Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece: Economy of Ancient Greece (Routledge Explorations in Economic History)

Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

Whilst modern economists are primarily concerned with how people behave, classical writers such as Plato, Aristotle, and Xenophon were more interested in how people should behave, thus marking the ethical difference between economics now and economics in Ancient Greece. Partly a piece of economic history, partly a critique of utilitarianism, Takeshi Amemiya presents a complete model of the Athenian economy. Exploring all areas of this economy including public finance, banking, manufacturing, and trade, Amemiya discusses the historical, cultural, political, and sociological condition of ancient Greece as well as the ethical background in which the economy developed. Such a broad and comprehensive survey is unprecedented in this field. Takeshi Amemiya has taught an undergraduate course for the last five years at Stanford on Economy and Economics of ancient Greece and this text would be perfect for those and other students interested in this period. It would also be a useful reference point for graduates and of considerable interest to classicists at any level. Takeshi Amemiya teaches econometrics and Greek economy and economics at Stanford University.

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Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

Takeshi Amemiya

First published 2007 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2007 Takeshi Amemiya

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Amemiya, Takeshi. Economy and economics of ancient Greece / Takeshi Amemiya. p. cm Includes bibliographical references. 1. Greece–Economic conditions–To 146 B.C. I. Title. HC37.A44 2007 330.938–dc22 2006026697

ISBN 0–203–79931–3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN10: 0–415–70154–6 (hbk) ISBN10: 0–203–79931–3 (ebk) ISBN13: 978–0–415–70154–9 (hbk) ISBN13: 978–0–203–79931–4 (ebk)

Contents

List of illustrations Preface Acknowledgments Map of Ancient Greece Map of Attica Chronology up to 600 BC Chronology of sixth- and fifth-century Athens Chronology of fourth-century Athens Weights, measures, and units

ix x xv xvi xvii xviii xx xxii xxiv

PART I

History, society, culture

1

1

History

3

2

Society and culture

13

3

Athenian democracy

37

4

Was Athenian democracy a success?

45

PART II

Economy

55

5

Modernist–primitivist and formalist–substantivist controversy

57

6

The Athenian economy of the fifth and fourth century

62

viii Contents PART III

Economics

115

7 Xenophon’s economics

117

8 Plato’s ethics

120

9 Aristotle’s ethics

131

10 Plato’s economics

138

11 Aristotle’s economics

150

12 Utilitarianism

158

Glossary of Greek names and terms References Index

169 174 179

Illustrations

Figures 11.1 Edgeworth diagram

153

Tables 2.1 2.2 3.1 6.1 6.2 6.3

Size of workshops Population estimates Characteristics of Athenian institutions Estimates of grain production Slave import under varying assumptions Slave import under the Isager-Hansen assumptions

35 36 43 74 90 91

Appendices 6.1 6.2 6.3

Calorie percentage in grain, grain–other food ratio, food–expenditure ratio Annual consumption of grain Transfer payment by the government (only adult male)

113 114 114

Preface

This book will start with a brief introduction to the history of Greek civilization from the Mycenaean period to the fourth century BC, then present a detailed account of the Athenian economy and society in the fifth and fourth centuries, and conclude with the economic thoughts of Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle. A study of the Athenian economy is not only interesting for its own sake but also useful as it will shed light on the primitivist–modernist controversy and the formalist–substantivist controversy. These two pairs of opposing concepts are closely related to each other, though conceptually different. A formalist believes that the Athenian economy can be analyzed by the basic behavioral assumptions of modern economics, namely, utility maximization and profit maximization, whereas a substantivist believes that a different set of behavioral assumptions, such as status maximization, must be substituted. A formalist is more likely to be a modernist, and a substantivist a primitivist, although not necessarily so. For example, one who believes that even the modern American economy should not be explained by utility maximization and profit maximization may be said to be both, a modernist and a substantivist, with regard to the modern American economy. Consideration of these problems will, therefore, be relevant not only for the Athenian economy but also for the modern economy and will force us to think deeply about the role of economic theory in general. Finley, following Weber and Polanyi, suggested that there was no “separate” economy in ancient Greece; it was “embedded” in society. He called this idea “substantivism,” thus shifting the emphasis of the debate from primitivist– modernist to substantivist–formalist. In order to understand the Athenian economy, we need to study various aspects of its society such as its religion, laws, customs, institutions, and political organizations. These are important to understand any economy, modern or ancient, but more so for ancient economies because the degree of “embeddedness” is more pronounced for them. A study of the Athenian economy and society will provide a background for understanding the economic thoughts of Plato and Aristotle. Both Plato and Aristotle extolled a small self-sufficient economy and disapproved of greedy profittaking in reaction to the burgeoning market economy in fourth-century Athens. They were more concerned with justice than market equilibrium. They found value in what is good in itself rather than what is conducive to pleasure. A study of

Preface xi the economic thoughts of Plato and Aristotle, and their ethical theories of which their economic thoughts constitute a part, will help us to rethink our accustomed values. In particular, it will help clarify the arguments for and against utilitarianism, which forms the ethical foundation of modern economic theory. The book is organized into chapters as follows. 1. History This chapter will present the history of Greek civilization beginning with the IndoEuropean invasion of 1600 BC to the end of the Athenian democracy in 322 BC, with a discussion of important events and personalities. A brief chronology of the Hellenistic age is given at the end, although this book primarily deals with the Classical Age. 2. Society and culture This section will set forth characteristics of Greek society and culture extending over religion, literature, and popular morality through original authors such as Homer, Herodotos, Thucydides, Xenophon, Lysias, Demosthenes, and tragedy and comedy poets, as well as commentators such as Finley, Easterling, Muir, and Dover. The attitude of society toward women, slaves, and money is especially important and will be discussed in detail. 3. Athenian democracy 4. Was Athenian democracy a success? These chapters describe how Athenian democracy started and how the State endured the Peloponnesian War and the war with Macedonia until it ended in 322 BC. What were the institutions and the characteristics? What were the instances of success and failure? The balance of power between the elite and the mass is discussed here. 5. Modernist–primitivist and formalist–substantivist controversy 6. The Athenian economy of the fifth and fourth century On the basis of both literary and epigraphic evidence we demonstrate that fifth- and fourth-century Athens had an extensive monetary and market system. Manufacturing was also well developed. Chapter 6 is subdivided into sections discussing market, agriculture, trade, public finance, and money and banking. The results of these sections are combined and organized into a comprehensive whole in the section where a model of the Athenian economy of the fourth century BC is presented. The model starts with estimates of population and grain production in Attica. These lead to an estimate of grain import and what Athens had to export to pay for the imported grain. Although estimates of grain production vary, scholars agree that Athens had to import a considerable proportion of its grain need. There is disagreement, however, as to how Athens paid for the grain import. Finley thought that most of it was paid by silver. The current consensus, however, is that the

xii Preface export of manufactured goods occupied a central part. This latter view will be substantiated in my model of the Athenian economy. The basic building blocks of the model are the revenues and expenditures of the five sectors of the economy – the poor farmers, the rich farmers, the manufacturing and service sector, the government, and foreign trade. Many separate studies of various aspects of the economy – agriculture, trade, public finance, etc. – exist, but a study presenting an overall picture is rare, and that is what I plan to attempt here. Scholars have shied away from this attempt because they were not able to come up with an appropriate behavioral model that explains the Athenian economy. I will show in this book that a set of simple accounting identities alone, with minimal behavioral and institutional assumptions, can go a long way toward understanding an overall picture of the Athenian economy. 7. Xenophon’s economics Xenophon’s Oikonomikos consists of two parts: a conversation between Socrates and Critobulos and another between Socrates and Ischomachos. The first part contains a very original price theory. For example, a flute does not have use value for those who cannot play it but has market value which is lost, however, if the money earned by selling the flute is spent immorally. The second part contains a treatise on how to train a young wife in the art of household management and another one on agronomy. Xenophon also has a work called Ways and Means, in which he proposes ways to rebuild the Athenian economy in the middle of the fourth century. One of the proposed plans was to develop the port of Peiraieus by providing benefits to foreign residents and traders. Another was to increase investment in Laureion silver mines. It is obvious that Xenophon was well aware of the principle of diminishing productivity and the principle that supply follows profit. 8. Plato’s ethics The central features of Plato’s ethics are (1) that it is person-centered rather than action-centered and (2) that good and pleasure are different. In both respects it differs significantly from utilitarianism. The implication of (1) is that Plato believes that once good character is developed through education, good action naturally follows. The second theme appears in many works but most forcefully in Gorgias. Another important characteristic of Plato’s ethical theory is that it is firmly grounded in his metaphysics of forms. 9. Aristotle’s ethics Aristotle’s ethical theory is fundamentally the same as Plato’s, even though one might say that he is slightly more sympathetic to pleasure. The theory of eudaimonia he developed in the Nicomachean Ethics should not be mistaken for utilitarianism because the Greek word eudaimonia is much closer to good than to pleasure. Aristotle believed that everything has its own proper function and the state in which this function is fully developed is called aretè. For example, the

Preface xiii aretè of an eye is to see well, and the aretè of a horse is to run fast. But, interestingly, the aretè of a man is not just to be fully like a man, but rather, to try to reach beyond man. Thus, Aristotle believed the highest eudaimonia is theòria – looking toward God. 10. Plato’s economics In Book II of the Republic, Plato explains how the division of labor arises in human society. His theory of the division of labor has both similarities and differences with that of Adam Smith. They agree that the division of labor brings about efficiency of production but differ in that, whereas Plato says the division of labor is a result of rational decision, Smith says it is a result of human instinct. In Laws Plato goes to great lengths to emphasize the harm of greed for money. He also sets many regulations in his ideal state to constrain economic activities, such as upper and lower limits to individual wealth, price regulations, prohibition of interest-taking and credit sale, etc. 11. Aristotle’s economics Aristotle presents his controversial theory of price determination in Book V of the Nicomachean Ethics, which was variously interpreted as utility theory, labor theory, and others. Here he seems to be more interested in the concept of just price than the price determined in the impersonal market. After all the main topic of Book V is justice. Aristotle’s rebuke of a greed for money is just as strong as Plato’s. In Book I of Politics, Aristotle discusses the art of household management (oikonomikè) and states that its aim is to procure necessary goods for the household and strongly admonishes against any attempt to obtain goods beyond what is necessary, calling it the art of retail trade (kapèlikè). Aristotle abhors the limitless nature of acquisition according to the art of retail trade, whereas the art of household management sets a natural limit by necessity. According to Aristotle, the worst form of the art of retail trade is lending money with interest. As is well known, this idea persisted throughout the Middle Ages. 12. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism, as originally proposed by Bentham, is the ethical theory in which the value of an action is measured solely by the utility, happiness, and pleasure (including psychological pleasure) it produces as its consequence. Bentham’s goal was to maximize the social sum of individual utilities. In this sense it should not be identified with selfishness. In fact, several authors such as Rawls criticized it on the grounds that it sacrifices too much individual happiness for the sake of social welfare. As stated earlier, it differs essentially from Platonic or Aristotelian ethics in that it only considers the consequence of an action regardless of the motive or other mental conditions of the person who performs the action, and does not recognize values aside from utility.

xiv Preface Utilitarianism has been the cornerstone of modern economics. Individuals are assumed to behave so as to maximize utility. In reality, however, it is not clear whether they actually do, let alone whether they should. Some economists, notably Amartya Sen, have criticized it saying that in certain situations people act on the basis of belief or commitment rather than maximizing utility. This book is primarily intended to be an introductory textbook for undergraduate students but may also be used as a reference for graduate students. It is based on the lecture notes I have used in the last five years at Stanford in the course titled “Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece.” I know of no other book quite like this. There are a few books on the economy alone: for example, Finley, The Athenian Economy, 2nd edn (UC Berkeley 1985); Austin and Vidal-Naquet, Economic & Social History of Ancient Greece (UC Berkeley 1977); and Cartledge, Cohen, and Foxhall, eds, Money, Labour and Land (Routledge 2002). The first two are written from the primitivist perspective and are somewhat out of date. The third book is a collection of essays, many of which reflect recent scholarship. There are many books on certain aspects of the economy, among which important ones are: Andreades, History of Greek Public Finance (Harvard 1933); Buchanan, Theorika (J. J. Augustin Publisher 1962); Cohen, Athenian Economy and Society: A Banking Perspective (Princeton 1992); Davies, Wealth and the Power of Wealth in Classical Athens (Arno Press 1981); Gabrielsen, Financing the Athenian Fleet (Johns Hopkins 1994); Garlan, Slavery in Ancient Greece (Cornell 1988); Garnsey, Cities, Peasants and Food in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge 1998); and Isager and Hansen, Aspects of Athenian Society in the Fourth Century B.C. (Odense University Press 1975). In addition there are many journal articles and chapters of edited books. The results in these books have been combined and a total picture of the Athenian economy presented in this book. Concerning Greek economics, there are two excellent treatises by Langholm: Price and Value in the Aristotelian Tradition (Universitetsforlaget 1979) and The Legacy of Scholasticism in Economic Thought (Cambridge 1998). They are, however, concerned only with the scholastic interpretation of Aristotelian economics and its effects on scholastics. Lowry’s The Archaeology of Economic Ideas (Duke 1987) is written from a utilitarian perspective and presents an interpretation of the ethical theories of Plato and Aristotle quite different from mine. There are, of course, many excellent books and articles on the ethics of Plato and Aristotle from which I learnt a great deal. In particular I should mention the works of Julia Annas, which I quote liberally in this book. This preface is followed by maps of Greece and Attica, chronological tables, and the Greek units of measurement. The main text is followed by a glossary of names and terms and the references used.

Acknowledgments

During the course of writing this book, Julius Moravcsik, Michael Jameson, Ian Morris, Sadao Ito, and Mariko Sakurai have given me much encouragement and useful advice, for which I am very grateful. I would also like to thank Shigenari Kawashima, who fostered my interest in ancient Greece as I participated in his Greek tours many times. I am also grateful to Annatassios Karayiannis, who read the whole manuscript, and Julia Annas, who read a part. Both of them gave me valuable comments. I am afraid, however, that due to the lack of my abilities I have not been able to make full use of the advice of all these people. My daughter Naoko Amemiya has read the whole manuscript and made my English much more idiomatic.

Map of Ancient Greece

Map of Attica

Chronology up to 600 BC

3,300 3,200 3,100 3,000 2,950 2,900 2,850 2,800 2,750 2,700 2,650 2,600 2,550 2,500 2,450 2,400 2,350 2,300 2,250

MESOPOTAMIA Writing in Sumer

1,700 1,650 1,600 1,550 1,500 1,450

GREECE

Hieroglyphic writing Old Kingdom

Early Bronze Age begins

Akkadian conquest

Sargon I Fall of Sargon dynasty

2,200 2,150 2,100 2,050 2,000 1,950 1,900 1,850 1,800 1,750

EGYPT

Middle Kingdom

Middle Bronze Age begins Old Palace of Knossos

Hammurabi of Babylon Hyksos Reign Fall of Hammurabi

New Palace of Knossos 1,630 Earthquake in Thera Late Bronze Age begins

New Kingdom Conquest of Crete

Chronology up to 600 BC xix 1,400

Kassite Reign of Babylon

1,350 1,300 1,250 1,200 1,150 1,100 1,050 1,000 950 900 850 800 750 700 650 600

Mycenaean Greece

Ramses II (1279–12) Collapse of Hittite Kingdom

Ramses III (1186–55)

Destruction of Palace of Knossos 1,220 Troy destroyed Dorian Invasion

Ionian migration to Asia Minor 950 Iron Age begins

Assyrian Empire

800 776 750 700

Colonization begins First Olympiad Homer Hesiod

620

Law Code of Dracon

Chronology of sixth- and fifth-century Athens

594 Constitution of Solon 560

Tyranny of Peisistratos

550 Cyrus the Great 529

527

Tyranny of Hippias

521

510 Democracy by

Cleisthenes Darius I 490 Battle of Marathon 486 480 479 478 471

Battle of Thermopylai and Salamis Battle of Plataea Delian League Themistocles ostracized

Xerxes I 469

Socrates born

467 Cimon defeats Persians at 465 464 462 461

Eurymedon Revolt of Thasos Earthquake in Sparta Reform of Ephialtes Cimon ostracized

465

460 459 Long Walls built 454 Delian Treasury to Athens 449 Peace Treaty with Persia

459? Lysias born

447 445 Peace Treaty with Sparta 440 437 433 432

Age of Pericles

Siege of Samos Cleruchy at Amphipolis Battle of Corcyra Siege of Potidaea

445 Aristophanes born Parthenon

432 429

Chronology of sixth- and fifth-century Athens xxi 431 427 Revolt of Mytilene 425 Battle of Pylos 424 Brasidas takes 422 421 416 415 413 412

411 410 406 405 404 403

Amphipolis Cleon, Brasidas killed Peace of Nicias Destruction of Melos Sicilian Expedition Athenian Defeat at Sicily Fortification at Decelea Revolt of Allies Sparta's Treaty with Persia Oligarchy of Four Hundred Democracy restored Battle of Arginusae Battle of Aegospotami Oligarchy of Thirty Thrasybulus restores democracy

427 425

Plato born Achanians

422

Wasps

411

Lysistrata

405

Frogs

Peloponnesian War

404

Chronology of fourth-century Athens

399

Socrates dies

395

394 392

Athens & Persia defeat Sparta Long Walls rebuilt

387

King's Peace (Persia gets Asia Minor and the Greeks get the autonomy.) Sparta seizes Theban acropolis

