Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

First published 2009 by Pademelon Press 713 Packard Avenue Castle Hill, New South Wales, 2154 www.pademelonpress.com.au O Susan Edwards

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the permission of the publisher. Author: Title: ISBN: Notes:

Edwards, Susan Early childhood education and care: a sociocultural approach / Susan Edwards 978 187613830 1 (pbk.) Includes index Bibliography

Subjects: 1. Early childhood education-Australia 2. Child development-Australia 3. Child care-Australia Dewey Number: 372.2 10994 Editing and Project Management by Persimmon Press Design and Production by tania edwards design Index by IndexAT Printed by Ligare

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FOREWORD

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gotsky (1987a) argued that it is harder to think differently about a few well known ideas than it is to consider a vast new array of information. The teachers who have participated in the development of Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach have engaged in re-exploring their everyday practices and beliefs. Through the careful study of how they think about children, how they observe children and how they plan for children, they have considered what is well known to them, but have thought about it in new ways. Sociocultural or cultural-historical theory has provided a useful framework for teachers, researchers and policy developers to imagine new and different possibilities for early childhood education. As a profession, we have for too long recycled our practices and beliefs. One generation of teachers and academics has credentialed the next generation mostly through the replication of accepted practice and belief. Many of these practices and beliefs are Western in their origin. However, Australia is a culturally and linguistically diverse community and many early childhood practices may not be culturally relevant for all children and their families. The teachers who participated in the research that sits under this important book have questioned many common assumptions and practices for their cultural bias and have developed new approaches and tools.

The teachers have looked with 'cultural-historical' lenses as they examined their own beliefs and assumptions and have created many innovative ways of observing children. Rather than documenting a static snapshot of learning, the teachers captured the dynamic and participatory nature of learning across communities of practice. The examples of observations given so liberally throughout this book represent a new generation of professionals who have drawn upon different conceptual tools and analytical frameworks for informing their work. In this book, readers are also given both contemporary and foundational theoretical tools for thinking about how observations, curriculum and planning can be constructed. Importantly, what each perspective allows, or does not allow, is discussed through a series of dialogue boxes. These

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

boxes give voice to the reflection, action and new theorisation of the teachers who participated in the research that created this philosophy document. Like participants in my own research, these teachers have been positioned by Susan Edwards a s generators, rather than consumers, of research. One teacher mentions the intellectual stimulation of using culturalhistorical theory for observing children. My own research has shown that teachers who have used traditional approaches to observing children spend most of their time gathering and organising data into individual portfolios. However, when a cultural-historical approach is used for observing, fewer but richer observations are made. Teachers spend their time engaged in the intellectual task of analysing their observations and thinking about the dynamics of interaction of groups between children and institutional structures. Through examining the interplay between adults and children within the cultural and institutional contexts that they co-habit, the teachers can think differently about what these contexts and interactions mean for the learning of individuals. This type of analysis is complex and challenging but it is a very rewarding way for professionals to spend their time. The teachers who participated in the creation of this book also found that using this approach produced a positive change in how they used their time and minds! Early Childhood Education and Care: A SocioculturalApproach represents a powerful and contemporary framework for action. A s Vygotsky (1987a) argued, thinking differently about something we know well, is not easy. But, as the teachers have shown through the pages of this book, the rewards are enormous. Marilyn Fleer Professor of Early Childhood Education CeRtrefor Childhood Studies Monash University

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Project Leader: Susan Edwards Project Coordinators: Sharon Donnellan, Carol Mislicki and Tracy Wallens-Newcombe Project Participants: Lucy Barnes Tiffanee Boatwood Priscilla Boissezon J a n Bruce Rhonda Carrick Robyn Churchill Trish Davie Natalie Faulkner Meagan Gowing Belinda Hester Rosemary Hillier Michelle Hosking Bettony Keppich-Arnold Heidi Kilpatrick Sarah Liarakos Kim Lousada Kate Luxford Debbie Madden Lisa Miles Ann Murray Kylie Simioni Patricia Zahra

CONTENTS Foreword List of contributors Introduction Developing Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach Chapter 1 Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care Foundational theories and philosophies in early childhood education and care Contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education and care Chapter 2 Beliefs and Values in Early Childhood Education and Care Chapter 3 Principles of Practice Principle of practice one: Development and learning Principle of practice two: Observing for learning Principle of practice three: Planning, pedagogy and play Principle of practice four: Professional learning and reflection Conclusion Postscript Recommended Reading and References Recommended reading References Appendix Sample research and documentation by City of Casey educators Index

INTRODUCTION

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elcome to Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach. This book was first published a s a document aimed at supporting preschool teachers from the City of Casey (a local council area in southeast Melbourne) to reflect on their practice and understanding of young children. The universal themes associated with early education-learning, development,play and pedagogy-are re-examined from a new perspective in this book, making it suitable reading for all those interested in working with young children. Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach is not intended as a prescription or recipe for practice. Instead, this book discusses important ideas in early childhood education from a historical and contemporary perspective. It invites readers to consider how they interpret these ideas and what the ideas might mean for the decisions they make about teaching and learning within their own classrooms. This book outlines four main principles of practice relevant to early childhood education and care: 1 development and learning;

