During his first voyage, in 1819–1820, Weddell— who, unusually for the time, carried a chronometer and knew how to use it—visited the South Shetland Islands, searched for and failed to find the ‘‘Aurora Islands,’’ and wintered in the Falkland Islands, where he prepared detailed notes and charts of anchorages. Encouraged by the success of the voyage, the investors purchased a diminutive vessel, Beaufoy (65 tons), to act as tender to Jane, and Weddell again set forth for the sealing grounds in 1821. He visited the Falklands, South Georgia, and the South Shetland Islands, and Michael McLeod, the captain of Beaufoy, reached the South Orkney Islands on a scouting mission a mere 6 days after their discovery by George Powell and Nathaniel Palmer. It seems to have been Weddell who named this archipelago when he visited it in Jane in February 1822. He charted the islands and, following his usual practice, made such scientific observations as he could. By this time, Weddell was highly experienced in the sealing trade, and Strachan & Gavin, which seems to have had the same enlightened attitude as did the Enderby Brothers with regard to their captains engaging in exploratory and scientific work when possible, speedily decided on a third voyage. After a complete reequipping, Jane and Beaufoy, the latter under the command of Matthew Brisbane, who appears to have been an almost exact contemporary of Weddell, departed the Thames in September 1822. 1050

Jane sprang a leak on the voyage south, and this caused delays, as it was necessary to spend some time in a secure anchorage on the Patagonian coast in order to effect repairs. It became obvious to Weddell that it would not be profitable to head to the South Shetlands because of the lateness of the season and also because most of the seals in that archipelago had, by that date, already been slaughtered. He determined to aim for the South Orkneys, where they arrived after much bad weather, in midJanuary 1823. Few seals were secured, but among them was one preserved by Weddell, which later became the type specimen of Leptonychotes weddelli, the Weddell seal. Unsatisfied, Weddell determined to seek new sealing islands and to examine the area between the South Shetlands and South Sandwich Islands. Failing in this, he decided to head south. For the first part of the passage the conditions were poor, but in mid-February, extraordinarily late in the season, and well to the south of the Antarctic Circle, the weather ameliorated and rapid progress was made in the desired direction. On February 18, the sea was completely clear of ice—in Weddell’s words, ‘‘not a particle...was to be seen’’—and these conditions continued with a favourable wind ‘‘light and easterly’’ enabling ‘‘all sail’’ to be kept. On February 20, the wind shifted to the south, causing Weddell to reverse course from his farthest south at 74
150 S, 34
160 W. No land was in sight. It is important to appreciate the wisdom of Weddell’s decision at this juncture. He was aware that a long and potentially difficult navigation northwards at an unpropitious time of the year awaited Jane, Beaufoy, and their crews. Even though further progress could have been made by altering course to southeast or west, Weddell appreciated that disaster loomed for his ships if the weather suddenly turned, as it could easily have done, and that, even if he did discover new sealing grounds, it was so late that most of the seals would already have left. By mid-March both ships were in Undine Harbour in South Georgia, refitting and refreshing the crews, especially with regard to antiscorbutics, and continuing sealing. Weddell himself devoted much time on charting and making observations of wildlife and other natural phenomena. After wintering in the Falklands, Weddell set off, in October, on a renewed attempt to reach the South Shetlands. Although it was early in the season, this would have been at the optimal period for sealing, and the expedition had so far been woefully unsuccessful in its main aim. However, after a prolonged struggle with the pack, which was very far north, it proved impossible to land, and Weddell headed for Tierra del Fuego. During his sojourn there, he continued with his observations

WEDDELL, ROSS, AND OTHER POLAR GYRES of wildlife, this time also experiencing the novelty of trying to establish relations with the inhabitants, in whom he appears to have had a good deal of interest. By now anxious about the prospect of having to return home with no seal products, Weddell ordered that the two ships separate, and both thereafter ultimately had some success. Jane reached London in July 1824, to find that Beaufoy had arrived some weeks earlier. Partly based on a desire to ensure that his record south be accepted by the maritime authorities, Weddell determined to prepare a book concerning his voyages. This appeared in 1825 under the ponderous title A Voyage Towards the South Pole Performed in the Years 1822–1824; Containing an Examination of the Antarctic Sea to the Seventy-Fourth Degree of Latitude: and a Visit to Tierra del Fuego and presented a distillation of his experiences, including comprehensive notes concerning navigation in the difficult waters. It also included his observations on wildlife and contained a proposal for the conservation of seals to ensure continuing future harvests. The book is a masterpiece, and recognition of his work came with his election to Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Weddell’s work at sea as captain of Jane continued but not as part of the sealing trade. Jane was deemed unfit for further use while at Horta in the Azores, and, after having been shipwrecked on the way home, Weddell became captain of Eliza, engaged in the Australia trade. One of the most celebrated coincidental meetings of polar ‘‘greats’’ took place in May 1831, on the Tasmanian coast, when Weddell and his men helped to moor John Biscoe’s Tula, limping in with a sick crew after her great voyage. For both Weddell and Brisbane, sad demises were in store. The latter was murdered by gauchos in the Falkland Islands on August 26, 1833. Weddell left the sea after returning from Tasmania in mid-1832. He resided in lodgings in London, where, despite being one of the greatest Antarctic sailors of all time, he died in poverty in September 1834. IAN R. STONE See also Biscoe, John; Enderby, Messrs.; Sealing, History of; South Georgia; South Orkney Islands; South Sandwich Islands; South Shetland Islands; Weddell Seal

References and Further Reading Jones, A. G. E. ‘‘New Light on James Weddell, Master of the Brig Jane of Leith.’’ Scottish Geographical Magazine 81 (3) (1965): 182–187.

———. ‘‘Captain Matthew Brisbane.’’ Notes and Queries (1971): 172–175. Weddell, J. A Voyage Towards the South Pole Performed in the Years 1822–1824. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1825.

WEDDELL, ROSS, AND OTHER POLAR GYRES The large-scale circulation in the Antarctic Ocean is dominated by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and the subpolar gyres to its south. Whereas zonal flow prevails in the ACC, the large-scale cyclonic subpolar gyres induce meridional flow at their eastern and western rims, westward flow in the southern parts adjacent to the Antarctic continent, and eastward flow in the north. The subpolar gyres are elongated in shape, extending 3000–4000 km zonally and 1500–2000 km meridionally. There are three major gyres: the Weddell, the Ross, and the Kerguelen, which differ in size, flow intensity, and water mass properties. The Weddell and the Ross gyres are related to, but extend well beyond, the large embayments in the Antarctic continent for which they are named. The existence and shape of the Kerguelen Gyre is still a matter of debate. Flow in the gyres has been determined at specific locations by measurements from ships, buoys and icebergs, or sea-ice drift, and to a lesser degree with current meters. A more comprehensive view of the shape of the gyres has been derived from water mass property distributions. Numerical models of sufficient horizontal resolution also provide useful information on the shape of the gyres and their currents. However, significant parts of the boundaries of the gyres are not fixed by topographical features but by variable water mass transition zones, leading to different estimates of area, depth, and transport from source to source. Further uncertainty results from the southern boundaries of the gyres, where related flows extend onto the continental shelves. The Weddell Gyre is the largest of the three, extending eastward from the Antarctic Peninsula to about 30
E. It includes the entire Weddell Abyssal Plain and about half of the Enderby Abyssal Plain. Its northern limit is closely related to the southern slopes of the South Scotia Ridge and the Southwest Indian Ridges located between 55
and 60
S. The strong southward bend of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current west of Conrad Rise leads to a water mass transition zone near 30
E, separating the warmer, more saline waters of the ACC from the cooler and fresher Weddell Gyre. Limited by ice-shelf fronts in the south and the oceanic Weddell Front in the north,

1051

WEDDELL, ROSS, AND OTHER POLAR GYRES the Weddell Gyre extends over 7 million km2, more than twice the size of the Weddell Sea. Its mean depth is near 3900 m, with a maximum near 5600 m in the Enderby Basin. Water mass property distributions and models indicate two embedded subgyres, divided near the Greenwich Meridian, each having volume transports of 50–55 Sv (1 Sv ¼ 1 million m3/sec). Mean currents in the interior of the Gyre are only on the order of 1 cm s–1 but increase to 10–50 cm s–1 in the boundaries. Superimposed on the mean flows are mesoscale eddies with comparable velocities. Tidal currents are small in the interior of the gyres but larger over the continental slopes and shelves. The Ross Gyre extends from the coast of Victoria Land north and east of the Ross Sea into the Amundsen Abyssal Plain. To its northwest the Gyre is bounded by the slope of the Pacific Antarctic Ridge. Its eastern boundary is often located near 130
W, but models indicate a further eastward extension to 90
W, sometimes called the Bellingshausen Gyre. West of 130
W, the Ross Gyre covers an area of 2.4 million km2 and has a volume transport modelled at 35 Sv. Current velocities are similar to those in the Weddell Gyre; the mean depth is near 3000 m and the maximum 4600 m. The Kerguelen Gyre extends eastward from the Kerguelen Plateau at about 75
E across the Australian Antarctic Basin, with a northern boundary along the Southeast Indian Ridge. Northwestward flow along the eastern slope of the Kerguelen Plateau clearly shows up in the water mass distributions. Information on its northern and eastern rims results from models, which indicate a gyre flow of 45 Sv. Its area is 2.6 million km2, mean depth 3900 m, and maximum depth 4700 km. The origin of the gyres is a combination of wind and thermohaline forcing and the constraints of a bottom topography that has evolved since at least the Jurassic period. Since water mass stratification is normally weak in the polar oceans, currents vary little with depth, allowing bottom topography to exert a strong steering effect on the flow. Exceptions include dense bottom water plumes that can descend the continental slope. Atmospheric forcing of the gyre circulations is related to the transition from westerly winds in the north to easterly winds near the Antarctic coast. This induces opposite directions of flow in the northern and southern limbs of the gyres, and upwelling (Antarctic Divergence) in between. The winds result from the low-pressure belt around the Antarctic continental high-pressure system. The regionally variable wind stress induces sea-surface slopes in geostrophic balance with the ocean currents. While the bottom topography forces northward 1052

meridional flows in the west, southward return flows on the eastern limbs are less clear for all three gyres. The southern limbs of the subpolar gyres sometimes include the Antarctic Coastal Current, and these two flow regimes are often not clearly separated. The bottom inclination at the continental slope often gives rise to a jet-like westward current, in geostrophic equilibrium with density gradients (Antarctic Slope Front) between different water mass characteristics on the shelf and in the deep sea. The northern boundaries of the gyres coincide with the southern boundary of the ACC, also identified by a frontal region. This front can have a double structure, as in the WeddellScotia Confluence at the northwestern boundary of the Weddell Gyre, where waters from the Antarctic peninsula continental shelf are injected between those of the Weddell Sea and ACC. Farther to the east the Southern Boundary of the ACC is often called the Weddell Front. Within the gyres, water properties result from intrusions coming from the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and modifications due the ocean–atmosphere–ice interactions. Circumpolar Deep Water intruding at intermediate depths from the north is relatively warm and saline and rises toward the surface inside the gyres to replace surface water moving toward the boundaries. In winter the surface mixed layer is near freezing (–1.9
C), and sea-ice formation results in salt release. That brine increases the density of the mixed layer, leading to vertical convection that entrains the Circumpolar Deep Water below. This warms the mixed layer, increasing heat flux to the sea ice and atmosphere. Melting sea ice reduces the mixedlayer density, in turn retarding convection and ice growth, a delicate balance in a region of low vertical stability. Even more salt is released at the southern edges of the gyres, or their extensions onto the continental shelves, where offshore winds move newly forming ice away from the coastline. This results in the formation of high-salinity shelf water, which is dense enough to sink along the continental slope. There it mixes with colder shelf waters freshened by melting under the large ice shelves, entrains deep water from the gyres, and at some locations becomes dense enough to reach the floor of the abyssal plains. During these processes this dense water with recently ‘‘ventilated’’ components also becomes entrained in the larger gyre circulations, eventually exiting them as Antarctic Bottom Water or in the lowest layers of Circumpolar Deep Water, spreading into the deep basins of the world ocean. The formation of bottom water and the upwelling of deep water in the subpolar gyres are major components of the vertical

WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY OF overturning circulation of the global ocean. The properties and intensity of deep and bottom water formation vary from gyre to gyre. Deep ocean convection occurred within the Weddell Gyre west of Maud Rise in conjunction with a large and persistent polynya that occurred there in the mid-1970s. However, most modern deep-water modification and bottom water formation is related to processes that take place on the Antarctic continental shelves and slopes. Water mass properties and circulation are subject to decadal variations, with freshening observed during recent decades in the Ross Sea, while bottom water in the Weddell Sea shows a trend of warming and salinity increase. Deep water in the Weddell Gyre increased in temperature until the mid-1990s and has cooled since then. It is not yet clear whether this is in response to decadal variability (e.g., related to El Nin˜o in the form of the Antarctic Dipole) or to trends related to global warming. The gyre structures impact the sea-ice cover, with the widest sea-ice belts in the Weddell and Ross Sea areas. In the boundary currents the sea-ice thickness of several meters is clearly larger than in the interior of the gyres, where only 50–100 cm are measured. Sea ice is transported out of the gyres toward the north, where it comes into contact with the waters of the ACC and melts. Icebergs also drift in and add freshwater to the gyre circulations. Their drift tracks depend both on the wind forcing and on the compactness of the sea ice. Although less productive than oceanic frontal regions, the subpolar gyres are also home to a diverse sea life. Various species of whales, seals, and penguins are found, with fish less abundant than around the sub-Antarctic islands. In the Weddell Sea the dominant demersal fish is Chionodraco myersi and the pelagic Pleuragramma antarcticum. In particular the sea ice accommodates important biota like krill, which utilize the ice cover as an effective overwintering strategy. The gyre flows and upwellings influence the life cycles of plankton and fish larvae. EBERHARD FAHRBACH See also Amundsen Sea, Oceanography of; Antarctic Bottom Water; Antarctic Divergence; Antarctic Ice Sheet: Definitions and Description; Antarctic Peninsula; Antarctic Surface Waters; Circumpolar Current, Antarctic; Circumpolar Deep Water; Coastal Ocean Currents; Continental Shelves and Slopes; Ice Shelves; Icebergs; Polar Front; Polynyas and Leads in the Southern Ocean; Ross Sea, Oceanography of; Southern Ocean: Fronts and Frontal Zones; Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulations in the Southern Ocean; Weddell Sea, Oceanography of

References and Further Reading Tingey, Robert J., ed. The Geology of Antarctica. Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics 17. Oxford: Oxford Science Publications, 1991.

WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY OF Discovered and named the George IV Sea in 1823 during a seal hunt on Jane, the Weddell Sea was renamed in 1900 for the master of that ship, James Weddell (1787–1834). Nearly 100 years later, Wilhelm Filchner reached the southern coast of the Weddell Sea onboard Deutschland, while attempting to determine if Antarctica was a single continent. The Weddell Sea is the southernmost extension of the South Atlantic, indenting Antarctica between the Antarctic Peninsula (60
W) and Coats Land (10
–35
W). Its southern boundary extends beneath the FilchnerRonne Ice Shelf, and its northern boundary follows the course of the South Scotia Ridge, extending along 60
S from the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula to the South Sandwich Islands (30
W). If a line from there to Kapp Norvegia (10
W, 71
S) is taken as the eastern boundary, then the Weddell Sea covers an area of 2.8 million km2, slightly larger than the Mediterranean Sea, and has a volume of 7.6 million km3,  0.5% of the world ocean. A boundary at the eastern end of the Weddell Gyre would encompass a greater area and volume. At depths >4000 m, the Weddell Abyssal Plain is the deepest portion of the Weddell Sea. It is fringed by a relatively steep (15
–30
) continental slope, carved by numerous marine canyons connecting the abyss with the >500-m-deep continental shelf. This depth is greater than the 200 m typical for continental shelves worldwide and is caused by the load of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. The shelf width ranges from 0–50 km in the east and 500 km in the south to 100 km in the west, with a coastline running along the fronts (or grounding lines) of the Riiser-Larsen, Brunt, Filchner-Ronne, and Larsen ice shelves. Two major troughs (Filchner and Ronne) with maximum depths >1200 m have been cut into the southern continental shelf, marking the northward advance of the Antarctic Ice Sheet during glacial times. These troughs and a southward-sloping sea floor support the exchange of water masses between continental-shelf and ice-shelf cavities. Confined by the bottom relief, the ice-shelf base, and the continental margin grounding lines, the Filchner-Ronne cavity is the largest in the Southern Ocean, containing 0.14 million km3 of water. The flow of waters of circumpolar origin into the Weddell Sea is disturbed by a 1600-m seamount, Maud Rise, centered at 65
S, 2.5
E. The chain of islands (South Shetland

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WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY OF Islands, South Orkney Islands, and South Sandwich Islands) along the South Scotia Ridge is interrupted by gaps as deep as 3000 m, allowing for the escape of dense Weddell Sea waters into the Scotia Sea. The Weddell Sea climate is influenced by the northward flow of cold continental air and the transit of synoptic low-pressure systems (cyclones) with the westerly winds. Cyclone tracks are determined by a semiannual oscillation, which consists of a contraction and expansion of the circumpolar pressure trough, more southerly in March and September and more northerly in January and July. Sea-level pressures indicate that this oscillation has decreased since the 1970s. Southerly tracking cyclones tend to drift into the edge of the polar cell region, balancing the heat loss from negative net radiation on the elevated ice sheet. As one element of the three-cell structure of the global atmospheric meridional circulation, the southern polar cell is roughly located over the Antarctic continent. Along the coastline, katabatic (gravity) winds carrying cold surface air down from the Antarctic plateau interact with the low-pressure systems, initiating gale-force winds that drive sea-ice formation, sea-ice advection, and the maintenance of ice-free areas (polynyas). This simple picture of atmospheric circulation is strongly modified by the orography of the Antarctic continent, the ocean circulation, and the distribution of sea ice, which reduces the air–sea exchange of heat and moisture. The annual mean near-surface air temperature in the Weddell Sea decreases southward from –4.3
C (South Orkney Islands) to –22.2
C (Coats Land) with monthly means (January and July) of +1
C and –10
C, and –8
C and –30
C, respectively, at these locations. Interannual variability and trends in nearsurface air temperature decrease from north to south, although the significance of trends is difficult to determine because of the relatively short lengths of the time series. A 90-year (1904–1994) record from the South Orkneys reveals a temperature increase of 2
C, while a 40-year (1957–1997) record from Halley Station in the southeastern Weddell Sea shows a slight temperature decrease. It is not yet known whether climatic changes observed in the northwestern Weddell Sea result from local factors or broaderscale circulation changes, but in the latter case there are no obvious links to the enhanced anthropogenic emission of greenhouse gases. In addition to a strong seasonal cycle in all atmospheric properties, the Weddell Sea experiences interannual climate fluctuations characterized by anomalies in sea-level pressure, seasurface temperature, and sea-ice extent that appear to move around Antarctica at about the speed of the mean ocean flow. Studies of these periodic phenomena, sometimes referred to as the Antarctic 1054

Circumpolar Wave, Antarctic Dipole, or Southern Annular Mode, often suggest links to extrapolar variability such as the El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation. The ocean circulation in the Weddell Sea is dominated by the cyclonic (clockwise-rotating) Weddell Gyre, which displays a double-cell subsurface structure with centers on both sides of the Greenwich Meridian. The southern branch of the gyre is part of the coastal or slope front currents, the latter near the continental shelf break and separating cold shelf waters (–1.85
C) from warmer open ocean waters (0.5
C–0.7
C). The northern branch of the gyre is guided by the topography of the South Scotia and Mid-Ocean Ridge, and interacts with the southern edge of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Southward recirculation at the eastern end of the gyre is poorly defined but may lie near 20
E at the surface and 80
E at depth, where the Kerguelen Plateau is a natural eastern barrier for dense water masses newly formed in the Weddell Sea. The transport of the Weddell Gyre, from in situ observations and numerical model studies, is estimated to be 50 million m2 s–1, with an interannual variability of 15%. On the broad southern continental shelf, additional cyclonic circulation cells centered over the Filchner and Ronne Troughs transport ten times less water. Those cells interact with a separate circulation beneath the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, driven by thermohaline (density) differences between water masses on the continental shelf and within the deeper sub-ice shelf cavity. The Weddell Sea is known for its severe seaice conditions, always a threat to the ships that penetrate into this remote region, from Deutschland and Endurance to Magdalena Oldendorff, forced to spend the 2002 austral winter in a sheltered bay near the Greenwich Meridian. Sea ice can be considered a thin blanket between ocean and atmosphere, one that both controls and is controlled by the fluxes of heat, moisture, and momentum across the interface. Sea-ice extent, concentration, and thickness are determined by growth/decay and drift of the ice cover, in turn linked to dynamic and thermodynamic processes in the ocean, ice, and atmosphere. Intensive atmospheric cooling of the ocean surface below the freezing temperature (–1.9
C on the southern Weddell Sea continental shelf) initiates the formation of sea ice, which then drifts northward and melts near the fringes of the Weddell Sea. The sea-ice cover experiences large seasonal changes, increasing from 1.5 million km2 in February to 7.5 million km2 in July, when it extends to 55
S. Due to its annual renewal, the average seaice thickness is only 0.8 m, much less than in the Arctic Ocean. However, extremes range from >3 m for the multiyear ice that survives the summer melt,

WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY OF predominantly in the western sector, to a few centimeters in leads and coastal polynyas. Polynyas and leads are open water areas in the sea ice field, maintained by tidal action and divergent winds. Near the coastline these often narrow regions are the sites of the strongest sea-ice formation, with rates up to 0.1 m/day (equivalent to 17 m/yr). A much larger polynya appeared in the mid-1970s in the eastern Weddell, covering an area of 0.25 million km2 in successive winters. This region near Maud Rise is known for the sporadic occurrence of smaller polynyas or thinner sea ice and is the initial area for the disintegration of the winter sea-ice cover. Large polynyas over the deep ocean may result from a complex interplay between ocean currents and bottom topography, tidal action, and unusual atmospheric forcing. In contrast to coastal polynyas, where the oceanic heat loss to the atmosphere is mostly balanced by the latent heat of fusion of ice, deep-ocean polynyas gain heat by the upwelling of warmer deep water. Under some atmospheric conditions the upper ocean heat flux may exceed 100 Wm–2, while the flux is as low as 3 Wm–2 beneath the perennial sea ice. The average ocean heat flux in winter for the entire Weddell Sea is less than 40 Wm–2. In a deep ocean polynya, densification of the surface layer due to extreme heat loss can initiate convection and cooling to depths of 4000 m. This has consequences well beyond the Weddell Sea (e.g., a colder bottom layer in the Argentine Basin in the late 1980s has been related to the cooling of the deep Weddell Sea during the polynya years of the mid1970s). However, processes on and near the Weddell Sea continental shelf are generally believed to have larger influences on deep Southern Ocean properties, and ventilation of the abyssal world ocean. New bottom water that is formed in the Weddell Sea corresponds to 25%–60% of the total production of dense bottom water in the Southern Ocean. Outside the Weddell Sea this water mass has historically been referred to as Antarctic Bottom Water and is carried as far as 40
N in the North Atlantic by the global thermohaline circulation. Some of this water may have first been advected into the Weddell Sea from the Indian sector sources off Prydz Bay and Enderby Land. It transports natural and anthropogenic substances from the ocean surface into the deepest layers of the ocean, where they are effectively stored for centuries. The growth rate of sea ice determines how much brine is expelled to the ocean, increasing its density and causing deep convection. Some of the resulting dense shelf water moves toward the continental shelf break, where it mixes with different open-ocean components of circumpolar origin, ventilating the deep

water and forming new bottom water. Some of the salty shelf water also flows into the deep FilchnerRonne cavity, where its temperature exceeds the in situ melting point. This water melts the deep ice-shelf base, acquiring distinctive oxygen-isotope and noblegas signatures in the process, rising as a plume of Ice Shelf Water with temperatures below sea-surface freezing point. Where Ice Shelf Water exits the cavity and reaches the continental shelf break, mixing with open-ocean components again results in the formation of new bottom water. The sub-ice shelf circulation is subject to seasonal variations, and may be sensitive to climate shifts and related changes in the sea-ice cover, with consequences for ice shelf mass balance. The export of sub-ice melt water affects the vertical stability of the shelf water with consequences for deep convection and sea-ice thickness. The total sub-ice shelf freshwater flux in to the Weddell Sea has been modelled at 10 thousand m2 s–1, slightly more than net precipitation, but most precipitation falls in winter as snow transported off the continental shelf on top of the sea ice. For comparison, iceberg calving results in a slightly higher freshwater flux but mainly affects the surface waters of the circumpolar current (i.e., remote from the continent). Despite its hostile environment, the Weddell Sea is home to a variety of marine animals, including whales, seals, and penguins, even during the austral winter. Their survival depends on the existence of fish, squid, and (especially) krill (euphausia superba), a pivotal organism in the Antarctic food web with a total biomass estimated to exceed the earth’s human population. Gigantic krill swarms appear in the northwestern Weddell Sea along the South Scotia Ridge where cold, oxygen-rich waters meet relatively warm, nutrient-rich waters of circumpolar origin, supporting phytoplankton growth. This region coincides with the abundance of large colonies of marine animals on the adjacent islands. Additional feeding grounds exist around Maud Rise and the sill of the Filchner Trough, where relatively warm, nutrient-rich water is displaced upward by the bottom topography. The abundance of krill is also keyed to the presence of sea ice, from the base of which their feeding apparatus can scrape sea-ice algae. The irregular shape of the sea-ice base provides hiding places for the juveniles, from predators like fish, penguins, and seals. The movements of those predators, which can now be tracked with sophisticated, satellite-supported instrumentation, provide information about the temporal and spatial variability of biological production, along with oceanographic and sea-ice conditions. Elephant seals fitted with satellite-linked position recorders on the South Shetland Islands migrated more than 1000 km through the winter pack of the western 1055

WEDDELL SEA, OCEANOGRAPHY OF Weddell Sea to the northern Filchner Trough, against the flow of the coastal current. Their choice of this track may well be related to the strong current shear that crushes the pack ice, creating breathing holes. This example illustrates the complex interplay of processes in the polar environment, and the importance of interdisciplinary studies. HARTMUT HELLMER See also Antarctic Bottom Water; Antarctic Surface Waters; Circumpolar Current, Antarctic; Coastal Ocean Currents; Continental Shelves and Slopes; East Antarctic Continental Margin, Oceanography of; Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf; Ice Shelves; Islands of the Scotia Ridge, Geology of; Larsen Ice Shelf; Polynyas and Leads in the Southern Ocean; Southern Ocean: Climate Change and Variability; Southern Ocean: Vertical Structure;Thermohaline and Wind-Driven Circulation in the Southern Ocean; Weddell, Ross, and Other Polar Gyres

WEDDELL SEA REGION, PLATE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF Looking at the shape of present-day Earth it is difficult to imagine that the current distribution of the continents is just a snapshot of the crust’s ongoing evolution. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, however, provide indications that the earth is still an active planet with moving continents. During Alfred Wegener’s time (1826–1909), his theory of continental drift was hard for many scientists to believe. Today, we can measure the movements of the continents with high-precision GPS receivers and magnetic sensors. In order to look back in time at the history of continental drift, one has to investigate the magnetic field of the oceanic crust beneath the ocean basins. Here, information on the velocities and directions of the drift paths is stored in the differing magnetisation of the basaltic rocks in the oceanic crust, which results from numerous reversals of the earth’s magnetic field during the past 200 Ma. Marine and airborne magnetic investigations were carried out in the last 4 decades in order to unravel the drift history of the remote Antarctic continent. Combined with all the results from the world’s oceans, these data provided a surprising image of the positions of the Southern Hemisphere continents at some 180 Ma. At that time, a large continent, Gondwana, existed in the Southern Hemisphere. South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia, New Zealand, and, as its core, Antarctica, formed a huge land mass covered by widely varying landscapes, 1056

including forests. This general picture of the distribution of the continents, proven by magnetic measurements, has been quite well known for more than 3 decades. Such huge land masses seem, for some reason, not to be stable configurations. At around 160 Ma, Gondwana started to separate step by step into the continental fragments that are known so well today. Although this general model has long been widely accepted, the details of the dispersal of South America, Africa, and India/Madagascar from Antarctica have ever since been the subject of controversy within the scientific community. One of the sources of this controversy is the pack ice around Antarctica, which prevented the investigation of critical parts of the ocean floor (e.g., the Weddell Sea). Special ice-strengthened research vessels are needed to operate in such ‘‘hostile’’ environments. Thus, most models were based on the combination of the sparsely distributed magnetic measurements and the onshore geology of the surrounding continents. Numerous strongly different geodynamic models existed that tried to describe the detailed separation of the southern continents. By the mid-1990s, one of these models proposed that the separation of Gondwana started in the western Weddell Sea at around 180 Ma. The more easterly basins of the Southern Ocean, like the Lazarev and Riiser-Larsen seas, are younger than 160 million years old and thus opened after the western Weddell Sea. In addition to this, the movements of microplates or small continents, and the presence of an extinct subduction zone in the western Weddell Sea, were proposed. A renewed effort to close these gaps in knowledge started at the end of the 1990s with combined airborne and marine magnetic surveys in the Weddell, Lazarev, and Riiser-Larsen seas, in order to better constrain the early geodynamic evolution of the southern Atlantic and Indian oceans. The results of these detailed surveys were mostly surprising and significantly changed our view of Gondwana breakup. The key problem in all older magnetic surveys of the South American (50
–08
W) to Indian (40
– 70
E) sectors of the Southern Ocean was that the magnetic anomalies could not reliably be dated. A systematic pattern of aeromagnetic survey lines off the German base Neumayer, with a line spacing of 10 km, changed this situation. Clear magnetic lineations could be identified in the South American sector, and linked by a specific marine survey to a magnetic anomaly further north that dates unequivocally to 83 Ma. The oldest anomaly off Neumayer base could thus be dated to about 140 Ma. No clear magnetic anomalies were found in the Lazarev Sea, the western part of the African sector (10
W–40
E). A textbook example of magnetic lineations appeared

WEDDELL SEA REGION, PLATE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF

The configuration of the southern continents around 145 Ma. The oldest anomalies (thin lines) in the Weddell Sea (WS) and the Riiser Larsen Sea (RLS) are shown. According to the current knowledge in the Lazarew Sea, no spreading was active at this time. The hatched area west of Astrid Ridge indicates the location of a shallow sea or a still subaerial region (Jokat et al. 2003). However, the true sea floor spreading history for the Lazarew Sea is still under investigation. The interpretation shown here might change, if more details on the spreading history of the Mozambique Ridge is known. ANP: Antarctic Peninsula, ELW: Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains, IND: India, MA: Madagascar, MOZB: Mozambique Basin, MOZR: Mozambique Ridge, RLS: Riiser-Larsen Sea, SDRS: Seaward dipping reflector sequences, SRI: Sri Lanka, THU: Thurston Island. Yellow: areas of old cratons, Red: volcanic material erupted before or during breakup.

again in the next basin to the east, the Riiser-Larsen Sea, the eastern part of the African sector. Here, magnetic anomalies dating back to 155 Ma were identified. These dates show that the opening of the ocean basins and, consequently, the dispersal of Gondwana was not as simple as previously thought; each ocean basin had a quite different history. This new conceptual model for the region differs considerably in space and time from previous knowledge. In detail: (1) The first deep-ocean basin to form as a consequence of Gondwana breakup was the RiiserLarsen Sea, at around 160 Ma, and not the western Weddell Sea. (2) The western Weddell Sea opened at around 147 Ma, much later than the previous prediction of 180–160 Ma. As a consequence, these two basins were isolated from each other during their youth, and Africa was still connected to Antarctica in the region of the Lazarev Sea. This scenario is supported by rock samples drilled by the Ocean Drilling Program off Neumayer

Base in 1987. Here, black shales were found at 500 m below sea floor, containing fossil fauna that point to an anoxic (oxygen-poor) shallow water environment. The age of the black shales ranges between 138 and 124 Ma. (3) The detailed magnetic data off Neumayer base show that the young Weddell Sea opened by propagation towards the east. (4) Finally, at some time between 140 and 135 Ma, Africa split from Antarctica and the Lazarev Sea started to form. Only since that time can a continuous ocean basin have existed from the Antarctic Peninsula to India, which was still attached to Antarctica. The southern polar ocean was born. (5) All three continents, South America, Africa, and Antarctica, moved away from each other from the beginning of Gondwana breakup. At least 30 Ma of divergent stress finally resulted in the formation of new oceanic crust in the South Atlantic along the coasts of South Africa and Argentina from approximately 140 Ma on. 1057

WEDDELL SEA REGION, PLATE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF This prediction opposes all other models, which mainly deal with the South Atlantic independently. (6) The extensive volcanism in South Africa and Antarctica dating from 183 Ma is not directly related to the formation of new oceanic crust. This strong magmatic activity is rather a precursor to the breakup event that took place 30 Ma later. (7) The smooth and consistent northward movement of the South American plate in the Weddell Sea is in strong contrast to models that propose the movement of microplates, like the Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains, in this region. In our current model, there is simply no room for such movements, and no geophysical information exists to support such a scenario. Finally, it is worthwhile to note that the current model for the Gondwana breakup is consistent with all available geophysical data and most accepted geological interpretations. Despite the remaining problems, the new large magnetic data base provides strong constraints for the model. Research on this issue is ongoing, will further refine the model, and eventually will provide a better understanding on the deeper driving forces of supercontinent breakup. WILFRIED JOKAT See also Geological Evolution and Structure of Antarctica; Gondwana; Plate Tectonics; Volcanoes References and Further Reading Jokat, W., T. Boebel, M. Ko¨nig, Meyer. ‘‘Timing and Geometry of Early Gondwana Break Up.’’ Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (B9) (2003): 2428. doi:10.1029/ 2002JB001802.

WEDDELL SEAL The Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli, a member of the true seals, family Phocidae) is one of the largest of all seals, weighing 350–500 kg. Despite its large, rotund appearance, it has an exceptionally small head, characterized by a relatively short muzzle, and disproportionately large brown eyes. On each side of the muzzle there are mobile mystacial vibrissae (used in feeding); on the back of the muzzle are rhinal vibrissae (surfacing), and above each eye there are 5–7 supraorbital vibrissae. The supraorbital vibrissae may help seals squeeze their bodies into tight spaces (e.g., ice holes) without getting stuck. They have short (10 mm), thick fur that is mottled with large darker 1058

and lighter patches and dorso-ventrally shaded blueblack on the back grading to silver-white on the belly. At birth, pups have a lanugo of grey-brown hair that they molt 9–21 days postpartum. Adults molt from January through to March. Following pupping, molt is delayed until after that of males and other females. Weddell seals breed on the fast ice surrounding the shores of Antarctica and are circumpolar in distribution. No other mammal breeds as far south. They are most abundant in the fast ice with breeding concentrations occurring at sites where major perennial (i.e., predictable) tide cracks form in the ice. The seals haul out on the ice surface adjacent to these cracks, and also at tidal cracks that form along the shoreline. Weddell seals maintain access to the surface throughout the winter by reaming the ice with their teeth, which keeps breathing holes open. Weddell seals are also found in the pack ice, particularly outside of the breeding season. The fast ice is the normal breeding habitat, but there are a few small breeding populations on some of the sub-Antarctic islands. One notable colony of about one hundred seals exists at Larsen Harbour, South Georgia (55
S). The total world population has been estimated at between 750,000 and 1 million, with major concentrations in the Weddell and Ross seas. The most intensively studied population of Weddell seals is at McMurdo Sound (77
S) in the southern Ross Sea. Female Weddell seals show variable movements outside the breeding season. Satellite telemetry of females in the Ross Sea has shown that some females are relatively sedentary, not straying from their summer colonies, but most females from the eastern part of McMurdo Sound spend the winter in the middle and northern parts of the sound before the annual shore-fast ice has formed in those areas, or in the pack ice up to 50 km north of the sound. The most farranging seals may swim long distances, up to 1500 km, moving extensively across the western Ross Sea. Weaned pups from McMurdo Sound leave their natal area by the end of February and travel north along the Antarctic coastline but remain within the Ross Sea region. The marine habitat of Weddell seals is relatively well known compared to most other species of Antarctic seal. In McMurdo Sound, seals use all parts of this deep fjord (maximum depth >850 m). Weddell seals are renowned for being deep divers, and in McMurdo Sound they usually dive between 100 and 350 m. They have been recorded diving to at least 760 m. Female Weddell seals appear to use the entire water column for feeding, with very little time spent at the bottom, although the types of prey captured suggest that most feeding occurs in the middle of the water column and near the bottom.

WEDDELL SEAL Pupping begins earlier in the year at lower latitudes; with the first pups born in late August at Signy Island, South Orkney Islands (60
430 S) and at South Georgia (55
S). At their farthest south in McMurdo Sound (77
S), pregnant females do not arrive at breeding areas until early October and they give birth to a single pup in October or early November. Mothers stay with their pups on the sea ice for about the first 12 days and from then until the end of lactation (at about 45 days) spend increasing amounts of time in the water. As in other phocid seals, there is a postlactation estrous. The mating system is one of slight to moderate polygyny with the most successful males mating with three to four females within any one season. Male territories are probably set up early in the breeding season, and male vocalizations that are thought to function as a breeding display are most common in October and November. Spermatogenesis is initiated in August and viable sperm are produced from October through December. Weddell seals mate under the ice during late November and throughout December. By January males become azoospermic. Males first show spermatogenesis at three years, but these males are still physically immature and will not attend breeding colonies until they reach 5–7 years of age. Successful males are generally older than 7 years and have been found holding territories at breeding colonies up to at least 13 years of age. In McMurdo Sound, the average age of first reproduction is 6 (range 2–11) years, but further north the age of first reproduction is delayed, with the average age at Signy Island being 7 years and at the Vestfold Hills (68
S) 8 years. The annual reproductive rate is approximately 0.68, varying between 0.55 and 0.75. This variation occurs in a predictable 4- to 5-year cycle and may be correlated with the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Once they have commenced breeding females continue to reproduce throughout their life (18 years or longer), and there is no evidence of reproductive senescence. Like many long-lived animals, it appears that experience counts. Pups have a higher chance of surviving if their mother is older or has had more pups in previous years. Pups weigh 22–30 kg at birth and double their weight in the first 10 days as they feed on extremely high-fat (60%) milk. They are weaned at 6–7 weeks of age and at a weight of about 110 kg, which means that pups triple their weight during lactation. Pups enter the water from 2 weeks of age and start diving almost immediately. Over the first 3 months of life their skill at diving improves rapidly. The first dives by pups rarely exceed 20 m and 2 min, but by weaning they are diving to 50–70 m for 3–4 min and already capturing the notothenioid silverfish

Pleurogramma antarcticum; by 12 weeks they regularly dive to 100 m for 5–6 min. Preweaning mortality is low in Weddell seals, with a mean of 13% but varies significantly with the age of the mother. Survival from 0–1 years is on average 42.9%, from 1–2 years 63.5%, and from 2–6 years 80.6 %, which is comparable to adults. Juvenile survival overall (0–6 years inclusive) is lower for males at 9.3% than for females at 14.2% and is also a function of the mother’s age and experience, as mothers aged 10 years and older are much more likely to successfully wean their pup. The minimum adult male (5 years and older) survival rate of Weddell seals in McMurdo Sound is 76.2%, with the oldest male surviving to 22 years. The survival rate of adult females is about 85% per annum but declines to 74% from 10 years and older. The oldest females recorded have been 25 years of age. Female Weddell seals in McMurdo Sound range from 187 to 265 cm, nose to tail length. The weight of mothers immediately after pupping is highly variable with 14 postpartum mothers weighing between 342 and 524 kg and an average of 447  52 kg. Like most phocid seals, females principally use stored blubber reserves during lactation. However, as the lactation period is particularly long in Weddell seals, many females must actively hunt during lactation. Despite this additional feeding, the large amount of high-fat milk fed to the pup is very costly, and mothers lose up to 250 kg or 59% of their body weight during lactation at an average rate of 4.5 kgd–1. As a result, nonbreeding females may be larger than breeding females. There is no sexual dimorphism, and males range from 201 to 293 cm in length. Like females, males vary considerably in mass between years, presumably as a result of variation in food availability between years. Males lose weight over the course of the breeding season, although less than females. For example, at Razorback Island in McMurdo Sound in 1986, males weighed between 283 and 414 kg (mean ¼ 365 kg) at the beginning of the breeding season. By the end of the season these same animals weighed 185–332 kg (mean ¼ 273 kg) with a mass loss of 2–3 kgd–1. In 1997–1999 at Turtle Rock (also in McMurdo Sound), males weighed 315–465 kg (mean ¼ 393 kg) at the beginning of the breeding season and 294–429 kg at the end (mean ¼ 348 kg). The sex ratio of females to males at colonies varies from 2.8:1 to 8.9:1 during the course of a breeding season. Adult males establish underwater territories and defend them against other males, with territories changing in size over the course of the breeding season and displacements occurring after repeated challenges to established males. Males share breathing 1059

WEDDELL SEAL holes, but the volume of individual male territories may vary fivefold. Weddell seals are the most vocal of all seals, with twenty-one to forty-four vocalization types. The number and type of vocalizations varies both with season and the location around the Antarctic continent. During the breeding season males call almost continuously when in the water, and males are the only animals to emit low-frequency (1- to 6-kHz) trills (in McMurdo Sound) or songs (in the Vestfold Hills Fjords). These male calls may act in territorial defense or as a form of display to attract females. Weddell seals feed principally on fish and cephalopods, although they are also known to eat crustaceans. Krill have not been found in Weddell seal stomachs or scats. The predominant prey species, both by frequency of occurrence and by weight, in McMurdo Sound, at Davis Station, and in the Weddell Sea, is the Antarctic silverfish, P. antarticum. The Antarctic silverfish makes up more than 90% of the fish biomass in McMurdo Sound. Other important fish prey species include the pelagic nototheniids Pagothenia borchgrevinki and benthic Trematomus spp. Weddell seals are renowned for hunting large Antarctic cod Dissostichus mawsoni. Weddell seals approach large prey from below, and they have also been observed blowing air bubbles to flush P. borchvgrevinki out of the platelet ice immediately below the fast ice. Yearling Weddell seals in McMurdo Sound show different foraging strategies according to their size. Larger yearlings make long, shallow dives and appear to forage on benthic species such as Trematomus spp., whilst smaller yearlings forage in the water column on similar prey species to adults’. Weddell seals have on occasion been observed killing and eating penguins including gentoos and chinstraps. Adult Weddell seals suffer little from predation because they are relatively inaccessible in the regions of fast ice and heavy pack ice. However, some Weddell seals, especially younger seals, are preyed upon by killer whales and to a lesser extent by leopard seals, particularly in the spring and summer when the ice breaks up. Weddell seals were mainly protected from commercial hunting by their inaccessibility. However, near research stations, seals were killed to provide food for sled dogs, until dogs were banned under the Madrid Protocol, with the last dogs removed from Rothera Station in February 1994. All killing of seals in the Antarctic region is regulated by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) and the Antarctic Treaty. There is a single isolated population at White Island (78
S), which is cut off from the main McMurdo Sound population by an 18-km-wide 1060

unbroken ice shelf that is 10–100 m thick. The thirtyodd seals in this population produce three to five pups per year and have a higher rate of neonatal and preparturient mortality than in the main McMurdo Sound population. The pups also often have congenital deformities, which may indicate a degree of inbreeding. White Island animals are larger than elsewhere, with females weighing up to 686 kg and males up to 554 kg. ROBERT HARCOURT See also Antarctic Treaty System; Chinstrap Penguin; Circumpolar Current, Antarctic; Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS); Crabeater Seal; Diving—Marine Mammals; Fish: Overview; Gentoo Penguin; Leopard Seal; Ross Seal; Sealing, History of; Seals: Overview; South Georgia; South Orkney Islands; Zooplankton and Krill References and Further Reading King, Carolyn M. Handbook of New Zealand Mammals, second edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Kooyman, Gerry L. Weddell Seal: Consummate Diver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Laws, Richard M. Antarctic Seals: Research Methods and Techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Reijnders, Peter, Sofie Brasseur, Jan van der Troon, Peter van der Wolf, Ian L. Boyd, John Harwood, David. M. Lavigne, and Lloyd Lowry. Seals, Fur Seals, Sea Lions, and Walrus: Status, Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN Seal Specialist Group, 1993. Rice, Dale W. Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution. Lawrence, Kan.: Society for Marine Mammalogy, 1998. Riedman, Marianne. The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

WEST ANTARCTIC RIFT SYSTEM The West Antarctic rift system encompasses all of West Antarctica except the Antarctic Peninsula. Topographically, it is dominated by a sub-sea-level trough that extends 3000 km from the Ross Sea, through the interior of West Antarctica to the Bellingshausen Sea. It is bounded along most of its length by the Transantarctic Mountains (TAM) and Ellsworth Mountains, which rise abruptly from –500 to –1000 m depths along the trough to summits of 4000–5140 m. This view of the rift system is deceptive, however. In addition to topography, the rift is defined by attenuated continental crust, block faulting, and alkaline volcanism. These features occur throughout coastal Marie Byrd Land (MBL) and Ellsworth Land. They indicate that the rift extends across the sub-sea-level

WEST ANTARCTIC RIFT SYSTEM trough to the coast, with no evidence for a northern boundary of unextended crust. It is thus highly asymmetrical, in contrast to many other rift systems. The MBL coastal highland is a volcano-tectonic dome that has risen within the rift system in late Cenozoic time, as described below. Early descriptions of the rift focused largely on the sub-sea-level trough and did not recognize the nature of the dome (Behrendt et al. 1991; LeMasurier 1978, 1990; Tessensohn and Wo¨rner 1991).

Topographic Expression of Rifting The earliest definitions of continental rifts were based on the distinctive topography of the ‘‘rift valley,’’ or ‘‘graben,’’ of East Africa (Gregory 1896; Seuss 1891), long before the tectonic significance of these features was understood. The West Antarctic rift is fully as large as those in East Africa, or the Basin and Range, but is unusual in the extensive sub-sea-level elevation of the main trough and the great depths of smaller icefilled basins. A north–south and east–west grain is expressed by the orientations of smaller basins within the trough. In the interior of MBL the Bentley subglacial trench and Byrd subglacial basin reach maximum depths of –2555 and –2000 m, respectively, and are oriented east–west. A narrow basin 250 km south of the Flood Range is more than 1500 m deep, and oriented north–south, and a trough of similar dimensions between the Crary Mountains and Mount Takahe is oriented west-northwest–east-southeast. The Ross Sea is underlain by three comparatively shallow (50% of Southern Ocean krill stocks, mean densities have declined significantly since the 1970s, probably as a response to waning winter ice coverage. While krill has a circumpolar distribution, the highest concentrations are found in the area around South Georgia and the Antarctic Peninsula, which is where most of the fishing activities take place. Krill are caught by large freezer trawlers and processed on

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board into products for consumption by humans, domestic animals (cattle, poultry, pigs), and farmed fish, and for sport fishing bait. Krill are especially rich in vitamin A. DEMETRIO BOLTOVSKOY and ANDRE´S BOLTOVSKOY See also Antarctic Fur Seal; Cetaceans, Small: Overview; Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR); Food Web, Marine; Phytoplankton; Seasonality; South Georgia

References and Further Reading Boltovskoy, Demetrio, ed. South Atlantic Zooplankton. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers, 1999. Boltovskoy, Demetrio, Nancy Correa, and Andre´s Boltovskoy. ‘‘Marine Zooplanktonic Diversity: A View from the South Atlantic.’’ Oceanologica Acta 25 (5) (2003): 271–278. Everson, Inigo, ed. Krill. Biology, Ecology and Fisheries. Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2000. Hardy, Alister. The Open Sea: Its Natural History. Part I: The World of Plankton. London: Collins, 1970. Miller, D. G. M., and I. Hampton. Biology and Ecology of the Antarctic Krill. BIOMASS Scientific Series 9. 1989. Nicol, S., and Y. Endo. Krill Fisheries of the World. FAO Fisheries Technical Papers 367. 1997. Pierrot-Bults, Annelies C., and Siebrecht Van der Spoel. Zoogeography and Diversity of Plankton. Utrecht: Bunge Scientific Publishers, 1979. Todd, C. D., and M. S. Laverack. Coastal Marine Zooplankton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Wimpenny, R. S. The Plankton of the Sea. London: Faber & Faber, 1966.

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1773–74

1772–75

1771–73

1771–72

1768–71

1738–39

1674–75

1663

1617–18

1615–16

1592

1577–80

1519–22

1506

1501–02

1497–99

Portuguese Naval Expedition Bartholomeu Diaz de Novaes Discovered and rounded Cape of Good Hope and reached southern limit of Africa at Cape Agulhas, opening a sea route to Indian Ocean Portuguese Naval Expedition Vasco da Gama Sa˜o Gabriel & 3 other ships Discovered sea passage around southern tip of Africa to India Portuguese Maritime Voyage Amerigo Vespucci (pilot) Reported land at 52
S, possibly Patagonia Portuguese Naval Voyage Trista˜o da Cunha Santiago & 13 other ships Discovered Tristan de Cunha group Spanish Maritime Voyage Ferdinand Magellan Vittoria & 4 other ships Discovered Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego; completed first circumnavigation English Maritime Voyage Francis Drake Pelican (Golden Hind) & 4 other ships Discovered Drake Passage and proved Tierra del Fuego was not part of ‘‘Terra Australis Incognita’’; completed second circumnavigation English Naval Expedition John Davis HMS Desire Discovered Falkland Islands Netherlands Exploring Expedition Jakob Le Maire Eendracht & Hoorn Discovered Cape Horn and Le Maire Strait Netherlands Voyage Haevik Klaaszoon van Hillegom Zeewolf Discovered Iˆle St. Paul Netherlands Voyage Barend Barendszoon Lam Maerseveen Discovered what might have been Prince Edward Islands English Mercantile Voyage Antonio de la Roche Discovered what was probably South Georgia French Exploring Voyage Jean-Baptiste Bouvet de Lozier Aigle & Marie Discovered Bouvetøya British Naval Expedition James Cook Endeavour Explored Tierra del Fuego and Drake Passage; made discoveries in Australia and New Zealand French Exploring Expedition Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Tre´marec Fortune & Gros-Ventre Discovered Iˆles Kerguelen French Exploring Expedition Marc Mace´ Marion du Fresne Mascarin Discovered Iˆles Crozet British Naval Expedition James Cook Resolution & Adventure First crossing of Antarctic Circle; attained farthest south of 71
100 S; claimed South Georgia; discovered South Sandwich Islands; completed circumnavigation in a high southern latitude French Naval Expedition Rolland & 2 other ships Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Tre´marec Revisited and charted Iˆles Kerguelen British Naval Expedition James Cook Resolution & Discovery Visited and named Prince Edward Islands; visited Iˆles Crozet and Iˆles Kerguelen

Vessel

1487–88

Leader

Expedition

Years

Appendix I: Chronology of Antarctic Exploration

1110

1839–43

1838–42

1837–40

1833–34

1830–33

1829–31

1828–31

1822–24

1821–22

1821–22

1820–22

1820–21

1819–21

1819–20

1819

1810 William Smith

Frederick Hasselburg

Frederick Hasselburg

Abraham Bristow

Leader

Williams

Perseverance

Perseverance

Ocean

Vessel

Edward Bransfield (senior naval Williams officer) Surveyed South Shetland Islands; discovered Trinity Land; took possession of King George Island and Clarence Island Russian Naval Expedition Fabian von Bellingshausen Vostok & Mirnyy Circumnavigated Antarctic continent; made first confirmed sighting of Antarctic continent; discovered Peter I Øy and Alexander Island US Sealing Voyage Benjamin Pendleton Frederick & 5 other ships Nathaniel Palmer in Hero reported land that was later named Palmer Land US Sealing Voyage John Davis Huron & 2 other ships Made first confirmed landing on the mainland coast of Antarctica British Sealing Voyage George Powell Dove & Eliza In company with Nathaniel Palmer (James Monroe), discovered and charted South Orkney Islands US Sealing Voyage Benjamin Pendleton Frederick & 6 other ships In company with George Powell, Nathaniel Palmer (James Monroe) discovered and charted South Orkney Islands British Sealing Voyage James Weddell Jane Established farthest south of 74
150 S in Weddell Sea British Naval Expedition Henry Foster HMS Chanticleer Visited South Shetland Islands to make pendulum and magnetic observations on Deception Island US Sealing Voyage Benjamin Pendleton Seraph & 2 other ships First US government-sponsored Antarctic expedition British Exploring Expedition John Biscoe Tula & Lively Discovered Enderby Land and Graham Land British Expedition Peter Kemp Magnet Discovered Heard Island and Kemp Land French Naval Expedition Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar Dumont Astrolabe & Ze´le´e d’Urville Circumnavigation; explored much of Antarctic coast; discovered Terre Ade´lie; first saw Ade´lie penguins US South Seas Exploring Expedition Charles Wilkes Vincennes & 5 other ships Discovered Wilkes Land and some 1500 miles of ‘‘coastline’’; published expedition charts were first to use term ‘‘Antarctic Continent’’ British Naval Expedition James Clark Ross HMS Erebus & HMS Terror Circumnavigated continent; first to pass through pack ice to reach Ross Sea; discovered Victoria Land and charted 550 miles of it; discovered Ross Island, Ross Ice Shelf

British Whaling Voyage Discovered Auckland Islands New South Wales Sealing Voyage Discovered Campbell Island New South Wales Sealing Voyage Discovered Macquarie Island British Mercantile Voyage Discovered South Shetland Islands British Exploring Expedition

1805–06

1809–10

Expedition

Years

APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

1903–05

1903–04

1903

1902–04

1901–04

1901–04

1901–03

1898–1900

1897–99

1893–95

1893–94

1892–93

1892–93

1882–83

1873–74

1872–76

1853–54 William McDonald

Samarang

George Strong Nares (1872–74) HMS Challenger Frank Tourle Thompson (1875–76) Conducted oceanographic research while making circumnavigation; first steamship to cross the Antarctic Circle; visited many sub-Antarctic islands German Sealing & Exploring Expedition Eduard Dallmann Gro¨nland Visited South Shetland Islands and South Orkney Islands; charted coast and islands in region of Bismarck Strait German International Polar Year Expedition Karl Schrader (Leader) Established scientific station and conducted scientific studies for more than a year Dundee Whaling Expedition 4 ships Reconnaissance to investigate Antarctic whaling possibilities; W.S. Bruce and others conducted scientific programs Norwegian (Sandefjord) Whaling Expedition Carl Larsen Jason Reconnaissance to investigate Antarctic whaling possibilities in Antarctic Peninsula region Norwegian (Sandefjord) Expedition Carl Larsen Jason & 2 other ships Exploratory and whaling and sealing expedition; discovered King Oscar II Coast, Foyn Coast, and Robertson Island; first use of ski in Antarctica Norwegian (Tønsberg) Whaling Expedition Henrik Bull Antarctic Reconnaissance to investigate Antarctic whaling possibilities; landing at Cape Adare widely considered at the time to be the first landing on the continent Belgian Antarctic Expedition Adrien de Gerlache Belgica International party discovered and mapped parts of the Antarctic Peninsula and nearby islands; first wintering south of the Antarctic Circle British Antarctic Expedition Carsten Borchgrevink Southern Cross First party to winter on Antarctic continent (Cape Adare); made pioneer scientific investigations; travelled south on Ross Ice Shelf German South Polar Expedition Erich von Drygalski Gauss Wintered in ice pack; discovered Wilhelm II Land and Gaussberg Swedish South Polar Expedition Otto Nordenskjo¨ld Antarctic Conducted comprehensive scientific program; parties wintered at Snow Hill Island, Hope Bay, and Paulet Island; ship sank British National Antarctic Expedition Robert Falcon Scott Discovery Conducted comprehensive scientific program; wintered at Hut Point on Ross Island; discovered King Edward VII Land; attained farthest south of 82
170 S on Ross Ice Shelf Scottish National Antarctic Expedition William Speirs Bruce Scotia Conducted comprehensive scientific program; first oceanographic investigation of Weddell Sea; established meteorological observatory on Laurie Island Argentine Relief Expedition Uruguay Julian Irıˆzar Rescued members of the Swedish South Polar Expedition British Relief Expedition William Colbeck Morning Henry Duncan Mackay Terra Nova Relieved Discovery and expedited return of British National Antarctic Expedition French Antarctic Expedition Jean-Baptiste Charcot Franc¸ais Explored and charted islands to west of Antarctic Peninsula; conducted comprehensive scientific program

British Voyage Discovered McDonald Islands British Naval & Scientific Voyage

APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

1111

1112

1928–29

1927–37

1925–51

1923–24

1921–22

1920–22

1914–17

1914–16

1911–14

1911–12

1910–13

1910–12

1910–12

1908–10

1907–09

Establishment of Whaling Base Carl Larsen Compan˜ia Argentina de Pesca established first Antarctic whaling station at Grytviken, South Georgia British Antarctic Expedition Ernest Shackleton Nimrod Wintered at Cape Royds on Ross Island; made first ascent of Mount Erebus; discovered Beardmore Glacier; attained farthest south of 88
230 S on Polar Plateau; reached region of the South Magnetic Pole French Antarctic Expedition Jean-Baptiste Charcot Pourquoi Pas? Explored and charted west coast of Antarctic Peninsula and local islands; conducted comprehensive scientific program Norwegian South Polar Expedition Roald Amundsen Fram Wintered on Ross Ice Shelf near Bay of Whales; party of five first to attain South Pole; explored King Edward VII Land Japanese Antarctic Expedition Nobu Shirase Kainan-Maru Explored King Edward VII Land British South Polar Expedition Robert Falcon Scott Terra Nova Wintered at multiple sites; conducted comprehensive scientific program; party of five second to attain South Pole, but all died on return German South Polar Expedition Wilhelm Filchner Deutschland Discovered Filchner Ice Shelf; ship beset and drifted in pack for nine months Australasian Antarctic Expedition Douglas Mawson Aurora Wintered at Macquarie Island, Cape Denison, and Shackleton Ice Shelf; conducted most comprehensive scientific program yet at the time, including oceanographic cruises; discovered and explored King George V Land and Queen Mary Land Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, Ernest Shackleton Endurance Weddell Sea Party Ship beset and drifted 10 months in Weddell Sea; ship crushed and sank; company reached Elephant Island; six men sailed to South Georgia to organise relief Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, Ross Sea Party Æneas Mackintosh Aurora Laid depots for Shackleton’s proposed crossing of Antarctica; ship beset and drifted 10 months; land party relieved after three men had died British Imperial Expedition John Cope Two men wintered at Waterboat Point, Antarctic Peninsula; conducted scientific program Shackleton-Rowett Antarctic Expedition Ernest Shackleton; Frank Wild Quest Visited South Georgia (where Shackleton died), Weddell Sea, and a series of sub-Antarctic islands Norwegian Whaling Expedition Carl Larsen James Clark Ross Initial whaling expedition to the Ross Sea Discovery Investigations Neil Alison Mackintosh and others Discovery, William Scoresby, & Discovery II Series of expeditions engaging in long-term series of scientific programs Christensen Antarctic Expeditions Series of seven expeditions promoted by Lars Christensen; explored and claimed Norwegian sector of mainland; landed on and claimed Bouvetøya and Peter I Øy for Norway; made flights over coastal and inland areas; engaged in whaling Wilkins-Hearst Antarctic Expedition Hubert Wilkins Hektoria First powered flight in Antarctica

Vessel

1904–05

Leader

Expedition

Years

APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

1947–48

1947–48

1946–47

1945–46

1944–45

1943–44

1939–41

1938–39

1935–36

1934–37

1934–35

1933–35

1933–34

1929–31

1929–30

1928–30

US Antarctic Expedition Richard E. Byrd City of New York & 2 other ships Wintered at ‘‘Little America’’ at Bay of Whales; explored various regions; first flight over the South Pole British Aerial Expedition Hubert Wilkins Extended Wilkins’ previous aerial reconnaissance of Antarctic Peninsula region British, Australian, New Zealand Douglas Mawson Discovery Antarctic Research Expedition Discovered and charted various coasts, helping establish claim for Australian Antarctic Territory US Aerial Expedition Lincoln Ellsworth Wyatt Earp Plan to fly across Antarctic continent from Ross Sea to Antarctic Peninsula postponed due to plane crash US Byrd Antarctic Expedition Richard E. Byrd Bear of Oakland & Jacob Ruppert Wintered at ‘‘Little America II’’ at Bay of Whales; engaged in broad scientific and geographical research program US Aerial Expedition Lincoln Ellsworth Wyatt Earp Plan to fly across Antarctic continent from Antarctic Peninsula to Ross Sea postponed due to bad weather; flight made along east coast of Peninsula British Graham Land Expedition John Rymill Penola Conducted extensive scientific program; engaged in sledging and aerial geographical surveys Ellsworth Trans-Antarctic Flight Lincoln Ellsworth Wyatt Earp Ellsworth & Herbert Hollick-Kenyon made first flight across Antarctic continent German Antarctic Expedition Alfred Ritscher Schwabenland Conducted aerial reconnaissance and photography in Dronning Maud Land; claimed areas for Germany US Antarctic Service Expedition Richard E. Byrd USNS North Star & USS Bear Wintered at ‘‘Little America III’’ at Bay of Whales and at Stonington Island; conducted comprehensive scientific program and aerial reconnaissance British Naval ‘‘Operation Tabarin’’ J. W. S. Marr Established permanent stations at Port Lockroy and Deception Island; carried out broad scientific program British Naval ‘‘Operation Tabarin II’’ Andrew Taylor Established station at Hope Bay; built hut at Sandefjord Bay, Coronation Island; carried out broad scientific program Falkland Islands Dependencies Edward Bingham 3 ships Survey Expedition Officially took over responsibility for British stations from Operation Tabarin; established two new bases; conducted scientific and survey program Richard E. Byrd 13 ships US Navy Antarctic Developments Project (‘‘Operation Highjump’’) Naval taskforce divided into three main groups with emphasis on naval training and aerial photographic reconnaissance; second flight over the South Pole; limited scientific program Australian National Antarctic Stuart Campbell HST 3501 Research Expedition Established research station on Heard Island and Macquarie Island and long-term scientific programs begun at both stations US Navy Antarctic Developments Gerald L. Ketchum USS Burton Island & USS Edisto Project (‘‘Operation Windmill’’) Primary task to secure ground control for aerial photographs taken during Operation Highjump

APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

1113

1114

1957–58

1955–58

1955–57

1949–52

Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition Finn Ronne Port of Beaumont Wintered at Stonington Island; limited scientific and geographical programs; first two women to winter on Antarctic continent: Jennie Darlington and Edith ‘‘Jackie’’ Ronne Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic John Giæver Norsel Expedition Established base of Maudheim; conducted comprehensive scientific program and extensive aerial survey Falkland Islands Dependencies Peter Mott Oluf Sven Aerial Survey Expedition Program of vertical aerial photography of Falkland Islands, South Shetland Islands, and Antarctic Peninsula Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Vivian Fuchs 3 ships Expedition First surface crossing of the Antarctic continent from ‘‘Shackleton base’’ on Filchner Ice Shelf to Scott Base on Ross Island via South Pole; comprehensive scientific program and aerial and surface reconnaissance and survey conducted International Geophysical Year World-wide cooperative research program involving 66 nations, of which 12 had bases in Antarctica, including during years immediately preceding and following the IGY

Vessel

1947–48

Leader

Expedition

Years

APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGY OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION

Appendix II: The Antarctic Treaty The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America,

International Geophysical Year, shall continue, subject to the provisions of the present Treaty.