382 379 377 375 371 369

Corinthian War (Everyone against Sparta) 392 Ecclesiazusae 388 Plutus 387 384 Aristotle and Demosthenes born

380

Lysias dies

364 362

Against Aphobus I Oeconomicus

Liberation of Thebes from Sparta Second Athenian League Spartan navy crushed Thebes defeats Sparta in Leuktra Peace of Athens (Thebes replaced Sparta as the principal adversary) Independence of Messenia

359

357 357–5

349–8 348 347 346

Phocian War (Thebes expelled from Euboea) Social War (Revolt of Byzantium, Chios, Kos, Rhodes) Demosthenes Olynthiaces Philip conquers Olynthos Philip replaces Phocians in the Amphictiony Peace of Philocrates

340

Philip attacks Perinthos; Peace treaty repealed

338

Battle of Chaeronea

355 354

Philip

336

Ways and Means On the Navy-Boards

348 Plato dies

Chronology of fourth-century Athens xxiii 333

Alexander defeats Persia

323 323–2 322

Alexander dies Lamian War Antipater conquers Athens

325? Athenian Politeia 323? Against Dionysodorus Aristotle and Demosthenes die

Weights, measures, and units

Length:

1 stadion (st+dion) = 203 yards 1 plethron (pl3jron) = 100 feet

Area:

1 plethron (pl3qron) = 0.235 acres 1 hectare = 10,000 m2 = 2.471 acres

Volume: 1 medimnos (m3dimnov) = 48 choinixes (singular co®nix, plural co’nikev) = 51.8 liters = 1.47 bushels 1 metretes (metrhtâv) = 10 gallons (liquid) = 12 choes (cÒ@ev) 1 chous (co©v) = 12 kotylai (kot_lai) 1 kotyle (kot_lh) = 2.23 ounces Coins:

1 1 1 1 1 1

talent (t+laton) = 60 minas (mna®) mina (mn*) = 100 drachmas (dracma8) drachma (dracmâ) = 6 obols (9bolo8) obol (9bol@v) = 3 copper coins (calko8) Persian gold coin (Dareik@v statâr) = 20 drachmas Cyzicos gold coin (K_zikov statâr) = 28 drachmas

Part I

History, society, culture

1

History

Introduction I will present a brief outline of ancient Greek history, covering a period roughly from 1600 BC (the time of the first Indo-European invasion of Greece) to 322 BC, the year Athens was conquered by Macedonia. This period is further divided into the following four sub-periods: 1600–1200 Mycenaean Age, 1200–800 Dark Age, 800–510 Archaic Age, and 510–322 Classical Age. In this book I will be concerned mostly with the Classical Age and the history of Athens, the time and place for which, by far, the greatest amount of information is available. The reader should consult the chronology table given at the beginning of the book. Some of the references that cover this whole period are Green (1973), Fine (1983), Starr (1991), and Pomeroy et al. (2004).

Mycenaean Age 1600–1200 Greek history can be said to have started around 1600 BC, when the Indo-Europeans invaded the Greek mainland. The so-called Indo-Europeans were the group of people sharing the same language but not necessarily of the same ethnic race, who lived in the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. They started migrating beginning around 4000 BC. Some migrated toward Europe and some toward Iran and India. A branch of the migrants moved into Greece around 1600 BC. People had lived in Greece for a long time before that event and an advanced Minoan culture had flourished in the Aegean islands, centering in Crete. These indigenous people are believed to have been of a different race from the Indo-Europeans, both culturally and linguistically. The palace of Knossos in the northern part of Crete, excavated by Arthur Evans in 1899, was the center of the Minoan civilization. Clay tablets bearing a linear script called Linear A were found there. It has not been deciphered but is believed to be a non-Indo-European language. Unlike Roman alphabets, each symbol of Linear A represents either a vowel, or a combination of a consonant and a vowel. In this sense it is like Japanese hiragana. The Indo-Europeans who invaded Greece established many towns in places such as Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thebes, and Athens, each ruled by a king living in

4 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece a well-fortified palace ruling a hierarchical bureaucracy. We can see the extent of the power and wealth enjoyed by the kings in the remains of the walled palace of Mycenae and the treasures excavated there by Heinrich Schliemann in 1874. Since Mycenae was the most powerful among these kingdoms, the civilization founded by these Indo-Europeans is called Mycenaean. Within 150 years after their invasion into the Greek mainland, the Mycenaeans invaded Crete and destroyed the palace of Knossos thereby putting an end to the Minoan civilization. This age is characterized by the extensive use of bronze artifacts. For more detailed study of the Mycenaean civilization, the reader should consult Drews (1988), Chadwick (1976), and Dickinson (1994). This last reference covers the Minoan civilization as well. Clay tablets bearing the Mycenaean script have been excavated from the remains of the above-mentioned cities, notably Pylos and Knossos. It is called Linear B and it uses essentially the same script as Linear A, yet the language it represents is different from Linear A and was deciphered by Michael Ventris in 1952 and found to contain characteristics of the Greek language. The writings found in most of the clay tablets excavated so far describe the various roles of personnel and workers, and the inventories of produce and goods collected and distributed by the central administration. Aside from the names of a few gods and goddesses, not much cultural and social information can be obtained from the writings. See the aforementioned Chadwick (1976) for the nature of Linear B script and what we can learn about Mycenaean society from it. The major differences between Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations besides the difference in language are as follows: (1) The palaces of Mycenaean cities were strongly fortified whereas the palace of Knossos was not. Many weapons have been excavated from the remains of Mycenaean cities whereas hardly any were found from Minoan sites. From this we might surmise that the Minoan world was more peaceful. (2) In the Minoan society, the status of women seemed to be higher than in the Mycenaean society. Some argue that the Minoan society was matriarchal but there is no hard evidence for it. The Mycenaean society, on the other hand, was patriarchal. (3) The most powerful god of the Mycenaeans was the male god Zeus whereas goddesses seem to have played a much more important role in the Minoan civilization, judging from the large amount of female figurines excavated from Minoan sites. The Mycenaean conquest of the Minoans is symbolized by mythological epics such as the marriage of Zeus and Hera, the defeat of the Amazons by Achilles, and the killing of Gorgon Medusa by Perseus. (4) The Minoans were more artistic than the Mycenaeans. We can still see the beautiful wall paintings excavated from the palace of Knossos, now exhibited in the Heraklion Museum. The paintings of Mycenaean origin are inferior. The conquest of the Jòmon tribes by the Yayoi tribes that took place in Japan approximately two thousand years ago has a certain parallel to the Mycenaean conquest of the Minoans. For example, Jòmon was a matriarchal society whereas Yayoi was patriarchal, and the Jòmon tribe was more peaceful than Yayoi. The Mycenaean civilization came to an abrupt collapse around 1200. Several causes for the collapse have been proposed such as natural disasters, famines, and

History 5 foreign invasions. It is not known, however, whether one of these causes or their combination was the true culprit. Whatever the cause, all the major cities of the Mycenaean age suffered great physical damage and their population began to decline suddenly around this time. The catastrophe was not limited to the Greek mainland and extended to Anatolia and Egypt. Scholars used to believe this was caused by the invasion of the Dorians, a group of Greeks from northern Greece, different from those who sustained the Mycenaean civilization. They spoke the Doric dialect. It is true that there was a southward movement of the Doric race sometime between 1200 and 900, but it is doubtful that it occurred with such great force as to destroy the whole of Greece in such a short time. The Dorians eventually made Sparta their stronghold but archaeological evidence suggests that the establishment of Sparta did not occur long before 900. See Drews (1993) for an excellent discussion of the causes of the catastrophe. Many of the inhabitants of the destroyed Mycenaean cities migrated to other regions such as Achaea, Arcadia, and the western coast of Anatolia, called Asia Minor. A majority of those who migrated into Asia Minor lived in its central area called Ionia and the dialect of the region is called the Ionic dialect. This migration is attested by the fact that the Ionic dialect is similar to the dialect of Attica.

Dark Age 1200–800 The next 400 years following the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization is called the Dark Age because archaeological finds from this era are scant compared to the preceding era. Houses are smaller, pottery is of an inferior quality, and graves are smaller with fewer buried treasures. Linear B seems to have disappeared and there is no sign of any written language. However, it would be far from the truth to conclude that nothing happened in this period. During those 400 years, there was gradual recovery from the initial devastation and there were signs of development which culminated in the later flourishing of the Greek civilization. The development of this period may be characterized by the following occurrences: (1) The emergence of city-states (polis). Compared to Mycenaean palace-centered kingdoms, city-states were characterized by a sense of citizenship and community under common law and common religion. (2) Closely related to the above, there was a transition from monarchy to aristocracy. (3) Toward the latter period of the Dark Age continuing on to the next age, an oriental influence on Greek culture started to make an impact. (4) A new type of pottery with geometric patterns emerged.

Archaic Age 800–510 The trends mentioned in the last paragraph continued in this period and came to their fruition. Among the city-states that started emerging in the preceding period, Athens developed into the most populous and prosperous polis. It was the only community that survived the devastation of the Dark Age. Hence Athenians prided themselves as autochthonos (springing from the earth), meaning they had always

6 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece been there. According to Athenian tradition, Dracon introduced laws about homicide and other offences in 620. Not much about Dracon is known, however. In the beginning of the sixth century, Solon contributed a great deal to the development of the Athenian polis. He compiled a new code of laws, superseding most of the more severe laws of Dracon, established the foundation of the Athenian constitution (which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3, “Athenian democracy”), abolished debts incurred by thètes (the lowest income class), made the enslavement of citizens illegal, and stimulated the economy and trade by bringing foreign residents (metics) to Athens and letting them engage in manufacturing and trade. This tradition of metics and slaves primarily engaging in manufacturing and trade persisted throughout the Classical Age. Solon’s constitution was more aristocratic than democratic. Nevertheless, it seems correct to say that he planted the seeds of democracy that culminated in the establishment of democracy by Cleisthenes in 510 after 50 years of tyranny by Peisistratos and Hippias in the intervening years. This was the period in which population grew in city-states throughout Greece and trade with outside regions expanded. As the result of overpopulation, many Greek city-states established colonies in regions such as Sicily and the Black Sea area. The cultural influence from the Levant and Mesopotamia continued to increase. (See Burkert (1992) for the extent of this oriental influence.) One of the most significant events of this age was the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet into Greece in the ninth century. There is no evidence of scripts before this after Linear B disappeared. Homeric poems were the first writings to be written in the Greek alphabet created by adapting the Phoenician alphabet. (It is believed that Homer did not write them himself, however.) The alphabet turned out to be much more suited to express the Greek language than scripts like Linear A and B. It is believed that Homer was active in Asia Minor in the middle of the eighth century. His Iliad depicts the heroic deeds of warlords from various Greek kingdoms in the war against Troy. The oral tradition about the Trojan War had existed long before Homer fabricated it into a majestic epic poem. The Trojan War of this oral tradition is supposed to have taken place shortly before the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in 1200. Whether or not such a war actually took place is uncertain. Schliemann believed it did and excavated Troy several times in the early 1870s. He thought he found the remains of the ancient city of Troy sacked by the Greeks. Unfortunately he dug too deep into the layers of the successive cities and mistook the ancient city that existed in 2200 as Homer’s Troy. (For a further discussion of the Trojan War and a search for Troy, see Wood (1985).) Homer’s recitation of the Iliad must have been extremely popular among the Greeks living in Ionia because it reminded them of the glorious days when the Ionians lived on the Greek mainland. Since Homeric poems are based on oral tradition, the world they describe must to some extent reflect the reality of the Mycenaean age, but there is no way of knowing the precise extent. Some aspects of the poems must undoubtedly correspond more closely to the period closer to when Homer lived. For example, the Odyssey contains stories that may symbolize Greek colonization and the expansion of foreign trade of the eighth century.

History 7 The replacement of pottery with geometric designs by Attic black-figure vases by 600 also occurred in this age.

Classical Age 510–322 I consider the Classical Age to have begun in 510, the year Cleisthenes put an end to the tyranny of Hippias and established democracy in Athens, and to have ended in 322, the year the Athenian democracy ceased to exist as a result of her capitulation to Macedonia. I will list and give brief comments on the major events of the Classical Age in chronological order: 510 494 490

483

480

479

478

462 461

460 431

Cleisthenes’ Constitution. I discuss this in detail in Chapter 3, “Athenian democracy’. Miletos was subjugated by Persia. Battle of Marathon. Athenian hoplites, led by Athenian general Miltiades, defeated the Persian army. According to Herodotos, 6,400 Persian and 192 Athenian soldiers were killed in the battle. Productive silver mines were found in Laureion. Following Themistocles’ suggestion, Athenians built a hundred warships using the money from the mines. They also built the port of Peiraieus. Thirty-one united Greek states led by the Spartan king Leonidas fought against Xerxes’ invading army. Leonidas was killed in the battle of Thermopylai but the Athenian navy destroyed the Persian navy in the battle near Salamis. The united army of Sparta and Athens led by the Spartan king Pausanias defeated the Persian army led by Mardonios, nephew and son-in-law of Xerxes. Delian League. Athens organized it in defense against the Persians, with its headquarters first at Delos and later at Athens. Chios, Samos, and Lesbos provided ships, and the other states money. In its heyday, around 467, 200 states joined the league. The reasons why Athens, rather than Sparta, organized such a league are that the former played a more important role in the war against Persians and that it was anxious to secure the region around Hellespontos for the safety of grain importation from the Black Sea region. The league gradually developed into an Athenian hegemony with Athens controlling the political and judicial affairs of the other members. In the 440s it became an economically unified entity with a unified system of currency and weights and measures. Reform of Ephialtes. Democracy started by Cleisthenes was made complete. Cimon ostracized. See “Glossary of Greek names and terms” at the end of the book for Cimon and ostracism. His ostracism ushered in the age of Pericles, his major political rival. Age of Pericles began. It lasted till his death in 429. The Parthenon was built during the period 447–32. This is also called the golden age of Greece. Peloponnesian War started. What prompted it initially was a dispute between Athens and Corinth but it soon developed into a war between the

8 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece Athenian League and the Peloponnesian Alliance headed by Sparta. The major members of the Athenian League were Lesbos, Chios, Samos, cities in Asia Minor, the Hellespont, the Thracian cities, most of the islands except Melos and Thera, and Corcyra. The major members of the Spartan Alliance were Corinth, all the cities in Peloponnesos except Argos and Achaea which were neutral, Megara, Boeotia, Locris, Phocis, and Leucas. It lasted until 404 with a brief interlude after the Peace of Nicias in 421. Soon after the beginning of the war, Pericles ordered Athenian citizens to abandon their farms and move from the countryside of Attica into the center of the city within the walls. During the winter they were able to go back to their farms because the Spartan army too went back home. The overcrowding of the city caused a high death rate when plague broke out in 430, eventually killing one-third of the population, including Pericles himself. 416 Destruction of Melos. See the section “Examples of failure” in Chapter 4, “Was Athenian democracy a success?”. 415 Sicilian Expedition. Alcibiades, driven by personal greed and ambition, was the major advocate of the expedition and persuaded the Assembly in spite of Nicias’ well-advised opposition. Alcibiades and Nicias were chosen to be the generals that led the expedition consisting of 40,000 (according to Thucydides) people. Right before the ships left for Sicily, a certain act of sacrilege was discovered. Several of Hermes’ statues were destroyed and a secret of the Eleusinian mystery was revealed. Alcibiades was indicted and sentenced to death for this act, with his property confiscated and auctioned off. It is not known, however, whether he was actually guilty of the act. Hearing this news, Alcibiades went ashore and defected to Sparta revealing all the military secrets to the Spartans. After a while, however, he fell into disfavor with the Spartans and defected to Persia. 413 Athenian Defeat at Sicily. 411 Oligarchy of Four Hundred. See Theramenes and Thrasybulos in “Glossary”. It was brought about by Alcibiades’ cunning plot. When democracy was restored in the next year, Alcibiades, in a characteristic flip-flop, joined the democrats and was rehabilitated as an Athenian citizen a few years later. 406 Battle of Arginusai. Arginusai are small islands between Lesbos and Asia Minor. Athenians won a decisive sea battle there against Spartans, but six of the eight Athenian generals who fought there were later recalled home and executed for not rescuing Athenian sailors who were drowning and for not collecting the dead. Actually the sea was so rough that it was not possible to save them. On the day this motion was approved, Socrates was the chairman of the Assembly and opposed the motion against popular sentiment. For a detailed account of the battle of Arginusai and the ensuing debate in the Assembly regarding the motion to execute the generals, see Hellenica (I. vi and vii) of Xenophon. 405 Battle of Aigos Potamoi. Aigos potamoi is on the eastern shore of Chersonesos. As a result of a military blunder, 171 Athenian ships were