2 observing for learning; 3 planning, pedagogy and play; and 4 professional learning and reflection. The principles of practice are a way of thinking about the different aspects of early childhood education and how they relate to each other in the work of early childhood educators.' This book draws on recent research a s well as on a number of theoretical perspectives in early childhood education and care. The ideas presented in this book are illustrated by the views of children, parents and teachers. These views are found.throughout the book in the boxes titled 'Voices from the field' and are intended to highlight how the theoretical ideas presented are implemented in practice. The book also has a series of 'Reflection points' inviting educators to consider various

The term early childhood educator is used to encompass the work conducted 5y teachers, assistants and caregivers across a range of early childhood settings, :ncluding long day care, family day care, pre-school, kindergarten and pre-prep.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

aspects of the ideas presented. It is hoped that Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach will become a resource that supports educators in their work and assists them in considering the many different ideas and issues surrounding early childhood education and care.

DEVELOPING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE: A SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACH arly Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach was

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developed after an extensive research process involving early childhood educators and their support staff from the City of Casey. The City of Casey is a large municipality located in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia. It has one of the largest populations of under four-year-old children in Victoria, and a n increasing number of young families are coming to the area every year. The area covered by the City of Casey is large; it includes both suburban and semi-rural populations and is characterised by a wide range of cultural and socioeconomic groups. In 2003 the City of Casey moved to a funded cluster management model for meeting the educational needs of its kindergarten children. This meant that instead of the kindergartens being run by parent volunteers, the responsibility for the management of kindergarten services was shifted to the municipality. A s a part of this process, the City of Casey was keen to engage in research that would support early childhood educators to work with young children and their families in a manner informed by contemporary perspectives about early learning and education. The City of Casey was aware of recent research highlighting limitations with traditional perspectives on learning and development (Ball and pence, 2000; Soto and Swadener, 2002) and was keen for the educators working in their kindergartens to engage with some of the newer ideas emerging from sociocultural theory. By engaging with these concepts, educators were encouraged to think through their own ideas about learning and to see how the thinking and learning of the children they worked with was situated in relation to these ideas. This book focuses not only on how children learn, but also on what educators think about learning.

Introduction

The research informing this book was conducted over a 12-month period by educators working in sessional kindergartens. A sessional kindergarten provides an educational program for four-year-old children in the year prior to school entry. Qpically, these educators see children for approximately 10 hours per week, usually aver two to three days. During the research period, the educators attended eight professional learning sessions. At each session different theories relevant to early childhood education were discussed. The educators also examined their existing beliefs and values regarding early childhood education and identified the theoretical frameworks they most commonly drew on to inform their work. These discussions were tape recorded and transcribed and used a s data to inform the development of the ideas presented in this book. The teachers also participated in a n action research project in which they maintained files of their practice and noted different ways of observing and working with young children based on their learning and reflections during the professional learning sessions. The data from these files has also been used in this book. Children and parents were also included in the research project. Group interviews were conducted with parents by the researcher and the kindergarten coordinators, whilst the educators collected data relating to the children's beliefs and attitudes about attending preschool. The project was informed by 'development work research' (DWR). This is an approach to research that draws on activity theory. Activity theory is based on the idea that the people, ideas and objects we use to represent our ideas exist in a reciprocal and dynamic relationship (Engestrom and Mettinen, 1999).From a n early childhood perspective: the people involved would include teachers, parents and children; the ideas would be, for example, theories of development and learning; and the objects would be things such as our approaches to planning, programming and documentation. %sing the project on DWR meant that the views parents, teachers and rhildren held about education could be considered in relation to historical

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

and contemporary ideas of importance to early childhood education and be expressed in the book. These views are evident throughout the book and have been used to determine its content. This means that the book is a n expression of the knowledge, practices, values and beliefs held by the participants. Many of the ideas expressed by the participants are presented throughout the text in the Voices from the field' boxes.

Chapter 1

THEORETICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL INFORMANTS TO EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE

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he education of young children has historically drawn on theories of development and a range of philosophical beliefs regarding learning and the nature of childhood. The theories and philosophies that inform early childhood education tend to influence the way teachers view young children, including the way young children learn and grow. These views in turn influence teachers' beliefs and values about how they can best meet young children's needs within a n educational context. When thinking about early childhood education and the various theoretical and philosophical orientations available to educators, it is important to remember that such informants are shaped by the particular social and political contexts in which they are developed. Consequently, any of the informants we might consider in our work as early childhood educators are reflective of particular historical periods, which in turn draw on particular views regarding the nature of childhood and how young children learn and develop. This idea is evident when we look back to medieval times, where there was no concept of childhood a s a separate time of life, or to early fifteenth century beliefs, which positioned young children as 'blank slates' upon whom life experiences needed to be written (Morrison, 2004). Over time, early childhood education has been informed by a number of philosophies and theories, many of which have been foundational to the work that is now conducted with young children. Educators are familiar with the pioneering names of Froebel, Montessori and Piaget. In more recent times, contemporary theorists and approaches to early childhood education have begun to build on the work of the pioneers, confirming some of our earlier beliefs and challenging others. The work of Vygotsky, Rogoff, and Gardner and the research and project work in Reggio Emilia, Italy, have added depth and understanding to the way teachers view and work with young children and their families. The theoretical perspectives that inform educators' work have a profound influence on how they decide to work with young children and the type of educational experiences educators