Article III

Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue for ever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord; Acknowledging the substantial contributions to scientific knowledge resulting from international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica; Convinced that the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the International Geophysical Year accords with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind; Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the continuance of international harmony in Antarctica will further the purposes and principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations;

1.

a. information regarding plans for scientific programs in Antarctica shall be exchanged to permit maximum economy of and efficiency of operations; b. scientific personnel shall be exchanged in Antarctica between expeditions and stations; c. scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available. 2.

Have agreed as follows:

Article I 1.

2.

In order to promote international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica, as provided for in Article II of the present Treaty, the Contracting Parties agree that, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable:

In implementing this Article, every encouragement shall be given to the establishment of cooperative working relations with those Specialized Agencies of the United Nations and other technical organizations having a scientific or technical interest in Antarctica.

Article IV

Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter alia, any measure of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military manoeuvres, as well as the testing of any type of weapon. The present Treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purpose.

1.

Nothing contained in the present Treaty shall be interpreted as: a. a renunciation by any Contracting Party of previously asserted rights of or claims to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica; b. a renunciation or diminution by any Contracting Party of any basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica which it may have whether as a result of its activities or those of its nationals in Antarctica, or otherwise; c. prejudicing the position of any Contracting Party as regards its recognition or nonrecognition of any other State’s rights of

Article II Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end, as applied during the

1115

APPENDIX II: THE ANTARCTIC TREATY or claim or basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. 2.

No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force.

Article V 1.

2.

Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the use of nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste material, to which all of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX are parties, the rules established under such agreements shall apply in Antarctica.

2.

3.

4.

5.

a. all expeditions to and within Antarctica, on the part of its ships or nationals, and all expeditions to Antarctica organized in or proceeding from its territory; b. all stations in Antarctica occupied by its nationals; and c. any military personnel or equipment intended to be introduced by it into Antarctica subject to the conditions prescribed in paragraph 2 of Article I of the present Treaty.

Article VI The provisions of the present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60 South Latitude, including all ice shelves, but nothing in the present Treaty shall prejudice or in any way affect the rights, or the exercise of the rights, of any State under international law with regard to the high seas within that area.

Article VIII 1.

Article VII 1.

1116

In order to promote the objectives and ensure the observance of the provisions of the present Treaty, each Contracting Party whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings referred to in Article IX of the Treaty shall have the right to designate observers to carry out any inspection provided for by the present Article. Observers shall be nationals of the Contracting Parties which designate them. The names of observers shall be

communicated to every other Contracting Party having the right to designate observers, and like notice shall be given of the termination of their appointment. Each observer designated in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall have complete freedom of access at any time to any or all areas of Antarctica. All areas of Antarctica, including all stations, installations and equipment within those areas, and all ships and aircraft at points of discharging or embarking cargoes or personnel in Antarctica, shall be open at all times to inspection by any observers designated in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article. Aerial observation may be carried out at any time over any or all areas of Antarctica by any of the Contracting Parties having the right to designate observers. Each Contracting Party shall, at the time when the present Treaty enters into force for it, inform the other Contracting Parties, and thereafter shall give them notice in advance, of

In order to facilitate the exercise of their functions under the present Treaty, and without prejudice to the respective positions of the Contracting Parties relating to jurisdiction over all other persons in Antarctica, observers designated under paragraph 1 of Article VII and scientific personnel exchanged under sub-paragraph 1(b) of Article III of the Treaty, and members of the staffs accompanying any such persons, shall be subject only to the jurisdiction of the Contracting Party of which they are nationals in respect of all acts or omissions occurring while they are in Antarctica for the purpose of exercising their functions.

APPENDIX II: THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 2.

Without prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article, and pending the adoption of measures in pursuance of subparagraph 1(e) of Article IX, the Contracting Parties concerned in any case of dispute with regard to the exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica shall immediately consult together with a view to reaching a mutually acceptable solution.

Article IX 1.

Representatives of the Contracting Parties named in the preamble to the present Treaty shall meet at the City of Canberra within two months after the date of entry into force of the Treaty, and thereafter at suitable intervals and places, for the purpose of exchanging information, consulting together on matters of common interest pertaining to Antarctica, and formulating and considering, and recommending to their Governments, measures in furtherance of the principles and objectives of the Treaty, including measures regarding: a. use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only; b. facilitation of scientific research in Antarctica; c. facilitation of international scientific cooperation in Antarctica; d. facilitation of the exercise of the rights of inspection provided for in Article VII of the Treaty; e. questions relating to the exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica; f. preservation and conservation of living resources in Antarctica.

2.

3.

4.

Each Contracting Party which has become a party to the present Treaty by accession under Article XIII shall be entitled to appoint representatives to participate in the meetings referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article, during such times as that Contracting Party demonstrates its interest in Antarctica by conducting substantial research activity there, such as the establishment of a scientific station or the dispatch of a scientific expedition. Reports from the observers referred to in Article VII of the present Treaty shall be transmitted to the representatives of the Contracting Parties participating in the meetings referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article. The measures referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall become effective when approved

5.

by all the Contracting Parties whose representatives were entitled to participate in the meetings held to consider those measures. Any or all of the rights established in the present Treaty may be exercised as from the date of entry into force of the Treaty whether or not any measures facilitating the exercise of such rights have been proposed, considered or approved as provided in this Article.

Article X Each of the Contracting Parties undertakes to exert appropriate efforts, consistent with the Charter of the United Nations, to the end that no one engages in any activity in Antarctica contrary to the principles or purposes of the present Treaty.

Article XI 1.

2.

If any dispute arises between two or more of the Contracting Parties concerning the interpretation or application of the present Treaty, those Contracting Parties shall consult among themselves with a view to having the dispute resolved by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other peaceful means of their own choice. Any dispute of this character not so resolved shall, with the consent, in each case, of all parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for settlement; but failure to reach agreement on reference to the International Court shall not absolve parties to the dispute from the responsibility of continuing to seek to resolve it by any of the various peaceful means referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article.

Article XII 1.

a. The present Treaty may be modified or amended at any time by unanimous agreement of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX. Any such modification or amendment shall enter into force when the depositary Government has received notice from all such Contracting Parties that they have ratified it. 1117

APPENDIX II: THE ANTARCTIC TREATY b. Such modification or amendment shall thereafter enter into force as to any other Contracting Party when notice of ratification by it has been received by the depositary Government. Any such Contracting Party from which no notice of ratification is received within a period of two years from the date of entry into force of the modification or amendment in accordance with the provision of subparagraph 1(a) of this Article shall be deemed to have withdrawn from the present Treaty on the date of the expiration of such period. 2.

1118

a. If after the expiration of thirty years from the date of entry into force of the present Treaty, any of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX so requests by a communication addressed to the depositary Government, a Conference of all the Contracting Parties shall be held as soon as practicable to review the operation of the Treaty. b. Any modification or amendment to the present Treaty which is approved at such a Conference by a majority of the Contracting Parties there represented, including a majority of those whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX, shall be communicated by the depositary Government to all Contracting Parties immediately after the termination of the Conference and shall enter into force in accordance with the provisions of para-graph 1 of the present Article c. If any such modification or amendment has not entered into force in accordance with the provisions of subparagraph 1(a) of this Article within a period of two years after the date of its communication to all the Contracting Parties, any Contracting Party may at any time after the expiration of that period give notice to the depositary Government of its withdrawal from the present Treaty; and such withdrawal shall take effect two years after the receipt of the notice by the depositary Government.

Article XIII 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

The present Treaty shall be subject to ratification by the signatory States. It shall be open for accession by any State which is a Member of the United Nations, or by any other State which may be invited to accede to the Treaty with the consent of all the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX of the Treaty. Ratification of or accession to the present Treaty shall be effected by each State in accordance with its constitutional processes. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, hereby designated as the depositary Government. The depositary Government shall inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each deposit of an instrument of ratification or accession, and the date of entry into force of the Treaty and of any modification or amendment thereto. Upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by all the signatory States, the present Treaty shall enter into force for those States and for States which have deposited instruments of accession. Thereafter the Treaty shall enter into force for any acceding State upon the deposit of its instruments of accession. The present Treaty shall be registered by the depositary Government pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Article XIV The present Treaty, done in the English, French, Russian and Spanish languages, each version being equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, which shall transmit duly certified copies thereof to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States. The Antarctic Treaty signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 entered into force on 23 June 1961

Appendix III: Signatories to the Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by 12 states, and entered into force for those states on 23 June 1961. Below are listed in chronological order the dates of ratification of the

Treaty by the original signatories, the dates of accession or succession by other states, and the dates upon which acceding states became Consultative Parties.

Chronological Order

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

State

Date

Status

United Kingdom South Africa Belgium Japan United States of America Norway France New Zealand Russia1 Poland Argentina Australia Chile Czech Republic2 Slovak Republic2 Denmark Netherlands Romania German Democratic Republic3 Brazil Bulgaria Germany, Federal Republic of Uruguay Papua New Guinea4 Italy Peru Spain China, People’s Republic of India Hungary Sweden Finland Cuba Korea, Republic of Greece Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of Austria

31 May 1960 21 June 1960 26 July 1960 4 August 1960 18 August 1960 24 August 1960 16 September 1960 1 November 1960 2 November 1960 8 June 1961 23 June 1961 23 June 1961 23 June 1961 14 June 1962 14 June 1952 20 May 1965 30 March 1967 15 September 1971 19 November 1974 16 May 1975 11 September 1978 5 February 1979 11 January 1980 16 March 1981 18 March 1981 10 April 1981 31 March 1982 8 June 1983 19 August 1983 27 January 1984 24 April 1984 15 May 1984 16 August 1984 28 November 1986 8 January 1987 21 January 1987 25 August 1987

OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP AS/CP OS/CP OS/CP OS/CP AS AS AS AS/CP AS AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS AS/CP AS/CP AS AS/CP AS AS AS

Date when Acceding State Became Consultative Party

29 July 1977

19 November 1990 5 October 1987 12 September 1983 25 May 1998 3 March 1981 7 October 1985 5 October 1987 9 October 1989 21 September 1988 7 October 1985 12 September 1983 21 September 1988 9 October 1989 9 October 1989

(Continued)

1119

APPENDIX III: SIGNATORIES TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY Chronological Order

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

(Continued)

State

Date

Status

Date when Acceding State Became Consultative Party

Ecuador Canada Colombia Switzerland Guatemala Ukraine Turkey Venezuela Estonia

15 September 1987 4 May 1988 31 January 1989 15 November 1990 31 July 1991 28 October 1992 25 January 1996 24 March 1999 17 May 2001

AS/CP AS AS AS AS AS AS AS AS

19 November 1990

OS ¼ Original Signatory CP ¼ Consultative party AS ¼ Acceding State Notes: 1 Known as the Soviet Union until December 1990. 2 Succeeded to the Treaty as part of Czechoslovakia which separated into two republics on 1 January 1993. 3 Became united with Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990 (now known as Germany). 4 Succeeded to the Treaty after independence from Australia.

Alphabetical List of Countries State

Date

Status

Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Brazil Bulgaria Canada Chile China, People’s Republic of Colombia Cuba Czech Republic2 Denmark Ecuador Estonia Finland France German Democratic Republic3 Germany, Federal Republic of Greece Guatemala Hungary India Italy Japan Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Republic of Netherlands New Zealand

23 June 1961 23 June 1961 25 August 1987 26 July 1960 16 May 1975 11 September 1978 4 May 1988 23 June 1961 8 June 1983 31 January 1989 16 August 1984 14 June 1962 20 May 1965 15 September 1987 17 May 2001 15 May 1984 16 September 1960 19 November 1974 5 February 1979 8 January 1987 31 July 1991 27 January 1984 19 August 1983 18 March 1981 4 August 1960 21 January 1987 28 November 1986 30 March 1967 1 November 1960

OS/CP OS/CP AS OS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS OS/CP AS/CP AS AS AS AS AS/CP AS AS/CP OS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS AS AS AS/CP AS/CP OS/CP AS AS/CP AS/CP OS/CP

Date when Acceding State Became Consultative Party

12 September 1983 25 May 1998

7 October 1985

19 November 1990 9 October 1989 5 October 1987 3 March 1981

12 September 1983 5 October 1987

9 October 1989 19 November 1990 (Continued)

1120

APPENDIX III: SIGNATORIES TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY Alphabetical List of Countries

(Continued)

State

Date

Status

Norway Papua New Guinea4 Peru Poland Romania Russia1 Slovak Republic2 South Africa Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom United States of America Uruguay Venezuela

24 August 1960 16 March 1981 10 April 1981 8 June 1961 15 September 1971 2 November 1960 14 June 1952 21 June 1960 31 March 1982 24 April 1984 15 November 1990 25 January 1996 28 October 1992 31 May 1960 18 August 1960 11 January 1980 24 March 1999

OS/CP AS AS/CP AS/CP AS OS/CP AS OS/CP AS/CP AS/CP AS AS AS OS/CP OS/CP AS/CP AS

Date when Acceding State Became Consultative Party

9 October 1989 29 July 1977

21 September 1988 21 September 1988

7 October 1985

OS ¼ Original Signatory CP ¼ Consultative party AS ¼ Acceding State Notes: 1 Known as the Soviet Union until December 1990. 2 Succeeded to the Treaty as part of Czechoslovakia which separated into two republics on 1 January 1993. 3 Became united with Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990 (now known as Germany). 4 Succeeded to the Treaty after independence from Australia.

1121

Appendix IV: SCAR Code of Conduct for Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes in Antarctica IV. The animals selected for an experiment should be of an appropriate species and quality, and the minimum number required to obtain scientifically valid results. V. Investigators and other personnel should never fail to treat animals as sentient, and should regard their proper care and use and the avoidance or minimization of discomfort, distress, or pain as ethical imperatives. VI. Investigators should assume that procedures that would cause pain in human beings cause pain in other mammals and in birds. VII. Procedures with animals that may cause more than momentary or minimal pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia in accordance with accepted veterinary practice. Surgical or other painful procedures should not be performed on unanesthetized animals paralyzed by chemical agents. VIII. Where waivers are required in relation to the provisions of article VII, the decisions should not rest solely with the investigators directly concerned but should be made, with due regard to the provisions of articles IV, V and VI, by a suitably constituted review body. Such waivers should not be made solely for the purposes of teaching or demonstration. IX. At the end, or, when appropriate, during an experiment animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain, distress, discomfort, or disablement that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed. X. The best possible living conditions and supervision should be maintained for animals kept for biomedical purposes. XI. It is the responsibility of the director of an institute or department using animals to ensure that investigators and personnel have appropriate qualifications or experience for conducting procedures on animals. Adequate opportunities shall be provided for in-service training, including the proper and humane concern for the animals under their care.

Preamble recognizing that Man has a moral obligation to respect all animals and to have due consideration for their capacity for suffering and memory: accepting nevertheless that Man in his quest for knowledge has a need to use animals where there is a reasonable expectation that the result will provide a significant advance in knowledge or be of overall benefit for animals; resolved to limit the use of animals for experimental and other scientific purposes, with the aim of replacing such use wherever practical, in particular by seeking alternative measures and encouraging the use of these alternative measures; desiring to adopt common provisions in order to protect animals used in those procedures which may possibly cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm and to ensure that where unavoidable they shall be kept to a minimum; SCAR has adopted a code of conduct which is based on the international guiding principles for biomedical research involving animals as developed by the Council for International Organization of Medical Sciences.

Code of Conduct I. The advancement of biological knowledge and the development of improved means to the protection of the health and well-being both of man and of the animals require recourse to experimentation on intact live mammals and birds of a wide variety of species. II. Methods such as mathematical models, computer simulation and in vitro biological systems should be used wherever appropriate. III. Animal experiments should be undertaken only after due consideration of their relevance for human or animal health and the advancement of biological knowledge.

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Appendix V: Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (b) ‘‘Antarctic Treaty area’’ means the area to which the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty apply in accordance with Article VI of that Treaty; (c) ‘‘Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings’’ means the meetings referred to in Article IX of the Antarctic Treaty; (d) ‘‘Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties’’ means the Contracting Parties to the Antarctic Treaty entitled to appoint representatives to participate in the meetings referred to in Article IX of that Treaty; (e) ‘‘Antarctic Treaty system’’ means the Antarctic Treaty, the measures in effect under that Treaty, its associated separate international instruments in force and the measures in effect under those instruments; (f) ‘‘Arbitral Tribunal’’ means the Arbitral Tribunal established in accordance with the Schedule to this Protocol, which forms an integral part thereof; (g) ‘‘Committee’’ means the Committee for Environmental Protection established in accordance with Article 11.

Preamble The States Parties to this Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty, hereinafter referred to as the Parties, Convinced of the need to enhance the protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; Convinced of the need to strengthen the Antarctic Treaty system so as to ensure that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord; Bearing in mind the special legal and political status of Antarctica and the special responsibility of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties to ensure that all activities in Antarctica are consistent with the purposes and principles of the Antarctic Treaty; Recalling the designation of Antarctica as a Special Conservation Area and other measures adopted under the Antarctic Treaty system to protect the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; Acknowledging further the unique opportunities Antarctica offers for scientific monitoring of and research on processes of global as well as regional importance; Reaffirming the conservation principles of the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources; Convinced that the development of a comprehensive regime for the protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems is in the interest of mankind as a whole; Desiring to supplement the Antarctic Treaty to this end;

Article 2 Objective and Designation The Parties commit themselves to the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems and hereby designate Antarctica as a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science.

Article 3

Have agreed as follows:

Environmental Principles

Article 1

1. Definitions For the purposes of this Protocol: (a) ‘‘The Antarctic Treaty’’ means the Antarctic Treaty done at Washington on 1 December 1959;

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The protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems and the intrinsic value of Antarctica, including its wilderness and aesthetic values and its value as an area for the conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to understanding the global environment, shall

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY

2.

warning of any adverse effects of the activity and to provide for such modification of operating procedures as may be necessary in the light of the results of monitoring or increased knowledge of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; and (vi) whether there exists the capacity to respond promptly and effectively to accidents, particularly those with potential environmental effects;

be fundamental considerations in the planning and conduct of all activities in the Antarctic Treaty area. To this end: (a) activities in the Antarctic Treaty area shall be planned and conducted so as to limit adverse impacts on the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; (b) activities in the Antarctic Treaty area shall be planned and conducted so as to avoid: (i) (ii) (iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

adverse effects on climate or weather patterns; significant adverse effects on air or water quality; significant changes in the atmospheric, terrestrial (including aquatic), glacial or marine environments; detrimental changes in the distribution, abundance or productivity of species or populations of species of fauna and flora; further jeopardy to endangered or threatened species or populations of such species; or degradation of, or substantial risk to, areas of biological, scientific, historic, aesthetic or wilderness significance;

(c) activities in the Antarctic Treaty area shall be planned and conducted on the basis of information sufficient to allow prior assessments of, and informed judgements about, their possible impacts on the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems and on the value of Antarctica for the conduct of scientific research; such judgements shall take account of: (i) (ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

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the scope of the activity, including its area, duration and intensity; the cumulative impacts of the activity, both by itself and in combination with other activities in the Antarctic Treaty area; whether the activity will detrimentally affect any other activity in the Antarctic Treaty area; whether technology and procedures are available to provide for environmentally safe operations; whether there exists the capacity to monitor key environmental parameters and ecosystem components so as to identify and provide early

(d) regular and effective monitoring shall take place to allow assessment of the impacts of ongoing activities, including the verification of predicted impacts; (e) regular and effective monitoring shall take place to facilitate early detection of the possible unforeseen effects of activities carried on both within and outside the Antarctic Treaty area on the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems. 3.

4.

Activities shall be planned and conducted in the Antarctic Treaty area so as to accord priority to scientific research and to preserve the value of Antarctica as an area for the conduct of such research, including research essential to understanding the global environment. Activities undertaken in the Antarctic Treaty area pursuant to scientific research programmes, tourism and all other governmental and non-governmental activities in the Antarctic Treaty area for which advance notice is required in accordance with Article VII (5) of the Antarctic Treaty, including associated logistic support activities, shall: (a) take place in a manner consistent with the principles in this Article; and (b) be modified, suspended or cancelled if they result in or threaten to result in impacts upon the Antarctic environment or dependent or associated ecosystems inconsistent with those principles.

Article 4 Relationship with the Other Components of the Antarctic Treaty System 1.

This Protocol shall supplement the Antarctic Treaty and shall neither modify nor amend that Treaty.

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 2.

Nothing in this Protocol shall derogate from the rights and obligations of the Parties to this Protocol under the other international instruments in force within the Antarctic Treaty system.

Article 5 Consistency with the Other Components of the Antarctic Treaty System The Parties shall consult and co-operate with the Contracting Parties to the other international instruments in force within the Antarctic Treaty system and their respective institutions with a view to ensuring the achievement of the objectives and principles of this Protocol and avoiding any interference with the achievement of the objectives and principles of those instruments or any inconsistency between the implementation of those instruments and of this Protocol.

2.

3.

Each Party undertakes, to the extent possible, to share information that may be helpful to other Parties in planning and conducting their activities in the Antarctic Treaty area, with a view to the protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems. The Parties shall co-operate with those Parties which may exercise jurisdiction in areas adjacent to the Antarctic Treaty area with a view to ensuring that activities in the Antarctic Treaty area do not have adverse environmental impacts on those areas.

Article 7 Prohibition of Mineral Resource Activities Any activity relating to mineral resources, other than scientific research, shall be prohibited.

Article 6 Co-operation 1.

The Parties shall co-operate in the planning and conduct of activities in the Antarctic Treaty area. To this end, each Party shall endeavour to: (a) promote co-operative programmes of scientific, technical and educational value, concerning the protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; (b) provide appropriate assistance to other Parties in the preparation of environmental impact assessments; (c) provide to other Parties upon request information relevant to any potential environmental risk and assistance to minimize the effects of accidents which may damage the Antarctic environment or dependent and associated ecosystems; (d) consult with other Parties with regard to the choice of sites for prospective stations and other facilities so as to avoid the cumulative impacts caused by their excessive concentration in any location; (e) where appropriate, undertake joint expeditions and share the use of stations and other facilities; and (f) carry out such steps as may be agreed upon at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings.

Article 8 Environmental Impact Assessment 1.

Proposed activities referred to in paragraph 2 below shall be subject to the procedures set out in Annex I for prior assessment of the impacts of those activities on the Antarctic environment or on dependent or associated ecosystems according to whether those activities are identified as having: (a) less than a minor or transitory impact; (b) a minor transitory impact; or (c) more than a minor or transitory impact.

2.

3.

Each Party shall ensure that the assessment procedures set out in Annex I are applied in the planning processes leading to decisions about any activities undertaken in the Antarctic Treaty area pursuant to scientific research programmes, tourism and all other governmental and non-governmental activities in the Antarctic Treaty area for which advance notice is required under Article VII (5) of the Antarctic Treaty, including associated logistic support activities. The assessment procedures set out in Annex I shall apply to any change in an activity whether the change arises from an increase or decrease in the intensity of an existing activity, 1127

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY

4.

from the addition of an activity, the decommissioning of a facility, or otherwise. Where activities are planned jointly by more than one Party, the Parties involved shall nominate one of their number to coordinate the implementation of the environmental impact assessment procedures set out in Annex I.

(b) adopt measures under Article IX of the Antarctic Treaty for the implementation of this Protocol. 2.

Article 9 Annexes 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

The Annexes to this Protocol shall form an integral part thereof. Annexes, additional to Annexes I-IV, may be adopted and become effective in accordance with Article IX of the Antarctic Treaty. Amendments and modifications to Annexes may be adopted and become effective in accordance with Article IX of the Antarctic Treaty, provided that any Annex may itself make provision for amendments and modifications to become effective on an accelerated basis. Annexes and any amendments and modifications thereto which have become effective in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 3 above shall, unless an Annex itself provides otherwise in respect of the entry into effect of any amendment or modification thereto, become effective for a Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty which is not an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party, or which was not an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party at the time of the adoption, when notice of approval of that Contracting Party has been received by the Depositary. Annexes shall, except to the extent that an Annex provides otherwise, be subject to the procedures for dispute settlement set out in Articles 18 to 20.

Article 11 Committee for Environmental Protection 1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

Article 10 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings 1.

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings shall, drawing upon the best scientific and technical advice available: (a) define, in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol, the general policy for the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems; and

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Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings shall review the work of the committee and shall draw fully upon its advice and recommendations in carrying out the tasks referred to in paragraph 1 above, as well as upon the advice of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research.

6.

There is hereby established the Committee for Environmental Protection. Each Party shall be entitled to be a member of the Committee and to appoint a representative who may be accompanied by experts and advisers. Observer status in the Committee shall be open to any Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty which is not a Party to this Protocol. The Committee shall invite the President of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research and the Chairman of the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources to participate as observers at its sessions. The Committee may also, with the approval of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, invite such other relevant scientific, environmental and technical organisations which can contribute to its work to participate as observers at its sessions. The Committee shall present a report on each of its sessions to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. The report shall cover all matters considered at the session and shall reflect the views expressed. The report shall be circulated to the Parties and to observers attending the session, and shall thereupon be made publicly available. The Committee shall adopt its rules of procedure which shall be subject to approval by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.

Article 12 Functions of the Committee 1.

The functions of the Committee shall be to provide advice and formulate recommendations

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY to the Parties in connection with the implementation of this Protocol, including the operation of its Annexes, for consideration at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, and to perform such other functions as may be referred to it by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings. In particular, it shall provide advice on: (a) the effectiveness of measures taken pursuant to this Protocol; (b) the need to update, strengthen or otherwise improve such measures; (c) the need for additional measures, including the need for additional Annexes, where appropriate; (d) the application and implementation of the environmental impact assessment procedures set out in Article 8 and Annex I; (e) means of minimising or mitigating environmental impacts of activities in the Antarctic Treaty area; (f) procedures for situations requiring urgent action, including response action in environmental emergencies; (g) the operation and further elaboration of the Antarctic Protected Area system; (h) inspection procedures, including formats for inspection reports and checklists for the conduct of inspections; (i) the collection, archiving, exchange and evaluation of information related to environmental protection; (j) the state of the Antarctic environment; and (k) the need for scientific research, including environmental monitoring, related to the implementation of this Protocol. 2.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Article 14 Inspection 1.

2.

In carrying out its functions, the Committee shall, as appropriate, consult with the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, the Scientific Committee for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources and other relevant scientific, environmental and technical organizations.

Article 13 Compliance with This Protocol Each Party shall take appropriate measures within its competence, including the adoption of laws and regulations, administrative actions and enforcement measures, to ensure compliance with this Protocol.

In order to promote the protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems, and to ensure compliance with this Protocol, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties shall arrange, individually or collectively, for inspections by observers to be made in accordance with Article VII of the Antarctic Treaty. Observers are: (a) observers designated by any Antarctic Treaty Consultative Party who shall be nationals of that Party; and (b) any observers designated at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings to carry out inspections under procedures to be established by an Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.

3.

1.

Each Party shall exert appropriate efforts, consistent with the Charter of the United Nations, to the end that no one engages in any activity contrary to this Protocol. Each Party shall notify all other Parties of the measures it takes pursuant to paragraphs 1 and 2 above. Each Party shall draw the attention of all other Parties to any activity which in its opinion affects the implementation of the objectives and principles of this Protocol. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings shall draw the attention of any State which is not a Party to this Protocol to any activity undertaken by that State, its agencies, instrumentalities, natural or juridical persons, ships, aircraft or other means of transport which affects the implementation of the objectives and principles of this Protocol.

4.

Parties shall co-operate fully with observers undertaking inspections, and shall ensure that during inspections, observers are given access to all parts of stations, installations, equipment, ships and aircraft open to inspection under Article VII (3) of the Antarctic Treaty, as well as to all records maintained thereon which are called for pursuant to this Protocol. Reports of inspections shall be sent to the Parties whose stations; installations, equipment, ships or aircraft are covered by the 1129

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY reports. After those Parties have been given the opportunity to comment, the reports and any comments thereon shall be circulated to all the Parties and to the Committee, considered at the next Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, and thereafter made publicly available.

included in one or more Annexes to be adopted in accordance with Article 9 (2).

Article 17 Annual Report by Parties 1.

Article 15 Emergency Response Action 1.

In order to respond to environmental emergencies in the Antarctic Treaty area, each Party agrees to: (a) provide for prompt and effective response action to such emergencies which might arise in the performance of scientific research programmes, tourism and all other governmental and non-governmental activities in the Antarctic Treaty area for which advance notice is required under Article VII (15) of the Antarctic Treaty, including associated logistic support activities; and (b) establish contingency plans for response to incidents with potential adverse effects on the Antarctic environment or dependent and associated ecosystems.

2.

To this end, the Parties shall: (a) co-operate in the formulation and implementation of such contingency plans; and (b) establish procedures for immediate notification of, and co-operative response to, environmental emergencies.

3.

In the implementation of this Article, the Parties shall draw upon the advice of the appropriate international organisations.

2.

Article 18 Dispute Settlement If a dispute arises concerning the interpretation or application of this Protocol, the parties to the dispute shall, at the request of any one of them, consult among themselves as soon as possible with a view to having the dispute resolved by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other peaceful means to which the parties to the dispute agree.

Article 19 Choice of Dispute Settlement Procedure 1.

Article 16 Liability Consistent with the objectives of this Protocol for the comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems, the Parties undertake to elaborate rules and procedures relating to liability for damage arising from activities taking place in the Antarctic Treaty area and covered by this Protocol. Those rules and procedures shall be 1130

Each Party shall report annually on the steps taken to implement this Protocol. Such reports shall include notifications made in accordance with Article 13 (3), contingency plans established in accordance with Article 15 and any other notifications and information called for pursuant to this Protocol for which there is no other provision concerning the circulation and exchange of information. Reports made in accordance with paragraph 1 above shall be circulated to all Parties and to the Committee, considered at the next Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting, and made publicly available.

Each Party, when signing, ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to this Protocol, or at any time thereafter, may choose, by written declaration, one or both of the following means for the settlement of disputes concerning the interpretation or application of Articles 7, 8 and 15 and, except to the extent that an Annex provides otherwise, the provisions of any Annex and, insofar as it relates to these Articles and provisions, Article 13: (a) the International Court of Justice; (b) the Arbitral Tribunal.

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

A declaration made under paragraph 1 above shall not affect the operation of Article 18 and Article 20 (2). A Party which has not made a declaration under paragraph 1 above or in respect of which a declaration is no longer in force shall be deemed to have accepted the competence of the Arbitral Tribunal. If the parties to a dispute have accepted the same means for the settlement of a dispute, the dispute may be submitted only to that procedure, unless the parties otherwise agree. If the parties to a dispute have not accepted the same means for the settlement of a dispute, or if they have both accepted both means, the dispute may be submitted only to the Arbitral Tribunal, unless the parties otherwise agree. A declaration made under paragraph 1 above shall remain in force until it expires in accordance with its terms or until three months after written notice of revocation has been deposited with the Depositary. A new declaration, a notice of revocation or the expiry of a declaration shall not in any way affect proceedings pending before the International Court of Justice or the Arbitral Tribunal, unless the parties to the dispute otherwise agree. Declarations and notices referred to in this Article shall be deposited with the Depositary who shall transmit copies thereof to all Parties.

Article 20

Justice or any other tribunal established for the purpose of settling disputes between Parties to decide or otherwise rule upon any matter within the scope of Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty.

Article 21 Signature This Protocol shall be open for signature at Madrid on the 4th of October 1991 and thereafter at Washington until the 3rd of October 1992 by any State which is a Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty.

Article 22 Ratification, Acceptance, Approval or Accession 1. 2.

3.

4.

Dispute Settlement Procedure 1.

2.

If the parties to a dispute concerning the interpretation or application of Articles 7, 8 or 15 or, except to the extent that an Annex provides otherwise, the provisions of any Annex or, insofar as it relates to these Articles and provisions, Article 13, have not agreed on a means for resolving it within 12 months of the request for consultation pursuant to Article 18, the dispute shall be referred, at the request of any party to the dispute, for settlement in accordance with the procedure determined by Article 19 (4) and (5). The Arbitral Tribunal shall not be competent to decide or rule upon any matter within the scope of Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty. In addition, nothing in this Protocol shall be interpreted as conferring competence or jurisdiction on the International Court of

This Protocol is subject to ratification, acceptance of approval by signatory States. After the 3rd of October 1992 this Protocol shall be open for accession by any State which is a Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty. Instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, hereby designated as the Depositary. After the date on which this Protocol has entered into force, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties shall not act upon a notification regarding the entitlement of a Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty to appoint representatives to participate in Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings in accordance with Article IX (2) of the Antarctic Treaty unless that Contracting Party has first ratified, accepted, approved or acceded to this Protocol.

Article 23 Entry into Force 1.

This Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following the date of deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession by all States which are Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties at the date on which this Protocol is adopted. 1131

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 2.

For each Contracting Party to the Antarctic Treaty which, subsequent to the date of entry into force of this Protocol, deposits an instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession, this Protocol shall enter into force on the thirtieth day following such deposit.

any such activities would be acceptable. This regime shall fully safeguard the interests of all States referred to in Article IV of the Antarctic Treaty and apply the principles thereof. Therefore, if a modification or amendment to Article 7 is proposed at a Review Conference referred to in paragraph 2 above, it shall include such a binding legal regime. (b) If any such modification or amendment has not entered into force within 3 years of the date of its adoption, any Party may at any time thereafter notify to the Depositary of its withdrawal from this Protocol, and such withdrawal shall take effect 2 years after receipt of the notification by the Depositary.

Article 24 Reservations Reservations to this Protocol shall not be permitted.

Article 25 Modification or Amendment 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 9, this Protocol may be modified or amended at any time in accordance with the procedures set forth in Article XII (1) (a) and (b) of the Antarctic Treaty. If, after the expiration of 50 years from the date of entry into force of this Protocol, any of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties so requests by a communication addressed to the Depositary, a conference shall be held as soon as practicable to review the operation of this Protocol. A modification or amendment proposed at any Review Conference called pursuant to paragraph 2 above shall be adopted by a majority of the Parties, including 3/4 of the States which are Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties at the time of adoption of this Protocol. A modification or amendment adopted pursuant to paragraph 3 above shall enter into force upon ratification, acceptance, approval or accession by 3/4 of the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, including ratification, acceptance, approval or accession by all States which are Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties at the time of adoption of this Protocol. (a) With respect to Article 7, the prohibition on Antarctic mineral resource activities contained therein shall continue unless there is in force a binding legal regime on Antarctic mineral resource activities that includes an agreed means for determining whether, and, if so, under which conditions,

Article 26 Notifications by the Depositary The Depositary shall notify all Contracting Parties to the Antarctic Treaty of the following: (a) signatures of this Protocol and the deposit of instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession; (b) the date of entry into force of this Protocol and any additional Annex thereto; (c) the date of entry into force of any amendment or modification to this Protocol; (d) the deposit of declarations and notices pursuant to Article 19; and (e) any notification received pursuant to Article 25 (5) (b).

Article 27 Authentic Texts and Registration with the United Nations 1.

2.

This Protocol, done in the English, French, Russian and Spanish languages, each version being equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, which shall transmit duly certified copies thereof to all Contracting Parties to the Antarctic Treaty. This Protocol shall be registered by the Depositary pursuant to Article 102 of the charter of the United Nations.

APPENDIX V: PROTOCOL ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TO THE ANTARCTIC TREATY Additional texts Schedule to the Protocol: Arbitration Annex I: Environmental Impact Assessment Annex II: Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora Annex III: Waste Disposal and Waste Management Annex IV: Prevention of Marine Pollution Annex V: Area Protection and Management Annex VI: Liability for Environmental Emergencies

Note: The complete text of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty is reproduced here. In addition, there is a ‘‘Schedule to the Protocol,’’ and there are six annexes that are listed at the end. The full texts of the ‘‘Schedule’’ and the annexes may be seen at: http://ww.cep.aq/default. asap?casid=5074

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Appendix VI: Scientific Research Stations in the Antarctic Region Austral Winter 2005 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 * {

Amundsen-Scott Troll Maitri Novolazarevskaya * Marion Island Syowa Molodezhnaya * Alfred Faure, Iˆles Crozet Mawson * Port aux Franc¸ais, Iˆles Kerguelen Zhongshan Progress * Martin de Vivie`s, Iˆle Amsterdam Davis Mirny Vostok Casey Concordia Dumont d’Urville * Macquarie Island McMurdo Scott Base Rothera San Martin Vernadsky Palmer Capitan Arturo Prat { Presidente Eduardo Frei { Escudero { Great Wall { Bellingshausen { Artigas { King Sejong { Jubany { Arctowski { Comandante Ferraz General Bernardo O’Higgins Esperanza Marambio Orcadas * Bird Island * King Edward Point Belgrano II Halley * Gough Island Neumayer SANAE

United States Norway India Russia South Africa Japan Russia France Australia France China Russia France Australia Russia Russia Australia France/Italy France Australia United States New Zealand United Kingdom Argentina Ukraine United States Chile Chile Chile China Russia Uruguay Korea Argentina Poland Brazil Chile Argentina Argentina Argentina United Kingdom United Kingdom Argentina United Kingdom South Africa Germany South Africa

Stations north of 60
S Stations on King George Island

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89
590 5100 72
000 0700 70
450 5700 70
460 2600 46
520 3400 69
000 2500 67
400 1800 46
250 4800 67
360 1700 49
210 0500 69
220 1600 69
220 4400 37
490 4800 68
340 3800 66
330 0700 78
280 0000 66
170 0000 72
060 0600 66
390 4600 54
290 5800 77
500 5300 77
510 0000 67
340 1000 68
070 4700 65
140 4300 64
460 3000 62
300 0000 62
120 0000 62
120 0400 62
120 5900 62
110 4700 62
110 0400 62
130 2400 62
140 1600 62
090 3400 62
050 0000 63
190 1500 63
230 4200 64
140 4200 60
440 2000 54
000 3100 54
170 0000 77
520 2900 75
340 5400 40
210 5600 70
380 0000 71
400 2500

S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S

139
160 2200 E 02
320 0200 E 11
440 0900 E 11
510 5400 E 37
510 3200 E 39
350 0100 E 45
510 2100 E 51
510 4000 E 62
520 1500 E 70
120 2000 E 76
230 1300 E 76
230 1300 E 77
340 1200 E 77
580 2100 E 93
000 5300 E 106
480 0000 E 110
310 1100 E 123
230 4300 E 140
000 0500 E 158
560 0900 E 166
400 0600 E 166
450 4600 E 68
070 1200 W 67
060 1200 W 64
150 2400 W 64
030 0400 W 59
410 0000 W 58
570 5100 W 58
570 4500 W 58
570 4400 W 58
570 3900 W 58
540 0900 W 58
470 2100 W 58
390 5200 W 58
280 1500 W 58
230 2800 W 57
540 0100 W 56
590 4600 W 56
390 2500 W 44
440 1700 W 38
030 0800 W 36
290 3700 W 34
370 3700 W 26
320 2800 W 09
520 0000 W 08
150 4800 W 02
490 4400 W

Appendix VII: Antarctic Academic Journals Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung (formerly Berichte zur Polarforschung) Bulletin—Royal Society of New Zealand Byuleten’ Ukrains’kogo Antarktichnogo Tsentru Chinese Journal of Polar Science Deep-Sea Research. Parts I and II Geografiska Annaler. Series A: Physical Geography Geophysical Research Letters Global and Planetary Change Jidi Yanjiu ¼ Chinese Journal of Polar Research Journal of Climate Journal of Geophysical Research Journal of Glaciology Nankyoku Shiryo ¼ Antarctic Record Nature Polar Biology Polish Polar Research Science Terra Antartica Terra Antartica Reports D. W. H. Walton

Analysis of the Antarctic Bibliography shows that scientific papers on Antarctica are now published in more than one thousand journals. There are few journals devoted entirely to the polar regions and only six— Antarctic Science, Antarctic Research Series, Antarctic Record, CCAMLR Science, Terra Antartica, and Byuleten’ Ukrains’kogo Antarktichnogo Tsentru—are committed just to the continent and its surrounding seas. Bipolar journals include Polar Biology and Polarforschung from Germany, Polar Record from the UK, Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research from the United States, and journals from China and Poland. The most significant disciplinary journals for Antarctic science include Journal of Geophysical Research, Geophysical Research Letters, Deep Sea Research, Annals of Glaciology, as well as Nature and Science. The top twenty-two journals, in terms of the numbers of Antarctic science papers published over the last 6 years, are (in alphabetical order): Antarctic Research Series Antarctic Science

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Maps

Antarctic territorial claims.

Bathymetry of the Southern Ocean region. The Southern Ocean is delineated by the 60 S latitude and the Antarctic coast. Depths are color-coded according to the scale bar at the base of the figure, with contours drawn at 2000 m intervals.

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MAPS

Antarctic ice sheet thickness and mean annual snow accumulation. Note that the areas of greatest ice thickness are not the same as those of maximum snow accumulation.

Sea ice extent. Left: minimum, during February, when only the Weddell, Bellingshausen, and Amundsen seas have much ice cover. Right: maximum, during September, when the ice cover increases at least five times over its minimum.

1140

MAPS

The Antarctic Plate. The continent sits well in the middle of it, surrounded by five other plates.

Scientific research stations in the Antarctic, austral winter 2005. Information about the numbered bases can be found in Appendix VI.

1141

MAPS

The maritime routes of Antarctic expeditions in the first half of the nineteenth century.

The race for the South Pole.

1142

MAPS

The major oceanographic fronts: the Polar Front (formerly the Antarctic Convergence) and the Antarctic Divergence.

The sub-Antarctic islands.

1143

MAPS

Krill abundance in the Southern Ocean. The major concentrations of krill occur within the seasonal pack ice zone.

Bedrock of continental Antarctica, as it would be if the overlying ice were removed and isostatic rebound had caused it to rise.

1144

MAPS

The movement of the Antarctic Ice Sheet as it flows downhill towards the coast through drainage basins. There are three major drainage areas—forming the Ross Ice Shelf, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, and the Amery Ice Shelf—as well as other areas around the entire continent.

The continent of Antarctica is almost twice as large as Australia. The size of the former is approximately 14 million square km, while of the latter approximately 7.6 million square km.

1145

MAPS

Minerals found in the Antarctic. Most of these are inaccessible.

Stations of the International Geophysical Year. A dozen different nations set up 50 different stations for the largest scientific project ever undertaken. Many of these stations or successors at the same locations are still in use today.

1146

Index desiccation tolerance and, 332–333 evolution and, 1–5 evolutionary, 1–5 illustrations of, 2–5 life history, 3 marine mammals’ diving and, 336, 337, 338 nematodes and, 666 reproduction and, 796–797 whales and, 1067 Adaptation and evolution, 1–5 Adaptive optics, 94 ADCP. See Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler ADD. See Antarctic Digital Database Adelaide Island, 67, 136 aircraft runway at Rothera on, 13, 67 Biscoe discovers, 167, 168 Adelie, 117 Ade´lie Land. See Terre Ade´lie Ade´lie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), 5–8. See also Penguins adaptation and, 3 antibodies found in, 335 bacterial species and, 335 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding biology of, 6–7, 867 foraging behavior of, 7 general characteristics of, 5–6 heat stress and, 2 IBA criteria for, 60 killer whales and herding of, 572 locations of, 6 population of, 6, 867 predators of, 8 ADEOS-II, 790 Adie, Ray, 275 ADL. See Aerobic diving limit ADL theory, 339 Admiralty Bay, ASMA and ASPA of, 740 Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), 107 Advanced Scanning Microwave Radiometer, 859 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection radiometer (ASTER), 792 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), 139, 791, 858, 987 Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer-2 (AVNIR-2), 792 Advection, 245, 246, 247, 250, 261 Adventure, 295, 296 Adventure tourism, 8–10. See also Tourism access spots for, 8 history of, 8–9 locations for, 8 regulation of, 9–10 solo adventuring in, 9, 920 tourists, numbers of in, 8 Adventurers, modern, 8–10 adventure tourism and, 8–10 solo, 9, 920 women as, 1096–1097

A AAAS. See Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science AABW. See Antarctic Bottom Water AAD. See Australian Antarctic Division AAE. See Australasian Antarctic Expedition AAE Scientific Reports, 111 AAIW. See Antarctic Intermediate Water AAO. See Antarctic Oscillation AARI. See Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute AASTO. See Automated Astrophysical Site-Testing Observatory AASW. See Antarctic Surface Water Abbot, Francis, aurora description by, 105 Abbot, George, 194 Abbot Ice Shelf, 34 Abdulah, 764 Abiotic stresses, 2 Ablation Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 56 surface mass balance and, 973 Aboa Station, 397, 662 Aboriginal subsistence whaling, 540 Abrasion, 511 ABSN. See Antarctic Basic Synoptic Network Abyssal deep-sea communities, 39, 147, 148 Abyssal plains, 39, 49, 139, 143, 147, 148 Academic journals, Antarctic, list of, 1137 Acaena magellanica, 30, 283 Acanthocyclops mirnyi, 964 ACAP. See Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Acari. See Mites ACBAR. See Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver ACC. See Antarctic Circumpolar Current Accretionary subduction complex, 71 Accumulation, 973 ACE. See Advanced Composition Explorer; Antarctic Climate Evolution Acidovorax, 903 Acodontaster hodgsoni, 796 Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP), 685 Acoustic remote sensing, 102 Acrocarps, 652 ACT. See Antarctic Circumpolar Trough Active, 353 Active remote sensing, 790, 793–794 SAR and, 793 ACW. See Antarctic Circumpolar Wave Adams Island, 104 Adams, Jameson, 185, 322, 763, 765 Adaptation Antarctic biota, isolation of and, 357, 399 Arctic v. Antarctic ecosystems, fish and, 399–402 behavioral, 3 deep sea organisms and, 330 definition of, 1–2

I1

INDEX Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names, 734 ADW. See Antarctic Deep Water AEON. See Antarctic Environmental Officers Network Aerobic diving limit (ADL), 165, 338 Aerobiology, 10–11 ecological questions and, 11 research history of, 10–11 Aerosols air-borne ice and, 11 anthropogenic, 266 AFGPs. See Antifreeze glycoproteins AFPs. See Antifreeze proteins Agassiz, Louis, 495 Agate, Alfred, 92, 1028 Aging, snow density and, 500 Agnes, Mary, 1080 Agreed Measures. See Conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora: Agreed Measures Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP), 15–17. See also Albatrosses; Birds: specially protected species Action Plan of, 15–16 aims of, 15 ASOC and, 16 CCAMLR and, 15, 16–17 CMS and, 15 Conference of Parties (first) and, 16–17 Range States and, 15, 16, 17 Resolution 1.4 and, 17 signatories of, 15, 16 Agrostis, 407 Agulhas, 911 Agulhas Current, AAIW and, 64 Agulhas Front, 952 Agulhas Plateau, 739 Ahlmann, Hans, 673 Aigle, 175, 1109 Ainsworth, George F., 109 meteorological station and, 608 Air hydrates in ice, 12–13 atmospheric gas concentration analysis and, 102–103, 501 history of, 13 nucleation rate of, 13 Air New Zealand flight crash (1979), 480, 657 Tomb status of, 770 Air safety, Antarctic Treaty and, 83 Air shower detectors, 307 Air temperature, climate and, 247 Air-borne ice, 11–12 formation of, 11 ice crystals and, 12 Aircraft dogs, replacement of and, 340 types of, for runways, 13–15 types of, in Antarctic exploration, 113–120 Aircraft runways, 13–15. See also Aviation, history of; Deception Island; McMurdo Station; Vostok Station aircraft suitable for, 13–15 bare ground, 13–14 blue-ice, 14 ice sheet, 14–15 locations of, 13–15 sea ice, 14 skiways as, 15 white-ice, 14–15

I2

Airglow, 549 Air-spora aerobiology and study of, 10–11 types of, 10 Airstrips. See Aircraft runways Aitcho Island, 653 Akademik Fedorov, 90 Akasofu, Syun-Ichi, 108 Akerlundh, Gustaf, 975 Alaskan malamute, 340 Alaskan North Slope, 268 Alaskan red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus), 331, 332 Albany-Fraser Orogen, 800 Albany-Fraser Range, 365 Albatross and Petrels Agreement. See Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Albatrosses, 17–20. See also Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels bycatch of, 15, 20 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 locations of, 17 name derivation of, 17 number of species of, 15, 17 origin of, 17 Procellariiformes order and, 77 species characteristics and status of, 17–19 species list (ACAP) of, 16 Threatened status of, 17 tineid moth and nests of, 532 Albedo, 99, 244, 265, 704 Albert, Prince, 136 Alcatraz, albatrosses as, 17 Alert, 633 Alessandri, Jorge, 224 Alexander, Caroline, 386 Alexander I, Tsar, 486, 823 Alexander Island, 48, 67, 136, 139, 168 Antarctic Peninsula and, 68 Bellingshausen discovers, 1110 cryptoendolithic communities on, 319 Fossil Bluff Group of, 71 Lemay Group of, 71 plant fossils on, 413 Alexander Turnbull Library, 41 Alfred Faure Station, 317, 1135, 1141 Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Germany, 20–22. See also Germany: Antarctic Program computer center of, 22 location of, 20–21 Polarstern and, 21, 22, 38, 39, 289, 457, 458, 459, 662, 684, 746, 747, 852, 853 research functions of, 20–22, 457 station designs by, 126 Alfve´n, Hannes, 1014 Alfve´n waves, 609, 616, 617, 1014 Alga, 591 Algae, 22–27. See also Algal mats; Cryoconite communities; Cryptoendolithic communities; Lichen; Phytoplankton anhydrobiosis and, 39, 333 Antarctic biogeographical zones and, 155, 156 aquatic habitats of, 23–24, 26 Bellingshausen Sea and biomass of, 141 cold hardiness of, 272

INDEX diversity of, 22–23 eukaryotic, 23 lichens’ symbiotic relationship with, 591 lifestyle diversity of, 150 mats of, 23–24, 27–28 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 349, 350 nonaquatic habitats of, 23, 24–25, 26, 27 prokaryotic cyanobacteria as, 23 species numbers of, 23, 26 Algal biomass accumulation, 847 Algal mats, 27–28. See also Algae Antarctic biogeographical zones and, 155, 156 Antarctic lakes and, 408 locations of, 28, 408 structural complexity of, 27 Algarsson, Grettir, 638 ALH 84001 meteorite, 95, 640 Alien species, 151, 152, 273, 274, 407. See also Introduced species sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Allan Hills meteorite field, 95 Allardyce Range, 911 Allen, James van, 535 Allopatric speciation, 2 Allport Library and Museum of Fine Arts, 423 All-terrain vehicles, 391 All-Union Arctic Institute. See Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Almirante Irizar, 91 Alone (Byrd), 262, 1027 Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR), 139 Alpha particles, 303 Al-qadus, 17 Alveolata, 644–645 AMANDA. See Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array Ambipolar diffusion, 547 Amdrup, Georg Carl, 671 American Highland, Ellsworth and claim for, 377 American Museum of Natural History, 377 Amery Basin, 360 Amery Ice Shelf, 50, 115, 360, 363. See also Lambert Glacier/ Amery Ice Shelf green icebergs from, 362 iceberg calving of, 583 size and thickness of, 583 vertical structure of, 583 Amery Oasis, 679 coal discovered in, 268 AMM-1 project. See Antarctic Mapping Mission-1 project Amphipods, 142, 460, 508 Antarctic petrels’ diet of, 76 Arctic terns’ diet of, 91 Amsterdam albatross (Diomedea [exulans] amsterdamensis), 16, 28–29. See also Albatrosses Critically Endangered status of, 18, 29, 167 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 29 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 29 evolution of, 28–29 rareness of, 28 species characteristics of, 18, 28–29 Wandering albatross’s relation to, 28 Amsterdam Island (Iˆle Amsterdam), 29–30 Amsterdam albatrosses and, 28, 30 Antarctic terns on, 81 climate of, 29–30

isolation of, 29 management plan on, 30 TAAF, IPEV, and, 418, 419 Amundsen, Roald Engelbregt Gravning, 30–32, 110, 1112. See also Norwegian (Fram) Expedition Charcot and, 221 David, T. W., and, 323 Ellsworth and, 31, 375–376 expeditions of, 31 Framheim base of, 124 Hanssen and, 479 Inuit and, 31, 264, 340, 659 life of, 30–31 Nansen, Fridtjof, and, 660 North Pole, Byrd and, 207, 376 Northwest Passage traversal by, 31, 479, 675 on Ross seal, 839 South Pole race, map of and, 1142 South Pole reached by, 31, 32, 191, 192, 193, 340, 660, 1112 Amundsen Sea, 33–35 expeditions to, 33 oceanography of, 33–35 physiography of, 288 second-year ice in, 703 vertical temperature section of, 34 Amundsen Sea Embayment, 464 Amundsen Sea mean low (ASL) pressure system, 246, 247, 248 Amundsen Sea sector, surface lowering of ice sheet in, 58–59 Amundsen-Ellsworth-Nobile Transpolar Flight, 31, 376, 799 Amundsen-Scott Station, 32–33, 1135, 1141 AMANDA and, 95, 97–98, 308 annual cycle of temperature at, 987 AST/RO at, 94, 99 astronomical observatory at, 95 atmospheric boundary layer studies at, 102 climate records, long-term from, 252 constructions of, 32 Dark Sector of, 302 IceCube and, 32, 95, 97–98, 308 IGY station built at, 125 meteorological weather data for, 643 neutron monitor at, 305 ozone monitoring at, 696 research projects at, 32–33, 96 Rodriques well and, 128 sectors of, 33 skiway at, 15 SPIREX at, 96 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Anabaena, 28 Analog environment, 381 ANARE/AAD. See Australian Antarctic Division; Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions Anchor ice, 508–509 ANDEEP I (ANT XIX-2), 38–39 ANDEEP II (ANT XIX-3), 38–39 ANDEEP III (ANT XXII-3), 39 ANDEEP programme, 38–39. See also Benthic communities in Southern Ocean aims of, 38 benthic species diversity and, 39

I3

INDEX ANDEEP programme (cont.) expeditions of, 38–39 marine biodiversity and, 146, 148 Andersen, Rolf Trolle, 782 Anderssen, Anton A., 229 Andersson, Gunnar, 975 Andersson, Johan Gunnar, 413, 975 Andersson, Karl Andreas, 975 Andreaeopsida, 652 Andrew’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon bowdoini), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales ANDRILL project, 463, 669 Andromache, 926 Anemometers, ultrasonic, 102 Angiosperms. See Flowering plants Anhydrobiosis, 39–40. See also Biodiversity, terrestrial; Desiccation tolerance; Dry Valleys; Nematodes; Tardigrades mechanisms of, 39 organisms that experience, 39, 333 Animals, Code of Conduct for scientific research on Antarctic, 1123 Animated Gazette, 395 Anisotropies, 302–303 Ankistrodesmus sp., 24 Ankyra sp., 24 Annals of Glaciology, 1137 Annals of the International Geophysical Year, 536 Annawan, 714 Annelida, species of, 145 Annelida (Oligochaeta), taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Annenkov Island, 911 Annex I to Protocol, 84, 782 Annex II to Protocol, 84, 782 Agreed Measures and, 166, 281, 285 SCAR and review of, 166 Annex III to Protocol, 84, 285, 782 Annex IV to Protocol, 84, 782 Annex on Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies (Annex VI to the Protocol), 783–784 Annex V to Protocol, 85, 782 IBA Inventory and, 61 protected areas within the Antarctic Treaty Area and, 769–770, 781 Annex VI to the Protocol. See Annex on Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies Anorthoclase phonlite, 805 ANRC. See Australian National Research Council Anson, George, 838 Antarctic, 47–52. See also Antarctica academic journals, list of on, 1137 ATS and, 82–86 chronology of exploration in, 1109–1114 definitions and boundaries for, 47–52 geopolitics of, 441–449 IBAs in, 60–62 mapping of, 214–216, 355, 358, 787–790 operational environmental management of, 688–693 science, history of in, 485–490 Antarctic (vessel), 35, 416, 528, 584, 671, 677, 1111 archaeological site of, 87 Norwegian (Tønsberg) whaling expedition and, 416, 1111 Swedish South Polar Expedition and, 417, 975–977, 1111 Antarctic academic journals, list of, 1137 Antarctic accounts and bibliographic materials, 40–41. See also Archaeology, historic; Books, Antarctic