History 9

404

403 399

captured by Spartans led by General Lysander. It effectively ended the war in Sparta’s favor. Oligarchy of Thirty. Athens accepted all of Sparta’s conditions. The Long Walls were dismantled and Athens was allowed to have only 12 vessels. An oligarchy was set up by Lysander and headed by Socrates’ former pupil Critias. See Theramenes in “Glossary”. Democracy was restored. See Thrasybulos in “Glossary”. Trial and Execution of Socrates. The ostensible reason for the indictment stated that Socrates did not believe in traditional Greek gods and corrupted the youth. Both accounts were contrary to the truth and the accusers knew it themselves. Some, like Stone (1988), argue that Socrates was executed for inciting a plot against democracy. As evidence they point out that Critias, a leader of the Oligarchy of Thirty, was once Socrates’ pupil. Xenophon (Memorabilia, I. ii. 12–16) correctly argues that Socrates should not be accused if some of his pupils, like Alcibiades and Critias, turned out to be bad in spite of his education. Stone’s thesis is contrary to Socrates’ statement in Plato’s Crito to the effect that he values the laws of Athens and therefore should obey them. Stone’s book views Socrates as a third-rate politician, rather than a first-rate philosopher. Socrates was executed because he was ahead of his time by so many years. For example, he was against war for the sake of gain and against slavery. (Note that even Plato took slavery for granted.) Xenophon (Memorabilia, I. ii. 1) writes: No less wonderful is it to me that some believed the charge brought against Socrates of corrupting the youth. In the first place, apart from what I have said, in control of his own passions and appetites he was the strictest of men; further, in endurance of cold and heat and every kind of toil he was most resolute; and besides, his needs were so schooled to moderation that having very little he was yet very content. Such was his own character: how then can he have led others into impiety, crime, gluttony, lust, or sloth? (Trans. E. C. Marchant, Loeb Classical Library) Xenophon (Memorabilia, IV. viii. 11) concludes as follows: All who knew what manner of man Socrates was and who seek after virtue continue to this day to miss him beyond all others, as the chief of helpers in the quest of virtue. For myself, I have described him as he was: so religious that he did nothing without counsel from the gods; so just that he did no injury, however small, to any man, but conferred the greatest benefits on all who dealt with him; so self-controlled that he never chose the pleasanter rather than the better course; so wise that he was unerring in his judgment of the better and the worse, and needed no counsellor, but relied on himself for his knowledge of them; masterly in expounding and defining such things; no less masterly in putting others to the test, and convincing them of

10 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece error and exhorting them to follow virtue and gentleness. To me then he seemed to be all that a truly good and happy man must be. Even though Socrates was condemned to death by the Athenian court, he could have gone free by paying a fee or could have fled to a foreign country, but Socrates calmly accepted death as he believed it to be a just thing to do. His last hours are movingly portrayed in Plato’s Phaedo. After sending home his wife and children, Socrates engages in philosophical discussions with several of his disciples. All his disciples are emotionally upset and in tears; only Socrates remains calm and behaves as if it were any other day. 395–87 Corinthian War. After the end of the war the balance of power among Greek states quickly changed. Sparta suddenly became unpopular as the domineering new leader of Greece, forcing an oligarchic form of government on the other states. In the Corinthian War, the allied forces of Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Argos, as well as Persia fought against Sparta. At the conclusion of the war, King’s Peace was arranged by Artaxerxes II of Persia, and cities in Asia and Cyprus came under Persian control in exchange for the autonomy of the Greeks. 392 Long Walls were rebuilt with the help of Persian money. 377 Second Athenian League. At the beginning, Athens was less domineering over the members of the league. For example, the monies paid by the members, which were previously called “tributes,” were called “contributions” instead. But it soon started to acquire its former characteristics and aroused the animosity of its members. 371 Thebes defeated Sparta in Leuktra. From this time on, Thebes replaced Sparta as the main adversary of Athens. 359 Philip became the king of Macedonia. In 357 he besieged Amphipolis and in 352 defeated Thessalian tyrants and Phocians. At this stage, however, Philip had not yet posed a major threat to Athens. In two of Demosthenes’ speeches, Against Aristocrates (XXIII), written in 352, and For the Liberty of the Rhodians (XV), written in 351, Philip is mentioned only as an insignificant menace (Sealey 1993, pp. 125–6). 357–5 Social War (Revolt of Byzantium, Chios, Kos, and Rhodes). It was caused more by ambitions of the revolting cities than by Athenian imperialism (Sealey 1993, p. 110). 355 The End of the Second Athenian League. Isocrates’ On the Peace and Xenophon’s Ways and Means proposed ways to manage Athenian finance without the league, and Eubulos (see “Glossary”) put their proposals into practice. 348 Philip captured and destroyed Olynthos. Earlier, in 349–8, Demosthenes in his First, Second, and Third Olynthiac (I, II, and III) argued for resisting Philip in defense of Olynthos. 347 Philip replaced Phocia in the Delphic Amphictiony (a league of Greek states formed for the purpose of protecting Delphic sanctuary). He took control of

History 11

346

340 338 333 323 322

Thermopylai, a strategic pass on the major path from the north into central and southern Greece. Peace of Philocrates between Philip and Athens. Demosthenes initially supported it but later criticized it claiming that he had been deceived by Philocrates and Aischines (XIX, On the Embassy, written in 343). Philip attacked Perinthos and seized the grain fleets. Consequently, Athens repealed the Peace of Philocrates. Battle of Chaironea. Philip and Alexander defeated the combined force of Athens and Thebes. Battle of Issus. Alexander defeated the Persian army led by Darius III. Alexander died. Lamian War. Macedonia defeated the Greek forces. Antipater, successor to Alexander, conquered Athens.

Hellenistic Age 322–30 The period from 322 to 30, the year Cleopatra took her own life after Octavius (later Augustus) conquered Alexandria, is called the Hellenistic Age. Even after the end of the Athenian democracy in 322, Athens remained an influential political and cultural center of the Hellenistic empire along with Alexandria in Egypt and Pergamon in Asia Minor. Even though the Hellenistic Age is signified by an important new cultural development, in this chronology I concentrate on its political aspects concerning Athens. During most of this period, the Hellenistic empire covering a vast area including Greece, Macedonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and India was ruled by Macedonian kings or generals. Therefore, Athenian democracy in the classical sense of ruling Athens as an independent nation did not exist. Nevertheless, there were many revivals of democracy in this period as a form of local government. After 30, Greece became a subject state of Rome. Even under Roman control, however, Athens remained an important cultural center. 322 319

307

Antipater established oligarchy in Athens. He imposed the 2,000 drachma property qualification for the oligarchy. The death of Antipater was followed briefly by democracy until Cassander, Antipater’s son, again imposed oligarchy and Demetrius of Phaleron ruled Athens as virtual regent on Cassander’s behalf. Demetrius of Phaleron reduced the property qualification to 1,000 drachmas. He instituted the office of nomophylakes (the guardians of the laws), which practically replaced the institution of graphè paranomòn (see “Glossary”). He also established the office of gynaikonomoi (the superintendents of women), who supervised not only the conduct of women but also all the household activities. Economically Athens prospered under the rule of Demetrius of Phaleron. Local democracy was restored as Demetrius of Phaleron was ousted with the help of another Hellenistic ruler called Antigonus the One-Eyed and his

12 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

295 287 260 201 146 31

son Demetrius Poliorcetes (Polis Sieger). Athens passed a decree honoring Lycurgos, the Athenian hero of the final years of the classical period who had fought vigorously against Macedonia. Within a matter of a few years, however, Demetrius Poliorcetes started exerting authoritarian power. Demetrius Poliorcetes regained control of the city. The Athenians defeated Demetrius’ forces with the help of the other Hellenistic rulers including Ptolemy I of Egypt. Democracy was restored. Demetrius’ son Antigonus Gonatas recaptured the city. After that, a succession of Macedonian kings controlled Athens. Rome defeated Hannibal of Carthage in the Second Punic War. After that, Rome turned their guns on Greece. Rome conquered Macedonia. Athens also came under Roman control and an oligarchic tendency was strengthened. Octavius conquered Alexandria, the last stronghold of the Hellenistic empire.

2

Society and culture

I will present various aspects of Greek society and culture primarily in the Classical Age but sometimes from the earlier periods as well.

Religion A good introduction to Greek religion without a rationalistic bias is by Easterling and Muir (1985). There is a striking resemblance between ancient Greek religion and the Japanese traditional religion called Shinto. In the list that follows, a comparison is made between the two religions. 1

2

Polytheism. Many gods, especially Olympian, had specific roles associated with them. Zeus was the most powerful god of thunder; Haides, of the underworld; Poseidon, of the sea; Apollo, of music, medicine, archery, and prophecy; Artemis, of wild life and virginity; Aphrodite, of love; Hermes, of travel; Hephaistos, of crafts and smiths; Dionysos, of wine and theater; and Demeter, of fertility. Villages, households, and trades worshiped specific gods closely associated with them. Gods were not necessarily models of virtue. They possessed certain human characteristics such as playfulness, envy, fraud, and lust. Nor were they creators of the world and people, unlike the all-powerful god of Judaism and Christianity. Shinto too is a polytheistic religion sharing the above characteristics with the Greek religion. It had gods representing heavenly bodies, gods representing natural phenomena, gods of animals, gods in charge of various human activities, gods signifying abstract concepts, men turned into gods because of their heroic deeds, and so on. There are, however, some differences between Greek and Japanese gods: (1) Greek gods have more colorful personalities. (2) Gods and goddesses representing abstract concepts are more abundant in Greece. (3) Gods representing artificial objects exist only in Japan. In addition to temples, each household had a shrine at the hestia (hearth) where specific gods were worshiped. It was the duty of the head of the household to offer food and drink to the gods before each meal. The hearth was sacred; Euphiletos in Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, implies that he would not have killed Eratosthenes if he had taken refuge at the hearth (see

14 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

3

4

below). In many Japanese houses too, one finds altars where gods are enshrined and offered libation and food. Both the ancient Greeks and the Japanese love festivals. According to one source, every other day was a festival in Athens, of which 54 days were state holidays when the Assembly was closed. According to the latest Tokyo guidebook, one can find a festival somewhere in Tokyo almost every week. Nowadays some of these festivals are totally secular, such as a cherryblossom festival, but in old Japan and classical Athens, all the festivals were religious in origin, many of which originated as agricultural rites. They were not solely religious in nature, however. In the festival of Panathenaia, Athenians enjoyed games, horse races, musical contests, and poetical recitation, and in Dionysia they attended performances of tragedies and comedies. Everybody attended festivals, not just citizens but also women, children, metics (resident aliens), and slaves. There was a festival, Thesmophoria, managed and attended only by women. Anybody who has watched a Japanese festival, even the one connected with a shrine or a temple, will notice how gay and rowdy the celebration is. Watching men, women, and children zigzagging through narrow streets carrying a little shrine on their shoulders while exchanging joyous shouts reminds one of the gay procession of the initiates in the Eleusinian festival described in Aristophanes’ Frogs. This coexistence of sacred and secular is a characteristic of both, the ancient Greek and the Japanese Shinto religion. Unlike Judaism and Christianity, there were no sacred books, no central ecclesiastical organization, and no common worship at temples in both these religions. Religion was a part of everyday life. The Greeks, but not the Japanese, performed sacrificial rituals. In sacrificial rituals cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were sacrificed. Afterward, roasted meat was distributed among citizens. Most of the meat consumption occurred at such rituals. As one can see from the preceding section to some extent, Greek and Japanese religions originally affirmed the importance of the present life and did not say much about life after death. Through prayers and sacrifices, people expected favors from gods. Dover (1994, p. 265) states that there is only one known epitaph in the classical period which mentions that a dead person’s soul is on Olympos with the gods, but many such were found in the later periods. The Eleusinian Mysteries and the Orphic cult, which started gaining popularity in the Classical Age and culminated in the Hellenistic and Roman period, emphasized the reward after death and a proper preparation in the present life through secret initiation and good deeds. In Japan the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century made the notion of heaven and hell more conspicuous. Ancient Greek and Japanese religions did talk about heaven and hell though. Kojiki (the oldest book of Japanese history compiled in the beginning of the eighth century) mentions yomi, the underworld, where Izanami (the primary goddess of Japan) went after death, and Tokoyo no Kuni (a place of abundance where people neither grew old nor died), but the description is quite vague, and I do not think they occupied an important place in the minds

Society and culture 15

5

6

7

of people. The same was true of Hades and Elysian Fields mentioned by Homer. Oracles, especially those of Delphi, and soothsaying played important roles in the daily decisions of individuals as well as states. What happened in Delphi was as follows: The priestess of Apollo called Pythia lived in the sanctuary of Delphi in permanent chastity. When presented a question, she would utter words of prophecy, which were written down by an attending male priest and given to the questioner. Blue Guide, in a typical rationalistic bias, states that Pythia was intoxicated by munching on a laurel leaf and inhaling vapor from a chasm below where she sat. This explanation has been convincingly refuted (Easterling and Muir 1985, p. 129). It is a part of the long tradition of shamanism popular all over Asia and Siberia throughout the ages. The custom of women in trance giving prophecies is still practiced in Japan. Greeks were keenly aware of the insurmountable boundary between immortals and mortals. Two contradictory aspects coexisted in gods. In one aspect gods were familiar beings who granted favors if people prayed to them and practiced acts of piety through rituals and sacrifices. In the other aspect they were strange alien beings to be warded off so they would not afflict people with curses. There was a festival called Anthesteria held in in honor of Dionysos in February for three days. On the first two days of the festival, people drank wine and on the last day, the doorposts of all houses were smeared with pitch as an apotropaic sign and people uttered words: “Outside! It is no longer Anthesteria” (Easterling and Muir 1985, pp. 19–20). A similar custom is practiced in Japan on February 4, the day of Setsubun. On this day the Japanese pierce a sardine’s head with a small branch and put it on the front porch to ward off imaginary daemons and throw roasted beans at them while shouting “daemon out!” Closely tied with the notion of the otherworldliness of gods is the notion that gods love purity and abhor pollution. In both ancient Greece and Japan, purification with water was an important ritual. The Japanese call it misogi and originally it meant washing away sins and impurities by the spiritual power of water, especially seawater. In Eleusinian mystery-rites held every September in Athens, the initiates were required to bathe in the sea to purify themselves before they could participate in the rituals. Consistent with the affirmation of the present life, what was more important to the Greeks and the Japanese was not where the dead went but how they affected the living. A proper burial was considered a sacred duty of the living kin as one can see in Sophocles’ Antigone. One of the most important duties of a son was to bury his father and carry on the family cult. The dead were believed to protect the living kin if they were properly buried and worshiped and, otherwise, to bring a curse upon them. Thus, ancestor worship was important in both cultures.

16 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

Honor and shame Benedict (1948) stated that the basis of Japanese ethics is a sense of shame, whereas that of the Americans, a sense of guilt. She meant that a Japanese is more concerned about how others might think of him than how to follow his own moral code or a god’s will. Dodds (1951, p. 17) quotes Benedict and asserts that ancient Greece in the world of Homer was also a shame culture. He writes Homeric man’s highest good is not the enjoyment of a quiet conscience, but the enjoyment of tímè, public esteem. … And the strongest moral force which Homeric man knows is not the fear of god, but respect for public opinion, aidòs. This last Greek word aidòs (a4dìv) may be translated either as shame or respect for others. It was aidòs which compelled Hector to face Achilles. Dodds goes on to argue that it gradually changed to guilt culture through the Dark Age and the classical period, but his argument is not convincing. Modern Greeks themselves say that shame culture has persisted to the present day. As evidence of the importance of shame during the classical period, see the following quotation from Demosthenes IV, First Philippic, 10: “For my own part I think that for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for their position” (trans. J. H. Vince, Loeb Classical Library). Here the Greek word translated as shame is aischynè (a4sc_nh), synonymous with aidòs. One’s failures and sins shamed not only himself but his family and descendants, and similarly the achievements of one’s ancestors were a source of pride. Thus, a Greek felt strong ties to family and ancestors. Note Glaukos’ proud account of his family lineage in Iliad, Book 6. When a member of a family became a house guest of another family, it created a strong bond, called xenia, between the two families over many generations. Thus, when Diomedes found out that an ancestor of Glaukos was once a guest in the house of his ancestor, the two warriors threw away arms and embraced each other.

Oikos and polis It was important for the Greeks to maintain the family estate without squandering what they had inherited from their ancestors. See Pericles’ speech in 430, reported by Thucydides (The Peloponnesian War, II. 62) Your fathers receiving these possessions not from others, but from themselves, did not let slip what their labor had acquired, but delivered them safe to you; and in this respect at least you must prove yourselves their equals, remembering that to lose what one has got is more disgraceful than to be baulked in getting. (Trans. Richard Crawley)

Society and culture 17 Dover (1994, pp. 301–6) states that although, in general, a Greek was supposed to put public interests before his private interests, there were occasions where one’s obligation to the state conflicted with the obligation to his parents, guests, or supplicants, or with any other unwritten moral and social law. The resolution of this dilemma was not easy. Antigone put her religious duty to bury her brother above a state decree that prohibited it, but she paid for it by her death. Dover cites many oratorical speeches which allude to this dilemma. As Dover points out, duty to one’s parents could potentially come into conflict with duty to the city, but not the protection of one’s wife and children. The latter had to be sacrificed for the sake of the city.

Helping friends and harming enemies Greeks lived in a world in which there was a clear-cut separation between those within a circle to which one belonged and those outside. A Christian ideal of loving one’s enemy was unthinkable. Socrates was way ahead of his time when he said you should not harm even your enemies (Republic, Book I, 335E). Dover (1994, pp. 273–5) writes that an Athenian felt that his first private duty was to his parents, his second to his kinsmen, and his third to his friends and benefactors, that maltreatment of one’s parents was regarded as the worst offence, and that respect for parents merged into respect for the older generation as a whole.