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

provide for them. This means that it is important to remember that the view educators hold of young children and their development is likely to influence the way they approach teaching and learning in early childhood contexts (Dahlberg et al., 1999, p 43):

There are many children and many childhoods, each constructed by our understandings of childhood and what children are and should be...we have choices to make about who we think the child is and these choices have enormous significance since our construction of the child and early childhood are productive-by which we mean that they determine the institutions we provide for children and the pedagogical work that adults undertake in these institutions. The foundational and contemporary theories of development and learning that inform early childhood education and care define children and influence our pedagogical practices in particular ways. Foundational theories have served to emphasise aspects of early childhood education that have long been valued, such as open-ended activities, the role of play in learning and the provision of natural materials. Contemporary theories emphasise the role that children's social and cultural experiences play in informing their development, and help teachers provide learning experiences that are sensitive to children's needs according to the community context.

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When considering the role theories play in our understandings of early childhood education, it is important to remember that theories themselves are not self evident truths. Theories are explanations for the phenomena we see in our world that attempt to explain how and why a phenomenon might work. How children learn, develop and grow is a phenomenon that has fascinated many people over time, thus there are many theories, or possible explanations, for how this process occurs. Revisiting early childhood education theories and philosophies is a useful means of understanding our work with young children. However, it is important to also remember that such theories only exist as explanations (not as definite truths) for development and learning in pedagogical practice.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Reflection point What do you think are the implications of holding an 'image of the child'? Do you find yourself drawing on your own childhood to inform your beliefs about what and how young children should learn; or are you more likely to draw on your understanding of particular theories of development?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship How do your responses to these questions relate to the decisions you make about children's learning?

FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE uring the early research sessions with the Casey educators, time was taken to examine the existing knowledge educators held about early childhood education. Many educators expressed value for the idea that young children should learn through play, and believed that learning is a n active, engaged and exploratory process for young children. The educators reflected on these beliefs and attempted to identify which theoretical and philosophical perspectives were informing their thinking about children's learning. Although a range of theorists and philosophers informed their ideas about early childhood education (for example, Locke, Rousseau, Dewey and Steiner),these educators identified three foundational theorists a s central to their thinking about teaching and learning:

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

1 Froebel; 2 Montessori; and 3 Piaget.

Interestingly, each of these theorists positioned participation in play-based activities a s central to children's learning. The Casey educators used many of these ideas about play and its role in children's learning and development as the basis for their practice.

Froebel Friedrich Froebel's contribution to early childhood education was embedded in his concept of the child's development occurring in a natural and unfolding process. Froebel believed that the growing child could be compared to a blooming flower, which grows from a seed to the mature plant, with the teacher taking on the role of a gardener. This gave rise to his famous description of early education as being the 'kindergarten' or the 'children's garden'. Froebel's view of the child meant that the educator's role involved supporting and nurturing children's growing developmental abilities. Froebel considered play to be the purest form of activity for young children and it was here that the notion of children learning through play first took root as a n important ideal in early childhood education (Morrison, 2004). Within Froebel's philosophy, play opportunities were provided for young children through the provision of gifts and occupations that involved children utilising and manipulating a series of materials. This enabled the children to learn about the physical properties and relationships between the objects that made up their world (Edwards and Hammer, 2006).

Montessori Maria Montessori's ideas about early learning were based on a series of principles she saw a s important in educating children. These principles are commonly reflected in many of the practices that traditionally inform early childhood education. For example, Montessori believed in respecting the child as a learner and in the idea of the 'absorbent mind'. Because Montessori believed children would absorb knowledge from their world, she also valued the idea of an educational environment that was prepared by the teacher. Setting up such an environment would enable children to self-regulate their own learning. Montessori also promoted the notion of

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

sensitive periods in children's development when they would be better able to learn specific skills than at other times. Amongst the most important of Montessori's ideas to be articulated to early childhood education were those of 'child-centred' learning and the provision of prepared environments for children to work within (Morrison, 2006).

Piaget Jean Piaget's genetic epistemology had a profound influence on twentieth century early childhood educational practice. Although most well known for his theory about ages and stages of cognitive development, Piaget never set out to define a theory of cognitive development in young children. Rather, Piaget was interested in where knowledge actually came from in children and adults and it was this interest that gave rise to the name of his theory-the genetic (meaning origins)epistemology (meaning knowledge). Piaget's early thinking was influenced by that of Imrnanuel Kant, a German philosopher, who proposed that knowledge came from the interactions that occurred between people's experiences of the world and knowledge structures that existed in their minds. Piaget agreed with Kant's views concerning knowledge development, but believed that the knowledge structures evolved from reflexes in the newborn into complex mental structures or schemes as the infant experienced more and more of the world. It was this belief that led Piaget to outline the stages of cognitive development, including the sensorimotor, preoperational, operational and formal operational periods that are so well known in early childhood education. Piaget's ideas about knowledge development were taken u p by educationalists who believed that learning experiences for young children would be most useful when they were designed to meet the child's current level or stage of development (Edwards and Hammer, 2006). This idea, combined with a continued emphasis on providing children with opportunities to interact with materials, contributed to the notion of 'developmentally appropriate practice', otherwise known as DAP (Bredekamp and Copple, 1997). Piaget's beliefs about knowledge development are reflected in many of the traditional practices that are seen in early childhood classrooms, including the provision of materials and opportunities (for example sand and water play, dramatic play) that allow children to acquire knowledge of their it-orld (Seefeldt, 1990, p 21):