I4

academic journals, list of, 1137 archaeology, historic and, 88 bibliographies, types of in, 40–41 digital records and, 40 expedition materials in, 40 Heroic Era and, 40 IGY annals and, 536 manuscript and journal locations in, 41 Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC), 41–43 Consultative Meetings, ATS and, 86 Expert status and, 42 meetings attended by, 42 mission of, 41–42 NGOs and, 41–43, 281 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 42, 281 Antarctic Andean Orogen, 431, 434 Antarctic Arrival (Kurol and Bourbonnais), 658 Antarctic Basic Synoptic Network (ABSN), 1100 Antarctic benthic deep-sea biodiversity: colonization history and recent community patterns (ANDEEP), 38. See also ANDEEP programme Antarctic Bibliography, 41 scientific papers on Antarctica and, 1137 Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), 35, 43–47, 241 ACC and, 238 biological consequences of, 46–47 circulation of, 46, 356, 954–955 coastal ocean currents and, 270, 271, 356 deep sea impacted by, 330, 356 floating ice shelves and, 43–44 formation of, 45–46, 356, 362–363 ice shelves and, 520 marine biodiversity and, 146 modeling of, 946 sources of, 46, 363 Antarctic Circle, 66 boundaries of, 47–48 Ross, James Clark, and crossing of, 181–183, 810, 1110 Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), 34, 35, 234–239 AAIW circulation and, 64 AASW and, 79 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Antarctica, glaciation of and, 145, 146, 147 Bellingshausen Sea and, 140–141 biodiversity and, 151 biogeochemical cycles, global, and, 239 CDW and, 240, 241 climate system, global influenced by, 234, 235, 239, 260–261 coastal ocean currents and, 269, 271 Drake Passage’s geological opening and, 58, 73, 234–235, 344–346 dynamics and forcing of, 237–238, 239 eastward-flowing fronts of, 360, 361 eddies and variability in fronts of, 236, 239, 374–375 isolation of Antarctica and, 273 marine biodiversity and, 146 observations by early explorers of, 235 overturning circulation and, 235, 238–239 Scotia Sea influenced by, 830–831 Southern Ocean and importance of, 947–948 structure of, 235–236, 239 transport of, 234, 235, 236–237, 239 Antarctic Circumpolar Trough (ACT), 247, 248, 251 Antarctic Circumpolar Wave (ACW), 251 climate oscillations and, 261–263

INDEX Antarctic Climate Evolution (ACE), 417, 828 Antarctic Coastal Current, Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Antarctic continental shelf. See also Continental shelves and slopes Amundsen Sea and, 34–35 Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 57 Bellingshausen Sea and, 35 depth of, 269 EEZ and, 290 Antarctic Convergence. See Polar Front Antarctic cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] bransfieldenis), 299. See also Cormorants Antarctic Data Directory of SCAR, 941 Antarctic Deep Water (ADW), 147 Antarctic Digital Database (ADD), 215–216 Antarctic Dipole, 251 Antarctic dipole, 251, 950 Antarctic Divergence, 52, 222, 223 ACC and, 361 map of Polar Front and, 1143 Antarctic Environmental Officers Network (AEON), 689 Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), 52–55. See also Seals antibodies found in, 336 breeding of, 55, 878, 879 characteristics of, 877–878 diet of, 53, 879 distribution of, 53, 54, 878 diving biology of, 337 exploitation of, 718, 880 foraging of, 53, 55, 879 Heard Island and, 482 population recovery of, 52–53, 54, 55 population size and trends of, 53, 54 Specially Protected Species status of, 166, 279, 285, 880 Antarctic hairgrass (Deschampsia antarctica), 158, 254. See also Flowering plants Antarctic Peninsula and, 4, 67 freeze tolerance of, 272 Antarctic Heritage Trust, archaeological research and, 87 Antarctic husky, 340–341 Antarctic Ice Boundary Front, 953 Antarctic ice cap, 259 Antarctic Ice Sheet, 56–59. See also Ice sheet mass balance; Ice sheet modeling; Ice sheets age of, 58 air-borne ice and, 11–12 air-hydrates and, 12–13 Amundsen Sea and west, 35 atmospheric boundary-layer processes and, 101 definitions and description of, 56–59, 356 extinction of fauna and flora and, 357 fast glacial flow and, 58 future evolution of, 58–59, 75, 255 glaciological fundamentals of, 56–57 glaciological provinces of, 57–58 history of, 56 ice chemistry of, 501–504 ICESat and mass balance of, 526 isolation of Antarctica and, 73 LGM and, 518 map of movement of, 1145 map of thickness of, 1140 Marie Byrd Land and western, 49 mass balance of, 511–514 measured properties of, 59

modeling of, 514–517 total volume of, 48, 356, 524 Antarctic Important Bird Areas, 60–62 Antarctic IBA Inventory and, 60–62 IBA Programme and, 60–62 Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW), 62–65 ACC and, 238 CDW and, 241 circulation of, 64–65, 955 depth of, 62–63 dissolved oxygen in, 63 formation of, 62, 64 modeling of, 946 potential temperature of, 63 potential temperature-salinity distributions in, 62, 63 properties of, 62–63 salinity of, 62, 63 SAMW and, 80 variability of, 65 Antarctic Krill (Marr), 635 Antarctic Mapping Mission-1 (AMM-1) project, 787 Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array (AMANDA), 95, 97–98, 308 Antarctic Ocean, existence of, 723–724 Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), 139–140, 251, 254. See also Climate oscillations Antarctic ozone hole. See Ozone hole, Antarctic Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis), 158. See also Flowering plants Antarctic Peninsula and, 4, 67 freeze avoidance of, 272–273 Antarctic Peninsula, 66–68, 68–73, 73–75 Ade´lie penguins on, 6 adventure tourism and, 8, 9 Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 57 Antarctic terns on, 81 ASPAs on, 67 aviation in region of, 119 basement of, 68–70 BGLE and, 196 biodiversity on, 67, 150 Charcot’s expeditions to, 221, 419–420, 1112 climate of, 67, 152 climate type and western, 246 climate warming of, 74, 242, 253–254, 263, 274, 282, 466 cormorants, Antarctic on, 299 Dallmann and map of, 321–322, 1111 definition and boundary for, 48–49 dipteran insects (flies) and, 4 flowering plants and, 4, 67 geological map of, 69 geology of, 68–73 glaciology of, 73–75 islands near, 67 isolation of Antarctica and, 73, 155 map of, 66 mapping and survey of, 67 Mesozoic magmatic arc of, 68–71 physiography of, 287–288 sighting of, 67 South America and bridge connection with, 130 stations on, 67 subduction and, 68–73 territorial claims on, 67, 383 tourism on, 67

I5

INDEX Antarctic Peninsula Batholith, composition of, 70 Antarctic Peninsula glacial regime, 73–75 Antarctic Ice Sheet, future evolution of and, 75 distinctiveness of, 73–74, 75 dynamism and diversity of, 73–74 glacier fronts and retreat from, 74 ice shelf collapses in, 74–75 maritime climate of, 73–74 rapid change of, 74–75 Antarctic Peninsula Volcanic Group, composition of, 70 Antarctic petrel (Thalassoica antarctica), 75–77. See also Petrels: Pterodroma and Procellaria Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding of, 75–76, 868 diet of, 75 distribution of, 75–76 flight capacity of, 76 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 75, 76, 868 predators of, 76 stable status of, 76 Antarctic phocid seals, 815 Antarctic Plate, 357 map of, 1141 plate tectonics of, 738–739 Antarctic Plateau Amundsen-Scott Station on, 32–33, 302 astronomical advantages on, 93, 94, 96, 302 CMBR observations on, 302 submillimeter astronomy and, 99 Antarctic prion (Pachyptila desolata), 77–78 breeding of, 77–78, 868 characteristics of, 77 chick provisioning by, 78 diet of, 78 distribution of, 77–78 diving physiology and, 164–166 foraging of, 77 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868 predators of, 77–78 status of, 77 Antarctic Program of Scientific and Technological Research (PROANTARCYT), 661 Antarctic Research Series, 1137 Antarctic Slope Front, 270, 271, 361–362, 812, 953 Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs), 281, 283, 769–770, 781. See also Protected areas within the Antarctic Treaty area; Specially Managed Areas Annex V of Madrid Protocol and, 769–770, 781 biodiversity conservation and, 152–153 Deception Island as, 328 list of, in Antarctic Treaty Area, 772 Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs). See also Protected areas within the Antarctic Treaty area; Specially Protected Areas Annex V of Madrid Protocol and, 769–770, 781 Antarctic Peninsula and, 67 biodiversity conservation and, 152–153 list of, in Antarctic Treaty Area, 771–772 SSSI and, 279, 285, 770 Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observatory (AST/RO), 94, 99 Antarctic Surface Water (AASW), 35, 79–81 AAIW origination from, 64

I6

Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 characteristics of, 362, 954, 955 CO2 uptake and, 80 Meridional Overturning Circulation and, 80 property characteristics of, 79–80 Antarctic Symphony (Davies, Peter Maxwell), 657 Antarctic tern (Sterna vittata) behavior of, 81–82, 989 breeding of, 81, 869, 990, 991 diet of, 81, 990 distribution of, 81, 989 foraging of, 81, 82 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 81, 869, 990 predators of, 81 Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni), 404, 1002–1004. See also Toothfish distribution of, 1003 as predators and scavengers, 1002, 1003 Antarctic Treaty. See also Antarctic Treaty System ATS and, 82, 83–85 Consultative Parties in, 1119, 1120, 1121 contents of, 1115–1118 ratification dates of, 1119, 1120, 1121 Signatories to, 1119–1121 succession/accession of states to, 1119, 1120, 1121 Antarctic Treaty Area, 769 ASPAs and ASMAs, list of in the, 771–772 HSMs, list of in, 772–781 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting(s) (ATCM) Annex II amendments at 2005, 166 Antarctic Treaty and, 83 ASOC and, 42 conservation and, 279, 283, 284, 285, 293 Special, 82, 83 Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs) Agreed Measures adopted by, 285 ATS and, 82, 83 biodiversity conservation and, 152, 283 international organizations and, 85–86 Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), 82–86 Agreed Measures and, 292 Antarctic Peninsula territorial claims and, 67, 383 Antarctic region boundaries and, 47 Antarctic Treaty as part of, 82, 83–85 ASOC and, 42 Australia’s role in, 37 Belgium and, 137 biodiversity conservation and, 144 CCAMLR and, 82, 85, 292 CCAS and, 82 CITES and, 291, 292 COMNAP and, 82, 85 conservation and, 152, 279, 280, 281 Consultative Parties of, 82, 83 CRAMRA and, 82 history of, 83 IBA Inventories and signatories of, 61 international organizations and, 85–86 parties, original of, 83 polar aviation and, 120 protected areas within the, 769–782 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 82, 84–85, 292 purpose of, 83

INDEX RS’s influence on, 820 SCAR and, 82, 85 sovereignty question and, 83–84 viability of, 82, 86 Antarctic Zone, ACC and, 236 Antarctica, 47–52. See also Antarctic academic journals, list of on, 1137 atmosphere stability of, 93 ATS and, 82–86, 358–359 aviation and exploration of, 113–121 chronology of exploration in, 1109–1114 climates of, 242–252 clothing and, 264–265 as commercial resource, 358 conservation and, 278–285 CTAE and crossing of, 275, 424, 1114 culture of, 359 definitions and boundaries for, 47–52 Earth, and global role of, 355 earthquakes, lack of in, 357, 666 East Antarctic Shield and, 364–370 evolutionary incubator as, 147 fauna and flora, evolution of on, 357 fresh water in, 128 geographical data on, 48 geological history of, 357, 430–437 geopolitics of, 441–449 geospace observation from, 449–453 glaciation of, 2, 29, 38, 142, 146, 147, 156, 159, 344, 346 governance of, 82–86 human activities and impact on, 152, 160, 162, 163, 273, 274, 336, 356 isolation of, 73, 148, 150, 155, 162, 256, 273, 274, 357, 399 map, geological of, 431 map of Australia v., 1145 map of bedrock of continental, 1144 map, subglacial bed of, 364 mapping of, 214–216, 355, 358, 787–790 Mars v. environment of, 242, 318, 319, 320, 347, 358, 381, 647 meteorites in, 358, 640 minerals, location of in, 648–649, 1146 operational environmental management of, 688–693 paleoclimatology of, 707–713 philately of, 359, 727–729 protected areas within, 769–782 science, history of in, 485–490 space travel and importance of, 358 as Special Conservation Area, 285, 289, 770 Antarctica (Cale, John), 658 Antarctica (film, Kurahara), 658 Antarctica (play) (Young, David), 388 Antarctica (Tamblyn, Ian), 658 Antarctica (Vear, Craig), 658 Antarctica and the Global Climate System (AGCS), 417, 828 Antarctica as a State of Mind (film, Huerga), 658 Antarctica Suite (Westlake), 657–658 Antarcticoxylon Priestleyi, 766 Anta´rtida Argentina, 67 Anthraquinone pigments, 592 Anthropoda/Chelicerata, species of, 145 Anthropoda/Crustacea, species of, 145 Anthropogenic chemicals, 372–373. See also Ecotoxicology South Pole and, 32, 266 Anthropogenic CO2, 213, 222 Antibodies, to viruses and bacteria, 274, 282, 311, 335, 336

Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs), 400 Antifreeze proteins (AFPs), 4, 5, 272, 273, 357, 400, 409 biotechnical applications of, 273, 357, 409 mites, springtails and, 332–333, 349, 350 Antipodean albatross (Diomedea antipodensis), 16. See also Albatrosses Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Vulnerable status of, 18 Antipodes Islands, Antarctic terns on, 81 Anvers Island, 136, 168 Aphanocapsa sp., 23 Aphelion, 495 ‘‘Appearance of Land,’’ 892 Appendicularia, 1105 Apples (huts), 390 Arachnida, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Araucaria, 413 Archaea, 644–645 Archaeocyaths, 411 Archaeology, historic, 86–88 conservation of sites and buildings and, 284 methods used in, 86–87 role of, 88 sites of interest for, 86–87 Archean Eon, East Antarctic Shield and, 364, 365, 366, 369 Archer, Colin, 838 Archipel de Pointe Ge´ologie, 51 Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver (ACBAR), 302 Arctic AARI and research of, 88–89 Antarctic ecosystem v., 243, 399–400, 402 Arctic tern migration from, 90 multiyear ice in, 703 Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI), Russia, 88–90 Antarctic research of, 89 Arctic scientific research of, 88–89 history of, 88 international relations of, 90 manuscript and journal materials at, 41 Russian (Soviet) Antarctic program and, 823 structure of, 89–90 Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research, 1137 Arctic Basin, 675 AARI and, 88 Amundsen and drift over, 31, 675 Nansen, Fridtjof, and drift over, 659, 675 Wisting, Oscar, and aerial flight over, 1087 Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, 667 Arctic miscellanies (newspaper), 633 Arctic Ocean AARI and research of, 89 Southern Ocean v., 947 Arctic Oscillation, 262 Arctic Sea. See Arctic Ocean Arctic skua (Catharacta maccormicki), IBA criteria for, 60 Arctic skua (parasitic jaeger) (S. parasiticus) breeding of, 900, 901 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 Arctic springtail (Onychiurus arcticus), 333 Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea), 90–91. See also Antarctic tern breeding behavior of, 90–91, 990, 991

I7

INDEX Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) (cont.) diet of, 90–91, 990 distribution of, 90, 989 foraging of, 90, 990 migration of, 90, 989 Arctocephalus tropicalis. See Sub-Antarctic fur seal Arctowski, Henryk, 136, 740 Arctowski Station, 1135, 1141 Areas of Special Tourist Interest, 770 Arendal, 189 Argentina ACAP signatory of, 16 adventure tourism and Ushuaia, 8 Antarctic program of, 91–92 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 308 territorial claims, Antarctic and, 67, 91, 188, 189, 328, 383 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 Argentine Antarctic Program, 91–92 IAA and, 91–92 logistic support for, 91 Orcadas station and, 252 organizations of, 91 purpose of, 91, 92 stations of, 91 Argentine Antarctic Sector. See Sector Anta´rtico Argentino Argentine Basin, 64 Argentine Islands, 254 Argentine Islands station. See Vernadsky Station Argentinean Servicio Meteorologico Nacional, 642 Argo float program, 467 Arkhangelsk, 89 Armitage, Albert, 199, 204, 762 Armstrong, Terence, 834 Armytage, Bertram, 186, 322, 766 Arnesen, Live, 389 Arnoux’s beaked whale (Berardius arnuxii), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales teeth of, 132 Arosa, 696 Arrival Heights, SSSI and, 279 Arrol-Johnston motor-car, 184 Art, Antarctic, 92–93. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic; Film, Antarctic; Music, Antarctic; Photography, in the Antarctic abstract ice patterns and, 92 culture and, 359 expressionistic, 92 photography, landscape artists and, 92 symbolic, 92–93 Arthropoda, 983 Arthropods, terrestrial, 2 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Article IV of Antarctic Treaty, 86 sovereignty question and, 83–84, 290 Article IX of Antarctic Treaty, 83 conservation and, 279, 292, 769–770 SCAR and, 85 Article VI of Antarctic Treaty, 279, 289, 290 Artigas Station, 662, 1135, 1141 Artists to Antarctica Programme, 670 Ary Rongel, 180 Aschelminthes, 983 Ascidiacea, 460 Ascidians (sea squirts), 142

I8

Ascomycetes, 425 Asgard Glacier, 347 ASL pressure system. See Amundsen Sea mean low pressure system ASMAs. See Antarctic Specially Managed Areas ASOC. See Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition ASPAs. See Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) Assistance, 633 ASTER. See Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection radiometer Asteroidea (sea stars), 371 Astigmata, 715 AST/RO. See Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote Observatory Astrobiology, 320. See also Exobiology Astrolabe Dumont d’Urville and expeditions with, 352, 422–423 IPEV and, 417, 419 Astrolabe and Zelee´ voyage. See French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition Astrolabe Island, 321 Astrolabe voyage (1826–1829), 352 Astronomical observations from Antarctica, 93–96 Astronomical unit (AU), 304 Astronomy, Antarctic, 96–97, 97–98, 98–99, 358 advantages of, 93, 94, 96, 302, 305, 358 cosmic ray, 303–308 disadvantages of, 94, 95 infrared, 94, 96–97 meteorites and, 95 microwave and millimeter waves in, 94–95, 98–99 neutrino, 95, 97–98 observing sites in, 95 optical, 93–94 particle, 95, 98–99 progress in, 93 submillimeter, 94, 98–99 Astronomy, infrared, 96–97 Antarctic Plateau and, 94, 96 experiments, Antarctica of, 96 observational difficulty of, 94, 96 Astronomy, neutrino, 97–98 Astronomy, submillimeter, 98–99, 358 observational difficulty of, 94 Astrup, Eivind, 678 Asuka Station, 560, 664 Ataxia, 335 ATCPs. See Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties Atkinson, Edward L., 11 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 193, 195 Atlantic Ocean AABW in, 43 AAIW and, 64 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Atlantic petrel (Pterodroma incerta), 471 Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos), 16. See also Albatrosses Amsterdam Island and, 30 avian cholera and, 335 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 1103 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 1103 Endangered status of, 18, 1103, 1104 Gough Island and, 471 species characteristics of, 18, 1103 Atlas Cove, 36, 112

INDEX Atlas Cove research station, 482 Atlas of the Antarctic, 822 AARI and, 89 Atmosphere, coastal ocean currents controlled by, 269, 270 Atmosphere-ice interaction, marginal ice zone, 621–622 Atmospheric boundary layer, 99–102 structure of, 99–101 temperature vertical profile in, 100 wind speed vertical profile in, 100 Atmospheric circulation variability, 250, 254–255 Atmospheric convection, 259 Atmospheric gas concentrations from air bubbles, 102–104, 501 air hydrates and, 12–13, 501 analysis of, 102–103, 356, 501, 504, 505–506 formation of, 102, 501 Atmospheric roll vortices, 621 Atmospheric transmission windows, 790 Atmospheric wave number 3 pattern, 950 ATS. See Antarctic Treaty System ATSR. See Along Track Scanning Radiometer AU. See Astronomical unit Auckland Island shag (Leucocarbo colensoi), 104 Auckland Islands, 104–105 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81 archaeological sites on, 87 Bristow discovers, 380, 1110 expeditions to, 104 fauna and flora on, 104 formation of, 104 marine and nature reserve of, 104 as World Heritage Site, 104 Aurora, 813, 814 AAE and, 109–111, 636 ITAE, Ross Sea Party and, 527, 529, 1112 Aurora Australis, 105–108 Aurora Borealis v., 105, 106, 108 legends and beliefs about, 106 research on, 107–108 Aurora Australis, 37, 112 David, T. W., and, 322–323 Aurora Australis (Shackleton, Ernest), 40 as Antarctic literature classic, 173 poetry in, 387 Aurora Basin, 365 Aurora Borealis, Aurora Australis v., 105, 106, 108 Aurora Borealis (newspaper), 633 Aurora Islands, Biscoe and, 168 Auroral absorption, 548 Auroral Es, 549 Auroral oval, 549 Auroral region, 549 Auroral substorm, 108–109 magnetospheric substorm and, 108–109, 617 Auroras, 105–108, 356 auroral substorm and, 108–109, 617 Great, 107 IGY and display of, 536 ionosphere and, 549 magnetic storms and, 609, 617 optical astronomy and, 95 southern zone map of, 105–106 AUSMEX (Australia-Mexico) hypothesis, 800

Austhamaren Peak, blue-ice runways at, 14 Austin, Elija, 875 Austin, H. T., 220 Austin, Horatio, 633 Australasian Antarctic Expedition (AAE) (1911–1914), 109–111, 186, 1112. See also Mawson, Douglas aerobiological research and, 11 aurora observation by Mawson on, 105 David, T. W., and funding for, 323 Davis, John King, and, 324 geographical accomplishments of, 109–111 George V Land and, 51 greatness of, 36 Home of the Blizzard film about, 111, 395 Hurley, Frank, as photographer on, 730 Kaiser Wilhelm II Land reached by, 51 katabatic winds and, 100 Macquarie Island and, 608 Mawson leads, 109–111, 636, 1112 meteorite discovered by, 95 polar upper atmosphere research and, 546 postal mail, Antarctic and, 727 scientific research of, 109–111 Shackleton Ice Shelf explored by Western Base on, 51 strategic dimension of, 110–111 survival trek of Mawson and, 111 Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 110 Australia AAE strategic dimension and, 110–111 ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic program of, 111–113 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 aurora and aboriginal people in, 106 COMNAP membership of, 308 map of Antarctica v., 1145 postage stamps, Antarctic and, 728 territorial claims, AAE and, 110–111 transport between Antarctica and, 112 Australia: Antarctic Program, 111–113 AAD and, 35–38, 112–113 ACAP and, 16 ANARE and, 35–38, 112–113 CCAMLR and, 112 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 112 SCAR and, 112 scientific achievements of, 113 stations of, 112 Australian Antarctic Division (AAD), 35–38 activities of, 36–38, 112 ANARE administered by, 35–38 Australia’s Antarctic program and, 112–113 branches of, 113 coal discovered by geologists of, 268 goals of, 112–113 staff and facilities of, 36–38, 112, 113 stations of, 36–37, 112 tank-huts by, 390 wind turbines at Mawson Station from, 127 Australian Antarctic Territory, 36, 115, 203. See also British, Australia, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition Mac.Robertson Land in, 50, 115, 203 Princess Elizabeth Land in, 50, 115, 203 Australian Antarctic Territory Acceptance Bill 1933, 36 Australian Federal Register of the National Estate, 482

I9

INDEX Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE), 35–38, 515, 1113 AAD’s administration of, 35–38 Australia’s Antarctic program and, 112–113 aviation, Antarctic exploration and, 118–119 Campbell, Stuart, and, 37, 38, 1113 exploitation of Antarctica and, 35, 36, 37–38 explorations of, 35–36 glaciology and, 515 membership of, 37–38 scientific focus of, 36–38 Australian National Research Council (ANRC), 202 Australian-Antarctic Basin, 359–360, 363 Australis/Borealis: Sounding Through Light, 658 Austrian Antarctic Expedition, 668 Austro-Hungarian Exploring Expedition (1872–1874), 488 AUSWUS (Australia-southwestern US) hypothesis, 800 Autochrome system, 731 Automated Astrophysical Site-Testing Observatory (AASTO), 96 Automatic Weather Stations, 974, 1085 Autonomous undersea vehicles (AUVs), 686 Autotrophs, 257, 631 microorganisms as, 645 AUVs. See Autonomous undersea vehicles Avery, George, 168 Avery Plateau, 266 AVHRR. See Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Avian cholera (Pasteurella multocida), 335 Avian Influenza (AI), 335 Avian paramyxoviruses (APMV), 274, 335 Aviation fuel (AVTUR), 127, 128 Aviation, history of, 113–121 aircraft runways and, 13–15 aircraft, types of in, 113–120 Antarctic Peninsula region and, 118 BANZARE and aftermath in, 115 bases established in, 118–119 crossing of Antarctica in, 119–120 IGY and, 116–117 international politics and, 116 long distance air travel in, 117–118 Norwegian aerial efforts in, 114–115 Avifauna Antarctic IBA Inventory and conservation of, 60–62 IUCN conservation status of, 167 AVNIR-2. See Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer-2 AVTUR. See Aviation fuel AWI. See Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research Axel Heiberg Glacier, 193, 342

B B-15 iceberg, 803 B-15A iceberg, 854 BAARE. See British Arctic Air Route Expedition Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), 23 Back arc region, Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula and, 72 Bacteria Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 cryoconite holes with, 318, 349, 350 cryptoendolithic communities with, 319 diseases from, 335, 336 Bae, Rolf, 9 Bagshawe, Thomas Wyatt, 489

I10

British Imperial Expedition and, 197–198 Bahia Paraiso pollution incident, 281, 756 Baie Americaine, 284 Baily, Francis, 220 Balaclavas, 265 Balaena, 204, 353 Balaenopteridae, 396 Balance velocity, 513 Balchen, Bernt, 114, 207, 376, 1025 Baleen whales, 1067 Balenoptera acusutara, 649 Balenoptera acutorostrata, 649 Balenoptera bonaerensis, 649 Ballast water, biological invasions through, 163, 274, 282 Balleny Fracture Zone, 739 Balleny Islands, 47, 123–124 Balleny discovers, 380 biodiversity of, 123 discovery of, 123–124 geology of, 966 islands comprising, 123 Balleny, John, 123, 380 maritime route of Antarctic expedition (1839) of, 1142 Balloon observations of millimetric extragalactic radiation and geophysics (BOOMERaNG), 94–95, 302–303, 556 Balloon-borne Experiment with Superconducting Spectrometer (BESS), 308 Bancroft, Ann, 389 Banks, Joseph, 295 BANZARE. See British, Australia, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition Bara˜o de Teffe´, 180 Barbilophozia hatcheri, 597 Bard, Edouard, 418 Barne, Michael, 200 Barnes, James N., 42 Baroclinic tidal currents, 1001 Barotropic tidal currents, 270, 1001, 1002 Barra, Oscar Pinochet de la, 782 Barrier winds, 248 Barron, Neil, 658 Barrow, Sir John, 818 Bartrol Research Institute, 306 Base B, 328 Base D, 662 Base Roi Baudouin, 137, 138 ozone, monitoring of at, 696 Base technology: architecture and design, 124–126. See also Field camps environmental considerations in, 126 Heroic Era and, 124–125 Ice Shelf and Polar Plateau, 125–126 livability design in, 126 science facilities and, 125 Base technology: building services, 126–129. See also Field camps communication systems in, 129 fire protection in, 128–129 heating in, 128 hydrocarbon fuels in, 127 power supply in, 126–127 waste treatment in, 128 water production in, 128 wind, solar, and water power in, 127–128 Basement Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula and, 68–70

INDEX Basement Sill, 385 Basidiomycetes, 425 Basket stars (crinoids), 142 Bates, Jim, 484, 485 Batholiths, Antarctic Peninsula, 70 Bathymetric charts, 289 Bathymetry, 236, 237, 238 GEBCO and, 289 map of Southern Ocean, 1139 of ocean near East Antarctica, 360 Bay of Whales, 49, 393 Shackleton discovers, 184 Beacon Heights, 129 Beacon Sandstone. See Beacon Supergroup Beacon Supergroup, 129–131, 431 age determination of, 129–130 endoliths, lichens, bacteria and, 347, 348 fossils, invertebrate and, 410–411 Gondwana and, 130, 365, 433–434 lichen in the, 595 oil and gas deposits in, 130–131 sandstone, late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic as, 129 Transantarctic Mountains and, 129, 130, 131 Beaglehole, J. C., 839 Beaked whales, 131–136. See also Whales acoustics of, 134–135 conservation of, 135 diet of, 131, 134 distribution of, 132, 133 ‘‘insufficiently known’’ status, 132 sighting difficulties and, 131 social structure of, 134 species of, 131, 133 Bear, 1026, 1113 Bear of Oakland, 334, 1026, 1113 Beardmore Glacier, 130, 385, 386 coal found at, 268 Nimrod expedition and, 185, 186 plant fossils at, 414 Beardmore, William, 184 Beaufoy, 1050 Beaver, Auster, 119 Bed topography of Antarctic. See BEDMAP BEDMAP (bed topography of Antarctic), 364, 365, 517 Bedrock, 510 Dry Valleys and exposed, 346 map of continental Antarctica, 1144 Beetles (Coleoptera), 2, 531, 532 fossils of, 411 species distribution of, 531 Begum, 764 Belgian Antarctic (Belgica) Expedition (1897–1899), 136–137, 325, 1111. See also Gerlache de Gomery, Adrien Victor Joseph de Amundsen and, 31, 33, 136 COMNAP and, 309 Gerlache de Gomery leads, 31, 136–137, 325, 1111 photography and, 729 scientific data from, 137 scurvy and, 839 Belgian Scientific Research Program on the Antarctic (1985–1988), phases of, 137 Belgica, 479 Antarctic expedition of, 31, 33, 136–137, 1111 Arctic voyages of, 326 Belgica antarctica, 531

Belgica Commission, 137 Belgium Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83, 137 COMNAP membership of, 308 Belgium: Antarctic Program, 137–138 Base Roi Baudouin and, 137, 138 Belgica expedition and, 31, 33, 136–137, 325, 1111 scientific research and, 137–138 Belgrano II Station, 91, 1135, 1141 Bell Laboratories, 301, 302 Bell, William, 184 Bellingshausen, Fabian Gottlieb von, 138–139, 167, 486, 575, 1110 Antarctic Peninsula sighting by, 67 life of, 138–139 logbooks and, 40 Vostok and Mirnyy Expedition led by, 138, 486, 823–825, 1110 Bellingshausen Sea, 136, 139–142 Amundsen Sea and, 34, 35 Antarctic Peninsula glacial regime and, 74 biogeochemistry of, 141 climate of, 139–140 location and setting of, 139 marine flora and fauna in, 141–142 oceanography of, 140–141 scientific international programs and study of, 139 sea ice and, 140 second-year ice in, 703 Bellingshausen Station, 1135, 1141 Russian(Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 Beloussov, Vladamir, 535 Benitz, Albert, 913 Bennett, Floyd, 207, 1025 Benthic communities in Southern Ocean, 142–144 abyssal zone and, 143, 147, 148 age of, 143 ANDEEP programme and, 38–39 biodiversity of, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 409–410 climate change and, 144, 145, 147 diet of, 142–143 foodweb of, 409–410 fossil record of, 629 Productivity to biomass ratios of, 769 radiations and, 628–629 Benthos ANDEEP program and, 38–39 communities of, 142–144 freshwater and food web of, 408, 409 gigantism in polar, 460–461 taxa of, 147 Bentley Subglacial Trough, 49 Bentley, W. H. B., 220 Berghaus, Heinrich, 723 Bergs. See Icebergs Bergy bits, 522 Bergy seltzer, 524 Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung (formerly Berichte zur Polarforschung), 1137 Berkner Ice Shelf, 45 Berkner Island, 393 AABW formation near, 45–46 solo adventuring to Ross Island from, 9 Bernacchi, Louis, 35, 187, 199 Bertram, Colin, 196, 834 Beryllium isotopes, 503, 505 cosmic rays and, 306–307

I11

INDEX BESS. See Balloon-borne Experiment with Superconducting Spectrometer BGLE. See British Graham Land Expedition BGR. See Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources Bibby Point, 661 Bibliographic materials. See Antarctic academic journals, list of; Antarctic accounts and bibliographic materials; Antarctic Bibliography Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), 790 Big Bang theory, 301, 302 Big Ben volcano, 482, 1043 Bingham, Edward William, 195, 196, 340, 1113 Binuclearia tectorum, 23 Bioaerosols, air-spora and, 10 Biochemicals, Antarctica and useful, 358 Biodegradation, 329. See also Decomposition Biodiversity, 144, 149 Biodiversity, marine, 144–149 abyssal zone and, 143, 147, 148 adaptation and, 2–5 ANDEEP programme and, 38–39 benthic communities and, 38–39, 142–144 biogeographic and evolutionary processes of, 146–147 biogeography and, 154–161 biological invasions and, 162–164 climate change and, 144, 145, 147, 256 cold hardiness and, 272, 273 conservation of, 144, 149, 152, 153 Gondwana and distribution of, 470 palaeontological data and, 145 sea ice’s impact on, 409 taxa and species numbers for, 144–145 Biodiversity of the Ross Sea (BioRoss), 669 Biodiversity pump, 629 Biodiversity, terrestrial, 153–154 adaptation and, 2–5 algal mats and, 28 anhydrobiosis and, 39–40 biogeography and, 154–161 biological invasions’ impact on, 162–164 climate change and, 152, 153, 256 cold hardiness and, 272–273 component relationships in, 149 conservation of, 149, 152, 153 Gondwana and distribution of, 470 introduced species and, 151–152 isolation and, 150, 151–152, 155, 162–163, 256, 273, 274 spacial patterns in, 149 species richness gradients of, 149–151 temperature and water’s impact on, 151 Biogeochemical cycles, 257 ACC’s influence on, 239 Biogeochemistry, Terrestrial, 153–154 carbon cycle and, 153–154 ecological legacies and, 153, 154 Biogeographical zones, Antarctic biogeography and, 156–159 climate change and, 256 climatic and environmental factors’ impact on biota in, 156 soils’ impact on biodiversity in, 156–157 Biogeography, 154–161 Antarctic biogeographical zones of, 156–159, 236 biodiversity levels and, 157, 159 climate change’s impact on, 160

I12

introduced species’ impact on, 160 ‘‘recent dispersal’’ and, 159–160 taxonomic approaches and, 154–155 Bioindicators, 161–162 Antarctic ecosystems and value of, 161 categories of, 161 conservation and, 162 selection and testing process for, 162 Biological decomposition, 328–329, 372 Biological indicators, 161, 162 Biological invasions, 162–164. See also Diseases, wildlife climate change’s influence on, 164 human activities’ role in, 151, 152, 163, 256, 273, 274 introduced species and, 162, 163, 273 isolation of Antarctica and, 273, 274 natural methods of, 163 Biological pump, 212, 213, 943 Biological responses, climate change and, 255–257 Biomarkers, 320, 329 Biomass definition of, 768 productivity and, 768–769 BIOMASS (Biological Investigations of Marine Antarctic Systems and Stocks), 828 BIOMASS program, 560, 828, 829 seabirds at sea and, 870 Bioprospecting, 283, 409, 1019 Biosigns, 320 Biotic stresses, 2 Bird areas. See Antarctic Important Bird Areas Bird diseases, 335, 336 Bird Island, marine debris at, 630 Bird Island Station, 1135, 1141 BirdLife International albatross species and, 17, 873 Antarctic IBA inventory and, 60–62 CBD and, 60 CITES and, 60 Ramsar Convention and, 60 seabird conservation and, 865 Birds: diving physiology, 164–166. See also Antarctic prion; Cormorants; Diving: marine mammals; Emperor penguin Ade´lie penguins and, 7 gas-exchange effects in, 164–165 heart rate change in, 165 oxygen stores, management of in, 165 Birds: Specially Protected Species, 166–167. See also Antarctic Important Bird Areas conservation and, 152 IBAs and, 60–62 Birds, terrestrial. See Terrestrial birds, in Antarctic Birger, Selim, 977 Biscoe Islands, 47, 67 Biscoe discovers, 168 Biscoe, John, 50, 167–169, 486, 875, 1051 Antarctic voyage of, 167–169, 380 aurora description by, 105 Biscoe’s Antarctic voyage (1830–1832), 167–169 Bismarck Strait, 136, 321 Bismuth, 759 Bite outs, 737 Bivalves, fossils of, 411 Bjaaland, Olav, 193, 676 Bjerkø Head. See Cape Darnley Bjørnøya, Svalbard, 30

INDEX BKG. See Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy Black body, 301 Black Island, 638 Black petrel, 16 Black pools of death, 508 Black, Richard, 1022 Black Rock, 911 Black smokers, 483 Black-bellied storm petrel (Fregetta tropica) IBA criteria for, 60 population and breeding of, 868–869 Blackborow, Percy, 889 Black-browed albatross (Thalassarche melanophris), 16, 169–170. See also Albatrosses blue-eyed cormorants and, 298 Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 169–170 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 169 Endangered status of, 18, 167, 169 Heard Island and, 482 species characteristics of, 18, 169 Black-faced sheathbill (Chionis minor), 895–897 life history of, 895–896 social structure and diet of, 896 Black-footed albatross (Phoebastria nigripes) diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 19 Blaiklock, Ken V., 276, 342 Bleasal, Jim, 38 Blencathra, 204 Blizzards, 499 weather forecasting and, 1049 Block, Thomas, 386 Blowing snow, 101 Blue Blade, 114 Blue ice areas, 499, 972, 973 Blue icebergs, 523 Blue whale (Balaeneoptera musculus), 170–171. See also Whales behavior and life history of, 171 BWU and, 539–540 conservation/status of, 171 distribution and migration of, 170–171 exploitation of, 718 fin whale v., 396 size and appearance of, 170 Blue Whale Unit (BWU), 539–540 Blue-eyed cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] atriceps), 298. See also Cormorants breeding populations of, 869 Falkland Islands and, 298 IBA criteria for, 60 taxonomy of, 869 Blue-green algae, 23, 27–28. See also Algae Blue-greens, 23. See also Algae Blue-ice runways, 14 Board of Longitude, 220 Bodman, Gosta, 975 Boeckella poppei, 296, 918 Bolometers, 98 Bones, 763 Books, Antarctic, 171–174. See also Antarctic accounts and bibliographic materials accounts, records and, 40–41 bibliographies of, 40–41, 174

classic, 173–174 early literary accounts and, 171 Heroic Era and, 172 nineteenth century expeditions and, 172 publishers of, 172 scientific works and, 172 BOOMERanG. See Balloon observations of millimetric extragalactic radiation and geophysics BOOMERanG experiment, 94–95, 302–303, 556 Boomerang Range, 130 Booth Island, 321 Booth, Myriam, 189 Borchgrevink, Carsten E., 35, 87, 124, 174–175. See also British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition carelessness of, 175 Southern Cross expedition led by, 174–175, 187–188, 1111 Tønsberg whaling expedition and, 678 Boreas, 116 Boreholes, 269 Borradaile Island, 123 Bos taurus, 30 Botany of the Antarctic Voyage (Hooker), 491 Botrydiopsis sp., 24 Boulton and Paul, 125 Bounty Island, Antarctic terns on, 81 Bourbonnais, Marc-Andre, 658 Bouvet Island. See Bouvetøya Bouvet, Jean-Baptiste de Lozier, 175–176 Bouvetøya discovered by, 175, 176, 1109 Cape Circumcision and voyage of, 175–176, 295 Land of Gonneville and, 175, 176, 295 Bouvetøya, 47, 176–177, 1109 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54, 174, 175 Antarctic terns on, 81 Bouvet, Cape Circumcision and, 175–176, 177 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions and, 229, 230, 231, 233, 234 Enderby vessels and, 380 fauna and flora on, 176–177 geology of, 966 isolation of, 176 nature reserve of, 177 Norway claims, 234 Bovichtidae, 401 Bow shock, 611, 613, 618 Bowden, C. M., 275 Bowers, Henry Robertson ‘‘Birdie,’’ 191, 192, 377, 1081 Terra Nova Expedition and death of, 175, 193, 195, 264, 764, 834, 836, 837, 1081, 1112 Boyd, Phyllis Mary, 767 Boyd, Vernon, 1031 Brabant Island, Belgica expedition and, 136 Brachiopods, fossils of, 411 Brackenbridge, William D., 1028 Bracket fungi, 425 Bracteacoccus sp., 25 Bransfield, 189 Bransfield Current, 831 Bransfield, Edward, 327, 575 Antarctic Peninsula sighting by, 67 British exploring expedition (1819–1820) of, 922, 927, 1110 South Shetland Islands visited by, 922, 927 Bransfield Strait, 48. See also Scotia Sea, Bransfield Strait, and Drake Passage basins of, 177

I13

INDEX Bransfield Strait (cont.) climate of Scotia Sea and, 832 formation of, 177 geology of, 177–178, 435 marine ecosystems of Scotia Sea and, 833 ocean circulation and, 830–831 oceanography of, 830–833 seafloor of, 177–178 Bransfield Strait and South Shetland Islands, geology of, 177–179 Bransfield Strait Front, 953 Brash, 620, 621 Brategg, 722 Brazil ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic program of, 179–181 Antarctic treaty and, 180 COMNAP membership of, 308 Brazil Current, AAIW and, 64 Brazilian Antarctic Program (PROANTAR), 179–181 Antarctic installations of, 180 CIRM and, 179–180 organizational components of, 180 scientific research and, 180, 181 BRDF. See Bidirectional reflectance distribution function Breit and Tuve pulse system, 546 Breton, Louis Le, painting of Astrolabe and Ze´le´e by, 92, 422, 423 Bridgeman Island as active volcano, 1043 geology of, 177 Brightness temperature, 702 Brisbane, Matthew, 1050, 1051 Bristow, Abraham, 380 British whaling voyage (1805–1806) of, 380, 1110 Britannia, 384 British Ade´lie Land, 51 British Admiralty, 289 British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition (1839–1843), 181–183. See also Ross, James Clark magnetism studies of, 182, 183, 218 maritime routes of, 1142 meteorological observations by, 642 multidisciplinary research of, 183 oceanographic research of, 218 Ross, James Clark, as leader of, 181–183, 380, 729, 805, 810, 1110 Ross Sea penetrated by, 182, 183, 1110 scientific work of, 181, 182, 183 South Magnetic Pole and, 181, 183, 355 British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition (1907–1909), 183–186, 527, 1112. See also Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition; Shackleton, Ernest archaeological excavations of huts from, 87 aurora observed by Mawson of, 105 dogs, use of in, 339–340 fossil wood collected on, 130, 766 funding for, 184 geographical success of, 186 Northern Party of, 185–186 ponies, use of on, 184, 185, 762–763 postage stamps issued for, 728 Ross Island and, 184, 806, 884, 1112 scientific research of, 185, 186, 323, 766 Shackleton leads, 183–186, 889

I14

Southern Party of, 185 Western Party of, 186 British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition (1898–1900), 35, 187–188. See also Borchgrevink, Carsten E. archaeological excavations of huts from, 87 Borchgrevink leads, 174–175, 187–188, 1111 COMNAP and, 309 dogs, use of in, 339–340 huts constructed by, 124, 187 scientific achievements of, 187, 1111 wintering and, 187, 1111 British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition (1910–1913), 190–194, 1112, 1142. See also Scott, Robert Falcon aerobiological research and, 11 Australian government supports, 36 dogs, use of in, 340 Glossopteris flora and fossil fish plates collected on, 130, 365, 488 members of, 191, 192 90
South (film) about, 395 Northern Party of, 191–192, 193, 194–195 ponies/mules, use of on, 191, 192, 763–764 Ponting, Herbert, as photographer on, 729–730 Ross Island and, 806–807 South Pole race, Amundsen v. Scott and, 191, 192, 193, 1142 Southern Party of, 191–193 upper-air measurements by, 102 Western Party of, 191, 192, 193, 194 British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, Northern Party, 191–192, 193, 194–195 Campbell, Victor, and, 194–195 members of, 194 British Antarctic Survey (BAS), 119, 188–190 archaeological research and, 87 Argentine invasion of Falkland Islands and, 189 bathymetric data and, 289 dogs, use of in, 342 history of, 188–190 scientific research and, 188, 189, 190 British Antarctic Territory, 67 British Arctic Air Route Expedition (BAARE), 195, 340 British Arctic (Island) expedition, 635 British, Australia, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE) (1929–1931), 36, 202–203, 1113. See also Mawson, Douglas American Highland and, 377 aviation and, 115 David, T. W., and planning for, 323 Davis, John King, and, 325 Mac.Robertson Land identified by, 50, 115, 203 Mawson as leader of, 115, 202–203, 325, 1113 Princess Elizabeth Land identified by, 50, 115, 203 territorial claims and, 202, 203, 1113 British Everest Expedition, 484 British fox dip circle, 487 British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE) (1934–1937), 115, 195–197, 489, 1113 dog-sledging and, 340, 1113 members of, 195, 196 Rymill leads, 195–197, 1113 scientific research of, 196, 1113 British Imperial Expedition (1920–1922), 197–198, 1112 Cope, John Lachlan, as leader of, 197, 1112 Lester and Bagshawe of, 197, 198

INDEX British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition (1901–1904), 198–202. See also Scott, Robert Falcon archaeological excavations of huts from, 87 auroras sighted by, 105 Discovery hut erected by, 124 dogs, use of in, 339–340 Edward VII Land discovered by, 49, 199 emperor penguins and, 377 farthest south of 82
170 by, 184, 200, 351, 456, 1111 fossils and plant remains discovered by, 129–130 Markham and, 634 McMurdo Dry Valleys discovered by, 346–347 music composed on, 657 photography and, 729 Ross Island and, 806 scientific accomplishments of, 198, 200, 201 Scott, Robert Falcon, as leader of, 183–184, 198–202, 836, 1112 Shackleton and, 183–184, 199, 200, 201, 888 Brittle stars (ophiuroids), 142, 370–371. See also Echinoderms Broadband connections, 129 Brocklehurst, Sir Philip, 322, 729, 766 Nimrod expedition and, 184, 185, 186 Brown, Chris Cree, 658 Brown, Nigel, 92 Brown Peak, 123 Brown, Robert Neal Rudmose, 838 Brown Station, 91 Brown trout, as introduced species, 544 Browning, Frank, 194 Bruce, Samuel Noble, 204 Bruce, Stanley Melbourne, 202 Bruce, Wilfred, 763 Bruce, William Speirs, 50, 91, 174, 203–205, 219, 1097, 1111. See also Scottish National Antarctic Expedition AAE and, 110 Dundee Whaling Expedition and, 204, 353, 678, 1111 life of, 203–205 scientific works, publishing of and, 172 Scottish National Antarctic Expedition led by, 205, 837–838, 1111 Shackleton and, 527 Brucellosis, 336 Brundin, L., 533 Brunt Ice Shelf, 50 Halley Station on, 125–126 Bryan coast, 266 Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni), 396. See also Whales Bryophytes, 104, 158, 596 continental Antarctic zone and, 155 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Bryopsida, 652 Bryozoan (Watersipora subtorquata), 142, 163 fossils of, 411 Buccaneers of the South, 919 Buccinidae (whelks), 651 Buchanan, Sir John Young, 204 Buckland, William, 495 Buckle Island, 123 Buckley Island, 130 Buckridge, Horace, Ticket of Leave play and, 387 Budd, W. F., 515 Bugs (Hemiptera), 531 Buinitsky, Viktor, 90 Bulgaria, COMNAP membership of, 308

Bulgaria: Antarctic Program, 205–206 St. Kliment Ohridski Station and, 206 Bulgarian Antarctic Institute, 205–206 scientific research and, 205–206 Bull, Henrik J., 35, 174, 416, 1111 Norwegian (Tønsberg) Whaling Expedition (1893–1895) led by, 1111 Bull Pass, 348 Buller’s albatross (Thalassarche bulleri), 16. See also Albatrosses diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Vulnerable status of, 18 Bulletin-Royal Society of New Zealand, 1137 Bumstead Sun Compass, 207 Bunger, David, 116, 679 Bunger Hills, 51, 365 Byrd’s description of, 679–680 as oasis, 679, 680, 682 Burhenne, Wolfgang, 290 Burn-Murdoch, William G., 353 Burrowing clam (Laternula elliptica), 143 Burton, Charlie, 9 Burton Island, 802, 1113 BWU. See Blue Whale Unit ‘‘By endurance we conquer,’’ 527 Bycatch albatrosses killed through, 15, 20 petrels killed through, 15, 20 Byrd Coast Granites, 434, 624 Byrd Expeditions. See United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition Byrd Glacier, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 58 Byrd, Richard E., 11, 206–208, 1022. See also United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition Antarctica and, 206, 207–208 aviation, Antarctic and, 114 climate oscillations noticed by, 262 early life of, 206–207 expeditions of, 489, 1024–1028 Marie Byrd Land, air exploration of by, 626 Marie Byrd Land named after wife of, 49 South Pole and, 32 Byrd Station, Antarctica air hydrates and, 13 establishment of, 49 ice core drilling and, 307 ozone, monitoring of at, 696 Byrophytes, 25 Byuleten’ Ukrains’kogo Antarktichnogo Tsentru, 1137

C CAA. See Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration Cabbeling, 46, 996–997 Cabled observatories, 685 Cadmium, 373, 758 Caesar, Adrian, 386 Caird Coast, 125 Caird, Sir James, 527 Calanoida, 296 Calanoides acutus, 296, 769 Calanus propinquus, 296 Calc-alkaline suite, 70 Calcification, 214

I15

INDEX Cale, John, 658 Calothrix sp., 23 Caltech Submillimeter Observatory, 99 Ca´mara Station, 91 Cambrian period Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 68, 69 echinoderms and, 371 fossils, invertebrate and, 410, 411 Cameras. See also Photography, in the Antarctic Antarctic photography and, 731 Weddell seals and mounted, 339 CAML. See Census of Antarctic Marine Life Camp Century ice core, 709 Campbell albatross (Thalassarche impavida), 16. See also Albatrosses Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Vulnerable status of, 18 Campbell Island shag (Leucocarbo campbelli), 209 Campbell Island snipe (Coenocorypha, undescribed sp), 209 Campbell Island teal (Anas nesiotis), 209 Campbell Islands, 209–210 albatross diversity on, 209 Antarctic terns on, 81 Black-browed albatrosses on, 169 discovery of, 210 nature reserve as, 210 vascular plant species on, 209 as World Heritage Site, 210 Campbell Plateau, 64 Campbell, Stuart, 36, 38, 115, 1113 Campbell, Victor Lindsey Arbuthnot, Terra Nova Expedition, Northern Party and, 191, 192, 194–195 Campbell-Stokes recorder, 644 Camps. See Base technology: architecture and design; Field camps Campylobacter spp., 335 Campylopus spp., 483 Canada, COMNAP membership of, 308 Canada: Antarctic Program, 210–211 Canada Glacier, 347 Canadian Arctic/Antarctic Exchange Program, 210 Canadian Committee for Antarctic Research (CCAR), 210 Canadian Hydrographic Office, 289 Canadian Inuit dogs, 340 Canadian Polar Commission (CPC), 210 Canadian Shield, 364 Canal Beagle, 136 Canal Cockburn, 137 Canine distemper virus (CDV), 336 Canisteo Peninsula, 34 Cano, Sebastian del, 30 Canso flying boats, 383, 384 Cape Adams, 66 Cape Adare AAE and, 109 archaeological research at, 87, 88 Cape Agassiz, 48 Cape Bowles, 922 Cape Circoncision, 175–176 Cape Colbeck, 33 Cape Crozier, 200, 201, 277, 377, 805, 806, 808, 1081 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 200, 201

I16

Cape Darnley (Bjerkø Head), 231 Cape Dart, 33 Cape Denison, 51 AAE at, 109 archaeological research at, 87, 88 Cape Evans archaeological research at, 87, 88 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195 Cape Flying Fish, 33 Cape Groenland, 321 Cape Horn, 66 icebergs and ship disappearances off, 524 Cape Jeremy, 48 Cape Lachman, 661 Cape of Good Hope, 211 Cape petrel (Daption capense), 60, 211–212 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding of, 211, 868 diet of, 212 distribution of, 211 fulmarines as, 75, 211 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868 stable status of, 211 Cape Renard, 136 Cape Roberts Project, 390, 462–463, 556 Cape Royds, 173, 323 Shackleton builds hut at, 184 Cape Shirreff, 922 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Capitan Arturo Prat Station, 1135, 1141 CARA. See Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica Carbohydrate cryoprotectants, 272 Carbon, sources of organic, 153–154 Carbon cycle, 212–214 biogeochemistry, terrestrial and, 153–154 CO2 and carbon sinks in, 212, 213, 214, 222, 356 copepods and, 297 iron fertilization of Southern Ocean and, 214, 223, 497 pumps of, 212, 213 Southern Ocean and, 212–214 Southern Ocean biogeochemistry and, 943–944 Carbon dioxide (CO2) AAIW and absorption of, 62 ACC transport of, 237, 239 Antarctica, glaciation of and, 344, 346 atmospheric concentration of, 102, 103 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 carbon cycle and, 212–214 chemical oceanography of Southern Ocean and, 221–223 climate change and increase of, 256 deep sea mining and disposal of, 330 iron fertilization of Southern Ocean and levels of, 214, 223, 330, 497 LGM and lower levels of, 885 Southern Ocean biogeochemistry and exchange of, 942–943 Carbon fixation, 153 algal mats and, 28 Carbon sinks, 212, 213, 214, 222, 356 Carbonate (alkalinity) pump, 212 Carboniferous period Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 69, 70 Beacon Supergroup and, 129, 130 coal during, 268 fossils, invertebrate during, 410, 411

INDEX Cardiidae (cockles), 650 Caring for the Environment in Antarctica—A Guide to Your Responsibilities, 693 Carlstrom, John E., 303 Carnarvon Castle, 188 Carney Island, 34 Carnley Harbor, 104 Carpenter, Don, 736 Carpenter, William Benjamin, 218, 219 Carrasco, Germa´n, 224 Carse, Duncan, 196, 913 Cartellier, Je´roˆme, 352 Cartography and charting, 214–216. See also Map(s); Place-names, Antarctic; RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project ADD and, 215–216 early history of Antarctic, 214 Casey, R. G., 1079 Casey Range, 115 Casey Station, 37, 51, 589, 1135, 1141 AAD and, 112 dogs, use of at, 342 flies at, 282 snow runway at, 112 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 weather forecasting at, 1048 Cassidy, R. J., 387 Cast wind drift, 361 Castor, 584 Catch Document Scheme, 404, 405 Caterpillar D4-D8 tractors, 276, 389 Cats. See Feral cats Cattle, as introduced species, 29, 30, 209, 283, 543, 544, 753, 798, 862 Caudofoveata, 651 CCAMLR. See Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP), 292–293, 405 CCAMLR Science, 1137 CCAR. See Canadian Committee for Antarctic Research CCAS. See Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals CCN. See Cloud Condensation Nuclei CDV. See Canine distemper virus CDW. See Circumpolar Deep Water CEAMB. See Circum-East Antarctic Mobile Belt CeDAMar. See Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life CEE. See Comprehensive Environmental Evaluations Celtic Chief, 324 CEMP. See CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program Cenozoic Era ACC and, 344 fossils, invertebrate and, 412 marine biodiversity and, 146 tectonics and, 286, 399 Census of Antarctic Marine Life (CAML), 113 Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life (CeDAMar), 39 ANDEEP programme and, 39 Census of Marine Life (CoML), 39 Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA), 93, 302 Center of Ice and Hydrometeorological Information, 90 Central place foraging, 7 CEP. See Committee for Environmental Protection Cephaloziella exiliflora (liverwort), 425 Cephaloziella varians, 597

Cerenkov radiation. See Cherenkov radiation Cestodes, 335 Cetaceans, small, 131, 216–218 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 diversity and distribution of Antarctic, 216–217 CFA. See Continuous flow analysis CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons CGA. See Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica CH4. See Methane Chaenocephalus aceratus, 403 Chaenodraco wilsoni, 403 Chaetognaths, 743, 1105 Challenger, 218, 219, 883, 1111 Challenger Expedition (1872–1876), 218–220, 488 oceanography and, 218, 219 Prince Edward Islands and, 768 scientific reports from, 40 ‘‘Changes and Variability of the Antarctic Coastal Ecosystems,’’ 740 Chanticleer, 220, 1110 Chanticleer Expedition (1828–1831), 220 Foster leads, 220, 327, 355, 486, 923, 1110 Chantier, 207 Chapman layer, 547 Chapman, Sydney, 535, 694 Chapman, Thomas, 876 Chappius band, 694 Characteres Generum Plantarum, 172 ´ tienne Auguste, 139, 220–221, 729, 1111 Charcot, Jean-Baptiste E Franc¸ais Expedition of, 220, 221, 419–420, 1111 Porquoi Pas? Expedition of, 220, 221, 421–422, 1112 Charles, Prince, 112 Charter of the Oceans, 1018 Charting. See Cartography and charting Chasmoendolithic biomass, 25 Chasmoliths, 654 Chaˆteau de Versailles, 352 Chatham albatross (Thalassarche eremita), 16. See also Albatrosses Critically endangered status of, 18 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Chatham Islands, 168 Cheeseman, Al, 1080 Chemical oceanography of the Southern Ocean, 221–224 biological processes’ role in, 221, 223 Southern Ocean’s physical chemistry and, 221–222 Chemoautotrophs, 645 Chemosynthethic microorganisms, 329 Cherenkov radiation, 95, 97 Cherry-Garrard, Apsley, 172, 377, 764, 1081 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 193 Chethams Symphony Orchestra, 657 Chevrette, 352 Chifley, Joseph, 36 Chikasaburo Watanabe, 562 Children’s stories, Antarctic, 387, 388. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic Chile ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic Institute of, 224–225 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83, 224 Black-browed albatrosses at, 169 COMNAP membership of, 308