Competition Greeks loved competition and contests in many facets of life – in athletic games, drama competitions, and law courts. Athenian litigiousness is well known. Ischomachos tells Socrates that he practices defending himself against accusations of sycophants (villains who sue rich people in the hope of a gain, see “Glossary”) every day at home (Oikonomikos, xi. 23). Plato laments the existence of too many doctors and lawyers in Athens, an indication of a sick city (Republic, 405A). At the same time there were institutions that prevented competition from going to extremes. The institution of selecting officers by lottery was one. Ostracism (see “Glossary”) was another. Litigiousness was checked by the institution of epòbelia (see “Glossary”). The driving force of competition was tímè (honor) or philotimia (love of honor, ambition). Ambivalent attitudes toward philotimia indicate the Greeks’ awareness of both the advantages and the disadvantages of a competitive spirit. In the positive sense, philotimia was synonymous with unselfish service to the public (Dover 1994, p. 231). In the negative sense, it was a manifestation of greed almost as bad as a desire for gain (Dover 1994, p. 232). The worst manifestation of a competitive spirit was characterized by the term hybris. Liddell and Scott translate it variously as wantonness, wanton violence, insolence, and grievous assault. Dover (1994, p. 54) writes, “Hybris, behaviour in which a citizen treats a fellow-citizen as if he were dealing with a slave or a foreigner, was an indictable offence under Attic law.” In order to check the tendency for competitiveness, the Greeks emphasized the importance of sòphrosynè (soundness of mind,

18 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece moderation). Dover (1994, p. 46) states that the adjective sòphròn may be variously translated as “careful,” “intelligent,” “law-abiding,” “sober,” “chaste,” “sensible,” “prudent,” or “wise.” The words posted at the gate of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, “µhdŒn #gan” (nothing in excess) and “gnôqi seaut@n” (know thyself), were meant to remind human beings of their mortality and insurmountable separation from gods. Those who exceeded this limit committed the sin of hybris.

Wealth and poverty Compared to the present-day mentality, the Greeks did not glorify wealth or downgrade poverty. In fact, they regarded both wealth and poverty as bad. Thucydides in The Peloponnesian War (III.45.4) states that poverty can lead to evil because of necessity, and wealth because of hybris. “There was a strong tendency to regard both wealth and poverty as matters of luck” (Dover 1994, p. 174). Of course anyone would prefer to be rich than poor. But there was a general suspicion that the rich got rich by being dishonest. People who acquired wealth do not seem to have been admired by the Greeks for commercial acumen, inventiveness, flair for the exploitation of opportunities, or the single-minded pursuit of profit which causes the selfmade millionaire to be an object of admiration in some modern societies. (Dover 1994, pp. 172–3) Thus, the rich were always eager to placate the poor by pointing out in law courts that they were contributing a great deal of money to various public expenditures for the benefit of the poor. Acquiring wealth was not praised, but preserving inheritance or increasing the value of farms by hard work was regarded as virtuous (see, for example, Xenophon, Oikonomikos, xx). Gaining profit by trade and finance was good to the extent that the polis benefited from it (Dover 1994, p. 173). Unlike Christian ethics, labor itself was not regarded as a virtue in classical Greece. There were two reasons for this. First, it was believed that citizens should have as much free time as possible so that they could devote their time to participation in government. (Note that a Greek word for labor is ascholia, a negation of scholè, leisure.) Second, it was believed that it was not good for a free man to work for others. Thus, ideally, most work was supposed to be done by metics and slaves. In reality, however, many poor citizens had to work, and that, though undesirable, was not a sin. If there was a need for work, diligence was certainly better than sloth. Demosthenes (LVII, Against Eubulides, 35) says, “Pray, men of Athens, do not scorn the needy (their poverty is misfortune enough), and scorn still less those who choose to engage in trade and get their living by honest means” (trans. A. T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library). The same speech (Demosthenes, LVII, Against Eubulides, 30) refers to a decree that stipulated that anyone who reproaches those who do business in the market is liable to the penalties for evil speaking. Pericles praises those who attend to their private businesses while serving in civic duties (Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, II.40.2).

Society and culture 19 Xenophon (Memorabilia, II. vii) tells of the advice Socrates gave Aristarchos. During the difficult years of the Peloponnesian War, many female relatives of Aristarchos came to live with him, but he could not support them, nor was he willing to make them work because he believed free persons should not work. Socrates convinced Aristarchos that it was no disgrace for women to earn money by using respectable talents, such as weaving and cooking. Aristarchos followed Socrates’ advice, and, as a result, both Aristarchos and his female relatives were happier. I will discuss this topic further under the section entitled “Elite and mass” in Chapter 4, “Was Athenian democracy a success?”.

Theater and art Tragedies Tragedies were performed in festivals, the biggest of which was City Dionysia. They were staged in the Theater of Dionysos which could hold 14,000 spectators. In the Dionysian tragic festival, three tragedies and a satyr play (a grotesque and obscene play with a chorus of satyrs, spirits of the woods and hills and attendants of Dionysos) were performed. The expenses of staging plays were borne by rich citizens as a part of their leitourgia (see “Glossary”). Ten judges, selected from the ten phylai (tribes) of Attica, determined the first, second, and third prizes. There were many playwrights but only the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides remain to this day. These three playwrights wrote 80 (6), 123 (7), and 92 (19) tragedies respectively, with the number of surviving complete plays given in the parentheses. All the surviving plays were performed during the fifth century. The themes of the tragedies were taken from mythology, except The Persians by Aeschylus, whose theme came from the Persian defeat at the battle of Salamis. Masked actors played the roles of men, women, and gods, with one actor often playing many roles in a single play. The origin of the Greek word for tragedy, trag¥d8a, is either that a goat (tr+gov) was given as a prize or that a goat was sacrificed in the festival of Dionysos. The presentation of tragedies in City Dionysia dates back to 538 BC during the reign of Peisistratos. It was revived and reorganized by the democratic Athenian polis in 502 after the reform of Cleisthenes. The practice of a wealthy Athenian citizen, called chorègos (chorus leader), paying for the expense of staging tragedies started at this time. The fact that chorègos was also called didaskalos (teacher) indicates the idea that tragedies played a role in educating Athenian citizens and instilling a sense of unity and pride. The chorus usually represented the voice of the Athenian citizens. The Persians by Aeschylus, staged a few years after the defeat of the Persians, must have directly appealed to Athenian nationalism. Aeschylus’ play, however, is in no way based on a vulgar nationalistic theme. It recounts the tragic plight of man and his alienation from gods; as such, it appeals to people of every age and place. The plays of Sophocles and Euripides have the same universal theme. Plato questioned the usefulness of tragedies for the education of citizens (The Republic, 606D). Aristotle, however,

20 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece recognized their beneficial effect saying they acted as catharsis, a cure for the emotions of pity and fear (Poetics, 1449B24–28). Comedies In the Dionysian comedy festival, five comedies were performed. Only Aristophanes’ works have survived. Of the 33 plays that he wrote, 11 have survived in their entirety. His comedies are vulgar and obscene but beneath their façade one can detect his humanism (sympathy with average citizens and passion for peace) and incredible genius. Comedies, like tragedies, sometimes played a role in educating citizens. An example is Aristophanes’ Frogs (686–7), where the chorus declares that its duty is to educate citizens and goes on to make political suggestions such as giving amnesty to those who participated in the Oligarchy of Four Hundred and criticizing copper coins minted in 406. Another example is a long speech by Dikaiopolis (meaning Just City and representing Aristophanes himself) in Acharnians (497–501), where an argument for ending the Peloponnesian War is presented. Toward the end of the fourth century there was an important comedy poet named Menander. His genre of writing is called New Comedy. He wrote about one hundred plays, but only a handful of fragments have survived. His political overtone is more implicit than Aristophanes, reflecting his time. The Greek word for comedy, kwµ¥d8a, is derived from köµh (village) and òdâ (song). Pottery The earliest pottery from Greece goes back to about 6000 BC. Both Minoan and Mycenaean cultures produced beautiful pottery. Toward the end of the Dark Age, geometric designs started to appear. In the seventh century, Corinth was noted for its pottery which had a distinct style. Athenian pottery, with which we are most familiar because a sizable quantity has survived to this day, started in the sixth century. Initially, black figures were painted on a red background, but around 530 a new style of red figures on a black background started to appear and soon replaced the old one. The names of some painters or potters are known from their signatures on vases. A majority of Athenian pottery makers and painters were metics or slaves and they worked in a district called Kerameikos (from the Greek word k3ramov meaning clay). A great amount of Athenian pottery was exported abroad. Sculpture The best and most famous Athenian sculptor was Pheidias, who created the Parthenon Frieze. It is said that he supervised the entire construction of the Parthenon. He is also famous for gigantic statues of Athena in the Parthenon and Zeus in Olympia. Both statues were made of gold and ivory over a wooden core, with embellishments in jewels, silver, copper, enamel, glass, and paint. Neither has survived but one can read a description of them in Guide to Greece (Penguin Classics) written by Pausanias, who traveled to Greece in the second century AD.

Society and culture 21

Education In the section titled Heredity and Environment, Dover (1994, pp. 83–95) asks which of the two the Greeks regarded as more important. The answer is not straightforward, but the Greeks, in general, thought environment more important: hence, the importance of education. Normally, boys from rich families went to private schools when they reached the age of seven, although fathers were free to choose whatever form of education for their sons they saw fit. A male slave called paidagògos would often accompany a boy to the school. A paidagògos sometimes played the role of a private tutor. There was no public school in Athens. Generally, girls did not go to school and were educated at home. However, Pomeroy (1997, p. 133) states that in the fourth century some women began to receive an education similar to that of men and pursued careers in the liberal arts and the professions. Reading and writing, gymnastics, and music constituted the major parts of education. These subjects were taught in the private houses of teachers. Higher education was started by sophists in the fifth century. The sophists were often foreigners traveling widely through the Greek world, charging fees for their teaching. The subjects they taught included science, philosophy, mathematics, history, geography, and anthropology. Protagoras (born 485) and Gorgias (c.485–375) were among the most famous sophists of the day. Socrates (Plato) criticized their practice of taking fees, Protagoras’ relativistic philosophy, and Gorgias’ teaching of rhetoric which was more an art of persuasion than of finding truth. At some time in the 390s, Isocrates (see “Glossary”) set up the first “university” at Athens, essentially a school of advanced rhetoric, and his example was soon followed by Plato and his more philosophically based Academy.

Philosophy and science Much of my brief survey in this section is taken from Guthrie (1975). For a deeper analysis, the reader is referred to Heidegger (1984), which is short but highly inspirational. There was no clear demarcation between philosophy and natural science in ancient Greece. Both emerged in the sixth century in Ionia and a little later in Sicily. The early philosophers sought nonmythological explanations for celestial and other natural objects and their movements. The fact that in Greek religion there was no myth about creation and that there were no important gods associated with celestial bodies, must have contributed to the appearance of the first study of philosophy and science in Greece rather than somewhere else. Another reason may be that the ports on the Ionian coast such as Miletos were the centers of Mediterranean trade and the observation of stars was important for the sea traders. However, this does not mean that their philosophy was materialistic. The early Greek philosophers did not clearly distinguish matter and spirit. Even Democritos, the founder of atomic physics, talked about an atom of spirit. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle will be discussed separately in Part III.

22 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece Thales Thales was active in Miletos in the early sixth century. He left no written work but was credited with the prediction of a solar eclipse in 585. He made a lot of money by predicting a big harvest of olive oil and buying up oil presses. Anaximander Anaximander was active in Miletos at about the same time as Thales. He “saw this world as a warring concourse of opposite qualities, of which four were primary – hot and cold, wet and dry” (Guthrie 1975, p. 26). By this principle he tried to explain the genesis of the universe and the evolution of man from fish. Anaximenes Anaximenes was active in Miletos in the second half of the sixth century. He said that air trapped in the body is the soul, very much like the Chinese doctrine of Qì. He also believed that air released from the body becomes one with the air in the universe. This is reminiscent of Eastern philosophy. Heraclitus Born in Ephesos, Heraclitus was active around 500. Only fragments of his work remain. His writings are cryptic and enigmatic; nevertheless, they are highly interesting. He is famous for having said or being believed to have said, “p+nta r¿e8” (everything flows). Another famous remark “2n p+nta p+nta 2n” (one is all, all is one) also reminds one of Eastern philosophy. Pythagoras Pythagoras was born in Samos in the mid-sixth century, migrated to Croton in southern Italy in c.530, and founded a popular religious sect there. Later he was expelled for political reasons and, as a result, Pythagorean communities spread all over Greece. He believed in the reincarnation of souls, emphasized the idea of kosmos (order, fitness, beauty), and regarded numbers to be the central existence in the universe. He influenced Plato in all these beliefs. In the case of Pythagoras, the center of attention of the philosopher shifted from matter to form and structure. Parmenides Parmenides was born in Elea (southern Italy) and was active in the first half of the fifth century. He argued that movement is an illusion and that only the mind, not senses, can reach the truth.

Society and culture 23 Anaxagoras Anaxagoras was born in Ionia in 500 but lived in Athens. He is known to have said that the sun was not a deity but a white-hot stone. He was prosecuted for impiety and forced to leave the city. Democritos Democritos was born around 460. He said that all objects consist of atoms, which were so small that man could not see them and they were indestructible, and the differences of perceptible objects resulted from the sizes and shapes of the atoms and their relative positions and motions. He influenced both Plato and Aristotle in his emphasis on virtue and admonition against greed. He preceded Plato in his idea on the division of labor originating from the different inclinations and skills of men. He is also regarded as the father of psychological hedonism (see Karayiannis (1988) for a more detailed discussion).

Status of women The status of women in ancient Greece was certainly much lower than in modern Western countries. There are disagreements, however, about how low it was. I will present both arguments below. I will first present arguments for and against the proposition that women stayed home most of the time. In writing this section I am greatly indebted to Sakurai (1992). Standard English references about the status of Greek women are Pomeroy (1975) and Blundell (1995). But before that, a brief synopsis of Lysias’ speech On the Murder of Eratosthenes will be given, as it contains useful information about the status of women as well as about family life in classical Athens. Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes At first Euphiletos watched his wife as much as possible, but after a child was born, he came to trust her and put her in charge of household affairs. He regarded her as an efficient housekeeper and “the best wife.” Euphiletos’ house had two floors of the same size. At first he slept downstairs and his wife upstairs, but after the child was born, he and his wife switched floors as it was more convenient to nurse the baby downstairs. Eratosthenes saw Euphiletos’ wife for the first time when she went out to attend the funeral of Euphiletos’ mother. After that, Eratosthenes tried to seduce her by having her housemaid carry messages to her. One day another woman having an affair with Eratosthenes sent an old woman to tell Euphiletos that Eratosthenes was having an affair with his wife. This other woman was angry with Eratosthenes because he came to see her less frequently than he used to. Upon hearing this, Euphiletos spoke to his servant girl and forced her to confess about the affair his wife was having with Eratosthenes.

24 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece After learning about the affair, Euphiletos recalled certain incidents which took on new meanings although at the time of their happening he did not suspect any wrongdoing. One day when Euphiletos came back from the country earlier than expected (like many wealthy gentlemen of the day Euphiletos must have owned a farm in the country to which he often attended), the servant girl made the baby cry to warn the wife. Another time he heard the door open in the middle of night and asked his wife about it. She explained that as the lamp went out, she had to go to the next-door neighbor to get a light. One day Euphiletos invited his friend Sostratos for dinner. That night after Sostratos had gone home and Euphiletos had gone to sleep, the servant girl signaled to Euphiletos that Eratosthenes had entered the house. Euphiletos then went out to summon his friends, caught the seducer in the act of adultery, and killed him on the spot. In this speech Lysias has written the defense for Euphiletos, who was accused of murder. (Even though Euphiletos asked Lysias to compose the defense, it is he himself who is speaking in the court in the first person.) Euphiletos defends himself by saying that he did not kill Eratosthenes either for profit or out of rancor. He argues that he was acting according to the age-old law that permitted the killing of the adulterer. In Athenian law a seducer faced a more severe penalty than a rapist. He also argues that it was not a premeditated murder saying that if he had known Eratosthenes was coming to the house that night, he would not have let Sostratos go home because rounding up friends in the middle of the night was not easy. Proposition: Women stayed home most of the time 1

2

3 4 5 6

Xenophon’s Oikonomikos is a story of a 30-year-old man educating his young wife of less than 15 to manage his household. “She was not yet fifteen years old when she came to me, and up to that time she had lived in leading-strings, seeing, hearing and saying as little as possible” (vii. 5, trans. E. C. Marchant, Loeb Classical Library). “Thus, to the woman it is more honourable to stay indoors than to abide in the fields, but to the man it is unseemly rather to stay indoors than to attend to the work outside” (vii. 30). The wife of Euphiletos in Lysias’ On the Murder of Eratosthenes seldom left the house. Shopping was done by the servant girl (8). When, on a rare occasion, she went out to attend the funeral of Euphiletos’ mother, she was seen by her seducer Eratosthenes (8). Pericles’ citizenship decree of 451 made daughters of citizens very valuable and hence protected inside the house. When symposion was held in a house, hetaira (female companions) entertained men and wives were not invited. Even now, when one travels to rural Greece, one seldom sees Greek women in cafes. In Aristophanes’ Lysistrata, 15–19, Kalonike says, “It is hard, you know, for women to get out. One has to mind her husband: one, to rouse her servant:

Society and culture 25 one, to put the child to sleep: one, has to wash him: one, to give him pap” (trans. A. B. Rogers, Loeb Classical Library). Proposition: Women went out often 1

2

3

4

Many Athenian women from poor families had to work outside. Demosthenes (LVII, Against Eubulides, 35) writes, “for you will find today many Athenian women who are serving as nurses … If we were rich we should not be selling ribbons nor be in want in any way.” Again in paragraph 45 he writes, “many women have become nurses and labourers at the loom or in the vineyards owing to the misfortunes of the city in those days” (trans. A. T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library). Aristophanes (Lysistrata, 640–5) recounts the participation of a well-to-do girl in various festival activities: “Bore, at seven, the mystic casket; Was, at ten, our Lady’s miller; then the yellow Brauron bear; Next (a maiden tall and stately with a string of figs to wear) Bore in pomp the holy Basket” (trans. B. B. Rogers, Loeb Classical Library). There was a festival planned and attended only by women. It was a threeday festival in honor of Demeter called Thesmophoria. Aristophanes’ Thesmophoriazusae describes this festival. The wife of Euphiletos in Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes, 20, also went to Thesmophoria. From Demosthenes LV, Against Kallikles, 23, we learn that women in neighboring houses in the country often visited one another.

