The Sinopedia Series
China’s Culture
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The Sinopedia Series
China’s Culture SHI ZHONGWEN CHEN QIAOSHENG
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Table of Contents Preface
vii
Chapter 1.
Introverted and Open Cultural Identity
Chapter 2.
Chinese Thought 17
Chapter 3.
Virtues Upheld by the Chinese 37
3
Chapter 4. Political and Religious Concepts 51 Chapter 5.
The Concepts of Economy and Wealth 77
Chapter 6.
Ordinary Life and Customs 93
Chapter 7.
Science and Technology 107
Chapter 8.
Education
Chapter 9.
Arts and Literature 145
Index
165
127
Preface The term “culture” has a broad meaning ranging from the sum of material and spiritual civilizations created by human beings to a brush, a computer, a television program, or even street graffiti. It is thus a challenge to explain such a big topic as Chinese culture clearly and thoroughly in a book. Therefore, this book can only make some brief summaries, introductions, explanations, and comments on Chinese culture, including ideology, ethics, morality, political and religious ideas, economics and wealth ideas, customs, science and technology, education, literature and arts, and so on. Of course, it cannot hope to touch on every aspect of the Chinese culture. Chinese culture is rich in content and heritage, with a history going back several thousand years. If calligraphy, Ci poetry of the Song Dynasty, Kun Opera, and Peking Opera are considered highlights of Chinese culture, we can conclude that the breadth and depth Chinese culture represents the root of the Chinese nation. Different roots will give life to different branches, as well as different leaves. Chinese culture and other cultures (for example Western culture) are different; however, we cannot compare these differences or suggest that one is superior or inferior. Unlike competitive sports where players can be ranked by their performances, cultures cannot be ranked at all. No major cultural systems are perfect. Naturally, they have their own merits and shortcomings. All the significant things in human civilization are inventions of vitality and universality. Let us look at the four great inventions of ancient China as examples: the compass, gunpowder, printing, and papermaking. Because of useful and vital features, they naturally spread to the rest of the world from China. Likewise, a large number of Western scientific inventions, ideologies, and academies have streamed into China in modern times. Beautiful things are like sacred creatures with agile wings; nothing can stop them from flying freely. At the same time, we human beings should clearly understand the deficiencies of various cultural systems and further improve the cultures of each nation and all people by learning from the strong points of other cultures to offset deficiencies. The premise of a long civilization is choice, the premise of choice is creation, and the premise of creation is openness. Of the four ancient civilizations in the world, only the Chinese civilization has never encountered cultural discontinuity, something which makes Chinese people proud of themselves.
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But Chinese people will not forget the fact that the long-term continuation of Chinese civilization has benefited from the three great openness and integration processes in history. The first great openness and integration gave birth to powerful culture during the Qin and Han dynasties; the second brought thriving culture during the Sui and Tang dynasties; and the third caused China to advance into a modern society. Another openness and integration process is currently under way, and its achievements are obvious. If we, the Chinese nation, decide to be open to the outside world, we need to respect others, understand others, and learn from others. Since today’s society is highly open, it is very difficult for us to rely exclusively on traditional culture. In fact, the whole of China, and even the whole world, has shared the Chinese civilization that resulted from the three great openness and integration processes in Chinese history. Just imagine the world around us and we can find that Chinese hairstyles, dressing styles, dwellings, as well as household sofas, lamps, televisions, cell phones, and computers are all from the West. On the other hand, we can also find that some Chinese words like tofu, kungfu, and qipao have been introduced to the English language in the Chinese phonetic form and that more and more people from the West are learning Chinese. Notably, most of the daily articles used by the Westerners are probably “made in China.” Those with genuine respect and love for their own culture will certainly respect and love excellent parts of other cultures. Human civilization would be doomed to failure or decline if one only knows one’s own culture and ignores other cultures. All human beings share one earth, one world, and civilization as a whole. We find that Chinese culture with a more modern relevance is taking shape.
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Chapter 1
Introverted and Open Cultural Identity
Of the four ancient civilizations in the world, only the Chinese civilization has never encountered cultural discontinuity. This unique history and tradition has bred the unique cultural spirit of the Chinese nation. China’s traditional culture embodies a strong mark of continental culture, agriculture, and Confucianism. These three aspects are the environmental, economic, and ideological foundations of Chinese culture respectively. Therefore, Chinese culture, has an introverted quality as well as a strong sense of togetherness. Sometimes the process is spontaneous and active, sometimes it is passive. In a large sense, Chinese culture is of both introversion and openness.
Introverted Cultural Characteristics In comparison with Western cultures, which are open and extroverted by nature, the Chinese traditional culture is basically one of introversion. There are two obvious characteristics of the Chinese mainland: the area is huge and the neighboring conditions are severe. A vast sea lies to the east of the Chinese mainland; deserts are in the west of central China; sea and mountains are in the south; and grasslands are in the north. Relatively speaking, there should be greater space for China to develop northward. However, historically, the nomads living on the grasslands often presented a huge threat to people living in the central plain. During the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BC), the Chinese built the Great Wall north of the central plains; covering thousands
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The Great Wall of China. The Wall has been repaired and reconstructed many times. The Great Wall we see today was built in the Ming Dynasty and stretches for thousands of miles.
of miles, the Great Wall of China makes Chinese culture an introverted culture in a strict sense. China’s naturally agricultural economy and Confucian culture have strong features of closed development—a unique “wall” characteristic. The “wall” can protect stability and sustainable development. However, the “wall” has not been totally enclosed. Actually, in accordance with the Chinese traditional culture, the wall was only used for separating the central plains from the outside world. Inside the wall, when people built traditional Chinese houses, they would often build partially enclosed or open verandas and pavilions. Western culture is open to the external but closed to the internal. For example, in the West, often parents ask for permission before entering their children’s rooms. If not, it is considered rude. In contrast, in traditional Chinese society, parents had the right to enter their children’s room whenever they wanted. Contemporary Chinese people have learned a lot from the Western culture, and many parents already know how to respect their children’s privacy.
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Qiao’s Grand Courtyard in Qi County, Shanxi Province, is a classic private residence from the Qing Dynasty in northern China. It is surrounded by a high wall and has internal walkways connecting each courtyard.
Nevertheless, in China, it is considered rude for children to refuse parents to enter their space. Traditional Chinese culture features compatibility, integrity, reality, ambiguity, and so on. All in all, it does not favor extreme behaviors but places emphasis on moderation. These characteristics determine that Chinese culture has a strong sense of togetherness. Inside the “wall,” the Chinese have been mainly living in a secular society because China has never been a religious country. In Chinese traditional culture, the emperors had a higher authority than the gods. Chinese emperors had the right to rank various religions and even gods by assessing their importance. For example, during a period when Confucianism prospered, an emperor canonized Confucius (551–479 BC) as a saint or a duke. Another Chinese emperor canonized Guan Yu (162–219), a popular Chinese historical figure, as the Great Defender against Demons. Since then, Guan Yu has been widely revered in China. Although there were some religious conflicts in ancient China, the Chinese always advocated religious tolerance. Generally speaking, people of different beliefs can live in harmony. They can even help each other and bring out the best in each other. The Chinese are most proud of the culture of the Tang
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Statue of Guan Yu in Guandi Temple, Xiezhou Town, Yuncheng, Shanxi.
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Dynasty (618–907), which was the result of the blending of three different cultures (Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism). In Chinese history, there were many conflicts, great and small, between different ethnic groups. Nevertheless, these conflicts resolved into harmony and integration, which was in accordance with mainstream Chinese history. The Chinese would rather use the “Principles of Heaven,” the “Way of Heaven,” and other similar concepts than turn to religion to explain everything on Earth. The principles and laws of Heaven are omnipresent and everlasting. However, one rarely explains to what specifically they refer. More often than not, the principles and laws of Heaven are in line with human ethics. Scholars used those ethics to tell people to forsake evil and to promote virtue and develop self-discipline. Chinese cultural tradition attaches the greatest importance to real life. The Chinese love life with great passion. As the old sayings go, the desire of food and sex is part of human nature or diet and intercourse between males and females is the most basic and important requirement. The ancient Chinese emphasized on food and reproduction, considering that eating was the first desire and having children was also extremely important. This reflects two main
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
DEIFIED GU A N Y U
Guan Yu was a general during the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). He was known for his bravery, combat skills, and sense of obligation when he served as a military general of the Kingdom of Shu. His army was once attacked by the army of the Kingdom of Wu. In the attack, he lost his life because he was too proud and underestimated the enemy. After his death, he was widely worshiped by the general public, who respected him as “Guan Gong.” Ancient Chinese rulers and religious leaders deified Guan Yu by conferring great titles upon him. The Emperor Shenzong of the Ming Dynasty, who was a believer of Taoism, canonized him as “Great Defender against Demons” and “Grand Emperor.” The emperor even adopted him as Wu Sheng (God of War), thus bestowing on him the same reputation as the Super Great Saint Confucius (Wen Sheng). At present, many Guan Di Temples have been reserved for people to show reverence for Guan Yu.
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ideas of Chinese secular society. One is to cherish life. The other is to attach importance to the continuation of life. The Chinese hold a religious feeling toward the saying, “There are three ways to be unfilial, the worst of which is to not produce offspring.” For many Chinese, the non-corporeal belongings are of no use if they do not have a male heir. In other words, they would have a male heir at any cost. The Chinese love life and have the desire to live a better and fulfilling life. They are painstaking and hardworking. At the same time, they lay particular stress on enjoying good food—one reason why Chinese cuisine is world renowned.
“Kylin Sending a Son.” A traditional new year photo reflecting the ancient Chinese conventional ideal of valuing a son and heir.
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Some people believe that ethnic kinship is the most valuable thing for the Chinese. In fact, the Chinese love their native soil. The folkways are of utmost importance to them. Even when they travel to distant lands, thousands of miles from their homeland, they never forget to return home one day. People living on the same piece of land call each other their clansman. The four happiest events for ancient Chinese people were rain after a long drought; meeting an old friend outside of the homeland; the first night for a married couple; and the successful passing of an examination. The first happy thing (rain after a long drought) reflects one of characteristics of China’s natural agricultural economy, and the second happy thing reflects that how much the Chinese attach importance to feelings for their homeland. According to cultural tradition, the Chinese not only value their homeland and family relations but also attach great importance to other personal relationships. The Chinese are hospitable. As the saying in the Analects of Confucius goes, “Is it not a delight after all to have friends come from afar?” For the Chinese, etiquette, ethical, and moral standards as well as “face” is of great value. Nevertheless, hierarchy existed in the Chinese society for a very long time. The Chinese used to focus on the order of social status, a concept that had a far-reaching impact, even on today’s China, which has experienced the baptism
“Manchu and Han” Royal Dynasty Feast is a masterpiece that depicts the traditional Chinese diet and features both the royal style and local color.
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Murals from an ancient tomb in Xuanhua County, Heibei Province. Four servants in the mural holding a horsewhip, a riding habit, a tea set, and so on, await their master’s trip by horse.
of modern thoughts. In the late feudal society, however, this concept greatly hindered the transformation of China to a modern society. From the above-mentioned characteristics of Chinese traditional culture, we can see that ancient China was not always an open state, and that selfcenteredness was historically popular in China, which resulted in the Chinese not forming a correct understanding of themselves and the rest of the world. This proved more serious during the late-feudal society period. In a macro way, there are no superior or inferior histories and cultures in the world. Nevertheless, a culture may be superior or inferior to another one in a specific period. It is an indisputable fact that Chinese traditional culture lagged behind Western civilization from the 15th century onward. It was therefore inevitable that some Western thinkers and scholars made biased comments about Chinese history and culture. For instance, Hegel (1770–1831) once commented, “In essence, there was no development in Chinese history, merely repeated fall of monarchies. It is unlikely to make any progress.” This was obviously not the case.
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Openness and Cultural Integration China did not experience any cultural discontinuation. Nevertheless, China has experienced cultural vicissitudes. In considering these ups and downs in Chinese cultural history, we can draw the conclusion that whenever the rulers implemented an open and innovative policy, the Chinese lived viable and prosperous lives; however, whenever the rulers carried out a closed and rigid policy, it was during a period of decline. The greatness of Chinese culture lies in its ability to break the inward, closed pattern and to accept new civilization with open arms. The developmental history of Chinese civilization is merely a process in which the Chinese constantly absorbed and accepted new cultures, transforming old cultures and new rounds of ethnic and cultural integration, which were completed in an active or passive way. Nevertheless, Chinese culture has maintained its vitality for several thousand years by continuously accepting new culture and getting rid of the old culture, thus becoming the phoenix of human civilization. Moreover, Chinese culture is implementing a continuous cultural integration so as to become a new-born phoenix in the reform flames. In short, there were three major open periods in Chinese history from the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046–771 BC) to the present. Accordingly, the three most important cultural integrations were completed during these three major open periods. Those important cultural integrations led to a long-term Chinese civilization lasting thousands of years; this civilization constitutes a unique development course and style of Chinese culture. The first cultural integration took place during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period (770–221 BC). The cultures of various regions in north China and south China were largely integrated, ultimately leading to the creation of the first feudal empire in China—the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC)— and laying a foundation for the appearance of the 400-year Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). Cultural achievements made by China during this period can equal those of the ancient Greek civilization. The second cultural integration took place in the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties Period (220–589). Ethnic integration happened during this time. The Central Plain culture, the minority culture in the northwest of China, as well as the Buddhist culture, mutually collided and blended. Compared with the first time, this integration covered a larger geographic scope and a wider range of ethnicities, which eventually rooted the Buddhist culture in China. Later, Buddhist culture gained vast growth in China. Notably, this integration also led to the creation of the Tang Dynasty, which is world famous for its prosperity.
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Terracotta soldiers and horses of the Qin Dynasty show the powerful military might of the era.
The third cultural integration began in the mid-19th century. Since then, Western contemporary and modern culture has had an impact on China, resulting in a large-scale integration of Chinese and Western culture. This cultural integration made China advance into and get introduced to the wider world. Chinese civilization went through an earthshaking change and in the process, China was transformed from a traditional society into a modern civilized society. For Chinese culture, openness and integration was of an unprecedented significance. From 1840 (the first Opium War) to 1911 (the Xinhai Revolution), China’s absorption and integration of Western culture went through three stages, namely, introducing artifacts, introducing institutions, and introducing ideologies and cultures. What is the so-called artifact introduction? Artifact introduction implies the cultural idea of “using barbarians to control barbarians,” which appeared around the time of the first Opium War. Its specific manifestation was the Westernization Movement. At that time, people believed that the reason
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China fell behind the West was that Chinese traditional cold weapons could not match Western muskets, artillery, warships, and so on. As a result, Li Hongzhang (1823–1901), Zhang Zhidong (1837–1909), and Sheng Xuanhuai (1844–1916), among others, initiated the Westernization Movement and set up factories in China, as well as created the Northern Fleet with new weapons and equipment. However, the Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1894, during which the Northern Fleet suffered a crushing defeat. Some people with knowledge and vision began to call for a change in the old system and the establishment of a new system of constitutional monarchy in the hope of making China a rich and strong country. However, due to the intervention of powerful conservatives, the Reform Movement of 1898 ended in failure. After that, the Chinese continued to explore, but their focus shifted to the introduction of Western ideology and culture. When China introduced foreign ideologies and cultures during the early 20th century, the awakening idea of national independence appeared in China at the same time. The Chinese made great efforts to explore a new cultural direction, facing the decline of traditional culture and feudal
Replica of the monumental battleship “Dingyuan” anchored at Weihai in Shandong Province. “Dingyuan” was the primary battleship of the Northern Fleet; it sank in the Huanghai Battle during the Sino-Japanese War in 1894.
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civilization. At the same time, they stood in defiance, facing the bullying and looting of the Western powers. On one hand, the Chinese fought for national independence. On the other hand, they continuously learned and accepted Western ideologies and cultures while inheriting from their own strong traditional culture. It was impossible for China to accept a new culture while wholly retaining the traditional social structure at that time. At the same time, it was not possible for China to completely caste aside its traditional social and cultural patterns. During the course of adjustment and change, China went through the 20th century and continued to advance into the 21st century. Since China carried out the reform and opening-up policy in the late 1970s, this cultural integration has become more active and continues to the present time. In the future, the world will be fully open in a way in which various national cultures will mutually promote, integrate, and co-exist. Whether the West or the East, social and cultural development trends shall follow the following principles: Those who are arrogant and close communication with the outside world will be losers while those who respect multiple cultures and have an open mind will be winners; conservatives therefore will be losers, while reformers will be winners.
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
TH E JIA WU S INO -JAP AN E SE WAR
In the year 1894 (the 20th year of Emperor Guangxu’s reign), the Japanese aggression against China over the control of North Korea broke out. The war was also known as the Jiawu Sino-Japanese War because the year 1894 was Jiawu Year according to Chinese chronology (Ganzhi ). During the Yellow Sea Battle in September 1894, the Japanese fleet defeated the Qing government’s Northern Fleet, after which the Qing army was defeated. In April 1895, the Qing government was forced to sign the unequal “Treaty of Shimonoseki.” According to the terms of the treaty, China was obliged to recognize the independence of Korea and cede the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands to Japan; and pay a huge indemnity of taels to Japan. Japan also gained many other benefits from China. This treaty severely endangered the modern society of China and exerted a huge influence on the world history. Thereafter, the ambition of carving up China grew, which marked a further deepening of the Chinese national crisis.
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Chinese culture has now become more viable, inclusive, and open. A new Chinese culture is taking shape. In addition, it continues to draw sustenance from traditional culture. The development, together with convergence, shall be a truly viable way of modern civilization. A complete denial of history and culture is not feasible. No matter how much some people criticize Confucius, Mencius, and Zhuangzi, Confucianism and Taoism are still existing elements in Chinese culture. The secret of the eternal youth of Chinese culture lies in two of its characteristics: absorbing the sustenance of traditional culture, and drawing on the achievements of all the alien civilizations. Open, tolerant, and vibrant Chinese culture with a rich heritage will certainly help the Chinese stand out among the people of the world and enable them to contribute to world civilization.
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Chapter 2
Chinese Thought
The Chinese are good thinkers. There exist rich, systematic, and complete materials related to the Chinese ideological history, featuring Oriental cultural quality and style. Chinese ideology has a long history. Almost all modern social sciences can find their initial seeds in the Spring and Autumn Period. The foresight of some great people from that era continues to inspire and benefit people even today.