I17

INDEX Chile (cont.) Giant Magellan Telescope in, 94 territorial claims of, 224, 328 Chilean Antarctic Institute, 224–225 Antarctic Peninsula claim and, 67, 383 National Committee on Antarctic Research and, 225 sections, 224 Chilean skua (Catharacta chilensis), 225–226 breeding of, 225, 900, 901 distribution and diet of, 225 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 hybrids of, 225 China COMNAP membership of, 308 Filchner and Ma-Qu in, 394 China: Antarctic Program, 226–227 CHINARE as, 226–227 scientific activities of, 226, 227 Chinaman, 762, 763 CHINARE. See Chinese National Antarctic Research Expeditions (CHINARE) Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration (CAA), 226 Chinese Journal of Polar Science, 227, 1137 Chinese National Antarctic Research Expeditions (CHINARE), 226–227 Chinochloa antarctica, 104 Chinstrap Island, 123 Chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica), 227–228. See also Penguins Ade´lie penguins and, 5, 227 Antarctic cormorants and, 299 avian cholera and, 335 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding and distribution of, 227, 228, 867 diet of, 227, 228 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 867 Chlamydomonas, 408, 963 Chlamydomonas spp., 24 Chlamysophylia psittaci, 335 Chlorcoccum spp., 24 Chlorella spp., 25 Chlorinated fluorocarbons, South Pole and, 32 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 356 Amery Basin and, 363 Antarctic ozone hole and, 697, 698 Chloromonas rubroleosa, 27 Chlorophyta (green algae), 23 Chorisodontium aciphyllum, 654 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions (1927–1937), 228–233, 1112 achievements of, 232–233, 1112 objectives of, 229 summary of seasonal activities in, 229–232 whaling and, 228–229, 232–233, 234 Christensen, Christen, 353, 584 Christensen, Ingrid, 115 Christensen, Lars, 50, 114, 115, 233–234, 1112 Antarctic expeditions of, 228–233, 1112 life of, 233–234 Chromium, 759 Chronology of Antarctic exploration, 1109–1114 Chroococcidiopsis spp., 25 Chroomonas, 963 Chroomonas lacustris, 24

I18

Chrysophyceae (golden algae), 23 Chuckci Peninsula, 1087 Churchill, Winston, 275, 489 message to ITAE by, 527 Ciliates, 349, 408, 784–785 Circum-East Antarctic Mobile Belt (CEAMB), 367 Circumpolar Current, Antarctic. See Antarctic Circumpolar Current Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW), 34, 35, 240–242, 357 AAIW origination from, 64 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 characteristics of, 362, 363, 954 coastal ocean currents and, 269, 270, 271 ice shelves and, 520 Scotia Sea and, 831 Circumpolar pressure trough (CPT), 262 Circumpolar Trough, 949 CIRM. See Interministerial Commission for Sea Resources Cirrus clouds, 267. See also Clouds, Antarctic air-borne ice and, 11–12 CITES. See Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species City of New York, 1024, 1113 Cladocera, 1105 Clarence Island, geology of, 177, 178 Clarence Islands Group, 922 Clathrate hydrates, 13. See also Air hydrates in ice Clearsky precipitation, 974 Clerke Rocks, 911 Cleveland, Benjamin, 876 CliC project. See Climate and Cryosphere Project Clifford, Sir Miles, 275 CLIMAP project, 496 Climate amelioration, 256, 274 Climate and Cryosphere (CliC) Project, 1098 Climate, Antarctic, 242–252 ACC’s role in, 239 Arctic climate v., 243 atmospheric boundary-layer processes and, 99, 101–102 clouds and, 267 future projections of, 255 global context of, 258 importance of, 242 net radiation deficit’s impact on, 246–247 parameters, climatology of in, 247–249 physical geographic factors’ role in, 242–245 sea ice, modes of in, 250–251 types of, 246 weather systems, climatology of in, 249–250 Climate change, 252–255 AAIW variability and, 65 AASW temperature and salinity variations and, 80 Ade´lie penguins and, 2, 6 Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 58–59 atmospheric circulation variability and, 254–255 atmospheric gas concentration analysis and, 102 benthic communities and, 144, 145, 147 biogeochemistry, terrestrial and, 154 biogeographical impact of, 160 bioindicators and, 162 biological invasions influenced by, 164 biological responses to, 255–257 Drake Passage, opening of and, 344, 345, 346 effects of recent, 253–254

INDEX future Antarctic climates and, 255 global ocean monitoring programs in Southern Ocean and, 467–468 human-induced v. natural, 160, 263 krill and effects of, 171 marine biodiversity and, 144, 145, 147 microbiological research and, 320 observations of recent, 252–253 ocean oxygen levels and, 47 polar biota, evolutionary biology of and, 402 polar regions and, 242, 402 Southern Ocean, biogeochemistry of and, 944–945 speed and distribution of, 257 temperature trends, long-term at selected Antarctic stations, 253 water sources, Antarctic and, 358 Climate change biology, 255–257 Climate modeling, 257–261 clouds and, 267 computers and, 258–259 diagnosing climate behavior from, 259 Drake Passage, opening of and, 344, 345–346 eddies and, 375 GCMs and, 258–260 limitations of, 258 past climates constructed through, 259 Climate modes. See Climate oscillations Climate oscillations, 261–263 Climate Variability and Predictability Programme (CLIVAR), AWI and, 20, 1098 Climatic forcing factors, 242–246 climate modeling of, 259–260 Climatology, 267 CLIVAR. See Climate Variability and Predictability Programme Closed magnetosphere, 610–611 Clothing, Antarctic, 264–265 history of, 264 layer method of dressing in, 264 synthetic materials used in, 264, 265 Cloud bands, 621, 622 Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN), 903 Cloud cover, 265–266 climate and, 247 Cloud streets, 621 Cloudmaker, The, 130 Clouds, Antarctic, 265–267. See also Polar mesosphere climate and, 267 haloes and cirrus, 12 microphysical properties of, 266 summer, percentage of, 243 upper atmosphere, 267 Clubmosses, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 CMB. See Cosmic microwave background CMBR. See Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation CME. See Coronal Mass Ejection; Coronal mass ejections CMS. See Conservation on Migratory Species of Wild Animals CNFRA. See Comite’ National Franc¸ais des Recherches Arctiques et Antarctiques Cnidaria, species of, 145 CNPq. See National Council for Scientific and Technological Development CO2. See Carbon dioxide (CO2) Coal, Antarctic age and location of, 268 exploitation of, 268, 649

map of location of minerals and, 1146 past climates and presence of, 273 Coal deposition, 130 Coal, oil, and gas, 268–269. See also Mineralization, in Antarctica locations of Antarctic, 268, 269 Coast Guard, US, 687 Coast Watchers, 87 Coastal ocean currents, 269–272 AABW and, 270, 271 ACC and, 269, 271 CDW and, 269, 270, 271 Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS), 139 Coats, Andrew, 204 Coats Land, 50, 125 COBE. See Cosmic Background Explorer Coccomyxa spp., 25 Colbeck, William, 187, 201, 634 Morning and British relief expedition of, 201, 1111 Cold Desert soils, 907 Cold hardiness, 272–273 research on, 273 Coleoptera, freezing tolerance of, 2, 532 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 17, 387 Collembola. See Springtails Collembolan (Cryptopygus antarcticus), 176 Collingwood, 633 Colobanthus quitensis, 407 Colonial algae. See Algae Colonization, 273–275, 279 of Antarctic vegetation, 1035–1036 human activities’ impact on, 151, 152, 163, 256, 273, 274 ice disturbance and, 508–510 stages necessary for, 273 Columnar ice, 11–12, 841–842 formation of, 11–12, 841–842 pore microstructure of, 842 sample of, 841 Comamonas, 903 Comandante Ferraz Station, 180, 1135, 1141 Combjellies, 142 Comite´ National Franc¸ais des Recherches Arctiques et Antarctiques (CNFRA), 417–418 Comite´ Special de l’Annee Geophysique Internationale (CSAGI), 535, 828 CoML. See Census of Marine Life Commercial whaling IWC and, 540 IWC Sanctuaries and, 540, 542 Commerson’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus commersonii), 216, 218 Commisao˜ Interministerial para os Recursos do Mar. See Interministerial Commission for Sea Resources Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP), 61, 84, 783, 784 Annex II amendments and, 166 biodiversity conservation and, 152, 281–282, 283, 784 Common tern (Sterna hirundo), 989. See also Terns breeding of, 990, 991 characteristics of, 989 diet and foraging of, 990 Commonwealth Bay, 51, 109 hut conservation at, 284 Commonwealth Glacier, 347 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), 112

I19

INDEX Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (CTAE) (1955–1958), 275–278. See also Fuchs, Vivian; Hillary, Edmund Antarctica, crossing of and, 275, 424, 1114 Coats Land exploration by, 50 dogs, use of in, 342, 424 Fuchs leads, 275–278, 424, 536, 1114 Hillary and, 275, 276, 277, 278, 424, 536 IGY and, 536 operations of, 276–278, 1114 planning for, 275–276 scientific results of, 278, 1114 Communication systems, base technology and, 129 COMNAP. See Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes COMNAP/SCALOP (Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics and Operations), 530 Component technique, 512 Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica (CGA), 735 Comprehensive Environmental Evaluations (CEE), 828 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 355 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), 458 Concentriclycoidea (sea daisies), 371 Concordia Station, 1135, 1141 astronomical research programs at, 95, 96, 556 Dome C and location of, 51, 358 IPEV, PNRA, and, 419, 1135 Congelation ice, 620, 851, 852, 855 formation of, 841, 846 Connell, Joyce, 424 Conodonts, fossils of, 411 Conquest of the South Pole (film), 395 Conrad Rise, 360 Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı´fico e Tecnolo´gico (CNPq), 180 Conservation, 278–285 approaches to, 279 ATS and, 153, 279, 280, 281, 282 Conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora: Agreed Measures, 285–286 Annex II to Protocol on Environmental Treaty and, 84, 281, 285 blue whales and, 171 content of, 279, 285 history of, 285 Special Conservation Area of Antarctica by, 285, 289, 770 Specially Protected Species, birds and, 166–167 Conservation on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), 15 ACAP and, 15, 282 Constructive plate boundaries, 738 Continental (frigid) Antarctic zone areas of, 156 biotic components of, 155 Continental drift, 130 Continental ice, Antarctic climates and, 242 Continental nuclei, 430 Continental shelves and slopes, 286–290. See also Antarctic continental shelf coastal ocean currents and, 269, 270, 271 GEBCO and, 289 physiography of, 286–287 sediments and, 288–289 tectonics and, 286 UNCLOS and, 289–290 Continental Water Boundary, 952 Continuous flow analysis (CFA), 502–503, 505

I20

Convection, 995. See also Magnetospheric convection atmospheric boundary layer and, 99–100 climate system and atmospheric, 259 oceanic, 64 in Southern Ocean, 995–999 Convention for the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities (CRAMRA), 38, 294–295 ASOC and, 42 ATS and, 82 Greenpeace and, 473 Madrid Protocol, Article 7 and, 295, 358 mineral exploitation and, 84, 268, 280–281, 294–295, 473 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 84, 295, 782–783 role of, 281 Convention on Biodiversity, 283 Convention on Biological Diversity (CVD), 60 biodiversity defined by, 149 conservation, ATS areas and, 152 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 290–291 biodiversity conservation and, 60, 290–291 history of, 290–291 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 15, 291–293 ACAP and, 15, 292 Antarctic fur seal, krill availability and, 53, 280 Antarctic region boundaries and, 47, 280, 291, 292 ASOC and, 42 ATS and, 82, 85, 358–359 biodiversity conservation and, 152, 280, 404–405 Canadian ratification of, 210, 292 CCAS and, 292 CEMP and, 292–293, 405 Chile and, 224, 292 FAO and, 292 ICRW and, 292 Madrid Protocol and, 292 marine debris, monitoring of by, 630–631 members and parties of, 292 SCAR and, 292, 828 state sovereignty and, 404 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS), 293–294 ATS and, 82 biodiversity conservation and, 152, 280 Canadian ratification of, 210 CITES and, 291 content of, 294 crabeater seals and, 311 history of, 293–294 Southern Ocean pinnipeds protected by, 880 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), 60 Convergent evolution, 400 Convergent plate boundaries, 738 Cook, Frederick, 839 Amundsen and, 31 Belgica expedition and, 136 North Pole and, 31, 675, 897 Cook Islands, 589 Cook, James, 92, 167, 214, 295–296, 485, 569, 819, 1109 Amundsen sea and, 33 aurora observed by, 105 iceberg utilization by, 525 Kerguelen Islands explored by, 567

INDEX logbooks and, 40, 702 scurvy, prevention of by, 838–839 South Georgia landed on by, 911, 913 voyages of, 105, 295, 296, 702, 1109 Cooper Island, 911 Cooper, James Fenimore, 386 Cooperative Research Centre into Antarctic Climate and Environment (CRC-ACE), 113 Cope, John Lachlan, 814, 1079. See also British Imperial Expedition Antarctic expedition of, 197, 1112 Copepoda, 1105 Copepods, 78, 296–297 Arctic terns’ diet of, 91 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 biodiversity of, 296 life cycles of, 297 Copper, 759 Coprosma, 104 Coquille expedition (1822–1825), 352 Coriolis force, 52, 235, 237, 245, 270, 271, 361, 703 Cormorants (Phalacrocorax, Phalacrocoracidae), 297–301 breeding and distribution of, 297–298 diving physiology and, 164–166 Phalacrocoracidae family as, 164, 297 species and taxa of, 297–301 Cornwallis Island, geology of, 179 Coronal mass ejections (CME), 305, 548, 616 Coronation Island, 553 Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 302 Cosmic microwave background (CMB), 94, 95 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), 94, 95, 301–303 Cosmic ray astronomy, 303–308 Cosmic Ray Energetics And Mass (CREAM) experiment, 307–308 Cosmic rays, 97, 303–308 high energies of, 303 modulation studies on, 304–307 neutron monitors and, 305 research on, 95 source and composition studies of, 307–308 Cosmonaut Sea, 760 Cotton, Leo, 322 Coulman, Anne, 810 Coulman Island, 182 Coulter Counter, 502 Council of Admiralty, Bellingshausen as member of, 138 Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programmes (COMNAP), 308–309 ATS and, 82, 85, 309 AWI and, 20 establishment of, 85, 309 fuel storage and transport guidelines by, 127 IPEV, International Polar Year (2007–2008), and, 419 members of, 308–309 operational framework for environment management and, 689–690 Courbet Peninsula, Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Courcelle-Seneuil, Edmond-Jena-Leopold, 538 Courtauld, August, 1097 Couthouy, Joseph P., 1028 Cove, 810 CPC. See Canadian Polar Commission CPT. See Circumpolar pressure trough Crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus), 309–312, 487. See also Seals

adaptation and, 3, 878 breeding of, 310, 311, 878 CCAS protection of, 294, 880 CDV found in, 336 conservation and, 280 diet of, 311, 879 distribution of, 309–310, 878 diving biology of, 337 Cramer, Parker D., 1080 CRAMRA. See Convention for the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities Crary Ice Rise, 803, 804, 805 Crary, Robert, 805 Cratonic quartzites, 69 Cratons age of, 430 Antarctic, 430–432 East Antarctic Shield as, 364, 365, 366–367, 430 platforms and, 364, 430 shields and, 364, 430 Crawford, Neelon, 92 CRC-ACE. See Cooperative Research Centre into Antarctic Climate and Environment CREAM experiment. See Cosmic Ray Energetics And Mass experiment Crean, Tom, 191, 192, 193, 199, 201, 528, 764 Discovery Expedition and, 199, 201 Cre´pin, Louis-Phillipe, 352 Crested penguins (Eudyptes genus), 312–316 annual cycle of, 313–314 breeding and survival of, 314 diet of, 314–315 distribution of, 312–313 IUCN conservation status of, 315 population sizes of, 315 species of, 312 Cretaceous period Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 68–72 Bransfield Strait, geology of and, 178 climate modeling and, 259 coal during, 268 copepods and, 296 flowering plants and, 405 fossils, invertebrate, and, 411, 412 fossils, plant, and, 413 fossils, vertebrate, and, 415 marine biodiversity and, 146, 147 Seymour Island fossils and, 357 terrestrial biodiversity and, 151 Crick, Francis Harry Compton, 1 Crinoidea (sea lilies and feather stars), 371, 411 fossils of, 371, 411 Croll, James, 495 Crosson, Joe, 1079 Crozet cormorant, (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] melanogenis), 299–300. See also Cormorants Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet), 316–317 Antarctic fur seals at, 54, 317 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81, 316 conservation of whale and sealing site at, 284 Fresne discovers, 317, 568, 1109 geology of, 316 introduced mammals on, 317 invertebrate fauna on, 317

I21

INDEX Crozet Islands (Iˆles Crozet) (cont.) plant species on, 316 research station at, 419 Ross, James Clark, and, 181, 810 seabird species on, 316–317 TAAF, IPEV, and, 418, 419 Crozet, Julien, 317 Crozier, Francis Rawdon, 181, 183, 729 Crustacea, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Crustaceans, fossils of, 411 Crustose growth forms, 592 Crutzen, Paul, 697 Cryoconite communities, 28, 317–318 formation of, 317 location of, 317, 318 Cryoconite holes, 964 Cryolophosaurus ellioti, 415 Cryophiles, 350 Cryoprotective dehydration, 272 CryoSat, 318–319 Antarctic Ice Sheet surface elevation change and, 513 goal of, 318 SIRAL and, 318, 319 Cryosols, 907 Cryosphere, 255, 258, 260 of LGM v. current age, 496 Cryptic speciation, 143, 155 Cryptobiosis, 983 Cryptochila grandiflora, 483 Cryptoendolithic communities, 319–320, 648 algae and, 25 ecosystem of, 372 environment of, 319, 320 Mars and presence of, 320 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 350 survival process of, 319, 320 types of, 320 Cryptogam Ridge, 597 Cryptogams, 652 Cryptomonas sp., 24 Cryptophyta (cryptophytes), 23 CSAGI. See Comite´ Special de l’Annee Geophysique Internationale CSIRO. See Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization CTAE. See Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition CTBTO. See Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization CTD/rosettes, 39, 685 Ctenophora, 1105 Ctenophores (comb-jellies), 460 Cucumber campaign, 302 Cullinan Medal, 175 Cumberland Bay Formation, 551 Curzon, George, 819 Cushion-plant (Azorella selago), 767 Cusp, 613 Cuthbertson, Willie, 838 Cuverville, tourism and, 67 Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales CVD. See Convention on Biological Diversity Cyanobacteria anhydrobiosis and, 39, 333 Antarctic biogeographical zones and mats of, 155, 156 cryoconite holes with, 318, 349, 350

I22

cryptoendolithic communities with, 319, 320, 349, 350 microorganisms and, 644–645 Cyanobacterial mats, 27–28 Cyathea smithii, 104 Cyclogenesis, 979 Cyclones, 262, 622 frontal, 242, 243, 245, 246, 247, 248 glacial anti-, 244, 248 meso, 244, 249, 250 synoptic, 244, 249 Cyclonic gyres. See also Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres ACC and, 236 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Cyclosis, 980–981 Cynognathus zone fauna, 130 Cyperaceae, 406 CZCS. See Coastal Zone Color Scanner Czech Republic, Antarctic research program of, 660–661 Czechoslovakia, AT agreement by, 660

D D region, 547, 548 da Cunha, Trista˜o, Portuguese naval voyage (1506) of, 1109 da Gama, Vasco, Portuguese naval expedition (1497–1499) of, 1109 Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande´, 729 Dahl, Ingrid, 234 Dahl, Odd, 1087 Dahl, Thor, 234 Dakshin Gangotri Station, 529 Dallmann Bay, 321 Dallmann, Eduard, 321–322, 459, 575, 1111 Antarctic voyage (1873) of, 321–322, 1111 Dallmann Laboratory, 91, 458–459 AWI and, 22, 459 Dalrymple, Alexander, 295 Dalziel, Ian, 469 Dana, James Dwight, 487, 1028 Danco, Emile, 136 Dansercoer, Dixie, 9 Daphniopsis studeri, 964 Daption, 211 Dark Energy, 32, 303 Dark Matter, 303 Dark Sector, 302 Darling Orogen, 370 Darlington, Harry, 801 Darlington, Jennie, 801, 802, 1114 Darlington, P. J., Jr., 533 Darnley, Ernest Rowland, 333 Darwin, Charles, 1, 204 Dasan Station, 916 Dash Patrol, 562 Dauphine, 569 David Bennett & Sons, 875 David Glacier, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 58 David Range, 115 David, Tannatt William Edgeworth, 322–324, 562, 766 Antarctic science and, 186, 322, 323 influence of, 323 Mawson trained by, 635, 766 Nimrod expedition and, 184–186, 322–323 Davidson, James, 353 Davidson, Robert, 353 Davies, Frank T., 1025

INDEX Davies, Sir Peter Maxwell, 657, 658 Davis, J. E., 92 Davis, John, English naval expedition (1592) of, 1109 Davis, John King, 109, 202, 324–325, 814 AAE and, 324 Mawson and, 324, 325, 636 Nimrod expedition and, 186, 324 Shackleton and, 324 Davis, Randall, 339 Davis Station, 37, 680, 1135, 1141 AAD and, 112 aircraft runway at, 14 dogs, use of at, 342 erection of, 589 microbiological studies at, 647 Princess Elizabeth Land and, 50 weather forecasting at, 1048 DDT-related compounds, 373 de Gerlache de Gomery, Baron Adrien. See Gerlache de Gomery, Adrien Victor Joseph de Deacon Cell, 80. See also Meridional Overturning Circulation Deacon, George, 489 Deacon, Sir George, 80 Debenham, Frank, 198, 323, 326–327, 766 achievements of, 326–327 Ponting, Herbert, and, 730 SPRI, formation of and, 488, 834, 1097 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 193, 195, 326, 1097 Decadal oscillation, AAIW variability and, 65 Decade-scale coupled variations, 251 Decepcio´n Station, 91, 328 Deception Island, 177, 327–328 aircraft runway on, 14, 329 archaeological whaling sites on, 87, 284, 328 as ASMA # 4, 328 Chanticleer Expedition and, 220, 327, 357, 1110 FIDASE at, 383, 384 flora on, 327 HSMs on, 328 Poa grass eradication on, 163, 282 volcanic activity on, 177, 282, 327, 328, 1043 whaling and, 327 Decomposer mites, 715 Decomposition, 328–329 biological, 328–329, 372 chemical reaction’s role in, 329 physical processes involved in, 329 Decompression sickness, 165 Deep overturning circulation cells, 996, 997–998 Deep sea, 329–331. See also ANDEEP programme; Antarctic Bottom Water; Benthic communities in Southern Ocean ATS and protection of, 330 biological diversity of, 330 energy sources for organisms in, 329–330 knowledge, lack of in, 329 nutrients, scarcity of in, 330 oxygenation levels of, 330 Southern Ocean as source of, 330 Deep sea mining, 330 Deep Sea Research, 1137 Deep stone crabs (Lithodidae family), 331–332 distribution of, 331 moulting and diet of, 332 species of, 331, 332 Deep-Sea Drilling Project, 883

Deep-Sea Research. Parts I and II, 1137 Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 791 Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), 94, 302 Dehydrins, 333 Delano, Thomas, 875 Delphinidae, 216, 570 Delphinids, 131, 216. See also Cetaceans, small Denman Glacier, 110, 365, 431, 433 Dennistoun, James Robert, 764 Denton Glacier, 347 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) heredity and, 1 UV-B radiation and damage to, 698 DEP. See Dielectric profiling Department of Antarctic Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 740 Department of Defense, US, 686 Department of Homeland Security, US, 687–688 Department of Ocean Development (DOD), 530 Department of State, US, 688 Department of the Interior’s Office of Aircraft Services, 688 Deposition, 510, 511 Depressions, 979–982 ‘‘Derived Physical Characteristics of the Antarctic Ice Sheet,’’ 515 Desalination, 128, 525 Desbois, Aime´, 423 Deschampsia antarctica (grass), 407, 425, 922 Desiccation, 3, 39, 333 Desiccation tolerance, 3, 332–333 algal mats and, 28 anhydrobiosis and, 39–40, 333 Desiccation-induced proteins, anhydrobiosis and, 39, 333 Desire, 1109 Desmococcus cf. olivaceus, 24, 25 Destructive plate boundaries, 738 Detritivory, 531, 532 Deutsche Polarschif-fahrtsgesellschaft of Bremerhaven, 321 Deutsche Seewarte, 668 Deutsches Zentrum fu¨r Luft und Raumfart. See German Spatial Agency Deutschland, 394, 453–455 Deutschland Expedition. See German South Polar (Deutschland) Expedition Devold, Hallvard, 231 Devonian Period Beacon Supergroup and, 129, 130, 348, 385 fossils, invertebrate and, 130, 410, 411 fossils, vertebrate and, 414 DeVries, Arthur L., 400 Diamictons, 511 Diamond dust, 974 formation of, 12 Diana, 353 Diatom Corethron criophilum, photograph of, 733 Diatom ooze, 219 Diatoms, 23, 28, 350, 717. See also Algae; Phytoplankton air-spora and, 10 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 Blue whales and, 170 carbon cycle and, 213–214 Hooker, Joseph, and, 487 silicon cycle and, 944 on undersurface of fast ice, 508 Dickason, Harry, 194 Dicynodonts, 415 Dielectric profiling (DEP), 501, 504

I23

INDEX Diet. See Food and food preparation Digital cartography, 216 Dikes, 385 Dimethyl-sulphide (DMS), 702, 871 Dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), 903 Dinoflagellates, 717 Dinophyta (dinoflagellates), 23 Dinosaurs, 72, 151, 414, 415 extinction of, 357, 413 fossils of, 414, 415, 709, 1010 Gondwana and age of, 800 Diomedea, albatrosses in genus, 17–18 Diomedeidae, albatrosses in family, 17–19 Dipole field, geometry of, 610 Diptera freezing tolerance of, 2 maritime Antarctic zone and, 155 Direccio´n Nacional del Anta´rtico, IAA and, 91–92 Disappointment Island, 104 Discovery, 115, 124, 1076 and 1925–1927 Investigations, 333, 334 BANZARE and use of, 202, 203 Scott and expedition with, 198–202 Discovery Expedition. See British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition Discovery House, 914 Discovery Hut, 124, 129 Discovery II, 115, 333, 334, 376, 1112 ACC observations and voyages of, 235 Discovery Investigations (1925–1951), 333–335, 489, 1112 Mackintosh, Neil Alison, and, 1112 scientific reports from, 40, 334, 489 Southern Ocean, knowledge of and, 334 Discovery Reports, 334 Disease. See also Health care and medicine, Antarctic scurvy as, 136, 184, 192, 197, 200, 325, 342 Diseases, wildlife, 135, 136, 200, 274, 335–336 antibodies to, 274, 282, 311, 335, 336 bird and seal, 335, 336 pathogenic fungi and, 425 Disharmony, 531, 567 Dispersal biogeography and recent, 159 vicariance v., 533 Dissolved gases, 221, 222 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 214, 223, 943 Dissolved organic matter (DOM), 223 Dissolved oxygen, 63, 64, 79, 221, 222, 223 Disturbance storm time (Dst), 608 Ditrichum spp., 483 Diurnal tides, 1000 Diurnal variations, 306 Dive reflex theory, 338 Divergent plate boundaries, 738 DIVERSITAS, 537, 1098 Diving: marine mammals, 336–339 adaptation and, 336, 337, 339 ADL theory and, 338, 339 Antarctic fur seals and, 53 isolated diving hole method and, 338, 339 TDR method and, 338, 339 Weddell seals and, 337–339 whales and, 339 Diving petrels (Pelecanoididae), 164 Diving physiology, 338, 339

I24

birds’, 164–166 seals’, 337–339 whales’, 339 Dixon, George, 36 DLR. See German Aerospace Centre DML. See Dronning Maud Land DMS. See Dimethyl-sulphide DMSP. See Defense Meteorological Satellite Program; Dimethylsulphoniopropionate DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid Dobrowolski, Antoine, 136 Dobrowolski, Antoni, 740 Dobrowolski Station, 680 Dobson, G. M. B., 694 Dobson ozone spectrophotometers, 694, 696 Dobson Units (DU), 694 DOC. See Dissolved organic carbon Docker, Dudley, 527 DOD. See Department of Ocean Development Dodson, Robert, 802 Dogs Antarctic and uses of, 339–340, 342 banning of Antarctic, 340 breeds of, for sledging, 340–341 as introduced species, 543, 544 mechanical transport and replacement of, 340, 391 sledging and training of, 341 snowmobiles and replacement of, 391 Dogs and sledging, 31, 110, 111, 113, 184, 187, 191, 192, 196, 197, 200, 231, 275, 276, 277, 339–344, 562, 801, 802. See also Man-hauling BGLE and, 340 British expertise in, 340–341 man-hauling v., 200 travelling abilities in, 341–342 Dolerite sills, 384, 385 Dolphin, 295 DOM. See Dissolved organic matter Dome A, 50 astronomical observing sites and, 95, 96 CHINARE and, 227 height of, 48 submillimeter astronomy and, 94 Dome Argus. See Dome A Dome C, 51, 93 astronomical observing sites and, 95 atmospheric boundary layer studies at, 102 Concordia at, 51, 95, 96, 358 ice core, chemistry of from, 502, 554, 555, 708 ice core drilling at, 307, 356, 496, 554 seeing and, 93 Dome Circe. See Dome C Dome F. See Dome Fuji Dome Fuji, 560, 664 astronomical observing sites and, 95, 96, 664 ice core drilling at, 307, 561, 664 weather statistics at, 664 Don Juan Pond, 348 Donald, Charles, 353 Donkeys, as introduced species, 543, 544 Doorly, Gerald, 657 Doppler satellite positions, 215 Doppler shift, 102 Double diffusion, 996, 997 Douglas, Eric, 115

INDEX Douglas, Stewart, 387 Douglas, Stuart, 115 Dove, 551, 1110 Dove petrel. See Antarctic prion Dove prion. See Antarctic prion Down, natural, 264 Dr. Mawson in the Antarctic/Home of the Blizzard (film) (Hurley), 111, 395. See also Home of the Blizzard (Mawson) Dracophyllum, 104 Dragovan, Mark, 302 Drainage basin, 582 Drake, Francis, English maritime voyage (1577–1580) of, 1109 Drake Passage, 34, 136, 344–346 ACC and, 236, 237, 344–346, 830–831 Antarctica’s isolation and, 155, 344–346 biological evolution impacted by opening of, 344 climate of Scotia Sea and, 832 computer modeling and opening of, 345–346 geological opening of, 58, 73, 234–235, 344–346 manner/timing of opening of, 345, 346 marine ecosystems in Scotia Sea and, 833 Polarstern and organisms from, 38–39 Scotia Sea, Bransfield Strait and, 830–833 sea floor composition of, 344 Southern Ocean water masses studied at, 79 Drake Plate, 68, 70, 73, 431, 435, 739 Dralkin, Alex, 118 Drayton, Joseph, 1028 Drescheriella glacialis, 296 Dreux, Ph., 533 Drewry, David, 190 Drifters, 685 Drifting and blowing snow, 499–500, 1086 Drifting snow transport, horizontal gradients in, 974 Drilling deep ocean, 21, 113, 345, 346 Drake Passage’s opening, 346 Dry Valleys Drilling Project and, 11 glacial, 206 ice core, 13, 33, 242, 307, 370, 504 ODP and, 113, 345, 346 oil/gas, and, 268 Dronning Maud Land (DML), 365, 661 adventure tourism and, 9, 50 Antarctic petrels on Svarthamaren Mountains in, 75 Base Roi Baudouin in, 137, 138 geology of, 368 NBSAE and, 673, 674, 675 Drumlins, 511 Druzhnaya research station, 522 Dry Valleys. See McMurdo Dry Valleys Dry Valleys Drilling Project (DVDP), 561 aerobiological research and, 11 Drydock berg, 522 Drygalski, Erich Dagobert von, 40, 351–352, 459. See also German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition balloon flight and, 114 Kaiser Wilhelm II Land discovered by, 50, 351, 455 scientific achievements of, 351 Drygalski Fjord Complex, 551 Dst. See Disturbance storm time Dst index, 608 Dst variation, 608 DU. See Dobson Units du Toit, Alexander. See Toit, Alexander du

Duckbilled dinosaurs, 415 Dudley Docker, 528, 1101 Dufek, George, 117 Dufek layered mafic intrusion, 385 Dufek Massif, 385 Dufresne, Marion. See Fresne, Marc Mace´ Marion du Dugongs, 337 Dumont d’Urville, Jules-Se´bastien-Ce´sar, 5, 352–353 Astrolabe and Ze´le´e Expedition led by, 352, 422–423, 486, 1110 exploratory and scientific voyages of, 352, 355, 422, 423 paintings and drawings by, 92 Terre Ade´lie named after wife of, 51, 352, 423 Dumont d’Urville Station IPEV and, 419 location of, 51, 1135, 1141 neutron monitor at, 305 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Dunaliella sp., 24 Dundee Island, aircraft runways and, 14 Dundee Whaling Expedition (1892–1893), 353 Bruce, W. S., and, 204, 353, 678, 1111 Dunedin, 814 Duperrey, Louis-Isidore, 352 Duse, Samuel, 975 Dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), 216, 218 DVDP. See Dry Valleys Drilling Project Dwarfism, polar, 460 Dye-3, Greenland, air hydrates examined at, 13 Dyer Plateau, 66 Dykes, 70 Dynamics Explorer satellite, 106

E E region, 547, 549 EAAO. See East African-Antarctic Orogen EACF. See Estac¸a˜o Anta´rtica Comandante Ferraz EAIS. See East Antarctic Ice Sheet Earp, Wyatt, 375 Earth Explorer satellites, 318 Earth Resources Satellites (ERS), 513 Earth System, 355–359 Antarctica as part of, 355–359 Antarctica, geological history of and, 357 bipolar issues and, 358 closed and interconnected nature of, 355 geomagnetic field of, 305, 437–441 geospace, Antarctica and, 449–453 Gondwana and, 357 IGBP research and, 537 magnetosphere of, 609–618 physical environment of LGM, 497 space weather and, 358 Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP), 537, 1098 Earthquakes, 33, 226, 357, 435, 797 lack of, 357, 666 plate tectonics and, 666, 738, 1053 East African Orogeny, 368 East African-Antarctic Orogen (EAAO), 365, 368, 369 East Antarctic continental margin, oceanography of, 359–364 AABW formation in, 362–363 atmospheric and cryospheric forcings in, 360–361 circulation in, 361–362 location and features of, 359–360 water mass characteristics in, 362

I25

INDEX East Antarctic Craton sensu stricto, 430–432 East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS), 57. See also Antarctic Ice Sheet age of, 58 Antarctic Peninsula glacial regime v., 73–74, 75 Cape Roberts Project and, 462–463 ice sheet modeling of, 517 isbrae and, 466 Larsen Ice Shelf collapse and, 74–75 mass balance for, 512 East Antarctic isbrae, 466 East Antarctic Shield, 364–370 continental drift and, 364–365 cratons, archean/paleoproterozic and, 364, 365, 366–367, 430 evolution of, 365, 366–368 Pan-African tectonism in, 368–370 East Antarctica (Greater Antarctica), 89, 101, 156, 365 Beacon Supergroup in, 129 climate and, 242, 245, 246, 248, 250, 252, 253 definition and boundary for, 48, 49–50 Greater Antarctica v., 48 neotectonics of, 667 physiography of, 286, 287, 364 East Australian Current, AAIW and, 64 East Base, archaeological research at, 87, 88 East Pacific Rise, 344 East Wind Drift, 270–271, 361, 704 Eastaugh, Stephen, 92 Easterly winds, 52, 270 polar, 243, 248, 251 Eastern Ghats, 365 Eastern Palmer Land shear zone, 71 Eastern Sledge Party, 626 Easton, C., 533 Eastward-flowing current, 361 Eccentricity, 495 Ecdysozoa, 983 Echiniscoides sigismundi (marine [intertidal] Heterotardigrada), 984 Echiniscus punctus (terrestrial Heterotardigrada), 984 Echinodermata, species of, 145, 371 Echinoderms, 370–371 fossils of, 411 species of, 370–371 study of Antarctic, 371 Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars), 371 Echiurida, species of, 145 Echo sounders, 685 ECM. See Electrical conductivity analysis ECMWF. See European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Ecological bioindicators, 161, 162 Ecological legacies, biogeochemistry, terrestrial and, 153, 154 Ecosystem approach, 359 Ecosystem functioning, 371–372 biological invasions and, 162–164, 372 classical v. Antarctic, 372 ecotoxicology and, 372–373 foodweb integration in, 371–372, 408–410 Ecosystems, Antarctic. See also Food web, freshwater; Food web, marine algal mats and, 28 biodiversity, marine, 142–149 biodiversity, terrestrial, 149–153 biogeochemistry, terrestrial and, 153–154 bioindicators’ value to, 161 climate change and, 256

I26

evolutionary biology and Arctic v., 399–400, 402 food webs within, 371–372, 408–410 fungi’s role in, 425 simple structure of, 371–372 Ecotourism, 608 seabird conservation and, 863–864 Ecotoxicology, 372–374 interdisciplinary nature of, 373 Ectoparasites, 335 Ecuador ACAP signatory of, 16 AT agreement by, 661 Antarctic research program of, 661 COMNAP membership of, 308 EC-WGAM. See Executive Council Working Group on Antarctic Meteorology Eddies in Southern Ocean, 374–375, 619, 622, 997 ACC and, 374–375 ACC Fronts and, 236, 239 biological productivity influenced by, 374–375 climate modeling and, 261 size of, 374 Edgeworth Davis Base, 112 Edinburgh, Duke of, 767 Edisto, 802, 1113 Edith Ronne Land, 802 Edward VII Land, 49, 199 Eendracht and Hoorn, 1109 EEZ. See Exclusive economic zones EIA. See Environmental impact assessment EIA requirements, 690 Eielson, Carl Ben, 11, 114, 328, 395 Eights, James, 486, 714 Eights Station, 49, 736 Ekelo¨f, Erik, 10 Ekelo¨f, Gunnar, 975 Eklund, Carl, 1024 Ekman transport, 241, 269, 271, 997, 998 AASW and, 80 Ekman, V. W., 80 Ekstrom, Bertil, 674 El Chichon, 356 El Dorado, Antarctica as, 648 El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation (ENSO), 53, 214, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 256, 258, 263, 509, 701, 832. See also Climate oscillations El Paisano, 117 Eleanor Bolling, 1024 Electrical conductivity analysis (ECM), 501, 504 Electrical power, Antarctic bases and, 126–127 Electromagnetic (EM) techniques, sea ice thickness and, 705–706 Electrona antarctica, Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Electronic Publication Information Centre (ePIC), AWI and, 22 Electrons, 303 Elephant Island geology of, 178 ITAE members stranded on, 178, 179, 180, 435, 576, 662, 777, 914, 1077 Eliot, David, 469 Eliot, Margaret, 92 Eliza, 168, 1051, 1110 Eliza Scott schooner, 123, 380 Elizabeth II, (queen), 50, 484 Ellis, Murray, 484, 485

INDEX Ellsworth Land, 49, 139 tardigrades and rotifers on, 150 Ellsworth, Lincoln, 328, 375–377, 1113 Amundsen and, 31, 375–376 Antarctic aviation attempts of, 114, 375, 1113 Ellsworth Island and, 49 first flight across Antarctic by, 376, 1113 rescue mission for, 115, 334 Wilkins and, 376 Ellsworth Mountains, ice flow and, 57 Ellsworth Orogen, 431, 434 Elsner, Bob, 338, 339 ELT. See Extremely large telescopes Eltanin, 235, 684, 1021, 1094 Eltanin survey, ACC understanding and, 235 Eluetherozoa, 371 EM techniques. See Electromagnetic techniques Embayments, 518 Emigration, 149 Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri), 377–380. See also Penguins adaptation, life history and, 3, 378 breeding of, 378–379, 867 diet of, 378 discovery of, 377 diving physiology of, 164–166, 339, 378 IBA criteria for, 60 IDBV and, 336 population of, 377–378, 867 Endeavor, 105 Endeavor voyage (1768–1771), Cook, James, as leader of, 295, 1109 Endemism, 159, 273 Enderby Brothers company, 50, 124, 380–381 Biscoe’s Antarctic voyage and, 168, 380 commercialism, Antarctic exploration and, 380 geographical discoveries of, 380, 381 Enderby, Charles, 380 Enderby, George, 380 Enderby, Henry, 380 Enderby Island, 104 Enderby Land, 50 Biscoe discovers, 167, 380, 1110 lithosphere in, 357 Enderby, Messrs. See Enderby Brothers company Enderby, Samuel, 380 Enderby settlement, archaeological site of, 87 Enderlein, G, 533 Endolithic fungi, continental Antarctic zone and, 155 Endoliths, in McMurdo Dry Valleys, 347 Endoparasites, 335 Endothermic marine vertebrates, 3 Endurance, 1077 archaeological site of, 87 Weddell Sea and sinking of, 49, 528 Endurance (play) (Smith, Louise), 388 Endurance Expedition. See Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition ENEA. See Italian Government Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment Energy minerals, 268–269, 358. See also Coal, oil, and gas England, Rupert, 184 ENSO. See El Nin˜o Southern Oscillation ENSO-Antarctic teleconnection, 985–986 Enterprise, 810 Entoprocts, 142

Environment ATS and protection of, 84–85 Carbon reduction scheme and impact to, 223 ecotoxicology and, 373 Environment, Antarctic, Protocol on Environmental protection’s role in, 84–85, 281–282 Environment Canada, 210 Environmental bioindicators, 161, 162 Environmental Code of Conduct, McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 348–349 Environmental impact assessment (EPA), 690 Environmental Officers (EOs), 689–690 Environmental Satellite. See ENVISAT ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite), 513, 524 Eocene epoch climate change between Oligocene and, 344 fish replaced by fauna in late, 398 fossils, invertebrate and, 415 fossils, plant in, 413 podocarp- Nothofagus rainforest and, 72 volcanic strata and, 178 Eocene La Meseta Formation, 72 EOs. See Environmental Officers EPB. See European Polar Board EPF. See Expe´ditions Polaires Franc¸aises ePIC. See electronic Publication Information Centre EPICA. See European Polar Ice Coring in Antarctica EPICA Dome C ice core, 710, 712 chemistry of, 505, 554, 555 deuterium record of, 708 Epilithic mosses, 654 Epiphanes senta, 816, 817 Equilibration, 259 Equine pemmican, 762 Equitemperature metamorphism, 398 Erebus, 181, 182, 183 Erebus and Terror Expedition. See British Antarctic (Erebus and Terror) Expedition Erebus Glacier Tongue, 522, 806 Erebus volcanic province, 639, 805 Erect-crested penguin (Eudyptes sclateri), 312, 313, 314, 315. See also Crested penguins annual cycle of, 313–314 breeding and survival of, 314 diet of, 314–315 distribution of, 312, 313 Endangered status of, 315 Eretmoptera murphyi, 531 Erewhon beds, 69 Eriolacerta, 414 Ernest Shackleton, 190, 1016 Ernst Krenkel, 1013 Erosion, 510, 511 ERS. See Earth Resources Satellites ERS-1, 513 ERS-2, 513 ERS-SCAT. See European Remote Sensing Satellite Scatterometer ESA. See European Space Agency Escherischia coli, 335 Escudero Station. See Professor Julio Escudero Station ESF. See European Science Foundation Eskers, 511 Esnault-Pelterie, Robert, 110 Esperanza Station, 67, 91, 1135, 1141 temperature trends, long-term at, 253

I27

INDEX ESSP. See Earth System Science Partnership Estac¸a˜o Anta´rtica Comandante Ferraz (EACF), 180 Estonia AT agreement by, 661 Antarctic research program of, 661 COMNAP membership and, 309 Eternity Range, 376 Etienne, Jean-Louis, 9, 342 Eubacteria, 644–645 Eudorylaimus antarcticus, 741 Eudyptes genus, 312 Euglenophyta (euglenoids), 23 Eukaryotic algae, 23. See also Algae Eukrohnia hamata, 744 Euphausia vallentini, 744 Euphausiids, 743 Euphotic zone, 213, 222, 223, 329 Eurasian Ice Sheet, 496 Europa (moon of Jupiter), 381 European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), 263, 749 atmospheric reanalyses by, 252 European Consortium, 419 European phocine herpes virus, 336 European Polar Board (EPB) AWI and, 20 IPEV and, 419 European Polar Entity, 419 European Polar Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) AWI and, 20, 458 Dome C ice core drilled by, 496, 502, 556, 708, 710, 987 European Remote Sensing Satellite Scatterometer (ERS-SCAT), 746 European Science Foundation (ESF), AWI and, 20 European Space Agency (ESA), 318 European Union, IBA Programme and, 61 Eurybathy, 147 EUV radiation. See Extreme ultraviolet radiation Eva, 114 Evans, Edgar R.G.R. ‘‘Teddy,’’ 729 bravery of, 836 Terra Nova expedition and death of, 175, 193, 195, 264, 764, 834, 836–837, 1112 Evans, Hugh Blackwall, 210 Everett, William, 117 Evolution adaptation and, 1–5 Antarctic biota, isolation of and, 357, 399 Antarctica as information source for, 357, 402 Arctic v. Antarctic habitats and, 399–400, 402 Drake Passage’s opening and impact on biological, 344 fish in polar ecosystems and, 399–402 gene flow and speciation in, 427–428 molecular, 401–402 natural selection and, 1–2 Southern Ocean as center of, 402 Evolution and Biodiversity in the Antarctic (EBA), 417, 828 Evolutionary incubator, Antarctica as, 147 Exclusive economic zones (EEZ), 289, 290 Executive Committee on Exploration and Exploitation, 36 Executive Council Working Group on Antarctic Meteorology (EC-WGAM), 1100 Exobiology, 320, 381–382, 490. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys; Microbiology, in Antarctic; Subglacial lakes Expe´ditions Polaires Franc¸aises (EPF), 417

I28

Explora, 289, 557 Exploration, chronology of Antarctic, 1109–1114 Extinction adaptation and, 2, 146, 357 albatrosses and, 17, 20, 29 of animal groups in pelagic communities in Southern Ocean, 718 Antarctic fur seals and, 52, 53, 293, 317 benthic species and, 147 biodiversity and, 145, 149, 357 birds and, 60, 167 climate change and, 256, 357 cryptoendolithic communities and, 320 deglaciation and, 2, 146 fauna and flora, ice sheets and, 357 fossils and, 365, 410, 412, 413, 414, 415 Gaussberg volcano and, 51, 455 glaciation and, 357 international trading and, 291 Mount Terror volcano and, 182 Extraterrestrial objects. See Meteorites Extreme habitats Dry Valleys as, 349 lichens in, 594–595 mosses in, 654–656 Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation, 547, 737 plasmasphere, study of by imaging, 737 Extremely large telescopes (ELT), 94 Extremophiles, 645

F F region, 547, 549 Face masks, 265 Fairbairn, John, 768 Fairweather, Alexander, 353 Fairy shrimp (Branchinecta gainii), 918 Falkland fox (Dusicyon australis), 544 Falkland Island Dependencies Antarctic Peninsula and, 67 BAS and, 188 Falkland Islands Antarctic fur seals at, 53 Black-browed albatrosses at, 169 blue-eyed cormorants at, 298 Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition (FIDASE) (1955–1957), 119, 383–384, 1114 Antarctic Peninsula survey by, 67, 215, 384, 1114 Mott leads, 383–384, 1114 Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS), 1113. See also British Antarctic Survey BAS and, 188–190 conservation of early huts from, 284 sledging and dog expertise for, 340 Whalers Bay and, 383 Falkland skua (Catharacta antarctica antarctica) breeding of, 900, 901 Chilean skua hybridization with, 225 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 Falkland/Malvinas Current, 64 Fanning, Edmund, 875 FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization Faraday Station. See also Vernadsky Station annual cycle of temperature at, 987 Farman, Joe, 190

INDEX Farthest south Amundsen at South Pole as, 31, 32, 191, 192, 193, 340, 1112 Antarctic and 74
, 678 Bellingshausen and 69
250 , 824 Biscoe and 69
, 168 Borchgrevink’s, 187 Cook, James, and 71
100 , 296, 702, 720, 824 Dallmann and 66
, 321 Endurance and 77
, 527 Ross, James Clark, and 78
100 , 818 Scott and 82
170 , 184, 200, 351, 456 Scott at South Pole as, 191, 192, 193, 1112 Shackleton and 88
230 , 190, 1112 Shirase and 80
050 , 562 Weddell and 74
150 , 1050, 1110 Fast ice, 508, 703, 852, 854. See also Pack ice and fast ice Fatty-acid biomarkers, 409 Fault systems, Antarctic, 431, 435–436 Fault zone, Palmer Land and discovery of, 68 Fauna and flora. See also Biodiversity, marine; Biodiversity, terrestrial; Conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora: Agreed Measures Annex II to Protocol on Environmental Treaty and conservation of, 84, 281 Antarctic biogeographical zones and, 155, 156 Auckland Islands’, 104 Bellingshausen Sea’s marine, 141–142 Gondwana and distribution of, 470 IUCN Red List and, 166 Fautario, Hector, 119 Feather stars, 370–371. See also Echinoderms Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy (BKG), 457 Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), 457 Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring, AARI and, 88 Feeding experiments, 409 Fellfield cryptogam communities, 158, 654 liverworts in, 597 maritime Antarctic zone and, 155 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Feral cats (Felis catus) Antarctic prions predated by, 78 Antarctic terns predated by, 81 birds killed from, 152, 283, 300 as introduced species, 543, 544, 545 Fergusen TE20 tractors, 276, 277 Ferguson, David, 913 South Shetland Islands, geological observations of by, 923 Fern (Dicroidium), 413 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Ferrar Dolerites, 130, 384, 385, 434 Ferrar, Hartley T., 323, 385 Beacon Sandstone and, 129 Ferrar Supergroup, 129, 370, 384–386, 384–386, 431, 434 geochemistry of, 385 MFCT and, 385–386 SPCT and, 385 Ferromanganese nodules, 330 FIBEX. See First International BIOMASS experiment Fiction and poetry, Antarctic, 386–389 culture and, 359 lists of, 386, 387, 388–389 plays and, 387, 389

FIDASE. See Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition Field camps, 389–392. See also Base technology: architecture and design food preparation at, 390–391 HF radio at, 391 living at, 600–601 navigation around, 391–392 science facilities as, 390 set-up of, 389 sleeping equipment at, 390 types of, 389–390 Field line merging, 612 Field traverses, ANARE’s major, 37 Fiennes, Ginny, 9 Fiennes, Sir Ranulph, adventure tourism and, 8–9 Filamentous algae. See Algae Filchner Depression, 45, 393 Filchner Ice Shelf, 522 Filchner, Wilhelm, 49, 394–395, 459, 527. See also German South Polar (Deutschland) Expedition Deutschland expedition led by, 394, 453–455 Filchner Ice Shelf discovered by, 49, 393, 394, 454 Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf (FRIS), 392–394 AABW formation and, 43–46, 49, 393 Filchner discovers, 49, 393, 394, 454 ISW and, 393 map of, 393 measurement of, 48, 392 seabed elevation of, 393 Fildes Peninsula, 224 Film, Antarctic, 395–396. See also Art, Antarctic; Fiction and poetry, Antarctic; Photography, in the Antarctic exploration and, 395 list of, 395, 396 military and, 395 Fimbul Ice Shelf, 360 Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), 396–397. See also Whales blue whale hybrids and, 171 distribution and migration of, 396 exploitation of, 718 life history and behavior of, 396–397 Protected status of, 397 Finding factor, 268 Finfish, 358 Finland, COMNAP membership of, 308 Finland: Antarctic Program, 397–398 FINNARP in, 397, 398 organizations of, 397 scientific research of, 397–398 FINNARP. See Finnish Antarctic Research Program Finnes, Robert, 353 Finnish Antarctic Research Program (FINNARP), 397, 398 Fiordland penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), 312, 313, 314, 315. See also Crested penguins Vulnerable status of, 315 Fire detectors, 129 Fire protection, base technology and, 128–129 Firern, 115 Fire-suppression systems, 129 Firn, 102, 398, 906 photochemical processes in, 906–907 Firn compaction, 398–399 firn grains and, 102 Firnification, 398–399

I29

INDEX First German Antarctica Expedition (1901–1903), scientific reports from, 40 First International BIOMASS experiment (FIBEX), 828 First International Polar Year (1882–1883), 488, 535, 537, 538, 539. See also International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) participants in, 538 scientific research of, 538, 539 stations of, 538 First Regional Observing Study of the Troposphere (FROST), 749 First-year ice, 703, 850 Fish Antarctic v. Arctic ecosystems and evolution of, 399–400, 402 antifreeze compounds in polar, 4, 5, 272, 273, 357, 400 climate change and polar ecosystems of, 402 cold hardiness research on, 273, 400 copepods predated by, 297 fossils of bony, 415 molecular phylogeny and evolutionary biology of, 401–402 overview of, 399–403 oxygen transport and Hb divergence in polar, 400–401 phylogeny of notothenioid, 150–151, 399 teleost, 4–5 Fish Stock Assessment Working Group (WG-FSA), 404 Fisheries Antarctic and expansion of, 358 beaked whale conservation and, 135 CCAMLR and, 359, 404–405 countries that use, 403, 404 krill, 403 longlining in, 403–404 mackerel icefish, 403 management of, 359, 403–405 marbled rockcod, 403 toothfish, 404, 1004 Fishing ATS and unregulated, 84, 280 CCAMLR and, 280 IUU, 292, 405 Southern Ocean fauna impacted by, 291 stone crabs and commercial, 331 Fitness, natural selection and, 1–2 Fitzgerald beds, 69 Fitzroy, 188 Flacourt, Etienne de, 175 Flagellates, 349, 408, 784–785 Flagstaff Observatory, 668 Flandres Bay, 136 Flaviviruses, 335 Flea (Glaciopsyllus antarcticus), 335, 714–715. See also Parasitic insects: lice and fleas as parasite of petrels, 714 Fleece, 264 Fleet Department, 90 Fleming, Launcelot, 196, 834 Flexural gravity waves, 621 Flies (Diptera), 4, 282, 531 Floes, 620, 852 Flora and fauna. See Fauna and flora Flora Antarctica (Hooker), 183, 487, 820 Flora of British India (Hooker), 491 Flow patterns, AAIW, 64 Flowering plants (angiosperms), 405–407. See also Antarctic hairgrass; Antarctic pearlwort alien invasions’ impact on, 407 Antarctic Peninsula and, 4, 67

I30

climate change and, 407 fossils of, 413 history of, 405–407 species and distribution of, 406, 407 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Floyd Bennett, 114, 1025 Fluxes, 512, 513 Foliose algae (Prasiola crispa), 158 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), ATS and, 85 Food and food preparation in Antarctica, 601–602 field camps and, 390–391 Food web, freshwater, 408–409 benthos and, 408, 409 plankton and, 408, 409 viruses and, 408–409 Food web, marine, 409–410 continental shelf of Ross Sea, 632 stable isotope analysis of, 409 tools for analyzing, 409 trophic level interactions of, 631–633 ‘‘Footsteps of Scott’’ expedition, 9 Foraminifera, 883, 1105 Forbush decreases, 305, 306 FORCE. See Ford Ranges Crustal Exploration Ford, Edsel, 207, 1024 Ford Granodiorite, 625 Ford, Henry, 207 Ford, Josephine, 207 Ford Ranges, 623 Ford Ranges Crustal Exploration (FORCE), 626 Fore arc basin sequences, Fossil Bluff Group as, 71 Fore arc region, Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula and, 71 Formaldehyde (HCHO), 904, 906 Forrestal Range, 385 Forster, Georg, 295, 459 Forster, Henry, 820 Forster, Jody, 92 Forster, Johann Reinhold, 172, 459, 820 Fortune, 569 Fortune and Gros-Ventre, 1109 Fossil Bluff Group, 71 Fossil fish plates, 130 Fossils biodiversity and, 151 invertebrate, 410–412 Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula and, 72, 73 micro, 58 molecular clock genes and, 155 plant, 413–414 Polonez and Melville glacial units with, 179 vertebrate, 414–416 Fossils, invertebrate, 410–412 ages of, 410, 411, 412 Beacon Supergroup and, 129–130, 410–411 distribution table of, 411 marine origin of, 410 Silurian age and, 410, 411, 412 types of, 411 Fossils, plant, 413–414 ages of, 413, 414 Antarctic climate, knowledge of through, 413 Beacon Supergroup and, 413, 1010

INDEX Glossopteris, 69, 130, 365, 413, 469, 488 Gondwana and, 413 Fossils, vertebrate, 414–416 bony fish, 415 dinosaur, 415 distribution of, 414, 415 Freemau Formation and, 414–415 Hanson Formation and, 415 terrestrial, 414, 415 Foster, Henry, Chanticleer Expedition led by, 220, 327, 355, 486, 923, 1110 Foundation Federal University of Rio Grande (FURG), 180 Foyn, Svend, 174, 198, 353, 416–417, 677 Antarctic whaling influenced by, 416–417 Fractures, 260 Fram, 31, 192, 193, 1087 Nansen, Fridtjof, and use of, 659, 660, 675 Fram Expedition. See Norwegian (Fram) Expedition Framheim base, 124 Franc¸ais, 221, 419, 420, 1111 Franc¸ais Expedition. See French Antarctic (Franc¸ais) Expedition France ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic territories of, 418 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 308 IPEV and, 417, 418–419 TAAF and, 417, 418–419 France: Antarctic Program, 417–418 Charcot and, 220–221, 421–422, 1112 Franklin Island, 182 Franklin, Lady, 423 Franklin search squadron (1850–1851), 220 Franklin, Sir John, 30, 181, 423, 633, 810 Franklin’s Footsteps (Markham), 633 Franz Josef Land, 184, 538 Frazil crystals, 583, 701 Frazil ice, 620, 701, 851, 852 formation of, 841, 845–846, 857 Frazil-pancake cycle, 620 Frederick, 1110 Freeman, Thomas, 124, 380 Freeze avoidance. See also Cold hardiness mites and, 2, 272, 273, 332–333, 349, 350 springtails and, 2, 272, 273, 332–333, 349, 350 Freeze tolerance, 2–3. See also Cold hardiness coleoptera and, 2, 532 diptera and, 2 microorganisms and, 645 nematodes and, 2, 272, 273, 318, 665 polar fish and, 400 Fremouw Formation, 414–415 French Antarctic (Franc¸ais) Expedition (1903–1905), 419–421 Charcot leads, 220, 221, 419–420 islands charted by, 420 scientific research of, 120 French Antarctic (Pourquoi Pas?) Expedition (1908–1910), 421–422 Antarctic Peninsula charted by, 422 Charcot leads, 220, 221, 421–422, 1112 photography and, 729 scientific research of, 421, 422 French East India Company, Bouvet and, 175, 176 French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition (1837–1840), 352, 377, 422–423 Dumont d’Urville leads, 352, 422–423, 486, 1110

maritime route of, 1142 French Polar Institute. See Institut Polaire Franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor Frend, Charles, 395 Fre`res, Pathe´, 395 Freshening, 524 Freshwater systems biodiversity and, 149, 150, 151, 152 climate change and, 256 Fresne, Marc Mace´ Marion du, French exploring expedition (1771–1773) of, 317, 568, 1109 Friedmann, E. Imre, 319 FRIS. See Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Frithiof, 978 Fronts. See also Polar Front; Subantarctic Front AASW and, 79 ACC and, 235–236 atmospheric, 981–982 of Southern Ocean, 951–953 FROST. See First Regional Observing Study of the Troposphere Frost smoke, 759 Fruiting bodies, 425 Fruticose lichens, 592 Fuchs, Vivian, 423–425, 821, 1097, 1114. See also Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition African expeditions of, 424 BAS directed by, 188, 189, 190, 424 coal discovered by, 268 CTAE led by, 275–278, 424, 536, 1114 FIDS directed by, 188, 189, 190, 424 lead dog of, 342 Fuchsia excorticata, 104 Fuels, hydrocarbon. See Hydrocarbon fuels Fuji icebreaker, 560 Fuji Station. See Dome Fuji Fulmarine petrels, 75, 211 Fulmars. See Northern fulmar; Southern fulmar Fumaroles, 483 Fundac¸a˜o Universidade Federal de rio Grande, 180 Fungi, 425. See also Lichens (cryptogams) air-spora and, 10 algae and, 23 anhydrobiosis and, 39 cryptoendolithic communities with, 319 diversity and species of, 425 introduced species and, 425 lichens’ symbiotic relationship with, 591 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 349, 350 microorganisms and, 644–645 nonlichenized, 425 Fur seals (genus Arctocephalus) CCAS and, 294 Dallmann’s voyage and, 321 Specially Protected Species status of, 166, 279, 880 FURG. See Foundation Federal University of Rio Grande Furneaux, Tobias, 296 Fury, 220