Proposition: Women’s status was relatively low 1 2

3

4

5

Women could not vote or appear in public courts as either a plaintiff or a defendant. Family property was to be bequeathed to a male descendant; therefore, boys were valued more than girls, and sometimes girls were abandoned in the mountains within ten days after birth. Such an act was not punishable by law. If there was only a female child, she became an heiress and had to marry a relative of her father. The husband then merely managed the family property until a male child was born and reached adulthood. The Greek word andreia (courage) is derived from the word andres (men). The Greeks used another word tharsos to denote the courage of barbarians and women. In Xenophon’s Oikonomikos (IX. 19), Socrates, upon hearing Ischomachos’ praise of his wife, says “your wife has a mind as good as a man’s!” In the funeral speech of 431, Pericles advises women that it is best for them not to be talked about for good or bad (Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, II. 35). There are many passages in Thucydides which are derogatory of women, while Herodotos is more open-minded. Aristotle says women have imperfect

26 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece reasoning power (Politics, 1260A10). Plato would include some women among the guardians of his ideal republic, but he has several derogatory remarks about women in Laws. Proposition: Women’s status was relatively high 1

2

3

4 5

6 7

8

Dowry (proix) was the possession of the wife. After a certain legal procedure, a wife could divorce a husband (MacDowell 1978, p. 88) and, when she did so, she could take her dowry with her. Until the divorced husband returned the dowry, he had to pay an 18 percent annual interest. The amount of dowry could be considerable. Demosthenes’ father, who bequeathed an estate of 14 talents at the time of his death, set aside two talents as the dowry of his five-year-old daughter (Demosthenes, Against Aphobos I, 4–5). In Xenophon’s Oikonomikos and Lysias’ On the Murder of Eratosthenes, wives are entrusted with household management. In Aristophanes’ Ecclesiazusae (205– 40), Praxagora boasts of the managing ability of women. In Lysistrata (486), Lysistrata says, “Don’t we manage household money?” In Lysistrata, women go on a sexual strike in order to force men to conclude a peace treaty. In Ecclesiazusae women take over the Assembly. Of course, these are unrealistic fictions. However, in order for the Athenian audience to find such comedies funny, there must have been deep-seated fear of women and, at least in some households, there must have been henpecked husbands. Aspasia, Pericles’ mistress, was a metic and a woman of such intellect and literary talent that Socrates is said to have studied rhetoric from her. In Lysias’ speech Against Diogeiton, Diogeiton married his daughter to his brother Diodotos. Two sons and a daughter were born, but Diodotos was killed in a battle. Then Diogeiton usurped most of the family property and did not give a proper share to the children of Diodotos even after they became adults. Thus, Diodotos’ daughter’s husband sued Diogeiton. Before the case went to court, Diogeiton’s daughter (she herself could not sue because of an Athenian law which prohibited suing by women) summoned her family and relatives including Diogeiton and admonished her own father in a stately manner. Priestesses of Athena and Demeter occupied positions of great authority. Pseudo-Aristotle’s Oikonomikos, believed to be written by a disciple of Aristotle, contains both derogatory and meritorious remarks about women; therefore, the author is more positive about women than the real Aristotle. For example, he writes that a husband should honor his wife next to his own parents (Book I, Chapter VIII), and a husband and a wife are equal (Book I, Chapter IX). In the fourth century some women began to receive an education similar to men and pursued careers in liberal arts and the professions (Pomeroy 1997, p. 133).

Society and culture 27

Citizenship, marriage, and inheritance In 451, Pericles passed a decree that certified a child as an Athenian citizen if and only if both parents were citizens. In order for the decree to make sense, it seems that a female citizen was defined to be a child of a citizen father. In reality, of course, an adult male citizen enjoyed all the political and legal rights that a female citizen, as defined above, did not. A male citizen was called politès and a female citizen politis or astè. Before Pericles’ decree, citizenship required only the father to be a citizen. After the middle of the fifth century, it was illegal for an Athenian citizen, male or female, to marry a noncitizen. A noncitizen found guilty of this act was sold as a slave, and an Athenian man married to a noncitizen was fined 1,000 drachmas (Demosthenes LIX, Against Neaira, 16). Living with a noncitizen woman as a mistress, as Pericles did with Aspasia, was permitted. Thus, Demosthenes says, half facetiously, “Courtesans (0ta8rav) we keep for the sake of pleasure, mistresses (pallak+v) for the daily care of our persons, but wives (guna®kev) to bear us legitimate children and to be faithful guardians of our households” (ibid. 122, trans. A. T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library; Greek words are my insertions). Mistresses were of two kinds: those kept to produce citizen children and those not. The former must have been necessarily citizens themselves in view of Pericles’ decree, except in the case of Aspasia, whose children were granted citizenship by a special decree. The latter were usually slaves and their children also became slaves (MacDowell 1978, p. 89). According to Diogenes Laertios (Lives of Eminent Philosophers, II. 26), a law of 406 allowed a married man to have legitimate children with a woman other than his wife. Because of a decline in the citizen population during the Peloponnesian War, the Periclean citizenship decree was practically ignored until it started being enforced again at the end of the war and remained in effect until the end of the Athenian democracy. Marriages were usually arranged by fathers. Sons sometimes had some say in their marriage, but daughters never did. A woman could not be legally married to a direct ascendant or descendant, nor to her brother or half-brother by the same mother. She could be married to her half-brother by the same father, or to her uncle or cousin (MacDowell 1978, p. 86). There was no written record or registration of marriage. A proof for legitimate marriage quoted in a court was a promise of marriage called engyè between a man and a bride’s father. To register a child in the registry of phratria (clan), the father had to swear that the child was born from a citizen wife through engyè (/x #rtev kaÀ /gguâtev). When the head of a household died, his estate was equally divided among his surviving sons. If he had no sons but had a daughter (called epiklèros), she was married to the nearest male relative of the deceased father. The husband would then manage the estate until a son was born. The son would eventually inherit the estate. If a man had neither son nor daughter, he would normally adopt a son (MacDowell 1978, pp. 95–100). Widows were expected to live with their sons. Sixty-five percent of widows remained unmarried (Gallant 1991, p. 27).

28 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

Slavery Slave population Slaves played a significant role in classical Athens. Although an exact number is unknown and hard to estimate, Hansen (1991) guesses that there may have been over 150,000 slaves in Attica in the fourth century, compared to 100,000 citizens (including women and children) and 40,000 metics. This makes the slave population more than a half of the entire population of Attica. In contrast, the ratio was about one-third in the American South and one-tenth in ancient Rome. Hansen’s estimate may be on the high side, but there is no doubt that slaves were ubiquitous in Athenian society (see ranges of population estimates in Table 2.2). Most of the Athenian slaves were barbarians (non-Greeks), although not all. For example, women and children were brought home as slaves after the destruction of Melos in 416. Most of the slaves came from regions such as Thracia, Scythia, Caria, Syria, Libya, Phrygia, Lydia, Sicily, the Black Sea region, and Egypt. Athens was the center of the slave trade and new slaves were constantly being imported into Athens (see the section “Athenian slave import” in Chapter 6, “The Athenian economy of the fifth and fourth century”). Homebred slaves were few. In Xenophon, Oikonomikos (ix. 5), Ischomachos tells Socrates that in his estate the female servants’ quarters are divided from the men’s quarters by a bolted door in order to stop the servants breeding without his permission. The manumission record at Delphi shows 217 out of 841 (roughly one-quarter) slaves were homebred, but this seems upward-biased because the slaves born at home were more likely to be manumitted (Pritchett and Pippin 1956, p. 281). In the list of slaves in the confiscated estate in 414, only 3 out of 40 (0.075) were homebred (Pritchett and Pippin 1956, p. 281). Pomeroy (1994, p. 299) observes, however, that female slaves probably outnumbered male in classical Athens, and the existence of slave wet nurses (Demosthenes ILVII, 56) indicates that some slaves gave birth. She conjectures that the proportion of the homebred slaves may have been somewhat less than 12 percent (p. 30). Manumission in classical Greece seems to have been infrequent, at least in comparison with the Roman practice (Cartledge 1985, p. 38), although there were certainly instances of it. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian War, however, many slaves who served as rowers of triremes were manumitted. A manumitted slave was called apeleutheros (freed man) and had the status of a metic. Only after going through this stage, could he acquire the full status of a citizen, which was rare. Manumission List of 320s (reported by Davies 1981, p. 48, based on Lewis 1959): 72 36 28

domestic (50 wool-spinners or spinsters) retailing craftsmen (shoemakers, goldsmiths, tanners, etc.)

Society and culture 29 13 6 4 12 171

agriculture service (barbers, seamstress, etc.) transport miscellaneous total

Manumission List of 403 (Reported by Jameson (1977/1978, p. 134), based on IG 22 10 and 2403. This is an inscription rewarding supporters of the democracy after the overthrow of the Oligarchy of Thirty, and the status before and after the recognition is uncertain.): 18 41 23 8 5 5 100

agriculture (farmers, gardeners, nurserymen) craftsmen retailing transport skilled services (cooks, seers, scriveners) miscellaneous total

Occupations There were different kinds of slaves depending on the kind of work they performed. In descending order of the agreeableness of their conditions, there were 1

2

Slaves with independent workshops, who paid a fee (apophora) to the owners. They rarely appear in written documents. Slaves who were skilled shoemakers paid a fee of two obols (see “Weights, measures, and units”) a day to their master, and the superintendent of a shop paid three obols (Aeschines, Against Timarchos, 97). A slave of this kind lived in his own house with his wife and children and even had slaves of his own. An example of such a slave was Pasion (see “Glossary”), who was eventually granted citizenship. He was one of the richest men in Athens bequeathing an estate worth 80 talents. The slave he owned, Phormion, was also eventually granted citizenship. Menekles was a slave who had property worth 7,000 drachmas (Isaios II, 29 and 35). Another slave, Stratokles, bequeathed a property worth five talents and 3,000 drachmas (Isaios XI, 42). Pseudo-Xenophon (Athenian Constitution) says that one cannot tell whether a person is a slave or a citizen only from his dress. House slaves and agricultural slaves. There are stories of house slaves being treated almost like family members. In addition to doing housework, many of them must have also worked as farmhands (Jameson 1977/1978, p. 137). According to the Attic Stelai record of the sale of 53 slaves in the year 414, 40 were given no occupation and were therefore presumably domestic (Davies 1981, p. 47). This constitutes roughly three-quarters of the total. In the manumission list of 320s given above, 72 (42 percent) were domestic, of whom 50

30 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

3

4

5

were wool-spinners or spinsters. Both Jameson (1977/1978, pp. 124–5) and Garlan (1988, p. 64) believe that a significant number of agricultural slaves existed in Athens and cite various literary works for evidence. In the manumission list of 320s, only 13 are listed as working in agriculture, but Jameson (1977/1978, pp. 133–4) believes there is a downward bias because slaves working in agriculture were less likely to earn enough money to purchase their freedom, compared to those who worked in the manufacturing or service sector. Slaves who worked in manufacturing shops, trade, and the service industry. In some cases, shops occupied rooms of the private house of a master. See the manumission list of 320s and 403 above. Lysias and his brother employed 120 slaves in their shield factory (Lysias XII, Against Eratosthenes, 19). Pasion employed 60 slaves in his shield factory (Demosthenes XXXVI, For Phormion, 11). Demosthenes Senior employed 32 slaves in his sword factory and 22 slaves in his bed factory (Demosthenes XXVII, Against Aphobos I). Timarchos employed 12 slaves in his leather works, and Kerdon 13 in his cobbler shop (Aeschines, Against Timarchos, 97) (see Table 2.1). Public slaves. Their duties included testing coins at the market, assisting magistrates and officers, serving as under-rowers of triremes (triârhv), road cleaners, mint workers, and the 300 Scythian archers who kept order in the Assembly and the courts. Slaves in Laureion silver mines. These were by far the greatest in number. When the Spartan occupation of Decelea (413–4) crippled mining operations, more than 20,000 slaves were said to flee to the Spartans (Thucydides, VII. 27. 5). Although an exact number cannot be trusted, it is an indication of the existence of a great number of slaves who worked in the mines. Isager and Hansen (1975, p. 43) estimate the number of slaves working in the silver mines at the end of the fifth century to be 30,000. The basis of this estimate is as follows: when mining operations reached their peak in about 340, the state leased approximately 140 mines annually for a period of three or seven years, which means that at least 400 mines were being worked at a time. It has been estimated that the working of a mine required about 50 slaves, and the running of the related workshop, about 30. Thus, they calculate 80 × 400 @ 30,000 (p. 44). It should be noted, however, that some wealthy people used many more slaves – Nicias 1,000; Hipponikos 6,000; and Philemoniedes 300 (Davies 1981, pp. 42 and 79). J.A.C.T. (1984, p. 185) estimates the number of slaves in Laureion at as many as 40,000 at the peak. On the other hand, Osborne (1991, p. 134) gives a low figure of 10,000. The working conditions in the mines were abysmal.

Slave ownership Some say that slaves made Athenian democracy possible because citizens did not have to work so much and could spend their free time participating in government and civil service. To shed light on the plausibility of this statement, we must see

Society and culture 31 what proportion of citizens owned slaves. Cartledge (1985, p. 32) writes, “The 5000 or so citizens who at the close of the fifth century owned no land no doubt mostly owned no slaves either … (but) the ownership of slaves here by families above the pauper line was very widespread indeed.” Since the number of male citizens at that time was roughly 50,000, it means that 90 percent of the citizens owned slaves. Some rich citizens owned a large number of slaves. Nicias had 1,000 slaves working in Laureion mines (Xenophon, Ways and Means, IV.14), as mentioned earlier. In addition to 34 slaves working in the factories, Demosthenes Senior had ten or so slaves at home (Garlan 1988, p. 62). In the late fifth century, a man rich enough to defray the cost of a public chorus owned ten slaves at his home (ibid.). In 375, a man worth two talents owned two female servants and a young slave girl (ibid.). Plato had five slaves, Aristotle thirteen, and Theophrastos nine (ibid.). Garlan (p. 61) has listed nine instances where Aristophanes mentions the number of slaves owned by various people. According to his list, a rich man owned 5–8 slaves, and an average citizen 2–4 slaves. Some poor citizens who wanted to work for wages could not, partly because of the low esteem with which working for others was held and partly because employers preferred to hire slaves at a much lower wage rate. It was to help these poor citizens that Pericles started a big building project and instituted pay for serving in the public court. Later, pay for attending the Assembly and the Council meetings was also instituted. It has been argued that slavery prevented technical progress because the availability of cheap slave labor minimized the incentive for technological inventions. Demosthenes, Against Aphobos I I will give a brief description of this speech as it is relevant to the following discussion on the price and productivity of slaves. I will also refer to this speech later in the section entitled “Money, lending, and borrowing” in Chapter 6, “The Athenian economy of the fifth and fourth century”. When Demosthenes was seven and his sister five, his father bequeathed him 13 talents and 46 minas; however, his guardians Aphobos, Demophon, and Therippides spent a great part of it and gave Demosthenes only 70 minas (14 slaves, house worth 30 minas, and 30 minas in silver) when he reached the age of eighteen. To demonstrate the magnitude of his father’s estate, Demosthenes shows that the guardians paid the 20 percent tax levied on symmoriai (the 1,200 richest men of Athens) on behalf of Demosthenes, which amounted to three talents. Aphobos received a dowry of 80 minas on the condition that he were to marry the widow. He took the 80 minas but married someone else. In such a case he should have paid 18 percent interest for the ten years between the death of Demosthenes Senior and the time Demosthenes came of age, but Demosthenes says he was willing to reduce the rate to 12 percent (paragraph 17). Later, in paragraph 35, Demosthenes says that the amount of money his three guardians had

32 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece confessed to receiving were 108 minas for Aphobos, two talents for Therippides, and 87 minas for Demophon. (I presume that the 108 minas Aphobos received included the dowry of 80 minas.) Together, it adds up to five talents and 15 minas, from which Demosthenes subtracts 77 minas’ worth for maintenance (paragraph 35), leaving approximately four talents. This is followed by the following sentence: “Now, if you add to this last sum the interest for ten years, reckoned at a drachma only, you will find that the whole, principal and interest, amounts to eight talents and four thousand drachmae” (trans. A. T. Murray, Loeb Classical Library). Murray puts a footnote here and states that “reckoned at a drachma only” means 12 percent interest. In the same footnote Murray points out that “eight talents and four thousand drachmae” was calculated as an approximation of 0.12 ´ 240 ´ 10 + 240 = 528 minas = 8 talents and 48 minas. It is interesting to note that Demosthenes does not use compound interest here. If he had, he would calculate 240 ´ 1.1210 @ 745 talents = 12 talents and 25 minas, which is a far greater number. I suppose Demosthenes wanted to simplify the calculation for the sake of the jurors. There is reason to believe he himself knew about compound interest because, in paragraph 59, he says his father’s estate would have trebled in ten years, which follows from calculating 1.12 10 @ 3.1. Demosthenes sued Aphobos after studying rhetoric with Isaios for two years. The court awarded Demosthenes 10 talents, but apparently he eventually got only a portion of it back. The other two settled out of court. The case took place in the year 364. The items of Demosthenes’ father’s estate of 13 talents and 46 minas are as follows. This is a minor revision of what is given in the introduction of the Loeb volume translated by A. T. Murray. 32 or 33 slaves in the sword factory 22 slaves in the bed factory Ivory, iron, wood, gall, and copper used in the factory House Furniture, utensils and cups, jewelry, apparel, ornaments Cash (silver) Money loaned at 12% Maritime loan Loan without interest Deposit in Pasion’s bank Deposit in Pylades’ bank Deposit in Demomeles’ bank Total

190 minas 80* 150 30 100 80 60 70 60 24 6 16 866

* Murray puts this value as 40 because he uses the value of the loan whereas I use the value of the security.