The Chinese Traditional Way of Thinking Ancient China has given the world ideological masterpieces in almost every subject. These masterpieces are represented by the writings of Mencius, Laozi, and Mozi, The Book of Changes, Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, The Analects of Confucius, and The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine. Each can be rated as a landmark of world thought and culture, along with aphorisms and fragments of ancient Chinese prose that appeal to diverse cultural tastes and philosophical outlook. By studying these works, we find that the traditional Chinese way of thinking is integrated, tacit, intuitive, and inclusive. Based on current understanding, the so-called integrity has a double meaning. Although there was a wide range of Chinese thoughts, there was lack of subdivision of the thought system. The latter is one of the important features that differentiate the traditional Chinese way of thinking from the Western way of thinking. In the West, there was a
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Xunzi, a thinker of the Warring States Period, famous for his rigorous style of study.
specific concept of subject division in ancient Greece. Subjects such as political science, philosophy, physics, zoology, logic, and so on, took shape at that time. The ancient Chinese did not like dividing subjects, yet they preferred to divide thinkers into different schools, for instance, the hundred schools of thought in the Spring and Autumn Period. Books written by Pre-Qin scholars contain a wide variety of knowledge on different subjects. Almost all the scholars are like a living encyclopedia, but none of them has an obvious sense of subject division. Out of these scholars,
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Xunzi (313–238 bc) was most famous for his rigorous style of study. From his writings, we find that he touched on knowledge in political science, ethics, philosophy, aesthetics, and logic, but without specific subject division. In contrast, Aristotle (384–322 bc) divided his writings into specific subjects. This does not affect Chinese theoretical expression and logical thinking. Ancient Chinese classics did not appear to have a specific topic on the surface, but they did in fact have substance. They appeared all-encompassing, but in fact had specific topics and discerning ideas with deeper meaning; this is a characteristic of the traditional Chinese way of thinking. However, this is very different from the Western way of writing. When a typical Western way of thinking met with a typical Oriental way of thinking, comprehension proved difficult for the counterparts from each culture. Hegel looked down on Confucius, and he often used ironic words to comment on Confucianism. With the gradual increase in the exchange of ideas between the East and the West, modern Westerners today have a more objective impression of Confucius than did Hegel. The so-called tacitness means the comparative simplicity and subtlety in the Chinese traditional way of thinking and expression. There are three reasons behind this. The first two relate to culture and habit, with Chinese language and Chinese characters—tools for expressing the thoughts of the Chinese—being the third reason. The Chinese are most influenced by Confucianism, which places a special emphasis on respect for sages and teachers. Confucius himself once advocated, “Only elaborate the theories of one’s predecessors and do not have original ideas of one’s own.” He was unwilling to build his own ideology, preferring to use the classics of his predecessors to express his feelings. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156–87 bc) implemented the policy of “paying supreme tribute to Confucianism while banning all other schools of thought,” the Confucian scholars despite having the ability to think independently, had no choice but to express their ideas based on the ideology of the the ancient sages. The tacitness in Chinese traditional thinking, in consequence, leads to the fact that the ancient Chinese were not good at writing long articles and books with a rigorous system. Instead, they were better at writing prose and fragmented commentaries. After Buddhism was introduced into China, Zen (Chinese-style Buddhism) came into existence. The special feature of the Zen quotations is their tacitness. One cannot appreciate their true meaning if they are taken literally. There lived a monk in the late Tang Dynasty. One day, he visited Monk Zhaozhou, saying, “I rush to come here for the purpose of getting your instructions.” Monk Zhaozhou asked him, “Have you had porridge?” The monk replied, “Yes.” Monk Zhaozhou then said, “Go and wash your dish.” What idea is reflected in the above dialogue? It is hard to explain clearly; however,
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“Bodhidharma” painted by Wu Bin during the Ming Dynasty. According to legend, Bodhidharma, the reputed founder of the Ch’an School, brought the Zen School to China.
Chapter 2
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATION
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ZEN
As one of the Chinese Buddhist sects, Zen became the mainstream of Han Buddhism in the middle- and late-Tang Dynasty. With its unique style, Zen basically advocates the direct grasping of the truth in daily life instead of in writings. Zen outstripped other Chinese Buddhist sects in its proliferation and impact. It has produced a major impact on Chinese culture. Later, Zen was introduced into Japan and other countries. After World War II, the impact of Zen Buddhism spread to Europe, the United States, and other places.
the meal of consideration here is a traditional meal of rice; while eating this meal, it was customary for monks to maintain samadhi (complete meditation). Zhaozhou is thus not asking about the meal but whether the monk was able to remain in samadhi throughout the meal. The monk affirms realizing he has already received the teaching. This is one interpretation of the above story. It is not possible to determine the true meaning of the Zen master simply by insisting on getting to the bottom of the matter. All traditional Chinese thinkers can take the hint of such a dialogue. The so-called intuitiveness has the following implications. The Chinese, in particular those who have not been influenced by modern Western ideologies, are generally not good at abstract logical thinking. Instead, they prefer to express their own thoughts by connecting everyday life in metaphor, analogy, and assumption. In other words, the Chinese are used to transforming abstract thinking into imagery. Laozi (the first philosopher of the Taoist school who lived about the same time as Confucius) and Zhuangzi (about 369–286 bc) are best at abstract speculation among Chinese thinkers. When he talked about how to govern a country, Laozi believed that “governing a big country is like cooking a small fish.” Laozi also described the relationship between the strong and the soft as that between the teeth and the tongue. More often than not, Zhuangzi expressed his thoughts by telling fables. Because fables had vivid images, they would usually leave readers with a deep impression. Without metaphors, Laozi would have found it hard to express his thoughts. Likewise, Zhuangzi could not have expressed his thoughts without telling fables. It is difficult for the common people to remember abstract theoretical texts. Nevertheless, the intuitive
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A French version of the Tao De Ching by Laozi.
thinking of the Chinese philosophers makes the spread and popularization of their ideas easier. It is hard for us to imagine what the quotations of Laozi and Zhuangzi would look like if Western philosophers like Immanuel Kant (1724– 1804) and Hegel, who are experts in abstract speculation, made them. Nevertheless, intuitive thinking has its own obvious shortcomings. After all, expression in this form makes it hard for the Chinese to develop modern rigorous logic in some subjects. Because of the long-term popularity of intuitive thinking, speculative philosophy cannot be fully developed in China.
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Ancient Chinese thinkers, represented here by Laozi, laid special emphasis on the concept of Tao.
The so-called inclusiveness refers to the overall tolerant attitude of Chinese ideological and cultural traditions toward different theories, including different religious thoughts. This does not mean that there was no authoritarianism in ancient China. There is a big difference between the authoritarianism in the era of Chinese Confucianism and the religious despotism of the West in the Middle Ages. The events “burning books and burying Confucian scholars alive,” which were carried out by Emperor Qin Shi Huang (259–210 bc), are extreme examples of autocracy in ancient Chinese history. Besides this, other autocratic acts include the policy of “paying supreme tribute to Confucianism while
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banning all other schools of thought” implemented by Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty and the policies of cultural tyranny and literary inquisition during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Nevertheless, such autocractic interference did not take place very often. Generally speaking, Chinese people hold a tolerant attitude toward a variety of theories and they are more willing to integrate nascent, foreign ideas into their own ideologies in a subtle way. It was the emperors rather than the religions that were authoritative. Nevertheless, emperors were not immortal. Did the ancient Chinese believe that someone (or something) with more authority than the emperors existed? According to the Chinese tradition, only the “Principles of the Heaven,” and “Ways of the Heaven” had higher authority than the imperial power. Different schools of scholars had different interpretations of the Ways of the Heaven. The Chinese believed that such principles existed and that no school, religion, or power can go against or beyond them. Everyone must comply with such principles—sometimes they are dynamic concepts. Because of such an ideology, ancient China repeatedly stressed the authority of Confucianism, but it also allowed the existence of other doctrines and religions as long as they could prove that they were in keeping with the Ways of the Heaven. In a way, such an ideological tone is also one of the strong points of traditional Chinese thinking and culture. This is why no wars broke out due to conflict between different thoughts in Chinese history. In contrast, many wars broke out in Europe in the Middle Ages due to religious despotism: One religion did not allow the existence of other religions. From a historical point of view, regardless of whether the impact was large or small, the Chinese schools of thought jointly made a monumental contribution to the history of Chinese ideology and culture. If any school was missing, it would be a great loss for Chinese culture. For any era where theory factions and schools of thought prospered, there would be contention, which led to resonance and further development. In this sense, theory factions and schools of thought should be considered a great asset to the Chinese. If there was only one voice in an era (such as an era where only Confucianism was advocated), the pace of social progress would have slowed down or even reversed.
Three Major Open Periods of Chinese Thought Chinese culture was not always tolerant and open. There were three major open periods from the Western Zhou Dynasty to the present. These three periods made a great historical contribution to Chinese ideological history.
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The first major open period was the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period when a hundred schools of thoughts prospered simultaneously. The contributions made by China at that time were as great as those made by ancient Greece to world ideology. Just like the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, the ideology and culture of the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period runs deep within Chinese history. There are several outstanding features of the ideology and culture of the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period: First is the freedom of creativity. At that time, there were various schools, each of which had a unique style of creativity. Chinese philosophers of that period enjoyed freedom in expressing ideas and acting them out. They got together to give lectures. They travelled and disseminated ideas. They wrote books with great passion. Some of them emphasized self-cultivation. They were concerned with reality, but they also yearned for history. Some were professionals in a specific field. Others were learned men. The era was looking forward to sages and sages did emerge during the era. The Pre-Qin ideology and culture is a spiritual legacy for later generations of Chinese people, which is inexhaustible and bottomless. It is important to develop the Chinese ideology and culture on the basis of this spiritual heritage and create a new Chinese ideology and culture for today’s Chinese people. The second feature was the freedom of contention. Since there were various schools, there were also arguments. All the arguments were made in an atmosphere of equality. Albeit different thinkers had different ideas (some ideas were intolerant of others), no school could manage to or attempt to rely on government powers to exclude or destroy others. None of the schools was dominant. At that time, a number of princes and nobles accepted many elites from several schools as their personal think-tank. The third feature was the freedom of movement. During this period, rulers of different states fought with each other, while scholars put forward their ideas from one state to another. If the State of Qi did not accept their ideas, they would go to the State of Chu. If Chu did not accept their ideas, they would go to the State of Qin. Wherever they went, all scholars, including Confucius, Mozi (about 468–376 bc), Mencius (372–289 bc), and Han Feizi (about 280–233 bc), would promote and sell their ideas with great passion. Freedom of movement facilitates the spread of ideology and culture. Under suitable conditions, such ideas would prosper making the academic air active, further promoting the development of various schools. When Confucius was alive, he did not succeed in career development. However, after he passed away, he left his thoughts for later generations. If there was no such ideological and cultural atmosphere at that time, China’s history would have been totally different.
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Fourth, the freedom of development. Development within the same school was also free. Confucius created Confucianism and after he passed away, Confucianism was divided into several sects, among which Mencius and Xunzi had the greatest impact on later generations. Nevertheless, there were significant differences in their ideological systems: Mencius believed in good human nature while Xunzi believed in bad human nature. Han Fei and Li Si (280–208 bc), who were Xunzi’s students, developed the Legalist Thought. In particular, Han Fei was famous as a synthesizer of Legalist Thought. “Way” is an important part of ancient Chinese philosophy. Laozi was the first one to define “Way” as the origin of the universe and the universal law, and to sum up the movement law of “Way” meaning “No extreme will hold long.” He reveals a series of conflicting concepts, such as having and not having, noble and mean, beauty and ugliness, misfortune and happiness, stiff and soft, strong and weak, clever and clumsy, life and death, and so on. He believed that none of these contradictions can exist in isolation and all of them need to exist interdependently. Zhuangzi also regards “Way” as the world’s highest principle. Nevertheless, he left the movement and made an absolute change in terms of people and environment. He believed there are no differences between things and that there are no fixed standards of right or wrong. Accordingly, Zhuangzi advocated an ideology similar to relativism and agnosticism, which is in sharp contrast with the thoughts of Laozi.
“The Sage’s Traces” (detail) from the Ming Dynasty portrays a scene of Confucius’ travels.
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“Laozi Riding an Ox” (detail) by Zhang Lu from the Ming Dynasty.
Immediately after Emperor Qin Shi Huang unified China, academic freedom came to an end. In Emperor Wu’s region during the Western Han Dynasty (206 bc–25 ad), Confucianism became the official ideological theory. This narrowed down the path of the development of Chinese thought.
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The second major open period of Chinese ideology began in the Wei (220–266) and Jin (265–420) Periods. The rise of metaphysics and Taoism are considered important aspects of this period. Metaphysics is different from Confucianism. Taoism refers to the Tao School in the Pre-Qin Period. After Buddhism spread throught China, its influence began to increase. All three religions were a blow to the dominant status of Confucianism. In the Three Kingdoms—Wei-era masters of Confucianism exited from the center of the social stage, and cutting-edge, open-minded scholars, represented by Wang Bi (226–249), replaced them. With their sharp writings, they became a group of new stars in the Chinese ideological and academic history. Nevertheless, Taoist and Buddhist cultures soon overwhelmed their brightness. During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, different sects of China’s ideology and culture were realigned. The Pre-Qin Period outstripped other periods by the appearance of outstanding thinkers and endless new cultural patterns, which ultimately led to an unprecedented boom in Chinese cultural history during the Sui (581–618) and Tang Periods. However, the characteristics of Chinese history determined that Confucianism must be in a dominant position. Led by Han Yu (768–824) and others, a classical Chinese literature and art movement of Chinese ideology and culture emerged in the mid-Tang Period. After that, the Confucian position gradually rose. In the Song Dynasty (960–1279), Neo-Confucianism began to appear. By the late Qing Dynasty, Neo-Confucianism became the most important ideological and cultural pattern in China. The third major ideological openness started from the late-Ming (1368– 1644) and early-Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) Periods, when several thinkers carried out activities, saw several rises and falls, experienced many important events, such as the late Qing Westernization Movement, the Hundred Days Reform, Xinhai Revolution, and so on, and ended with the May Fourth Movement in the early 1900s. The great openness, as well as the great development of Chinese ideology and culture, reached its climax during this period. The first great openness period of Chinese ideology featured disputes and the blending of cultures of south China and north China. The second great openness period was one of mutual collision and blending of the Central Plains culture, the minority culture in northwest China, and Buddhism. In the third great openness period, Eastern and Western ideologies and cultures impacted and blended with each other on a large scale. The third great openness period also led to the appearance of brand new doctrines, ideas, and development ideas in China, which had hitherto been shut off from the world. Theories of evolution, democracy, and science, as well as other kinds of Western academic ideas, began to enter China. During this period, Western missionaries and other people came to China to
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The “Wang Bi Version” of Tao De Ching by Laozi.
spread Western culture, while China assigned a large number of students to study abroad. Many scholars in China continued to think deeply and explore widely, which, together with the bloody lessons the Chinese learned from foreign invasions, brought unprecedented major changes to Chinese thought and culture. The three ideological and cultural open periods resulted in historical achievements, demonstrating that only by accepting all the new contemporary ideological achievements can historical development be successful and glorious. The trend of openness continues to the present day with China opening up and integrating new ideologies.
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Dominant Confucian Thought Although there were several major periods of ideological openness, Confucian thought had remained in the dominant and ruling position for a long time. Why was only Confucian thought dominant among all the schools of thoughts in Chinese ancient times? To find the answer to this question, we need to consider the demand characteristics of traditional Chinese society. Ancient Chinese feudal empires had a large population and a vast territory. Agriculture was their economic basis, and the emperors used feudal hierarchy to reinforce their power. An agricultural subsistence economy requires the maintenance of economic activity, stability, and order, which is consistent with the concept of Confucian thought (placing emphasis on ethics). Given a large population, a vast territory, and different cultural types and development needs in different places, a common value was required to maintain the balance in Chinese feudal empires. Coincidently, the moderation of Confucian doctrine met all the above requirements. Centralized empires required a powerful hierarchy, and ritual thoughts advocated by Confucianism, whose core content was the Three Cardinal Guides and the Five Constant Virtues, met this need. As a result, Confucianism stood out among hundreds of schools of thought and achieved its dominant status. In a sense, Confucianism is like a wide-angle lens of Chinese traditional culture and history. Its advantages are in line with the advantages of traditional Chinese society, while its shortcomings and deficiencies are also in line with those of Chinese traditional ideology and culture. In the past, China adopted national ideology and culture with Confucianism at the core, which ensured the unity of the nation and integration and coexistence of different ethnic groups. However, since the early 20th century, the Chinese have realized the shortcomings of Confucianism. Because it is moralist, it cannot help but exclude science and economics. Because moderation is its main idea, it cannot help but depress personality and creation. Because it advocates centralized government and the maintenance of hierarchy, it cannot help but reject equality and democracy. These shortcomings affected and delayed the pace of China’s advancement into a modern industrialized society. Chinese Confucianism, together with Confucian ideology and culture, has a 2,000-year-old tradition, although it was not set in stone. Instead, it experienced several major changes and countless minor ones. To later generations of Chinese, Pre-Qin Confucianism mainly refers to the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius, which in fact was not well received at that time. Although Confucius was a great and learned man, educationalist,
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Stone memorial archway in honor of Xu Guo, an official of the Ming Dynasty, Shexian County, Anhui. The emperors of ancient China safeguarded Confucian culture by recognizing sages and men of virtue, loyal officials, and dutiful sons.
and thinker, he spent half of his life promoting his thoughts because no princes would accept him. Mencius failed to find a place to practice his ideological doctrine despite his remarkable eloquence. It was Dong Zhongshu (about 179– 104 bc), a scholar living in the Western Han Dynasty, who changed the fate of Confucianism. Dong Zhongshu’s thoughts differed somewhat from the thoughts of Confucius and Mencius. He introduced a new set of doctrines in his masterpiece (Chun Qiu Fan Lu) by combining the thought of yin-yang and five elements with Confucian doctrine. In his view, the Three Cardinal Guides and the Five Constant Virtues constitute the Principles of Heaven. Furthermore, this doctrine was to be obeyed forever. It provided a basis for the supremacy of the
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A bronze statue of Wang Yangming at his home in Yuyao, Zhejiang.
emperor; the Chinese emperors were naturally in its favor, which then became the mainstream of Chinese thought and culture. During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, when Confucianism faced another downturn, Buddhism and Taoism had the opportunity to fully develop. Although Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism all shared the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty, Confucianism eventually came to prevail. After all, the Tang Empire was still a Chinese feudal empire with Chinese traditions. During the Song Dynasty, Confucianism climaxed, with
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FIVE ELEMENTS THEO R Y
Ancient Chinese believed that all things are composed of yin and yang eternally moving and converting into each other, which is the basic law of the whole universe. The simple dialectical thought of the coexistence of yin and yang is one of the bases of traditional Chinese philosophical thought. The five elements are wood, fire, soil, gold, and water. Ancient Chinese thought that all things in the world were generated from the movement and variation of the five basic substances. At the same time, they also interpreted the interrelationships among all things based on the same five elements. The five elements theory is a far-reaching notion in Chinese traditional culture. People combine yin and yang, five elements, eight diagrams, and other elements together to generate a theoretical system with powerful vitality, so as to explain various natural and social phenomena. For example, the theory of traditional Chinese medicine is based on the five elements theory.