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Children must be able to touch, handle, move, taste, pound, see, hear and do something in order to have an experience. Activity centres arranged throughout the room are one way to provide for first hand experiences. Raw materials are featured-sand, wood, watet;paints and papet: Thesefoster children's thinking because no end has been predetermined by an adult. Children are the ones who have tofigure out what to do with the raw material, how to do it, and when they have reached the end and accomplished their own goal.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Piaget was the theory that I remember most from university and 1 believe that the ages and stages gave me a basis of where a child should be when I needed guidance as a beginning teacher. Even though children are very different and move through the stages at different rates I found it comforting to be familiar with the stages. Things like being interactive with experiences, touching, handling, moving, tasting, seeing and hearing as involvement are important. However, I also know that some children need to have an extended period of watching and observing before they are ready for the interactive level. Providing children with open-ended activities gives children a chance to be involved at their own level of development.

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Piaget's ideas about knowledge construction and development in the young child have manifested themselves in the provision of many of the materials and practices we commonly associate with early childhood education. Whilst these materials and practices represent an important component of early childhood education, some researchers have questioned how relevant the practices are to children from a range of cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds (Lubeck, 1998).Other researchers suggested that using developmental theory as the only informant to practice can result in children being left to learn through play without the learning necessarily being made explicit (Hedges, 2000, p 17):

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Programs in early childhood educationsettings have often been based on a developmental play curriculum following Piagetian theories of children's cognition WhilePlagetian practice emphasised a stimulating child-centred environment few would disagree with, the underlying developmental theory did not make explicit links to processes of teaching and learning that teachers and children could engage in. Meadows & Cashdan (1998) found that in such programs children were contented and busy but three things were rare: sustained conversationorplay with an adult, high complexity ofplay activities and lively, purposefil involvement leading to creative, exciting discovey. These research findings do not intend to displace the importance of understanding how children develop or the role of play and hands-on experiences in learning but, rather, they alert u s to the importance of understanding the many different ways in which learning and development can and does occur in childhood. More contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education have begun to examine the role and effect of social and cultural contexts on children's learning and development.

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Reflection point

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Which foundational theorists and philosophies do you think are most important to your work with young children?

What is it about these theorists and philosophies that appeals to your beliefs about children and their learning?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship When you look around your classroom, can you see certain practices that reflect aspects of the foundational theorists? How often do you stop to reflect on how and why you are drawing on foundational theorists in your work?

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE

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uring the middle stages of the research project, the Casey educators began to engage with some of the key ideas emerging from sociocultural theory. Although a range of contemporary perspectives currently inform thinking around early childhood education (for example, post-modernism and post-structuralism), the focus in this project was on .how sociocultural explanations for learning and development could inform the educators' thinking about learning. Many of the educators were aware of Vygotslq's ideas surrounding the Zone of Proximal Development (the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help), but were interested in learning more about how cultural contexts work to shape development and learning. Educators also examined Barbara Rogoffs work, which builds on Vygotsky's ideas regarding the culturally situated nature of development. The educators also expressed interest in the ideas emerging from Howard Gardner's research into multiple intelligences and drew on their knowledge of the project work emerging from Reggio Emilia to inform their discussions around contemporary perspectives in early childhood education. A s the research sessions progressed, the teachers used these more contemporary perspectives to inform the action research they were completing in their classrooms. Work by Fleer and Richardson (2004) provided guidance on how Vygotsky's and Rogoffs ideas might be used in practice and generated different approaches for thinking about children's learning and development.

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VYgotsky Vygotsky's explanation for human development and learning has attracted increased attention during recent years. Vygotsky believed that the social and cultural context in which children were born served to define how they would develop and what they would learn. According to this perspective, a child would be born into a social and cultural context that contained the knowledge and beliefs of the community that had developed over time (this is why sociocultural theory is sometimes referred to a s

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

cultural-historical theory). Psychological tools (such a s language) and social practices provided ways within the community for sharing information, ideas and beliefs with others. A young child, upon being born, would need to acquire the psychological tools and knowledge of his or her community in order to engage with other people (Edwards, 2005a). This means that sociocultural theory sees development a s dependent on the social and cultural experiences of the child, not as a universal and unvarying process. Children develop according to their experiences of the social and cultural world and in relation to what their communities see a s normal and appropriate behaviour and development.

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Sociocultural theory adds a theory to an area of learning I have always considered important. I've always felt the involvement of others, interaction with others, plays a part in terms of the learning occurring. The consideration t h ~ stheory gives to the interpersonal and intrapersonal planes seems to complete the story to some degree.