G Gabardine, 264 Gabriel de Castilla Station, 328, 959 GAIM (Global Analysis, Integration, and Modeling), 537 Galactic Plane, 93 Gallerina fungi, 425

I31

INDEX Gamburtsev Subglacial Mountains, 50, 365 ice sheet covering of, 57 Gametogenesis, 796 GANOVEX I expedition, 459 Gardiner, Brian, 190 Garrod, Ray, 38 GARS. See German Antarctic Receiving Station Gas bubble formation, bird diving and, 165 Gas chromatography, 103 Gas, natural. See also Coal, oil, and gas exploration for Antarctic, 268, 269 Gastropod (Nacella concinna), 587 Gateway model, 344 Gateway opening, 345, 346 Gauss, 489 Gauss Expedition. See German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition Gauss, G. F., 487 Gaussberg, 50–51 AAE and, 109 Drygalski discovers, 455 Gaussian model, of Earth’s magnetic field, 355, 487 Gauvier Island, archaeological research at Port Lockroy on, 87 Gawler Craton, 365 Gaze, Irvine, 814 Gazelle expedition (1874–1876), 668 Gazert, Hans, 10 GCMs. See General Circulation Models GCOS. See Global Climate Observing System GEB. See Group Experts on Birds GEBCO. See General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans GEBCO maps of Southern Ocean, 941 Geddes, Patrick, 204 Gendrin, Roger, 418 Gene flow, 427–428 homogenization of genetic composition from, 427 speciation and interruption of, 427 General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), 289, 941 place names for oceanic features and, 735, 736 General Belgrano II Station, 50 General Bernardo O’Higgins Station, 459, 1135, 1141 General Circulation Models (GCMs), 258–260 Genes flow of, 427–428 reproduction and, 1 Genetic blueprint, 1 Genomic studies, bioprospecting and, 283 Genotypic variation, 2 Gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua), 428–430. See also Penguins Ade´lie penguins and, 5 annual cycle of, 428–429 Antarctic cormorants and, 299 Antarctic Peninsula and, 67 breeding of, 429, 867 diet of, 429 distribution of, 428 IBA criteria for, 60 Near Threatened status of, 167, 429 population of, 867 viruses and, 335 Genzo Nishikawa, 562 Geochronology, 366 Geodetic Institute, 351 Geografiska Annaler. Series A: Physical Geography, 1137

I32

Geographic South Pole. See South Pole Geographical Information Systems (GIS), 216 Geological evolution and structure of Antarctica, 430–437 Antarctic Andean Orogen and, 431, 434 East Antarctic Craton sensu stricto and, 430–432 Ellsworth or Weddell Orogen and, 431, 434 fault systems, major in, 435–436 Gondwana and, 433–434 Grenvillian orogens and, 365, 366, 431, 432 Grunehogna Craton and, 369, 430, 431 Pan-African orogens and, 368, 433 plate-tectonically active parts in, 431, 435 Ross Orogen and, 431, 432–433 Geomagnetic dip, 550 Geomagnetic field, 305, 437–441 crustal field of, 439 dipolar nature of, 438, 609–610 discovery and measurement of, 437–438 disturbances in, 441 dynamo theory and, 438–439 external contributions to, 440–441 models of, 439–440 secular variation of, 439 Geophysical Research Letters, 1137 Geopolitics of the Antarctic, 441–449 ATS and, 82–86 resource acquisition in, 442, 447–448 spatial considerations in, 441, 444–445 strategic designs in, 441, 445–446 territorial ambitions in, 441–444 Geopotential Heights, 248–249 Georg Forster Station, 459 George III, King, 575, 911, 922 George IV, King, 380 George V Land, 51 AAE and, 111 George V Sound, 67 George VI Sound, 48 Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS), 513 Geospace Amundsen-Scott Station and, 32–33 future knowledge of, 453 ground investigation of, 450–451 importance of, 449 observance of, from Antarctica, 449–453, 609 observation techniques, 451–453 Geostrophy, 235 Geothermal habitats of algae and bryophytes, 683 of liverworts, 597 of mosses, 655 GEOTRACES project (study of the global cycling of trace elements and isotopes), 829 Gerlache de Gomery, Adrien Victor Joseph de, 31, 325–326 Arctowski, Henryk, and, 740 Belgica expedition of, 31, 33, 136–137, 325, 1111 Charcot and, 221, 419, 420 Gerlache Straight, 136 German Aerospace Centre (DLR), 457 German Antarctic Receiving Station (GARS), 459 German Hydrographic Office, 289 German International Polar Year expedition (1882–1883), 913 Schrader leads, 1111 South Georgia visited by, 913 German Meteorological Society, 668

INDEX German South Polar (Deutschland) Expedition (1911–1912), 453–455, 1112. See also Filchner, Wilhelm Deutschland beset on, 454 Filchner leads, 394, 453–455 Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf discovered by, 49, 393, 394, 454 scientific contributions of, 454, 455 South Georgia visited by, 913 German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition (1901–1903), 455–456, 1113. See also Drygalski, Erich Dagobert von aerobiological research and, 10 Antarctic Ocean, existence of and, 723–724 Drygalski leads, 351, 455–456 emperor penguins and, 377 Gaussberg discovered by, 455 Kaiser Wilhelm II Land discovered by, 50, 351, 455 Meinardus, W., and, 741–742 Neumayer and, 668 scientific research on, 351, 455, 456 German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition (1938–1939), 116, 456–457. See also Ritscher, Alfred aerial reconnaissance in Dronning Maud Land by, 457 claims for Germany made by, 457 Ritscher leads, 457, 1113 German Spatial Agency (Deutsches Zentrum fu¨r Luft und Raumfart), 224 Germany COMNAP membership of, 308 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 Germany: Antarctic Program, 457–460 AWI and, 20–22, 457 bathymetric data and, 289 BGR, DLR, BKG research in, 457 Polarstern and, 21, 22, 38, 39, 289, 457, 458, 459, 662, 684, 746, 747, 852, 853 Gerof, Dmitri, 763 Getz Ice Shelf, 34 GEWEX. See Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Geysers, 483 Giant Magellan Telescope, 94 Giant sea spider (Decalopoda australis), 461 Giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila), 329–330 Giant yellow nemeratean worm (Parbolasia corrugatus), 143 Giæver, John, 674, 1114 Gibbs Island, geology of, 178 Gibson-Hill, C.S., 913 Gibson’s albatross (Diomedia gibsoni), 16. See also Albatrosses Auckland Islands and, 104 Gigantism, polar, 460–461 marine invertebrates and, 4 marine taxa with, 460 oxygen’s role in, 460 study on amphipods with, 460 temperature tolerance in, 460 Ginko-toothed beaked whale (Mesoplodon ginkgodens), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales GIP. See Groupement d’Interet Public Girs, Alexander, 90 GIS. See Geographical Information Systems Gjøa, 31 Gjøa expedition, 479 Glacial anticyclone, 244, 250 Glacial beds, Carboniferous-Lower Permian, 130 Glacial flow, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 56–59 Glacial geology, 461–463 glacial deposition in, 462

glacial erosion, types of in, 461–462 glacial transportation in, 462 ice sheets, research on by, 462–463 Glacial grounding lines, 999 Glacial isostasy, 666 Glacial Lake Washburn, 462 Glacial landforms, 461, 462, 463 Glacial meltwater, ISW and, 44 Glacial regime, 73 Antarctic Peninsula, 73–75 Glacial sediments, 461, 462, 463 Glacial theory, 495 Glaciation, of Antarctica, 2, 29, 38, 156, 159 ACC’s role in, 145, 146, 147 decline of CO2’s impact on, 344, 346 extinction and, 2, 146, 357 Glaciers categories of, 466 flow of, 56–57, 463–464 formation and cycles of, 463–464 ice streams and, 463–466 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 347, 466 retreat of Antarctic Peninsula’s, 466 Glaciers and ice streams, 463–466 Glaciochemistry, 904 GLAS. See Geoscience Laser Altimeter System GLAS/ICESat, 513 GLE. See Ground Level Enhancement; Ground-level event GLGs. See Growth layer groups GLI. See Global Imager Glide plane, 507 Gliding and stroking balance, 339 Global Analysis, Integration, and Modeling. See GAIM Global and Planetary Change, 1137 Global Climate Observing System (GCOS), 467 Global distillation cold condensation and, 373 pollution and, 754 Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX), 1098 Global Imager (GLI), 790 Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC), 139, 829, 870 AWI and, 20 Global ocean monitoring programs in the Southern Ocean, 467–468 climate change and, 467 GOOS and, 467 Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), 467 Global positioning system (GPS), 512 Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS), 467 Global Telecommunications System (GTS) data, 987 Global Thermohaline Circulation AAIW and, 64–65, 241 description of, 954–955 Global ubiquity hypothesis, 159 Global warming. See Climate change GLOBEC. See Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics Gloeocapsa spp., 23, 25 Glomus antarcticum (zygomycete), 425 GLOSS. See Global Sea Level Observing System Glossopteris, 69, 130, 365, 413, 469, 488 Gloves, 265 Glycerol, 333 Glyden, Olof, 977 Goggles, glacier, 265 Golden algae, 23. See also Algae Goldring, Roy, 658

I33

INDEX Golfe du Morbihan, 566 Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni, 272 Gomphodonts, 415 Gondwana, 4, 364, 468–471 Antarctic geology v. other continents of, 130, 357, 433, 434 Antarctic paleoclimatology and, 708–709 Antarctic Peninsula and, 69 Antarctica as section of, 155–156, 357, 433–434, 468 Bellingshausen Sea and, 139 breakup of, 70, 159, 273, 357, 386, 434, 470, 708 criticism of evidence for, 469–470 Du Toit and existence of, 130, 365, 468 Ferrar Supergroup and breakup of, 386, 434 flowering plants, history of and, 405–407, 413 reconstruction diagrams of, 365, 468, 469 Wegener and evidence of, 130, 364–365, 468 Gonneville Land, 175, 176, 295, 296 Cook, James, and, 295, 296 GOOS. See Global Ocean Observing System Gordienko, Pavel, 90 Gorizont, 1013 Gough and Inaccessible Islands World Heritage Site, 471 Gough bunting (Rowettia goughensis), 471 Gough Island, 471–472 Antarctic terns on, 81 fauna and flora on, 471, 472 house mouse (Mus musculus) on, 471, 472 meteorological station on, 471–472 scientific study, multidisciplinary on, 472 seabird species on, 471 as World Heritage Natural site, 471 Gough Island Nature Reserve, 471 Gough Island Station, 1135, 1141 Gough moorhen (Gallinula comeri), 471 Gould, Laurence M., 626, 1025 Goupil, Ernest, 422 Government of Antarctica. See Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) GPR. See Ground penetrating radar GPS. See Global positioning system GPS satellites, 216, 392, 599 Grabens, 430, 431 Gracht, Joop Waterschoot van der, 323 Graham Land, 48. See also Antarctic Peninsula; British Graham Land Expedition Antarctic Peninsula and, 66, 68 Bagshawe and Lester at, 197–198 BGLE and, 195, 196 Biscoe’s charting and annexing of, 167, 380, 1110 Graig, Vear, 658 Grain boundaries, 501 Gram-positive bacteria, 645 Gran, Tryggve, 323, 660, 764 Grand Chasm, 277 Grand Terre, 316 Granite Harbour, 130 Grant, Keith, 92 Granular ice, 841 samples of, 841 Gray, Daniel, 353 Gray, Scott, 353 Gray’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon grayi), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales Grease ice, 620, 841, 851, 852 formation of, 857 Great Glacier. See Beardmore Glacier

I34

Great Glowing of the Sky, 106 Great Ice Barrier. See Ross Ice Shelf Great shearwater (Puffinus gravis), 471 Great Wall Station, 226, 1135, 1141 weather forecasting at, 1048 Greater Antarctica. See East Antarctica (Greater Antarctica) Green algae, 23, 28. See also Algae microorganisms and, 644–645 Green, Charles, 819, 892 Green icebergs, 362, 523 Greenhouse gases anthropogenic pollutants’ impact on, 751, 752 global climate models and increase in, 255, 752 ice core analysis and, 103, 501, 505–506, 707, 708, 710, 711, 712 increase of, 102, 103 ozone level and rise of, 698 Greenhouse world, 709 Greenland, 90, 220, 221, 286, 633 Amundsen and, 375 BAARE and, 195, 340 dogs from, 340, 341, 342 Drygalski in, 351 ice cores from, 13, 21, 103, 496, 507, 648 ice shelves in, 518 Nansen, Fridtjof, and exploration of, 30, 659, 660 Patagonian toothfish found near, 151 Peary and, 678 pollution level detection in snow and ice of, 759 Wegener and, 22 Greenland Ice Sheet, 526 Greenland sledge, 342 Greenland/Labrador dogs, 340 Greenpeace, 472–474 active-passive resistance of, 472, 473 airstrip near Dumont d’Urville Station and, 51, 473 Antarctica and, 472, 473, 474 ASOC and, 42, 472–473 current campaigns of, 474 history of, 472–473 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 281, 473 World Park Antarctica and, 282, 473, 1091 Greenpeace Antarctic expedition, 473 Greenwich Island, geology of, 178, 179 Gregory, John W., 199, 819, 836 Grenville Belt, 800 Grenvillian orogens, 365, 366, 431, 432 Gressitt, J. L., 533 Grey ice, 851, 852 Grey petrel (Procellaria cinerea), 16, 726 Grey-headed albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma), 16, 474–475. See also Albatrosses Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 475 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 475 satellite-tracking of, 872–873 species characteristics of, 18, 475 Vulnerable status of, 18, 167, 474–475 Greywacke-Shale Formation (GSF), 553 Grey-white ice, 851, 852 Gringauz, Konstantin, 736 Grisi, 762, 763 Groenland, 321, 575, 1111 Gro¨nland. See Groenland Gros Ventre, 569

INDEX Ground Level Enhancement (GLE), 305–306 Ground penetrating radar (GPR), 512 Grounding bergs, 523 Ground-level event (GLE), 548 Group Experts on Birds (GEB), 61 Groupement d’Interet Public (GIP), partners of, 418 Grove Mountains, 50, 227 Growlers, 522 Growth, 475–477 Antarctic marine species and slowness of, 475–476 extended longevity in marine species from slowness of, 476 temperature/seasonality’s role in marine species’, 476 Growth layer groups (GLGs), 134 Grunehogna Craton, 369, 430, 431 Grytviken whaling station, 493 conservation of, 284, 333 establishment of, 584, 876, 914, 1112 meteorological weather data for, 643 GSF. See Greywacke-Shale Formation GTS data. See Global Telecommunications System data Gulab, 764 Gumboots, 265 Gunden, Toralf, 976 Gunnerstad, Alf, 231 Gut-content analysis, 409 Gyres, 64, 236, 523. See also Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres

H Haakon, King, 115, 660, 675 Hackenschmidt, 763 Hadley HadCM3 Model, 346 Hadrosaurs, 415 Haemoglobin (Hb), oxygen transport and polar fish, 400–401 Ha¨gglunds, 389, 391 Haines, William, 1025 Hakansson, Otto, 975 Hakluyt Society, 633 Hale, Horatio, 1028 Hall, Joseph, 386 Hallett volcanic province, 639 Halley Bay Station, 276 meteorological weather data for, 643 RS and formation of, 820 Halley, Edmund, 485, 642, 819 Halley Station, 50, 101, 1135, 1141 atmospheric boundary layer studies at, 102 BAS and, 189, 190 construction of, 125 Mean October ozone at, 696 ozone, monitoring of at, 696 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Halley V, 125–126 Halley VI, 126 Hallgren, Stig, 674 Haloes. See also Clouds, Antarctic aurora and, 106 formation of, 12 Halons, 697, 698 Ham, Barent Barentzoon, 768 Hamburg Harbour, 321 Hammond, W., 322 Hampton, Wilfred Edward, 115, 195, 340 Handbook of the Flora of Ceylon (Hooker), 491 Hansen, Nicholai, 187

Hanson Formation, 415 Hanson, Malcom, 546, 1025 Hanssen, Helmer Julius, 193, 479–480, 676, 1087 Byrd and, 479 life of, 479 South Pole, Amundsen and, 479 Hantzschia amphioxys, 24 Harberton, 136 Hardy, Alister, 489 Hargrave, Lawrence, 323 Harland, Brian, 800 Harmer, Sidney Frederick, 333 Harpacticoida, 296 Harper’s Magazine, 347 Harpoon cannons, 416, 493 Harrington, Hilary J., 385 Harrison, Harry, 1025 Hartley band, 694 Hartz, Nicolaj, 671 Harvey-Pirie, John H., 838 Haslop, Gorodon, 277 Hassel, Sverre, 193, 676 Hasselburg, Frederick, 875 New South Wales sealing voyages of (1809–1810) of, 1110 Hats, 265 Hawkes, William (‘‘Trigger’’), 116, 117 Hawkesbury, Lord, 876 Hayes, J. Gordon, 109, 636 on AAE’s importance, 109, 110, 636 Hayward, V. G., 529, 814 Hb. See Haemoglobin HCHO. See Formaldehyde HCL. See Hydrochloric acid Headwear, 265 Health care and medicine, Antarctic, 480–481 biological research and, 481 medical communications in, 481 mortality rates in, 480 range of, 480 space medicine and, 481 Heard cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] nivalis), 300. See also Cormorants Heard Island, 47, 481–482 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81 archaeological research on huts at, 87–88 geology of, 481–482, 966–967 introduced species and, 284 Kemp discovers, 50, 875, 1110 as World Heritage Site, 284 Heard Island and McDonald Islands, 481–482 climate of, 482 as Commonwealth Reserve, 482 fauna and flora on, 482 geology of, 481–482 sovereignty of, 482 Territory of, 36 Heard Island Station, 36, 37, 1113 Heard, John, 482 Hearst, William Randolph, 114, 1079 Heart urchins (Abatus spp.), 796 Heated ground, 483–484 biological communities near, 483, 597 Cryptogam Ridge and, 597

I35

INDEX Heated pools, 483 Heaters, 390 Heating, base technology and, 128 Heat-trace systems, 128 Hebe, 104 Hecla, 809 Heimefrontfjella, 50, 662 Heimfront Shear Zone, 368 Heimfrontfjerra, 365 Heincke, 22 Hektor whaling station, 328, 383 post office at, 728 Hektoria, 1112 Helicopters, 91, 119, 120, 234, 285, 383, 389, 458, 472, 489, 557, 599, 638, 692, 1016 Helioclimatology, 307 Heliosphere, 304 Helm, A. S., 275 Hematozoan (Hepatozzon albatrossi), 335 Hemholtz Association of German Research Centers (HGF), AWI and, 20 Hemichloris antarctica, 25 Hemispheric-scale patterns, 254 Henriksen Nunataks Blue One, blue-ice runway at, 14 Henry, George, 634 Henry Ice Rise, 393 Henryk Arctowski Station, 740 tourists at, 740 Hensen, Viktor, 1105 Henslow, Frances Harriet, 491 Herbivory, 531, 532 Hercules LC-130s, 91, 117, 389, 556, 687, 807 Heredity, 1–2 Hero, 713 Heroic Era of exploration (1895–1917), 355 Antarctic science, history of and, 488 archaeological sites from, 87 base technology during, 124–125 Belgica Antarctic expedition and, 136–137, 325, 1111 books on, 172 Discovery Expedition and, 198–202, 1113 expedition materials used during, 40 huts, conservation of from, 284 Mawson, AAE and, 109–111, 636, 1113 Nansen, Fridtjof, and, 660 Nimrod Expedition and, 183–186, 1112 photography during, 729–731 RGS’s importance to, 818–819 Ross Ice Shelf and, 49 Ross Island and, 806–807 Southern Cross Expedition and, 187–188, 1111 SPRI and, 834–835 Terra Nova Expedition and, 190–194, 1112 Herring, Joseph, 922 Hersilia, 713 Hertha, 584 Hesperides, 289, 959 Hess, Victor, 303 Heterococcus spp., 24 Heterocysts, 23 Heterodyne receivers, 98 Heterokontophyta, 23 Heterotrophs, 645 Heywood, Barry, 190 HF. See High-frequency

I36

HF Communications, 530 HF radar systems, 546, 549 HF radio systems, 129, 391 HGF. See Hemholtz Association of German Research Centers High on the Slopes of Terror (Davies, Peter Maxwell), 657 High pressure ridges, 250 High-frequency (HF), 129, 391 High-nitrogen, low-chlorophyll (HNLC), 213, 214, 902 High-resolution sensors, 792 High-salinity shelf water (HSSW), 43, 45, 47 circulation of, 46, 270 High-U-value insulation, 128 Hillary, Belinda, 485 Hillary, Edmund Percival, 484–485. See also Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition CTAE and, 275–278, 424, 484, 485 Fuchs and, 484, 485 Mount Everest top reached by, 484 South Pole reached by, 485 Hillary Field Centre, 485 Hillary, Louise, 485 Hillegom, Haevik Klaaszoon van, Netherlands voyage (1617–1618) of, 1109 Himalayan Mountain chain, 738 Himalayan Trust, 485 Histoire de la grande ˆıle de Madagascar (Flacourt), 175 Historic sites, archaeological research at, 86–88 Historic Sites and Monuments (HSMs). See also Protected areas within the Antarctic Treaty area Antarctic Peninsula and, 67 Deception Island and, 328 list of, in Antarctic Treaty Area, 772–781 Historic Sites Management Committee, 87 History of Antarctic science, 485–490 Bellingshausen and, 486 Challenger expedition and, 488 Chanticleer expedition and, 486 Cook, James, and, 485–486 Discovery Investigations and, 489 Dumont d’Urville and, 486 Erebus and Terror expedition and, 487 Halley, Edmund, and, 485 Heroic Age, expeditions of and, 488 Hooker, Joseph, and, 487 Humboldt, Alexander von, and, 486–487 IGY’s importance to, 489 International Polar Year (1882–1883) and, 488 Operation Highjump’s role in, 489 SCAR and CCAMLR in, 489–490 SPRI and, 488–489 Weddell and, 486 Hitler, Adolf, 116 HMALST 3501, 588 HMAS Labuan, 36, 588 HMS. See Hydro Meteorological Services HNLC. See High-nitrogen, low-chlorophyll Hoar frost, 56 Hobart, 168, 181 Hodges, William, 92 Hoffmann, Paul, 800 Holdgate, Martin W., 285 Hollick-Kenyon, Herbert, 114, 115, 376, 1113 Holocene epoch Antarctica, paleoclimatology of during, 711 Antarctica Peninsula, geology of and, 74

INDEX CO2, CH4, and N2O in, 103 continental shelves in, 289 Holothurnoidea (sea cucumbers), 371 Homard, D. E. L., 277 Home of the Blizzard (Mawson), 447, 498, 636, 1076, 1084. See also Dr. Mawson in the Antarctic/Home of the Blizzard Homo neanderthalensis, 497 Homo sapiens, fossils of, 497 Honnywill, Eleanor, 424 Hooker, Joseph Dalton, 181, 491, 593, 820 botanical collections of, 183, 487 Darwin’s friendship with, 491 Erebus and Terror Expedition and, 183, 487, 491 life of, 491 Hooker’s sea lion. See New Zealand (Hooker’s) sea lion Hooper, F. J., 764 Hopefull, 380 Horlick Mountains, 49, 130 Horntvedt, Harald, 229 Horses, as introduced species, 543, 544 Hourglass dolphin (Lagenorynchus cruciger), 216, 217 HSMs. See Historic Sites and Monuments HSSW. See High-salinity shelf water HST 3501, 1113 H.U. Sverdrupfjella, 365, 369 Hubble Space telescope, 93 Hubert, Alain, 9 Hudson, William L., 1028 Huerga, Manuel, 658 Huggins band, 694 Hughes Bay, 136 Hugo, Victor, 221 Hull fouling, biological invasions through, 163, 282 Humboldt, 661 Humboldt, Alexander von, 149, 486, 487 magnetic storm and, 608 Petermann, August, and, 723 Hummocky moraine, 511 Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), 491–494. See also Whales Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 breeding of, 492–493 diet of, 492 exploitation of, 718 IUCN Vulnerable Status of, 493 locations of, 492 migrations of, 492 predators of, 493 surface activity of, 491 whaling and killing of, 493 Hunt, Sir John, 484 Huntford, Roland, 835 Hunting Aerosurveys Ltd., 383 Hunting Lodge FIDASE and, 384 as historic site, 384 Hurd Peninsula, 206 Hurley, Frank, 323 Dr. Mawson in the Antarctic film by, 111, 395 In the Grip of the Polar Pack-Ice (film) by, 731 photography of, 92, 110, 730–731 South film by, 395 Hussey, Leonard, 892 Hut Point, 124, 184, 185, 191, 192, 193, 195, 528, 529 Discovery Expedition and, 124, 199, 200, 201

Huts. See also Base technology: architecture and design archaeological research on historic, 86–88 Hydro Meteorological Services (HMS), 529 Hydrocarbon fuels, base technology and, 126, 127 Hydrocarbons. See also Coal, oil, and gas exploration for Antarctic, 268, 269 Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 501, 904, 906, 907 Hydrogen, isotopes in ice, 103, 553–555 Hydroids, 142 Hydromedusae, 1105 Hydrophobic, 373 Hydrostatic pressure, 330 Hydrothermal vents, 177, 329–330 Hygroscopic, 39 Hymenoscyphus ericae (fungus), 425 Hyperspectral sensors, 792 Hypoxia, 164, 165 Hypsilophodontids, 415 Hypsometry, 497

I IAA. See Instituto Antartico Argentino IAEs. See Indian Antarctic Expeditions IAOS. See Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean Studies Iapetus Ocean, 800 IASC. See International Arctic Science Committee IBA. See Antarctic Important Bird Areas; Important Bird Area IBA Inventory, Antarctic, 60–62 IBA Programme, 60–62 aims of, 60 Antarctic IBA Inventory and, 60–62 IBAs, description in, 61 IBVD. See Infectious bursal disease virus IC. See Ion chromatography Ice accumulation, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 56–57 Ice ages, 495–498 causes of, 495–496 ice core analysis and, 496, 497 LGM and, 496–497 LIA and, 497–498 orbital variations and, 495 theory of, 495 timing and magnitude of, 496 Ice algae, 144, 508, 622, 631, 702, 718, 846, 847, 848, 871, 1058 estimates of production of, 848–849 Ice, Antarctic chemical content of, 501–502 impurities in, 501–502, 503 Ice area, 853 Ice breeze, 622 Ice cakes, 852 Ice chemistry, 501–504 air hydrates and, 12–13, 501 of Antarctic ice, 501–502 ice core chemical records in, 503 ice core sampling and analysis in, 502–503 Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite. See ICESat Ice concentration, 703 Ice core analysis, 242, 356, 370, 390, 462–463, 489–490, 504–507 air hydrates and, 12–13 beryllium isotope concentrations in, 306, 307, 503, 505 cosmic rays and, 307 dating techniques in, 506–507 ECM and DEP in, 501, 504

I37

INDEX Ice core analysis (cont.) fungi and, 425 greenhouse gases and, 103, 501, 505–506, 707, 708, 710, 711, 712 ice flow models and, 555 IGBP research and, 537 ITASE and, 242, 710 past climate change and, 242, 259, 503, 504 PRIC and, 226 sea ice and, 706 water isotopes and, 553–555 Ice core drills, 708 Ice cores chemical content, analysis of in, 501–502, 505 chemical records of, 503 chemistry of Dome C, 505, 554, 555, 708 cosmogenic isotopes in, 505, 712 definition of, 708 drilling for, 13, 33, 242, 307, 370, 540 gases, analyses of in, 505–506 Greenland, 13, 21, 103, 496, 507, 648 ice chemistry sampling and analysis of, 502–503 marine, 712 paleoclimate of Antarctica and information in, 708, 709–710, 712–713 processing and physical analysis of, 504–505 Vostok Station and research on, 89, 103, 307, 496 Ice crystals clouds and, 266 cold hardiness and, 272 feedback mechanism between ice flow and, 507 formation of, 11–12, 507, 840–843 size and orientation of, 507–508 texture and microstructure of sea, 840–845 Ice Cube project, 32 Ice disturbance and colonization, 508–510 anchor ice in, 508–509 fast ice in, 508 ice foot in, 508 ice scour in, 509–510 Ice dynamics, 512, 513 Ice edge definition of, 859 features and ecology of, 622 organisms near, 622 Ice extent, 853 Ice floes, 717 Ice flow Antarctic Ice Sheet formation and, 56–57 feedback mechanism between ice crystals and, 507 Ice flow models, 555 Ice foot, 508 Ice grains, 840 Ice nucleators, 272 Ice nuclei, 266 Ice scour, 142, 144, 147, 151, 509–510 influences of, 509–510 Ice sheet mass balance, 511–514, 973 component technique of measuring, 512 global sea level change and, 512, 513 global warming and, 512, 513 ICESat and measurement of, 526 integrated technique of measuring, 513 Ice sheet modeling, 514–517 Antarctic Ice Sheet (whole), 515, 516 diagnostic, 514

I38

flowline, 514 planform, 514, 515 prognostic, 514 structure of three-dimensional ice-sheet model applied to Antarctic Ice Sheet in, 515 three-dimensional thermomechanical, 514, 515, 516–517 Ice sheets. See also Antarctic Ice Sheet depositional effects of, 511 erosional effects of, 511 future evolution of, 75 glacial geology research on, 462–463 ice-rock interface in, 510–511 of last glacial maximum, 496 marine, 57, 59, 362, 393 Ice Shelf Water (ISW), 47, 362, 393 AABW formation and, 44–45, 362–363 circulation of, 46 ice shelves and interaction with, 519–520 Ice shelves, 517–520 AABW and, 43–44 Antarctic climate type as, 246 Antarctic climates and, 242 Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 56–59 Antarctic Peninsula and retreat of, 67, 74–75 CDW and, 520 climate modeling and, 260 coastal ocean currents and melting of, 271 collapse of, 49, 57, 67, 74–75 general characteristics of, 517–518 ISW and, 519–520 ocean interaction with, 519–520 research on, 518–519 Ice Station Polarstern, 706 Ice Station Weddell, 706 Ice Stream C, shutdown of, 58 Ice streams Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 58, 464–466 classification of, 464 glaciers and, 463–466 isbrae and, 464–466 West Antarctic, 465 Ice types and characteristics, marginal ice zone, 619–620 Ice-atmosphere interaction and near-surface processes, 498–500 air-borne ice and, 11–12 blue ice areas in, 499, 972 drifting and blowing snow in, 499–500 katabatic wind pump in, 498–499 snow density and snow dunes in, 500 surface mass balance in, 499 Iceberg B-9, 522 Iceberg B-10A, 521 Iceberg B-15, 510 Icebergs, 520–526 Amundsen sea and, 34 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 blue, 523 calving of, 34, 56, 57, 73, 74, 520, 521 climatic role of, 523–524 detection and destruction of, 524 distribution and drift trajectories of, 522–523 erosion and melting of, 522 green, 362, 523 ice scour and, 509–510, 523 IRD and, 523

INDEX modeling of drift of, 523 origin of, 520–521 sediment transport and, 523 size of largest, 48 sizes and shapes of, 521–522 structure of, 520, 521 tabular, 521 towing of, 525 utilization of, 525–526 water, drinking of from, 525 Icebird, 37, 112 Icebound (100 Years of Antarctic Exploration) (film), 395 Icebreakers, 33, 89, 560, 637, 658, 684, 792, 802, 850, 851, 854, 1022, 1032 Ice-coupled waves, 621 IceCube neutrino detector, 32, 95, 308 description of, 97–98 Ice-edge eddies, 619 Ice-edge jets, 622 Icefish (family Channichthyidae), 401 exploitation of, 718 Ice-free areas, 242, 332, 463. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys; Oases, Antarctic Ice-ocean interaction, 622 Ice-rafted debris (IRD), 463, 523 Ice-rock interface, 510–511 borehole drilling and observation of, 510 erosion and deposition in, 510–511 nature of, 510 soundings of, 510 temperature’s role in, 510 ICESat (Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite), 526 GLAS and, 513, 526 purpose of, 526 Icescape, 658 ICESTAR. See Interhemispheric Conjugacy Effects in SolarTerrestrial and Aeronomy Research Icetec, 525 IceTop experiment, 98, 308 Ichthyofauna, 399 ICOMOS Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage (1990), 88 ICP-MS. See Inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry ICRW. See International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling ICSU. See International Council of Scientific Unions IDCR. See International Decade of Cetacean Research IF. See Intermediate frequency IFRTP. See Institut Franc¸ais pour la Recherche et la Technologie Polaires IGBP. See International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme IGBP-JGOFS, 139 Ignimbrites, 70 IGU. See International Geographical Union IGY. See International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) IHDP (International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change), 537, 1098 IHO. See International Hydrographic Organization Iˆle Amsterdam. See Amsterdam Island Iˆle Amsterdam Station, 1135, 1141 Iˆle aux Cochons, 316 Iˆle Bourbon, 176 Iˆle de France, 176 Iˆle de la Possession, 316, 317 Antarctic fur seals at, 54

Iˆle de l’Est, 316, 317 Iˆle des Pe´trels, 51 Iˆle des Pingouins, 316 Iˆle Saint Paul. See St. Paul Island (Iˆle Saint Paul) Iˆles Crozet. See Crozet Islands Iˆles Crozet Station, 419, 1135, 1141 Iˆles Kerguelen. See Kerguelen Islands Iˆles Kerguelen Station, 1135, 1141 Iˆles Nuageuses, 7 Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU), 292, 405 Iˆlots des Apoˆtres, 316, 317 IMAGE satellite, 106 plasmasphere studied with, 737 Imaging spectroscopy, 792 IMAU. See Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research IMBER project. See Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project IMF. See Interplanetary magnetic field Immigration, 149 IMO. See International Maritime Organization Imperial Conference of Commonwealth countries, 202 Imperial cormorant (Phalacrocorax atriceps), 297–298. See also Cormorants taxa of, 298–301 Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition (ITAE) (1914–1917), 395, 527–529. See also British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition; Shackleton, Ernest archaeological excavations of huts from, 87 diet of, 839 dogs, use of in, 340, 527, 528, 529 emperor penguins and, 377, 528 Endurance, drift track of, 702 Endurance, sinking of in, 49, 528, 814 failure of, 529 Hurley, Frank, as photographer on, 730–731 Ross Island and, 807 Ross Sea Party of, 51, 324–325, 325, 527, 528, 773, 808, 813–815, 814, 819, 889, 1112 Shackleton leads, 527–529, 889, 1112 South (film) about, 395 Victoria Land and, 51 Important Bird Area (IBA), 60. See also Antarctic Important Bird Areas IMS. See International Monitoring System In the Grip of the Polar Pack-Ice (film) (Hurley), 731 Inaccessible, 471. See also Gough and Inaccessible Islands World Heritage Site INACH. See Instituto Antartico Chileno Incoherent-scatter radars, 549 Incoming longwave (terrestrial) radiation, 971, 972 Incoming shortwave (solar) radiation, 971, 972 India COMNAP membership of, 308 Madrid Protocol ratified by, 529 India: Antarctic program, 529–530 CCAMLR and, 529, 530 ISEA, PESO, and IAEs of, 529 Krill biology expedition of, 529 NCAOR and, 530 SCAR membership and, 529 scientific research of, 530 Indian Antarctic Expeditions (IAEs), 529 Indian Ocean AABW in, 43 AAIW and, 64–65

I39

INDEX Indian Ocean (cont.) Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Arctic terns in, 90 Indian Ocean Sanctuary, 542 Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica (ISEA), 529 Indian Space Research Organizations (ISRO), 529 Indian yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche carteri), 16. See also Albatrosses avian cholera and, 29 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 1103 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 1103 Endangered status of, 18, 167, 1103, 1104 species characteristics of, 18, 1103 Inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (ICP-MS), 502, 505 snow chemistry and use of, 904 Industrial Revolution, 356 Inexpressible Island, 194, 766 Infectious agents, 336 Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), 336 Infrared astronomy. See Astronomy, infrared Infrared radiation, 96 Initial Environmental Evaluation, adventure tourism and, 10 INMARSAT communications, 530 Inner magnetosphere, regions of, 614–615 Innes, Hammond, 386 Input component, 512 Insecta, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Insects, Antarctic, 530–534. See also Parasitic insects: lice and fleas; Parasitic insects: mites and ticks; Springtails Arctic terns’ diet of, 91 Auckland Islands and species of, 104 body regions of, 530 climate change, invasive species and, 533 disharmony in, 531, 567 dispersal v. vicariance and, 533 distribution of, 530, 531 ectoparasitic, 530, 531 entomologists, history of and, 533 fossils of, 411 free-living, 530, 531 freeze avoidance and, 532 freezing tolerance of, 2–3, 532 herbivory and detritivory in, 531–532 introduced insects and, 532–533 introduced rodents and, 533 low growth rates of, 532 predation and parasitism in, 531, 532 predators of, 532 species richness of, 530, 531 Institut Franc¸ais pour la Recherche et la Technologie Polaires (IFRTP), 417 Institut Polaire Franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor (IPEV), 417, 418–419 research programs of, 417, 418–419 Institute and Museum of Marine Research, 351 Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research (IMAU), 667 Institute of Antarctic and Southern Ocean Studies (IAOS), 112 Institute of Northern Studies. See Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Instituto Antartico Argentino (IAA), 91–92 Dallmann Laboratory and, 458 Instituto Antartico Chileno (INACH), 459 Instituto de Pesca No. 1, 662 Insulating layer of clothing, 264 Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research (IMBER) project, 829

I40

Interferometer, infrared Fourier transform, 266 Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), 85, 467, 1098, 1100 ATS and, 85 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ATS and, 86 AWI and, 20 future Antarctic climates and, 255 sea level rise from Antarctica and, 512 Interhemispheric Conjugacy Effects in Solar-Terrestrial and Aeronomy Research (ICESTAR), 417, 828 INTERMAGNET network, 1013 Intermediate frequency (IF), 98 Interministerial Commission for Sea Resources (CIRM), 179–180 Internal ice formation, 272 International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) AWI and, 20 SCAR and, 359 International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO) adventure tourism and, 10 Consultative Meetings, ATS and, 86 environmental guidelines of, 283 operational environmental management and, 693 tourism and, 1007 International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean, 941 International Biological Programme, 536 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ATS and, 85 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), 534–535 annexes of, 35, 534 MARPOL 73/78 and, 281, 534–535 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), 292 International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) IGBP and, 537 IGY and, 535 SCAR and, 85, 225, 828 SCOR created by, 829 WCRP and, 1098 International Decade of Cetacean Research (IDCR), 650 International Geographic Congress (1895), 634 International Geographical Union (IGU), 829 International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) (IGY), 535–536, 1114, 1146 Amundsen-Scott Station and, 32–33 Antarctic Bibliography and, 41 Antarctic Ice Sheet research and, 56 atmospheric boundary layer studies during, 101 ATS and, 82, 536 as ATS forerunner, 355–356 aurora studies and, 108 auroral zone maps during, 105–106 aviation logistics and exploration, Antarctic and, 116–117 climate records from coastal Antarctica and, 252 CNFRA and, 417, 418 cost of, 536 countries involved with, 535–536 CTAE and, 275 Davis Station and, 37 formation of, 535–536 Germany’s Antarctic program and, 459 Gondwana and geologists from, 130 ice shelf research and, 518

INDEX ICSU and formation of, 827 map of stations set up during, 1146 maps/charts made after, 214, 215 NBSAE’s role in, 675 photography and, 92, 731 RS and, 820 science facilities constructed during, 125 scope and subjects of, 535, 702 United States takes part in, 208, 535 International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), 139, 536–537, 1098 purpose of, 536–537 research on Antarctica and, 537, 829 International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change. See IHDP International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), 941 ATS and, 85 International Ice Patrol, 524 International Magnetosphere Study, 560 International Maritime Organization (IMO), ATS and, 85 International Monitoring System (IMS), 458 International organizations, ATS and, 85–86 International Polar Commission, 538, 671 International Polar Foundation (IPF), 138 International Polar Year (IPY) (2007–2008) AAD and, 113 Belgian Antarctic Program and scientific station, 137–138 Finland’s Antarctic program and, 397 IPEV and, 417 marine biodiversity and, 148 meteorological observing and, 642 SCAR’s programs for, 828 International Polar Years (IPYs), 537–539. See also International Polar Year (2007–2008) first IPY (1882–1883) of, 537 IGY and, 539 second IPY (1932–1933) of, 539 International Programme for Antarctic Buoys (IPAB), 467 International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), 243 cloud amounts, Antarctic from, 266, 267 International Southern Ocean Studies (ISOS), 235 International Symposium on Antarctic Geology and Geophysics, 468 International Telecommunications Union, ATS and, 85 International trade, CITES and, 291 International Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1989–1990), 9 dogs, use of in, 342 International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ITASE), 242, 556 ice core records from, 242, 710 ice sheet mass balance and, 512 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). See World Conservation Union International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS), 829 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG), 829 International Union of Radio Science (URSI), 829 International Whaling Commission (IWC), 539–542 ASOC and, 42 ATS and, 85 blue whales, protection of by, 171 BWU and, 539–540 conservation and, 279 historical background of, 539 krill conservation and, 280, 291, 292

members, list of in, 541–542 Scientific Committee of, 539, 540 Internet, base technology and, 129, 599 Interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), 548 Intersessional Contact Group, Annex II review and, 166 Intraoceanic arc, 551 Introduced diseases, 274, 282, 311, 335, 336. See also Diseases, wildlife Introduced species, 542–545. See also Biological invasions; Colonization Agreed Measures and, 285 Amsterdam Island and, 30 animals, list of as, 543–544 biodiversity and, 151–152 biogeographical impact of, 160 biological invasions and, 162–164 as biological pollution, 753 Campbell Islands and, 209 colonization and, 273–274 conservation and, 282 eradication of, 797–798 fungi and, 425 Gough Island and house mouse as, 471, 472 insects as, 532–533 prevention of, 544–545 restoration of Sub-Antarctic islands and, 797–799 rodents as, 533 sub-Antarctic islands and locations of, 543–544 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Inuit Amundsen and, 31, 264, 340 sledging and, 31, 339, 340, 342 Inuit dogs, 340 Invasive species, 151, 152 insects as, 533 Investigator, 810 IOC. See Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Ion chromatography (IC), 502, 505 Ion-ion recombination, 547 Ionization, 550 Ion-microprobe data, 366 Ionograms, 547 Ionosonde stations, 546 Ionosondes, 546, 547 Ionosphere, 545–550 AAE and knowledge of, 546 Arctic v. Antarctic, 546 atmospheric layers between ground and, 546 auroral region of polar, 549 cause of global, 545 Chapman layer of, 547 complexity of polar, 545–546 D region of, 547, 548 E region of, 547, 549 F region of, 547–548 geographic location and dynamic processes in, 550 geomagnetic dip and, 550 Hanson, Malcolm, and observations of, 546 high-energy charged particles in polar, 547–548 IGY and understanding of, 546 layers of, 547–548 magnetosphere of earth and polar, 545, 548, 549, 550 research value of Antarctic, 548, 550 troposphere changes detected in, 546 UT variation of Antarctic, 546, 547

I41

INDEX IPAB. See International Programme for Antarctic Buoys IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPEV. See Institut Polaire Franc¸ais Paul-Emile Victor IPF. See International Polar Foundation IPYs. See International Polar Years IRD. See Ice-rafted debris Irizar, Julian, 91, 977, 978 Argentine relief expedition led by, 91, 977, 1111 Iron, 213, 214, 221 fertilization of Southern Ocean by, 214, 223, 497 Iron II sulfate, 214 IRPS experiment, 96 Irradiance determinations, 847–848 Irving, Laurence, 338 Isabella, 809 Isachsen, Gunnar, 230 Isbister, Charity, 204 Isbrae, ice streams and, 464–466 ISCCP. See International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ISEA. See Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica Isla de los Estados, 136 Islands of Desolation, 567, 569 Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of, 550–553 GSF in, 553 location map of, 552 plate tectonic map of, 552 SMC in, 552–553 South Georgia in, 550–551 South Orkney Islands in, 551–552 South Sandwich Islands in, 551 Spence Harbour Conglomerate/Powell Island Conglomerate in, 553 Islas del Atlantico Austral, 911 Isohalines, 52 Isolated diving hole method, 338, 339 Isopycnals, 141, 270 ISOS. See International Southern Ocean Studies Isostatic uplift, 408 Isotherms, 52 Isotopes beryllium, 306–307, 503, 505 carbon, 145 cosmogenic, 505, 712 in Foraminifera, 259 GEOTRACES project and, 829 helium, 44 hydrogen, 103, 553, 554, 555 measurements of, 329, 409, 624, 843 metal, 502 neodymium, 345, 385 in ocean, 258 oxygen, 35, 44, 495, 496, 553, 704, 709, 1041, 1057 radioisotopes and, 757 in shells, 476 strontium, 385 Isotopes in ice, 206, 496, 553–555, 709, 1088 air hydrates and, 13 analysis of, 554–555 hydrogen, 554, 555 oxygen, 206, 505, 553–555, 709, 987, 1088 Isotopic dating techniques, 366 ISRO. See Indian Space Research Organizations Issacs, John D., 525 ISW. See Ice Shelf Water ITAE. See Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

I42

Italia (dirigible), 31, 221 Italian Government Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Environment (ENEA), 555 Italica, 556 Italy, COMNAP membership of, 309 Italy: Antarctic Program, 555–557 bathymetric data and, 289 ENEA and, 555 expeditions of, 556 PNRA and, 555, 556, 557 scientific research of, 556, 557 ITASE. See International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition ITEC, 525 IUBS. See International Union of Biological Sciences IUCN. See World Conservation Union IUCN Category 1 Reserves, 152 IUCN Red List, Antarctic fauna and flora on, 166 IUGG. See International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics IUU. See Illegal, unreported and unregulated IUU fishing, 292 Iveagh, Earl of, 184 IWC. See International Whaling Commission IWC Sanctuaries, 540, 542 IWC Scientific Committee, 539, 540, 542, 650

J JACEE. See Japanese-American Collaborative Emulsion Experiment Jack, Keith, 814 Jackson, Frederick, 184, 762 Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, 204, 762 Jacob Ruppert, 1026, 1113 Jacobsen, Guttorm, 674 Jacobsen, John, 92 Jacquemart Island, 209 Jacquinot, Charles-Hector, 422, 423 Jaegers, 899 Jakobshavns Isbrae, 464 James Caird, 528, 914, 1101 James Clark Maxwell Telescope, 99 James Clark Ross, 190, 289, 584, 684, 1016, 1112 James Monroe, 551, 714 James Ross Island, 661. See also Ross Island aircraft runways and, 14 climate change and, 254 Larsen Basin sedimentary successions in, 72 Jamesways, 390 Jane, 1110, 1142 Japan Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 309 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 Japan: Antarctic Program, 559–561 Fuji and Shirase icebreakers in, 560 history of, 559 IGY and Soya in, 559–560 JAREs of, 559–560, 663 NIPR of, 560, 561, 663–664 scientific research of, 560–561, 663, 664 Japanese (Shirase) Antarctic Expedition (1910–1912), 561–563 farthest south of 80
050 by, 562 King Edward Land VII explored by, 562, 898, 1112 scientific research of, 562, 563 Shirase leads, 323, 561–563, 897, 1112

INDEX Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition (JARE), I-XXIV, 559–560, 663 Japanese-American Collaborative Emulsion Experiment (JACEE), 308 JARE. See Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition Jason, 353, 584, 1111 JCOMM. See Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology Jeannel, R., 533 Jeannette, 659 Jelbart, John, 674 Jenson, Bernhard, 187 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 788 Jet streams, 982 JGOFS. See Joint Global Ocean Flux Study Jidi, 227 Jidi Yanjiu = Chinese Journal of Polar Research, 1137 Jimmy Pigg, 763 Jinna Antarctic Research Station, 661 Johansen, Hjalmar, 31, 660, 676 John Biscoe, 189, 190, 424 John Lachlan Cope’s Expedition. See British Imperial Expedition Johnstone, Muriel, 658 Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), 139, 829, 870 AWI and, 20 Joint WMO/IOC Technical Commission for Oceanography and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM), Southern Ocean programs of, 467 Jonasen, Ole, 585, 975 Jones, A. G. E., 220 Jones, John, 324 Jones, Max, 835 Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 542 Journal of Climate, 1137 Journal of Geophysical Research, 1137 Journal of Glaciology, 1137 Journal of the Resolution’s Voyage (Marra), 171 Jouzel, Jean, 418 Joyce, Ernest, 185, 199, 813, 814 JP1. See Aviation fuel Juan Carlos I Station, 206, 958, 959 Jubany Station, 91, 1135, 1141 Judd, J. W., 322 Jugie, Gerard, 418 Juncaceae, 406 June, Harold, 1025 Jungermanniopsida, 596 Jurassic period Antarctic Peninsula, Mesozoic magmatic arc and, 70, 71, 72 Beacon Supergroup and, 129, 130, 348 Bransfield Strait and, 178 coal during, 268 Ferrar dolerite and, 129, 370, 384–386 fossils, invertebrate, and, 410, 411 fossils, plant, and, 413 fossils, vertebrate, and, 414, 415 marine biodiversity and, 146 Jutul-Penck Graben, 435 Jutulstraumen Glacier, 464

K Kaapvaal Craton, 365 Kagge, Erling, 920 solo adventuring to South Pole by, 9, 920

Kainan-maru, 561, 562, 677 Kainan-maru expedition. See Japanese (Shirase) Antarctic Expedition Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, 50–51 Drygalski discovers, 50, 351, 455 Kalahari Craton, 364, 366, 432 Kamb Ice Stream (KIS), 465 Kangaroo Island, 106 Kap Nor, 677 Kapp Ingrid Christensen, 722 Karoo Basin, 130 KARP. See Korean Antarctic Research Program Katabatic wind pump, 498–499 Katabatic winds, 51, 52, 99, 100, 101, 244, 246, 248, 260, 262, 269–270, 324, 498 Antarctic Coastal Current and, 52 atmospheric boundary layer and, 99, 100–101, 102 coastal ocean currents influenced by, 269, 270 George V Land and, 51 ice-atmosphere interaction and, 498–500, 501 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 348 mesocyclones and, 249 net radiation deficit and, 246 surface wind as, 248 Keller Peninsula, 180 Kelly, John, 92 Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus), 565–566 Antarctic tern chicks and eggs taken by, 81 breeding of, 565, 566, 869 Chilean skuas and, 225 diet of, 566 distribution of, 565, 869 IBA criteria for, 60 Kelp rafts, 151 Keltie, J. Scott, 819 Kemp Land, 50 Kemp discovers, 50, 875, 1110 Kemp, Peter, 50, 875 British expedition (1833–1834) led by, 50, 875, 1110 Kemp, Stanley Wells, 333 Kendall, E. N., 220, 327 Keneally, Thomas, 386 Kenn Borek Ltd., 210 Kenyte, 805 Keohane, Patrick, 764 Kerguelen cabbage (Pringlea antiscorbutica), 406 Kerguelen cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] verrucosus), 300. See also Cormorants Kerguelen cushion plant (Lyallia kerguelensis), 406 Kerguelen Gyre. See also Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres characteristics of, 1052 origin of, 1052 Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen), 566–567 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54, 567 Antarctic prions researched at, 77, 78 Antarctic terns on, 81 bird species on, 567 conservation of whaling station at, 284 fauna on, 567 flora on, 566–567 geology of, 566 introduced species on, 163, 274, 566, 567 Kergue´len-Tre´marec discovers, 567, 569, 1109 neutron monitor on, 305

I43

INDEX Kerguelen Islands (Iˆles Kerguelen) (cont.) Southern elephant seals on, 567 TAAF, IPEV, and, 418, 419 Kerguelen petrel (Lugensa brevirostris), 724 Kerguelen Plateau, 360, 363 Kerguelen tern (Sterna virgata), 568 breeding and diet of, 568, 990, 991 characteristics of, 989 diet of, 990 distribution of, 989 Kergue´len-Tre´marec, Yves-Joseph de, 568–570 French exploring expedition (1771–1772), 1109 Kerguelen Islands discovered by, 569, 1109 Rolland voyage (1773–1774) of, 1109 Kernlose (Coreless) Winter, 246 Kerr, Alfred J., 892 Kerr, Gilbert, 838 Ketchum, Gerald L., 1113 Key innovation, 400 Keystone species, 371 Khan Sahib, 764 Kibaran Orogen, 800 Killer whale (Orcinus orca), 216, 570–572. See also Whales Antarctic fur seals predated by, 53 blue whales predated by, 171 breeding and population of, 572 distribution and diet of, 570, 571, 572 emperor penguins predated by, 379 fin whales predated by, 397 humpback whales predated by, 493 species of, 570 Type A, 570, 571, 572 Type B, 570, 571, 572 Type C, 570–571, 572 Kim, Yeadong, 915 King Baudouin Base. See Base Roi Baudouin King Edward Point Station, 1135, 1141 King Edward VII Land. See Edward VII Land King George basin, 177 King George Bay, 922 ASPA of, 740 King George Island, 226, 572–578 Antarctic terns, behavior of on, 81–82 discovery, exploration, and history of, 575 EACF on, 180 flora and fauna of, 573–574 geology of, 178, 179 historic sites and monuments, list of on, 576 key resources for information on, 577 marine flora and fauna near, 574 Protected Areas of, 574–575 scientific research stations, list of on, 576–577, 1135, 1141 Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martı´n runway on, 13 topography of, 572–573 tourism and, 8, 575, 576 King George Land, 51 King Haakon VII Sea, 816 King, John, 36 King penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), 578–579 antibodies to B. burgdorferi and, 335 breeding of, 578–579 diet of, 579 distribution of, 578 diving physiology and, 164–166, 579

I44

Heard Island and, 482 hunting of, 579 King Peninsula, 34 King Sejong Station, 1135, 1141 KARP and, 916 King, Virginia, 92 King William Island, Amundsen on, 31 Kingston, William, 387 Kipling, Rudyard, 386 Kircher, Anthanasius, 386 KIS. See Kamb Ice Stream Kista Dan, 36, 112, 118, 589 Kjellbotten, Olaf, 231 Kleptoparasitism, 225 Klinckowstro, Axel von, 978 Klipper, Stuart, 92 Klovstad, Herlof, 187 Klutschak, Heinrich, 913 Knowles, Paul, 1024 Koch, Stephen, 9 Koettlitz, Reginald, 199, 204 Kohl, Ludwig, 913 Kohl-Larsen Expedition, 913 Kohnen Station AWI and, 22 ice core drilling and, 307 Koldewey Station, AWI and, 22 Komatik sledge, 342 Kommandor Chr. Christensen’s Hvalfangstmuseum (whaling museum), 234 KONPOR. See Korea National Committee on Polar Research Koonya, 322 Kooyman, Gerald, 337 KOPRI. See Korea Polar Research Institute KORDI. See Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute Korea Antarctic Research Program (KARP), 915 Korea National Committee on Polar Research (KONPOR), 915, 916 Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, (KORDI), 915 Korea Polar Research Institute (KOPRI), missions of, 915–916 Korean Antarctic Scientific Expedition Party (1988), 915 Korean Arctic Station, 915 Korf Ice Rise, 393 Korotkevich, Yevgeny, 90 Kosmos, 115 Krakatoa, eruption of, 356, 751 Krill (Euphausia superba), 717, 1105–1108. See also Zooplankton Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Antarctic fur seals’ diet of, 53 Antarctic petrels’ diet of, 76 Antarctic prions’ diet of, 78 Arctic terns’ diet of, 91 blue whales’ diet of, 171 cape petrels’ diet of, 212 CCAMLR and management of, 311, 404, 405, 1108 characteristics of, 1107 chinstrap penguins’ diet of, 227 commercial harvesting of, 311, 447, 633, 718, 1107–1108 conservation of, 280, 291, 292, 405, 1108 crabeater seals’ diet of, 311 Dana, James, and, 487 ecological interaction between environment and, 631–632, 1106 fin whales’ diet of vallentini, 397 fisheries for, 403, 405, 1107 genetic differentiation in, 428

INDEX gentoo penguins’ diet of, 429 humpback whales’ diet of, 492 map of concentrations of Southern Ocean, 1144 marine ecosystem and importance of, 297, 1106, 1107 in pelagic communities, 717 productivity to biomass ratio of, 769 reproductive strategy of, 1107 Scotia Sea and concentrations of, 833 Kristensen, Leonard, 172, 174, 677 Kronprins Olav Kyst, 799 Kronprinsesse Ma¨rtha Kyst, 799 Kronshtadt, 138 Krusenstern, Adam Johann von, 138 Kukri Erosion Surface, 129 Kurnai people, 106 Kurol, Valmar, 658 Kuschel, G., 533 Kuunga Suture, 431, 433 Kyst, Ingrid Christensen, 680

L La banquise, 422 La France Australe, 569 La Gorce Mountains, 594 La Nin˜a, 254 La Pe´rouse, Dumont d’Urville and, 352 Labrador Sea, 240 Lachlan Orogen, 624 Laclavere, Georges, 535 Lactic acid, 338 Lake Bonney, 347 Lake ecosystems, 372 Lake Ellsworth, 581 age of, 581 measurement and sampling of, 581 Lake Fryxell, 347 Lake Hoare, 347 Lake Miers, 347 Lake Vanda, 347, 907, 963 Lake Vostok, 51, 581–582 AARI research of ice cores at, 89 age and origin of, 582 discovery of, 581 exploration of, 582, 823, 903, 964 microorganisms in, 648, 903, 971 neotectonics and, 667 SALE and, 970, 971 Lakes, Antarctic. See also Food web, freshwater; Streams and lakes, Antarctic animals in plankton of, 408 food webs in, 408–409 microorganisms in, 408 scarcity of, 708 viruses in, 408–409 Lal Khan, 764 Lam, Barend Barendszoon, Netherlands voyage (1663) of, 1109 Lambert Glacier, 360, 362, 365 size and thickness of, 50, 582–583 Lambert Glacier/Amery Ice Shelf, 582–583 flow pattern of, 582–583 Lambert Graben, 365, 431, 435 Lambton, Elizabeth Dawson, 527 Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, 941 Lamont, Johann von, 668

