Compendium of Trace Metals and Marine Biota Volume 2: Vertebrates
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Compendium of Trace Metals and Marine Biota Volume 2: Vertebrates
by
Ronald Eisler
Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo
Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2010 Copyright
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2 1
This volume is dedicated to the memory of my mentors: Yohay Bin-Nun Lauren R. Donaldson Morton I. Grossman Clarence P. Idyll Frank G. Lowman James E. Lynch Lionel A. Walford
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Contents Acknowledgments ............................................................................................ xiii Books by Ronald Eisler ..................................................................................... xv About the Author........................................................................................... xvii List of Tables – Vol. 2 .................................................................................... xix Chapter 1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1 1.1
Literature Cited...........................................................................................................6
Chapter 2 Elasmobranchs .................................................................................. 7 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21
Americium ..................................................................................................................7 Arsenic........................................................................................................................7 Cadmium ..................................................................................................................11 Cerium ......................................................................................................................14 Cesium ......................................................................................................................14 Chromium .................................................................................................................14 Cobalt........................................................................................................................15 Copper.......................................................................................................................15 Iron............................................................................................................................18 Lead ..........................................................................................................................20 Manganese ................................................................................................................20 Mercury.....................................................................................................................20 Nickel........................................................................................................................27 Plutonium..................................................................................................................30 Ruthenium.................................................................................................................30 Selenium ...................................................................................................................30 Silver .........................................................................................................................30 Strontium ..................................................................................................................31 Tin .............................................................................................................................31 Zinc ...........................................................................................................................31 Literature Cited........................................................................................................35
vii
viii
Contents
Chapter 3 Fishes............................................................................................. 39 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43
Aluminum .................................................................................................................39 Americium ................................................................................................................40 Antimony ..................................................................................................................40 Arsenic......................................................................................................................40 Barium ......................................................................................................................51 Beryllium ..................................................................................................................51 Bismuth.....................................................................................................................52 Boron ........................................................................................................................52 Cadmium ..................................................................................................................52 Cerium ......................................................................................................................65 Cesium ......................................................................................................................66 Chromium .................................................................................................................67 Cobalt........................................................................................................................72 Copper.......................................................................................................................75 Gallium .....................................................................................................................89 Germanium ...............................................................................................................89 Gold...........................................................................................................................90 Indium .......................................................................................................................90 Iron............................................................................................................................90 Lead ..........................................................................................................................96 Lithium....................................................................................................................105 Manganese ..............................................................................................................106 Mercury...................................................................................................................110 Molybdenum ...........................................................................................................141 Neptunium ..............................................................................................................142 Nickel......................................................................................................................143 Niobium ..................................................................................................................143 Palladium ................................................................................................................143 Plutonium................................................................................................................147 Polonium.................................................................................................................148 Radium....................................................................................................................148 Rhenium..................................................................................................................148 Rubidium ................................................................................................................148 Ruthenium...............................................................................................................150 Scandium ................................................................................................................150 Selenium .................................................................................................................150 Silver .......................................................................................................................154 Strontium ................................................................................................................157 Tellurium ................................................................................................................159 Thallium..................................................................................................................159 Tin ...........................................................................................................................159 Titanium..................................................................................................................167 Tungsten..................................................................................................................168
Contents ix 3.44 3.45 3.46 3.47 3.48 3.49
Uranium ..................................................................................................................168 Vanadium................................................................................................................168 Yttrium....................................................................................................................168 Zinc .........................................................................................................................169 Zirconium................................................................................................................191 Literature Cited.......................................................................................................191
Chapter 4 Reptiles ........................................................................................ 221 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26
Aluminum ...............................................................................................................222 Antimony ................................................................................................................227 Arsenic....................................................................................................................227 Barium ....................................................................................................................228 Beryllium ................................................................................................................228 Cadmium ................................................................................................................228 Cesium ....................................................................................................................231 Chromium ...............................................................................................................231 Cobalt......................................................................................................................231 Copper.....................................................................................................................231 Iron..........................................................................................................................235 Lead ........................................................................................................................235 Manganese ..............................................................................................................239 Mercury...................................................................................................................239 Molybdenum ...........................................................................................................243 Nickel......................................................................................................................244 Rubidium ................................................................................................................244 Selenium .................................................................................................................246 Silver .......................................................................................................................246 Strontium ................................................................................................................246 Thallium..................................................................................................................246 Titanium..................................................................................................................246 Uranium ..................................................................................................................246 Vanadium................................................................................................................246 Zinc .........................................................................................................................247 Literature Cited.......................................................................................................249