Vygotsky believed that children acquired the knowledge and tools held by their communities via an interaction between two planes of development called the intrapersonal (the individual) and the interpersonal (two or more people) planes. Fleer and Richardson (2004, p 17)dkscribe how this process works in a n early childhood setting: Interpsychological (or interpersonal) functioning is described as the context in which children participated in the cultural activities of the community. For example, children in a n early childhood centre will wash their hands before they eat their fruit. This is a common centre practice or ritual. Children function a t a n interpsychological level by performing this act in the centre. They do not necessarily understand

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

the concept of 'germ the0 y '-the existence of bacteria and viruses and the need to wash these from their hands before handling food. Latel; when they have had broader experiences a n d more time a t school, and have a concept of microscopic organisms and how they act upon the human body, they will perform the same act-hand washing, but a t intrapsychological (intrapersonal) level, because they understand why they are doing it. Vygotsky argued that, with this new knowledge of germ the0 y, children's behaviour changes as they pay more attention to how they wash their hands. This example shows how children learn or acquire knowledge by engaging in social practices. The child's movement from the interpersonal to the intrapersonal level of development is described by Vygotsky a s occurring within the zone of proximal development (ZPD).This concept is more easily understood when we consider that the term 'proximal' means 'nearest'. Development in the zone of 'nearest development' refers to what children are capable of achieving independently and what they are capable of achieving with the assistance or support of a n adult or more capable peer (see Figure 1).In other words, a s Vygotsky described it: 'what the child is able to do in collaboration today he will be able to do independently tomorrow' (Vygotsky, 1987b, p 2 10). Like Piaget, Vygotsky valued the role of play in children's development, suggesting that play was a n experience that stretched children beyond their current developmental abilities into the ZPD (Vialle, Lysaght and Verenikina, 2005). For example, in pretend play children often take on roles with various associated rules that they may not necessarily be capable of attending to when not involved in a play situation (for example, a child will often sit still to 'eat' during a dramatic play time but may not necessarily do so during a more formal eating time). &.

Scaffolding is a n important concept associated with the ZPD. The term scaffolding was not invented by Vygotsky himself, but by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), who used it to describe how adults support children in moving through the developmental zones. The term was originally associated with a building metaphor and was used to represent the social environment provided by adults or more capable peers that d o w e d children to build new competencies (Berk and Winsler, 1995).Processes associated with 'scaffolding' include joint problem solving and intersubjectivity (where the child and adult involved in the activity reach agreement about what is to be achieved).

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

Current ability

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Assisted ability

Target ability

Figure 1 The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) illustrating what the child is able to do alone (current ability) and what he/she can achieve with assistance (assisted ability) in relation to a developmental outcome (target ability) is represented by the space between each level of ability.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks I like the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development. I think this is quite often seen with work on puzzles where a child may find the puzzle overwhelming initially 2qd the puzzle is almost constructed jointly. When the next time the child tries, --ey manage some of the puzzle before seeking assistance and then before m g they are able t o manage it independently but may seek a presence for slloport, with the final step being the puzzle is completed independently.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Adults' use of scaffolding to support children's learning may occur as often in daily life a s in educational settings. For example, a child learning to tie his or her shoelaces is often scaffolded or supported through this process when the adult assists the child with the more difficult parts of shoelace tying, leaving the child to begin or complete the more achievable parts independently. The relationships between children's social and cultural experiences, the intrapersonal and interpersonal planes of development, the ZPD and play, suggest that children develop as they learn about their world and its social and cultural practices. This learning occurs through engagement with other people (including through scaffolding) and through play designed to imitate what children see and hear occurring daily around them. Understanding development from a sociocultural perspective means seeing children's development occurring within a web of relationships comprised of other people, experiences, and their social and cultural practices and knowledge. This view differs from the developmental or Piagetian perspective, which emphasises that development occurs a s individuals construct understandings of the world. These differing views hold implications for our practice in early childhood education (Singer, 1996, p 33): Within Vygotsky's sociocultural approach, teachers are given a completely different role. They do not just follow the development of the children, but have to set socially valued goals depending on the shared values of teachers and parents. They do not just try to encourage the children indirectly by offering them the right environment; they also invite children to actively participate in their world as adults. Beside this, they will accord a great deal of importance to the cooperation of children amongst themselves. 4

Rogoff Barbara Rogoffs work builds on that of Vygotsky by acknowledging the fundamental importance of social experiences in children's development. Rogoff argues that not only does social interaction cause development, but that children's thinking is transformed as they engage in social practices. For Rogoff, engagement in social practice does not necessarily have to be an active process. Rather, she recognises that many ways of learning exist across different communities and these include observation, social engagement, experience, and/or direct teaching.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

VOICES FROM THE FIELD -

A teacher speaks

I see Rogoff's work as adjusting the learning d~scussion to a more localised area. It seems natural to me that there would be an assumption that Learning occurs - any given setting/community that is relevant to that setting/community I-d may or may not be similar to that occurring in other places, and that I-e materials, equipment and provisions will influence what is learnt.