Cheng-Zhu Lixue (School of Principle or School of Neo-Confucianism) as the core and Lu-Wang Xinxue (School of Mind) as a supplement. By then, Confucianism had also evolved into Song-Ming Lixue. In terms of the preciseness of doctrine, Cheng-Zhu Lixue and Lu-Wang Xinxue outperformed their predecessors greatly. However, when compared with traditional Confucianism, they advocated “Way,” “Principle,” “Mind,” and other fundamental concepts containing Buddhist and Taoist components. They could not match the innovation of the Pre-Qin philosophers, but Lixue, in the Song and Ming Dynasties (Song-Ming Lixue), developed into Confucianism with a more practical and rigorous system. The main theme of this Confucianist system is the concept of ritual thoughts, which played an important role in making China’s feudal era prosperous and had a significant impact on neighboring countries, such as Japan and Korea. However, Neo-Confucianism was also a powerful force that hindered China’s development and held it back from transforming into a modern society. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Confucianism embraced another wave of transformation and produced several representative thinkers, such as Gu Yanwu
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FYI
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CH ENG-ZH U LIX U E & LU- WAN G XIN XUE
Cheng-Zhu Lixue, aslo known as School of Principle is a major sect of Lixue which emerged during the Song and Ming Dynasties. Founded by the brothers Cheng Hao (1032–1085) and Cheng Yi (1033– 1107), the two thinkers of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), Cheng-Zhu Lixue was completed by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279), who became the most important representative of this school. It has had the greatest impact on the future generations of all Confucian schools. Cheng-Zhu Lixue officially became the country’s ruling ideology in the Ming and Qing dynasties, exerting a significant influence on China’s political, social, ideological, and cultural aspects.
(1613–1682), Wang Fuzhi (1619–1692), and Huang Zongxi (1610–1695), as well as the more rebellious thinker, Li Zhi (1527–1602). Traditional Confucianism was monarchical-power-oriented, and the most important thrust of the Three Cardinal Guides and the Five Constant Virtues. When Huang Zongxi commented on the rise and fall of feudal empires, he praised ancient kings for practicing justice but criticized the later emperors for their hypocrisy because they often used power to serve their own interests. He also advocated the rule of law, which challenged Confucian traditions, especially those dating to the Han Dynasty. Thinkers of the Ming and Qing Dynasties actually gave new life to traditional Confucianism with their thoughts. Nevertheless, it was a pity that the ideas of Chinese thinkers lagged behind those of Western thinkers who lived in the same era, a such as Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Descartes (1596–1650), Hobbes (1588–1679), and Locke (1632–1704), to name a few. However, Gu, Wang, Huang, and others initiated the change in Confucianism, which continued to affect the trend of Chinese ideology and culture until the late Qing Dynasty. After several major changes, especially after the huge impact of Western ideology and culture dating back to the late Qing Dynasty, Confucianism could no longer occupy the central position of Chinese thought and culture. Nevertheless, as one of the world’s ideological doctrines with a long history, Confucianism will exist for a long time to come. We should cherish and protect the essence and valuable part of Confucianism—it would be naive to imagine that it can ever be uprooted.
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Confucius Temple in Japan, built in 1893.
The more than hundred years of historical practice since the 20th century also demonstrates that aspects of the Chinese traditional ideology and culture can be looked upon for reference. It is not a coincidence that another new wave of Confucianism occurred from the 1920s to the present day. The interpretations of the thoughts of Laozi, Zhuangzi and other thinkers by contemporary researchers gave these interpretations new appeal. In the future, traditional Chinese ideology and culture will play an increasingly important role in driving the development of modern Chinese culture as well as world culture. It will also have a great effect on modern Chinese culture and even world culture. The modern Chinese need to address an important task: How to effectively integrate the wisdom and essence of traditional Chinese ideology and culture with a modern Chinese cultural system.
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Chapter 3
Virtues Upheld by the Chinese
Encouraged by Confucianism, the feudal ethical code satisfied the needs of a feudal hierarchy and national agricultural economy; thus, it had been the dominant moral standard for a very long period of time and became the most influential national ideology and culture in China. It influenced every aspect of the traditional society and culture. The ideology and culture of Confucianism is centered on morality focused on ethics, with the core of its main principles dealing with social order. The socalled Three Cardinal Guides are: 1) the ruler guides the subjects; 2) the father guides the son; and 3) the husband guides the wife. These guides established the absolute authority among the three parties. The Five Constant Virtues are benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith—the five moral standards summarized and advocated by Confucianism. These main principles of social order, especially the Three Cardinal Guides, seem incompatible with our current perspective on humanism and democracy. However, in traditional Chinese society, these were indeed the highest virtues upheld by people. These moral conditions supported the spiritual world of the Chinese for over 2,000 years. They have been integral in nurturing the moral integrity of the Chinese people. Even to this day, some of these principles hold value.
The Five Constant Virtues: The Virtues Upheld by the Chinese What are the five constant virtues? 37
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Benevolence According to Confucianism, benevolence is the summation of all virtues; that is, all other moral standards can be regarded as different conditions for benevolence. The core of benevolence is to love others. This is how Confucius interpreted the meaning of benevolent people: They shall sympathize, care, respect, help, and think about others. Mencius inherited and developed this thought. He proposed loving one’s family to loving all people, loving all people to loving everything in the world. According to Confucius and Mencius, from the moment a person is born, he is placed in the bloodlines and the love of family. One enjoys a parent’s tender love and gradually develops the love and respect for the family. This is the natural psychological basis for benevolence. Extending this family love, one develops love for others and treats everyone with a loving heart. Thus, one establishes a loving and harmonious interrelationship with
Murals portraying virtuous and dutiful people, Qinglong Temple, Jishan County, Shanxi. Confucianism advocates loyalty, filial piety, chastity, and righteousness.
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one another and finally extends it to everything in the world. The benevolence of Confucianism comes from family love and extends beyond it. Confucian scholars have developed other meanings for benevolence, such as poet Han Yu from the Tang Dynasty mentioned in Yuan Dao: “Benevolence is to love all.” He advocates embracing all and common love. Zhang Zai (1020– 1077), a Neo-Confucian scholar from the Northern Song Dynasty, proposed in Xi Ming that we should treat everyone as our brothers or sisters and every object as our friend, which further deepens the connotation of benevolence. Following Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi, Kang Youwei (1858–1072), and other ideologists developed their own understanding of benevolence. Benevolence has become a crucial part of Chinese traditional virtues. Ancient Chinese ideologists not only regarded benevolence as the basic principle of life but also hoped to integrate the spirit of benevolence into political operation. During the Pre-Qin Dynasty, Mencius strongly advocated a “policy of benevolence.” In Li Ji (Book of Rights) and Li Yun (Evolution of Rights), he designed a society of “great harmony” filled with the spirit of benevolence, describing a loving, peaceful, and harmonious relationship among people. The society of “great harmony” became the ideal society that countless Chinese people pursued and yearned for throughout time. In On Yueyang Tower, Fan Zhongyan (989–1052), in the early Song Dynasty, wrote, “Plan and worry ahead of the people, and enjoy the fruits after the people.” This is the sublimation of traditional Confucian benevolence.
Righteousness Righteousness is morality and justice, that is, the correct and reasonable valued standard to judge the right and wrong in people’s behavior. To the ancient Chinese, righteousness represented the common and basic interest of all people; hence it represents the social morality of modern people. The relationship between righteousness and interest is that between moral behavior and personal interest, the interest of a certain group, and even the interest of a nation. It is an important issue that has been long debated by the Chinese. To this day, it is a hot topic for discussion. Confucius did not deny people’s pursuit of personal interest, but hoped to take righteousness as the standard to weigh a person’s behavior. Mencius developed this idea, focusing more on the direct significance of righteousness. He believed that if a certain action did not abide by righteousness, then even if one was rewarded with the entire world’s treasure, one should not consider doing it. He also advocated that under extreme circumstances, one could not have both life and righteousness. As a result, one should lay down his life for righteousness. This value is an important part of the Chinese national moral fiber that
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In traditional Chinese opera, Guan Yu is often regarded as the embodiment of righteousness.
has inspired generation after generation of people with high ideals to strive for justice and righteousness, even sacrificing their lives in the process. This value is different from that of humanism advocated today, but it is difficult to say that the two are completely opposite. Mencian thought has shown the tendency of valuing justice over material gain. During the Western Han Dynasty, Dong Zhongshu pushed this value to an extreme. The Neo-Confucian scholars inherited this concept, emphasizing the “debate between justice and material gains.” They believed that everything should comply with the standard of righteousness. This concept bore the significance of emphasizing personal dignity and realizing personal value, but at the same time, the rejection and negation in pursuit of the personal interest of Neo-Confucian scholars formed the dominant attitude of “justice over interest” in traditional Chinese moral ethics.
Propriety Being an important category of Confucian moral ethics, propriety means the detailed code of conduct for people. Confucian scholars regard benevolence as the basic ethical requirement in relationships while requiring people to follow certain principles while conducting themselves in society, instead of
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loving everyone without any distinction. This principle is known as propriety. Thus, for different relationships, people’s behavior shall follow different ethical requirements. It is safe to say that propriety is a combination of benevolence and righteousness. Confucian scholars attached great importance to propriety. They established a huge and complete propriety system involving every aspect of daily life—the ethical codes system. Confucianism describes five major social ethical relationships (Five Cardinal Relationships) between rulers and subjects; father and son; husband and wife; and brothers and friends. For every specific relationship, there is a detailed ethical code. These codes have entered into every aspect of people’s life, affecting all daily behavior. It is safe to say that in traditional Chinese society, propriety is a series of tangible ethical moral standards. Confucianism regards propriety as the basis for people to build their lives. It requires people to consciously learn and follow the ethical codes. It plays an important role in improving personal moral integrity, maintaining a harmonious relationship, and keeping a stable social order. The Chinese have always been regarded as people with good manners. However, in ancient China, the influence of a feudal hierarchy and a privileged class had many negative impacts that repressed humanism.
Wisdom Wisdom is rationality and intelligence. According to Confucian ethical values, wisdom mainly implies moral recognition and moral rationality. According to Confucius, “A wise man cannot be misled.” Correct moral recognition is the premise and assurance of right moral behavior. He considered wisdom, benevolence, and courage as the basic qualities of kind and upright men. Mencius regarded wisdom as the ability to distinguish right from wrong. He proposed, “Wisdom is the sense of distinguishing between right and wrong.” Dong Zhongshu emphasized the equal importance of benevolence and wisdom. Confucian scholars from various dynasties supported the importance of wisdom. The basic function of wisdom is to distinguish right from wrong and establish correct moral concepts. People are always confronted by a complex social life, where it is sometimes difficult to distinguish right from wrong. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze, judge, and choose with rationality and wisdom. According to Confucianism, certain moral behaviors also existed with animals, such as benevolence between father and son among tigers and wolves, righteousness between father and son among bees and ants. Yet only humans can consciously conduct moral behavior under the guidance of moral recognition. Confucianism regards wisdom as the tool to recognize other virtues.
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Faith Faith is a key principle of traditional Chinese morality. It requires people to be honest, to act accordingly with words, and keep a promise. Chinese people always associate faith with loyalty and sincerity as Zhong Xin and Cheng Xin (loyal and faithful and honest and faithful). Throughout the history of Chinese ideology, various schools of scholars have attached different degrees of importance to faith. Among them, Confucianism praises faith the most. According to Confucianism, keeping good faith is the basic method to improve one’s moral integrity. Confucius not only regarded faith as the basis of a person’s life but also as the basis of a nation. He believed that “a country will collapse if people have no faith in it”—without people’s trust, the administration of a country won’t be able to stand. Mencius further elevated the ethical principles of honesty and faith to the law of nature, with philosophical intellectual analysis that subtly proved the objectivity, reasonability, and absoluteness of the faith principle. Later, Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming Dynasties provided further and more profound elaboration along this thinking path.
The Hall of Great Achievements at the Confucian Temple in Qufu, Shandong; Chinese emperors from different periods in ancient China respected Confucius and his Confucianism.
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Ancient Chinese emphasized and advocated good faith but did not list as the absolute rule of conduct how deeds should be carried out in accordance with the words. The pursuit of faith must be associated with righteousness. It is necessary to decide if the words uttered should be put into practice with righteousness. Mencius, Zhang Zai, and other philosophers proposed that we must not emphasize faith without moral standards. If it is against the greater good, then one rather break one’s words. The advocating of faith by Confucianism does not focus on the form but on the spiritual essence.
Ideal Personality and Realm of Life If the inner spiritual quality and outer behavior of a person are above those of ordinary people, then that person shall become a model for others. This realm of life is known as the “ideal personality.” In the history of Chinese ideology, philosophers from different schools of thought, such as Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, Taoism, and Buddhism, spent a long time exploring the ideal personality and put forth various patterns defining it. These patterns have long affected the life-value orientation of Chinese people. Among these, the ideal personality pattern defined by Confucianism has been profoundly influential. Confucianism attaches great importance to the substantiality of morality, the greatness of character, and the perfection of moral integrity. The ideal personality of Confucianism is that of the saint, with the typical models being Yao, Shun, Yu, Shang Tang, Emperors Wen and Wu of the Zhou Dynasty, Zhou Gong, and Confucius. The saints of Confucianism always bear the characteristics of “inner virtues and outer merits.” The so-called inner virtues mean the high standard of inner moral integrity; the so-called outer merits mean the saints’ behavior of extending inner moral integrity to the activities of bringing harmony to the family, order to the nation, and peace to the world, so that the whole of society becomes the “era of kingcraft.” As for how to fulfill this ideal personality of “inner virtues and outer merits,” different philosophers presented different ways. Of course, in reality, such perfect a perfect saint does not exist. The ideal personality of “inner virtues and outer merits” of Confucianism mainly includes the following basic characteristics: the first is the spirit of benevolence, which is the highest value of life pursued by Confucianism; the second is the sense of charity (virtue is demonstrated in the governing and benefiting of one’s people); the third is moderation, meaning one’s words and deeds shall not be biased and shall avoid being extreme; the fourth is the emphasis
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of moral integrity and devotion. Mencius said, “Neither riches nor honors can corrupt him; neither poverty nor humbleness can make him swerve from principle; neither threats nor forces can subdue him.” This concept of emphasizing moral integrity had substantial influence on future generations and became an important characteristic of the Confucian ideal personality. Besides this, the spirits of “dying for a just cause” and “sacrificing oneself for a noble cause” have been advocated since the time of Confucius and Mencius. However, in reality, the inner virtues and outer merits are basically separated. How to change the inner virtues into outer merits and how to combine the two is the endless unresolved practical dilemma of traditional Confucianism. Unlike the Confucian attitude of active involvement in the world, Taoism, as represented by Zhuangzi, designed an ideal personality that was beyond secularization—he called it “the real person” or “the lofty person.” With a magnificent imagination and picturesque words, he described an ideal life with rich and romantic colors. This Taoist ideal personality created by Zhuangzi is completely beyond knowing, eliminating every limit between life and death, benefit and harm, material and spirit, and achieving the absolute free realm of individual spirit. The other-worldly ideal personality pursued by Zhuangzi obviously does not exist in the real world. However, as a realm in spirit and life, it creates significant fascination, giving people unlimited imagination and yearning. This life-theory from Taoists also has great influence on the psychological and cultural life values of Chinese people. The theory led to the awakening of self-awareness in the Wei and Jin Dynasties and later, the liberation of individualism. Zhuangzi preached that people should lead a simple and natural lifestyle, keeping their spirits pure. This theory of the realm of life greatly influenced the living attitude and emotional interest of the Chinese people, especially the intellectuals. The spiritual pursuit of Taoism helps them to maintain a peaceful mind and a psychological balance in the complex real life. Tao Yuanming (about 365–427) from the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Su Shi (1037–1101) from the Northern Song Dynasty, among others, were all influenced by the Taoist spirit. Of course, the ideal personality and realm of life pursued by Taoism also tend towards world-weariness, escaping from reality, and empty and melancholy sentiments. They advocate negative endurance and reconciliation with the environment. Besides Confucianism and Taoism, Mohism, Legalism, and Buddhism also formed their own ideal personality. Though not as influential and popular as the first two, they also contributed, to some degree, to the construction of traditional Chinese virtues.
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“Listening to the Wind in the Pines” by Ma Lin, Southern Song Dynasty, portraying an old man sitting in the shade of a pine tree.
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A portrait of Tao Yuanming by Wang Zhongyu, early Ming Dynasty, depicting his indifferent life-style.
For example, Mohism pursues the ideal of loving all equally, which means to love without distinction, regardless of relationships, precedence, or social status. Mohists pursue the “interest,” not the public interest of people. It is fundamentally different from the “interest” in Confucianism. Mohism requires us to not only help others by using our labor and fortune but also our spirits. To realize the highest goal of “loving all equally and benefiting each other,” Mohists also propose assisting the poor, helping people in distress, and going to the aid of the nation with great courage. An important characteristic of Mohism is to emphasize life practice. The ideal Mohist personality also radiates with extraordinary intensity.