Chapter 5 Birds............................................................................................ 253 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9
Aluminum ...............................................................................................................253 Americium ..............................................................................................................253 Antimony ................................................................................................................253 Arsenic....................................................................................................................257 Barium ....................................................................................................................258 Beryllium ................................................................................................................258 Bismuth...................................................................................................................258 Boron ......................................................................................................................259 Cadmium ................................................................................................................259
x
Contents 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38
Cesium ....................................................................................................................269 Chromium ...............................................................................................................269 Cobalt......................................................................................................................273 Copper.....................................................................................................................273 Europium ................................................................................................................280 Gallium ...................................................................................................................280 Indium .....................................................................................................................280 Iron..........................................................................................................................280 Lanthanum ..............................................................................................................283 Lead ........................................................................................................................283 Lithium....................................................................................................................294 Manganese ..............................................................................................................297 Mercury...................................................................................................................298 Molybdenum ...........................................................................................................318 Nickel......................................................................................................................322 Plutonium................................................................................................................323 Rubidium ................................................................................................................323 Selenium .................................................................................................................323 Silver .......................................................................................................................330 Strontium ................................................................................................................334 Technetium .............................................................................................................334 Thallium..................................................................................................................334 Thorium ..................................................................................................................334 Tin ...........................................................................................................................334 Tungsten..................................................................................................................335 Uranium ..................................................................................................................336 Vanadium................................................................................................................336 Zinc .........................................................................................................................337 Literature Cited.......................................................................................................345
Chapter 6 Mammals ..................................................................................... 363 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13
Aluminum ...............................................................................................................363 Americium ..............................................................................................................363 Antimony ................................................................................................................368 Arsenic....................................................................................................................368 Barium ....................................................................................................................369 Beryllium ................................................................................................................369 Bismuth...................................................................................................................370 Boron ......................................................................................................................370 Cadmium ................................................................................................................370 Cesium ....................................................................................................................380 Chromium ...............................................................................................................381 Cobalt......................................................................................................................393 Copper.....................................................................................................................393
Contents xi 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37
Gold.........................................................................................................................395 Indium .....................................................................................................................395 Iron..........................................................................................................................395 Lead ........................................................................................................................399 Lithium....................................................................................................................406 Manganese ..............................................................................................................406 Mercury...................................................................................................................410 Molybdenum ...........................................................................................................438 Nickel......................................................................................................................438 Palladium ................................................................................................................444 Platinum ..................................................................................................................444 Plutonium................................................................................................................444 Polonium.................................................................................................................444 Rubidium ................................................................................................................445 Selenium .................................................................................................................445 Silver .......................................................................................................................453 Strontium ................................................................................................................464 Thallium..................................................................................................................464 Tin ...........................................................................................................................465 Titanium..................................................................................................................466 Uranium ..................................................................................................................466 Vanadium................................................................................................................466 Zinc .........................................................................................................................467 Literature Cited.......................................................................................................476
Chapter 7 Concluding Remarks...................................................................... 491 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
General......................................................................................................................491 Breadth of Coverage ................................................................................................492 Depth of Coverage ...................................................................................................493 Literature Cited.........................................................................................................493
Subject Index ............................................................................................... 495
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Acknowledgments Early work on this project was conducted at research libraries of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of the Interior, and the National Library of Medicine. During the past several years, all work was conducted at the National Agricultural Library (NAL) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture located in Beltsville, Maryland. I am obligated to the librarians and staff of the NAL for their assistance in procuring needed research materials.