These forms of learning are recognised as the child's way of participating m the local community. Rogoff suggests that children's development occurs as they participate in the activities of their communities. This is where :he notion of 'transformation of participation' comes from. In other words, children's development is 'transformed' a s they participate (through observation, social interaction and direct teaching) in activities with other ~ o p l (Rogoff, e 1998, p 689. Emphasis in original):

From the transformation of participation perspective, learning from shared thinking does not involve taking or being given somethingfim a n external model. Instead, by participating in shared endeavours in sociocultural activity, the individual is continually in the process of developing and using their understandings. In the process of participation, individuals change, and their later involvement in similar events may reflect these changes. Changing or developing through participation involves three levels (or ?lanes) of development that interact with one another. These planes of development are evident when we consider what is required for children lo develop as they participate in their communities: firstly, we must have the child himlherself (which represents the intrapersonal plane of development);

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

secondly, we require other people to participate in the activity for the child to learn from this (the interpersonal plane of development); and finally we need a community for the activity to occur within, a community of which the child and other people are members (known a s the community/institutional plane of development). Rogoff argues that it is important to consider all three planes of development when looking a t children's development and that we cannot effectively understand what is happening in one plane without noting what is occurring in another (Rogoff, 1995).Figure 2 shows how the interactions between each plane impact on each other. Sociocultural theory means not just looking at how the community and interpersonal planes impact on the individual, but also acknowledging that a s the individual changes, he or she will impact on other people and the communities/institutions in which that individual participates.

Communities and their institutions: Educational, government, media, arts and sciences

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TRAPERSONA

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w

INTERPERSONAL

Figure 2 Rogoff's three interacting planes of development.

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

.In important part of Rogoffs argument is the inclusion of the community/ :nstitutional plane of development. This plane represents the place where *-heknowledge, beliefs, values and ideas of the community reside. In modernday westernised communities, these institutions include places such as schools, museums, the media and legal systems. Kindergartens, childcare settings and schools are institutions that hold knowledge, beliefs, d u e s and practices about how and what young children should learn. Fleer (2002) argues that Rogoffs three planes of development can be a aseful way of thinking about observing, programming and planning in early childhood education. In this way educators can look a t what indi~ i d u a children l are learning, how interactions (with peers and adults) are supporting learning and how the kindergarten, childcare or school environment operates in relation to learning. The following excerpt provides an example from a teacher learning to use sociocultural theory in her 9ractice. She discusses how she and her assistant reflected on a decision regarding the provision of a play material, from the perspective of the :nstitutional plane of development (Edwards, 2006, p 247):

We had an incident where children were putting dry flour into the back of a bike and the dried flour was meant to stay in the tub and we have just looked at each other and gone 'what was that institutional rule--do we put flour in our bikes or not?' So we had to make it up quickly at the time and we both agreed that 'no it was not going to be ok because if you allowed flour to go into the bike then what is left for people that are going to play with it in another way?' And so there are good reasons behind institutional rules. I think this sociocultural theory] helps us recognize what we are providing and why. 3 i s teacher was able to use her knowledge of sociocultural theory to reflect

a programming decision and articulate why the rule about flour existed and what it meant for the children's learning in her educational setting. Using sociocultural theory to inform early childhood education is a different process from drawing on developmental theory. Sociocultural -heory alerts u s to the relationships between the individual, other people ~ q the d context in which learning is occurring. This means that socior~ltural-theory-in-action focuses on the dynamic relationships between zeople and places and how learning is occurring, not just on the individual gn

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

and the learning that has already taken place (Fleer and Richardson, 2004). Reflecting on her developing understanding of sociocultural theory, a teacher (quoted by Edwards) described its role in her classroom as such (Edwards, 2006):

With the term sociocultural theory there is obviously a strong emphasis on social learning. At preschool this is quite important to recognize because we as adults are not the only teachers, children can learn from each othel: The children learn via their interactions with each other and the equipment that is available. Each child has dierent experiences they bring with them and evegone can learnfrom these. I don't know that this was my thinking after leaving university.

Gardner

: ,

-

4

Howard Gardner's research seeks to explain how intelligence operates in people rather than being a theory for understanding the processes involved in development and thinking like those proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky and Rogoff. Gardner's thinking about intelligence emerged from research he was conducting in two areas, involving the influence of the arts on thinking and the effects of brain damage on thinking (Vialle, et al., 2005). This work showed Gardner that people could still operate in some areas, even when parts of their brain had been damaged. His research into the arts suggested that how well people performed in one area of ability did not necessarily define how well they would perform in another. This led Gardner to propose the idea that people have more than one type of intelligence. Traditional definitions of intelligence had emphasised and valued logical and language abilities in people and these had been used by many researchers as a measure of intelligence. Gardner argued that it was possible that intelligence comprised many different types and that people possess a different ensemble of intelligences. The multiple intelligences proposed by Gardner include (from Vialle, et al., 2005, p 122): 1 linguistic intelligence: the ability to use language effectively in a range of contexts; 2 logical-mathematical intelligence: the ability to explore patterns and to experiment in a logical manner; 3 spatial intelligence: the ability to deal with visual information;

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

musical intelligence: the ability to understand, perform or compose a musical piece; Z bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: the ability to use the body effectively; interpersonal intelligence: the ability to understand others; and intrapersonal intelligence: awareness of self-of thoughts and feelings.

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f ardner's multiple intelligences theory has been of interest to educators, = 50 have used his ideas a s a basis for working with children. Educators 1-=-;3ningon Gardner's work provide children with experiences and activities --a1 support the type of intelligence children might naturally prefer to use r :heir learning. For example, children with a preference for the inter~.rrsonalintelligence are likely to choose activities that focus on group r ~ r and k cooperative learning rather than on learning alone.