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The ideal personality of Buddhism is “Buddha,” or “the enlightened one.” It is an ideal personality detached from society. Buddhism believes that life is painful. Human beings should eliminate all lust and emotional turbulence to become “Buddha.” The ideal personality of “Buddha” emphasizes “no ego,” “unselfishness,” and “being without desire.” It is hard to follow this path, but the rational elements within provide spiritual medicine for people calming the risky worldly desires.
Method of Cultivating Morality to Gain Virtues In traditional Chinese culture, different schools provide not only their ideal personality, but also ways to realize these ideals. Confucians emphasize self-improvement of morality. They treat selfimprovement as the foundation of all other activities, including introspection, prudence in heart, maintaining innocence and cultivating kindness, relearning and practice, and so on. Confucianism believes that people’s moral integrity must rely on their conscious effort instead of those of others. Confucius advocated learning from the sage (if one had the opportunity) and introspection for wrongdoings if one did not meet a sage. This is the so-called introspection and self-questioning, and accordingly, Confucian Tseng Shen proposed the theory of “learn to reflect upon oneself daily,” meaning everyone should practice self-reflection several times every day. This thought was inherited by later Confucian scholars and was further developed. Prudence in heart means that one should be cautious all the time without relaxing or becoming indulgent—the most important method of cultivating morality according to Confucianism. This thought was further advocated and developed by Neo-Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming Dynasties. According to Zhu Xi, “Prudence is the first commandment in the path to becoming a saint. It must be carried out thoroughly without intermission” (Words of Zhu Xi). He believed that the importance of prudence exceeded that of any other method of cultivating morality. Maintaining innocence and practicing kindness in order to cultivate morality were closely associated with the Confucian concept of the inherent goodness of men. Later, Mencius proposed the theory that men are inherently good. This theory has always been the mainstream theory of human nature in Confucianism. Maintaining innocence and practicing kindness maintain and amplify the inherent goodness in human nature, preventing them from being corroded by the outside world. This proposition has greatly influenced Confucian theories throughout history.
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“The Filial Piety Story of Zhou Jiang” by Jiao Bingzhen (Qing Dynasty), portraying how the mother of King Wen of Zhou was filial toward Zhou Jiang, King Wen’s grandmother, thus preaching ethics and advocating Confucianism.
Confucianism attaches great importance to ethical knowledge. It regards acquiring this knowledge as a key process to realize moral integrity. Since the time of Confucius, there have been various theories on learning. Throughout his life, Confucius “always had a thirst for learning and was tireless in teaching,” presenting a great model of learning. Xunzi started with the theory of the inherent evil of human nature. He believed that with propriety and culture, men could change the evil in their nature and cultivate kindness. Therefore, he established the importance of cultivation and learning. Confucianism not only emphasizes learning but also putting the knowledge into practice. Cultivating morality needs learning but cannot be limited to learning alone. We need to integrate moral knowledge into our own moral integrity. During the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius emphasized the importance of practices. Also during the Song and Ming Dynasties, issues concerning knowledge and practices were about moral consciousness and moral practices, thus provoking a long debate in the Confucian school. Cheng-Zhu
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“Six Patriarchs of Zen School” (detail) by Dai Jin, Ming Dynasty. The figure on the right side of the picture is Bodhidharma, who, according to legend, faced a wall and meditated for nine years at the Shaolin Temple in Dengfeng, Henan, and preached Buddhism.
Lixue, Lu-Wang Xinxue, and other schools had different opinions. However, there is no debate over the importance of the realization of moral integrity. Taoism, represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi, also emphasizes realizing the ideal personality through self-improvement. However, the method was quite different from that of Confucianism. Taoism advocates a “do-nothing” perspective, abandoning humanity and morality, “sitting in oblivion,” “purification of heart,” and so on. Do-nothing is the basic political opinion of Taoists, as well as their key method of cultivating morality. It requires people to follow the natural situation and the inner order of things, to maintain an innocent and pure nature. According to Taoism, the most valuable thing in a person is one’s conscience and natural instincts. Thus, one must escape from the restraint of moral ethical codes to obtain freedom of spirit. This proposition of abandoning humanity and morality of Taoism was a bit extreme, but still resonates with today’s pursuit of natural harmony. The “sitting in oblivion” and “purification of heart” advocated by Zhuangzi required one to completely eliminate ones’ selfconsciousness, which is impossible to realize. It can only be understood from a psychological perspective. Buddhism believes that to escape from endless suffering, one must eliminate lust and various emotional turbulences in order to separate oneself from reality. Therefore, one must go through a long and painful active process, confining and restraining oneself with various complicated and strict commandments, so one can focus on the spiritual world and understand the essence of Buddhism. The practicing methods proposed by Buddhism are extremely complex. The basic principles can be summarized as discipline, meditation, and wisdom. Discipline implies the commandments—the rules Buddhists must follow in the temple or at home. Meditation is the Buddhist mind—the focused psychological condition and culturing method. Wisdom is intelligence, which, according to Buddhism, can lead people toward truth and liberation.
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Chapter 4
Political and Religious Concepts
China has been a political power since ancient times; as such, it has created, contributed, gained, and lost a great deal in the political field. The enthusiasm amongst the Chinese with regard to politics is not less than that of Western people’s toward religion. The ancient Chinese made notable political achievements and had more influence on politics than on any other field. Over thousands of years, the Chinese have formed their own political philosophy, political ethics, political faith, political culture, conceptual talent, and a talent-training system, as well as an extensive and well-organized political structure. In short, they have formed an oriental political culture with Chinese characteristics. China was never a religious nation but a secular society where the worldly imperial authority surmounted religious authority. However, Chinese religious activities were not rare; on the contrary, religion was always accepted and encouraged in history. This was a typical feature of traditional Chinese culture.
Political Philosophy Ancient Chinese political philosophy had faith in the way of heaven, the will of heaven, the fortune of heaven, and the principles of heaven. In particular, Dong Zhongshu developed a political philosophy to connect the celestial act with worldly reign. In considering the primitive theory of natural elements, he claimed that the emperor was the son of Heaven, was chosen by Heaven, and
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this was the reason for incontestable authority. At the same time, he advocated the union of the emperor and Heaven, saying that an emperor could only be judged by heaven, and if an emperor had faults, he could be criticized by ministers and recorded by a historian. In general, traditional Chinese political ideals were Confucian, as decided by Confucian practices in Chinese politics. The policy of benevolence was a very Confucian ideal. As the practice of benevolence is the highest state of Mencian political thought, it followed that “people are the noblest, followed by the government, and then the king,” promoting public integrity and love of the people. All of China’s successful emperors promoted public integrity. It is understandable that under this traditional mindset, incorruptible tradition was formed in China where enlightened politicians wanted to be incorruptible officials and the people had high expectations from such officials. The “incorruptible tradition” was very influential in traditional society. For example, Bao Zheng (999–1062) was renowned as “Bao Fairness.” In traditional opera, he was not only the judge in the physical world but also the judge in the after world (the world of souls). Ancient Chinese politics emphasized the pursuit of world unity and the coexistence of all ethnic groups. In ancient times, the Han people living in central China had an advanced level of civilization, while minority ethnic groups were not as advanced. The Huaxia nation had gradually developed the idea of how to judge people by their civilized character and etiquette. This meant that people who fit the Huaxia civilization and etiquette standards were considered civilized, while those who
In Beijing opera, Bao Zheng wears black facial makeup, representing a just and fair figure.
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“Lady Ming Leaving the Han Realm” (detail) by Gong Suran (Southern Song Dynasty), portraying the lady-in-waiting Wang Zhaojun who left Han and married a Hun tribal chief during the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Western Han Dynasty.
did not were considered uncivilized; thus there was discrimination between the civilized and the uncivilized. There was a great deal of discord between the Huaxia nation and the minority ethnic groups from time to time. However, throughout Chinese history, ancient Chinese politics advocated world unity and the coexistence of all ethnic groups. In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, neither the Qin Kingdom nor the Chu Kingdom was a political majority, though each had a powerful influence on politics. Finally, Qin united China. From the Wei and Jin Dynasties onward, the Hu and Han blood became mixed. After the Song Dynasty was destroyed by the Mongolians, during the Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368), rulers promoted a racial discrimination policy, which was not common in Chinese history. When the Manchu’s established the Qing Dynasty, they decided to embrace the Han culture, and finally Manchu, Han, Mongolian, and other ethnic groups achieved coexistence and mutual benefits. Undoubtedly, historical Chinese power and prosperity was the inevitable result of ethnic coexistence. Ancient Chinese people had a political faith, which stressed collective interest, attaching great importance to state safety, as well as land and people’s
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living conditions. The Chinese people paid great attention to land. For example, Chong’er (697–628 bc), the exiled prince of the Jin Kingdom, asked for food from a farmer in a field, who handed him a clod of soil at which point Chong’er became very angry. However, when an adviser told him that land was the root of a kingdom and that he should thank the heavens for blessing him with the land, he thanked the gods. Traditional Chinese political faith paid great attention to society. The Chinese state meant land and grain, referring to a government. In other words, from a traditional Chinese perspective, a government was based on land and grain, and all acts of the king and his government should be for the purpose of state prosperity. Li Shimin (599–649), the founder of Tang Dynasty, had a famous saying: “Water may either carry a boat or overthrow a boat.” Here, “water” represents the people and “boat” represents the state. Ancient Chinese political faith believed that everything was related to civil loyalty and the state. Without civil loyalty, a state would not be sustained: without a state, how could there be an emperor? Confucians also paid great attention to political culture, which was especially necessary for an emperor because political culture enlightened him and prevented him from driving the state into danger. People expected the
The “Altar of Land and Grain” in Beijing’s Zhong Shan Park. It was the site of imperial sacrifices to the gods of land and grain in the Ming and Qing dynasties.
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Li Shimin, Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty.
emperor to accept public opinions, especially critical comments. Li Shimin was ready to accept ministers’ opinions, and his straightforward minister, Wei Zheng (580–643), always criticized him sharply—fortunately, the emperor found it easy to accept his opinions. When Wei Zheng died, the emperor sadly observed: “My mirror is lost, and I will not find my faults any longer.” Ancient China was a nation of strong politics with an ethical core, where almost all important articles and expressions were about politics. In particular, extreme theoretical writings were inherently connected with Chinese politics and history. Niccolò Machiavelli’s (1469–1527) The Prince is famous; so are brilliant Chinese works like The Book of Lord Shang, Han Feizi, and Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals.
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Political System and Reform The ancient Chinese political system was inclusive. From the Pre-Qin Period onward, China not only had a tight and effective management system but also an effective organizational system, economic system, and a more detailed ethical system, as well as a system for talents education, training, and selection. The Chinese imperial examination system had a tremendous impact on history.
Portrait of Sun Yat-sen erected in Tian’anmen Square during festivals.
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China experienced at least three key reforms from the Pre-Qin period to the People’s Republic of China in 1949. The first was Shang Yang’s (c. 390–338 bc) legal reform and Ying Zheng’s unification of the six Warring states. Shang Yang’s reform not only laid an economic and military foundation for Qin prosperity, it also established the political structure of the Qin Kingdom. Later, Ying Zheng, the first Qin emperor, continued and reformed the structure, forming the system of prefectures and counties, standard characters and vehicles, standard weights and measures, and other national systems. The Han Dynasty generally followed this system but adopted Confucianism as the official ideology. The second reform was that of the ministerial system from the Wei and Jin to the Sui-Tang Periods, when the Chinese political structure underwent important changes from the three-dukes-and-nine-chamberlains system to a ministerial system. As for the selection of talent, the promotion system was changed to the examination system, a reform that lasted for hundreds of years and was most developed in the Tang Dynasty. This system was the longest system in use in ancient China. The third reform was the political structural reform from the late Qing period to the early Republic of China. At the risk of national survival, a group of reformists tried to promote political reform, with the ultimate ideal of having a constitutional monarchy, which meant the ancient Chinese political structure would be modernized. But the reformists failed to achieve this. Finally, Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) led the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 to overthrow the autocratic monarchy that had lasted for more than 2,000 years, and tried to establish modern democracy and republicanism.
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MINISTERIA L S YSTEM
This system was a political structure established in the Sui-Tang Period. The Tang departments, being the organs of supreme power, were Secretariat, Chancery, and Department of State Affairs. The six ministries responsible for various governmental affairs were the Ministry for Personnel, Revenue, Rites, War, Justice, and Works. This system developed and strengthened the national centralized feudal system applicable until the Qing Dynasty.
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In Chinese history, this political reform was epochal. However, there was still a long and difficult road ahead before the realization of a modern political structure. As great as Chinese political history was, there were also serious shortcomings in traditional Chinese political concepts and systems. In particular, the political history after the Song and Yuan Dynasties typically reflected these shortcomings. For example, imperial authority, or sovereign power, would surmount all laws, and the ethical codes would replace laws in tradition. The direct result was Dai Zhen’s (1724–1777) critique on the ridiculous phenomenon of “ethics in killing people.” Centralized authority lacked democracy because strict hierarchy lacked equality; the focus on politics led to a disregard of economics; the focus on ethics and morality led to the disregard of science and technology. Moreover, traditional Chinese political concepts and systems were closed to the world outside China, resulting in a lack of enterprise and vitality. Such features were not suitable for modern politics.
Religions in a Worldly Regime As mentioned above, China was never a religious nation; worldly imperial authority prevailed over religious authority. The ruler would sometimes accept the influence of some religious organization or religious leader, but state policy was still decided by the emperor-centered worldly regime. This does not mean that China lacked religious activities; in fact, all kinds of religious organizations and religious ideas were always active in China. Of the Chinese emperors from different dynasties, many were interested in religion, especially Buddhism and Taoism, such as Emperor Wu of Liang Dynasty (464–549), Empress Wu Zetian of Tang Dynasty (624–705), Emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty (1082–1135), and Emperor Shenzong of Ming Dynasty (1563–1620). They even practiced Buddhism or Taoism. However, the royal rights were superior to religion, so the emperor could give an order and hand religious affairs over to someone else or some other organization to be managed. All influential global religions left their footprints in China. Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity contributed differently to the Chinese civilization. Local Taoism was also influential. In China, Taoism rivals Buddhism. Buddhism (including Tibetan Buddhism) and Taoism are the most influential religions in Chinese culture. In addition, Judaism and other religions also had roles in Chinese history. Religious accommodation by a government was a great feature of the Chinese civilization, which was also an advantage. Due to this, Chinese
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“Listening to the Zither” by Zhao Ji, Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty. The person playing the zither in this picture is Zhao Ji himself, who believed in Taoism.
culture was neither subjected to a cultural gap phenomenon nor conflict due to different beliefs. Naturally, religious activities were not unexpectedly carried out, and it is evident that some foreign religions had to encounter difficulties in China.
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FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
ERA D ICA TING BU DDHISM
In Chinese history, for political and social reasons, there was largescale religious oppression and intolerance of Buddhism. Emperors from various dynasties such as Emperor Tai Wu of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Emperor Wu Di of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, Emperor Wu Zhong of the Tang Dynasty, and Emperor Shi Zhong of the Later Zhou Dynasty, carried out measures to eradicate or “kill” Buddhism. Temples were confiscated and the monks were secularized but few deaths occurred during these incidents.
In fact, all religions had to face obstacles before developing and taking root in this land. Consider Buddhism and Taoism, for example. They conflicted fiercely with Confucianism and one another. In Chinese history, there were several incidents of “repressing Buddhism” and other religious persecutions. Though generally speaking, there were no extreme instances. The religious and cultural factions conflicted, learned from each other, and finally reached a state of mutual prosperity. Traditional Chinese culture is a system seeking stability and balance, including the balance between secular culture and religious culture.
Buddhism entered into the golden age during the Tang Dynasty. The Giant Stone Buddha at Leshan Mountain in Sichuan is 71 meters high. Its construction began in 713 AD and lasted 90 years.
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“Admiring Lotuses on Lushan Mountain” painted by Shangguan Zhou, Qing Dynasty, portraying the scene of the monk Huiyuan interacting with refined scholars.
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Foreign religions had to deal with three types of relationships in order to take root and develop in China, namely, with imperial power; with central Chinese cultural traditions and customs; and with Confucianism. A good relationship might help smooth out development, while a bad one might cause trouble and frustration. Relationships with imperial power were the key to development in China. This is because imperial power was the sovereign power in ancient China, backed by Confucian tradition and public support; so rejection by imperial power might have equalled rejection from the whole of China. Buddhism was brought to China during the Han Dynasty, and it evened out in Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589). Buddhist beliefs contradicted Chinese cultural traditions, but when Buddhism became popular, such contradictions became superficial. According to Buddhist theory, Buddhists should respect only Buddha without respecting the emperor; but according to the Confucian view, disrespect to the emperor was considered a big offense. In addition, monks had to expose their left arm, and this dress style conflicted with the inherent Chinese ethical code. In the Eastern Jin (317–420) Period, eminent monk Hui Yuan (334–416) proposed the “coexistence of Buddhism and Confucianism,” with the core argument that Buddha did not have any conflicts with Confucius or Emperor Yao; in fact, they were ultimately the same so all conflicts between Buddhism and Confucianism should also be resolved. Under this theory, Buddhists began to accept Confucian ethical views, respect the emperor and filial piety, and reform their clothing. In this way, the barrier between Buddhism and Confucianism was broken down. Christianity faced similar difficulties in China at the beginning. The concept of God contradicted with Confucian loyalty to the emperor and filial piety toward the family. This obvious conflict made it impossible for preachers to establish their religion in China. Later, Italian Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552–1610) found the solution. He used three methods. The first was the upper-class route, seeking support from officials and even the emperor. The second was to learn from Western technology and arts, to arouse the official class’ attention and respect. The third was to adapt Christianity to Chinese customs. For example, Ricci wore a European monk’s habit in order to do missionary work when he first came to China. Later, he found that this method was not helpful and began to wear a long Confucian-style gown and learned Chinese. In 1583, he was allowed to enter Zhaoqing, Guangdong Province, to visit local officials and he kowtowed to the magistrate. From then on, Ricci became a very successful preacher in China and transmitted many Western cultural ideas to China. However, his behavior was criticized by the Vatican.
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Matteo Ricci in Confucian costume.
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A Christian preacher does missionary work in China during the late Qing Dynasty.