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Books by Ronald Eisler 2010. Compendium of Trace Metals and Marine Biota. Volume 1: Plants and Invertebrates, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 638 pp. 2007. Eisler’s Encyclopedia of Environmentally Hazardous Priority Chemicals, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 950 pp. 2006. Mercury Hazards to Living Organisms, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 312 pp. 2004. Biogeochemical, Health, and Ecotoxicological Perspectives on Gold and Gold Mining, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 356 pp. 2000. Handbook of Chemical Risk Assessment: Health Hazards to Humans, Plants, and Animals. Vol. 1, Metals; Vol. 2, Organics; Vol.3, Metalloids, Radiation, Cumulative Index to Chemicals and Species, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, 1903 pp. 1981. Trace Metal Concentrations in Marine Organisms, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, New York, 687 pp.
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About the Author Ronald Eisler received the B.A. degree from New York University, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Washington. As a research scientist, he served with the U.S. Department of the Interior in the Territory of Alaska (Bristol Bay), New Jersey (Highlands), Maryland (Laurel), and Washington, DC; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Rhode Island (Narragansett); and military service in the U.S. Army Medical Service Corps in Colorado (Denver). In addition to federal service, he was a research assistant at the University of Miami Marine Laboratory (Coral Gables, Florida), a radiochemist at the Laboratory of Radiation Ecology at the University of Washington (Seattle), an aquatic biologist at the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (Raybrook), and the senior science advisor to the American Fisheries Society (Bethesda, Maryland). Dr. Eisler has participated in research and monitoring studies in the Pacific Northwest, the Territory of Alaska, Colorado, the Marshall and Marianas Islands, all along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. Atlantic coast, the Adirondacks region of New York, the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Since 1955 he has authored more than 150 technical articles—including several books and 16 book chapters—mainly on contaminant hazards to plants, animals, and human health, with emphasis on trace metals. He has held several adjunct professor appointments and taught for extended periods at the Graduate School of Oceanography of the University of Rhode Island, and the Department of Biology of American University in Washington, DC. He also served as Visiting Professor and Resident Director of Hebrew University’s Marine Biology Laboratory in Eilat, Israel. In retirement, he actively consults and writes on chemical risk assessment. Eisler resides in Potomac, Maryland, with his wife, Jeannette, a teacher of French and Spanish.
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List of Tables – Vol. 2 Table 1.1: Symbol, Atomic Number, and Atomic Weight of the Known Elements Table 2.1: Arsenic Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.2: Cadmium and Chromium Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.3: Copper Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.4: Iron and Lead Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.5: Manganese Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.6: Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.7: Nickel, Selenium, Silver, and Tin Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 2.8: Zinc Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Table 3.1: Antimony Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.2: Arsenic Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.3: Cadmium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.4: Cesium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.5: Chromium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.6: Cobalt Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.7: Copper Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.8: Iron Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.9: Lead Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.10: Manganese Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.11: Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.12: Molybdenum Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.13: Nickel Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.14: Rhenium, Rubidium, Ruthenium, and Scandium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes
xix
xx List of Tables – Vol. 2 Table 3.15: Selenium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.16: Silver Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.17: Strontium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.18: Tellurium, Thallium, Tin, Titanium, and Tungsten Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.19: Vanadium Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 3.20: Zinc Concentrations in Field Collections of Fishes Table 4.1: Cadmium Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.2: Aluminum, Arsenic, and Barium Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.3: Chromium and Cobalt Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.4: Copper Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.5: Iron, Lead, and Manganese in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.6: Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.7: Nickel and Selenium Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 4.8: Zinc Concentrations in Field Collections of Reptiles Table 5.1: Aluminum, Arsenic, and Boron Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.2: Cadmium Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.3: Chromium and Cobalt Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.4: Copper Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.5: Iron Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.6: Lead Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.7: Lithium and Manganese Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.8: Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.9: Molybdenum, Nickel, and Rubidium Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.10: Selenium Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.11: Silver, Strontium, and Tin Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 5.12: Zinc Concentrations in Field Collections of Birds Table 6.1: Aluminum, Antimony, Arsenic, and Boron Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.2: Cadmium Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.3: Chromium, Cobalt, and Copper Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.4: Iron Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals
List of Tables – Vol. 2 xxi Table 6.5: Lead Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.6: Manganese Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.7: Mercury Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.8: Molybdenum, Nickel, and Rubidium Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.9: Selenium Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.10: Silver, Strontium, Tin, and Vanadium Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 6.11: Zinc Concentrations in Field Collections of Mammals Table 7.1: Trace Metals and Marine Vertebrates: Breadth of Coverage Table 7.2: Trace Metals and Marine Vertebrates: Depth of Coverage
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction The first major attempt to systematically summarize all that was known about trace metal and metalloid content of marine biota was Vinogradov’s classic The Elementary Chemical Composition of Marine Organisms (Vinogradov, 1953) and the last was Trace Metal Concentrations in Marine Organisms (Eisler, 1981). At that time, I recommended major revision in about 25 years owing to a growing technical literature and to a greater availability of atomic absorption spectroscopy and newer analytical techniques that accurately measure trace metal concentrations in tissues of marine plants and animals at biologically significant levels. This volume on vertebrates—and the companion volume on marine plants and invertebrates (Eisler, 2009)—has two main objectives. The first is to summarize the available world literature on trace metal and metalloid concentrations in tissues of representative field populations of marine, estuarine, and oceanic elasmobranchs; fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals; and their significance to organisms’ health and their consumers. The database in this subject area alone has more than doubled in the past 25 years. Information on the following elements are presented: aluminum, americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, bismuth, boron, cadmium, cerium, cesium, chromium, cobalt, copper, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, iron, lanthanum, lead, lithium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, neptunium, nickel, niobium, palladium, platinum, plutonium, polonium, radium, rhenium, rubidium, ruthenium, scandium, selenium, silver, strontium, technetium, tellurium, thallium, thorium, tin, titanium, tungsten, uranium, vanadium, yttrium, zinc, and zirconium (Table 1.1). Information on sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium were especially abundant, but these were excluded as their concentrations in marine vertebrates were almost always in excess of the 100.0 mg/kg dry weight limit that I set arbitrarily as a trace concentration. The second objective is to synthesize existing information on biological, chemical, and physical factors known to modify uptake, retention, and translocation of each element by selected groups of marine vertebrates under field and laboratory conditions. Recognition of the importance of these modifiers and their accompanying interactions is essential to the understanding of metal kinetics in marine systems and to the interpretation of baseline residue data in marine vertebrates. It is emphasized that major changes are now being
1
2 Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Symbol, Atomic Number, and Atomic Weight of the Known Elements Element
Symbol
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Actinium
Ac
89
(227)a
Aluminum
Al
13
26.98
Americium
Am
95
(243)a
Antimony
Sb
51
121.76
Argon
Ar
18
39.95
Arsenic
As
33
74.92
Astatine
At
85
(210)a
Barium
Ba
56
137.33
Berkelium
Bk
97
(247)a
Beryllium
Be
4
Bismuth
Bi
83
208.98
Bohrium
Bh
197
(264)a
Boron
B
5
10.81
Bromine
Br
35
79.90
Cadmium
Cd
48
112.41
Calcium
Ca
20
40.01
Californium
Cf
98
(251)a
Carbon
C
6
12.01
Cerium
Ce
58
140.12
Cesium
Cs
55
132.90
Chlorine
Cl
17
35.45
Chromium
Cr
24
52.00
Cobalt
Co
27
58.93
Copper
Cu
29
63.54
Curium
Cm
96
(247)a
Dubnium
Db
105
(262)a
Dysprosium
Dy
66
162.50
Einsteinium
Es
99
(252)a
9.01
(Continues)
Introduction 3 Table 1.1: Element
Symbol
Cont’d Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Erbium
Er
68
167.26
Europium
Eu
63
151.96
Fermium
Fm
100
(257)a
Fluorine
F
9
19.00
Francium
Fr
87
(223)a
Gadolinium
Gd
64
157.25
Gallium
Ga
31
69.72
Germanium
Ge
32
72.61
Gold
Au
79
196.97
Hafnium
Hf
72
178.49
Hassium
Hs
108
(269)a
Helium
He
2
Holmium
Ho
67
Hydrogen
H
1
Indium
In
49
114.82
Iodine
I
53
126.90
Iridium
Ir
77
192.22
Iron
Fe
26
55.85
Krypton
Kr
36
83.80
Lanthanum
La
57
138.91
Lawrencium
Lr
103
(262)a
Lead
Pb
82
207.20
Lithium
Li
3
Lutetium
Lu
71
174.97
Magnesium
Mg
12
24.31
Manganese
Mn
25
54.94
Meitnerium
Mt
109
(268)a
Mendelevium
Md
101
(258)a
4.00 164.93 1.01
6.94
(Continues)
4 Chapter 1 Table 1.1:
Cont’d
Element
Symbol
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Mercury
Hg
80
200.59
Molybdenum
Mo
42
95.94
Neodymium
Nd
60
144.24
Neon
Ne
10
20.18
Neptunium
Np
93
(237)a
Nickel
Ni
28
58.69
Niobium
Nb
41
92.91
Nitrogen
N
7
14.01
Nobelium
No
102
(259)a
Osmium
Os
76
190.23
Oxygen
O
8
16.00
Palladium
Pd
46
106.42
Phosphorus
P
15
30.97
Platinum
Pt
78
195.08
Plutonium
Pu
94
(244)a
Polonium
Po
84
(210)a
Potassium
K
19
39.10
Praseodymium
Pr
59
140.91
Promethium
Pm
61
(145)a
Protactinium
Pa
91
231.04
Radium
Ra
88
(226)a
Radon
Rn
86
(222)a
Rhenium
Re
75
186.21
Rhodium
Rh
45
102.91
Rubidium
Rb
37
85.47
Ruthenium
Ru
44
101.07
Rutherfordium
Rf
104
(261)a
Samarium
Sm
62
150.36 (Continues)
Introduction 5 Table 1.1: Element
Symbol
Cont’d Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Scandium
Sc
21
44.96
Seaborgium
Sg
106
(266)a
Selenium
Se
34
78.96
Silicon
Si
14
28.09
Silver
Ag
47
107.87
Sodium
Na
11
23.00
Strontium
Sr
38
87.62
Sulfur
S
16
32.07
Tantalum
Ta
73
180.95
Technetium
Tc
43
(98)a
Tellurium
Te
52
127.60
Terbium
Tb
65
158.92
Thallium
Tl
81
204.38
Thorium
Th
90
232.04
Thulium
Tm
69
168.93
Tin
Sn
50
118.71
Titanium
Ti
22
47.88
Tungsten
W
74
183.84
Ununbium
Unb
112
(277)a
Ununennium
Uue
119
–b
Ununhexium
Uuh
116
–b
Ununnilium
Uun
110
(269)a
Ununoctiium
Uuo
118
–b
Ununpentium
Uup
115
–b
Ununquadium
Uuq
114
–b
Ununseptium
Uus
117
–b
Ununtriium
Uut
113
–b
Unununium
Unn
111
(272)a (Continues)
6 Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Element
Symbol
Cont’d Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Uranium
U
92
238.03
Vanadium
V
23
50.94
Xenon
Xe
54
131.29
Ytterbium
Yb
70
173.04
Yttrium
Y
39
88.91
Zinc
Zn
30
65.39
Zirconium
Zr
40
91.22
a
Most stable or best known isotope. Yet to be reported.