- . go

Emilia

3-.e project work in Reggio Emilia, Italy, has attracted a great deal of

-.:erest in early childhood education in recent years. Reggio Emilia itself not represent a particular theory and is not a 'model' that can be z~rectlytransposed to other settings. Rather, the work in Reggio Emilia - 3 s evolved from a particular historical and social situation that has z:jrmed the aims and the pedagogical methods of the preschools in the s-. The Reggio preschools were initially established with a guiding sense -'purpose born out of the desire parents (and the community a t large) -Afollowing the end of World War Two. The vision was for young children -: participate in educational communities that would allow them to develop sklls essential to the development of a democratic society. This vision -cant that children must be viewed a s integral members of society. In d e r to make a significant contribution to the community, children would --quire opportunities to develop critical and interpretive thinking skills, as -11 as an established ability to work collaboratively with other people Edwards, 2003). :?es

---rider the leadership of Malaguzzi, the theorist and founding director of -5e Reggio Emilia programs, this vision was brought to life in a teaching

c d learning approach that appreciated children's potential and current I-.-elopmental abilities within a context that valued community partici:.?::on. Malaguzzi drew on a range of foundational and contemporary -.--9ristsin early childhood education, including those of Piaget, Vygotsky,

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Bruner, Montessori, Steiner and Dewey, to develop his thinking. A key component of the work conducted in Reggio Emilia involves the use of research-focused relationships between children and their immediate/ extended communities to initiate and extend learning opportunities (or projects).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD A teacher speaks Respecting the children and respecting their work, and not just the final product but the processes involved in producing the product. Also looking at documenting the processes so that not only can they reflect back on it themselves but also the parents can be a part of that process with them.

The projects are documented for sharing between children, their parents and communities. Children are viewed as capable learners and communicators who are able to draw on a range of symbolic forms and media to express their ideas and findings. This vision gave rise to the idea that children have 'one hundred languages' for communicating their ideas in many different forms (for example, graphic, visual, auditory and sensory),whilst their language, literacy, numeracy and scientific skills unfold. Q.

The process and products arising from the children's work are documented by staff using tape recordings, transcripts of conversations, photographs of activities and samples of the children's work. The documentation serves a number of purposes, including the valuing of children's work, which, it is argued, sends the message to children that

Theoretical and Philosophical Informants to Early Childhood Education and Care

'heir intellectual effortsare valued

and worthy of detailed adult attention. '-. addition, documentation provides adults and children with a record on e i c h they can base their thoughts about the learning that has occurred 2 - 4 what might happen next (Dahlberg, et al., 1999, p 153): Because documentation can be kept and returned to, and must be seen all the time as a living record of the pedagogical practice, the process of documentation can alsofinction as a way of revisiting and reviewing earlier experiences and events, and by doing so not only create memories, but also new interpretations and reconstructions of what happened in the past. Through this, active pedagogues will be able to build on and utilise well-established experiences and simultaneously take part in constructing new theories concerning children's learning and knowledge construction, with documentation a s a base. X-~rkingcollaboratively with children on projects they have initiated and -qotiated with staff,as well as documenting their learning, represents an azroach to education that emphasises the exploration of ideas that originate ?om a social context, as opposed to providing children with learning v r i e n c e s based on a pre-determined concept of what they might be xpable of learning (Malaguzzi, 1998, p 78-81): All people, who in any place have set themselves to study children

seriously-have ended up by discovering not so much the limits and weaknesses of children but rather their surprising and extraordinary strengths and capabilities linked with an inexhaustible need for expression and realisation...children are autonomously capable of making meaning from their daily lijfe experiences through mental acts involving planning, coordination of ideas and abstraction. Remember; meanings are never static, uniuocal, orfinal;they are always generative of other meanings. The central act of adults, therefore, is to activate, especially indirectly, the meaning-making competencies of children as a basis of all learning.

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

@:-

Reflection point

Do you find that contemporary theories and philosophies in early childhood education reflect the way you think about young children and their learning, or do these ideas challenge your existing understandings?

How do you think working from a sociocultural perspective might differ from working from a more developmental approach to early childhood education and care?

Thinking about the practice-theory relationship What aspects of sociocultural theory can you see occurring in your classroom?

Chapter 2

BELIEFS AND VALUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE n important part of the research sessions the Casey educators participated in involved consideration of their existing beliefs and values about childhood, early education and care. During this ~ime,the educators examined what was meant by the term 'beliefs and values' and began to consider how these influenced the way they saw children's thinking and learning. Beliefs were taken to represent the opinions we hold about the world, whilst values were seen a s an expression of :he worth we attach to certain things or experiences.

A

The beliefs and values educators hold about education influence how they lnrerpret teaching and learning, which in turn defines what is seen as 'good' or 'appropriate' practice for young children (Mahlios and Maxson, 1995).

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Children speak Why do you come to kindergarten?

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o learn new things, things we have never done before. learn, to learn to play, to learn to play properly.