Traditional Religious Concepts The traditional Chinese concept of religion was unique. To understand the Chinese attitude and behavior toward religions, it is important to understand its features. The traditional Chinese concept of religion was strongly colored by pantheism. China was never a monotheistic nation. The number of spirits and phantoms are endless. There are many personalized nature deities in China, like mountain deities, water deities, sea deities, and land deities. Deities play a role in everyday life; for example, there are gate deities, well deities, kitchen deities, and even bed deities. According to folklore, every industry had its industrial deity. There were 17 classes of ancient industrial deities governing nearly 200 industries—some even had more than one deity. In fact, some deities were creators of certain industries while others were protectors. For example, Lu Ban was the creator of carpentry; Emperor Minghuang (685–762), the Tang emperor, was the creator of drama (opera). Creators and deities in medicine were numerous: Farming Deity, Yellow Emperor, Sun Simiao, Bian Que, Li Xuan and so on.
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Many areas in China still maintain the custom of putting up red couplets and gate deities during the Spring Festival.
Chinese folk religions are strongly secularized. The deities have almost the same attributes as people. They have emotions and they care about ordinary life. People pray to the deities for several reasons, for example, for rain during draught, speedy recovery from illness, and more often, for marriage, birth, official promotions, fortune making, and so on. Praying for the granting of such wishes was not acceptable in Buddhism, but Chinese people believe that the deity should be interested in worldly affairs, irrespective of religion, be it Buddhism, Taoism, or Confucianism. The worship of deities in Buddhist or Taoist temples is different from Western practices in churches. Chinese people burn incense in order to win
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a deity’s promise. More precisely, people trade with deities; they offer some money and burn a couple of incense sticks in order to obtain peace, good future, health, an ideal marriage, and so on. The Chinese rebuild deities. For example, Avalokitesvara was originally a male image in India, but the Chinese feminized him as a “Son Giver.” Many believers worship “her” for a son and heir. Traditional Chinese culture focuses on balance and harmony and harmony between different religions. For example, the Chinese try to harmonize the conflicting thoughts of Buddhism and Taoism. In a folk rite, both Buddhists and Taoists will be mentioned. In classic Chinese literary works, monks (Buddhists) and Taoists were always mentioned. For example, in the famous classic works A Dream of Red Mansions, Jia Baoyu was closely related to a monk and a Taoist who always appeared at the same time, showing no religious difference. Of course, a faithful religious follower will regard this differently due to his or her different beliefs. But what is interesting is that such a union between Buddhism and Taoism does exist in reality. For example, in the Eight
A statue of Avalokiteshvara (Son Giver), a product of the combination of Buddhism and the Chinese conventional idea of valuing a son and heir.
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A painting depicting the farming deity gathering medicinal herbs, discovered in a wooden pagoda in Ying County, Shanxi.
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Religious Destinations, Beijing, you will find Buddhist and Taoist idols sitting together. Emperor Guan (Guan Yu) is considered as a deity in Chinese society, and also always worshiped and presented in Buddhist or Taoist temples; this is never considered strange. This aspect is closely related to the Confucian outlook on spirits and deities. Confucius had a mixed attitude toward spirits and deities. For example, he advocated that people should “respect spirits and deities but also keep away from them.” Influenced by this thought, most Chinese people are close to souls and deities, but they do not think that they cannot live without them. So a Chinese person may believe in Buddhism, in Emperor Guan, in Laotse, or any other deity. Their faiths are not very deep-rooted and they would not like to discuss the differences.
Religious Influence on Traditional Chinese Culture All religious organizations and ideas in history had some influence on and made some contribution to traditional Chinese culture, each serving as a component of it. They debated and even had conflicts but most often, they lived in harmony. Generally speaking, religious culture contributed greatly to Chinese civilization. With respect to foreign cultural exchange, the monk Xuan Zang (602–664) went on a pilgrimage to India for Buddhist scriptures, which marked a successful cultural exchange between China and India. His book Great Tang Records on the Western Regions was an important piece of historical literature. He also translated a number of Buddhist scriptures which are still publicly recognized. Buddhism also plays an important role in the Chinese–Japanese cultural exchange. Buddhism in China blossomed in the Tang culture. The spread of Buddhism was significant for Chinese cultural expansion. Of all religions, Buddhism has had the largest influence on the structure of Chinese philosophy. When Buddhism was introduced in China, it conflicted with local Confucianism; but on the other hand, it gained from metaphysics, and Confucianism and finally became synchronized. In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism in turn had an influence on Confucianism; for example, Confucian intellectuals such as Liu Zongyuan (773–819), Bai Juyi (772–846), and Li Ao (772–836), were considerably influenced by Buddhism. The three religions— Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism—promoted each other and this became a cultural feature of China. In the Song Dynasty, Confucian idealists such as Cheng Hao, Brother Cheng Yi, and Zhu Xi carefully studied Buddhism and their idealist ideas were mixed with several Buddhist ideas. Buddhist influence
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Statue of the monk Xuan Zang.
on Confucianism was not specific to one person or one thing; it was systematic communication and integration. Song and Ming ideals were called neoConfucianism due to the neologism caused by Buddhism. Religions left a great influence on Chinese literature and arts, too. Buddhists and Taoists were brilliant at poetry, prose, painting, and calligraphy, with many works on display. More importantly, ideation obviously featured by Buddhism and Taoism was imported in the fields of literature and arts, raising classic Chinese literature and arts to a new level.
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Great Tang Records on the Western Regions compiled by modern scholars.
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“Drunken Li Bai” by Su Liupeng of Qing Dynasty, portraying the scene of drunken Li Bai in the Imperial Palace.
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The most famous Tang poets, Li Bai (701–762), Du Fu (712–770), and Wang Wei (701–761), represented the religious aspect in arts influenced by Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. For example, Li Bai was dubbed the Immortal of Poetry due to his imaginative poetry, as affected mostly by Taoism. Du Fu showed great concern for the state and people, marking the Confucian personality. Wang Wei was dubbed Buddha of Poetry, and his poems were deeply affected by Buddhism, revealing a far-reaching sense of Zen Buddhism. Religions had great influence on Chinese art. For example, the Buddhist statues of the grottoes of Mogao, Longmen, and Yungang, as well as in Dazu County, Sichuan, are world treasures. There are numerous Taoist temples, Buddhist temples, mosques, and Christian churches across China, and many of them are representative of religious architecture with a variety of religious artwork. The tradition of Buddhists preaching in Buddhist temples affected the creation of Chinese storytelling arts and classical novels. In addition, Buddhism, Taoism, and other religions contributed to Chinese science and technology, education, medicine, martial arts, Wushu, and breathing exercises (qigong).
Buddhism prospered during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. The famous Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi, were constructed during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534).
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Temple fair at a Buddhist temple.
The Chinese love a sophisticated lifestyle. These religions affected Chinese customs, and some customs affected the development of religions. Famous religious mountains are also destinations for folk activities. The Chinese are naturals at combining religious activities with folk activities. The best-known festival is the temple fair. The temple fair is a large-scale entertainment event held in Buddhist or Taoism institutions. For example, Beijing has the famous Baiyun Temple Fair. Westerners may wonder how a temple can be a noisy place. It is probably impossible that such an event would be held in a Western church. However, it is believed that during the temple fair, the religious deities share their joy with the public. A temple fair is also a venue for profitable activities. In China, temple economics is a subject for study. Temples, whether Buddhist or Taoist, are generally located on famous mountains with beautiful scenery. They also contribute to help the local tourism industry. The golden age of Chinese religion has faded, but religious culture will be alive for a long time to come. Over the past few years, religious activities have been on the rise again.
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Qingcheng Hill in Sichuan. A famous holy place for Taoists in China.
5
Chapter 5
The Concepts of Economy and Wealth
There are significant historical differences between the development of China’s economic model and Western economic models. The curve of historical development of China’s economy is stable and gradual, unlike the West whose clearly contrasting curve has strong ups and downs. During the Spring and Autumn Period, China had almost the same economic level as the ancient Greeks in the West. During the Middle Ages, the Western economy fell into a depression while China experienced extraordinary prosperity, especially during the Song Dynasty when the Chinese economy achieved unprecedented success. However, since the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the Western economy initiated modern economic development and achieved historic progress. China entered a continual decline, allowing the giant of the East to become the object of Western plundering. The social and cultural reasons that caused this phenomenon are worthy of further study by people today.
A Historic Period in China’s Economic Development The economic development of ancient China was characterized as being steady and gradual, but this did not mean that there was no rapid developmental stage. In fact, the earlier Western Han Dynasty was a period of rapid development. 77
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Map of Chang’an city during the Tang Dynasty.
Since the founding of the Western Han Dynasty by Liu Bang (256–195 bc), and through nearly a hundred years of recuperative policies during the reign of Empress Lü, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing, the Han Dynasty made great accomplishments. During the reign of Emperor Wu, the Han Dynasty (156–87 bc) prospered from a strong sense of nationalism, which allowed the Han Dynasty to battle and drive out the Huns who repeatedly violated the Chinese border. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty led crusades against the Huns in the
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north, contacted the Western Regions, establishing close cooperation with all countries of the Western Regions, and thus opened the famous Silk Road. An important reason that enabled him to achieve this series of advancements was the strong economy of the Western Han Dynasty. After the Western Han Dynasty, economic success once again appeared in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. After the efforts of several generations, the Tang Dynasty also achieved great economic strength with internal and external accessibility, and helped China to become the most advanced and prosperous country in the world in terms of culture. Chang’an (now Xian), capital during the Tang Dynasty, was a prominent international metropolis leading the world. According to archaeological discoveries, Chang’an of the Tang Dynasty was indeed unprecedented in scale. It was 8,470 meters from north to south, 9,550 meters from east to west, and the circumference of the whole city was 35 kilometers. The layout of the city was in the shape of a square with straight streets. In addition to royal family members, officials, and local residents, there
Murals of No. 296 Grotto at Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang in Gansu, portraying the life scenes of merchants on the Silk Road.
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were a number of foreign envoys and foreign students in this great city. Asian and African countries, as well as Europe’s Byzantine Kingdom, constantly sent their envoys who brought their own belongings and culture with them. This included the famous Japanese diplomats to the Tang Dynasty. It is particularly worth mentioning that many businessmen gathered in Chang’an. Most of them were merchants from the Western regions. Some of them were from Uighur (Xinjiang), some came by sea, most were Arabian and Persian—who first came from the South China Sea to Guangzhou, then from Guangzhou via Hongzhou (now Nanchang, Jiangxi Province), Yangzhou (now belongs to Jiangsu Province), Luoyang (now belongs to Henan)—and arrived in Chang’an. During its most prosperous period, the total number of merchants from Western Regions in Chang’an city reached several thousand. They carried out business in Chang’an; their assets and profits were substantial; and they formed a very rich group. Some Chinese classical novels vividly described the legendary businesses and adventures of these traders. It was not possible to support such a large commercial activity without solid economic foundation. Comparing the development level of the world’s cities at that time, the scale of the buildings and the economic levels of Chang’an were said to be supreme. Chang’an directly influenced Japan, the Korean Peninsula, and other places. The Japanese city of Nara was built to a plan similar to that of Chang’an city. At that time in Europe, the Roman Empire had been destroyed and the East Roman Empire was headed toward a decline. Belgian historian Irene (1862–1935) wrote in her book Cities of the Middle Ages that at the time, the count’s territory in each province of the Frankish Kingdom did not have its own capital, just as the King-
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From the beginning of the 7th century to the end of the 9th century, in order to learn about Chinese culture, Japan sent more than 10 diplomatic delegations to the Tang Dynasty, some of up to five or six hundred people. Japanese diplomatic visits to the Tang Dynasty were important events in the history of Sino–Japanese cultural exchange. The embassies of the Tang Dynasty brought their regime, culture, and arts to Japan, playing an important role in promoting the development of Japan and friendly exchanges between China and Japan.
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“Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty Meeting Tibetan Emissaries” (detail) by a painter in the Tang Dynasty.
dom did not have a capital. Similar to the emperor’s palace, the castle that the count lived in was usually in the countryside. According to the book Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century written by French historian Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), even until the 15th century, about eight centuries after the foundation of the Tang capital, Chang’an, the population of Cologne, the largest city in Germany, was only about 20,000. This obviously could not compare with Chang’an of the Tang Dynasty. In the Song Dynasty, China’s economy was more developed and had achieved unprecedented success. Japanese scholars dubbed the period “the Oriental Renaissance.” Urban trade in the Song Dynasty was very prosperous, reflected in masashi, all kinds of notes, words, and novels. The famous painting “Painting Scroll” of the Song Dynasty described the bustling urban economy of the capital Bianliang (today’s Kaifeng) of the North Song Dynasty (960–1127). It can be seen from the scroll that on both sides of the streets of Bianliang, there were restaurants, pubs, various shops, and workshops. The streets were very large and commercial activity was thriving. There were many boats on the river loaded with cargo. Due to overloading, some of the ships had to be pulled by a number of boat trackers in order to move. Bianliang in the painting was bustling with activity.
Issues of Traditional Economic Models and Wealth Concepts The great economic success of ancient China could not be sustained, and economic and social development failed to attain advanced development and so declined until, by the late Qing Dynasty, it had become the object of Western
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plundering. The reasons are complex because the causes of economic problems cannot only be economic but concern all aspects of society. The following is an explanation from only an economic perspective and attitude toward wealth. One of the reasons is that traditional Chinese culture does not highlight the role of the market but that of self-sufficiency. The history of ancient Chinese economy can be said to be a history of self-sufficiency. The Chinese people believed that almost all material needs could be derived from self-reliance. However, during the transition from an agricultural economy to a market economy, this had a major downside. Modern people often reflect on the difference between Zheng He (1371–1433), who went to the Western Seas, and Columbus (about 1451–1506), who found the New World. This is a good example, illustrating the differing concepts of economy and wealth between China and the West. Both the voyages took place in the 15th century. Zheng He travelled half a century earlier and his fleet was much greater. But Columbus discovered the New World of America, which was a landmark in the development of capitalism. Yet Zheng He’s voyage did not have much economic significance. The fundamental reason was that Zheng He was not backed by a vibrant export-oriented production system. There was also a lack of a commercial market that creates wealth. Zheng He never made profit from trade as the main objective of his voyage to the Western Seas. The characteristic of self-sufficiency within China’s traditional economy had some positive value in dealing with a poor natural environment, but it
“Riverside Scene during the Pure Brightness Festival” (detail), describing the bustling urban economy of the capital city Bianliang (today’s Kaifeng) in the Northern Song Dynasty.
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became a major obstacle to expansion, productivity, development, and the application of science and technology. Self-sufficiency could not encourage the formation of modern markets or heavy industry. The second reason was that all production was carried out according to consumption, so meeting consumer needs was both a cause and result. The ancient Chinese economy was not undeveloped; rather, the structure was irrational. There were many industries in Chang’an, Kaifeng, Nanjing, and other big cities, but they were mostly confined to the production and operation of products necessary for everyday living. Take old Beijing, for
An idol of Zheng He (middle) in the Dajue Temple in Semarang, Indonesia. Semarang is the only city in the world named after Zheng He (Sam Po).
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instance. Although there were a large number of industries, such as hotels, pharmaceuticals, tea, agriculture, and so on, almost without exception these industries were only related to people’s daily consumption, particularly for royalty, the nobility, and high officials. The size of this economic activity was limited and it was difficult to achieve leap-forward development. Regretfully, China’s four greatest inventions were not fully applied in production and in the military. Westerners used gunpowder to make weapons, while Chinese made fireworks; Westerners used the compass to aid in sailing and exploration, while Chinese used the compass in geomancy. Of course, not all of China’s gunpowder was used to make fireworks and the compass was not entirely used in geomancy; however, they were not used for large-scale production and trading. This economic characteristic of satisfying consumption impeded the emergence of large industry. The third reason was taking the family as the basic production unit, which was not conducive to the expansion of the production scale and the transformation of existing industries into new industries. The traditional Chinese production unit was the family, more precisely, the household. Even the rich did not employ too many workers. Production activities were for family survival, rather than to sell large quantities. Chinese one-hundredyear old shops were almost all family-style that followed stereotypes like “Pass to the son but not to the daughter, pass to the son but not to the son-in-law”: they preferred them lost rather than have them handed over to other families. Trade or other industries of the traditional Chinese society had a subordinate position. The primacy of traditional Chinese was always agriculture. The interpersonal relationships between big or small workshops and all kinds of shops and other commercial premises in cities and towns more often relied on the relationship, not contracts. Even today, many Chinese who are in the business line do not focus on marketing, but focus on a close and reliable relationship. This limits the in-depth development of enterprises. The fourth
“The Knick-knack Peddler” painted by Li Song during the Southern Song Dynasty, portraying the commercial activities of the peddlers in ancient China.
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reason was the egalitarian attitude on property distribution and inheritance. Confucius advocated: “Do not worry about poverty but worry about unequal distribution.” Poverty was not the problem, unequal distribution was. This did not advocate property equality for all. It implied for example that for officials of the same level, property should be equally allocated. The highest ideal of the small-peasant economy was equal distribution of land and taxes. Of course, in traditional Chinese society, this ideal was difficult to achieve. However, relative equality or balance was enough to ensure social stability and maintain steady economic development. If this balance was broken for any reason, the natural agricultural economy, which had a fragile foundation, would face a crisis. Sharing—an economic characteristic of Chinese people—was also stronger and more prominent, even when compared with similar countries in the same period. Ancient China and Japan had many similarities in history and culture, and economic patterns were also very similar. However, the inheritance of family property between the two was significantly different. In Japan, usually the eldest son of the family had the right to inherit, and other sons and daughters had to fend for themselves. The property accumulated by the previous generation could be more completely preserved for future generations, so it was not unusual for a family to retain its riches for two or three hundred years. In contrast, for ordinary Chinese families, the eldest son did not enjoy any privileges upon division of property. If there were several sons, the property was divided into several parts. As a result, the property shared by each person was insufficient to make them free from
Yangliuqing New Year painting, describing the scene of Chinese families celebrating Lunar New Year’s Eve during the late Qing Dynasty.