Land birds. See Terrestrial birds, in Antarctic Landfast ice, 703, 852 Langhovde, 963 Lantern fish (myctophids) Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Antarctic fur seals’ diet of, 53 Antarctic petrels’ diet of, 76 Lapataia, 136 Larc Station, neutron monitor at, 305 Lars Christensentoppen, 722 Larsemann Hills, 226, 227 as oasis, 679, 680, 682 Larsen A ice shelf, collapse of, 49, 57, 67, 74–75, 254, 260, 466, 585, 586 Larsen B ice shelf collapse of, 49, 57, 67, 74–75, 260, 466, 585, 586, 950 NASA MODIS imagery of, 791 Larsen Basin, sedimentary successions in, 72 Larsen, Carl Anton, 353, 583–585, 671, 913, 1111 Norwegian (Sandefjord) expedition (1892–1894) led by, 584, 585, 1111 whaling base at Grytviken established by, 584, 876, 914, 1112 whaling industry and, 585 Larsen Harbour Complex, 551 Larsen Ice Shelf, 519, 522, 585–587 collapse of, 49, 57, 67, 74–75, 521 discovery of, 585 Larsen A collapse and, 49, 67, 74–75, 254, 260, 466, 585, 586 Larsen B collapse and, 49, 57, 67, 74–75, 260, 466, 585, 586, 950 Larsen C of, 585, 586 Larsen D of, 585 map of, 586 Larsen, Nils, 230, 232 Peter I Øy landed on by, 722 Larvae, 587–588 biodiversity of, 587 planktonic, 587 Las Palmas, 959 Lasar radars, 751 Laser absorption spectroscopy, 103 LASER altimeters, 794 Lashly Mountains, 130 Lashly, Tom, 764 Lashly, William, 191, 192, 193, 199, 201 bravery of, on Terra Nova expedition, 836 Discovery Expedition and, 199, 201 Lassiter, James, 116 Last glacial maximum (LGM), 496, 497 cryosphere of, 496–497 Latady Basin, sedimentary successions in, 72 Latady Formation, 72 Latent heat fluxes, 971, 972 Latitudinal Gradient Project (LGP), 669 Laurasia, 468 Laurence M. Gould, 684, 1021 Laurentia, 364, 800 Laurentide ice sheet, 496 Laurie Island, 284 Lauritzen Company, 589 Law Base, 112, 647, 680 Law Dome, 710 Law Dome ice core, CO2 and, 707 Law, Nel, 92

I45

INDEX Law, Phillip, 36, 38, 118, 588–589 as AAD director, 588 ANARE and, 588 Laws, Richard, 189, 190, 821 Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis) diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 life history of, 19 species characteristics of, 19 Lazarev, Mikhail Petrovich, 138, 823 LCDW. See Lower Circumpolar Deep Water LDB. See Long duration balloon Le Matin, 221 Lead, 758 South Pole and, 32 Leads, 703, 853, 1002. See also Polynyas and leads in the Southern Ocean formation of, 857 polynyas v., 760 Leard, John, 876 Leavipilina antarctica, 651 Lecanicillium lecanii (ascomycete), 425 Leckie, Doug, 118 Lecointe, Georges, 136 Leeuwin Complex, 365 Leeuwin-Prydz Bay suture, 370 Legal system, Antarctic. See Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) Legru glacial period, 179 Lemaire Channel, 48, 136 adventure tourism and, 9 Leningradskaya Station, location of, 51 Leon, 911 Le´onie Island, 425 Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), 589–591. See also Seals acoustic behavior of, 590 adaptation and, 3, 878 Ade´lie penguins predated by, 8 Antarctic fur seals eaten by, 53 Auckland Islands and, 104 breeding of, 590 CCAS protection of, 294, 880 CDV found in, 336 chinstrap penguin chicks predated by, 228 crabeater seals predated by, 311, 590 diet of, 590, 879 distribution of, 589–590, 878 emperor penguins predated by, 379, 590 population of, 589 Leptolyngbya spp., 23, 24, 25, 28 Leptonychotes weddelli, 1050 Leskov Island, 921 Lesser Antarctica. See West Antarctica (Lesser Antarctica) Lester, Maxime Charles, 489 British Imperial Expedition and, 197–198 Levick, G. Murray, 191, 192, 194 Lewis, John, 120, 277 LGM. See Last glacial maximum LGP. See Latitudinal Gradient Project LHC. See Lu¨tzow-Holm Complex LIA. See Little Ice Age Lice (order Phthiraptera) Austromenopon bird, 714 habitat of, 335, 714 Lichen soredia (vegetative propagules), air spora and, 10

I46

Lichens (cryptogams), 104, 425, 591–595. See also Fungi algae and, 23, 25, 591 algal component of, 591 anhydrobiosis and, 39, 333 Beacon Sandstone and, 595 cold hardiness of, 272, 591, 592, 594 colors of, 592 continental Antarctic zone and, 155 cryptoendolithic communities with, 320 diversity and biogeography of, 591–592 ecology of communities dominated by, 593–594 in extreme habitats, 594–595 fruticose, 592–593 fungal component of, 591 growth forms of, 592–593 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 umbilicate, 592 LIDAR, 113 Lidars (laser radars), 267, 751 Lie`ge Island, 136 Lier, Lief, 115 Life cycles, extended, 3 Light detection and ranging. See LIDAR Light-mantled albatross (Phoebetria palpebrata), 16, 595–596. See also Albatrosses breeding of, 595, 596 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 596 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 595, 596 species characteristics of, 18 Threatened status of, 18, 595 Lightning, 219 Limpet (Nacella concinna), 143, 508 Limpet (Patinigera polaris), 272 Lind, James, 838 Lindbergh, Charles, 10, 207 Lindstrøm, Adolf, 676 Liothyrella elliptica, 476 Liothyrella uva, 476 Lipophilic, 373 Literature, Antarctic. See Antarctic accounts and bibliographic materials; Books, Antarctic Lithodes confundes, 331, 332 Lithodes murrayi, 332 Lithodes santolla, 331, 332 Lithodid crabs, 331–332 Lithodidae family, 331, 332. See also Deep stone crabs Lithosphere, 357 plate tectonics and, 737 Little America base, 115, 376, 626, 1024, 1025, 1026 Little America III, 898 Little Ice Age (LIA), 497–498 Littlewood Nunataks, 50 Lively, 168, 380 Liverpool Island, 380 Liverworts, 596–598. See also Mosses ecology of, 597 growth forms of, 596 physiology of, 596–597 species diversity and biogeography of, 157, 597 taxa of, 157 Living in a cold climate, 598–603 Antarctic populations and, 598–599 Antarctic Stations/Bases and, 599, 600 field life and, 600–601

INDEX food/diet and, 601–602 humans in polar regions and, 598 summer/winter Antarctic seasons and, 602 technology’s impact on, 598, 599–600 Living Planet Programme, 318 Living stromatolites, 963 Livingston Island archaeological research on, 87 geology of, 178, 179 marine debris at, 630 LO. See Local oscillator Lobodontine pinnipeds, 877 Local oscillator (LO), 98 Lockroy, Edouard, 221 Loess, 497 Long duration balloon (LDB), 94, 307 Long Term Ecological Research Program, 348 Long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), 216, 217. See also Whales Longlining ACAP and, 282 albatrosses killed by, 15, 20, 169–170, 282 fisheries and development of, 403–404 Northern giant petrels and, 671 petrels killed by, 15, 20, 282 royal albatrosses and, 818 Longstaff, Llewellyn, 198 Longtailed skua ( jaeger) (Stercorarius longicaudus) breeding of, 900, 901 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 Lopez, Barry, 347 Lord Melville, 575 Lorius, Claude, 418 Los Angeles, 114, 1079 Lost Eleven, The, 424 Louis-Philippe, duc d’Orle´ans, Dumont d’Urville and, 352 Low Island, geology of, 177, 178, 179 Low Resolution Mode (LRM), 319 Lowe, George, 484 Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW), 240–241, 241 ACC and, 238 property characteristics of, 79 Lows, 979–982 LRM. See Low Resolution Mode Lubin, Philip, 302 Lumie`re Autochrome plates, 110 Lunar node tides, 1000 Luticola muticopsis, 23, 24 Lu¨ttick Island, 321 Lu¨tzow-Holm Bay, 365 Lu¨tzow-Holm Complex (LHC), 369, 431, 433 Lu¨tzow-Holm, Finn, 114, 230, 799 Lu¨tzow-Holm Suture, 369, 431 Luzula, 407 Lyallia kerguelensis, 566 Lycoriella sp. (Sciaridae), 531 Lymburner, J. H., 376 Lystrosaurus, 414, 469 Lystrosaurus zone fauna, 130

M Macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), 312, 313, 314, 315, 605–606. See also Crested penguins

annual cycle of, 605–606 APMV in, 274 breeding and survival of, 606, 867, 868 distribution of, 312, 313, 605 food and feeding of, 606 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 315, 606, 867, 868 Vulnerable status of, 167, 315, 606 MacDonald Island, 47 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Machu Picchu, 661 MacInnes, Ian, 658 Mackay, Alistair Forbes, 185, 322, 438, 636 short story by, 387 South Magnetic Pole area reached by, 920 Mackay, Don, 783 Mackay Glacier, 130 Mackay, Henry Duncan, 1111 MacKenzie, K. N., 203 Mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), 403 Mackey, Alistair, 762 Mackintosh, Æneas, 323, 1112 Mackintosh, Neil Alison, 188, 334 Macklin, Alexander, 892 Macquarie cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] purpurascens), 300–301. See also Cormorants Macquarie Island, 36, 274, 607–608 AAE work at, 109 Antarctic fur seal hybridization at, 53, 54 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81 archaeological research on huts at, 87–88 Black-browed albatrosses at, 169 cats eradicated from, 300 flora and fauna on, 607–608 geology of, 607, 967 importance of, 607 as Island Reserve, 607 marine debris at, 630 rabbits reduced on, 283 as World Biosphere Reserve, 607 as World Heritage Area, 284, 607 Macquarie Island station, 589, 1113, 1135, 1141 Macroalgae, species of, 145 Mac.Robertson Land, 50 BANZARE and naming of, 50, 115, 203 Macrobiotus furciger (terrestrial Eutardigrada), 984 Macrofauna, 148 Macrofungi, 425 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Macronutrients, 221, 222 Madden-Julian Oscillation, 832 Madrid Protocol. See Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty Maerseveen, 910, 1109 Magellan, Ferdinand, Spanish maritime voyage (1519–1522) of, 1109 Magga Dan, 112, 276 Magnet, 1110 Magnetic compasses, 392 Magnetic Crusade, The, 487 Magnetic fields, 609, 610. See also Geomagnetic field; Magnetosphere of Earth Magnetic merging. See Magnetic reconnection Magnetic reconnection, 611–612, 618

I47

INDEX Magnetic storms, 548, 608–609, 616–617 aurora and, 609 cause of, 609 Dst index and, 608 three phases of, 608–609 Magnetic substorms, 548 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), 1014 Magnetopause, 548, 611, 617 Magnetosheath, 548, 611, 613 Magnetosonic waves, 617 Magnetosphere of Earth, 609–618 aurora and, 105–108, 617 closed, 610–611 dynamism of, 616–617 formation of, 609, 610–615 geomagnetic pole, position of and, 550 magnetic reconnection in, 611–612, 618 magnetic storms in, 548, 608–609, 616–617 magnetospheric convection in, 615–616, 618–619 magnetospheric substorms in, 617 open, 612–613, 614 oscillations in, 617 polar ionosphere and, 545, 548, 549, 550 regions of inner, 614–615, 618 regions of outer, 613, 618 solar winds and, 441, 609–616, 618, 737, 1044 Magnetospheric convection, 615–616, 618–619 aurora and, 618 forces that control, 618 ionosphere impacted by, 618 Magnetospheric oscillations, 617 Magnetospheric substorm, auroral substorm and, 108–109 Magnetotail, 611, 613, 617 Maho,Yvon Le, 418 Main Base, AAE and, 109–111 Maire, Jakob Le, Netherlands exploring expedition (1615–1616) of, 1109 Maitri Station, 530, 1135, 1141 aircraft runways and, 14 Malaysia AT agreement by, 661 Antarctic research program of, 661 SCAR Associate membership of, 661 Mallard, as introduced species, 543, 544 Mallemok, 18 Malta Plateau, 639 Malvinas Current. See Falkland/Malvinas Current MAMM. See Modified Antarctic Mapping Mission Mammals, marine, diving biology of, 336–339 Manatees, 337 Manchurian ponies, 184, 185, 191, 762. See also Ponies Man-hauling, 113, 185, 191, 192, 193, 194, 200, 264, 275, 323, 340. See also Dogs and sledging Mantle plumes, 623 Maori Auckland Islands occupied by, 104 auroras and, 106 Map(s), 1139–1146. See also Cartography and charting; Satellite imagery Antarctic Ice Sheet, movement of, 1145 Antarctic Ice Sheet, thickness of, 56, 1140 Antarctic Plate, 1141 Antarctic sea ice extent, 1140 Antarctic territorial claims, 1139 Antarctica v. Australia, 1145

I48

bedrock of continental Antarctica, 1144 IGY stations and location on, 1146 krill abundance/Southern Ocean, 1144 minerals in Antarctic, 1146 Polar Front and Antarctic Divergence, 1143 race for South Pole, 1142 routes of Antarctic expeditions (early 1900s), 1142 scientific research stations and location on, 1141 Southern Ocean bathymetry, 1139 Sub-Antarctic islands, 1143 Ma-Qu (Huange He), 394 Marambio Station, 91, 1135, 1141 airstrip, dirt at, 13, 67, 91 weather forecasting at, 1048 Marble Point, aircraft runway at, 14 Marbled rockcod (Notothenia rossii), 403 Marchantia polymorpha, 597 Marchantiophyta, 596, 652 Marchantiopsida, 596 Maresuke Nogi, 897 Marginal ice zone (MIZ), 619–623, 717, 854 atmosphere-ice interaction in, 621–622 ice edge in, 622 ice types and characteristics in, 619–620 ice-ocean interaction in, 622 wave-ice interaction in, 620–621 Marie, 175, 1109 Marie Byrd Land, 49, 623–627 Amundsen Sea and, 33 geological exploration of, 626–627 geological history of, 624–625 geological map of, 624 geology of, 623–627 plate tectonic setting of, 623 volcanism in, 626, 1043 volcano on, 1043 volcano summits of, 625 Marie Byrd Seamount, 139 Marine biology: history and evolution, 627–630 Marine debris, 630–631. See also Pollution CCAMLR and monitoring of, 630–631 Protocol on Environmental Protection and, 84 sea-surface and shore environments impacted by, 631 sources of, 630 Marine fauna, Southern Ocean biogeographic and evolutionary processes’ influence on, 629–630 climate change’s influence on, 627, 628, 629, 630 history and evolution of, 627–630 origin of, 629 paleoceanography’s influence on, 627, 628, 629, 630 plate tectonics’ influence on, 627–628 Marine gas oil (MGO), 127, 128 Marine glaciers, Antarctic Peninsula and retreat of, 67 Marine ice cores, 712 Marine ice sheet instability, 466 Marine ice sheets, 57, 59, 362, 393 collapse hypothesis and, 59 Marine islands, 123 Marine mammals, adaptation and terrestrial v., 336–337 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), 865 Marine snow, 717 Marine SSSI, 770 Marine trophic level interactions, 631–633. See also Food web, marine

INDEX autotrophs in, 631 humans’ impact in, 632–633 ice algae in, 631 importance of, 633 krill in, 631–632 Mariner 2 spacecraft, 909 Mario Zucchelli Station (MZS), 556 Marion Dufresne, 417, 419 Marion Island Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 feral cats eliminated from, 283, 544 introduced species on, 163, 283–284, 544, 545 mite species on, 715 Marion Island Station, 1135, 1141 Maritime Antarctic zone areas of, 156 biotic components of, 155 Markham, Sir Clements R., 187, 204, 633–634, 668 British Antarctic exploration influenced by, 633 Discovery Expedition and, 198, 199, 200, 201 as president of Royal Geographic Society, 633, 644, 818, 819 Scott, Robert Falcon, and, 836 Maro, Harald, 276 MARPOL. See International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships MARPOL 73/78 (Protocol of 1978 Relating to MARPOL, 1973), 281, 534–535 annexes of, 534–535, 631 Marr, James William Slesser, 634–635, 892, 1113 Discovery Investigations and, 635 Operation Tabarin and, 635, 1113 Shackleton and, 634, 635, 892 Marra, John, 171 Mars Antarctic meteorite and life on, 358, 381 Antarctica as analog environment for, 242, 318, 319, 320, 347, 358, 381, 647, 741 Beacon Sandstone lichen and life on, 595 cryptoendolithic communities and, 320 McMurdo Dry Valleys and climate of, 242, 318, 319, 347 Marshall, Eric, 185, 322, 729, 839 poetry of, 387 Marsupials, fossils of, 415 Martial, Louis-Ferdinand, 538 Martialia hyadesi, 962 Martian bacteria, ALH 84001 and, 95 Martian meteorite, Allan Hills and, 95 Martin de Vivie`s Station, 30, 419, 1135, 1141 Martin, James Hamilton, 195 Martin, Sir David, 820 Mascarin, 1109 Mass spectrometry, 103, 505 Masson Range, 115 Master Dimmer Switch, 338 Master Switch of Life, 338 Mastigocladus laminosus, 25 Matienzo Station, 91 Matusevich Glacier, 435 Maud, 31, 479, 1087 Maud Province, 368 Maud Rise, 360, 760 Maudheim, 673, 674 Maujee ration, 762 Mauna Kea, Hawaii, 99 Mauna Loa, 708

Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 668 Mawson Antarctic Collection, 110 Mawson Centre, 41 Mawson Coast, 365 Mawson, Douglas, 11, 36–37, 50, 51, 95, 100, 635–637, 729. See also Australasian Antarctic Expedition; British, Australia, New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition AAE led by, 109–111, 636 ANARE influenced by, 637 aurora observation by, 105 BANZARE led by, 115, 202–203, 636, 1113 David, T. W., and, 322, 323 Nimrod expedition and, 184–186, 636 poetry of, 387 scientific works, publishing of and, 172 Mawson Escarpment, 50 Mawson Station, 36–37, 112, 1135, 1141 AAD and, 112 dogs, use of at, 342 Law, Philip, and erection of, 589 neutron and muon detectors at, 95, 305, 307 scientific research at, 589 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 wind turbines at, 127 McCarthy, Timothy, 528 McCormick, Robert, 181 McCue, Clarrie, 38 McDonald Islands, 481–482. See also Heard Island and McDonald Islands McDonald discovers, 482, 1111 pristine nature of, 163, 482 McDonald, William, British voyage (1853–1854) of, 482, 1111 McIlroy, James, 892, 1077 McKay, Henry, 201 McKellar, Campbell, 184 McKelvey, B. C., 490 McKenzie, Dan, 737 McKinley, Ashley, 1025 McLean, Archibald, 11 Home of the Blizzard and, 111 McLeod, Michael, 1050 McLeod, Thomas, 892 McMenamin, Mark, 799 McMillan, Donald, 207 McMurdo Dry Valleys, 346–349, 349–351 anhydrobiosis and, 39–40 as ASPMA, 283 biology of, 349–351 cryoconite holes in, 317–318, 349, 350 cryptoendolithic communities in, 319, 320, 408 decomposition measurements in, 329 endolithic organisms and, 50 geological history of, 347–348 glaciers of, 347, 466 human impact to, 347 Mars climate and, 242, 318, 319, 347, 381, 741 microscopic life forms in, 349–350 nematode species in, 665 rotifers in lakes of, 408 scientific research on, 347 seal and penguin carcasses in, 329 Taylor Valley in, 320, 346, 347, 348 Victoria Land and, 51 Victoria Valley in, 24, 25, 57, 156, 346, 348 Wright Valley in, 346, 347, 348

I49

INDEX McMurdo Igneous Complex, 639 McMurdo Sound, 130, 854 aircraft runway at Marble Point in, 14 radar image of, 851 undersurface of iceberg in, 509 Weddell seals, diving biology of at, 338–339 McMurdo Station, 673–678, 1135, 1141 air transportation at, 638 Amundsen-Scott station supplied by, 33, 98, 638 fast ice and, 854 history of, 636, 807 microbiological studies at, 647 neutron monitor at, 305 Ross Island’s suitability for, 51, 637, 638, 807 scientific research at, 637, 638 sea-ice runways at, 14, 638 seals, diving biology of at, 337, 338 United States Antarctic Program and, 637, 638 weather forecasting at, 1048 McMurdo Volcanic Group geology of, 638–639 Meander Intrusives of, 639 provinces of, 639 McNish, ‘‘Chippy,’’ 528 MCs. See Mesoscale cyclones Mean Sea Level Pressure (MSLP), 248–249 Meander Intrusives, 639 Meanders, 619, 622 Mear, Roger, 9 Meares, Cecil, 763 Medicine. See Health care and medicine, Antarctic Medium first-year ice, 851, 852 Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS), 791 Meetings of Experts, ATS and, 82 Mega-dunes, 639–640 climactic conditions of, 639 genesis of, 639–640 Megafauna, 148 Megascale glacial lineations, 511 Meier, Fred C., 10 Meiji, Emperor, 562 Meinardus Line, 489, 742. See also Polar Front Meinardus, W., 489, 741 Meiofauna, 148 Melaerts, Jules, 136 Melbourne volcanic province, 639 Melchior Station, 91 Melt/freeze, 512, 513, 974 Melt-water, 703 Melville glacial period, 178 Memorandums of understanding (MOUs), 668 Mendel station, 660 Mercator projection maps, 723 Mercury, 373, 759 Meridional Overturning Circulation AASW’s role in, 80 ACC and, 235, 238–239 CO2 uptake and, 80 MERIS. See Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer Meromictic lakes, 963 Mertz glacier, 111 Mertz, Xavier, 111, 343, 636 Meserve Glacier, 347 Mesocyclones, 622 Mesodinium rubrum, 408

I50

Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, 812 Mesopause, 546, 694 Mesoproterozoic Era, East Antarctic Shield and, 364–370 Mesoscale cyclones (MCs), 744–749 formation areas of, 745 numerical simulations of, 744, 747–749 polar lows as maritime, 744–745 satellite imagery detection of, 745 structures of, 746–747 Mesosphere, 267, 546, 694. See also Polar mesosphere definition of, 750 Mesostigmata, 715 Mesotaenium berggrennii, 27 Mesozoic arc-trench system, Antarctic Peninsula and, 68 Mesozoic Era Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 68, 70, 71, 72 Beacon Supergroup and, 129 fossils, vertebrate and, 414–415 Gondwana and, 364, 386 Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula, 68–71 accretionary complexes along, 71 basement of, 68–70 Batholith in, 70 Eocene La Meseta Formation in, 72 forearc basin sequences along, 71 Larsen Basin sedimentary succession in, 72 Latady Formation in, 72 magmatic history in, 71 plate tectonics and, 68, 70, 71 sedimentary successions in, 72 subduction and, 68–73 Volcanic Group in, 70 Mesozooplankton, 744 Metamorphic rocks, South Shetland Islands’, 178 Metastigmata, 715 Meteor Expedition (1925–1927), 351 Meteorite(s), 640–641 ALH 84001, 95, 640 Antarctica as source of, 358, 381, 490, 640 classification of, 640 discovery of first, 95 Martian life and Antarctic, 358, 381 moon, 640 TNB and, 556 Meteorological Intervals, 536 Meteorological observing, in Antarctic, 641–644 history of, 642 IGY’s influence on, 642 problems in, 642, 644 weather data for Stations from, 643 Methane (CH4), atmospheric concentration of, 103 Methanesulfonic acid (MSA), 501, 702, 711, 902 Metrosideros umbellata, 104 MFCT. See Mount Fazio Chemical Type MGO. See Marine gas oil MHD. See Magnetohydrodynamics Mice (Mus musculus), as introduced species, 30, 104, 152, 274, 283, 317, 471, 472, 533, 543, 567, 608 Microalgae, 717 Microarthropods freeze avoidance of, 272 sub-Antarctic zone and, 155 Microbes, biodiversity of, 150 Microbial ecosystems, 372 Microbial fossils, 320

INDEX Microbial loop, 372 Microbial mats, 27, 350, 648 Microbiology, in Antarctic, 320, 644–648 Arctic microbiology v., 648 history of, 644 PCR used in, 644, 647 research sites for, 647 role of, 647–648 techniques used by, 647 Microbiota biogeographical zone of, 155, 156 molecular phylogenetic approach to, 155 Microfoliose growth forms, 592 Microfossils. See also Fossils Transantarctic Mountains and, 58 Microfungi, 425 Micro-invertebrates, biogeographical zones and, 155, 156 Microlichens, 592 Micronutrients, 221 Microoases, 682–683 Microorganisms, Antarctic air-spora and, 10 autotroph, 645 characteristics of, 645 chemoautotroph, 645 classification of, 644–645 extremophilic, 645 freeze tolerance of, 645 habitats, terrestrial/marine of, 646–647 heterotroph, 645 introduced species of, 753–754 isolation and biodiversity of, 647 microbiology of, 644–648 in sea ice, 705, 845–849 species inventory of, 648 viruses’ role as, 335, 336, 408, 409, 644, 646 Microphytoplankton, 732, 733 seasonality and, 881 Microsporidia, 644–645 Microwave radiation. See Submillimeter radiation Microzooplankton. See Protozoa Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 176, 344 Midge (Belgica antarctica) biological invasion by, 163 freeze tolerance of, 272 Mikkelsen, Caroline, 232, 680 Mikkelsen, Klarius, 231, 232 Milankovitch cycles, 273, 629, 712 Milankovitch, Milutin, 495 Military, Antarctic Treaty and, 83 Milky Way, 98 Mill Glacier, blue-ice runway at, 14 Mill, Hugh Robert, 201, 204, 527, 819 Mille, James de, 386 Million years ago. See Mya Mineral exploitation, 358, 648, 649 ATS and, 84 CRAMRA and, 84, 268, 280–281, 294–295 deep sea mining and, 330 Madrid Protocol and, 289, 648 Transantarctic Mountains and, 1008 Mineralization, in Antarctica, 648–649. See also Coal, oil, and gas Antarctic Peninsula and, 649 Article 7 of Madrid protocol and, 289, 648

Dufek Massif and, 649 mineral exploitation and, 84, 268, 280–281, 294–295, 358, 473, 648, 649 Minerals, map of Antarctica and locations of, 648–649, 1146 Minerals convention, demise of, 84 Mining, deep sea, 330 Ministry of Environment (MMA), 180 Mink, as introduced species, 544 Minke whale (Balenoptera bonaerensis), 649–651. See also Whales appearance of, 649–650 B. acusutara v., 649 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 blue whales and interspecific competition with, 171 diet/trophic interaction of, 650 economic use of, 650–651 population status, distribution and habitat of, 650 Miocene epoch Campbell Islands and, 209 marine biodiversity and, 146 Polar Front and end of, 401 Mirnyy, 138 Mirnyy Expedition. See Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition Mirnyy Station, 51, 1135, 1141 annual cycle of temperature at, 987 Russian(Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 skiway at, 15 weather forecasting at, 1048 Miss American Airways, 114 Mitchell Library, 41 Mites (Acari or Acarina). See also Parasitic insects: mites and ticks decomposer, 715 ecological studies of, 716 free-living v. parasitic, 716 freeze avoidance of, 2, 272, 273, 332–333, 349, 350 habitat of, 715–716 ticks (Metastigmata) as, 715, 716 Mixed tides, 1000 Mixotrophy, 24 MIZ. See Marginal ice zone Mizuho station, 560, 664 blowing and drifting snow at, 1086 MMA. See Ministry of Environment Mock suns, 12 Mode waters. See also Subantarctic Mode Water property characteristics of, 64 Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometers (MODISs), 791, 858 Modified Antarctic Mapping Mission (MAMM), 789 MODISs. See Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometers Mohn, Henrik, 659 Molecular clock genes, 155 Molecular diffusion, 103 Molecular evolution, 401–402 Molecular studies fungi in Antarctic and, 425 microorganisms, 16S rNA analysis and, 647 Molina, Mario, 697 Mollusca species of, 145 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Molluscs, 142, 651–652 distribution of, 651 fossils of, 411 reproduction in, 651

I51

INDEX Molluscs (cont.) shells in, 651 species of, 651 Mollymawks, 18 Molodezhnaya Station, 1135, 1141 Enderby Land and, 50 Russian(Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 white-ice runway at, 15 Moltke, 538 Moltke Harbour, 913 Monaco, Prince, 110 Moncur, Rex, 38 Monhystera, 741 Monkey puzzle conifer (Araucaria), 413 Monogononta, 817 Monolith Island, 123 Monoplacophorans, 651 Monoraphidium, 24 Mont de la Dives, 29 Montparnasse Cemetery, 352 Montreal Protocol, 356, 698 Moon and Bodies Celestial Treaty, 86 Moores Peak, 178 Moraines, 462, 463 Moran, Richard, 386 Morbilli virus, 336 Morgan, Jason, 737 Morning, 201, 1111 Moroteuthis ingens, 962 Morrow, Pat, 9 Mosaic, McMurdo Dry Valleys as, 346, 347 Mosasaurs, 415 Mosby, Hakon, 229 Moseley, H. N., 533 Moseley’s rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome moseleyi), Amsterdam Island and, 30 Moss towers, 964 Mosses, 349, 350, 652–656. See also Liverworts algae and, 25 anhydrobiosis and, 39 cold hardiness of, 272 ecology of communities dominated by, 653–654 extreme habitats of, 654–656 growth-forms of, 652 life cycle of, 652 liverworts v., 652 peat-forming, 654 physiology of, 652–653 species diversity and biogeography of, 653 submerged habitats of, 656 Mossman, Robert Cockburn, 838 Mosthaff, E., 538 Mother-of-pearl clouds, 267 Moths (Lepidoptera), 531 Mott, Peter, 119, 1114 FIDASE led by, 383–384, 1114 Mottled petrel (Pterodroma inexpectata), 724–725 Mouflou, as introduced species, 543 Mougeotia sp., 23 Moulting, Ade´lie penguins and, 7 Mount Berlin, 1043 Mount Bowles, 178 Mount Erebus, 656–657 Air New Zealand flight crash into, 480, 657, 770 David, T. W. Edgeworth, and climbing of, 322, 766

I52

Davis, J. E. and, 92 Erebus and Terror Expedition discovers, 182, 656 Mear, Roger, and ascent of, 9 Shackleton and ascent of, 185, 656, 1112 size of, 656 unusual features of, 656–657 volcanic activity of, 51, 431, 656, 1043, 1063 Mount Everest, Hillary reaches top of, 484 Mount Faraway, 276 Mount Fazio Chemical Type (MFCT), 385–386 Mount Feather, 130 Mount Fleming, 320 Mount Flora fossil assemblage, early-middle Jurassic, 413 Mount Gardner, Stump, Terrence, and ascent of, 9 Mount Herschel, 485 Mount Jackson, height of, 66 Mount Melbourne, 431, 483, 1043 Mount Rittmann, 483, 1043 Mount Sidley, 1043 Mount Siple, 626, 1043, 1063 Mount Takahe, 625, 1043 Mount Tyree, Stump, Terrence, and ascent of, 9 Mountain belts, 430 Mountain ranges, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 57–58 Mountaineering, adventure tourism and, 8–10 Mountain-hopping, 592 Mouse (Mus musculus), 471 MPAs. See Marine Protected Areas; Multiple-Use Planning Areas Mr. Forbush and the Penguins (film), 395 Mrs. Chippy, 528 MSA. See Methanesulfonic acid Mt. Pinatubo, 698 Muhlig-Hoffman Mountains, adventure tourism and, 9 Mukluks, 265 Mules. See also Ponies Terra Nova expedition and use of, 763–764 Mulgrew, June, 485 Mulgrew, Peter, 485 Multi-angle sensors, 792 Multiple-Use Planning Areas (MPAs), 770 Multiyear ice, 703, 850–852, 857 Mungan Ngour, 106 Munk, Walter, 238 Muon telescopes, 307 Muons, 95. See also Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array Murchison, Sir Roderick, 818 Murdoch, Alister, 115 Murphy, Robert Cushman, 913 Murray, George, 199 Murray, James, 816, 964 Nimrod expedition and, 186, 816 Murray, Matthew, 487 Murray monolith, 115 Murray, Sir John, 204, 219, 634, 837 Musee des Beaux-Arts, 423 Musgrave Peninsula, 104 Mushrooms, 425 Music, Antarctic, 657–658 Davies, Peter Maxwell, and, 657, 658 Discovery expedition and, 657 natural sounds and, 658 popular, 658 Scottish, 658 Vaughan Williams and, 657 Muskeg tractor, 276, 277, 424

INDEX Muttonbirds, 894 Mya (million years ago), 364 Mycobionts, 591 Mycorrhizas, 425 Myctophids. See Lantern fish Myosaurus, 414 Myriapoda, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Myrsine, 104 Myrtaceae family, 406 MZS. See Mario Zucchelli Station

N N. B. Palmer, 289 N2O. See Nitrous oxide NAAP. See Netherlands Antarctic Programme Nacreous clouds, 267 NADC. See National Antarctic Data Centres Nadezhda, 138 NADW. See North Atlantic Deep Water Naked amoebae, 784 NAM. See Northern Annular Mode Namaqua-Natal, 365 Nankyoku Shiryo = Antarctic Record, 1137 Nanophytoplankton, 717, 732 Nansen, Fridtjof, 30, 204, 659–660 Amundsen meets with, 660 Arctic Ocean discoveries of, 660 Bruce meets, 204 Greenland expedition of, 30, 659 polar science and exploration influenced by, 659 sledge design of, 343, 659 Nansen sledge, 342, 659 Naokichi Nomura, 562 Napier Complex, 367 NARE. See Norwegian Antarctic Research Expedition Nares, Sir George Strong, 219, 633, 1111 Challenger voyages led by Thompson and, 1111 NASA EOS satellites, 859 Nasal mites, 335. See also Parasitic insects: mites and ticks Nathorst, Alfred Gabriel, 978 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 687 National Antarctic Data Centres (NADC), 941 National Antarctic Policy, Argentina, 92 National Antarctic Programs, 309 National Antarctic research programs, 660–663 National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), 263 National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), 263 atmospheric reanalyses by, 252 National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR), 530 National Committee for Polar Regions Research, 397 National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), 180 National Environment Research Council, 424 National Geophysical Data Centre (NGDC), 941 National Institute of Oceanography, 334 National Institute of Polar Research (NIPR), Japan, 560, 561, 663–664 Arctic and Antarctic research stations of, 664 functions of, 663–664 National Maritime Museum, 41 National Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS), 791 National Programme of Antarctic Research (PNRA), 555

National Science Foundation, US, 490, 686, 687 Antarctic Ice Sheet, knowledge of and, 56, 348 archaeological research and, 87 Office of Polar Programs and, 686–688 National Youth Orchestra of Scotland, 658 Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), BAS and, 189, 190 Natural History Museum, London, 334 Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), 210 Nature, 1137 Nautilus, 376 Navicula muticopsis, 28 Nazi Germany, Antarctic exploration and, 116 N-band Imaging Polarimeter (NIMPOL), 96 NBSAE. See Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition NCAOR. See National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research NCAR. See National Center for Atmospheric Research NCEP. See National Centers for Environmental Prediction NDV. See Newcastle Disease virus Neap tides, 1000 Neck tubes, 265 Necrophagous fly (Calliphora vicina), climate change and, 274 Needles. See Columnar ice Negative net radiation balance, 242, 245, 246 Negative surface mass balance, 973 Neil Barron and his Band, 658 Nella Dan, 37, 112 Nelson, Edward, 764 Nematoda, 460, 664 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Nematodes (phylum Nematoda), 664–666 algal mats and, 27, 408, 665 anhydrobiosis and, 39–40, 318, 333, 665 diet of, 665 distribution of, 664, 665 freeze tolerance of, 2, 272, 273, 318, 665 gastrointestinal, 335, 666 habitats of, 665, 666 in McMurdo Dry Valleys, 347 as parasites, 665, 666 species of, 665, 666 suspended animation of, 318, 349, 350, 665, 983 Nemertea, 460 Nemertean (Parbolasia corrugatus), 587 Nemertean worms, 142 Neobuccinum eatoni, 651 Neoproterozoic Era, Antarctic Shield and, 364–370 Neotectonics, 666–667. See also Plate tectonics earthquakes in, 666, 667 glacial isostasy in, 666 volcanic activity in, 666, 667 NERC. See Natural Environment Research Council NERC Antarctic Committee, 189 Net phytoplankton, 732 Net radiation, 971, 972 Netherlands COMNAP membership of, 309 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 Netherlands: Antarctic Program, 667–668 BAS, AWI, and, 668 NPP of, 667 Netherlands Antarctic Programme (NAAP), 667 Netherlands Council of Earth and Life Sciences (NWO), 458 Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), 667 Netherlands Polar Programme (NPP), 667

I53

INDEX Networks 1 and 2, Brazilian Antarctic Program and, 180–181 Neu Schwabenland Expedition. See German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition Neue Schwabenland, 1024 Neumayer 3, 126 Neumayer Channel, 136 Neumayer, Georg Balthasar von, 668–669 Gauss expedition and, 668 IPY (1882–1883) and, 668 Petermann, August, and, 723 Neumayer Station, 459, 1135, 1141 atmospheric boundary layer studies at, 102 AWI and, 22 weather forecasting at, 1048 Neutrino astronomy. See Astronomy, neutrino Neutrino telescope, 97 Neutrinos astronomy and study of, 95, 97–98 IceCube and, 32, 95, 97–98, 308 Neutron monitors, location of, 305 New Bedford Whaling Museum, whaling logbooks and, 40 New ice, 851, 852 New Zealand ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic terns at offshore islands of, 81 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83, 669 COMNAP membership of, 309, 670 postage stamps, Antarctic and, 728 New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust, 284 New Zealand Antarctic Institute Act 1996, 669 New Zealand Antarctic Program (NZAP), 669–670 archaeological research and, 87 COMNAP, AEON, CEP, ATCM and, 670 environmental stewardship of, 670 science programs of, 669–670 New Zealand pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae), 209 New Zealand Science in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (2003–2008), 669 New Zealand (Hooker’s) sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), 104 Campbell Islands and, 209 Newcastle Disease virus (NDV), 274, 335. See also Diseases, wildlife Newnes, Sir George, 172, 174, 187 NGDC. See National Geophysical Data Centre Ngolok tribe, 394 NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations Nichols, Robert, 802 Nilas, 851, 852 Nilsen, Thorvald, 676 NIMBUS-7, 859 NIMPOL. See N-band Imaging Polarimeter Nimrod, 1076. See also British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition Shackleton and expedition of, 183–186, 889, 1112 Nimrod Glacier, 130 Nimrod Islands, Biscoe and, 168 90
South (film) (Ponting), 395. See also South (Hurley) Ninnis, Belgrave, 111, 343, 636 Ninnis Glacier, 111, 466 NIOO-KNAW. See Netherlands Institute of Ecology NIPR. See National Institute of Polar Research Nitrate (NO3), 222, 223 Nitric acid (HNO3), 267, 904, 905 Nitrogen, ecosystems, Antarctic and, 154 Nitrous oxide (N2O), atmospheric concentration of, 103 No Latitude for Error (Hillary), 485

I54

NO3. See Nitrate (NO3) Nobile, Umberto, Amundsen and, 31, 221, 376, 799, 1087 Noble, Anne, 92 Noctilucent clouds (NLC), 267 Noddy, 763 Nodosaurs, 415 Nodularia, 28 Nolan, Sydney, 92 Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 281, 865 ASOC and, 41–43 Nordenskjo¨ld, Adolf Erik, 670 Nordenskjo¨ld, Otto, 87, 91, 221, 670–671, 1111. See also Swedish South Polar Expedition Larsen Ice Shelf traversed by, 585 Swedish South Polar Expedition led by, 417, 975–977, 1111 Norgay, Tenzing, 484 Norge (dirigible), 31, 221, 376, 799, 1087 Norris, George, 380 Norsel, 589, 674, 1114 North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) Antarctic Divergence and, 5 CDW’s origin from, 240, 241 formation of, 240, 954 North Magnetic Pole, Ross locates the, 181 North Pole AARI and drifting station at, 89 Amundsen and, 31, 191, 207, 376, 660, 675, 677, 799 Amundsen-Ellsworth-Nobile Transpolar flight to, 31, 376, 799 Byrd’s flight to, 207, 376 Cook, Frederick, and, 31, 675, 897 Eilsen, Carl Ben, and flight over, 1079 Ellsworth, Lincoln, and, 376, 799 neutrinos and, 98, 308 Peary, Robert, and, 31, 675, 897, 1024 Polarstern voyages to, 458 Wisting, Oscar, and, 1086 North Star, 1113 Northern Annular Mode (NAM), 262 Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), fulmarines as, 75 Northern giant petrel (Macronectes halli), 16, 671–672 breeding and population of, 672 distribution of, 671, 672 foraging of, 672 fulmarines as, 75 Northern lights. See Aurora Borealis Northern right whale dolphin (Lissodelphis borealis), 217 Northern royal albatross (Diomedea epomophora sanfordi), 16. See also Albatrosses breeding of, 817, 818 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 818 Endangered status of, 18, 167, 817 longlining and, 818 species characteristics of, 18, 817 Northern Scientific Commercial Expedition. See Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute Northern Sea Route, AARI and, 89 Northwest Passage, 31 Amundsen’s traversal of, 31, 479, 675 Franklin, Sir John, and, 633, 897 Hanssen and, 479 Ross, James Clark, and, 809, 810 Norvegia, 114, 177, 202, 722 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions with, 229–231, 233 Norvegiabukta Bay, 722

INDEX Norway Antarctic territorial claims of, 228, 229, 233, 234, 673 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 309 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 Norway: Antarctic Program, 672–673 Antarctic aerial efforts in, 114–115 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions and, 228–233 history of, 673 Norwegian Antarctic Research Expedition (NARE) 1976–1977, 45, 673 1978–1979, 673 1984–1985, 673 1989–1990, 673 Norwegian (Fram) Expedition (1910–1912), 675–677 Amundsen leads, 31, 340, 675–677, 1112 Edward VII Land and, 49, 677 motivation of, 677 South Pole reached by, 31, 192, 193, 340, 660, 677 Norwegian Polar Institute, 673 Norwegian Sea, 240 Norwegian (Sandefjord) whaling expedition (1892–1893), Larsen leads, 584, 585, 1111 Norwegian (Tønsberg) whaling expedition (1893–1895), 677–678 Borchgrevink and, 174, 417, 678 Bull, Henrik, as leader of, 677, 1111 commercial failure of, 678 Foyn and funding of, 416, 677 Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE) (1949–1952), 489, 673–675, 1114 aerial survey of, 674, 1114 atmospheric boundary layer studies by, 102 Maudheim base established by, 1114 scientific program of, 674, 675, 1114 Nostads, 64 Nostoc sp., 23, 24, 25, 28 Nothofagus, 72, 156, 357, 406, 413, 414 Notothenia squamifrons, 403 Notothenioid fish, 150–151 antifreeze compounds in, 4, 5, 272, 273, 357, 400 Notothenioidei (order Perciformes), 399 Novaes, Bartholomeu Diaz de, Portuguese naval expedition (1487–1488) of, 1109 Novara, 963 Novaya Zemlya, 479 Novels/Treatises, Antarctic, 386, 387, 388. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic Novolazarevskaya ice shelf, 680 Novolazarevskaya Station, 459, 681, 1135, 1141 Russian(Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 white-ice runway at, 14 Nowcasting, 1049 NPOESS. See National Polar Orbiting Environmental Satellite System NPP. See Netherlands Polar Programme NSERC. See Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 112 Nuclear testing, in Antarctica, 757 Numerical modeling, 258, 500 of polar lows and mesoscale weather systems, 744, 747–749 of Southern Ocean circulation, 945–947 Nunataks, 57 NWO. See Netherlands Council of Earth and Life Sciences Nyrøysa, Antarctic fur seals at, 54, 176 NZAP. See New Zealand Antarctic Program

O O2/N2 ratio, 103 Oases, Antarctic, 346, 462, 463, 679–681, 681–683. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys biology of, 681–683 Bunger Hills and, 679, 680, 682 definitions of, 679, 681–682 flora and fauna on, 680, 681 geographical traits of, 679 Larsemann Hills and, 679, 680, 682 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 682 micro, 682–683 microorganisms in, 682, 683 Schirmacher Oasis and, 679, 680, 681, 682 small, 682 Stations located at, 679 Stillwell Hills and, 679, 680, 682 Vestfold Hills and, 679, 680, 682 Oasis Station, 680. See also Dobrowolski Station Russian(Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 Oates Land, 51 Oates, Lawrence Edward Grace, 51, 683–684 Terra Nova expedition and sacrifice/death of, 175, 193, 195, 264, 683, 764, 834, 836–837, 837, 1112 Oazisy v Antarktide (Oases in Antarctica) (Solopov), 679 Obligate diapause, 3 Obliquity of the spin axis, 495 Ocean, 1109 Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 113, 345, 346 Ocean floor. See Sea bed Ocean fronts, 622 Ocean research platform(s) Aurora Australis as, 112, 684, 853, 920 Eltanin as, 235, 684, 1021, 1094 James Clark Ross as, 190, 289, 584, 684, 1016, 1112 Laurence M. Gould as, 684, 1021 Nathaniel B. Palmer as, 684, 853, 854, 1021 Polar Duke as, 684 Polarstern as, 21, 22, 38, 39, 289, 457, 458, 459, 662, 684, 746, 747, 852, 853 sampling equipment of, 684–686 Ocean sampling equipment ADCP as, 685 AUVs as, 686 cabled observatories as, 685 CTD/rossettes as, 684–685 echo sounders as, 685 research platforms and, 684–686 ROVs as, 142, 143, 144, 685–686 satellites as, 686 sediment traps as, 685 ship-borne gravimeters as, 685 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 525 Ocean-color sensors, 791 Oceanic islands, 123 Ochromonas sp., 24 Octopodi, 651 Odd 1, Christensen Antarctic Expeditions with, 229, 232, 233, 234 Odell Glacier, blue-ice runway at, 14 Odobenids, 877 Odontocetes, 131 ODP. See Ocean Drilling Program Of Ice and Men (Fuchs), 424 Office Boys, 911

I55

INDEX Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, USA, 686–688 federal agencies that support, 687–688 historical development of, 688 as manager of US Antarctic Program, 686 responsibilities of, 686–687 Ohio, 327 Ohio Range, 130 Ohlin, Alex, 975 Oil. See also Coal, oil, and gas exploration for Antarctic crude, 268, 269 Oil spill, 299 Oiseau, 569 Oithona similis, 296 Old Dartmouth Historical Society Whaling Museum, whaling logbooks and, 40 Old ice, 850 Oldham, R. D., 322 Oligocene epoch benthic fauna and, 146 climate change between Eocene and, 344 continental shelves and, 287 Larsen Basin sedimentary succession and, 72 OLS. See Optical Linescan System Olstad, Ola, 722 Oluf Sven, 383, 1114 Olympus Glacier, 347 Olympus Range, 347, 348 Omelchenko, Anton, 763 Ommanney, Erasmus, 633 One Ton Depot, 192, 193, 837 Onyx River, 963 Oolapikka folk, 106 Oom, Carl, 36 Opal belt, 883 Open magnetosphere, 612–613 Operation Deep Freeze, 117, 731 Operation Highjump. See United States Navy Antarctic Developments Project (1946–1947) Operation Tabarin I (1943–1944), 334, 489, 1113 archaeological sites from, 87 BAS and, 188 bases on Antarctic Peninsula by, 124–125, 1113 Deception Island and, 328, 1113 post offices established during, 728 Wordie, James, and, 1097 Operation Tabarin II (1944–1945), 1113 Operation Windmill. See United States Navy Antarctic Developments Project (1947–1948) Operational environmental management, of Antarctic, 688–693 COMNAP and AEON in, 689–690 energy management in, 692 flora, fauna and introduction of microorganisms, 692 fuel use, storage, and, 691–692 legal and political framework for, 689 practical aspects of, 690–692 tourism industry and, 693 training in, 692–693 waste management in, 690–691 Ophistobranch gastropods, 651 Ophiuroida (brittle stars), 371 Opportunity mission, 318 Optical astronomy. See Astronomy, Antarctic Optical Linescan System (OLS), 791, 858 Optical sensors, 98

I56

Optical to Thermal Infrared (OTIR) radiometers, 790–792 high-resolution sensors and, 792 hyperspectral sensors and, 792 moderate resolution sensors and, 791–792 multi-angle sensors and, 792 ultra-high-resolution optical sensors and, 792 Orca whales. See Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) Orcadas Station, 91, 1135, 1141 climate records, long-term from, 252 meteorological weather data for, 643 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Orcinus glacialis, 572 Orcinus nanus, 570 Ordovician Period, fossils, invertebrate and, 410, 411 Oribatid mite (Alaskozetes antarcticus), 176. See also Parasitic insects: mites and ticks Oribatida, 715 Oriental, 482 Origin of Species (Darwin), 204 Orle´ans Strait, 321 Orogenic belts, 364, 365, 430 Grenvillian Age, 365, 366, 431, 432 Orogens, 430, 800 Orogeny, 738 Orr, Neil, 341 Orsman, C. B., 387 Orthogneisses, 69 Osborne, Sherard, 633 Oscillatoria, 350 Oscillatoriales, algae of order, 23, 27, 28 Osipov, Boris, 118 Ostad, Ola, 229 Ostracoda, 1105 Otariidae, Antarctic fur seals and family, 53 Otariids, 877 OTEC. See Ocean thermal energy conversion OTIR radiometers. See Optical to Thermal Infrared radiometers Otter flights, 276, 277 Ousland, Borge, solo adventuring and, 9 Outer layer of clothing, 264 Outer magnetosphere, regions of, 613 Outlet glaciers, Antarctic Ice Sheet and, 58 Output components, 512–513 Overturning circulation, 80, 235, 238–239, 241 AASW and, 80 ACC and, 235, 238–239 CDW and, 240, 241 Overwintering, 40 Owens, Russell, 1024 Oxford University Spitsbergen Expedition, 479 Oxygen CDW and distribution of, 240 deep sea and levels of, 330 dissolved, 63, 64, 79, 221, 222, 223 isotopes in ice, 206, 505, 553–555, 709, 987, 1088 marine mammals, diving and, 337–339 richness of, in Antarctic waters, 4, 43, 46, 47, 79, 80, 143, 145 Oxygen microelectrodes, 848 Oxygen transport, fish and evolution of, 400–401 Ozone absorption bands of, 694 catalytic cycles that destroy, 697 depletion of, 698 description and formation of, 694

INDEX Dobson spectrophotometers and measurement of, 694–696 events that impact levels of, 698 global network monitoring stations for, 696–697 IGY and data sets of, 696–697 photochemistry of, 694 polar stratosphere and, 694–699 UV-B radiation and, 698 Ozone and the polar stratosphere, 694–699 Ozone hole, Antarctic, 84, 242, 256, 262, 355, 490 ATS and, 84 BAS and discovery of, 190 Montreal Protocol and, 356, 698 PSCs and formation of, 267 SAM trend and, 255 satellite images of, 695, 697 size and depth of, 698 winter polar vortex and development of, 697 Ozothamnus, 104

P Pachyptila, 77 Pacific albatross (Thalassarche nov. sp. [platei]), 16. See also Albatrosses Pacific Ocean AABW in, 43 AAIW and, 64 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 CDW and, 241 Cook, James, and voyages in, 295, 296 Pacific Ocean lithosphere, 68 Pacific South America climate pattern, 949 Pacific-South American (PSA) modes, 254, 985 Pack ice, 703, 717, 845, 852, 853–854 Pack ice and fast ice, 701–707 PAGES (Past Global Changes), 537 Paget plates, 731 PAHs. See Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Paige, David, 1027 Pakistan Antarctic research program of, 661 SCAR Associate membership of, 661 Pale-Faced (Greater) sheathbill (Chionis alba) IBA criteria for, 60 life history of, 895–896 social structure and diet of, 896 species distribution of, 869 Paleoclimate records, Antarctic fossils as, 707, 708, 709 ice-core, 707, 708, 709–713 importance of, 712–713 lake sediment, 707, 708, 711 marine sediment, 707–708, 711 Paleoclimatology, of Antarctica, 707–708, 707–713 glacial-interglacial cycles in, 711–712 Gondwana breakup and, 708–709 Holocene epoch and, 711 ice-core records, importance of in, 708, 709–710, 712–713 paleoclimate records and, 707–708, 710–711, 712–713 recent centuries and, 710–712 Paleoproterozoic Era, East Antarctic Shield and, 364–370 Paleozoic Era Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 68, 69 Beacon Supergroup and, 129

East Antarctic Shield and, 364, 365, 366, 367–368, 370 echinoderms and, 370 Gondwana and, 364, 386 Palirhoeus eatoni, 531 Palme´n, E., 238 Palmer Archipelago, 47, 67 Palmer Land, 48, 321 Antarctic Peninsula and, 66 fault zone discovery at, 68 Palmer Land Orogeny, 68 Palmer, Nathaniel Brown, 327, 486, 713–714 Antarctic Peninsula sighting by, 67, 713 South Orkney Islands discovered by Powell and, 442, 551, 714, 875, 917, 1050, 1110 Palmer Station, 266, 1135, 1141 Pan-African event, 365, 366 Pan-African orogens, 368, 433 Pan-African Overprint, 368 Pan-African tectonism, 368–370 Panagrolaimus, 741 Panagrolaimus davidi, 272 Pancake ice, 620, 841, 851, 852 formation of, 845 Pancake-frazil cycle, 852, 855 PANGAEA. See Publishing Network for Geoscientific & Environmental Data Pangaea, 348, 365, 468, 1010 Pangea. See Pangaea Pannotia, 800 Panthalassan Ocean, 130 Paradise Harbor adventure tourism and, 9 tourism and, 67 Paralabidocera antarctica, 964 Paralomis birsteini, 332 Paralomis bouvieri, 331 Paralomis formosa, 331 Paralomis granulosa, 331, 332 Paralomis spinossisima, 331 Parameterization problem, 259, 267 Parana´ Basin, 130 Parasites, 335, 336 Parasitic insects: lice (order Phthiraptera) and fleas (order Siphonaptera), 714–715 Parasitic insects: mites and ticks, 715–717 Parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera), 531 Parborlasia corrugatus, 409 Parhelia, 12 Park, Byong-Kwon, 915 Parker, Alton, 1025 Parochlus steinenii, 531 Parry, William Edward, 181, 220, 809 Particle E, 549 Particle-Es Layer, 549 Particulate organic carbon (POC), 213 Passat, 116 Passel, Charles, 1049 Passive continental margins, 345 Passive microwave radiometers, 702, 792–793 Passive microwave sensors, 858–859 Passive remote sensing, 790–793 Past Global Changes. See PAGES Patagonian fox (D. griseus), as introduced species, 544 Patagonian shelf, 64

I57

INDEX Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides), 151, 403, 1002–1004. See also Toothfish distribution of, 1003 exploitation of, 718, 767, 1003–1004 Patagonotothen guntheri, 403 Pathe´ Journal, 395 Pathogens, 425. See also Diseases, wildlife Paton, James, 813, 814 Patria, 136 Patriot Hills adventure tourism and, 8 blue-ice runway at, 14 Paulet Island, archaeological research on, 87 Paulmier, Abbe´ Jean, 175 PCA. See Polar-cap absorption PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls PC-index, 823 pCO2, carbon cycle and, 212–213 Peadeosaurus, 414 Peale’s dolphin (Lagenorhynchus australis), 216, 218 Peale, Titian R., 1028 Pearlwort. See Antarctic pearlwort Pearson, Henry J., 479 Peary, Robert E., 31, 675 Peat soils, 104 Pedro Aguirre Cerda Station, 328 Pegasus, white-ice runway at, 14 Peggotty Bluff, 528 Pelagic communities of the Southern Ocean, 717–719 ACC and, 717 ecosystem of, 144 human exploitation of, 144, 718 SIZ and, 717 vertical migration range of, 718 Pelagic driftnet fishing, 895 Pelagic ecosystem, 144 Pelagic whaling, 585 Pelecanoididae, 164 Pelican (Golden Hind), 1109 Pelmatozoa, 371 Pencil urchins (Ctenocidaris spp. and Notocidaris spp.), 796 Pendleton, Benjamin, 327, 486, 713 US sealing voyages of, 1110 Pendulum Cove, 327, 328 Penguin Island, geology of, 179 Penguins (order Sphenisciformes), 719–722 breeding of, 721–722 description of, 719–721 diet of, 721 evolution of, 719 fossil species of, 719 geographical range (list) of species of, 720 mass mortalities and, 335 overview of, 719–722 predators of, 722 species (list) of, 720 Spheniscidae (family) of, 164 Penola, 115, 1113 BGLE and, 195, 196 Pensacola Mountains, 49 Penzias, Arno A., 301 Pe´pin, Ade`le-Dorothe´e, 352 ‘‘Per ardua vincimus,’’ 527 Peri-Antarctic islands, 211, 672, 968, 991, 994 Periglacial areas, 463

I58

Perihelion, 495 Periphyton, algae and, 23 Permafrost, 40, 463, 907–908 Permian period Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 69 Beacon Supergroup and, 130 coal of, 268 fossils, invertebrate and, 411 fossils, plant and, 130, 412, 413 fossils, vertebrate and, 414 Pernic, Robert, 302 Perseverance, 1110 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 373 Peru ACAP signatory of, 16 AT agreement by, 661 Antarctic research program of, 661 COMNAP membership of, 309 SCAR membership of, 661 Pesquisa Anta´rtica Brasileira, 181 Pesticides, 373 PET. See Princess Elizabeth Trough Peter I Island. See Peter I Øy Peter I Øy, 47, 139, 722–723 Bellingshausen discovers, 722, 824, 1110 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions and, 229, 230, 231, 233, 1112 geology of, 967 Larsen, Nils, and landings on, 722 Norway claims, 234, 722, 1112 Peter the Great, Czar, 722 Petermann, August, 723–724 atlases and journal of, 723 physical geography of Antarctic by, 723 scientific career of, 723 Petermann Island, 321 tourism and, 67 Petersen, Han Christian, 276 Peterson, Harris-Clichy, 802 Peterson, Jeffrey, 302 Petrel moteado, 211 Petrel Station, 91 Petrels: Pterodroma and Procellaria, 724–727 Campbell Islands and, 209 copepods predated by, 297 grey petrels in, 726 Kerguelen petrels in, 724 longlining’s impact on, 15, 20, 282 mottled petrels in, 724–725 Procellariiformes order and, 77 soft-plumaged petrels in, 726 species list (ACAP) of, 16 white-chinned petrels in, 726–727 white-headed petrels in, 725 Petroleum. See also Coal, oil, and gas exploration for Antarctic, 268 Petrov, V. M., 118 PF. See Polar Front PFZ. See Polar Front Zone Phaeocystis antarctica, 631, 717 Phalacrocoracidae, 164 Phanerogams, 652 Phanerozoic Eon, East Antarctic Shield and, 365 Phase, 267 Phenotypic variation, 2