-9

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CI let my friends play with me. -

have a nice time and to get smart for when I am older. en I am hungry, to eat my banana. 3

. --.... - a child now at school and shared with a pre-service teacher on

...- .-..-- :ng rounds:

:. e ~indergartenbecause you get to choose when you have snack, and .. 121 choose if you want to play inside or outside and you can choose .~:r :> play with. 1 love kindergarten. I want to go back to kindergarten.'

Early Childhood Education and Care: A Sociocultural Approach

Because each individual can hold different beliefs and values, it is not always possible for people to agree on what constitutes a n appropriate education for all children. When we consider that children and parents also hold beliefs and values about education we can see that it is possible for our educational communities to be comprised of many different views regarding educational practice.

VOICES FROM THE FIELD Parents speak What do you want your child to gain from attending kindergarten? Exposure to a range of experiences, learning to be a member of a group. Socialisation, mixing with peers and with other adults, friendship. To learn things from adults other than us, his parents. Learning to take responsibility for her actions, participation and interaction with other children, respecting things, respect of property and other children's belongings when you are playing. They have to be aware of other people and not just themselves. Hopefully her experience in kindergarten is going to help develop her confidence to go to school. It is all that information they learn, it is a stepping stone, it is the initial start of her learning.

Whilst individual educators may hold different views, early childhood education a s a field has tended to express a set of commonly held beliefs and values about children and learning. These beliefs and values have their roots in the foundational and contemporary philosophies and theories that inform our work a s educators, including ideas such a s the role of play in early childhood education, the notion of 'active-learning', and ideas such a s scaffolding and intersubjectivity. Beliefs and values such a s these have come to play a n important role in early childhood services. But the fact that they are important to people who work in such services does

Beliefs and Values in Early Childhood Education and Care

r-3: necessarily

mean they are important to children or parents. Being zxare of our own beliefs and values about early childhood education is a -cans of ensuring that we are sensitive to the beliefs and values held by -rents and children and can enhance our ability to respond to their needs.

a series of beliefs and values about early ::?:Idhood education when they talk about moving our conception of -2.ication from 'children's services' to thildren's spaces'. They argue that -

0 observations decision making based on, 61, 62 a s pedagogical act, 6 1 observing for learning developmental theory, 39, 40 examples of observations (sociocultural),4345,46-53, 55-7 examples of observations (traditional). 4 1-3 interactions between children and parents, 47-8 intrapemma1 and interpersonal observations, 45, 46.47, 48 observational formats. 59, 60 planes of development observations, 45, 46, 48, 49 role of observation, 39 sociocultural perspective. 40-1, 50-4, 59.60 teachers' perceptions, 39-40, 47, 58, 59, 60 teachers' role in gathering data, 41 traditional approaches, 40 ZPD target approach, 54, 58, 59 open-ended play experiences, 64

P parents perceptions of kindergarten, 28.38

perceptions of teachers, 71 pedagogical practice and cultural differences, 63, 64 definition, 61 effective play-based, 64 relationship to teachers' understandings of play, 63 a s social process, 61-2 Pence, A, 2 Petrie, P, 29.30, 31, 40, 61, 62, 71,72 Piaget, J, 5, 8, 9-10, 14, 16, 20, 21,25.34 relevancy of theories questioned, 10-1 1 planes of development (Rogoff), 17-19 planning and observations of children, 62 relationship to teachers' understandings of play, 63.67 play assumptions about, 6 3 lack of experiences at home, 66 a s pedagogical tool, 62, 65,68 a s reflection of children's world, 66 role in learning, 6, 7, 62, 63 role of power, 64 teachers' understandings, 62, 63, 65, 67 play-based activities central to foundational theories, 8, 16 prepared environments for children, 9 pretend play, 14, 63, 64 principles of practice purpose, 1, 33 professional learning and reflection, 69 psychological tools, 13 puzzles, 15 Reggio Emilia, Italy, 5, 12, 21-5, 60 influence on teacher's practice,25 perception of children, 23 research-focused relationships. 22, 24 theoretical base, 21-2 vision, 2 1 Rhedding-Jones, J , 63 Richardson, C, 12, 13, 20, 33, 52 Robbins, J, 34, 35, 72

Rogoff, 8,5, 12, 16-19. 20.45, 48,49 Ross, G, 14 Rousseau, J , 7 8

Saracho, 0, 34 scaffolding, 14, 16, 54, 64 Seefeldt, C,9 sessional kindergartens, 3 Singer, E, 16 Siraj-Blatchford, I, 64 social experiences, 16 changing children's thinking, 16 sociocultural theory. 12, 34, 75. see also planes of development (Rogofl);Vygotsky, LS benefits seen at practical levels, 19-20 child development, 13,50 in teachers' practice, 19, 20, 36-7 teachers' response to, 35 sociohistorical theory, 13 Soto, L, 2, 34 spatial intelligence, 20 Spodek, B, 33 Steiner, R, 7, 22 Swadener, B, 2

T theories application to work practices, 34 definition, 6 transformation of participation, 17

v values, 27,28,62,70 Verenikina, 1, 14 Vialle, W, 14, 20 Vygotsky, LS,5, 12-13, 14, 16, 20, 2 1, 45, 46 W Wenger, E, 69 Winsler, A, 14 Wood, D, 14 Wood, E, 64, 66,68 Woodhead, M,35

Z

Zone of Proximal Development, 12, 14, 15, 16, 54