Society and culture 33 Prices of slaves 415

The average price of 25 slaves from confiscated properties was 174 drachmas (Pritchett and Pippin 1956, p. 276). There was little difference in the prices of male and female slaves. E 4c A house slave (oiketès), 2 minas (Demosthenes XLI, 8). E 4c Domestic slaves cost from 50 to 1,000 drachmas. Nicias bought an overseer of his silver mine for one talent (Xenophon, Memorabilia, II. 5. 2). 380 The value of the 32 or 33 slaves in the sword factory of Demosthenes’ father was on average 5–6 minas each, the least being 3 minas. The value of 22 slaves in the bedmaking factory can be deduced to be approximately 3.6 minas each (Demosthenes XXVII, Against Aphobos I, 9). 4c A slave working in a silver mine cost 125 drachmas (Demosthenes LIII, Against Nikostratos, 1). 4c A farm slave, 125–150 drachmas. A mining slave, less than 185 drachmas. 4c Cost of a slave (maintenance and amortization), 300 drachmas a year (Andreades 1933, p. 257). 330 Epicrates bought a slave boy, his father and brother for 40 minas from the perfume maker Athenogenes (Hyperides, Against Athenogenes). Productivity of slaves In the above-mentioned sword factory of Demosthenes Senior (380 BC), the total value of the slaves was 19,000 drachmas and the yield per year was 3,000 drachmas, implying an annual rate of 16 percent. In the bed factory, the total value is estimated to be 8,000 because the value of a property was normally twice the value of security with a yield of 1,200, implying an annual rate of 15 percent. In comparison, the return from the money loaned by Demosthenes Senior was 13 percent. The yield was about eight percent in agriculture (Casson 1976, p. 37). It was 33 percent in silver mines, and 20–25 percent for slaves owned by Timarchos in his leather workshops (Garlan 1988, p. 73). The productivity estimates given above have been calculated as follows. For each item the numbers given in the text of Against Aphobos I are given in regular print; my calculations are given in bold print. The basis of my calculations is given in the numbered explanatory notes. Sword factory 32–33 slaves Value of slaves1 Net income Rate of return

averaged 5 or 6 minas each none less than 3 minas 190 minas 30 minas a year 30 ¸ 190 @ 0.16

34 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece Bed factory 22 slaves Value of slaves2 Net income Rate of return

Given as a security for a debt of 40 minas 80 minas 12 minas a year 12 ¸ 80 @ 0.15

Productive capital (this is listed as money loaned at 12 percent) Value Net income3 Rate of return

60 minas more than 7 minas a year 8 8 ¸ 60 @ 0.13

Total Value Net income

290 minas 50 minas

Explanatory notes 1

2 3

This is calculated as “Total value (290) – Debt value in bed factory (40) – Value of productive capital (60).” Since 190 ¸ 33 @ 5.76, it is consistent with the statement that the value of each slave was 5 or 6 minas. The value of security is estimated to be twice the value of the loan on the basis of Demosthenes XXXIV, Against Phormion, 6 and XXXV, Against Lakritos, 18. This is calculated as “Total net income (50) – Net income of sword factory (30) – Net income of bed factory (12).” It is consistent with the statement that the net income was more than 7 minas a year.

Size of workshops Table 2.1 is translated from Ito (1981, p. 7) with the kind permission of the author. Harris (2002, p.81) reports the amounts of loans secured by the property and inscribed on eight horoi (stone tablets) placed next to workshops. The two highest amounts were 60 minas, the next highest 17, and the rest were 5–8 minas. In order to calculate the values of the workshops, one should double these numbers, since the value of the security is roughly twice the size of the loan.

Homosexuality The ancient Greek mode of relationship between an adult male and a boy was different from the kind of homosexuality between two adult males known today. Homosexuality between adult males was less common and less accepted in classical Athens than it is now in much of the Western world. Those who adopted the submissive role in the adult homosexual relationship were especially condemned

Society and culture 35 Table 2.1 Size of workshops Yearly earnings

Independent Supervisor workshop

Shoes

Approx. 12 minas

No

Yes

20

Beds

12 minas

No

Yes (?)

32–33

Knives

30 minas

No

Yes

Demosth. Pasion XXXVI, 11

60–100

Shields

60 minas

Yes

Yes

Lysias XII, 8, 19

100–120 Shields

?

Yes

?

Source

Owner

Slaves

Product

Aeschines I, 97

Timarchos’ father

9–10

Demosth. XXVII, 9

Demosth.’s father

Demosth. XXVII, 9

Demosth.’s father

Lysias, Polemarchos

as kinaidoi. The Greeks were more tolerant, however, toward the relationship between an adult male and a boy, unless the boy was coerced to be sexually submissive or he offered sexual service in return for gain. Within these limits, it was considered normal for an adult male to be attracted by a beautiful boy. If these limits were exceeded, both parties were not only regarded with disgrace but also given penalties, the most severe of which was not being able to speak in the Assembly (see Aeschines, The Speech Against Timarchos, 13–20). There were various laws protecting young boys against indecent adults (ibid., 12). In classical Athens young unmarried women were not easily accessible. In 451, Pericles passed a decree that defined a person to be an Athenian citizen if and only if both his parents were citizens. This made daughters of citizens extremely valuable and all the citizen families carefully guarded their daughters until they were married off to citizens. Thus, some men sought their sexual gratification from prostitutes and boys. A love affair between an adult male and a boy was sometimes considered a relationship in which the education of the youth was exchanged for a certain amorous gratification. Plato tells the following story in his Symposium: Young Alcibiades once invited Socrates to his home. Socrates wanted to leave before dinner but Alcibiades insisted he should stay for dinner. When Socrates was about to leave after dinner, Alcibiades again implored him to stay overnight, to which Socrates acquiesced. Then, Alcibiades invited Socrates into his own bed, but Socrates insisted on sleeping by himself on a sofa. In the middle of the night, however, Alcibiades slipped into the sofa. Alcibiades says next morning he woke up as if he had slept with his own father or brother. Socrates was happy to educate Alcibiades even if he did not receive anything in return. Both Plato and Aristotle regarded love between a man and a woman as natural and that between a man and a man as unnatural (see Laws 836–841 and Rhetoric 1384A). In Nicomachean Ethics (1162A16–17), Aristotle states that the love (philia) between husband and wife is natural because man is by nature more of a pairing animal than a social animal (#nqrwpov gœr tè f_sei sunduastikÃn

36 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece m*llon } politik U(B),” however, everyone is a utilitarian by definition. Such a theory does not have any meaningful content and is utterly uninteresting. If one asked Antigone, Simone Weil, and Mother Teresa if they were glad, happy, and satisfied that they did what they did, they would probably say yes, but that does not mean they did what they did to become happy. They did so because they believed it was the right thing to do. Another forceful argument against utilitarianism has been presented by philosophers who emphasize the importance of basic individual rights, such as John Rawls (1971). These philosophers complain that “utilitarianism not only condones but positively encourages the infringement of individuals’ rights in the name of the general good” (Scarre 1996, p. 21). An important issue in utilitarianism is the question of whether utility is subjective or objective. If we adopt the subjectivist stance, we must forgo an objective standard and treat a fool’s utility equally with a sage’s utility. Also, interpersonal comparison of utilities becomes impossible. If we adopt the objectivist stance, however, there is a danger of arbitrarily imposing a standard on everybody. Brink (1989) suggested that the objective standard should be set by a rational, well-informed person, but even rational, well-informed people can make mistakes. Harsanyi (1976), on the other hand, takes the subjectivist stance, saying, “I want to be treated in accordance with my own wants.” But he hopes that subjective differences among people will not be large if wants are determined “on due reflection and in possession of all relevant information” (Scarre 1996, p. 7). In spite of his subjectivism, Harsanyi believes that interpersonal comparison of utilities is possible by means of “imaginative empathy” (Scarre 1996, p. 16).

Economic theory of utility maximization I have mentioned Adam Smith’s doctrine of an invisible hand; when consumers and producers seek their selfish interests, society will benefit as a result (see Chapter XI). This doctrine has been later made precise by economic theorists as follows. If producers maximize profits and consumers maximize utilities under the assumption of perfect competition and perfect information, and also assuming that a person’s utility does not depend on another person’s utility, resources will be efficiently utilized and the so-called Pareto optimum will be reached at equilibrium. The Pareto optimum is the point at which any movement away from that point will make at least one person worse off. It depends on the initial endowment of wealth and therefore can be unfair if the initial endowment is unfair. Also, the whole process that leads to the Pareto optimum may be contrary to some ethical standards. Marx offered a cogent criticism of the famous remark of Smith earlier quoted in Chapter XI: “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or

Utilitarianism 167 the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest” (The Wealth of Nations, Book I, Chapter II, p. 15). Kain (1992, p. 227) summarizes Marx’s argument as follows: To act morally, one must know rationally what the good is, and the act must be motivated by this rational knowledge. To act selfishly and allow a good to come about behind your back – no matter how effective it might be – is not moral. In The Theory of Moral Sentiments, however, Smith somewhat qualifies the doctrine of an invisible hand: How selfish soever man may be supposed, there are evidently some principles in his nature, which interest him in the fortune of others, and render their happiness necessary to him, though he derives nothing from it except the pleasure of seeing it. (Part I, Section I, Chapter i. 1) I have mentioned that economists have a tendency to believe that anything resulting from a market equilibrium is good. Hausman and McPherson, Economic Analysis and Moral Philosophy (Chapter 2), give the following most radical example of this tendency. In December of 1991, Lawrence Summers, who was then the chief economist at the World Bank, sent a memorandum to some colleagues (apparently in all seriousness), in which he proposed that developed countries should export pollution to less developed countries and pay a certain amount of money in compensation. Summers obviously thought that as long as both parties were made happier by the transaction and were willing to engage in it, it was good. The theory of utility maximization is less objectionable and may be actually useful in the small private economic decision of a consumer. For example, in deciding whether I should have dinner tonight at a high-class French restaurant or at McDonald’s, it may be useful to compare the utilities derived from both choices. Even in such a simple case, however, it may be difficult to quantify exactly the utility of eating at a French restaurant and that of eating at McDonald’s, although we can say the former is greater than the latter. Now it is true that if we gradually increase the price of dinner at the French restaurant, at a certain point McDonald’s becomes more attractive. To explain this phenomenon, economists try to abstain from specifying cardinal functions U(F, PF) and U(M, PM). Instead, they assume a preference ordering between the choice of (F, PF) and (M, PM). A preference ordering is necessary for decision making, but it does not imply the existence of a cardinal utility function.

168 Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece

Sen, “Rational fools” Amartya Sen, a well-known critic of utilitarian economics, begins this article by quoting Edgeworth’s assertion that “the first principle of Economics is that every agent is actuated only by self interest” (Sen 1977). Sen goes on to say, “the nature of economic theory seems to have been much influenced by this basic premise.” In the rest of Section I, Sen states that the Pareto optimum (see my discussion above) may not be good from the point of view of social welfare if the initial endowment of wealth is unjust. In Section II, Sen explains the economist’s theory of “revealed preference” in a situation analogous to my restaurant choice. If you are observed to choose x rejecting y, you are declared to have “revealed” a preference for x over y. Your personal utility is then defined as simply a numerical representation of this “preference”, assigning a higher utility to a “preferred” alternative. With this set of definitions you can hardly escape maximizing your own utility, except through inconsistency. … But if you are consistent, then no matter whether you are a single-minded egoist or a raving altruist or a class conscious militant, you will appear to be maximizing your own utility in this enchanted world of definitions. Sen notes, “This approach of definitional egoism sometimes goes under the name of rational choice, and it involves nothing other than internal consistency.” In other words, the revealed preference theory of utility has too little structure. It seems too broad and innocuous. However, Sen thinks that even though it is so broad (or, might I say, because it is so broad), it cannot explain the concept of commitment. Utility theory can incorporate sympathy by making the utility of a person depend on the utility of another person. Of course in that case the theory of the Pareto optimum must be modified, but Sen thinks it can be done. But commitment cannot be incorporated into the theory of utility because it may make a person choose the action that will bring a smaller amount of utility. Sen suggests the model of meta-ranking (ranking of rankings) as a way to incorporate commitment.

Glossary of Greek names and terms

References Cartledge, Millet, and Todd, eds, Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society, Cambridge 1990. Joint Association of Classical Teachers, The World of Athens, Cambridge 1984. Liddell and Scott, An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon, Oxford. The Oxford Classical Dictionary.

Aeschines A4sc8nhv (c.397–c.322): Athenian orator famous for his two exchanges with Demosthenes in 343 and 330. In the earlier year Demosthenes accused Aeschines of his misconduct in his role as ambassador to Macedonia in 346, in his speech titled “On the Embassy,” to which Aeschines replied in the speech with the same title. In the latter year, Aeschines in his speech titled “Against Ctesiphon” challenged Ctesiphon’s motion to give a gold crown to Demosthenes in recognition of his services to the state. Demosthenes defended Ctesiphon in the speech titled “On the Crown.” Alcibiades Alkibi+dhv: Athenian general. See “Sicilian expedition” in “Classical age”. alphita #lfita: barley meal. Antheste-ria ºAnqestâria: festival in honor of Dionysos. antidosis !nt8dosiv: a man who was nominated to perform a liturgy could avoid this duty if he could name another citizen who was richer and better qualified to perform the task. If the man challenged agreed that he was richer, he had to take over the liturgy; if he claimed to be poorer, then the challenger could insist on the exchange of all their property to test the claim – in which case the challenger would himself perform the liturgy as the new owner of the greater estate. apoikia !poik8a: a colony. archo-n #rcwn: the leading officers of the state under Solon’s constitution. See “Solon’s constitution” in Chapter 3. atimia !tim8a: loss of honor. Loss of some or all of a man’s active rights as a citizen. autarkeia a[t+rkeia: self-sufficiency. banausikos banausik@v: a derogatory adjective characterizing a simple mechanical work which does not require a skill.

170 Glossary of Greek names and terms chore-gia corhg8a: a liturgy of defraying the cost of staging a chorus. chre-matistike- crhmatistikâ: art of getting wealth. Cimon K8mwn: wealthy and noble Athenian, son of Miltiades. Was often strategos since 479. Together with Aristides, he was instrumental in the formation of the Delian League and commanded most of its operations in 476–463. Defeated Persians at the battle of Eurymedon. After the earthquake in Sparta in 464, Cimon led the Athenian army that tried to help the Spartans to suppress the uprising of the helots, but this offer of help was rejected by the Spartans. This humiliation led to Cimon’s ostracism in 461. After returning from the ostracism, he arranged the Peace Treaty with Sparta in 449. Cleon Kl3wn: Athenian politician, the son of a rich tanner. Became influential after the death of Pericles. In 427 he unsuccessfully argued for executing all the men of Mytilene. He, together with strategos Demosthenes (not the orator of the fourth century), succeeded in defeating the Spartans in Pylos in 425. Was killed in a battle outside Amphipolis in 422. A constant object of ridicule by Aristophanes. de-miurgos dhmiourg@v (one who works for the people): a skilled workman. diaite-te-s diaithtâv: arbitrator, served by a 60-year-old citizen, to arrange arbitration (d8aita). Dionysia Dion_sia: festival held every year in honor of Dionysos, at which the major tragic and comic competitions were staged. dokimasia dokimas8a: an examination which state officials and the members of the Council underwent before taking up office. eisangelia e4saggel8a: impeachment. eisphora e4sfor+ : a special tax on capital, often levied at the time of war. Eleusis 'Eleus8v: a dèmos of Attica where there was a sanctuary of Demeter and Persephone, goddesses of fertility. Famous for a mystery cult which attracted initiates from all over Greece. emporike- dike- /mporikâ d8kh: a lawsuit involving traders. emporion /mp@rion: a trading place. emporos 1mporov: a merchant. enkte-sis 1gkthsiv: tenure of land or house by a noncitizen. It was one of various privileges (see also isoteleia) which could be granted at Athens to individual metics. ephe-bos 1fhbov: a young man becoming a citizen at the age of eighteen. Ephialtes ºEfi+lthv: Athenian politician, about whom little is known. Was the leading opponent of Cimon and resisted the sending of the troops to Sparta. With the help of Pericles, he passed measures to take from Areopagus its judicial powers of political importance in 462. He was murdered soon afterward. ephoros 1forov: an overseer. One of the five Spartan magistrates. epidosis /p8dosiv: voluntary contribution to the state following a decree passed by the Assembly. epikle-ros /p8klhrov: heiress. epo-belia /pwbel8a: one-sixth of damages assessed to the plaintiff if he does not get one fifth of the votes cast by the juries.