b
recorded in global climate extremes and in the amounts of metals, metalloids, and other contaminants discharged into the biosphere as a result of human activities; these changes, and others, may ultimately render obsolete certain terms—now used liberally in this volume— such as “controls,” “reference site,” and “environmentally pristine area.” In many cases, the relation between concentrations of these elements in tissues have little relation to concentrations of the same element in the animal’s immediate geophysical environment, including sediments, sediment interstitial waters, diet, and water column. The reasons for this are explored, and their role examined in formulation of proposed criteria to protect natural resources and their consumers. The organization of this book is similar to that of my earlier work on this subject (Eisler, 1981): chapters are arranged in evolutionary order from most primitive to most advanced; within each chapter, metals are arranged in alphabetical order; and, finally, all concentrations are listed in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg ¼ parts per million) on a fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), or ash weight (AW) basis. In all tables, concentrations shown in parentheses represent the range of values documented; others, the arithmetic means.
1.1 Literature Cited Eisler, R., 1981. Trace Metal Concentrations in Marine Organisms. Pergamon, Elmsford, New York, 687 pp. Eisler, R., 2009. Compendium of Trace Metals and Marine Biota. Volume 1: Plants and Invertebrates. Elsevier, Amsterdam. Vinogradov, A.P., 1953. The elementary chemical composition of marine organisms. Sears Foundation for Marine Research, Memoir 2. Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 647 pp.
CHAPTER 2
Elasmobranchs The elasmobranchs comprise a group of fish-like vertebrates that includes the sharks and rays. They are often ranked as a subclass of the Teleostei, but differ so fundamentally from the bony fishes that it is best to recognize them as a distinct class. Typical elasmobranchs contain an internal cartilaginous skeleton, cartilaginous jaws, skin with denticles structurally similar to teeth, and with a series of 5-7 gill openings laterally in sharks and ventrally in rays and skates. This is an extremely primitive and successful group, with fossil remains of living species known from the Cretaceous and Jurassic eras. Geographically, elasmobranchs are mostly restricted to tropical and subtropical seas; however, many species regularly inhabit temperate waters, possibly as strays, and some, mostly bottom dwellers, are cosmopolitan in distribution. There is a growing literature on trace metal composition of elasmobranchs.
2.1 Americium Encased embryos of the spotted dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula, were exposed for 15 days to 241 Am and then transferred to unlabeled seawater for 21 days (Jeffree et al., 2006). During uptake, more than 98% of the 241Am was associated with the egg case and less than 1% with the embryo; very small percentages were found in both yolk and jelly. After 21 days in unlabeled seawater, about half the 241Am remained, with egg case containing nearly 99% and most of the rest in kidney. Uptake rate of 241Am was low when compared to radioisotopes of zinc, manganese, cobalt, and cadmium, in that order. Net influx through the egg case during 96 h exposure for 241Am was equivalent to a concentration factor over seawater of >1000 in the outer layer and about 100 in the inner layer. Juveniles took up about 30 times more 241Am than did encased embryos under similar conditions (Jeffree et al., 2006).
2.2 Arsenic Mean arsenic content in 10 species of Mediterranean Sea sharks was highest in muscle of ghost shark, Chimaera monstrosa (52.4 mg/kg fresh weight, FW) and in liver of the longnose spurdog, Squalus blainvillei (14.2 mg/kg FW; Table 2.1). Interspecies concentration 7
8 Chapter 2 Table 2.1: Arsenic Concentrations in Field Collections of Elasmobranchs Organism
Concentration
Whitetip shark, Carcharhinus longimanus Muscle
3.1 FW
5
Spottail shark, Carcharhinus sorrah Muscle Gills Liver Bone Eye
6.3-10.8 DW 15.2 DW 23.2 DW 10.0 DW 1.6 DW
1 1 1 1 1
Silky shark, Carcharhinus falciformis Muscle Liver Spleen