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poverty. Even an affluent family, after two or three generations, found the original property would be exhausted completely. The fifth reason was that both the economy and people had no independent personality, and economic dependence was prominent. China’s traditional small-scale peasant economy has not undergone fundamental changes in the past 2,000 years: a family unit operates independently. However, the basis of ownership was historically weak because theoretically speaking, all land and property belonged to the emperor, who could freely dispose it off. The powerful could conduct large-scale land acquisitions, and many people could lose their land, becoming employees or refugees. When land acquisition attained a certain level or was aggravated by natural disasters and foreign invasions, it inevitably resulted in war or insurrection. The outcome of a war would mostly result in new land distribution. With regard to political and economic relations, politics revolved around the monarch, while the economy revolved around the officials—in any case, the rich would inevitably be arbitrarily dispossessed by the official. Ancient China had many large cities, but their economic scale did not match other countries. Western scholars believe that the modern concept of a city should have two standards: one is that residents do not cultivate the land for a living but engage in industrial and commercial business; the other is that the city should have a legal personality and its own unique laws and systems. Measured by these two standards, ancient Chinese cities were mainly the residence of royal bureaucracy. Of course, the farmers were fewer, industry and commerce were sparse, and there was no independent legal status, nor did they have their own laws and systems. Therefore, these cities rose or fell with changes in dynasties. The sixth reason was that the traditional Chinese economy emphasized agriculture but restrained commerce, and there were official and commercial traditions for this. Ancient China had a large population covering a vast amount of territory, so it could not maintain normal functions without business. However, the most important and most profitable industries were government-run monopolies, such as salt, iron, wine, and so on. This obviously was not conducive to economic development. Traditional Chinese society had the following hierarchy: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. The status of the merchant was the lowest. Every dynasty pursued this policy with an emphasis on agriculture while restraining commerce. For example, during the Western Han Dynasty, long-distance sales merchants were not allowed to ride horses or ox carts and could not wear elegant clothes. During the Jin Dynasty (265–420), when out on business the businessmen had to wear one white shoe and one black shoe. After the imperial civil examination system was introduced, merchants were prohibited from participating; even wealthy businessmen were unable to change their social status. Many people preferred to farm and did not want to become merchants.
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“Silkworm Breeding and Weaving” (detail), Southern Song Dynasty, describing the whole production process of silkworm breeding and weaving silk through 24 scenes.
All of the reasons stated above constrained and impeded the development and optimization of China’s economic structure. In short, China’s traditional economy was a loosely organized, natural agricultural economy with fragile foundations, but its social management system was holistic and integrated. It was very difficult to make a breakthrough in this system as automatic advancement to modernization is difficult to achieve in this economic model. First, it is difficult to consciously conform to the opening-up requirements that arise. The management of the ancient Chinese economy was not completely closed, but basically each specific producer was closed, which could be summed up as “Grow old and die without having had any dealings with each other.” Traditional Chinese people did not want to leave their homes, and even those who did go out to earn a living would eventually want to return home. Second, there was a lack of legal protection. The nature of a market economy is characterized by a legal system, contracts, and regulation. The market must rely on laws and regulations. Although traditional Chinese society did have laws, they were often associated with morality, decency, and propriety, as well as township folk customs. Futhermore, the issue of ownership was not clear. The feudal era, in fact, had property rights, but private property would often be confiscated. In addition, the development of a market economy in ancient China was imperfect. As mentioned above, people’s thinking has long been limited; they often focused on production but not circulation; only aimed at working hard but
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not understanding the logistics; people only cared about food and clothing but never paid attention to capital accumulation. The important aspects of the traditional Chinese economy were farming, weaving, building houses, and starting families.
Aspects Worth Learning from the Traditional Economic Life China’s traditional economy and culture had many inadequacies, but were not completely useless. Otherwise, ancient China’s economy would not have achieved as much as it has. In fact, China’s traditional economic life has certain aspects that are worth mentioning. First was the optimistic attitude toward survival. The Chinese nation went through thousands of years of training, developing a deep, optimistic, and uplifting national spirit. Chinese people tenaciously try to survive under extremely difficult conditions. They like to enjoy their environment. The demands of the ordinary Chinese were not high; if they had a piece of land and the tax was not very high, they would quickly settle down to living.
Peasant families in a village in Jiangxi still maintain a strong tradition of agricultural civilization.
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As long as the state enacted benign policies, they could miraculously disentangle themselves from poverty in a very short period of time. Looking back at the Chinese history, the secret to the success of the most successful dynasties was reducing taxes and relaxing strict policies. Unfortunately, Chinese people were often denied such treatment. The early Han Dynasty implemented recuperative policies to reduce people’s taxes. Consequently, the state entered a period of affluence. At that time, Prime Minister Xiao He’s (257–193 bc) policies included reducing taxes and streamlining administration. His successor, Cao Can (?–190 bc), continued to follow Xiao He’s policies. This strategy laid the foundation for the prosperity of the Western Han Dynasty. This is reminiscent of the famous remark of the drafters of the American Declaration of Independence: “That government is best which governs the least.” Second was hard work and addressing problems head on. The Chinese nation is a nation that knows how to endure pain. For thousands of years, the Chinese people lived in hardship, but quietly sacrificed for their nation. Today, in the market economy, people often disdain diligence because the market economy seems to encourage more risk-taking and speculation. However, it is not possible to build a modern and strong country without the love of toil and hard work of millions of people.
Today, many young Chinese engage in the challenging creative industry.
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Third was the emphasis on taking preventive measures and generating savings. It is said that an important reason for Japan’s economic success is that the savings rate of the Japanese is much higher than those of European and American countries. China is a state that loves to save. There is a folk saying: “Better spare at the brim than at the bottom.” This reminds people not to forget saving and to make preparations for unexpected situations that may arise. For many Chinese, their hard-earned money is not easily disposable. In recent years, with the progress of a market economy, the younger generation has gradually accepted finance and consumption ideas from the West, such as spending first and paying later, overdrafts, and so on. Many people buy houses and cars through loans and are ready to enjoy the prime of their life. However, their frugal parents cannot help but secretly worry one day that they should pay the full price for that kind of lifestyle. Fourth was a realistic attitude to life and a flexible mind. Chinese people are not afraid of adversity, but this does not mean that they do not understand change. In fact, the Chinese are very good at survival. They look down upon people who difficulties and do not seize opportunities. The Chinese have a quick mind and are good at bypassing difficulties, and can flexibly overcome obstacles which seem impossible.
Cochin, India. The fishing net was first brought to India from China.
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Although the Chinese people were not good at economic and fiscal management, most Chinese living abroad have accepted the local attitudes and become successful businessmen. The Chinese people are a powerful new force in the world economy. In the 1970s, China’s policy of reform and opening up also proved this point. Fifth is having an openness to new ideas and cultures. Historically, Chinese people’s awareness of opening up was not strong, but they did not lack tolerance. Although ethnic disputes sometimes arose, they tried to seek reconciliation, coexistence, and common prosperity. A major feature of today’s world is that all regions are progressing toward commonwealth, a feeling of community, and the development of free trade. This makes the world economy more colorful, more active, and more powerful. Having an open attitude toward others is a positive step for China and the world. At present, China is still a developing country. However, the population is large, market potential is great, and opportunities are numerous. In the world economy, China has proven its importance. In the future, China will not just be a large country but an economic powerhouse.
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Chapter 6
Ordinary Life and Customs
There are numerous traditions and customs in China and there is still a gold mine to be exploited. This is because the Chinese nation has a very long history and customs are deposits of national culture—the longer the history, the thicker the deposits. Not only do Chinese customs have a long history but also they are well preserved without any discontinuation. China is vast in geography and varied in ethnic groups, and different ethnic groups have different customs. Chinese people are compatible with all kinds of cultures. They favor the golden mean, not affected by others; however, they do not favor extremism either. Foreign cultures entered China, which might have resulted in conflict but ultimately they have survived and become new customs for the Chinese people. For example, in recent years, Christmas has been increasingly celebrated. Over a given time, such foreign festivals may become new Chinese customs.
Cultural Meaning in Ordinary Customs Chinese customs are rich, like a huge mirror of treasure reflecting all aspects of Chinese national history and culture. Ancient Chinese customs were greatly influenced by political factors. Now, people enjoy full freedom in food and clothing. However, during feudal times, every aspect of life was dominated by politics. Common people were
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called buyi (cotton clothes), describing the clothes they were allowed to wear. A feudal emperor not only had supreme power but could also enjoy exclusive clothing patterns (such as embroidered dragons) or could wear colored clothes (usually yellow). These privileges were not for the ordinary people. Likewise, officials at different levels had their own unique style of clothing that could not be used by common people. In addition to food, clothing, and housing, hairstyle was also influenced by politics. According to Confucianism, the human body is derived from the parents, no part of which should be different from the original state at the time of death. One punishment for certain crimes was to remove a criminal’s hair. Also, if one wanted to become a monk, he would have to remove all his hair. Certainly, not every custom was pleasant or beautiful. For example, during the early Qing Dynasty, rulers forced men to have a long queue or a pigtail braid. The Qing government completely transformed Chinese traditional masculine hairstyles, with extreme approaches such as “off with the hair or off with your head”; if any man dared to resist the queue hairstyle, he would face the death penalty. Until the late Qing Dynasty, cutting the pigtail represented a new move of politics. In writer Lu Xun’s (1881–1936) works such as The True Story of Ah Q, Windstorm, and other novels, we can see the opinions of people during the late Qing Dynasty.
The dragon symbolizes the emperor and his power.
The imperial robe of an emperor of the Qing Dynasty.
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Chinese customs involved culture. Here, culture refers mainly to the traditional Chinese people’s social-psychological behavior. One of the biggest features of Chinese traditional culture is belief in the homology and coexistence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Moreover, these
“The Immortals” (detail) from the Qing Dynasty, portraying Confucian and Taoist sages as well as Buddha, demonstrating the coexistence of the three religions.
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religions vary in the north and the south and according to different ethnic groups. However, the Chinese can follow all or any of these religions and their customs. The concepts of ghosts and gods in the Chinese religions are influenced by Taoism. People usually resort to ghosts and gods when they face difficulties in life. If they believe that certain ghosts and gods have caused difficulties in their life, they will invite other gods and spirits to drive them away. In traditional China, the art of geomantic omens was very popular. People usually invited fortune tellers to make a decision for them, for example, on whether to build a house, go out, marry, and bury the dead. Chinese customs are also based on science. The Chinese are very particular about food and drink. There are many related customs, some of which have a scientific founding. The Chinese have a deep love for alcohol and tea, and have made it into an art. There are also many related customs; for example, drinking alcohol with arsenic sulphide on the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar and drinking alcohol with chrysanthemum on the ninth day of the ninth month of the same calendar year. The Chinese also have in-depth knowledge about planting, picking, making, and drinking tea. While drinking
Tea is the main drink of the Chinese people. The Chinese have developed a rich tradition of tea making and tea drinking.
Papercuttings used as window decorations are mostly used for adding a festive atmosphere.
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tea, for example, one must use a particular quality of water to make a cup of tea, a particular vessel to hold the tea, strike a particular pose to drink the tea, use a particular form of etiquette to present the tea to guests, and drink a certain type of tea during a certain season—much of which actually has some scientific basis. These customs involve economics. There are many ancient Chinese customs that are products of traditional economic activities. For example, there is a custom in China of participating in weddings and funerals of relatives and friends and giving some money as an “offering.” There are certain rules as to how much to give and to whom, how to record the offering, and how to accept it. Such rules are established by usage and custom, and generally people will observe them. To modern Chinese people, such an offering can be stressful. However, in traditional agricultural economic conditions, this was in fact an economic cooperative model. A small-scale peasant economy had a weak base and meager profits, so it was difficult to afford weddings and similar events independently. Through such contributions or “offerings” people would help each other financially. Although this is a way of helping others, it is also a way of emotionally reaching out to others. Chinese customs focus on human relationships. Art is also involved in Chinese customs. The customs are not only practical but also have an aesthetic character. One of the most influential festivals among the Han clan is the Spring Festival. Some of the celebrations included New Year painting, paper-cutting, and writing or reciting couplets of poetry. Chinese New Year painting is a folk art with a long history. Yangliuqing’s New Year painting is very famous and numbers among centuries of masterpieces eligible to be displayed in museums and galleries. Paper-cutting is used to decorate windows. Paper cutters did not have to be scholars but they had to be skilled artisans capable of expressing beauty and imagery through their art. A couplet is a special art form using Chinese characters and enhances the festival ambiance. No building—whether a palace, pavilion, or famous destination—is complete without a couplet. A good couplet—in meaning and in calligraphy—uses words that are suitable to local conditions. During the old days, many trades used couplets that had profound meanings. Some Chinese couplets can even compete with classical poetry and are elegant works by famous masters, for example, the long couplets in Grand View Tower in Kunming, Yunan, and the long couplets of Qingcheng Hill, Sichuan. Now, as people’s residential conditions have changed, New Year paintings and paper-cutting are fading from the family lifestyle, but couplets are still popular. Even today, during weddings, a paper-cutting artist is always present.
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Couplets have an all-pervading presence in traditional Chinese architecture, ranging from imperial palaces to common dwellings.
Customs are deposits of national cultures. Chinese customs are very different from Western cultures and customs; what is more, they are all similar to the customs of neighboring Japan.
Strong Sense of Confucian Culture Just as Western customs are closely related to Christianity, Chinese traditional customs are strongly colored by Confucianism. The Westerners tend to favor a religious spirit, while the Chinese favor etiquette. Chinese traditional customs are all inclusive, but they are tied by a standard ethical system. The Chinese ethical code comprises the imperial law, clan law, and family law. Even the emperor followed the ethical code. As mighty as he was, the emperor also had parents and children, so he had to live within the ethical framework. The founder of the Han Dynasty, in his final years, was frustrated by the numerous customs and traditions for determining his crown prince. Respect for the ethical code is respect for the family law and the family motto; the royal family motto was sometimes mightier than kingdom law. The common family motto would not override the law of the kingdom, but it was still binding. For example, Bao Zheng, a famous incorruptible minister during the Northern Song Dynasty, told his children and grandchildren to follow his family motto that required any descendant who became corrupt to be cast out from the family; upon death, this official was not to be buried in the family grave. This was a severe punishment that shows us how significant family was.
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According to the Chinese traditional culture, man is superior to a woman. In a family, the parents should be respected; in a kingdom, the king should be respected and even a king should respect his parents. The traditional Chinese ethical code is deeply rooted in every traditional family. The Chinese nation is a family-respecting and kinship-respecting nation. Chinese family relations focus on paternity, while Western family relations focus on conjugal relationship. A Chinese child falls within this ethical custom even before birth. Upon birth, the child is treated differently according to its sex. For example, a boy will have a family name, personal name, and alias, whereas a girl will have only a family name. Upon marriage, she will follow her husband’s family name. The difference is even more evident in education. A boy may go to school, while a girl needs to stay at home. Being uneducated, her future will be completely dependent on her future husband. In traditional Chinese society, the parents decided the matters of marriage. A man could have many wives, while women could have only have one husband in their lifetime.
Clay figure of a female cook. Most traditional Chinese women devoted their entire life to cooking meals and doing housework.
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The modern Chinese have discarded this custom-themed Chinese culture. However, some deep-rooted ideology, such as male superiority, still remains. Even today, it is normal to find many families wanting a son. The deep-rooted traditional culture in every family gave rise to a peculiar phenomenon—a kingdom could be broken but Chinese culture could not because it was impossible to eradicate the Chinese family pattern. Sooner or later, invaders were influenced by the Chinese traditional culture and imperceptibly became assimilated into it.
Changing Customs Customs keep changing. There keep good customs and bad customs. The good can raise a civilization, while the bad can ruin it. Changing a deep-rooted custom is never easy.
“Whiling Away the Summer” by Liu Guandao, Yuan Dynasty, describing the free and easy lifestyle of the celebrities in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. It is believed that the man in the painting is Ruan Xian, one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.
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S EVEN S A GES IN THE B AM B O O FORES T
In the Three Kingdoms Period, seven sages—Ji Kang, Ruan Ji, Shan Tao, Xiang Xiu, Liu Ling, Wang Rong, and Ruan Xian—often met in a bamboo forest to chat, drink, and indulged in general merriment. They were called the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Forest. They were followers of Taoism and, because of political turmoil, their meetings allowed them to dispel their feelings of depression, becoming a method of personal liberation during the Wei and Jin Dynasties.
Custom represents a stable lifestyle backed by a specific social and cultural system with an underlying economic pattern. If the economic pattern is not changed, the cultural system will hardly change and neither will custom. Chinese traditional culture is slow when it comes to innovation. In her long history, China experienced three important periods of opening up and cultural integration; these were also the periods in which the social customs were transformed. During the Spring and Autumn Period, as summarized by Confucius, “the system collapsed and the customs were corrupted.” At that time, the original order and customs of the Zhou Dynasty were disrupted and failed to survive. Confucius dreamed of recovering such customs, but restoration was a mainstream social movement then. During that period, the greatest restoration was the Shang Yang Reform in the Qin Kingdom, followed by others. In the Warring States Period, a king of the Zhao Kingdom (about 340–295 bc) advocated clothing reform and military reform. However, more than just clothing and warring arts in Central China were changed. The customs were also greatly changed in all the kingdoms and finally, a centralized Qin Empire was formed. From the late Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, social customs were transformed again. For example, one descendant of Confucius, Kong Rong (153–208), presented many surprising arguments. He publicly denied the spiritual basis of Confucianism, saying that children were not attached to their parents; they could be separated just as a bunch of flowers separated from a vase. The Seven Sages in the Bamboo Forest disregarded many customs—they wore peculiar clothes, took peculiar medicines, lived
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disreputable lives, and uttered untraditional words. Their rebellious ideas are influential even today. The greatest transformation took place after the Opium War of 1840–1842. Western culture had a heavy impact on Chinese traditional customs. When the Qing government began to send students and officials to visit or study overseas, these events introduced advanced technologies and fertilized new ideas. This was a fast-changing era. Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) and others were also changing but not as fast as the reformists, who in turn were not as fast as the revolutionists. Finally, the Revolution of 1911 ended Chinese imperialism. At that time, social customs were radically transformed. The queue braid was cut off, and moreover, binding the foot was forbidden. In the past, the most unbelievable custom was binding the feet of women. This custom was popular in China for nearly a thousand years. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, this fashion was extremely popular, and a girl
Empress Dowager Cixi and others pose for a photo, which was considered fashionable in the late Qing Dynasty.