Glossary of Greek names and terms

171

eranos means both a private club and what its members pay for a common activity such as a common meal. It also has a specific meaning of an interest-free loan. Eubulos E]boulov (c.405–c.335): probably the most important Athenian statesman of the period 355–342. After the conclusion of the Social War (355), by means of his position as a commissioner of the theoric fund gradually assumed control of the whole of Athens’ finances, and raised public and private prosperity to a level probably not attained since the fifth century. He passed a law which made it difficult for the Assembly to draw on the routine revenues of the state for inessential military operations. The distribution of money to the people engaged only a small part of the moneys controlled by the theoric commission. Initially he made an effort to contain the power of Philip, but later argued for peace, and by 342 was eclipsed by Demosthenes who was eager to fight against Philip. euthuna e]quna: an examination of accounting for outgoing state officials. graphe- paranomo-n graf§ paran@mwn: a lawsuit brought by an individual against another for proposing a law or decree which is contrary to an existing law in form or content. hetaira 0ta8ra: professional female entertainer, mistress, call girl. Cf. pornè p@ rnh (prostitute). Hippias 'Ipp8av: tyrant of Athens in 527–510, son and successor of Peisistratos, in association with his brother Hipparchus. His rule was at first mild. The Attic owl coinage began in his reign, as did the building of the temple of Olympian Zeus. His rule became harsher after Hipparchus’ assassination (514) by Harmodius and Aristogeiton. horos >rov (boundary): an inscribed stone marking the boundary of a piece of property. ise-goria 4shgor8a: freedom of speech in the Assembly. Isocrates 'Isokr+thv (436–338): Athenian orator of central importance. He taught rhetoric to many famous writers. He is known for his pan-Hellenism and is said to have inspired Philip to try to conquer Persia. In contrast to Plato, his philosophy was very practical. isonomia 4sonom8a: equality under the laws. isoteleia 4sot3leia (equality of taxation): the privilege of exemption from the metoikion granted by individual decree to particularly favored metics. kalos kagathos kal@v k!gaq@v (fine and good): a self-approbatory term used by Athenian aristocrats to describe themselves. kape-likeretail trade. kle-ros klérov: that which is allotted. Inherited estate. krithe- kriqâ: barley. leitourgia leitourg8a: voluntary contributions for various public enterprises and services such as payment for participation in political and judicial processes, festivals, welfare, and military expenditures, the most important of which was the construction and manning of warships. Lycurgos Luko©rgov (c.390–c.325): Athenian statesman of great importance after the battle of Chaironea (338). He played the major part in the control of the

172 Glossary of Greek names and terms city’s finances for a period of 12 years, raising the revenue to perhaps 1,200 talents a year, and financing military and building projects. The powers by which he did it all are obscure. In politics he was bitterly suspicious of Macedonia. Lysias Lus8av (c.459–c.380): Athenian orator. His father Cephalos, a Syracusan, was invited by Pericles to take up residency in Athens. He and his brother Polemarchos left Athens after Cephalos’ death to live in Thurii in southern Italy. They were expelled after the Sicilian expedition and returned to Athens in 412. In 403 the Thirty Tyrants arrested both brothers and confiscated their substantial property. Polemarchos was executed but Lysias escaped. This incident is described in Lysias’ most famous speech titled “Against Eratosthenes.” metoikion metoik8on: tax paid by metics – 12 drachmas for men and 6 drachmas for women per year. misthos misq@v: wage. Public pay. Mitiades Milti+dhv: Athenian aristocrat and general from a wealthy and powerful family. He played a major role in defeating Persians in the battle of Marathon (490). Later he was condemned to pay a fine of 50 talents on account of a military failure at Paros but died before he paid the fine. His son Cimon paid the fine after his death in 489. Nicias Nik8av: Athenian statesman who reluctantly led the Sicilian expedition and was killed. Was wealthy and said to have owned 1,000 slaves in the silver mines. nomos n@mov: law, custom, convention. Often contrasted with physis (nature). ostracism 9strakism@v: a method of banishing a citizen for ten years. It was held once a year in a special session of the Assembly. Each citizen who wished to vote wrote on a fragment of pottery (=strakon) the name of the citizen whom he wished to be banished. If more than 6,000 votes were cast, the one who collected the largest number of votes was ostracized. The practice started in the early fifth century and lasted until 417, after which it was replaced by graphè paranomòn. An ostracized citizen had to leave the country within ten days and remain in exile for ten years, but he did not forfeit his citizenship or property, and at the end of the ten years he could return to live in Athens without any disgrace or disability. Panathenaia Panaqânaia: a festival in honor of Athene celebrated every year, with the Great Panathenaia being held every fourth year. Pasion Pas8wn (died in 370): the wealthiest banker and manufacturer of his time in Athens. He began his career as a slave with a banking firm in Peiraieus, was made a freed man and subsequently acquired ownership of the bank. He later became an Athenian citizen, having spent lavishly on donations to the city. He bequeathed an estate worth about 80 talents. His banking business was given to his slave Phormion, who also later became an Athenian citizen. peltast peltastâv: soldiers carrying small round shield called p3lth. Philocrates Filokr+thv: Athenian politician principally connected with the Athens–Macedonia Peace Treaty of 346. Athenian dissatisfaction with the outcome exposed him to prosecution and he fled into exile in 343. physis f_siv: nature. Often contrasted with nomos (custom).

Glossary of Greek names and terms

173

pole-tai pwlhta8: sellers. Officers who sold the state right to collect taxes, etc. politeia polite8a: the conditions and rights of a citizen, a form of government (often translated as a constitution). proxenos pr@xenov: a foreign citizen bringing benefits to the state. A public guest. puros pur@v: wheat. Pythia Puq8a: the priestess who pronounced the oracle in Delphi. sitos s®tov: grain. stasis st+siv: internal strife. sycophant sukof+nthv: a false accuser. An exceedingly litigious person (different from the English meaning). techne- t3cnh: skill, art. Plato’s examples of the objects of technè are mathematics, medicine, music, and ethics (politics). His nonexamples are rhetoric, cosmetics, and gourmet cooking. theo-rika qewrik+: the money given to the poor citizens to pay for seats in the theater (at two obols the seat), but also for other purposes. Theramenes Qhram3nhv: Athenian politician. He played an active part in establishing the Oligarchy of Four Hundred in 411, but four months later he was active in overthrowing them and establishing the Five Thousand, a more moderate but still not fully democratic regime which succeeded Four Hundred briefly. At Arginusai (406) he commanded a ship but came out free unlike the six generals who were held responsible for not rescuing survivors and were executed. In 404 he was involved in setting up the Oligarchy of Thirty, and was himself one of the Thirty, but he soon quarreled with the extremists, especially Critias, who had him executed. A critical view of him is as an adroit politician, but others view him as a moderate seeking a genuine political mean. Thesmophoria Qesmof@ria: women’s festival in honor of Demeter. Thrasybulos Qras_boulov: Athenian general and statesman. In 411 he was a leader of the democratic state formed by the navy at Samos in opposition to the Four Hundred. In 404 he was banished by the Thirty and fled to Thebes, where he organized a band of exiles and occupied Phyle and later seized Peiraieus and defeated the troops of the Thirty. During the Corinthian War (395–387) he played a prominent part in reviving Athenian imperialism. Killed in 388. time- timâ: honor, status. Timotheus Tim@qeov: Athenian general. Played a major role in establishing the Second Athenian League (377). trie-rarchy trihrarc8a: an important type of liturgy responsible for the construction, upkeep, and manning of triremes. trire-me- triârhv: a three-decked warship. xenia xen8a: a friendly relation between two foreigners, or between an individual and a foreign state.

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Index

accounting identities xii, 62–3 adultery 23–4; see also marriage Aeschines 43, 169; Against Timarchos 43, 44 Aeschylus 19; The Persians 19 Agora: see Athenian Agora agriculture 74–80; improvements in 63–4; Plato on 146; slaves in 29–30, 33; Xenophon on 119 Alcibiades 8, 9, 169; as landowner 75; and rhetoric 53; and Socrates 35; warlike 49, 50 Alcidamas 154 Alcmaionidai (aristocratic family) 51 Anaxagoras 23 Anaximander 22 Anaximenes 22 Andreades, A. M. 91, 96, 97, 111n animal husbandry 78–80, 83 Annas, Julia 125, 126, 129–30, 134, 136–7 antidosis (liturgy-substitute) 64, 78, 169 Antipater 11, 45 Antiphon 154 archons (officers of state) 37, 43, 44, 51, 169 Areopagus (retired archons) 37, 44, 144 Aristarchos 59; and female workers 19, 66 aristocracy: in Aristotle 156; see also Alcmaionidai, elite Aristophanes 20, 50; Acharnians 20, 40, 47, 50, 67; Babylonians 46–7; Clouds 79; on coins 84; Ecclesiazusae 26, 39, 68, 84, 105; Frogs 20, 84; on liturgies 94; Lysistrata 24–5, 25, 26, 50; Peace 50; on prices 62; Thesmophoriazusae 25; Wasps 80; on wealth 53 Aristophon 43 Aristotle, 131; arête (function) xiii, 132; on community 153–4; The Constitution of Athens 37, 42, 44, 68, 78, 100, 156; contemplation 132–3, 137, 156; on democracy 156; Democritus and 23; economics xiii, 151–8; ethics xiii, 123, 132, 154; on household management 154, 155; on justice 150; on love 35, 134; Lyceum of 131; Nichomachean

Ethics xiii, 35, 124, 131–6, 156; on money 153; on need 151–3; on philosopher kings 156; on Plato 154, 156; on pleasure 135–6; Politics 153–6; on price theory 150–1, 152; on property 155; on retail trade 155; Rhetoric 151; on rule of the mean 134, 150; on slaves 118, 154, 155; on tragedy 19–20; utility theory of value 151–3; on virtue 132–3, 134, 136, 156; on wealth 155; on women 25–6, 118, 156 armed forces, cost of 101–2 Asia Minor 5 Assembly (Ekklesia) 14, 35, 45; in Aristophanes 40; of Cleisthenes 38–44; as court 39; election of stratègoi 39; influence in 52; and lawgivers 48; paid attendance 31, 39; in Plato 146; and public finance 91; role 43; of Solon 37, 38 Athenian Agora 38, 42, 66, 67, 112n, 156–7 Athenian economy xi–xii. 62–114; agriculture 74–80; definition 117; did it exist? 105; growth in 63; market 64–8; model of 106–11; money 102–6; prices 68–72; primitivist view 156–7; public finance 91–102; strengthening (Xenophon) 119; wages in 72–4 Athenian League 8, 43, 44 Athens 5, 7, 43 atomic theory 21, 23 Attica 5 banking 104–6; Demosthenes on 105, 106 barbarians 28, 145 battles: Aigos potamoi (405) 8–9; Arginusai (408) 8, 42, 46, 173; Chaironea (338) 11, 171; Eurymedon (467) 170; Issus (333) 11; Marathon (490) 7, 41, 172; Pylos (425) 170; Salamis (480) 7, 19, 41 Benedict, Ruth 16 Bentham, Jeremy xiv, 128, 135, 158–60; ethical theory 158–9, 163, 164, 165; Marx on 159 Berkeley, Bishop 121

180 Index Blaug, M. 63 Blue Guide 15 Boeckh, Augustus 71, 76–8, 97–8 Boetia 67 Bosporus; grain imports 80–1; trade to 87 bottomry loans (against ship losses) 86–7, 105 boulè (council) 37 Bouleutèrion 42 Brink, D. O. 166 Buddhism 14 capital liquidity 103 Cartledge, P. 31 catharsis 20 cavalry, cost of 101 charis (reciprocal favours) 52–3 Chinese philosophy 22 Cimon 7, 10, 41, 170 citizens 27; and banking 107; in Cleisthenes’ constitution 38; duties 17, 52; numbers in classical Athens 28, 65; in Plato 146 city-states 5, 6, 10 Clark, Colin 77–8, 112–13 classical Greek economy: choice of term 58; and modern American 58; substantivism in 59; see also Athenian economy Cleisthenes 51; constitution of 38–44; and democracy 6, 7, 45 Cleon 45, 46, 50, 170; criticized by Aristophanes 47, 50; hawkish 49; and rhetoric 53 Cohen, E. E. 64, 104–6 coinage 30, 64, 157; absence of paper money 106; circulation 80; copper 84; silver 64, 65, 84 comedies 20, 26 Confucius 123 Corinth 20 corruption, 40, 44 cost of living: clothes 72; rent 77, shoes 77; total 77–8; see also food, grain Council (boulè) 44; budget of 91; and Cleisthenes 38–9, 40, 41–2; paid attendance 31, 42; and Plato 144; role 43; and Solon 41 courts (dikastèria) 42–3; Assembly as 39; Demosthenes and 32; paid jury 41; role 43 Critias 9 Ctesiphon 43, 169 cultural relativism 58–9 Davies, J. K. xiv, 28–30, 64, 71, 93–8, 100, 102–4, 108 Decelea 30, 84 decrees (psèphisma) 39, 48 Delian League 7, 170 Delphi 15; Amphictiony 10; oracle 15; Temple of Apollo 18 dèmagògos (people-leader) 49, 80 demand: see utility Demetrius of Phaleron 11

Demetrius Poliorectes 12 democracy: and modern American 48–9; Athenian 45–54; failure of 45–6; freedom of speech 46–7; and income redistribution 50; in Plato 142; radical or moderate? 47–9; success of 46; in war and peace 49–50 Democritos 21, 23, 121, 159 dèmos 38, 42, 44 Demosthenes: Against Aphobos I 31–2, 33–4, 105; Against Ctesiphon 169; Against Dionysodoros 59, 82; Against Eubiledes 25, 54; Against Leptines 62; Against Meidias 52; Against Phainippos 64; and the Assembly 53; on banking 104, 105; on cost of living 78; on dowry 26; on moneylending 103; and Navy Board 95, 96; On the Cheronese 52; On the Crown 43, 54, 169; On the Embassy 47; on the poor 18; on prices 107; on shame 16; and slavery 31–4; speeches 10, 11; on war expenditure 46, 49; and workshops 65 deontology 125, 163 de Tocqueville, Alexis 48 Dickens, Charles 165 diòbelia (payments to citizens) 50, 99 Diodotos 46, 49 Diogenes Laertios 27 Dionysia14, 15, 19, 20, 170; City Dionysia 19; Great Dionysia 51 “disembedded economy” (Finley) 58 Dodds, E. R. 16 Dorians 5 Dover, K. J. 17, 18, 29 Dracon 6 economic indicators 34 economics: defined 17, 167 economy, Athenian: see Athenian economy Edgeworth’s contract curve 152, 167 education 21; in Plato 121, 122, 123–4, 125, 128, 143, 144; and women 21, 26 eisphora (tax on capital) 64, 96–7, 170 elections: in Plato 143; of stratègoi 39, 44; see also lottery Eleusinian Mysteries 8, 14, 15, 170; slaves in 77; social structure of sanctuaries 65, 111n elites 51–2 “embeddedness” (Finley) x, 57, 60 Ephialtes 44, 47, 170 ephèboi (adolescent group) 38 epidosis (emergency tax) 98, 170 epòbelia (damages awards) 17, 42, 170 Eubolos 91, 119, 171 eudaimonia (good living): Aristotle and 131, 156; defined xiii, 123, 125, 129, 131–2; dominant 131; inclusive 131; in Plato 151 Euripedes 19 Evans, Sir Arthur 3 exchange ratios: in Aristotle 151–2, 155, 157; in Edgeworth 152; in Smith 152; in Xenophon 118; see also liturgy