INDEX Philately, Antarctic, 359, 727–729 history of, 727–728 Sub-Antarctic islands and, 728–729 Philip, Prince, 384 Phillips, Watts, 387 Philodina, 408 Philodina gregaria, 816, 817 Philopatry, Ade´lie penguins and, 6 Phocidae, 815, 877 Phocoenidae, 216 Phoebastria, albatrosses in genus, 18–19 Phoebetria, albatrosses of genus, 18 Phoenix Firebird, 117 Phoenix Plate, 435, 739 Phormidium spp., 23, 24, 28, 350 Phosphate (PO4), 222, 223 Phosphorous, ecosystems, Antarctic and, 154 Photic zone, 329 Photobionts, 591 Photography, in the Antarctic, 92, 729–732 AAE and, 110 aerial, 214, 215, 216, 229, 232, 234, 384, 731 FIDASE and aerial, 384, 1114 heroic period of, 729–731 history of, 729–732 Hurley, Frank, and, 92, 110, 730–731 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 347 Ponting, Herbert, and, 92, 110, 190, 192, 729, 730, 731 Photoinhibition, 591, 653 Photolytic decomposition, 329 Photons, 97 CMBR and, 301–303 Photosynthesis, carbon concentrations and, 153 Photosynthesis determinations, 847–848 Photosynthetic plankton, 213–214 Photovoltaic(PV) cells, 127 Phreatomagmatism, 385 Phylica nitida, 30 Physical geographic factor(s) in Antarctic climate elevation as, 242–243, 244, 245 latitude location as, 243, 244, 245 open water as, 243, 244, 245 season as, 243 Physikalischer Atlas, 723 Physiography, continental shelves/slopes and, 286–288 Phytoplankton, 717, 732–734 AASW and, 80 algae and, 23, 24 Antarctic Divergence and increased, 52, 361 Antarctic marine, 733–734 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 biomass distribution of, 769 carbon cycle and, 213–214 categories of, 732–734 chemical oceanography of Southern Ocean and, 222, 223 copepods’ diet of, 297 Falkland/Malvinas Current and, 64 growth of, 732 ice zone and, 256 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 349 production of, 733 ratio of biomass to productivity in, 769 species of, 732 Pic Marion, 316 Pickering, Charles, 1028

Picophytoplankton, 717, 732–733 Pierre Auger experiment, 307 Pigs, as introduced species, 104, 274, 545, 862 Pilot Experiment for Southern Ocean (PESO), 529 Pimenlov, A., 118 Pine Island Bay, 34 Pine Island Glacier, 34, 465 Pinjarra Orogen, 365, 370 Pinnacled berg, 522 Pinnipedia, 53, 877 Pinnipeds, 877, 878 Pinnipes, 877 Pinnularia boralis, 28 Pintado, 211 Pioneer 10 spacecraft, 304 Pirate fishing, 280 Pirie, J. H. Harvey, 10 Pisces, species of, 145 Pitt Islands. See also Biscoe Islands Biscoe discovers, 168 Place-names, Antarctic, 734–736. See also Cartography and charting Antarctic Continent as, 734 cartography influenced by, 734 CGA database and, 735–736 duplication, translation, and misapplication of, 734–735 parts of, 734 SCAR and gazetteer of, 735 types and range of, 735 Planck curve, 301 Plankton, freshwater and food web of, 408, 409 Plasma, 736 plasmasphere and, 736–737 Plasma plumes, 737 Plasmapause, 736, 737 Plasmasphere, 614–615, 736–737 definition of, 736 discovery of, 736 remote-sensing techniques for study of, 737 Plastics, marine debris and, 630, 631 Plate crystals, formation of, 11–12 Plate tectonics, 737–739. See also Neotectonics of Antarctic Plate, 357, 738–739, 1141 Antarctica, geological evolution of and, 431, 435 biogeography and, 154 continental shelves/slopes and, 286 of Drake plate, 68, 70, 73, 431, 435, 739 geophysical evidence of, 130 internal deformation in, 737 Mesozoic magmatic arc, Antarctic Peninsula, 68, 70, 71 plate boundaries, types of in, 737–738 principles of, 737–738 of Sandwich plate, 551, 739 of Scotia Plate, 739 Plateau Depot, 278 Plateau des Tourbie`res, Amsterdam albatrosses and, 29 Plateau Station, atmospheric boundary layer measurements at, 101 Platelet ice, formation of, 842–843, 846, 855–856 Platforms, 364 Plays, Antarctic, 387, 388, 389 Plectus, 741 Pleistocene epoch albatrosses and, 29 glacial retreat in post-, 157, 159 glaciers during, 29, 104, 159, 209, 288

I59

INDEX Plesiosaurs, 415 Pleuragramma antarcticum, 409, 812 Pleurocarps, 652 Pleurophyllum, 104 Pliocene epoch, Antarctic Ice Sheet, collapse of and, 58 Plucking, 511 Pluto, 548 Plutonic intrusions, 179 Plutonic rocks, Antarctic Peninsula and composition of, 70 PMC. See Polar mesospheric clouds PMSE. See Polar mesosphere summer echoes PNRA. See National Programme of Antarctic Research PO4. See Phosphate Poa Annua grass, as introduced plant, 163, 282, 283, 407, 544, 566 Poa novarae, 30 Poaceae, 406 Poales, 406 POC. See Particulate organic carbon PODAS. See Polarstern Data Acquisition System Poe, Edgar Allen, 386, 387 Poetry, Antarctic, 386, 387. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic list of, 388–389 Point Ge´ologie, 5 Pointe Jeanne d’Arc whaling station, 284 Poland, COMNAP membership of, 309 Poland: Antarctic Program, 739–741 scientific expeditions of, 740 Polar auroras, 107 Polar Biology, 1137 Polar Bird, 112 Polar clothing. See Clothing, Antarctic Polar cod (Boreogadus saida), 400 Polar Continental Shelf Project, 210 Polar cusp, 613 Polar desert, 740–741. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys; Microorganisms, Antarctic; Nematodes; Oases, Antarctic McMurdo Dry Valleys as, 741 microorganisms in, 741 oases and, 740 Polar Eskimo dogs, 340 Polar Experiment-North, AARI and, 89 Polar Front (PF), 47, 49, 140, 146, 222, 291, 741–743, 743–744 AAIW formation and, 64 ACC flows and, 79, 360, 742, 743 ASW and, 741 dolphins/porpoises and barrier of, 216–217 ecosystems of, 742, 743–744 evolution in isolation and, 399 fungi species within, 425 islands and island groups south of, 47 map of Antarctic Divergence and, 1143 marine biology of, 5, 146, 742, 743–744 northern limit of Antarctic region and, 47 PFZ of, 743–744 position of, 742 SAF and APF in, 743 Southern Ocean, fronts of and, 952 Polar Front Zone (PFZ), 162, 357, 743 ACC and, 236 phytoplankton, biomass and production in, 743 zooplankton, species composition and biomass in, 743–744 Polar ionosphere. See Ionosphere Polar lows, 246. See also Cyclones; Polar lows and mesoscale weather systems definition of, 744–745

I60

Polar lows and mesoscale weather systems, 744–750 AVHRR, ERS-SCAT, and SSM/I data on, 745, 746, 747, 749 ENSO’s influence on, 745 FROST, RIME, and future study of, 749 numerical simulations of, 744, 747–749 satellite remote sensing of, 744 structures of, 746–747 types and formation areas of, 744–745 Polar mesosphere, 750–753 Antarctic v. Arctic, 752 climate change and, 752 measurements of, 751, 752 NLC in, 751, 752 PMC in, 751, 752 PMSE and, 751, 752 uniqueness of, 750–751 Polar mesosphere summer echoes (PMSE), 751, 752 Polar mesospheric clouds (PMC), 267, 751 Polar Plateau base technology and, 125–126 Discovery Expedition and, 201 Terra Nova Expedition and, 192, 193 Polar Record, 835, 1137 Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC), 226 Polar satellite, 106 Polar ski traverses, adventure tourism and, 8–10 Polar Slope Current, 271 Polar Star, 114, 328, 353, 376 Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), 267 Polar tents, 390 Polar vortex, 262 Polar-cap absorption (PCA), 548 Polarforschung, 1137 Polaris, 527 Polarsirkel, 45 Polarstern, 21, 22, 38, 39, 289, 457, 458, 459, 662, 684, 746, 747, 852, 853 ANDEEP programme and, 38–39 AWI and, 21 bathymetric data and, 289 research functions of, 21–22, 853 Polarstern Data Acquisition System (PODAS), Polarstern and, 22 Pole of Relative Inaccessibility. See Southern Pole of Inaccessibility Poleward Advection of Heat, 246 POLEX SOUTH, 560 Polish Polar Research, 1137 Politics of Antarctic. See Antarctic Treaty System Pollen air-spora and, 10 anhydrobiosis and, 39 Pollution, 753–758. See also Marine debris; Waste disposal and management Annex III to Protocol on Environmental Treaty and land, 84, 285, 755 Antarctic ice cap and global atmospheric, 758 Antarctica’s level of, 753 beaked whales and, 135 biological, 753–754 CFCs and, 356, 363, 697, 698 chemical, 753, 754, 755 DDT levels of, 754 detection of, in snow and ice, 758–759 ecotoxicology and, 372–374

INDEX environmental standards of, 757 global distillation of, 754 introduced species and, 753 Madrid Protocol and prevention of, 755 marine debris and, 630–631 MARPOL and ship, 534–535, 631 microorganisms and, 753–754 oceanic fronts containing, 951 oil/fuel spills and, 756 PAH/PCB types of, 754, 755 physical types of, 753 polar species’ susceptibility to, 757–758 Protocol on Environmental Protection and sea, 84, 281 radioactive material and, 757 scientific activities and, 757 waste disposal, 754–756 Pollution level detection from Antarctic snow and ice, 758–759 anthropogenic materials, South Pole and, 32 difficulty of, 758 metals found in, 758, 759 Polonez glacial period, 178, 179 Polychaeta, 460, 1105 Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 754 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 754 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 644, 647 Polynyas and leads in the Southern Ocean, 6, 46, 101, 243, 260, 270, 361, 362, 363, 704, 759–762, 853, 859 biological diversity of, 761 coastal, 760 formation of, 759, 760 mathematical models of, 761 open-ocean, 760 as routes for ships, 761 significance of, 761 Polyplacophorans (chitons), 651 Polypropylene, 264 Polypropylene fleece, 264 Polysaccharides, 39 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 264, 265 Polytrichopsida, 652 Polytrichum strictum, 654 Pomarine skua ( jaeger) (Stercorarius pomarinus) breeding of, 900, 901 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 Pomerantz, Martin, 93, 302 Ponds, algae in, 24 Ponganis, Paul, 339 Ponies Filchner and use of, 394 mules and, 762–764 Nimrod Expedition and, 184, 185, 762–763 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 763–764 Ponting, Herbert, 323, 326 90
South by, 395 photography of, 92, 110, 190, 192, 729, 730, 731 SPRI and glass-plate negatives of, 835 Terra Nova Expedition and, 190, 192 POPs. See Persistant organic pollutants Population genetics, gene flow and, 427–428 Porania antarctica, 796 Porcupine, 219 Porifera, 460 species of, 145 Porpoising, 7

Port aux Francais Station, 1135, 1141 Port Foster, 220 benthic habitat of, 327 Port Lockroy adventure tourism and, 9 archaeological research at, 87 restoration of, 284 tourism and, 67 Port of Beaumont, 801, 1114 Porter, Dorothy, 387 Porter, Eliot, 92, 347 Porto Alegre, 176 Positive surface mass balance, 973 Positrons, 303 Possession Island, Ross, James Clark, and naming of, 182, 810 Post offices, in Antarctica history of, 727–728 Port Lockroy and, 729 Sub-Antarctic islands and, 728–729 Postage stamps, Antarctic, 727–729 history of, 727, 728, 729 issuance of first, 728 Potential temperature, AAIW’s, 63 Potten, Craig, 347 Poulter, Tom, 1024 Pourquoi Pas?, 220, 221, 421, 422 Pourquoi Pas? Expedition. See French Antarctic (Pourquoi Pas?) Expedition Powell Basin, 552 Powell, George, 714 South Orkney Islands discovered by Palmer and, 442, 551, 714, 875, 917, 1050, 1110 Powell Island Conglomerate, 553 Power solar, 127 water, 127 wind, 127 Poynter, C. W., 923 Prasiococcus calarius, 25 Prasiola, 350 Prasiola calophylla, 24 Prasiola crispa, 25, 28 Pratt, D. L., 277 Pratt, J. G., 277 Precambrian Time, East Antarctic Shield and, 364–366, 370 Precautionary principle, 359 Precession of the equinoxes, orbital variations and, 495 Precipitation, 764–765 AAO’s relation with, 765 circumpolar vortex and, 765 climate and, 247–248 climate/atmospheric modeling of, 765 formation of, 764–765 future Antarctic climates and increase of, 255, 256 Presidente Eduardo Frei Station, 576, 577, 1135, 1141 Press, Tony, 38 Pressure ridges, 509 Prestrud, Kristian, 626, 676, 677 Prestwich, Joseph, 322 PRIC. See Polar Research Institute of China Priestley Glacier, 766 Priestley, Raymond Edward, 323, 326, 765–767 Nimrod expedition and, 186, 322, 765, 766, 1097 SPRI, formation of and, 488, 766, 1097 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 194, 766, 1097

I61

INDEX Primary productivity, 769 algal biomass accumulation and, 847 methods for estimating, in sea ice, 847–848 photosynthesis v. irradiance determinations of, 847–848 Primavera Station, 91 Prince Charles Mountains, 50, 268, 365 Prince Edward Islands, 767–768 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic terns on, 81 biogeography of, 767–768 Cook, James, and naming of, 910, 1109 Crozet cormorants at, 299 discovery of, 768, 910 flora and fauna on, 767, 768 geology of, 767 as South African territory, 910 as Special Nature Reserves, 768 Prince Edward Islands Management Committee, 768 Prince Gustav Channel, 254 Prince Olav Coast, 50, 115 Princess Astrid Coast, 168 Princess Elizabeth Land, 680 BANZARE identifies, 50, 115, 203 Princess Elizabeth Trough (PET), 360, 363 Prinsesse Ragnhild Kyst, 661, 799 Prions. See Antarctic prion PROANTAR. See Brazilian Antarctic Program PROANTARCYT. See Antarctic Program of Scientific and Technological Research Procellariidae, 164, 211 Procellariiformes (tube-nosed seabirds), 77, 211, 471, 671. See also Petrels: Pterodroma and Procellaria albatrosses in order, 17 Procolophonids, 415 Productivity definition of, 768–769 primary and secondary, 769 Productivity and biomass, 768–769 benthic organisms and ratio of, 769 phytoplankton and ratio of, 769 planktonic heterotrophs and, 769 Prof. W. Besnard, 180 Professor Julio Escudero Station, 224, 576, 1135, 1141 Professor Multanovsky, 90 Programa Anta´rtico Brasileiro. See Brazilian Antarctic Program Progress Station, 50, 1135, 1141 microbiological studies at, 647 Prolacertids, 415 Propagules, 151, 159–160 biological invasions and, 163, 164, 274, 282 fungal, 425 gene flow in moss through, 427 Prosauropods, 415 Prospecting, CRAMRA and mineral, 84, 268, 280–281, 294–295, 358 Prostigmata, 715 Proteaceae family, 406 Protected areas within the Antarctic Treaty area, 769–781 Protector, 384 Proteobacteria, 644–645 Proterozoic Eon, 129 East Antarctic Shield and, 364 Protista, 644–645 Protists, 39

I62

Protocol of 1978 Relating to MARPOL, 1973. See MARPOL 73/78 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol), 38, 782–784, 1125–1133 Annexes of, 84, 85, 782, 783–784 Antarctic IBA Inventory and Annex V of, 61 ASOC and, 42, 281 ATS and, 82, 84–85 biodiversity conservation and, 152 Canadian ratification of, 210 CEP and, 61, 84, 784 Chile and, 224 CITES and, 291 commencement of, 783 conservation and, 166 contents of, 1125–1133 CRAMRA and, 84, 295, 782–783 development of, 782–783 dogs in Antarctica, banning of and, 340 fuel spills and, 127, 281, 755 historic sites protected by, 88 impact of, 784 introduced species and, 274 operational environmental management and, 689 Parties, list of to the, 782 purpose of, 84–85, 281, 285, 783 SAER and, 784 Protons, 97 cosmic rays and, 303 Proto-Pacific Ocean lithosphere, 68 Protozoa, 784–785 anhydrobiosis and, 39, 349, 350 Antarctic biogeographical zones and, 155, 156 Bellingshausen Sea and, 141 classification of, 784–785 climate change and distribution changes in, 785 copepods’ diet of, 297 low population densities of, 785 low species richness of, 785 mixotrophic, 150 taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Protozoan cysts, 39 Prussian Land Survey, 394 Prydz Bay, 360, 363, 365, 583 Prymnesiophyte (Phaeocystis antarctica), 213 PSA modes. See Pacific-South American modes PSCs. See Polar stratospheric clouds Pseudaphritidae, 401 Pseudochynichthys georgianus, 403 Pseudopanax, 104 Psittacosis (ornithosis), 335 Psychroteuthis glacialis, Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Pteropoda, 1105 Pteropods (Thecosomata), 651, 717 PTFE. See Polytetrafluoroethylene Publishing Network for Geoscientific & Environmental Data (PANGAEA), AWI and, 22 Puchalski, Wlodzimierz, 576 Puerto Deseado, 91 Punta Arenas, 136, 137 PV cells. See Photovoltaic(PV) cells Pycnogonida, 460 Pygmy blue whales, 170–171. See also Blue whale; Whales Pygoscelids, 5, 227 Pygoscelis, meaning of, 5

INDEX Pyramid polar tents, 389 Pyramimonas sp., 24, 408, 963 Pyrdz Bay, 270 Python, 302

Q Qasim, S. Z., 529 Quad bikes, 391 Quan, 762, 763 Quar, Leslie, 674 Quasi-stationary wavenumber 3 climate pattern, 949 Quaternary Period colonization and, 273 fossils, invertebrate and, 411, 412 sediments and paleoceanography of Southern Ocean during, 884 Que Sera Sera, 117 Quechua, 633 Queen Fabiola Mountains, blue-ice runway at, 14 Queen Mary Land, 51 Queen Maud Land, 126 Finnish Antarctic program and, 398 QUEEN project, 496 Quest, 892, 893, 1077, 1112 Quijada, Hermes, 119 Quimmiq, 340 Quin, Douglas, 658

R Rabbits, as introduced species, 283, 317, 543, 544, 567, 896 Racovitza, Emile, 136 Rac-Tents, 390 Radar altimeters, 794 Radar interferometry, 788–789 Radar scatterometers, 794 Radar soundings, 510 RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project (RAMP), 216, 787–790 goal of, 787 MAMM and, 789 mosaic of, 787, 788 radar interferometry and, 788–789 RADAR-SAT satellite, 210, 524 Radiation balance, 267 Radiation belts, 614 Radiations, 628 Radioactive materials, 757 Radio-echo sounding (RES), 581, 582 Radioisotopes, 757 Radiolaria, 1105 Radiolarians, fossils of, 411 RAE. See Russian Antarctic Expedition Rafting, 703, 857 Rakusa-Suszczewski, Stan, 740 Ramazzottius sp (terrestrial Eutardigrada), 984 Ramı´rez, Lucia, 224 RAMP. See RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Project RAMP mosaic, 787, 788 Ramsar Convention, 60 Ramsay, Allan, 838 Range States, 16, 17 ACAP and, 15, 17 Rani, 764 Rankin, Niall, 913 Rapley, Chris, 190

RAS. See Radio-echo sounding Ratmanov, Makar Ivanovich, 138 Rats (Rattus spp.) Antarctic prion predated by, 78 Antarctic terns predated by, 81 as introduced species, 30, 78, 81, 152, 274, 283, 317, 533, 543, 544, 567, 862, 1083 seabird species disappearance from, 152, 283 Raynor Province, 368 Raytheon Polar Services Company, 687 Razorback whales. See Fin whale Recovered solids, 128 Recovery Glacier, 276 Red List. See IUCN Red List Red sea star (Odontaster validus), 143 Red sea urchin (echinoid) (Sterechinus nuemayeri), 143 Reece, Alan, 674 Reedy, Jim, 117 Reference buoy network of stations, 467 Reflectance, 704 Reflected shortwave (solar) radiation, 971, 972 Regional Fisheries Management Bodies (RFMOs), 865 Regional Interactions Meteorology Experiment (RIME), 749 Reindeer, as introduced species, 152, 283, 533, 543, 544, 567, 797, 913 Reinhold, Johann, 295 Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs), 142, 143, 144, 685–686 Remote sensing, 790–796 acoustic, 102, 795 active, 793–794 aircraft and field measurements with, 795 gravity missions and, 795 importance of, 790 LASER altimeters and, 794 OTIR radiometers and, 790–792 passive, 790–793 passive microwave radiometers and, 792–793 radar altimeters and, 794 radar scatterometers and, 794 SAR and, 793–794 Renewable-energy systems, 127–128, 391 Rennick Graben, 435 Renwick, James, 1078 Renwick, Jane, 1078 REP airplane, AAE and, 110 Report on the new whaling grounds of the southern seas (Gray, Daniel and Scott), 353 Reproduction, 796–797 ACC’s impact on, 797 benthic communities and, 796, 797 gonochoric, 796 heredity and, 1–2 in marine environment, 796–797 Reproductive isolation, 2 Republic of South Africa, ACAP signatory of, 16 Research platforms. See Ocean research platforms Resolution, 33, 105, 295, 296, 551, 911 Resolution and Adventure voyage (1772–1775), 485–486, 1109 Cook, James, as leader, 295–296, 1109 Restoration: Sub-Antarctic islands, 797–799 introduced species and, 797–798 Resurrection plants, anhydrobiosis and, 39 Retardation Es, 549 Retroflection zones, 523 Re´union, 176

I63

INDEX Reverse-osmosis system, 128 Revised Management Procedure, 540 RFMOs. See Regional Fisheries Management Bodies RGS. See Royal Geographical Society Rhigosaurus, 414 Rhincalanus gigas, 296, 769 Rhodophyta, 644–645 Rhyolitic ignimbrite flows, 70 Rich, William, 1028 Richards, Dick, 814 Richthofen, Ferdinand Freiherr von, 351 Ridge, 245 Ridging, 703, 857 Rifting, 177, 345, 430 RIGGS. See Ross Ice Shelf Geophysical and Glaciological Survey Riiser-Larsen, Hjalmar, 114, 202, 230, 231, 799 Amundsen and, 31, 799 Dronning Maud Land observed by, 50, 799 Norge dirigible piloted by, 799 Norvegia expedition led by, 799 Riley, Quinton, 340 RIME. See Regional Interactions Meteorology Experiment Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The (Coleridge), 387. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic albatrosses and, 17 Ring currents, 614 Ring of Fire, 1040 Ringgold, Cadwalader, 423, 1028 Rio, 538 Riometers, 548 Ritscher, Alfred, 116, 459, 1113. See also German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition Schwabenland Expedition led by, 457, 1113 River Plata, Antarctic fur seals at, 53 Roaring Forties, 245 Robert Island, geology of, 178 Roberts, Brian Burley, 188, 196, 285, 834–835 Robertson, David, 92 Robertson, Sir MacPherson, 50, 202 Robertson, Thomas, 353, 838 Robin, Gordon, 834 Roche, Antonio de la, 911 English mercantile voyage (1674–1675) of, 1109 Rockefeller, John D., 207, 1024 Rockefeller Mountains, 49, 623 Rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome), 312, 313, 314, 315. See also Crested penguins avian cholera and, 335 blue-eyed cormorants and, 298 Campbell Islands and, 209 Gough Island and, 471 IBA criteria for, 60 Vulnerable status of, 167, 315 Rodinia, 364, 365, 367, 369, 370, 432, 435, 799–801, 1009 breakup of, 367–368 East Antarctica and, 800–801 existence of, 369–370 Snowball Earth hypothesis of, 800 SWEAT hypothesis of, 800 Rodinia hypothesis, 357 Rodriques well, 128 Rofe, Bryan, 38 Romanche, 538 Romania, COMNAP membership and, 309 Romnæs, Nils, 232, 234

I64

Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition (RARE) (1947–1948), 801–803, 1114 Antarctic Peninsula survey by, 67, 802 archaeological sites from, 87 aviation program of, 116, 802 objectives of, 802 Ronne, Finn, as leader of, 801–802, 1114 women on, 801, 1114 Ronne Depression, 393 Ronne, Edith ‘‘Jackie,’’ 49, 801, 802, 1114 Ronne, Finn, 49, 116, 1022, 1114 Ronne ice shelf. See Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Ronne, Martin, 116, 801, 1024 Roosen Strait, 321 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 1022, 1023 Byrd and, 208 Roosevelt Island, 803 Roosevelt, Theodore, 375 Rorquals, 170, 321, 1067 harpoon cannons and, 416, 493 steam catcher boats and, 416, 493 Rose, 380 Rose, Jim, 484 Rose, Louise, 484 Rosnevet, Charles de, 569 Ross, Alastair, 838 Ross Dependency, 669 Ross Gyre, 35. See also Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres characteristics of, 1052 Ross Ice Shelf (Great Ice Barrier), 50, 803–805 AABW formation and, 46 calving of, 804 Crary, Albert, and, 805 Davis, J. E. and, 92 Discovery Expedition and, 184 katabatic winds and, 101 measurement of, 48 research survey of, 519 retreat of, 804 Ross, James Clark, and mapping, 182, 487, 518, 805, 810, 1110 satellite images of, 803, 804 size of, 803 Ross Ice Shelf Geophysical and Glaciological Survey (RIGGS), 805 Ross Island, 805–809. See also James Ross Island ASPAs of, 807–809 aurora sightings on, 105 Davis, J. E. and, 92 flora and fauna on, 806 geology of, 805 Heroic Era and, 806 Historic Sites and Monuments on, 808 hut conservation on, 284 McMurdo Station on, 51, 637, 638, 807 nematode species on, 665 Ross, James Clark, and discovery of, 182, 805, 810, 1110 Scott Base on, 807 solo adventuring from Berkner Island to, 9 Ross, James Clark, 51, 92, 136, 810–813 ACC observation by, 235 Antarctic water, temperature isotherm of discovered by, 723 Erebus and Terror Expedition of, 181–183, 380, 810, 1110 polar expeditions of, 809 right whales reported by, 321, 353

INDEX Ross Sea discovered by, 810–811, 820 Ross Orogen, 431, 432–433 Ross Sea, 136, 810–813 AASW and, 812 Ade´lie penguins in, 6, 813 Amundsen Sea and, 33, 34, 35 Antarctic Slope Front and, 270, 271, 361–362, 812, 953 archaeological sites in region of, 87 benthic species in, 143, 812 CDW and, 811, 812 continental shelf of, 811 emperor penguins in, 813 fauna of, 812, 813 fishery in, 812 food web of continental shelf of, 632 HSSW and, 811 LSSW and, 811–812 oceanography of, 810–813 oil and gas exploration and, 268, 269 physiography of, 288 polynyas of, 811 Ross, James Clark, and discovery of, 810–811, 820 second-year ice in, 703 Wilson, Edward, and profiles of, 92 Ross Sea Party, Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition (1914–1917), 51, 324–325, 325, 527, 528, 773, 808, 813–815, 819, 889, 1112 Mackintosh, Æneas, and, 323, 529, 773, 813, 1112 members of, 813, 814 rescue of, 528, 529, 814, 889 Ross Sea Region 2001: A State of the Environment Report for the Ross Sea Region of Antarctica, 670 Ross Sea Rift, 431, 435 Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii), 815–816. See also Seals adaptation and, 3 breeding of, 878, 879 CCAS and, 294 distribution of, 878 diving biology of, 337 population of, 816 reproductive biology of, 815–816 Ross, James Clark, discovers, 182, 815 Specially Protected Species status of, 166, 279, 285, 880 unique sounds of, 815 Rothera Research Station, 1135, 1141 aircraft runway at, 13, 67 BAS and redevelopment of, 190 flies at, 282 meteorological weather data for, 643 microbiological studies at, 647 weather forecasting at, 1048 Rotifera, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Rotifers, 816–817 algal mats and, 27 anhydrobiosis and, 39, 318, 333, 817 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 349, 350 species and locations of, 816–817 ROVs. See Remote Operated Vehicles Row Island, 123 Rowett, John Quiller, 892 Rowland, Sherwood, 697 Royal albatross (Diomedea epomophora), 817–818. See also Northern royal albatross; Southern royal albatross breeding of, 817, 818 characteristics of, 817

Royal Astronomical Society, 220 Royal Geographical Society (RGS), 41, 175, 818–819, 1078 AAE and, 110, 324, 819 Amundsen and, 819 Antarctic documents/manuscripts at, 41 Antarctic exploration and, 818–819 Biscoe and medal from, 168 Borchgrevink and, 175, 187 Chanticleer Expedition and, 220 Clements, Markham, as president of, 633, 634, 818, 819 Davis, John King, and, 324 Debenham and, 326 Discovery Expedition and, 198, 818, 819 Dundee Whaling Expedition and, 353 Enderby, Charles and George, as founding members of, 380 Fuchs as president of, 424 history of, 818 NBSAE and, 674 Nimrod Expedition and, 819 Ross, James Clark, and, 818 Royal Society v., 818 Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (RoyalNIOZ), 667 Royal penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli), 312. See also Crested penguins annual cycle of, 313–314 breeding and survival of, 314 diet of, 315 distribution of, 312, 313 Vulnerable status of, 315 Royal Scottish Geographical Society, 837, 838 Royal Society of Edinburgh, 838 Royal Society of London. See also Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge IGY and, 820 Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (RS), 488, 491, 819, 1016 Antarctic exploration and science and, 819–821 Chanticleer expedition and, 220 Cook, James, and, 819–820 Discovery expedition and, 198, 199, 201, 634, 820 history of, 819–821 Humboldt and, 487 RGS v., 818, 820 Ross, James Clark, and, 487, 818, 820 terrestrial magnetism and, 819, 820 Royal Society Range, 639 RoyalNIOZ. See Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research Royds, Charles, 200 RS. See Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge Rucker, Joseph, 395 Ru¨mker, Carl Christian Ludwig, 668 Ruperto Elichiribehety Station, 662 Ruskin, John, 322 Russia Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 309 Russia: Antarctic Program, 821–823 expedition and scientific sections of, 821 research stations of, 822 stages of, 821–822 Vostok Lake studies and, 823 Russian (Soviet) Antarctic Expedition (RAE), 821 AARI and, 89

I65

INDEX Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition (1819–1821), 486, 823–825 Antarctic continent discovered by, 138, 823–824 Bellingshausen leads, 138, 486, 823–825 goals of, 824 map of maritime route of, 1142 South Georgia visited by, 913 Russian-Turkish War, 138 Russkaya (USSR) coastal station, 49 Ryder, Robert Edward Dudley, 195, 196 Rymill, John Riddoch, 115. See also British Graham Land Expedition BGLE led by, 195–197, 1113

S Sabine, Edward, 809, 820 Sabrina Coast, 380 Sabrina cutter, 124, 380 Sabrina Island Ade´lie penguins on, 123 SPA status of, 123 SACCF. See Southern ACC Front SAER. See State of the Antarctic Environment Reporting SAF. See Subantarctic Front Safety, field camp, 392 Saffrey, John, 383 Sagitta gazellae, 744 Sakhalin Island, 139 Saldanha Bay, 525 SALE. See Subglacial Antarctic Lake Environments Salinity AABW and, 43–47 AAIW and, 62, 63 AASW and, 79–81 ACC and, 235–239 Antarctic Divergence and, 52 CDW and, 240–242 HSSW and, 43, 45, 46, 47 Ross Sea and decrease in, 242 Salmonella sps., 335 Salmonid fish, as introduced species, 152, 163, 317, 567, 568 Salpa thompsoni, 744 Salpidae, 1105 Salps (Salpa thompsoni), 142, 717, 769 Saltation, 500 Salvesen Range, 911 Salvin’s albatross (Thalassarche salvini), 16. See also Albatrosses diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Vulnerable status of, 18, 167 SAM. See Southern Annular Mode Samarang, 482, 1111 SAMFRAU (South America, South Africa, and Australia), 468 Sami, 659 Samoilovich, Rudolf, 90 Samoyed dogs, 340 Sampling equipment. See Ocean sampling equipment SAMW. See Subantarctic Mode Water San Francisco, 114, 1079 San Martı´n Station, 91, 1135, 1141 San Telmo, 480, 922 SANAE. See South African National Antarctic Expedition

I66

Sanae Station, 305, 691, 910, 911, 1135, 1141 neutron monitor at, 304, 305 SANAP. See South African National Antarctic Programme Sandebugten Formation, 551 Sandefjord Museum, 234 Sandefjordbukta Bay, 722 Sandstone, Beacon. See Beacon Supergroup Sandwich Land, 824 Sandwich Plate, 551, 739 Santiago, 1109 SAO. See Semi-annual Oscillation; State Oceanic Administration Sao Gabriel, 1109 SAR. See Synthetic Aperture Radar SAR interferometric (SARIn) mode, 319 SARIn mode. See SAR interferometric mode SAR/Interferometric Radar ALtimeter (SIRAL), 318, 319 Sars, Eva, 659 Sastrugi, 33, 500, 639 SASW. See Subantarctic Surface Water Satellite communications, base technology and, 129, 599 Satellite imagery Antarctic and, 355, 358 Antarctic Ice Sheet, mapping of through, 56 Satellite radar altimetry, 513 Satellite sensors, 702 Satellite-tracked drifting buoys, 703 Sauropods, 415 Scaloposaurids, 414 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR), 859, 987 Scaphopods, 651 SCAR. See Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research SCAR Code of Conduct for use of Animals for Scientific Purposes in Antarctica, contents of, 1123 SCAR Group of Experts on Birds (SCAR-GEB), Antarctic IBA Inventory and, 60–62 SCAR Working Groups, 85 Scarab Peak Chemical Type (SPCT), 385–386 Scenedesmus sp., 24 Schirmacher Hills, 50 Schirmacher Oasis, 459, 679, 680, 681, 682 Schirmacher, Richard Heinrich, 681 Schizothrix sp., 23 Schlich, Roland, 418 Schlossboch, Isaac, 801 Scholander, Per, 338 Schonbein, Christian Friedrich, 694 Schrader, Karl, 538, 1111 Schreiner, Ingweld, 115 Schulthess, Emil, 92 photography of, 731 Schwabenland, 116, 456, 457, 1113 Schwabenland expedition. See German South Polar (Schwabenland) Expedition Schwarz, Robert, 107 Science, 1137 Science, Antarctic. See History of Antarctic science Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), 279, 359, 827–829 ACAP and, 16–17 ADD and, 215–216 Agreed Measures and proposals from, 285 Antarctic region boundaries and, 47 ATS and, 82, 85, 359, 536, 828 AWI and, 20

INDEX BIOMASS program and, 828 Brazilian Antarctic Program and, 180, 181 Canada, CPC and, 210 Chilean Antarctic Institute and, 224–225 CNFRA and, 418 Code of Conduct for scientific research on animals and, 1123 commercial sealing and, 280 GEB, IBA Inventory and, 60–62 GEBCO and, 289 purpose of, 827, 828 Specially Protected Species, Annex II and, 166, 279 Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR), 829–830 ICSU and, 829 Scientific investigation, Antarctic Treaty and, 83 Scientific permit whaling, 540 Scientific research stations. See also Stations, Antarctic list of, 1135 map/location of, 1141 map/location of IGY, 1146 Scientific Subcommission of CONAAN, 661 Scintillation, 94 Scintillation detectors, 307 Scirpus nodosus, 30 Scoopers. See Antarctic prion Scotia, 353 Scotia Arc, 357 benthic species in, 143 Bransfield Strait and, 177 chinstrap penguins in, 227 marine biodiversity and, 147 Scotia Front, 952–953 Scotia Metamorphic Complex (SMC), 551, 552–553 Scotia Plate, 739 Scotia Ridge, 550, 739. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Gondwana breakup and formation of, 550 plate tectonic map of, 552 Scotia Sea, 345, 550 ACC’s impact on, 830–831 ANDEEP programme and, 38–39, 148 climate of, 832 Gondwana breakup and formation of, 550 oceanography of, 830–833 Scotia Sea, Bransfield Strait, and Drake Passage AAIW and, 831 ACC’s role in, 830–831 CDW and, 831 climate of, 832 ENSO’s influence on, 832 marine ecosystems of, 833 ocean circulation’s influence on, 830–831 oceanography of, 830–834 SAO and SAM in, 832 Weddell-Scotia Confluence and, 830–831, 833, 952 WSDW and, 831 Scotia Suite of Scottish Country Dances, 658 Scott and Amundsen (Huntford), 835 Scott Base, 51, 1135, 1141 CTAE and, 275, 276, 277, 278, 807 fast ice and, 854 history of, on Ross Island, 807 NZAP and, 669 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Scott, Gilbert, Ticket of Leave play and, 387

Scott Island, 47 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 geology of, 967 Scott of the Antarctic (film) (Frend), 395, 657 Vaughan Williams and, 395, 657 Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI), 834–835 activities of, 835 Antarctic Bibliography and, 41 Antarctic Ice Sheet, knowledge of and, 56 formation of, 488, 834 library of, 835 Scott, Robert Falcon, 11, 105, 124, 326, 835–837, 1112. See also British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition; British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition Eva and, 114 expedition accounts, unofficial of, 40 farthest south of 82
170 by, 184, 200, 351, 456 final remarks and request of, 834, 837 Markham, Clements Sir, and, 836 Nansen, Fridtjof, and, 660 Ross Ice Shelf and, 49 South Pole race between Amundsen and, 191, 192, 193, 836, 1142 Terra Nova expedition and death of, 175, 193, 195, 264, 764, 834, 836–837, 1112 Scott Station. See Amundsen-Scott Station Scott tents, 390 Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–1904). See also Bruce, William Speirs aerobiological research and, 10 Antarctic post office, establishment of by, 727–728 Bruce, W. S., as leader of, 837–838, 1111 Coats Land discovered by, 50, 838 conservation of magnetic observatory from, 284 meteorological observations by, 642 Orcadas Station and, 91, 252 scientific research of, 838 Scotia Sea named by, 830 Southern Ocean research by, 219, 838 Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, 205 Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate, 205 Scottnema, 741 Scottnema lindsayae (nematode), McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 350 SCPs. See Supercooling Points Screaming Sixties, 245 Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 337 SCUBA diving, 142, 143, 144 Scullin monolith, 115 Scurvy, 136, 184, 192, 193, 197, 200, 325, 342, 838–840 cause of, 839 in dogs, 342 Scyphozoa, 1105 Sea bed, benthic communities on, 38–39, 142–144 Sea cucumbers (holothurians), 142, 370–371. See also Echinoderms Sea floor spreading, 344 Sea ice AABW and, 356, 704, 860 ages and stages of, 701, 850–852 aircraft runways, 14, 854 Amundsen Sea and, 33–35 annual change of, 701 Antarctic birds nourished through, 871–872 Antarctic climates and, 242 Antarctic iceberg ice and, 524 Antarctic icemass v., 701 Arctic sea ice v. Antarctic, 856

I67

INDEX Sea ice (cont.) atmosphere coupled variability and modes of, 250–251 atmosphere interaction between ocean and, 704–705, 857–858 Bellingshausen Sea and, 140 climate modeling and, 260, 705 crystal textures of, 840–843 definition of, 849–850 drift of, 703–704 East Antarctica and, 361 EM techniques and thickness of, 705–706 extent and concentration of, 701–702, 950, 1140 fast ice as, 508, 703, 852–853, 854 field studies and future research on, 706 formation of, 701, 703, 840–843, 849–856 global marine environment and, 356 as habitat, 845–846 map of Antarctic, 1140 marine ecosystems impacted by changes in, 409, 701, 705 methods for estimating primary production in, 847–848 microalgae in, 846 microbial communities in, 705, 845–849 microstructure of, 840, 843–844 modes of, 250–251, 840–843 oceanic and atmospheric circulation impacted by changes in, 701 pack ice as, 703, 717, 845, 852–854 satellite sensors and measurement of, 702, 858–859 single-celled protists, types of in, 846–847 terminology for Antarctic, 703 thickness of, 705–706 types of, 849–856 weather/climate’s relations with, 857–861 Sea ice: crystal texture and microstructure, 840–845 ice properties/ice ecology impacted by salt distribution and, 844 methods of studying, 843–844 microstructure v. texture in, 840 modes of growth and formation of, 840–843 pore microstructure of, 843 Sea ice deformation, 703 measurement of, 703–704 Sea ice drift, measurement of, 703–704 Sea ice: microbial communities and primary production, 845–849 algal biomass accumulation in, 847 algal production, estimates of in, 848–849 incubation techniques for measurement of, 848 methods for estimating, 847–848 numerical modeling of, 848, 860 oxygen microelectrodes and measurement of, 848 photosynthesis v. irradiance determinations of, 847–848 Sea ice, weather, and climate, 857–861 atmospheric wind stresses in, 857–858 dynamic and thermodynamic factors in, 857–860 ENSO and, 860 ice concentration’s importance in, 859 microwave data for, 859 numerical modeling of, 860 passive microwave sensors and, 858–859 sea ice distribution in, 859–860 SMMR, SSM/I, and, 859 Sea lions, diving biology of, 337 Sea slugs (nudibranchs), 142 Sea spider (pycnogona), 142, 150, 460 Sea squirt (Ciona intestinales), 163 Sea star (Odontaster validus), 370–371, 796. See also Echinoderms Sea surface temperature (SST), 244, 245, 247, 250, 251

I68

Sea swell, 128 Sea urchin (Sterechinus neumayeri), 370–371, 587, 796. See also Echinoderms Sea-bears, 913 Seabird conservation, 861–866 Antarctic IBAs and, 60–62 avian diseases and, 863 climate change and, 865 ecotourism and, 863–864 fisheries and at-sea mortality in, 864–865 habitat alteration and, 862 human exploitation and, 863 international measures of, 865 introduced predators and, 862–863 pollution, ingestion, entanglement and, 864 Seabird populations and trends, 151, 866–870 Seabirds at sea, 870–874 BIOMASS program and, 870 capture of prey by, 873 GIS, IBAs, and MPAs for, 873 GLOBEC and JGOFS of, 870 lack of knowledge of, 873–874 observation from ships of, 870 Polar Front’s impact on density of, 871 satellite-tracking of, 872–873 sea ice as nourishment for, 871–872 seasonal sea-ice zone’s impact on, 871 specially protected areas for, 873 survival strategies of, 870–871 Seaborn, Adam, 386 Seago, Edward, 92 Seal(s) (pinnipeds, Southern Ocean), 877–881 breeding of, 878–879 CCAS protection of, 880 characteristics of, 877–878 commercial exploitation of, 880 diseases in, 335, 336 distribution of, 878 diving biology of, 337–339 foraging and diet of, 879, 880 overview of, 877–881 species of, 877 Seal Islands, geology of, 179 Seal Nunataks, 73 Sealing, 875–877 alien invasions and, 273 archaeology, historic and, 86, 87 CCAS and, 152, 280, 293–294 Enderby Brothers and, 380–381, 875 Heard Island and, 482 history of, 875–877 Kerguelen Islands and, 567 pelagic ecosystem impacted by, 144 records and logs of, 172 sites, conservation of, 284 South Shetland Islands and, 922–923 Weddell and, 1049 Sealing, history of, 875–877 Antarctic Peninsula and, 875 CCAS in, 877 conservation attempts in, 876, 877 elephant sealing in, 876 killing of seals in, 875–876 South Georgia sealing industry in, 876 vessels used in, 875

INDEX Seasonal Ice Zone (SIZ), 717 Seasonal Sea Ice Zone (SSIZ), 243, 246 Antarctic climate type as, 246 Seasonality, 881–882 Antarctic marine v. terrestrial environments influenced by, 881 definition of, 881 microphytoplankton influenced by, 881 Seastars, 142 Seaweeds, 882–883 foodwebs and nutrients from, 882 low light demands of Antarctic, 882 species richness of Antarctic, 882 SEB. See Surface energy balance SECIRM. See Secrataria da CIRM Second International BIOMASS Experiment (SIBEX), 829 Second International Polar Year (1932–1933), 535, 539. See also International Geophysical Year (1957–1958) Secondary productivity, 769 Second-year ice, 703, 850–852 Secrataria da CIRM (SECIRM), 180, 181 Secret Land, The (film), 395 Sector Anta´rtico Argentino, 91 Sedges, 104 rushes and, 406 Sediment cores, 356 Sediment traps, 685 Sedimentary rocks, South Shetland Islands’, 178, 179 Sedimentary sequence, Beacon Supergroup and, 129 Sediments, continental shelves/slopes and, 288–289 Sediments and paleoceanography of the Southern Ocean, 883–887 circulation, LGM reconstruction of in, 884–885 ocean productivity, LGM reconstruction of in, 885–886 during Quaternary period, 884 surface sediment composition in, 883 during Tertiary period, 883 Seeing, 93 Seeps, 268 Sehra, Paramjit Singh, 529 Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), 396, 887–888. See also Whales appearance and size of, 887 conservation/status of, 888 distribution and migration of, 887 life history and behavior of, 887–888 Seismic soundings, 510 Seismic surveys, 269 Selika, 325 Semi-annual Oscillation (SAO), 140, 243, 246, 948–949. See also Climate oscillations Semidiurnal tides, 1000 Sensible heat fluxes, 971 Sentinel Range, 49, 376 solo adventuring and, 9 Sepulveda, Alberto, 224 Seraph, 714, 1110 Serpulids, fossils of, 411 ‘‘Seven Summits,’’ 9 Seventh International Geographical Congress, 351 Sewage-processing systems, 128 Sextants, 392 Seymour Island aircraft runway on, 13 fossiliferous sediments on, 357 invertebrate and vertebrate faunas on, 72 Rosetta Stone of Antarctic palaeontology and, 72 Shackleton, 189, 190

Shackleton Base, CTAE and, 275, 276, 277, 278 Shackleton boots, 527 Shackleton, Ernest, 49, 888–890, 1112. See also British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition; Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition Aurora Australis book by, 40 Australian government and expeditions of, 35–36 coal found by, 268 David, T. W., and, 322, 323 Endurance Expedition led by, 889, 1112 leadership qualities of, 889 Nansen, Fridtjof, and, 660 Nimrod Expedition led by, 183–186, 889, 1112 poetry of, 387 public interest in, 172 scurvy and, 839 South Pole race, map of and, 1142 Shackleton Fracture Zone, 345, 739 Shackleton Glacier, 130 Shackleton Ice Shelf, 51, 360 AAE at, 109 Shackleton Range, 50, 276, 890–891 geological architecture of Antarctica and Gondwana and, 890 tectono-stratigraphic column of, 890 Shackletonmania, 889 Shackleton-Rowett Antarctic Expedition (1921–1922), 891–893, 1112 death of Shackleton on, 889, 892, 893, 914 members of, 892 ‘‘Shackleton’s forgotten heroes,’’ 529 Shag Rocks, 911 Shallow overturning circulation cells, 997–998 Shanklin, Jonathan, 190 Shear zones, 71 Shearwaters, Short-Tailed and Sooty, 893–895 breeding of, 893–894 diving physiology and, 164–166 harvesting of, 894 human impacts on, 894–895 mortality of, 894 populations of, 894 Procellariiformes order and, 77 Sheathbills, 895–897 diet and trophic interactions of, 896 life history of, 895–896 social structure of, 896 Status of, 895 Sheep, as introduced species, 209, 210, 283, 543, 544, 545, 567, 797 Sheffield, James, 71, 713 Shelf break, 269, 270 Shelf waters high and low-salinity, 362 ISW as, 362, 363 Shepard, Oliver, 9 Shepherd’s beaked whale (Tasmacetus sheperdi), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales teeth of, 132 Sherpas, 485 Shields, 364 Shigenobu Okuma, 561, 897 Shinkichi Hanamori, 562 Shinn, Conrad, 117 Ship-borne gravimeters, 685 Shipley, Sir Arthur, 834

I69

INDEX Shipping guidelines, Antarctic Treaty and, 83 Shipton, Eric, 484 Shirase Glacier, 464, 466 Shirase icebreaker, 560 Shirase, Nobu, 897–898, 1112 King Edward Land VII explored by, 562, 898, 1112 priesthood v. exploration for, 897 Shirmacher, Dicki, 116 Shirreff, W. H., 926 Shock decomposition, 329 Short stories, Antarctic, 386, 387. See also Fiction and poetry, Antarctic list of, 388 Short-tailed albatross (Phoebastria albatrus), 19 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 19 Short-tailed shearwater (Puffinus tenuirostris), 893–895 Short-wave radio, 207 Shugas, 851, 852 Shy albatross (Thalassarche cauta), 16. See also Albatrosses diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18 Threatened status of, 18 Si (OH)4. See Silicic acid Siberian huskies, 340 SIBEX. See Second International BIOMASS Experiment Sibiryakov, 88 Signy Island, 282 marine debris study at, 630 nematode species on, 665 Signy Island station BAS and, 190 meteorological weather data for, 643 Silicic acid (Si (OH)4), 222, 223, 944 Silicic volcanic rocks, 70 Silicon cycle, Southern Ocean and, 944 Silification, 944 Sills, 384, 385 Silurian Period Beacon Supergroup and, 348 echinoderms and, 371 fossils, invertebrate and, 410, 411, 412 Silver, 759 Silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Antarctic petrels’ diet of, 76 Simonov, Ivan Mikhailovich, 823, 824 Simpson, George, 102, 191 Simpson, John, 305 Sinfonia Antarctica (Vaughan Williams), 657 Sintering process, 102 Siphonophorae, 1105 Siple Island, 33 Siple, Paul, 11, 898–899, 1023, 1025, 1031, 1032 Byrd’s Antarctic expeditions and, 898 Marie Byrd Land investigated by, 626 wind chill quantification by, 1049 Siple Station, 49 Sipunculida, species of, 145 SIRAL. See SAR/Interferometric Radar ALtimeter Sirius Group formations, 58 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), 279, 285, 770 16S rRNA, 647

I70

Sixth International Geographical Congress, 136 SIZ. See Seasonal Ice Zone Skelton, Reginald, 729 Ski-doos, 340, 343 Skiways, aircraft landings on, 15 Skottsberg, Carl, 913, 975 Skuas (Catharacta spp.), 899–901 Ade´lie penguin chicks predated by, 8 Antarctic tern chicks and eggs taken by, 81 antibodies found in, 335 avian cholera and, 335 breeding of, 900–901 cape petrels predated by, 211 foraging behavior of, 901 general characteristics of, 899–890 IBA criteria for, 60 migration and, 3 overview of, 899–901 Sky noise, 302 Skyward, 207 Sledges. See also Dogs and sledging types and designs of, 342–343 Sledging. See Dogs and sledging Slessor Glacier, 276 Slessor, Sir John, 275 Slovak Republic, 660 Slush, 851, 852 SMAs. See Specially Managed Areas SMC. See Scotia Metamorphic Complex Smiley, William, 327 Smith, David, 92 Smith, Dean, 1025 Smith Island, 136 geology of, 178 Smith, Louise, 388 Smith, William, 327, 575 Antarctica, first part of discovered by, 922, 926 British mercantile voyage (1819) of, 926, 927, 1110 South Shetland Islands discovered by, 922, 926–927 SMMR. See Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer Smoke detectors, 129 Snares Islands, Antarctic terns on, 81 Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus), 312, 313, 314, 315. See also Crested penguins annual cycle of, 313–314 diet of, 314–315 distribution of, 312, 313 Vulnerable status of, 315 Snatcher, 763 Snippits, 763 SnoCats, 276, 277, 424 Snorkeling, 144 Snow chemical composition of, 904–905 redistribution of, by wind, 101 sublimation of, 101 Snow algae, 25, 27. See also Algae Snow biogenic processes, 902–904 biogeochemical cycles in, 902–903 iron hypothesis in, 902 Southern Ocean relevance to, 902 Subglacial lakes and, 903 Snow blindness, 265 Snow chemistry, 904–905 analytical methods in polar, 904

INDEX HCHO, HCl, HNO3, MSA in, 904 nitric acid, origin of and, 905 Snow crystals, 102 Snow density, 500 Snow dunes, 500 Snow fall, Antarctic Ice Sheet formation and, 56 Snow Hill Island, 87, 662 hut conservation on, 284 Snow ice, formation of, 620, 704, 855 Snow Island, 136 geology of, 178 Snow melter, 128 Snow petrel (Pagodroma nivea), 905–906 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding of, 868, 905–906 fleas on, 335 fulmarines as, 75, 906 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868, 905 Snow post-depositional processes, 906–907 firnification in, 906 HCHO and NOx in, 904, 906 HCl and HNO3 and, 906, 907 Snow storms, 500 Snow vehicles, 275 Snowball Earth hypothesis, 800 Snowdrift, 974 Snowdrift sublimation, 974 Snowflakes, firn compaction and, 398 Snowmobiles, 189, 206, 389, 391, 480, 500, 1027 Sobral, Jose´ Marı´a, 91, 585, 975 Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), 210 Society Islands, 139 Socks, 265, 762, 763 Sodar, 102 Soft-plumaged petrel (Pterodroma mollis), 726 SOHO. See Solar and Heliosphere Observatory Soil algae, 24–25 Soil ciliate (Colpoda spp.), 785 Soils, 907–908 algal mats and, 28 biological activity in Antarctic, 908 distinctive characteristics of Antarctic, 907–908 Dry Valleys and formation of, 907 glacial till and, 907 Solander, Daniel, 819 Solar activity, 498 Solar and Heliosphere Observatory (SOHO), 107 Solar cosmic rays, 306. See also Cosmic rays Solar (Milankovitch) cycles, 273, 629, 712 Solar flares, 616 Solar haloes. See Haloes Solar plasma, 304 Solar radiation, 262 Solar wind, 304, 908–909 aurora and, 107, 108, 109 cause of, 908–909 cosmic rays and, 304, 305 geospace and, 449, 450, 451, 453 ionosphere and, 545, 548 magnet storms and, 609 magnetosphere of earth and, 441, 609–616, 618, 737, 1044 Mariner 2 confirms existence of, 909 ULF pulsations and, 1014

SOLAS. See Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study Solenogastres, 651 Solid precipitation (snowfall), 973–974 Solo adventuring, 9. See also Adventure tourism Kagge, Erling, at South Pole in, 9, 920 Solomon Islands, 352 Solubility (thermodynamic) pump, 212, 213, 943 Somers, Geoff, 9, 342 Somov, Mikhail, 90, 118 ‘‘Songs of the Morning: A Musical Sketch,’’ 657 Sonneland, Erik, 9 Sooty albatross (Phoebetria fusca), 16, 909–910. See also Albatrosses Amsterdam Island and, 30 Ancient Mariner and, 17 breeding of, 909–910 Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 910 distribution and habitat use of, 19 Endangered status of, 18, 167, 909 Gough Island and, 471 harvesting of, 910 species characteristics of, 18 Sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus), 893–895 Sor Rondane Mountains, 115, 138, 365 adventure tourism and, 9 Sorling, Eric, 913 Sørlle, Fru Signy, 917 Sørlle, Petter, 917 Sorrels, 265 Sotomayor, Carlos Martı´nez, 224 South (film) (Hurley), 395. See also 90
South (Ponting) South Africa, 910 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 Antarctica’s connection with, 130 COMNAP membership of, 309 South Africa: Antarctic Program, 910–911 SANAE of, 910 scientific research programs of, 911 South African National Antarctic Expedition (SANAE), 910 station of, 304, 305, 910, 911, 1135, 1141 South African National Antarctic Programme (SANAP), 471 South African Weather Service, 471 South America, 66 Antarctic Peninsula and bridge connection with, 130 South American Plate, 739 South American tern (Sterna hirundinacea), 989. See also Terns characteristics of, 989 distribution and breeding of, 989, 990, 991 South Australian Museum, 110 South Geomagnetic Pole, 48, 108, 438, 550, 618, 823, 920, 920, 1002, 1044 South Georgia, 47, 911–915. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic prions researched at, 78 Antarctic terns on, 81 archaeological sites on, 87 Argentina’s claim to, 911 black-browed albatrosses at, 169 as British Overseas Territory, 911–912 as Dependencies of Falkland Islands, 911 expeditions made to, 913–914 exploitation of, 914 fauna and flora on, 912–913

I71

INDEX South Georgia (cont.) geological survey (1951–1957) of, 550 geology of, 550–551 Grytviken whaling station, conservation of by, 284, 333, 914 ITAE and, 914 Roche, Antonio de la, and sighting of, 550 Shackleton visits, 914 whaling industry at, 333, 1073 South Georgia cormorant (Phalacrocorax [atriceps] georgianus), 299. See also Cormorants South Ice base, 275 South Korea, COMNAP membership of, 309 South Korea: Antarctic Program, 915–916 KORDI, KARP, and KOPRI of, 915–916 South Magnetic Pole, 48, 920 AAE and, 920 Dumont d’Urville and, 355 Nimrod expedition and, 185, 186, 920 Ross, James Clark and, 181, 183, 355, 810 Terre Ade´lie and, 51 Wilkes and, 181, 183, 355 South Orkney Islands, 47, 917–918. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81 flora and fauna on, 917–918 geology of, 551–552, 917 Palmer and Powell discover, 442, 551, 714, 875, 917, 1110 whaling and sealing at, 917 South Pacific Rim International Tectonics Expedition (SPRITE), 626 South Polar Expedition (play), 387 South polar skua (Catharacta maccormicki), 918–920 Antarctic petrel eggs eaten by, 76 Antarctic prion predated by, 78 bacterial species and, 335 breeding of, 869, 900, 901, 918, 919 Chilean skua hybridization with, 225 foraging of, 901, 919 general characteristics of, 899, 900, 918 POPs found in, 373 population of, 869, 919 South Polar Times, 40, 1081 Discovery Expedition and, 200, 201 Terra Nova Expedition and, 192 South Pole, 920–921 Amundsen at, 31, 32, 191, 192, 193, 340, 660, 1112 Amundsen-Scott Station at, 32–33, 920 anthropogenic chemicals in air at, 32, 266 AST/RO submillimeter telescope at, 94, 99 astronomical research at, 93 Byrd, Richard, and flight over, 920 DASI experiment at, 94, 302 Fram Expedition reaches, 31, 192, 193, 340, 660, 677 Fuchs, Vivian, at, 920 Geographical, 48 Hillary reaches, 277 Magnetic, 48 map of race for, 1142 neutrino detection at, 32 Nimrod expedition and, 183, 185, 1112 Scott v. Amundsen and race to, 191, 192, 193, 836 Shinn, Conrad, and flight landing on, 920 Siple, Paul, and wintering at, 920

I72

Southern Pole of Inaccessibility and, 48, 920–921 SPASE at, 307, 308 SPIREX at, 94, 96 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191–193 Wisting, Oscar, and, 1086–1087 South Pole Air Shower Experiment (SPASE), 307, 308 South Pole Infrared Array Camera (SPIRAC), 96 South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX), 94, 96 South Pole Station. See Amundsen-Scott Station South Pole Telescope (SPT), 95, 303 South Sandwich Islands, 47, 921–922. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81, 921 Argentina and, 921 Biscoe’s exploration of, 167, 168 Cook, James, and discovery of, 551, 921 flora and fauna on, 921–922 geology of, 551, 921 plastics found on, 630 volcanism and, 483 South Sandwich Trench, 551, 739 South Scotia Ridge. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Antarctic Peninsula plate convergence and, 68 South Shetland Islands, 47, 168, 922–926, 926–928. See also Bransfield Strait and South Shetland Islands, geology of Antarctic cormorants at, 299 Antarctic fur seals at, 53, 54 Antarctic Peninsula boundary and, 48 Antarctic Peninsula plate convergence and, 68 Antarctic prions nesting on, 77 Antarctic terns on, 81 archaeological sites on, 87 ASPAs on, 923–924 biological invasions and, 164 Bransfield Strait and rifting in, 177 Chanticleer Expedition and, 220, 1110 commercial exploitation of, 922–923 discovery of, 922, 926–928 flora and fauna on, 925–926 geology of, 178–179, 924–925 metamorphic rocks of, 178 physiography of, 923 stations and bases on, 923 territorial claims, conflicting and, 922 volcanic and sedimentary rocks of, 178–179 whaling industry at, 1073 Southeast Indian Ridge, 360, 363 Southeast Promontory, 123 Southern ACC Front (SACCF), 360, 962 Southern Annular Mode (SAM), 254–255, 261–263, 832, 948. See also Climate oscillations trend in the, 250–251 Southern beech (Nothofagus), 72, 156, 357, 406, 413, 414 Southern bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon planifrons), 133 Southern Cross, 1080 Southern Cross Expedition. See British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition Southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), 928–930. See also Seals adaptation and, 3, 878 Amsterdam Island and, 30 Auckland Islands and, 104 breeding of, 878, 879