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would not be married if her feet were not bound; a girl with unbound feet was considered ugly. Everyone was enchanted by bound feet, and some intellectuals even called themselves “learned scholars of foot-binding” and specialized in composing works for foot-binding appreciation. The Manchurian rulers prohibited foot-binding among Manchurian girls, but that failed to limit the footbinding fashion among all Han girls. At that time, the Chinese female aesthetic attitude was extremely distorted. This cruel custom was ended in the early period of the Republic of China. After Western customs were introduced into China, the social order became more open, and peaked around the May 4th Movement of 1919. The theme was democracy, science, and worldly customs. The most important change was that young people began to reject the ethical code and demanded freedom and marital autonomy. These were the greatest challenges to Chinese customs. Some stalwarts of society were concerned about the accusations and objections against the ethical code. Marital autonomy was an absolute challenge to feudalism. Marital autonomy would not follow “parents’ order, matchmaker’s words,” so paternal power and clan power were affected; the freedom to choose one’s partner allowed sexual equality and thus released women from husbands’ authority. Marital autonomy became an epochal theme, reform began, and no power was able to stop it.
In recent years, reality TV shows have attracted a large number of girls who want to change their lives.
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Lin Yutang, famous for works like My Country and My People.
Today, the Chinese people are undergoing yet another phase of profound reform and opening up. In the new market economy, many intrinsic Chinese traditions and customs can barely survive, and a new round of large-scale transformation of social tradition is inevitable. It is never easy to change traditional customs and thinking styles. However, today, the Chinese people are becoming more tolerant of different customs. China is developing along a new road, and it is possible that Chinese customs will be radically changed to give rise to a modern civilization.
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Chapter 7
Science and Technology
Historically, Chinese science and technology has attained great heights. The history of Chinese science and technology mirrors that of traditional Chinese culture: the process of change is gradual and devoid of any major disruption, as if everything were taking its natural course at a slow and moderate pace. From the Spring and Autumn Period until the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Chinese science and technology had always maintained the momentum necessary for sustained development but its progress was also highlighted by development booms during the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Its path of development was unique in the course of world history. It can be said that since the 6th or 7th century bc until the 14th century ad, Chinese science and technology was unmatched anywhere in the world and that the Chinese people had made far-reaching historical contributions to science and technology since the dawn of humanity. However, over the following few centuries, when the West brought humanity the most brilliant of scientific and technological innovation, China did not develop a single invention of great historical significance. This huge historical gap is worthy of deeper examination.
Scientific and Technological Achievements of the Ancient World In general, Westerners did not know much about ancient Chinese science and technology. However, Needham (1900–1995) was an exception. He spent decades committed to studying the history of Chinese science and knew more 107
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A flow chart of the papermaking process in the Han Dynasty.
about the subject than most Chinese people. His summary and evaluation of the history of ancient Chinese science and technology were convincing. Of course, the West in general still fully recognizes the Four Great Inventions of ancient China. In their view, without the help of these Four Great Inventions, the West could not have been so successful in entering the modern era of technology. Francis Bacon, the British philosopher, evaluated three of China’s Four Great Inventions: “We should observe the power, effectiveness, and consequences of each invention. The most famous examples are printing, gunpowder, and the compass. . . these three inventions changed the state
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of things all over the world. The first was used in manuscripts, the second was used in war, and the third was used in navigation, which resulted in countless changes. These changes were so great that no empire, no school, no one famous person could produce greater power and influence to change the human race more than the three mechanical inventions.” The book The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, written by the American astrophysicist Michael Hart, ranks the importance of famous historical figures based on their influence on human civilization.
Portrait of Bi Sheng.
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Movable earthenware type in an iron frame.
There are seven Chinese people among these 100: the top ranked is Confucius, ranked No. 5, followed by Cai Lun (63–121) of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25– 220), ranked No. 7. Cai Lun was the earliest inventor of paper technology and thereby the most influential of all. In the top 10 of Hart’s list, there are four scientists or inventors in addition to Cai Lun: Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), ranked No. 2, Johannes Gutenberg (1400–1468), ranked No. 8, and Albert Einstein (1879–1955), ranked No. 10. Gutenberg’s contribution was the invention of movable type in the 15th century, but this was created about four centuries later than a similar invention made by Chinese inventor Bi Sheng (about 970–1051). In any case, to consider Cai Lun, an ancient Chinese inventor who made a significant contribution to human civilization, as comparable to Newton, Einstein, and other scientific giants is still a very high evaluation. The Chinese people’s contribution to humanity’s technological civilization is not limited to the Four Great Inventions. Scientific and technological achievements in ancient China had the following unique characteristics: First, Chinese science and technology experienced comprehensive development. Scientific and technological inventions of ancient China not only
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The ancient Chinese stone inscription of an astrological map made in 1247 according to the astronomical observation data of the Northern Song Dynasty, portraying 1,434 stars in total.
lasted longer and were distributed equally, but also the Chinese people made contributions in every aspect of science and technology. Since the Spring and Autumn Period, China ranked at the top of the list in terms of development among the civilizations of the world. China had attained great technological achievements in agriculture, water conservation, metallurgy and mining technology, energy development and utilization technology, construction, machinery, shipbuilding, weaving, chemical technology, and even in the academic fields of astronomy, mathematics, agricultural studies, physics, geology, chemistry, medicine, and more. When making a horizontal comparison of ancient Chinese inventions with the West, we can see that for over 1,000 years, from the 2nd to the 15th century ad, China had been the leader in almost all areas of science and technology.
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In addition to the Four Great Inventions, which became the precursors of modern science in the West, China was also more advanced in using oil, coal, metallurgy, shipbuilding, chemistry, and other areas, which were subsequently dominated by the West. Secondly, ancient Chinese science and technology had its own developmental characteristics and made prominent achievements in astronomy, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and several other aspects. Ancient Chinese astronomy has a long history and considerable wealth of information has been accumulated. Over the course of the Spring and Autumn Period to the early Qing Dynasty, Chinese astronomers recorded about 1,000 solar eclipses and more than 900 lunar eclipses, as well as discovered dozens of new stars. In 1054, the Taurus supernova explosion recorded by astronomers in the Song Dynasty was particularly important. China is also the world’s first country to develop a satellite table. The star map found in the Dunhuang Grottoes records 1,350 stars—this is the most comprehensive star map in human history before the 17th century. The Chinese calendar is also among the best in the world. The ancient quarter calendar invented in the Warring States Period designated a tropical year of 365 1/4 days, only 11 minutes less than that of the modern Gregorian calendar. Today, China still uses the lunar calendar and solar calendar simultaneously. China’s lunar calendar is actually a combination of the lunar and solar calendars, which has contributed greatly toward Chinese studies of astronomy, agriculture, medicine, and military affairs. Prior to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, China’s mathematics had never lagged behind the world’s best, and some inventions actually led the world for a long time. Zhou Bi, The Nine Chapters, and other ancient Chinese mathematical masterpieces enjoyed a worldwide reputation. China also made great mathematical contributions in the studies of numeric systems, decimal systems, binary method, negatives, ratios, higher-order equations, Pythagorean theorem,
An ancient large water conservation project in Dujiangyan, Sichuan, which still works.
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and the calculation of pi. Some mathematical historians believe that the contribution of the decimal system, invented and improved by the Chinese, had an effect on human culture comparable to that of the Four Great Inventions. Ancient Chinese people made an even greater contribution in the realm of agriculture. The ancient Chinese created a great and civilized country that lead the world in every respect and had its foundations in agriculture. Ancient Chinese agriculture had already neared the limits of its development in the prevailing conditions of the time. Some of the historic creations still play economically important roles today. For example, two great water conservation projects, the Grand Canal and Dujiangyan in Sichuan, were world-class achievements during their period of history. Dujiangyan was built in the middle of the 3rd century bc, 2,200 years ago, and it remains of practical value today—a rare feat in the history of human civilization. Chinese Medicine is a science with unique efficacy and special cultural significance. The information contained within traditional Chinese medicine is extremely rich. It not only includes medical theories, but also includes philosophical thought; it contains not only applicable technologies, but also biological sciences. “Classic of Internal Medicine,” “Typhoid” and other Chinese medical classics are immortal in the history of Chinese culture and literature. They reflect a unique form of Chinese thought that still retains special theoretical and cultural value today. “Compendium of Materia Medica,” conceived by the efforts of Li Shizhen of the Ming Dynasty, is a classic masterpiece of Chinese medicine that has had an enormous impact on world civilization. It can be said that up to the Song and Yuan Dynasties, China had always been a great technological power. After the Song and Yuan Dynasties, the
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
PI OF ZU CH ONGZHI
Zu Chongzhi (429–500) was a distinguished mathematician and scientist of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. His main contributions were in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, calendar methodology, and mechanics. He calculated the value of pi to be between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927, accurate to the 7th decimal. This record was not broken until the calculation by the 15th century mathematician, Casey. He also calculated pi in two fractional forms: 22/7 and 355/113.
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A process flow chart of traditional Chinese medicine by people of the Ming Dynasty.
scientific and technological levels in China did not significantly decrease; rather, they appeared to be lagging behind when compared with the West, and this gap continued to grow.
A Reflection on the Limitations of China’s Scientific and Technological Development Western civilization, since the beginning of the Renaissance and especially during the first few hundred years after the 16th century, accomplished an endless array of scientific and technological achievements. The technological creations of this period far surpassed the sum of all those in previous human history. To much surprise and disappointment, during this period the Chinese people did not create even one historically significant invention in the field of science and technology. In his book The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, Michael Hart mentioned a total of 37 important figures in the field of science and technology, most of them belonging to the world of modern history—but in this historical period, there wasn’t a single significant Chinese contributor. China had been an advanced scientific and technological power, but after the 15th century, it lagged behind the development of the rest of the world. Since the 20th century, China has gained much ground, but there still exists a large gap when compared to developed countries. Why would China’s situation change from advanced to backward? There were profound social and historical reasons, deep cultural reasons, and also reasons rooted in ancient Chinese science and technology. In all, ancient
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Chinese science and technological development faced restrictions and repression in all four areas, and their negative impact ultimately resulted in the emergence of backwardness in Chinese science and technology.
Limitations of the Science and Technology Model in Ancient China Why did China’s science and technology suddenly appear backward upon entering the 16th century? Did the West create a historic miracle overnight and the Chinese people simultaneously lose their own wisdom and creativity? In fact, China did not lose its former glory overnight, but there is a reason for the inherent weakness of modern Chinese science and technology. Chinese scholars have compared the historical morphologies of Chinese and Western science and technology. Through the statistical analysis of large amounts of historical data, they established three constituent parts of science and technology: theory, experiment, and technology. Th rough this model, they were able to prove that the morphologies of the Chinese and Western science and technology were significantly different (see the chart below). These differences had diverse effects on the scientific and technological development of the West and China. By examining statistics, it is not difficult to draw some basic conclusions: First, technical factors that can promote scientific and technological progress are important. Within the structure of ancient Chinese science and technology, the proportion of technological innovation had been in a state of absolute superiority; thus Chinese science and technology made rapid progress. From the 13th to 15th century, the sudden increase in the proportion of the technological innovation of the West enabled them to make significant scientific and technological development in that era and established the proper conditions for future scientific and technological innovation to take off. Structure of science and technology in China: 12th to 19th century Age
Theory
Experiments
Technology
Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127)
4
6
90
Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279)
19
7
74
Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368)
8
12
80
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
16
3
81
Qing Dynasty (1616–1911)
40
1
89
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Structure of science and technology in the West: 12th to 19th century Age
Theory
Experiments
Technology
12
90
5
5
13
21
23
56
14
2
1
97
15
5
6
89
16
47
20
33
17
61
22
17
18
31
20
49
19
33
29
38
Second, when scientific and technological development reaches certain historical levels, the technological advantage alone can no longer produce a qualitative leap in scientific development because the potential of the technology itself has been fully exploited. The new historical leap requires coordinated development in theory, experiment, and technology so as to produce a new overall effect. This new structure is bound to raise demands for the reform of existing technology, or even demand a total rejection of the old technical systems and approaches. At the same time, new technologies require new theoretical and scientific practice as a guide and support. This qualitative change cannot easily be shown by statistics. Since the 16th century, scientific theory in the West gained significance. At the same time, the proportion of scientific experiments was growing rapidly. However, in China, the situation was different. Until the 19th century, the proportion of technology still maintained absolute predominance, while the proportion of scientific experiments was pitifully low. The result was that although the technology was not completely backward, the overall level of technology lagged far behind. Joseph Needham had proposed a formulation wherein the power derived from a steam engine was a function of water emissions and the capacity of the bellows. In theory, this makes sense, but in fact the steam engine is not the simple sum of water emissions and bellow capacity. If these elements were not supported by the necessary theory and experiments, there would never have been a steam engine. The invention of the steam engine not only needed the technical concept of water emissions and bellows, but more importantly, it required essential theoretical guidance and experimental verification. Of
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A sundial invented by ancient Chinese is a device that measures time according to shadows as the sun’s position changes over time.
particular significance was the discovery of the vacuum theory, which played a key role in the invention of the steam engine. The technology-oriented model of ancient Chinese science and technology allowed it to enjoy outstanding technological achievements in a particular historical period. However, because of the lack of a necessary theoretical and experimental basis, its own unreasonable structure ultimately limited its development. Third, only by achieving a rough balance between theory, experimentation, and technology could the structure of modern science and technology achieve maturity and a high operational status. The Chinese nation has great talent and diligence. In almost all projects directly related to the use of manual labor, the Chinese people have always put forth an outstanding performance. Some Chinese traditional arts, such as embroidery, clay sculptures, and miniature buildings, are still amazing. But the Chinese people were often not good at using technology like the engine or transmission machines. The reason was that ancient Chinese science and technology did not focus on experimentation. The Chinese could rely on their wisdom and intellect to invent a technology, but few people attempted to summarize or expand on the theory. Also, few people carried out further experiments to improve and develop the technology.
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Take Chinese medicine, for example. One of the most authoritative books, Classic of Internal Medicine, has no basis in the study of anatomy. It was an outstanding work and great for the time it was produced in. However, this classic book has been used for over two thousand years without being replaced by a new medical theory. Herein lies the backwardness of Chinese medicine. This was probably not the result that the author of Classic of Internal Medicine would have wanted. There have been instances of the study of anatomy in Chinese medical history, but coming from a background of Confucian culture, such behavior was severely criticized and stopped. Without an anatomical base, traditional Chinese medicine lacked a sufficiently accurate understanding of physiology; therefore, it also lacked development in cytology, neurology, cardio-cerebral science, as well as other areas of the modern medical system. Although its medical theory of holistic diagnosis and syndrome classification was impressive, overall, there was still a wide gap when compared to the Western medical system. Traditional Chinese science and technology belonged to an empirical system, emphasizing and focusing on experience. However, where experience was not possible, it appeared vague and absurd. This was the “inherent weakness” of Chinese science and technology. Since modern times, after recognizing the importance of theory and experimentation, China’s technological level has
Feeling of the pulse is one diagnostic method in traditional Chinese medicine.
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Acupoint location chart by people of the Qing Dynasty.
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once again experienced advancement by leaps and bounds, and has gradually narrowed the gap between the highest technological levels in the world.
Limitations due to China’s Natural Agricultural Economy The basis of development in ancient Chinese science and technology was its natural agricultural economy, which consequently subjected it to constraints. Confined to the scope of this economic foundation, Chinese science and technology was full of vitality and creativity; however, beyond this, it became weak. Many developments in science and technology were closely related to the natural agricultural economy while developments in other areas were poor. The goal of ancient Chinese astronomy was to aid agriculture. The most familiar astronomical knowledge of time was not of the sky but of the Earth— this was the discovery of the 24 solar terms in a year. China was the first country to determine the Spring Equinox and several other important solar terms, and it soon formed the original system of 24 solar terms. Chinese people have traditionally been more dependent on the lunar calendar because it was more convenient for traditional agricultural practices. This aspect of Chinese astronomy made it difficult to integrate physics and mathematics, but made it much easier to relate to agricultural activities and divination.
The Chinese invented the mill wheel early on. This water pumping device was used as an irrigation tool and improved over the following generations.
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The abacus is a calculating tool invented by the ancient Chinese. Its history can be traced back to over 2,600 years.
The same applies to traditional Chinese mathematics. Mathematics in China has been fairly well developed and is of a world-class standard. However, Chinese mathematics failed to invent or introduce a system of symbols, a flaw that bottlenecked its development. Chinese mathematics was good for calculation but poor for abstract thinking; so it was simply called arithmetic. Chinese mathematics also lacked a rigorous deductive system and often only considered specific problems as its objects of study—it focused on the local issues but ignored the overall situation, so it failed to establish an abstract mathematical system. While Western mathematics moved toward strict interpretation, symbolization, and theorems, the Chinese used most of their wisdom in measuring land, inventing and using the abacus, and other practical calculations. The final reason was that the basis of traditional Chinese mathematics belonged to the natural agricultural economy, which did not require the higher mathematics required for astrophysics, and needed only land measurement and other similar practical issues relevant to an agricultural economy. The central theme of a natural agricultural society was not to expand production, but to satisfy consumption; not the cultivation of talent, but the stability of jobs; not opening up new industrial areas, but ensuring an agricultural harvest; not improving the quality of life, but meeting the basic problems of food, clothing, housing, and household expenditure.
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Structural diagram of a jacquard machine and a flow chart of silk processing by people of the Ming Dynasty.
Any science and technology or practical skills associated with these features saw good development. For example, techniques of planting, breeding, cooking, brewing, and anything connected to food were very well developed in China. The ancient Chinese sericulture and silk industry, which was related to clothing, was also very advanced. China was the home of silkworms and mulberry trees and consequently also the home of silk. The most influential Chinese and Western economic and cultural channel was referred to as the Silk Road. Manufacturing technology and construction techniques relevant to housing were also fully developed in ancient China—the Great Wall, the Forbidden City, and other buildings were all masterpieces in the architectural history of mankind. In many similarly practical areas, Chinese science and technology was highly productive. However, the role of the agricultural economy in the development of Chinese science and technology was like a double-edged sword: on one hand it cultivated Chinese science and technology, but on the other hand it restricted it. In its long history of development, Chinese science and technology unwittingly became the slave of an agricultural economy. It could be said that Chinese science and technology, which had infinite vitality, had finally
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been domesticated by the agricultural economy. It provided honest service for an agricultural economy, was well-behaved and obedient, just like livestock and poultry, but its evolutionary function and viability nearly disappeared.