Index 181 export-import tax 97 exports xii, 110; manufactured goods 86; marble 85–6; olive oil 85; silver 845; vases 85; wine 86 factory, types of: bed (Demosthenes’ father) 30, 31–3, 34, 66, 86; flute (Isocrates’ father) 86; leather (Timarchus) 33; lyre (Cleophon) 86; shield (Lysias) 30, 86; shield (Pasion) 30; sword (Demosthenes’ father) 30, 31–3, 66, 86; value of 66 festivals 14, 19, 20, 42 financial institutions 48, 50 Finley, M. I. x, xiii, 57, 58, 59, 60–1, 65, 112n, 118 food: cost of 76, 77, 78; dairy products 80; meat 77; opson (relish) 76–7, 78; Socrates on 140– 1 formalist x, 57, 58, 59, 60 Gabrielsen, Vincent xiv, 94–6, 100–1 generals: see stratègoi Glaukos 16 Gorgias 21 government: defined 107; in model 107; revenue and expenditure 110, 112n; transfer payments 114 grain: biological need for 75–6, 107, 113; comparative country cost 77, 113; consumption 114; cost 76, 113; imports xii, 80–3, 112n; market 68; output 74–5; prices 68–9, 107–11 graphè paranomòn (lawsuit) 11, 38, 43, 171; replaces ostracism 48 greed: in Aristotle xiii; in Plato xiii Guide to Greece (Pausanias) 20 Hansen, M. H. xiv, 30, 39, 43, 66, 80–1, 83–8, 90–1, 96–7, 100, 106, 111n1, 111n10, 112n21, 112n23 Harris, E. M. 65, 66, 68 Harsanyi, J. C. 166 Heraclitus 22 Herodotos 7, 25, 78 Hippias, 6, 7, 171 history, periods of Greek: Archaic Age (800– 510) 5–7, Classical Age (510–322) 7–11, Dark Age (1200–800) 5; Hellenistic Age (322–30) 11–12; Mycenaean Age (1600– 1200) 3–5 Hodkinson, S. 79–80 Homer 6, 15, 16; Iliad 6, 16; Odyssey 6 homosexuality 35–6; Plato on 35 honor 16, 17; loss of (atimia) 169; love of (philotimia) 17; and shame 16 hoplites (large-shielded soldiers) 3, 7, 44, 45; estimated number 111n household management: in Aristophanes 26; in Aristotle xiii, 154, 155; in Lysias 26; in Xenophon xii, 24, 26, 117–19

hybris (ill-treatment of citizens) 17, 18, 51; in Plato 148 imports: grain xii, 80–3, 112n; in Hermippos 83; in model 108, 109, 110; other types of 83–4; in Plato 146 income redistribution 50 Indo-Europeans 3–4 institutions, Athenian 43 interest 31–2; in Aristotle xiii, 155; on bottomry loans 87; rates 102–3 invisible hand (Smith) 152, 166–7 Ionia 5, 6, 21 isègoria (freedom of speech in Assembly) 47, 171 Isager, Signe xiv, 30, 39, 43, 66, 80–1, 83–8, 90– 1, 96–7, 100, 106, 111n1, 111n10, 112n21, 112n23 Isocrates 21, 171; Against Lochites 51; Areopagaticos 103; On the Peace 52 Ito, Sakurai xv, 34, 85–6 Jameson, Michael H. xv, 29–30, 70–1, 75, 77, 80, 83, 99 jurors 42–3, 48, 52, 54 justice: in Plato 125–6, 127 Kant, Emmanuel 122; on ethics 163, 164; on eudaimonism 129 Karayiannis, A. D. xv, 23, 159 Knossos, palace 3, 4 labor, attitude to 18; division of, in Aristotle 137, 154; in Democritos 23; in Plato xiii, 125, 138–41, 145, 154; in Smith 138–40; in Xenophon 140 labor theory of value 151 Laureion: see silver laws (nomos) 39, 48; in Plato 141–9 lawgivers (nomothetai) 39, 48; in Plato 143 lawsuit: confiscation 98; court fees 98; Demosthenes 51; dikè (injured party) 42, 43; fines 98; graphè (public concern) 42, 43; of Isocrates 51 leitourgia (wealth tax) 19, 50 Lesbos 45, 49 litigiousness 17, 42 liturgy (voluntary gifts) 52, 53, 59, 171; examples 93–4; festivals 94; in Plato 148; trierarchy 94–5, 96, 173; see also antidosis loans 34, 103, 105–6; example of Dionysodoros 82; see also bottomry lottery 17, 39, 43; and Council 41, 42; and jurors 42, 48; in Plato 143 Luke, gospel according to 133 Lycurgos 46, 48, 91, 92, 119, 171–2 Lysias, 172; Against the Corn Dealers 59, 81–2; Against Diogeiton 26; Defense Against a Charge of Subverting the Democracy 52; on cost of living 79; on liturgies 93–4; On the

182 Index Murder of Eratosthenes 13, 23, 25, 26, 172; on opson 77; On the Refusal of a Pension to the Invalid 51, 100; slaves of 30; on traders 66; on women 23 MacDowell, D. M. 44 manufacturing: defined 107, 112n; estimates of revenue and expenditure 109, 110–11; in model of Athenian economy 104, 107–11; slaves in 30; see also factory, workshop marble, trade in 85–6 market: Athenian 64, 65, 66, 156; defined 58; embeddedness of 60, equilibrium 167 marriage: arranged 27; divorce 26; dowry 26, 31, 148; mistresses 27, 35–6; and property 26, 27 Marx, Karl: on Bentham 159–60; on Mill 162; on Smith 166 Matthew, gospel according to 145 Megacles 51 Meikle, S. 155 Melos 8 Menander 20 metics (foreign residents) 6, 18, 44, 119; Aristotle as 156; and banking 1-6; in court cases 43; numbers 28, 65; property-owning 75; tax paid 97, 172; trading in Agora 66; in workshops 65; Xenophon on 119 metoikion (tax paid by metics) 97, 172 military service 38, 44; conscription 44 Mill, John Stuart 160–5; and education 164; and utilitarianism 160–5 Minoan civilization 3, 4; and Mycenaean 4 Mitiades 172 modernist x, 57, 58, 60 monarchy: in Plato 142 money: in Aristotle 153; in Plato 153 moneylending: defended by Demosthenes 103; and by Isocrates 103 Moravcsik, Julius xv, 123, 127 Morris, I. 61 Mycenae: civilization 4–5, 6; and Minoan 5; palace 4; script 4 Nagel, T. 133 naval warfare 8, 41; Demosthenes on 95; money voted for 46; power in Aegean 80 net income (Demosthenes’ father) 33–4 Nicias 6, 172 nomophylakes (guardians of the laws) 11 nomos (custom, law) 153, 172 Ober, J. 47, 51–4 occupations (Harris list) 65 oikos (home) 16–17 Old Comedy 65 Old Oligarch 45 oligarchy 45, 53 Oligarchy of Four Hundred 8, 173; in Aristophanes’ Frogs 20

Oligarchy of Thirty 9, 46, 173 oracles 15, 47 Orphic cult 14 Osborne, R. 39, 64, 85, 86 ostracism (banishing a citizen for ten years): Cimon and 170; origin 38; as strategy 17, 48, 172; see also graphè paranomòn paidagògos (slave-tutor) 21 palace-kingdoms 4–5 Pareto optimum 58, 166, 167–8 Parmenides 22 parrhèsia (general freedom of speech) 47 Parthenon 7, 22; and Pericles 41 Pasion 29, 30, 172; as banker 105, 106 pawnbrokers 105, 106 Peiraieus, port, xii, 7, 80, 97, 119 Peisistratos 6, 19, 51 Peloponnesian Alliance 8 pensions (to invalids) 51, 100 Pericles: and Aspasia (mistress) 26, 27; and Athenian imperialism 41; citizenship decree (451) 24, 27, 35; elected general 39; funeral speech 41, 45, 83; political skills 40; and Thucydides 16, 18, 41; as trader 64; on women 25 Persia 95 Pheidias 20 Philip, king of Macedonia 10, 11 Philocrates 172 philosophy 21–3 phratia (clans) 27, 40 phylai (kinship groups) 40, 42; in Cleisthenes 38; in Solon 37, 38 Plato xxi, 120–30; Academy 21; and beauty 121; the cave (Republic) 122, 123; and the city 140–2, 144; and democracy 156; Democritus and 23; and division of labor 138–41; and economics xiii, 138; and education 121, 122, 123–4, 125, 128, 143, 144; and ethics xii, 123; and the good 121, 125; Gorgias 21, 127, 128; guardians of the laws 125–6, 141, 142, 143–4; and justice 126, 129, 138, 139, 143, 150, 162; and love 122; Laws 26, 141–9; Phaedo 10, 128; Philebus 130; and philosopher kings 125–6, 127, 128, 134, 142, 156; and pleasure 124, 125, 127, 129–30; Protagoras 127–8, 130, 161; Republic 122–3, 124–6, 150; and retail trade 147; and slaves 148; and Socrates 10, 120; and the sophists 121, 127–8; Symposium 35; and the state 126, 142–3, 151; and tax rates 148; theory of forms 120–4; and unity of virtues 121, 128, 129; on wealth 145–6; on women 26, 118, 148–9 pleasure: in Aristotle 124; in Bentham 158–9; in Democritos 23; in Mill 161–2; in Plato 124, 125, 127, 129–30 Plutarch 119

Index 183 Pnyx 40 Polani, K. 152, 156–7 polis (the state) 16–17; in Plato 126, 142–3, 151; wealth good for 18 political skills 49; Assembly 40; and influence 41 Pomeroy, S. B. 21, 63–4 population: estimates 36, 75, 107; in model 106– 11 pottery 5, 7, 20, 85 poverty 18, 106–7; estimates of revenue and expenditure 108; number of “poor” 107–8; in Plato 145–6, 147 price theory: in Aristotle 152; in model 107; in Plato 147–8; in Xenophon xii prices: barley 68–9; bread 69; clothes 70–1; figs 70; fish 70; furniture 72; funeral 72; hetairai 72; honey 69; land 71–2; livestock 70; ointment 71; olives 69; shoes 71; vases 72; voyage 72; wheat 68; wine 67 primitivist x, 57, 58, 156, 157 private ownership: in Aristotle 156; in Plato 145 productive capital: Demosthenes’ father 34 profit x, 18, 57, 60; of Demosthenes’ father’s sofa factory 111n; as goal 59; maximization difficult 59; as threat to norms 59 profit-output ratio: for Demosthenes’ father’s bed factory 103–4 property 25, 26, 27; in Aristotle 155; bequeathed in male line 25; mines as 85; in Plato 142, 145–6, 148; prices 71–2; slaves as 154; slaves leaving 29; visible and invisible 53, 105; in Xenophon 118 Protagoras 21 proxenos (foreign citizen benefiting state) 80, 173 prytaneis (presidents) 40, 42 Pseudo-Aristotle: Oikonomikos 26, 68 Pseudo-Demosthenes 86–7 Pseudo-Xenophon 29, 53 public finance: Andreades on 91, 96, 97, 111n; bottomry 86–7, 105; confiscations 98; court fees 98; diòbelia 50, 99; epidosis 98; eisphora 64, 96–7; expenditure 99–102; export-import tax 97; fines 98; leases on mines 97; liturgies 52, 53, 59, 93–6, 171; metoikion 97, 172; military expenses 100–2; pensions 51, 105; revenue 92–9; spoils 99; state pay 99; theoric fund 50, 99–100, 173; tributes 10, 92; trierarchies 94–5, 96, 173 public officers: election 44; lottery 44 public service 52–3; Aristotle on 68; in market 67–8 public works 41 Pythagoras 22; and Plato 121 Raaflaub, K. A. 49–50 rate of return: on bed factory (Demosthenes’ father) 33–4, 103; on land 103; on leather workshop (Timarchos) 33; on money

(Demosthenes’ father) 33; on silver mines 33, 103; on slaves (Demosthenes’ father) 33 Rawls, John xiv, 166 reality: in Aristotle 121; in Plato 120–2 rebellions, against Athens: Lesbos 45, 49; Melos 45–6 reciprocal proportion (Aristotle) 150–1 religion 13–15, 21 rents 64 retail trade (kapèlikè): in Aristotle xiii, 155; in Plato 147 rhetoric 53–4; in Gorgias 21, 127 Rome: conquers Athens 11, 12 Sakurai, Mariko xv, 23 Scarre, G. 165, 166 Scheidel, W. 76, 107 Schliemann, Heinrich 4, 6 Schumpeter, J. 61 science/natural science 21–3 scripts: Linear A 3; Linear B 4, 5; Phoenician alphabet 6 sculpture 20 Scythian archers 30, 40 Second Athenian League 10 Sen, Amartya xiv, 167–8 shame 16; and honor 16, 126; Plato on 126; Socrates on 65 Shinto 13–16 shipowners 86–7 Sicilian Expedition 8, 46, 49, 50, 172 silver: in Aristophanes 84; leases on mines 97, 111n; mining in Laureion xii, 7, 30, 31, 84–5; and money 64, 65; and naval warfare 46; output 97, 111n; slaves and 30–1, 33, 84, 111n; and Spartan occupation 84; state and 59, 84; in Xenophon 119 slaves/slavery 6, 18, 28–34; abundance weakens technology? 31, 63; Alcidamas on 154; Antiphon on 154; Aristotle on 154; and banking 106; Demosthenes on 31–4; domestic 29–30, 33; enable democracy? 30– 1; Euripedes on 154; imports of 87–91; manumission 28, 28–30, 90, 106; model 88–91; numbers of 28, 31, 90–1; occupations of 29–30; ownership of 30–2; Plato on 148; price of 33; productivity of 33–4; in silver mines 30–1, 33, 84, 111n; source of 28; trade in 28; Xenophon on 118, 154 Smith, Adam xiii, 59–60, 138–40, 152, 154, 166, 167 Socrates 8; and Alcibiades 35; on animals 79; and citizen 17; cross-examination method 120, 124–5; and democracy 45; and education 120, 127; and the good 125; and Ischomachos 59; and justice 124–5, 127; Mill and 161; and Plato 10, 120; and rhetoric 53; on shame 65; trial and execution 9–10, 46; on

184 Index virtues 128, 155; and women 19, 25; and Xenophon 117–18 Solon 6, 37; constitution 37; laws 6 sophists 21, 121, 127–8 Sophocles 19; Antigone 15, 17 sòphrosynè (soundness of mind) 17–18 Sparta 5; and Athens 8, 9, 10, 45, 46, 49, 170; and Delian League 7; occupation of Decelea 30, 84; slaves in 30; soldiers 78 state, the: in Aristotle 154; in Plato 154 status x, 51, 57, 59 Stone, I. F. 9 Strabo 80–1 stratègoi (generals) 39, 42, 43, 44, 46, 173 Strauss, B.S. 48 substantivist x, 57, 58, 59, 156 sycophants 17, 173 Syracuse 46 technè (skill, art) 173 temple 13, 18, 104 Thales 22, 155 Themistocles 7, 46 Theophrastus 67, 76, 77, 79, 104; Characters 67, 98 theoric fund (thèorika) 50, 91, 99–100, 173; Demosthenes and 46, 50; Eubolos and 171 Theramenes 173 Thesmophoria (festival for women) 14, 25 thètes (serfs) 6, 37; numbers 111n Thrasybulus 173 Thucydides: Pelopennesian War 16, 46, 50; on Sparta 80; on war 49, 79; on wealth 18; on women 25 Timotheus 173 trade 21, 80–91, 119; Plato on 146–7; Xenophon on 85, 119 tragedies 19–20 treasury 48 tributes 10, 92 trierarchy (liturgy for triremes) 94–5, 96, 173 triremes 30, 41, 46, 94, 100–1, 173 Troy 6 Urmson, J. O. 135, 136 utilitarianism xiv, 158; act 164; Aristotle and 124, 135; Bentham and 158; critics of 165–6;

Mill and 160–5; Plato and xii, 123; Socrates and 128; rule 164 utility x, 57, 60; in Aristotle 151–3, 158; in Bentham 158–9; critics of 165–8; in Edgeworth 152–3; in Kant 163; maximization xiv, 58, 128, 166–7; in Mill 160–5; in Sen 168 utility theory of value 151–3 Ventris, Michael 4 wages: Assembly attendance 72; Council 72, courts 73; military 73–4; public offices 73; theater 73; welfare 73 wall paintings 4 wars: Corinthian (395–387) 10, 173; Lamian (323–322) 11; Macedonian 49–50; Peloponnesian (431–404) 7–8, 19, 20, 27, 28, 49, 97; Second Punic (201) 12; Social (357–355) 10; Trojan 6 wealth 18, 106–7; in Aristotle 155; boasting of 52; concealment of 53; duties of 52, 54; distribution of 93; estimates of 108; numbers of wealthy 108; Phainippos and 64; in Xenophon 118 Wealth of Nations (Smith) 60, 138–40 Weil, Simone 122–3, 125, 145, 162, 166 wine 66, 86 Wolin, S. S. 48, 49 women: in Aristophanes 24–5, 26; in Aristotle 25–6, 137; Demosthenes and 25, 26; dowry 26, 31, 148; education of 21, 26; Herodotos and 25; Lysias and 23–4, 26; as oracles 15; in Minoan society 4; and Pericles’ decree 24, 25; in Plato 24–5, 148–9; in Pseudo-Aristotle 26; status 23–6; Thucydides and 25; and work 19, 25; in Xenophon 24, 25, 26, 118, 156 workshops 35, 65; artisans 60; size of 34; slaves owning 29; see also factories Xenophon: and economics xii; on love 36; Memorabilia 9–10, 59, 65, 79; Oikonomikos 24, 25, 26, 28, 59, 117–19, 143; on Socrates 9–10, 19; Ways and Means xii, 50, 59, 85, 119 Zen Buddhism 122, 133