INDEX Campbell Islands and, 209 CCAS protection of, 294, 880 Dallmann’s voyage and, 321 diet and trophic interaction of, 929 diving biology of, 337 Gough Island and, 471 Heard Island and, 482 life history of, 928–929 social structure of, 929 unique features of, 929–930 Southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), 930–932 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding of, 868, 931 diet of, 931 diving physiology and, 164–166 fleas on, 335 fulmarines as, 75, 930 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868, 931 Southern fur seals, 53 Southern giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus), 16, 932–934 Antarctic petrel predated by, 76 breeding of, 868, 932 chick, eight day old, and adult, 933 emperor penguins predated by, 379 foraging of, 934 fulmarines as, 75 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868, 932, 933 Vulnerable status of, 167, 934 Southern lights. See Aurora Australis Southern Ocean, 934–938 AABW and, 43–47 AAIW and, 62–65 AASW and, 79–81 ACC and, 234–239 albatrosses located in, 17–18 Amundsen Sea temperature section and, 34 Antarctic fur seals in, 53 bathymetry of, 938–942 benthic communities in, 38–39, 142–144 biogeochemistry of, 942–945 biological invasions and, 164 carbon cycle and, 212–214 CCAMLR and, 152, 180, 289, 291–292 CDW and, 240–242 Challenger Expedition and research of, 218–219 chemical oceanography of, 221–224 circulation, modeling of, 945–947 climate change and variability of, 947–951 climates of Antarctica and, 242–252 copepods in, 296–297 crabs, lack of in, 331 deep sea and, 330 Discovery Investigations and science of, 334 diving birds in, 164 echinoderms in, 370–371 eddies in, 374–375 endothermic marine vertebrates and, 3 evolution and Antarctic fish in, 402 fronts and frontal zones of, 951–953 krill, map of in, 1144 living resources, exploitation of in, 937–938 map of bathymetry of, 1139 marine biodiversity in, 144–149

marine debris in, 630–631 marine trophic level interactions in, 631–633 Mesozoic opening of, 627 pelagic communities of, 717–719 potential temperature near bottom of, 44 research platforms and sampling equipment for, 684–686 scientific exploration, early, of, 934–936 snow biogenic processes and, 902–904 upper ocean water masses of, 79–80 vertical structure of, 953–956 Southern Ocean: bathymetry, 938–942 Amundsen and Bellinghausen abyssal plains in, 940–941 Antarctic bathymetric datasets and charts for, 941 continental shelves in, 939 deep sea floor of, 939 Kerguelen Plateau in, 940 measurement techniques in, 941 South Indian abyssal plain in, 940 Weddell and Enderby abyssal plains in, 939 Southern Ocean: biogeochemistry, 942–945 carbon cycle in, 943–944 climate change’s impact on, 944–945 CO2 exchange in, 942–943 silicon cycle in, 944 Southern Ocean circulation: modeling, 945–947 AAIW and AABW simulation in, 946 difficulties in, 945, 946 Drake Passage in, 946 model types in, 945–946 temporal variability in, 946 Southern Ocean: climate change and variability, 947–951 ACC’s importance in, 947–948 Antarctic Dipole of, 950 Antarctic Peninsula climate change and, 950–951 Arctic Ocean v., 947 CDW’s influence in, 948 climate patterns in, 948–949 ENSO variability in, 949–950 Pacific South America pattern in, 949 SAM and SAO in, 948–949 thermohaline circulation in, 948 Southern Ocean expedition, Biscoe’s, 167–169 Southern Ocean: fronts and frontal zones, 951–953 Agulhas Front in, 952 Antarctic Ice Boundary Front in, 953 Antarctic Slope Front in, 270, 271, 361–362, 812, 953 Bransfield Strait Front in, 953 Continental Water Boundary in, 952 general nature of, 951 Polar Front in, 952 Scotia Front in, 952–953 Southern ACC Front in, 360, 952 Southern Boundary of ACC in, 952 Subtropical Front in, 952 Weddell-Scotia Confluence in, 830–831, 833, 952 Southern Ocean Sanctuary, 542 Southern Ocean: vertical structure, 953–956 distinct water types and thermohaline circulation in, 954–955 large scale description of, 954 numerical modeling and, 956 seasonal changes in, 955–956 World Ocean and, 956 Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research (SOWER) project, 650 Southern Party, Nimrod expedition and, 185

I73

INDEX Southern Pole of Inaccessibility, 48, 244, 920–921 AARI and airborne expedition to, 89 Mac.Robertson Land and, 50 Southern right whale (Eubalaena australis), 471, 956–958 Auckland Islands as breeding ground for, 104 calving of, 957, 958 Campbell Islands and, 209 characteristics of, 956–957 Dallmann’s search for, 321 distribution of, 957 feeding techniques of, 957 Threatened Status of, 957 Southern right whale dolphin (Lissodelphis peronii), 216, 217–218 Southern royal albatross (Diomedea e. epomophora), 16. See also Albatrosses Auckland Islands and, 104 breeding of, 817, 818 Campbell Islands and, 209 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 818 longlining and, 818 species characteristics of, 18, 817 Vulnerable status of, 18, 167, 817 Southern Whale Fishery Company, 380 Southwest Indian Ridge, 360 Sovereignty, Antarctic treaty and territorial, 83–84 Soviet Antarctic Expedition (1971–1973), 529 Soviet Union, Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 SOWER project. See Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research project Space medicine, 481 Space weather ionosphere and, 548 prediction of, 358 Spaceship Earth, 306 Spade-toothed beaked whale (Mesoplodon traversii), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales Spain ACAP signatory of, 16 COMNAP membership of, 309 Madrid protocol ratified by, 959 AT ratified by, 958 SCAR membership of, 959 Spain: Antarctic Program, 958–960 bathymetric data and, 289 expeditions to Scotia and Bransfield seas in, 958 stations of, 958–959 SPARC. See Stratospheric Processes and Their Role in Climate Spartina arundinacea, 30 SPAs. See Specially Protected Areas SPASE. See South Pole Air Shower Experiment SPCT. See Scarab Peak Chemical Type Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (1990), 782 Special Conservation Area, Antarctica as, 285, 289, 770 Special Consultative Meetings, ATS and, 82, 83 Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I), 746, 859, 988 Specially Managed Areas (SMAs), 285. See also Antarctic Specially Managed Areas Specially Protected Areas (SPAs), 123. See also Antarctic Specially Protected Areas aim of, 770 formation of, 279, 285 Specially Protected Species Agreed Measures and, 279

I74

birds and, 166–167 Ross seals and fur seals as, 166, 279, 285 Specially Reserved Areas (SRAs), 770 Speciation, 2, 149 allopatric, 2 biogeography and, 154–155 gene flow interruption and, 427 Species cloud, 5 Species richness, processes that influence, 149–150 Spectacled petrel, 16 Spectacled porpoise (Phocoena dioptrica), 216, 217 Spence Harbour Conglomerate, 553 Spencer-Smith, Arnold, 529, 814 Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), 570. See also Whales exploitation of, 718 Spes & Fides, 416 Spheniscidae, 164 Spider crab (Hyas araneus), 274, 282 Spiny skin, 371 SPIRAC. See South Pole Infrared Array Camera SPIREX. See South Pole Infrared Explorer Spirochaete (Borrelia burgdorferi), 335 Sponges, 142 Spores air-spora and, 10 anhydrobiosis and, 39 Spreading centres, 344 SPRI. See Scott Polar Research Institute Sprightly, 380 Spring tides, 1000 Springtails (Collembola), 960–961. See also Algae; Mosses; Soils freeze avoidance of, 2, 272, 273, 349, 350, 960 insects and, 530 species and locations of, 960 SPRITE. See South Pacific Rim International Tectonics Expedition Spruce, Richard, 633 SPT. See South Pole Telescope Sputnik I, 536 Squamulose lichens, 592 Squid, 961–962 Ade´lie penguins’ diet of, 7 Antarctic petrels’ diet of, 76 beaked whales’ diet of, 134 diet of, 962 distribution of, 961 Southern Ocean food web influenced by, 962 species of, 961, 962 SRAs. See Specially Reserved Areas SSHRC. See Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council SSIZ. See Seasonal Sea Ice Zone SSM/I. See Special Sensor Microwave/Imager SSSI. See Sites of Special Scientific Interest SST. See Sea surface temperature (SST) St. Kliment Ohridski Station, 205, 206. See also Bulgaria: Antarctic Program St. Paul Island (Iˆle Saint Paul), 29 Antarctic terns on, 81 as part of TAAF, 963 TAAF, IPEV, and, 415, 418 vegetation and fauna on, 962 as volcano, 962 Stable isotope tracers, 409 Stalked ascidian (Molgula pedunculata), 142, 143

INDEX Stamps, Antarctic. See Postage stamps, Antarctic Stancomb Wills, 528 Standing Committee for the Antarctic Treaty System, 85 Standing Committee on Antarctic Logistics and Operations. See COMNAP/SCALOP Standing modes, 262 Standing Scientific Groups, 85 Standing wave couplet, 245 Stark, Antony A., 302 Stars and Stripes, 114, 1025 State Oceanic Administration (SAO), 226 State of the Antarctic Environment Reporting (SAER), 784 State Research Center, AARI as, 90 States Antarctic Treaty and groups of, 83–84 Range, 15, 16, 17 Stations, Antarctic. See also Base technology: architecture and design; Field camps; Scientific research stations 24-hour power at, 265 AAD, 36–37, 112 base technology and, 124–129 list of scientific research, 1135 living in, 599, 600 map/location of IGY, 1146 map/location of scientific research, 1141 Steam catcher boats, 416, 493 Steershead Crevasses, 803 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law, 971 Stefan’s Law, 857 Steger, Will, 9, 342 Steinen, Karl von den, 538 Steinnabben nunatak, 665 Stenhouse, Joseph Russell, 333, 814 Stenothermy, 4 Stephenson, Alfred, 195, 340, 679 Stephenson, John, 342 Stevens, Alexander, 814 Stieler Handatlas, 723 Stillwell Hills, as oasis, 679, 680, 682 Stokes, Frank William, 976 Stonehouse, Bernard, 913 Stonington Island, 87 conservation work on, 284 Storey, Owen, 736 Storm tracks, 244, 249, 250. See also Cyclones Stramenopila, 644–645 Strap-toothed beaked whale (Mesoplodon layardii), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales Strategy for Antarctic Conservation, 282 Stratopause, 546, 694 Stratosphere, 267, 546, 694 environmental protection and, 356 ozone and polar, 694–699 Stratospheric Processes and Their Role in Climate (SPARC), 1098 Streams and lakes, Antarctic, 963–964 biogeographical isolation of, 963 diversity of, 963 epishelf, 964 freshwater, 963, 964 Lake Vostok, exploration of in, 582, 823, 903, 964 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 963 microorganisms in, 963, 964 saline, 964 Stress(es) abiotic, 2

biotic, 2 water, 3 Strombidium, 408 Stromness whaling station, 528 Stroud, Michael, 9 Strutt, Robert, 694 Stubberud, Jørgen, 676, 677 Study and Research of the Antarctic, 823 AARI and, 89 Stump, Terrence ‘‘Mugs,’’ solo adventuring and, 9 Sturge Island, 123 Southern fulmars on, 123 Styles, Don, 38 Subaerially erupted lavas, 70 Subantarctic Front (SAF), 64, 952 AASW and, 80 Sub-Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis), 965–966 Amsterdam Island and, 30 Antarctic fur seal hybridization with, 53, 965 breeding of, 965 CCAS protection of, 880 characteristics of, 877, 878, 965 diet of, 879, 965 distribution of, 879, 965 exploitation of, 880, 965 Gough Island and, 471 Specially Protected Species status of, 166, 279, 880 Sub-Antarctic islands, 966–968 archaeological research on, 87, 88 biodiversity, species richness and, 147, 150, 274 CBD and, 152 conservation initiatives for, 283–284 flowering plants on, 407 geographical groupings of, 543 geology of, 966–968 introduced animals, list of on, 543–544 introduced species and, 163, 274, 283, 284 map of, 1143 restoration of, 797–799 water turbines on, 127–128 Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW), 64, 241 Meridional Overturning Circulation and, 80 property characteristics of, 79–80 Subantarctic (brown) skua (Catharacta lonnbergi), 968 breeding and population of, 869, 900, 901, 968 cormorant chicks killed by, 301 foraging of, 901, 968 general characteristics of, 899, 900, 968 IBA criteria for, 60 subspecies of, 968 Subantarctic Surface Water (SASW), property characteristics of, 79 Sub-Antarctic Zone AAIW formation and, 64 ACC and, 236 areas of, 156 biotic components of, 155 Subduction, Antarctic Peninsula and, 68–73 Subduction zones, 738 Subglacial Antarctic Lake Environments (SALE), 417, 829 Subglacial lakes, 968–971 age of, 970 discovery of, 968 distribution map of, 969 Europa and, 381, 647 exploration of, 970–971

I75

INDEX Subglacial lakes (cont.) ice sheet history and sediments in, 970 Lake Concordia as, 969 Lake Vostok as, 582, 823, 903, 964 microbial ecosystems of, 372, 648 microorganisms in, 970 number of, 969 radar and identification of, 969 SALE and, 970 snow biogenic processes and, 903 topographic and glaciological settings of, 969–970 water circulation processes in, 970 Sublimation of snow, 101 Submarine hot springs, 329–330 Submarine vents, 483 Submerged habitats, 656 Submillimeter Array facilities, 99 Submillimeter astronomy. See Astronomy, submillimeter Submillimeter radiation, 98–99 Submillimeter telescopes, 98–99 Subsurface heat fluxes, 971, 972 Subtropical Convergence, 952 Subtropical Front, 952 Sucking lice, 335, 714. See also Parasitic insects: lice and fleas ‘‘Su¨d-Polar-Karte,’’ 723 Suess, Eduard, 364 Suess Glacier, 347 Sulfate, 501 Sulphur-bottom, 170 Sulphuric compounds, 329 Sun compasses, 392 Sun dogs, formation of, 12 Sun-Earth distances, 304 Sunglasses, 265 Sunspots, 303, 304 Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect, 302, 303 Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN), 549, 616 Supercontinents, 364. See also Gondwana; Rodinia Gondwana, 468–470 Pangaea, 348, 365, 468, 1010 Supercooling Points (SCPs), 272 SuperDARN. See Super Dual Auroral Radar Network Superimposed ice, 703 formation of, 856 Surface energy balance (SEB), 971–972 components of, 971 definition and importance of, 971 surface heat sink in Antarctic, 971–972 surface mass balance and, 971 Surface feature(s), of Antarctica, 972–973 domes as, 973 ice divide as, 973 ice sheet as, 973 ice shelves as, 972 rock/sediment as, 972 Surface heat sink, 972 Surface mass balance, 973–975, 1086 components of, 973–974 definition of, 973 ice-atmosphere interaction, near-surface processes and, 499 measurement of, 974 Surface melt, 703 Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS), 829 Surface sublimation, 974 Surface winds, climate and, 248

I76

Surface-Based Inversion Layer, 246 Suspended animation anhydrobiosis and, 39 nematodes, rotifers, tardigrades and, 318, 349, 350, 983 Suspended snow, 500 Suspension, 500 Svalbard research station, 556 Svarthamaren Mountains, Antarctic petrel colonies on, 75 Svea station, 662 Svenska Antarktisforskningsprogrammet (SWEDARP) (Swedish Antarctic Research Programme), 662 Sverdrup balance theory, 237, 238 Sverdrup, H. U., 1087 Sverdrup, Otto, 676 Sverdrups, 271 Swan, Robert, 9 Swanson Formation, 624 SWEAT (Southwest US-East Antarctica) hypothesis, 800 SWEDARP. See Svenska Antarktisforskningsprogrammet Sweden AT agreement of, 662 COMNAP membership of, 309 Consultative Party to AT of, 662 SCAR membership of, 662 Swedish Antarctic research program, 662 Swedish Polar Institute, Wasa Station built by, 126 Swedish South Polar Expedition (1901–1904), 662, 977–978. See also Nordenskjo¨ld, Otto aerobiological research and, 10 Antarctic mail and, 727 archaeological research concerning, 87 dogs, use of in, 339 emperor penguins and, 377 Larsen, Carl Anton, and, 584, 975, 976, 977 Larsen Ice Shelf traversed by members of, 585 Mount Flora fossils discovered by, 413 Nordenskjo¨ld, Otto, as leader of, 417, 975–977, 1111 rescue of, 91, 977–978, 1111 scientific research of, 671, 976, 977 South Georgia visited by, 913 Swedish South Polar Expedition: Relief Expeditions, 977–978 Irizar, Julian, and, 978 Swedish whaling/science consortium for the Antarctic (1911–1912), 671 Swedish-Australian Antarctic Expedition, 35 Swell, 620, 1000 Swiss Antarctic research program, 662 Swithinbank, Charles, 639 Switzerland AT agreement by, 662 SCAR membership of, 662 Sydney-Bowen basin, 130 Symmes, John Cleves, 387 Symonds, Hyacinth, 491 Synanthropogenic, 282 Synechocystis, 24 Synoptic climatology, 249–250 Synoptic-scale weather systems, 979–982, 1080 atmospheric fronts in, 981–982 changes in ozone column and, 695–696 computer modeling and satellite imaging of, 982 cyclogenesis developments in, 979 cyclosis in, 980–981 depressions as, 979 forecasting of location and strength of, 982

INDEX fronts and jets in, 981–982 infrared satellite image of fronts and, 980 infrared satellite image of low, 981 jet streams in, 982 lows as, 979 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), 318, 524, 858 RADARSAT-1 and, 787 Synthetic materials, 264, 265 Syowa Station, 560, 561, 664, 1135, 1141 aurora and, 107, 108 dogs, use of at, 342 ozone, monitoring of at, 696 weather statistics at, 664

T TAAF. See Terres Australes et Antartiques Franc¸aises TAC. See Total Allowable Catch TAE. See Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition Tahu-nui-a-Rangi, 106 Tait, P. G., 204 Talbot, William Henry Fox, 729 TAM. See Transantarctic Mountains Tamblyn, Ian, 658 Tambora, 356 Tange Promontory, 168 Tangent arcs, formation of, 12 Tank-huts, 390 Tardigrada, taxa and biodiversity of, 157 Tardigrades, 983–985 algal mats and, 27 anhydrobiosis and, 39–40, 318, 333, 349, 350 characteristics of, 983 classification issues with, 983 species of, 983 suspended animation of, 318, 349, 350, 983 Taro, survival of, 342 Tasman Fracture Zone, 436, 739 Tasman Sea, AAIW variability and, 65 Tasmania, 168 Taxonomy, molecular phylogenetic, 154–155 Taylor, Andrew, Operation Tabarin II and, 1113 Taylor Glacier, 129 Taylor, Griffith, 191, 193, 323, 766 Taylor Group, Devonian age, 129 Taylor Valley, 320, 346, 347, 348. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys TDR. See Time-Depth Recorders TDR method, 338, 339 Teal Island, 209 Technical University of Denmark, Antarctic Ice Sheet, knowledge of and, 56 Tectonics. See also Plate tectonics spreading centres and, 344 Tegetthoff, 537 Tegetthoff, Wilhelm von, 668 Tejas, Vernon, 9 Telecommunications, Antarctic, Antarctic Treaty and, 83 Teleconnection(s), 246, 249, 251, 701, 745, 832, 860, 950, 985–986 Antarctica linked with world through, 985 definition of, 985 ENSO-Antarctic, 985–986 PSA modes and, 985 SAM and, 985 Telemedicine, 481 Teleost fish, 4–5

Telescope(s) AST/RO submillimeter, 94, 99 ELT, 94 Giant Magellan, 94 Hubble Space, 93 James Clark Maxwell, 99 neutrino, 97 SBT, 95 submillimeter, 98–99 Temnospondyls, 415 Temperature in Antarctica, 986–989 Antarctic Peninsula and change in, 988 Antarctic zones based upon, 986 AVHRR data of, 987 future Antarctic climates and increase of, 255, 256 GTS data and, 987 ice crystal formation and, 11–12, 841 marine biota impacted by, 3–4 numerical weather prediction models and, 988 SMMR and SSM/I data of, 987–988 terrestrial biota impacted by, 2–3 Temporally synchronized development, 3 Teniente Marsh Aerodrome, 576 Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martı´n runway, 13 Tentaculata, species of, 145 Terje Viken, 635 Terns, 989–991 breeding of, 990, 991 diet of, 990 distribution of, 989 general characteristics of, 989 overview of, 989–991 population of, 990 Southern Ocean species of, 989 Terra Antartica ( journal), 1137 Terra Antartica Reports, 1137 Terra Australis Incognita, 214, 268, 1109 Terra Incognita, 820 Terra Nova. See also British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition Scott and expedition of, 190–194 Terra Nova Bay sea-ice runway at, 14 Zucchelli Station at, 51 Terra Nova Bay (TNB) Station, 556 Terrane model, Antarctic Peninsula and new, 68 Terranes, 68 East Antarctic Shield and, 364, 366, 370 Terre Ade´lie, 5 airstrip at, 51 Dumont d’Urville discovers, 51, 352, 423, 1110 Dumont d’Urville Station at, 419, 1135, 1141 TAAF, IPEV and, 418, 419 Terres Australes et Antartiques Franc¸aises (TAAF), 417, 418–419 Martin de Vivie`s Station operated by, 30 Terrestrial birds, in Antarctic, 991–995 Antarctic continent and lack of, 991 distribution of species (list) of, 992–993 introduced predators and, 994 peri-Antarctic islands with, 991, 994 Sub-Antarctic islands and lack of, 991, 994 Terrestrial ecosystems, biogeochemistry of, 153–154 Territorial claims, Antarctic Antarctic Treaty and freezing of, 120 map of, 1139 states with, 84

I77

INDEX Territorial sovereignty. See Sovereignty Territorio Chileno Anta´rtico, 67 Terror, 181, 182, 183 Tertiary period Antarctic Peninsula, geology of and, 68, 70, 71 flowering plants and, 406 fossils, invertebrate and, 411, 412 sediments and paleoceanography of Southern Ocean during, 883–884 Seymour Island fossils and, 356 Testate amoebae, 784–785 Tethys, 468 Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, 373 TEWG. See Transitional Environmental Working Group Thala Dan, 37, 112 Thalassarche, albatrosses in genus, 18 Thatcher, Margaret, BAS and, 189–190 Themisto gaudichaudii, 718 Theodolites, 392 Therapsid reptiles, 414 Thermal convection, 618 Thermal decomposition, 329 Thermal infrared (TIR) remote sensing, 790–791 Thermal underwear, 264 Thermal wind equation, 947 Thermohaline and wind-driven circulations in the Southern Ocean, 235, 356, 358, 954–955, 995–999. See also Overturning circulation ACC and, 361 cabbeling in, 996–997 deep and shallow overturning circulation cells in, 997–998 dense water buildup through ice freeze cycle in, 995, 996 double diffusion in, 996, 997 ecosystems’ relations with, 998 global, 64–65, 241, 955 seasonal cycle and, 998 Thermosphere, 546 Thermospheric wind, 547 Thermostads, 64 Theron, 68, 484 Theron Mountains, 50, 276, 385 coal discovered in, 268 Theropods, 415 Thick first-year ice, 851, 852 Thiede, Jo¨rn, 20 Thiel Mountains, 49 Thin first-year ice, 851, 852 Thinnfeldia/Dicroidium, 469 Th-normalized fluzes, 886 Thompson, Frank Tourle, 1111 Thomson, Charles Wyville, 218 Thomson, John Arthur, 204 Thomson, Wyville, 40 Thor Dahls Hvalfangerselskap A/S, 234 Thornewill, Fiona, solo adventuring and, 9 Thorshavn Christensen Antarctic Expeditions with, 229, 230, 231–232, 234, 680 explorations of, 115 Thorshovdi, 674, 675 Thorson, Gunnar, 797 Thorson’s Rule, 797 Thrinaxodon, 414 Thule Island, 921 Thurston Island, 33, 34, 139

I78

Thwaites and Pine Island Glacier Basins, 999–1000 Amundsen Sea sector, changes in and, 999–1000 discovery of, 999 glacial grounding lines, retreat of in, 999 history and evolution of, 1000 source of, 999 WAIS and importance of, 999 Thwaites Glacier Tongue, 34 Thysanoessa vicina, 744 Tick (Iodes uriae), 335 Tickell, Lance, 913 Ticket of Leave (play), 387 Ticks (Metastigmata). See also Parasitic insects: mites and ticks as parasites on vertebrates, 715 Tidal harmonics, 1000 Tides and waves, 1000–1002 Antarctic geophysical processes influenced by, 1001–1002 definitions of, 1000 semidiurnal v. diurnal, 1000 tidal harmonics of, 1000 variability, knowledge of in, 1001 Tierra del Fuego, 214 Till, 511 Time magazine, coal mining, Antarctic and, 268 Time of recombination, 301 Time steps, 258 Time to Speak, A (Fuchs), 424 Time-Depth Recorders (TDR), 337, 338–339 Tineid moth (Pringleophaga marioni), 531, 532, 533 TIR remote sensing. See Thermal infrared remote sensing Titanic, 524 TNB Station. See Terra Nova Bay Station Todarodes fillipovae, 962 Tofte, Eyvind, 229, 722 Toit, Alexander du, 130, 365, 468 ‘‘Tomb,’’ 770 Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) series, 367 Toothed whales, 131 Toothfish (Dissostichus spp.), 1002–1004 age of, 1002 distribution of two species of, 1003 ecology and biology of, 1000 exploitation of, 1003–1004 IUU fishing of, 280, 292, 405, 1004 as predators and scavengers, 1002, 1003 in Ross Sea, 812 Torrey Canyon, grounding of, 534 Total Allowable Catch (TAC), 914 Tottan, 276 Totten Glacier, 466 Tourism, 358, 758, 1004–1007. See also Adventure tourism airborne, 1006–1007 Antarctic books, publishing of and, 172 Antarctic Treaty and, 83, 1007 Antarctica Peninsula and, 67 ASOC and regulation of, 42 benthic communities, ROVs, SCUBA diving and, 142, 143 biological invasions associated with, 163, 273, 274 Canadian tour companies and, 210 Deception Island and, 328 ecotourism and, 608, 863–864 growth of, 1004 Hunting Lodge and, 384 IAATO and, 1007

INDEX Macquarie Island and, 608 McMurdo Dry Valleys and, 348 operational environmental management and, 693 regulation of, 1007 ship-borne, 1005–1006 Toxicology, 373 TPI. See Trans Polar Index Trace metals, 373 Tracked vehicles, 391 Tractors, 37, 49, 85, 87, 110, 114, 115, 118, 125, 127 Caterpillar D4-D8, 276, 389 CTAE and use of, 275–278, 424, 484, 485 David Brown, 384 dogs replaced by, 340 Fergusen TE20, 276, 277 Muskeg, 276, 277, 424 Trade winds, 64 Trail, D. S., 680 Trans Polar Index (TPI), 985 Transantarctic basin, Permian-Triassic, 130 Transantarctic Mountains (TAM), 49–50, 1007–1012 Beacon strata with fossils in, 1010 Beacon Supergroup in, 129–131 Cenzoic volcanism in, 1011 East Antarctic craton and Precambrian crustal rocks in, 1008–1009 fossils, invertebrate in southern, 414–415 geology of, 1007–1012 ice flow and, 57–58 neotectonics of, 666 physiographic expression, present day in, 1007, 1010–1011 Rodinia and East Antarctic lithosphere in, 1009 Ross Orogen, characteristics of in, 1009–1010 Transform plate boundaries, 738 Transglobe Expedition, 8–9 Transit of Venus in 1769, 295, 819 in 1874, 104, 219, 668 in 1882, 538 Endeavor voyage and, 295 Transit of Venus expedition (1874), 219 Transition zone, air hydrates in, 13 Transitional Environmental Working Group (TEWG), 783 Trans-Polar Index, 251 Transport, ACC, 236–237 Transvaal, 768 Trawl nets, 403 Treaties. See Antarctic Treaty System Treatise on Scurvy, A (Lind), 838 Trehalose, 39, 333 Trematomus bernacchii, 401 Treshnikov, Aleksey, 90 Triassic period, Antarctic Peninsula subduction and, 68 Tribonema sp., 23 Trilobites, fossils of, 411 Trinity Land, Bransfield discovers, 1110 Trinity Peninsula, 48 rivers and lakes on, 66 Trinity Peninsula Group, 69–70 Triple junctions, 501 Tristan albatross (Diomedea dabbenena), 16, 471. See also Albatrosses diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20

distribution and habitat use of, 19 Endangered status of, 18 species characteristics of, 18 Tristan da Cunha, Antarctic terns on, 81 Tristan rock lobster (Jasus tristani), 471 Tristan skua (C. antarctica hamiltoni) breeding of, 900, 901 foraging of, 901 general characteristics of, 899, 900 Troll Station, 673, 1135, 1141 Trophic decoupling, 410 Trophic dynamics, 257 Trophic levels, 631 Trophochemoreception, 740 Tropopause, 546, 694 Troposphere, 267, 270, 546, 694 Trough, 245 True’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon mirus), 132, 133, 134. See also Beaked whales; Whales TTG series. See Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite series Tube-nosed seabirds. See Procellariiformes Tubman, W. H., 762 Tula and Lively voyage, Biscoe leads, 105, 168, 380, 1110 Tunicata, species of, 145 Tunicates, 744 Tunzelman, Alexander von, 678 Turbopause, 546 Turbulence, 93, 94, 95, 96 atmospheric boundary layer and, 99–102 Turbulent heat fluxes, 971, 972 Turner, J. M. W., 92, 1080 Turner, Sir William, 204 Turridae, 651 Twin Otters, 389 2005 Liability Annex to Antarctic Treaty, tourist operators and, 10

U UAC. See Ukrainian Antarctic Center UCDW. See Upper Circumpolar Deep Water UHT. See Ultra-high temperature Ukraine AT ratification by, 1013 ATS Consultative Party membership of, 1013 CCLAMR membership of, 1013 COMNAP membership of, 309 SCAR membership of, 1013 Ukraine: Antarctic Program, 1013–1014 scientific projects of, 1013, 1014 UAC and, 1013, 1014 Vernadsky Station and, 1013 Ukrainian Antarctic Center (UAC), 1013, 1014 ULF pulsations, 1014–1015 continuous pulsations as, 1014 IGY and study of, 1014 MHD and, 1014 Pi as, 1014 plasmasphere analysed with, 737, 1014 ULS. See Upward-looking sonar Ultra-high-resolution optical sensors, 792 Ultra-high temperature (UHT), 367 Ultra-trace elements, 505 Ultraviolet B radiation, 256, 257, 654 Ulu Peninsula, 660

I79

INDEX Umbilicaria antarctica, 592 Umbilicaria aprina, 591 Umbilicate lichens, 592 UNCLOS. See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Under Erebus, 658 UNEP. See United Nations Environmental Programme Unicellular algae. See Algae United Kingdom ACAP signatory of, 16 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 309 postage stamps, Antarctic and, 728 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 United Kingdom: Antarctic Program, 1015–1016 BAS and, 188–190, 1015, 1016 Discovery Investigations and, 333–334 facilities and operations of, 1015–1016 Fuchs as director of FIDS and, 188, 189, 190, 424 Royal Society and, 1016 scientific research programs of, 1015, 1016 station designs by, 126 territorial claims and, 188, 189, 190, 328, 383 United Kingdom Overseas Territory of Tristan da Cunha, 471 United Nations, 1016–1017 Antarctic Treaty and, 83, 84, 85, 1016 ATS and, 1016–1017 UNEP and, 1017 World Park Antarctica and, 282 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1017–1018 ATS and, 1018 continental shelves and, 289–290 fisheries impacted by, 404 purpose of, 1017 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 1018–1019 ATS and, 85 CITES and, 290–291 functions of, 1019 GRID-Arendal and, 1019 introduced species and, 283 purpose of, 1018–1019 World Conservation Monitoring Centre of, 291 United Nations World Heritage Register, 482 United States Antarctic territorial claims and, 208 Antarctic Treaty ratification by, 83 COMNAP membership of, 309 whaling, Antarctic of, 1074 United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1928–1930) accomplishments of, 1026 Amundsen’s role in, 1024 Byrd organizes and leads, 1024–1025 dogs, use of in, 114, 1025 ionospheric observations by, 546 motion pictures and, 395 United States (Byrd) Antarctic Expedition (1933–1935), 114, 489, 1026–1028, 1113 aerobiological research and, 11 scientific investigations of, 1026, 1027 United States: Antarctic Program, 1019–1022 aircraft runways operated by, 14, 15 Amundsen-Scott Station and, 32 bathymetric data and, 289 Byrd and, 207–208 CMBR observations and, 302

I80

Darwin Glacier field camp and, 389 early US expeditions in, 1020 facilities and operations of, 1021–1022 international cooperation of, 1022 McMurdo Station’s importance to, 638 scientific research of, 1020–1021 station designs by, 126 United States Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1941), 208, 1022–1024 archaeological sites from, 87 Byrd leads, 489, 1022–1024, 1113 scientific results of, 1024 United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842), 1028–1030 legacy of, 1029–1030 scientific reports of, 1078 southern cruise (first) of, 1028–1029 southern cruise (second) of, 1029 Wilkes Land discovered by, 51, 1110 Wilkes leads, 486, 1028, 1110 United States Navy Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Highjump) (1946–1947), 36, 41, 67, 116, 208, 489, 626, 637, 679, 898, 999, 1030, 1030–1032, 1031, 1032, 1113 Antarctic Peninsula survey by, 67 Byrd and, 36, 1113 Marie Byrd Land, mapping of by, 626 Secret Land film about, 395 United States Navy Antarctic Developments Project (Operation Windmill) (1947–1948), 41, 637, 802, 1032, 1113 Universal Time (UT), 546 Universe astronomy and study of, 32, 93, 94, 96, 301–303 Big Bang theory and, 301, 302 CMBR studies and, 94–95, 301–303 Dark Energy and, 32, 93, 303 Dark Matter and, 303 flatness of, 94, 303 nuclear processes in, 97 Standard theory of, 303 Upland geese, as introduced species, 544 Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW), 241 Meridional Overturning Circulation and, 80, 238 property characteristics of, 79 Upward-looking sonar (ULS), 705 Upwelling, Antarctic Divergence and, 52 Upwelling longwave (terrestrial) radiation, 971, 972 Uranium, 759 URSI. See International Union of Radio Science Uruac¸u-Sunsa´s-Cariris Velhos Orogen, 800 Uruguay AT agreement by, 662 Antarctic research program of, 662 COMNAP membership of, 309 Consultative Party membership of, 662 SCAR membership of, 662 Uruguay, 91, 978, 1111 US Antarctic Program Marie Byrd Land Survey (1966–1967), 626 US Coast Guard, icebergs, fragmenting of by, 524 US Defense Mapping Agency, 289 US Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 859 US National Archives, 41 US Navy TriMetrogon Aerial survey, Antarctic Peninsula and, 67 US South Pole station. See Amundsen-Scott Station Ushuaia, Argentina, 136 adventure tourism, Antarctic and, 8 USS Philippine Sea, 116

INDEX UT. See Universal Time Utsteinen Nunatak, 138 UV-B radiation, 698

V Vahsel Bay, 393 Valdivia expedition, German, 177 Vampyrimorph octopodi, 651 Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania), 181 Vanda Station, 348 Vangelis, 658 Vangengeim, Georgy, 90 Vanguardia, 662 Vanho¨ffen, Ernst, 351 Variation, 1 genotypic, 2 phenotypic, 2 Vassfjellet, aircraft runways at Maitri on, 14 Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 395, 657 Veer, Willard Van Der, 395 Vega, 671 Vegetation, Antarctic, 1033–1036 Arctic vegetation v., 1003 climate and climate change’s impact on, 1034, 1036 colonization, succession and community development of, 1035– 1036 history and immigration of, 1034–1035 lichens, algae, and cyanobacteria as, 1033 phanerogams as, 1033 phytogeographic zones and, 1033–1034 spore-producing bryophytes as, 1033 Velain, Charles, 963 Veneridae, 651 Ventifacts, 348 Ventile, 264 Venus de Milo, 352 Verbeek, Pieter, 782 Vernadsky Station, 1013, 1014, 1135, 1141 meteorological weather data for, 643 ozone, monitoring of at, 696 temperature trends, long-term at, 253, 950 weather forecasting at, 1048 Verne, Jules, 386 Vertical-incidence ionosonde, 546 Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), 459 Very-high frequency (VHF), 129, 391 Vesleskarvet, 910 Vespucci, Amerigo, Portuguese maritime voyage (1501–1502) of, 1109 Vestfjella, 50 Wasa Station at, 126 Vestfold Hills aircraft runway at Davis Station on, 14 copepods in lakes of, 408 as oasis, 679, 680, 682 VHF. See Very-high frequency VHF radio systems, 129, 391 Vicariance, 150, 531 dispersal v., 533 Vicecomodoro Marambio. See Marambio Station Victoria, (queen), Victoria Land named after, 51 Victoria Group, Upper Carboniferous to Upper Triassic, 129, 130 Victoria Land, 51, 130 Antarctic petrels on, 75

geology of, 1036–1040 Nimrod expedition and, 185, 186 Ross, James Clark, and discovery of, 182, 810, 1110 Victoria Land, geology of, 1036–1040 basement rocks of Ross Orgogeny in, 1036, 1037–1038 Devonian-Carboniferous admiralty intrusives in, 1038 Gondwana sequence and, 1038–1039 Ross Sea rifting and, 1036–1037, 1039–1040 sketch map of, 1037 Victoria Valley, 24, 25, 57, 156, 346, 348. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys Viese, Vladimir, 90 VIIRS. See Visible/Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite Viking satellite, 106 Villa, Carlos Blasco, 782 Ville de Marseille, 352 Villier, Allan, 386 Vince, George, 1076 Vincennes, 486, 1110 Vincent, John, 528 Vinson Massif adventure tourism and, 8 height of, 48, 49 Seven Summits and, 9 Viper, 302 Virginian, 114 Viruses, 335, 336 freshwater foodweb and, 408–409 microorganisms and, 644, 646 Viscous convection pattern, 618 Visible band imagery, 702 Visible/Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS), 791 Vittoria, 1109 Vladivostok, 89 VLBI. See Very Long Baseline Interferometry VLF transmissions, 737 VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 902, 903 Volcanic events, Antarctic, 1040–1042. See also McMurdo Volcanic Group advantages of reconstruction of paleo-, 1041–1042 Bouvetøya and, 484 climate-volcanism relationship and, 1040–1041, 1042 Deception Island and, 483 heated ground and, 483 ice core records of, 1041 Marie Byrd Land and, 625, 626 Marion and Heard Islands and, 483 Ring of Fire and, 1040 South Sandwich archipelago and, 483 volcanic deposition on Antarctic ice sheet and, 1041 Volcanic rocks, South Shetland Islands’, 178, 179 Volcaniclastic deposits, 70 Volcano(es), Antarctic, 51, 182, 356, 1042–1044 active, 1042–1043 Big Ben as active, 482, 1043 Bridgeman Island as active, 1043 bryophyte colonization and active, 655 Deception Island as, 177, 282, 327, 328, 431, 1040, 1043 locations of active, 1043 Marie Byrd Land and active, 1043 Mount Berlin as active, 1043 Mount Erebus as active, 51, 431, 656, 1043, 1063 Mount Melbourne and active, 431, 483, 1043 Mount Rittmann and, 483, 1043

I81

INDEX Volcano(es), Antarctic (cont.) Mount Siple as highest, 626, 1043, 1063 Mount Takahe as active, 625, 1043 Penguin Island and, 431 Southern Ocean volcanic islands and, 1043 St. Paul Island as, 962 Volcano sponges, 142 Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS) program, 467 Vortices, 997 VOS program. See Voluntary Observing Ship program VOS-Clim, 467 Vostok, 138 Vostok Expedition. See Russian Naval (Vostok and Mirnyy) Expedition Vostok ice core, 710, 712 estimated temperature and CO2 concentration in, 708 Vostok Lake. See Lake Vostok Vostok Station, 582, 1044–1045, 1135, 1141 astronomical observing sites and, 95, 1044 choice of location for, 1044, 1045 climate records, long-term from, 252 height of, 51 history of, 1044 ice core analysis and, 89, 103, 307, 496, 822, 1044, 1045 IGY station built at, 125 lowest temperature recorded at, 48, 1045 Russian (Soviet) Antarctic program and, 822 scientific research at, 1044–1045 skiway at, 15, 1044 temperature trends, long-term at, 253 Voyage au poˆle Sud et dans l’Oce´anie (Dumont d’Urville), 352 Voyage de la corvette l’Astrolabe (Dumont d’Urville), 352 Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions, A (1847) (Ross), 172 Voyage of the Discovery, Volume I: Scott’s First Antarctic Expedition, 1901–1904 (Scott, Robert F.), 347 Voyage towards the South Pole and round the World, A, 171 Voyager spacecraft, 304

W Wade, F. Alton, 626, 1024 Waders, thigh-length, 265 Wahr, Rudolf, 116 WAIS. See West Antarctic Ice Sheet Waite, Bud, 1031 Waldeck-Rousseau, Pierre Marie Rene´ Ernest, 221 Wallace, Alfred Russell, 1 Wallis, Samuel, 295 Walterhouse, C. O., 533 Walterhouse, G. R., 533 Wanamaker, Henry, 207 Wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans), 16, 1047–1048. See also Albatrosses Amsterdam albatross as subspecies of, 28 diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20, 1047 distribution and habitat use of, 19, 1047 foraging of, 1048 life history of, 19, 1047–1048 species characteristics of, 17, 1047 Vulnerable status of, 167, 1047 Warm deep water (WDW), 45, 46 CDW as, 241 Warren, Gabriel, 92 WARS. See West Antarctic Rift System

I82

Wartzok, D., 339 Wasa Station, 397 environmental design of, 126 Wasps (Kleidotoma icarus), 532 Waste disposal and management, 630, 690–691. See also Marine debris; Pollution abandoned work facilities and, 754–756 Annex III to Protocol on Environmental Treaty and, 84, 285 base technology and, 128 decomposition and, 329 deep sea and, 330 field camps and, 391 Greenpeace and, 473 Water flea (Daphniopsis studeri), 408. See also Parasitic insects: lice and fleas Water mass(es). See also Antarctic Bottom Water; Antarctic Intermediate Water; Antarctic Surface Water; Circumpolar Deep Water AABW as, 43–47 AAIW as, 62–65 AASW as, 79–81 CDW as, 240–242 characteristics of world ocean, 79 formation of, 240 Water production, bases and, 128 Water vascular system, echinoderm, 371 Watkins, H. G. (Gino), 195, 340, 1097 Watson, James Dewey, 1 Wave generators, 128 Waved albatross (Phoebastria irrorata), 16. See also Albatrosses diet and trophic interactions of, 19–20 distribution and habitat use of, 19 species characteristics of, 18–19 Wave-ice interaction, marginal ice zone, 620–621 WCRP. See World Climate Research Programme WCRP-WOCE, 139 WDW. See Warm deep water Weasel vehicles, 275, 276, 277, 674 Weather forecasting, Antarctic, 1048–1049 forecasting techniques in, 1048, 1049 MSL charts in, 1048 National Antarctic Programs and, 1048 NWP in, 1049 science v. art of, 1048 Weatherhavens, 390 Webb, Peter-Noel, 199, 490 Weber, W., 487 Webster, William, 486 Weddell Abyssal Plain, 148 Weddell Gyre, 270, 363, 830, 831. See also Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres ACC and, 360, 361, 1051 characteristics of, 1051–1052 deep ocean convection within, 1053 Weddell, James, 168, 422, 875, 1049–1051, 1110 early life of, 1050 farthest south of 74
15’ in Weddell Sea by, 1050, 1110 Jane and sealing voyage of, 875, 1050, 1110 maritime route of Jane voyage by, 1142 South Georgia, account of by, 913, 1050 Voyage Towards the South Pole book of, 1051 Weddell Sea discovered by, 1049–1050 Weddell seal and, 1050 Weddell Orogen, 431, 434

INDEX Weddell Polynya, 46, 241. See also Polynyas and leads in the Southern Ocean Weddell, Ross and other polar gyres, 1051–1053 ACC and, 1051, 1052 Antarctic Coastal Current and, 1052 characteristics of, 1051–1052 flow in, 1051 origin of, 1052 properties within, 1052 sea life diversity in, 1053 sea-ice cover impacted by, 1053 Weddell Sea, 1055–1058 AABW from, 43, 363 ANDEEP programme and, 38–39, 148 Antarctic Peninsula glacial regime and, 74 benthic species in, 143 Finnish Antarctic program and, 398 floating ice shelves and, 43 local topography of southern, 45 marine biodiversity in, 147, 148 oceanography of, 1053–1055 oil/gas exploration and, 268, 269 physiography of, 287 second-year ice in, 703 Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW), 45–46 circulation of, 46 Weddell Sea Deep Water (WSDW), 831 Weddell Sea Expedition, 529 Weddell Sea, oceanography of, 1053–1055 climate conditions in, 1054 marine animals in, 1055 sea-ice conditions in, 1054–1055 temperature changes in near-surface air in, 1054 Weddell Abyssal Plain in, 1053–1054 Weddell Gyre’s influence on, 1054 Weddell Sea Region, plate tectonic evolution of, 1055–1057 Gondwana break up and, 1055–1056 new model for, 1057 Riiser-Larsen Sea and, 1057 Southern Hemisphere continents, position of and, 1055, 1056 Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii), 1058–1060. See also Seals adaptation and, 3, 878 antibodies found in, 336 breeding of, 879, 1058, 1059 CCAS protection of, 294, 880, 1060 Dallmann’s 1873 voyage and, 321 diet of, 1060 distribution of, 878, 1058 diving biology of, 337–339 vocalizations of, 1060 Weddell-Enderby Basin, 359–360 Weddell-I, 822 Weddell-Scotia Confluence, 830–831, 833, 952 Weedy pioneers, 142 Wegener, Alfred, 130, 1055 AWI and, 22 drifting continents, theory of by, 130, 364–365 expeditions to Greenland (1929,1930–1931) by, 351 Weka, 543 Wennergaard, Ole, 977 West Antarctic Ice Sheet(WAIS), 57. See also Antarctic Ice Sheet age of, 58 Antarctic Peninsula glacial regime v., 73–74, 75 collapse hypothesis and, 58–59 ice sheet modeling of, 517

ice streams and, 465 isbrae and, 465–466 Larsen Ice Shelf collapse and, 74–75 mass balance for, 512 West Antarctic ice streams, 464, 465 West Antarctic isbrae, 464, 465–466 West Antarctic Rift System (WARS), 431, 435, 1060–1066 crustal structure of, 1061 history and evolution of, 1064–1065 map of topography and structure of, 1062 Marie Byrd Land/Ellsworth Land in, 1063 neotectonics of, 666 Ross Sea sector of, 1061–1062 tectonic structures of, 1061–1063 topographic expression of, 1060–1061 volcanism in, 1063–1064 West Antarctica (Lesser Antarctica), 57, 58, 59, 70, 130, 156, 243, 365 climate and, 247, 249 Lesser Antarctica v., 48 maps of, 215 neotectonics of, 666 physiography of, 286, 287 West Ice Shelf, 360 West Scotia Ridge. See also Islands of the Scotia Ridge, geology of Drake Passage and formation of, 344–345 West Scotia Sea, 345 West wind drift, 361, 523 Westerly winds, 64, 80, 183, 254, 255, 262, 270, 344, 360 Antarctic climate and, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251 Western Base, 51 AAE and, 109–111 Westlake, Nigel, 657 Westland petrel, 16 Westward-flowing current, 361 Westwindstranda, 176 Weyprecht, Karl, 488, 537 WG-EMM. See Working Group on Ecosystem Monitoring and Management WG-FSA. See Fish Stock Assessment Working Group Whale cannons, 416 Whalebird. See Antarctic prion Whalers Bay, 328 Whales, 1067–1072 adaptation and, 3, 1067 Antarctic fur seal numbers and, 53 Antarctic species of, 1067 diet of, 1069 Discovery Investigations and biology of, 333–334 distribution and migration of, 1067–1069 diving biology of, 339 graph (1900–2004) of biomass removal for, 1068 graph (1904–2004) of catches of, 1068 life history and social structure of, 1069–1070 overview of, 1067–1072 status of, 1070, 1071 trophic interactions of, 1070, 1072 Whaling, 1072–1076 aboriginal subsistence, 540 alien invasions and, 273 archaeology, historic and, 86, 87 Australia and, 36 beaked whale conservation and, 135 blue whales killed by, 171, 397 Christensen Antarctic Expeditions and, 228–229, 232–233, 234

I83

INDEX Whaling (cont.) CITES and, 291 commercial, 540 conservation of sites from, 284 countries involved in, 1074 Dallmann’s 1873 voyage and, 321 Deception Island and, 327, 328 Discovery Investigations and, 333 Dundee Whaling Expedition and Scottish industry of, 353 Enderby Brothers and, 380–381 exploratory phase of, 1072–1073 extermination of whales through, 291 fin whale killed by, 397 Foyn’s influence on Antarctic, 416–417 history of, 1072–1076 humpback whales killed through, 493 IWC and, 539–542 IWC sanctuaries on, 540, 542 Kerguelen Islands and, 567 King George Island and, 575 Larson, Carl Anton, and, 583–585 Norway and, 1074 pelagic, 585, 1073–1074 pelagic ecosystem impacted by, 144 products derived from, 1074–1075 regulation and control of, 1075–1076 scientific permit, 540 South Georgia and, 1073 South Shetland Islands and, 1073 whale species reduced through, 632 work and organization of, 1075 Whichaway Nunataks, 50, 385 Whillans Ice Stream, 464, 804 Whistlers, 736 White Desert, 764 White Dish, 302 White-capped albatross (Thalassarche steadi), 16. See also Albatrosses Auckland Islands and, 104 White-chinned petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis), 16, 726–727 Vulnerable status of, 167 White-headed petrel (Pterodroma lessonii), 725 White-ice runways, 14–15 Widerøe, Viggo, 115, 232, 234 Wiencke Island, adventure tourism and, 9 Wiencke, Karl Augustus, 136 Wild Birds Directive, 61 Wild, Ernest, 814 Wild, Frank, 323, 763, 766, 1076–1078, 1079, 1112 AAE and, 109, 636, 1076 coal found by, 268 Discovery Expedition and, 200, 201, 1076 ITAE and, 528, 1076, 1077 Mawson, Douglas, on ability of, 1076 Nimrod Expedition and, 185, 1076 Shackleton-Rowett expedition and, 892, 893, 1076 Ticket of Leave play and, 387 Wilhelm II Land. See Kaiser Wilhelm II Land Wilhelm Islands, 321 Wilhem II, Kaiser, Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf and, 49 Wilkes Basin, 365 Wilkes, Charles, 219, 423, 486, 1078, 1110 maritime route of Antarctic expedition (1840) led by, 1142 paintings and drawings by, 92 South Magnetic Pole and, 181, 183, 355

I84

US Exploring Expedition led by, 1078 voyages of, 1078 Wilkes Land discovered by, 51, 1110 Wilkes Land, 51 Wilkes Province, 368 Wilkes Station, 37, 51 archaeological research on, 87, 88 installation of, 589 Wilkes Subglacial Basin, 365 Wilkes-Ade´lie Land, 363 Wilkins Ice Shelf, 521 Wilkins, Sir George Hubert, 36, 113, 114, 196, 328, 334, 395, 1078–1080, 1112, 1113 British Imperial Expedition and, 197, 1079 Ellsworth and, 376, 1079, 1080 Hurley and, 1079 live and achievements of, 1078–1080 Shackleton and, 892, 1079 Wilkins-Ellsworth Trans-Arctic Submarine Expedition, 376 Wilkins-Hearst Antarctic Expedition, 114, 115, 214, 1112 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 94, 303 Will, H., 538 William Horlick, 114, 1026 William IV, King, 168 William Scoresby, 188, 333, 635, 1112 Williams, 327, 922, 926, 927, 1110 Williams Field, 638 skiways at, 15 Williams, Martyn, 9 Williams Point Beds, 178 Williams, Ralph Vaughn, 395 Williams, Terrie, 339 Williamson, Thomas, 764 Wills, Janet Standcomb, 527 Wilson, Edward, 323, 326, 488, 1080–1081 Discovery Expedition and, 199, 200, 201, 1080, 1081 Ross Ice Shelf and, 184, 1081 SPRI and watercolor paintings of, 835, 1080, 1081 Terra Nova expedition and death of, 175, 193, 195, 264, 764, 834, 836–837, 1081, 1112 topographical profiles, Ross Sea by, 92 Wilson, Ove, 674 Wilson, Robert W., 301 Wilson’s storm petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), 1081–1084 Balleny Islands and, 123 breeding of, 868, 1082, 1083 characteristics of, 1081 diet of, 1082 distribution of, 1081 IBA criteria for, 60 population of, 868, 1081 Wilton, David, 838 Wind(s), 1084–1086. See also Katabatic winds ACC and, 1085 air-sea interaction influenced by, 1085 Antarctic Plateau and low speeds of, 93 Automatic Weather Stations and, 1085 barrier, 1084–1085 climate and free atmosphere, 249 coastal ocean currents influenced from, 269, 270, 1085 definition of, 1084 katabatic types of, 1084 Madison, C. T., on Antarctic, 1086 measurement of near-surface, 1085 near-surface, 1084

INDEX numerical modeling of, 1085 propagules transported by, 151, 427, 1085–1086 sea-ice cover and, 1085 surface mass balance influenced by, 1086 synoptic weather systems’ impact on, 1084 Wind generators, 127 Wind packing, 500 Wind pumping, 906 WIND satellite, 107 Wind shear, 99 Wind turbines, 127 Wind waves, 1000 Wind-induced surface heat exchange (WISHE) mechanism, 748 Windmill Island, 365 Wind-shaped stones, 348 Winter Quarters Bay, 124 Winter Water (WW), 362 AASW and, 79 Winter Weddell Sea Program (WWSP), 746 WISHE mechanism. See Wind-induced surface heat exchange mechanism Wisting, Oscar, 193, 676, 1086–1087 Amundsen’s relations with, 1086, 1087 With Byrd at the South Pole (film), 1026 WMAP. See Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe WMO. See World Meteorological Organization WMO/ICSU/IOC Joint Scientific Committee, 1098 WOCE. See World Ocean Circulation Experiment Wolfrum, Ru¨diger, 783 Women in Antarctic Science, 1087–1092 atmospheric sciences and, 1087–1088 conservation and women in, 1090–1091 geosciences and, 1088–1089 life sciences and, 1089–1090 Women in Antarctica, 1087–1092, 1092–1096 as adventurers, 1096 from companions to professionals, 1092–1096 as female companions, 801, 1092–1093, 1114 honors/awards for, 1095–1096 roles of, 1092 as scientists, 1087–1092, 1093–1095 Wordie Ice Shelf, 519 Wordie, James Mann, 188, 334, 834, 1097–1098 CTAE and, 275, 1097 life and achievements of, 1097 SPRI, formation of and, 488, 1097 Working Group on Ecosystem Monitoring and Management (WG-EMM), 404 Working Group on Geodesy and Geographic Information, 735 World Biosphere Reserve, Macquarie Island as, 607 World Climate Programme, 1098 World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), 139, 537, 1098–1099 projects of, 1098 role of, 1098 World Conservation Monitoring Centre, UNEP, 291 World Conservation Union (IUCN), 132, 1099–1100 Amsterdam albatrosses and, 29 Antarctic fauna/flora and Red List of, 166 Antarctica and, 1099 ATS and, 85 CITES and, 290 constitution and program of, 1099 history of, 1099

Strategy for Antarctic Conservation and, 282 Sub-Antarctic islands and, 152 World Data Centres, 536 World Days, 536 World Heritage Site Auckland Islands as, 104 Campbell Islands as, 210 Heard Island as, 284 Macquarie Island as, 284, 607 World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 467, 522, 1100 ATS and, 85 purpose and activities of, 1100 World Ocean, 821 AABW’s importance to, 43 Southern Ocean, modeling of and, 955, 956 water mass characteristics of, 79 World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), 139, 237, 829 ACC knowledge from circumpolar snapshot of, 235 World Ocean federal program, AARI and, 89 World Park Antarctica, 41, 42 Greenpeace and, 282, 473, 1091 World Park Base, 282, 473 World War II BAS and, 188 building Antarctic bases during, 124–125 Hitler, Antarctic exploration and, 116 World Weather Watch (WWW), 467 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 291 Worms (polychaete), 142 Worsley, Frank Arthur, 1101 as captain of Endurance, 528, 1101 ITAE and, 528, 1101 Shackleton-Rowett expedition and, 892, 893, 1101 Worsley’s Dream, 1101 Worst Journey in the World, The (Cherry-Garrard), 172, 192, 377, 1081 Wright, Charles S., 766 Terra Nova Expedition and, 191, 192, 193 Wright, Derek, 485 Wright Valley, 346, 347, 348. See also McMurdo Dry Valleys WSBW. See Weddell Sea Bottom Water WSDW. See Weddell Sea Deep Water WW. See Winter Water WWF. See World Wide Fund for Nature WWSP. See Winter Weddell Sea Program WWW. See World Weather Watch WWW Global Observing System, 1100 Wyatt Earp, 36, 114, 376, 588, 1113 Wyatt, Henry, 341

X Xantonema spp., 24 Xantophyceae (yellow-green algae), 23 Xenobiotics, 372–373 Xiangyang Hong No. 10, 227 Xuelong, 227

Y Yamamoto Mountains, meteorites found near, 640 Yasunosuke Yamabe, 562 Yeast cells, 425 Yelcho, 528

I85

INDEX Yellow-eyed penguin (Megandyptes antipodes) Auckland Islands and, 104 Campbell Islands and, 209 Yellow-green algae, 23. See also Algae Yellow-nosed albatross (genus Thalassarche), 1103–1104. See also Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross; Indian yellow-nosed albatross breeding of, 1103 characteristics of, 1103 diet of, 1103 Endangered Status of, 1103, 1104 Young, David, 388 Young ice, 851, 852 Young Island, 123 Younger Dryas, 497

Z Zapol, Warren, 339 Zeewolf, 1109 Ze´le´e, 352, 377, 422, 423. See also French Naval (Astrolabe and Ze´le´e) Expedition Zeppelin-Study-Journey, 351

I86

Zhongshan Station, 50, 226, 227, 680, 1135, 1141 microbiological studies at, 647 Zinc, 759 Zingiber, 1081 Ziphiidae, 131 Ziphiids, 131, 132 Zones ACC fronts and, 236 biogeographic, 156–159, 236 Zoonosis Lyme disease, 335 Zooplankton, 1105–1108. See also Krill Antarctic Divergence and, 361 Antarctic food web, scheme of and, 1106 characteristics of, 1105 classification of, 1105 importance of, in marine food web, 1107 krill as, 1107–1108 PFZ and communities of, 743–744 species of, 1105 Zu den Wundern des Su¨dpols (Kristensen), 172 Zucchelli Station, 51 Zygnema sp., 23 Zygomycetes, 425