Limitation due to Traditional Ideas Chinese traditional ideas were largely the products of the natural agricultural economy and were characteristically conservative and closed. This feature caused the mentality of the traditional Chinese society to tend toward resting on its laurels, pursuing stability while avoiding excessiveness and transformation. This was undoubtedly a serious impediment to any scientific and technological take-off. Confucianism and Taoism had the greatest influence on Chinese cultural traditions. Confucianism preferred moderation but not competition; Taoism advocated inaction and had no interest in competition. However, scientific and technological development required competition. The reason that the modern science and technology of the West made great achievements was that it was based on a market economy that had a competitive mechanism. In the development of science and technology, there should not only be mutual competition, but also life-and-death situations. Today it has become more apparent that the power of capitalism is increasingly dominant.
The celestial globe of the Old Beijing Observatory was used by the ancient Chinese.
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The vitality of science and technology comes from continuous creation. In traditional Chinese culture originality was not particularly liked; instead, everything, every word, required a known source. For example, if one published a new viewpoint, others would immediately ask where it came from and what its basis was. Traditional Chinese culture has a long history with rich experience, so new innovations were always perceived as being inferior to the old ways; the more infatuated the culture was with the classic, the more afraid it was to let its ideas go beyond them. Ancient Chinese intellectuals were good at description and commentary, but not good at creating original ideas and doctrines, and so it was with those involved with science and technology. Some people say that traditional Chinese thought lacked a metaphysical quality. Indeed, a number of great thinkers appeared throughout modern Western history; they served as spiritual mentors promoting the leap to modern Western science and technology. In contrast, the driving force pushing Chinese thinkers in the direction of science and technology was minimal. In addition, traditional Chinese ideas highlighted the “Way” but didn’t emphasize evidence. Scholars spoke of the “Way,” the “Mind,” and the “Air,” but it was difficult to grasp what the Way, Mind, and Air actually were. Confucius, Laozi, and other influential Chinese thinkers agreed that people should not focus on specific scientific and technological experiments or things of that nature. When this way of thinking was reflected in the scientific and technological field, ancient Chinese science and technology showed skill in summary but weakness in analysis. Because of lack of creative thinking, Chinese scientific and technological theory was less developed; because of lack of evidence, experimentation was far from developed; and because of lack of analysis, specialized division of labor was not completed. Such a structure of science and technology, lack of advancement of theories, scientific experiments, and specialized division of labor made it difficult to achieve modernization within its existing framework.
The Limitations of China’s Traditional Socio-Cultural Structure Over a long process of accretion through the era of science in the Song and Ming Dynasties, China had formed a strict social and cultural structure. This cultural structure had a well-established theoretical basis, a complete management system, a complete economic system, and a complete cultural protection mechanism. China then possessed concrete structural aspects: in social organization, it emphasized political bureaucracy; in economic operations, it adhered to self-sufficiency; in guiding its industry, it implemented a policy of emphasizing agriculture and restricting commerce; in its value
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Chinese engineers conferring with foreign experts.
system, it was committed to justice before profit; in individual evaluation, it advocated moral priority. All these aspects had a negative impact on scientific and technological development, and this negative impact resulted in broad structural effects. For example, the policy emphasizing agriculture but restricting commerce was not only a policy, but it also became a cultural tradition, making it difficult for China to have sustainable commercial power. However, commerce was closely related to modern technology; restraining commerce was equivalent to suppressing technology. Technology without a market caused the entire system to close in on itself. In this way, it could only become a vassal of the traditional agricultural economy and could not evolve. Today, after another major reform of ideas and systems innovation, the Chinese people have abandoned the various restrictions and constraints imposed by traditional society on science and technology, thereby re-establishing a new relationship between the economy and technology. The future of modern Chinese science and technology lies in its high-level modernization.
8
Chapter 8
Education
Chinese education has a remarkable tradition. In the earliest time of its history, there appeared a great educator: Confucius. The Chinese and Western education systems have taken different paths. Although the methods are different, it is difficult to say which one is superior. Since the 17th and 18th centuries, however, there were unprecedented achievements in education. At the same time, the Chinese education system became rigid, lacked vitality, and fell behind the times. Just as the Chinese economy and society must be modernized, the fundamental path of Chinese education must be modernized as well. Since the early 20th century, especially from the late 1970s, the Chinese educational system has become increasingly similar to the world educational system and its educational philosophy.
Changes in the Education System Chinese schools probably emerged during the Xia Dynasty (2070–1600 bc) or perhaps even earlier. After entering the Spring and Autumn Period, the Chinese educational system experienced its first true glory. The academic activity of that time was unprecedented: Confucius, Mozi, and others initiated private schools and established the trend. The educational system developed at that time had distinct characteristics: innovative in form, progressive in thought, independent in academics, and systematic in expression. At the time, as the Hundred Schools of Thought contended for recognition, a large number of greatly influential theoretical writings emerged, 127
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“Fu Sheng Transmitting the Book of Documents” by Du Jin, during the Ming Dynasty, portraying the 90-year-old Fu Sheng imparting the Book of History to Chao Cuo.
such as The Analects of Confucius, Mencius, Tao De Ching, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, The Art of War, Han Feizi, and Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals, to name a few. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, the imperial government implemented a national policy of “following Confucianism alone and abandoning all other schools of thought.” Thereafter, the education of the Han Dynasty consisted mainly of the Confucian classics and systems of thought associated with the concept of Yin and Yang. At this point, the Chinese educational system had been unified and completed. The scope of the Han Dynasty education system was expanded, especially in areas directly linked to the bureaucratic administrative structure. This period has great significance in the history of the ancient Chinese educational system.
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The Han Dynasty implemented the official selection system in which eligible candidates were required to master knowledge of the classics, literature, ethics, military affairs, agriculture, and so on, but the emphasis on the classics still remained dominant. The people of the Han Dynasty exerted great efforts to collect and arrange the old Confucian classics, and established a meticulous method of managing the style of their study. But because there was such a great emphasis on classics, their thought processes at the time were inevitably confined. The Han system of education was the first instance of the great popularity of Confucianism in Chinese history; this period established the foundation of the traditional Confucian-based education system. During the chaos that erupted at the end of Han Dynasty, the study of the Confucian classics was seriously threatened as Buddhism, Taoism, and mysticism became prevalent. By the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Buddhism had greatly developed. This era can be seen as a time of mutual growth and interaction among Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. However, Confucian education still maintained a powerful force. With respect to important issues, like maintaining the culture of the Central Plains, protecting the agricultural economy, maintaining a stable society, and encouraging a unified state, Confucianism still played a historic role that other doctrines could not replace. During the Sui Dynasty, the entire country underwent unification and the imperial examination system was established. In the Tang Dynasty, further improvements were made to the imperial examination system. The imperial government still adopted Confucian education as its core, but also gave adequate attention to legal studies, arithmetic, medicine, the science of books, and so on. It is particularly worth mentioning that those in the Tang Dynasty provided special education and training period for government officials so as to meet the demands of maintaining a developed economy and prosperous industry and commerce. This can be considered as the vocational educational system of ancient China. In addition to the arts, the people of the Tang Dynasty also introduced martial examinations. The educational system of the Song Dynasty inherited and developed the tradition of the Sui and Tang Dynasties, but special attention was devoted to the imperial examination and academies. The academy was not contrived during the Song Dynasty, but at that time it was used to spread knowledge and thereby made a huge social impact. The Northern Song Dynasty had four famous academies: White Deer, Shi Gu (or Song Yang), Ying Tian, and Yue Lu. The academies of the Song Dynasty expanded upon the traditional Confucian education system as well as made some totally new contributions. The Four Books and Five Classics system established by Zhu Xi stand as typical examples of that time. From the Confucian classic, The Book of Rites, Zhu Xi extracted two books: The Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean. Together with The Analects of Confucius and Mencius, these texts were known as the Four Books. This was actually an important structural transformation of the traditional Confucian education system.
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Yue Lu Academy in Changshan, Hunan, established in 976, is a famous ancient Chinese academy. The building we see today was built in the Qing Dynasty.
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
FOUR BOOKS A ND F IVE C LASSIC S
“Four Books” and “Five Classics” are Confucian classics. The Five Classics refer to The Book of Changes, Collection of Ancient Texts, The Book of Songs, The Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. These are Confucian classics from the Pre-Qin period. Zhu Xi of the Southern Song Dynasty extracted Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean from The Rites and called them “Four Books” together with The Analects of Confucius and Mencius. The Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties confined the scope for setting the examination paper for imperial examination based on these Four Books and finally, the eight-part essay system was formed. The Four Books have become the traditional basic textbooks in China and were compulsory books for every intellectual. Their position thus surpassed that of the Five Classics. Some people also called Four Books the Oriental “Bible” to indicate their profound influence on Chinese traditional culture.
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The development of “enlightening literature” is another educational achievement of the Song Dynasty that is worth mentioning. China’s most famous piece of enlightening literature for children is the Three Character Classic compiled by Wang Yinglin (1223–1296) during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279). It contains plain language, rich content, and has a resounding effect when read aloud. Until the Republican Period, many rural schools used it as basic teaching material. Other such texts, like the Hundred Family Names and Children’s Reading Literacy, were also widely used pieces of enlightenment literature. Texts like these are still loved and treasured by Chinese people today. The Yuan Dynasty deprecated Confucian scholars and discontinued the imperial examination. Although the imperial examination was later resumed, it did not produce results of the same quality as in previous eras. Medical education, however, was given great emphasis during the Yuan Dynasty. The Ming and Qing Dynasties belonged to an era of autocratic implementation of the imperial examination. The biggest shortcoming of the imperial examination system of the time was the adoption of the eight-legged essay examination form, created personally by Emperor Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang (1328–1398) of the Ming Dynasty. The eight-legged essay was a rigid format
“Children Frolicking in School” painted in the Qing Dynasty, portraying a group of children frolicking in a country school while the teacher dozes off.
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that restricted the free creation of essays in the test. Because of this, the imperial examination system lost its original progressive spirit and educational utility and became a tool for the implementation of autocratic thought in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The imperial examination of the Ming and Qing Dynasties created a large number of characters similar to those depicted in the Qing Dynasty satirical novel The Scholars. After the Ming Dynasty, modern science and thought were gradually introduced into China. China’s first batch of enlightenment thinkers stepped onto the stage of cultural education during the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty. After 1840, it became too difficult to continue the decadent and backward imperial examination system as well as the Confucian education system. In 1908, the late Qing Dynasty government ordered the abolition of the imperial examination system. After the Revolution of 1911, Chinese education entered a new historical period. China learned from the educational systems of Europe and the United States, and established a complete educational system extending from primary school to university. The most notable universities of this period were China’s Peking University and Tsinghua University. Prior to and following The May Fourth Movement, Tsinghua University, Peking University, Beijing Normal University, and other universities gathered many famous teachers, such as Chen Duxiu (1879–1942), Hu Shi (1891–1962), Lu Xun, Wang Guowei (1877– 1927), Chen Yinke (1890–1969), and other outstanding educators. Although these great scholars had different political stances, as well as different areas of expertise, each had its own unique discoveries and achievements. At that time, universities in China had neared if not attained a level of education comparable to the best universities in the world; the professionals in natural science, social
FYI
F OR YOUR IN F ORMATIO N
TH E S CH OLA RS BY WU JIN G ZI
The Scholars was a long satirical novel written by Qing Dynasty author Wu Jingzi (1701–1754). It mainly described the daily life and various experiences of the scholars who sought fame under the imperial examination system of the Qing Dynasty. Using a group of feudal liberators as literary imagery, the novel vividly and profoundly reflected the shortcomings of the imperial examination system and the political and social decay of the time.
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The Imperial Academy in Beijing, the highest educational institution during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties.
sciences, and other areas of study that received their education at these universities were also near if not at the same level of the most advanced academics in the world. This bright era allowed for a brilliantly creative period, the likes of which had not been seen in the history of the Chinese education since the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods. Unfortunately, due to the chaos of war and various social conflicts, this flourishing period only lasted for a short time. Despite the rise and decline of traditional education and its achievements, China’s education has a long history and many great achievements. One aspect in which it greatly differed from from Western education was that China always
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focused on secular education and used Confucianism as its primary content. The historical achievements of China’s education can be summarized according to four basic aspects. From the standpoint of education, China is a country that had outstanding educational professionals in every dynasty. Confucius was certainly the greatest figure in the history of Chinese education, and his position was most unique in China’s history. Gradually, his fame and influence grew until he finally became the model teacher for all generations. Confucius’s rich educational thought had influenced nearly all educational issues of that time. He put forth great maxims such as “Educate according to aptitude,” “Education for all,” “Teach with tireless zeal,” “Be well-informed,” “Be willing to learn from inferiors,” and “Learn and then review what you have learned from time to time.” His thoughts also promoted the equal importance of learning and thinking, turning from evil to good, and his moral ideals in particular, as well as the spirit of a studious life, admired and imitated by later generations. The Analects of Confucius, which recorded major quotes from his life, was highly influential. Many famous aphorisms from the book have become integral components of Chinese culture. Confucius was not the only great educator; Mozi, a contemporary of Confucius, was also a popular educator with students far and wide. Xunzi and Mencius were among the famous educators of the time after Confucius. In addition, The Hundred Schools of Thought and their supporters also made their own contributions to education. Since the Qin Dynasty, there were masters of education in every generation, such as Dong Zhongshu and Zheng Xuan (127–200) of the Han Dynasty; Han Yu of the Tang Dynasty; the two Chengs, Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073), Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi, and Lu Jiuyuan of the Song Dynasty; Wang Shouren and Li Zhi of the Ming Dynasty; Wang Fuzhi, Yan Yuan (1635– 1704), and Dai Zhen of the Qing Dynasty; Kang Youwei (1858–1927) in the late Qing Dynasty, and a large number of educators represented by Cai Yuanpei (1868–1940) during the Republican Period. Each had their own personality and specialization, but they all made outstanding contributions in their respective eras. In the history of human education, the Chinese system is unique. It can be said that China’s educational thought has maintained a consistent lineage stretching back to the Han Dynasty. Throughout its history, the Chinese educational system advocated Confucianism, emphasized ritual, and taught the Confucian classics. However, the education system also experienced several changes. Noteworthy elements of change included the private education system, talentbased electoral institutions, and use of the imperial examination system. Private education thrived in China during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods, as well as during the Song and Ming Dynasties.
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Confucius is the best-known educator of ancient China.
The Spring and Autumn Period was an open-minded era, a time when Confucianism was but one of the Hundred Schools of Thought competing to be heard. Confucius, Mencius, and Xun Zi were all intellectual giants of the period, which eventually brought about the dominance of Confucianism. The systems of the Song and Ming Dynasties mainly focused on the accumulation of knowledge; therefore, their thinking was inevitably rigid. The Chinese educational system gained many valuable lessons from the existence of the private educational system: education is an endeavor that requires creativity; educational institutions and educators should give students knowledge, encourage lively thought, and bolster the spirit of independent thinking.
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The devlopment and improvement of a talent-based electoral system brought about a major transformation in the educational system of China. During the Qin Dynasty, there wasn’t necessarily any connection between education and government. Though there were many wise followers of Confucius, they didn’t necessarily gain any recognized status within the administration. The system implemented at this time can be described as a two-way selection system. The Han Dynasty implemented the electoral system. Under this system, local officials elected talented persons to work in the central government; there were of course many variations of this selection process. The Han Dynasty established schools for officials, but also allowed private education. The state, on one hand, employed the electoral system while, on the other hand, it established both schools for officials and private schools. In this way, there grew a system of official selection combined with education. This educational system closely linked education with the national administrative system and played an important role in the prosperity of the Han Dynasty. As the Han Dynasty declined, so did the Confucian-classic-centered electoral system. During the reign of the Three Kingdoms (220–280), Emperor Wendi (187–226) began to implement the ninth-rank system, which came to value family status over capability and virtue. Because ancestry was valued over talent, it became difficult for other classes of society to succeed, and the system quickly became a symbol of corruption among the privileged class. At this point, the electoral system came to an end and was replaced by the imperial examination system. The imperial examination system was initially developed in the Sui Dynasty and later completed during the Tang Dynasty. Its special feature was selecting scholars through a nationally administered test; this system was an institutionalized form of the Confucian aphorism “if one wants to be an official, he has to study well.” This system was a vast improvement when compared to the electoral system, which was based on personal recommendations and the prestige of one’s family. Because of this decisive systematic change, numerous intellectuals, most importantly, impoverished intellectuals, were given the opportunity to join the national administrative system by means of the imperial examination. The imperial examination system uncovered a large amount of talented individuals during the Tang Dynasty, which made a significant contribution to the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty. No wonder Emperor Tang Taizong happily said that thanks to the imperial examination system, all the heroes of the world joined his administration. The imperial examination system closely linked the fate of intellectuals to the rise and fall of their country. After the imperial examination system had been popular for nearly 1,000 years, it underwent a terrible transformation during the Ming Dynasty.
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“The Imperial Competitive Examination,” from the Song Dynasty.
During that period, Emperor Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang decided to use the eightlegged essay to select scholars for public office. The eight-legged essay restricted and killed creative thinking; just like the old practice of binding the feet of women; this was a chronic problem of China’s feudal era. The eight-legged essay was just another kind of foot binding that inhibited Chinese intellectuals from understanding current affairs and seeking the truth. At this point, China’s imperial examination system set out upon the road to its own death and was inevitably replaced by the Western modern education system. Regarding the social view of education, China has maintained the cultural tradition of respect for teachers and knowledge since ancient times. Confucius visited many countries in his time, and although he never found fertile ground for the implementation of his thoughts, wherever he went he met with kings and important persons. This reflects the social atmosphere of the time, which placed high value on scholars and particularly encouraged those educators who were passionate about teaching.
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The Han Dynasty Emperor Gaozu at first despised Confucian scholars, but in order to consolidate his rule, he accepted the proposals of Lu Jia (about 240– 170 bc) and Shu Suntong and adopted Confucian rituals. During the reign of Emperor Wu in the Han Dynasty, Confucianism obtained dominant status and the ruling class greatly improved their attitudes toward teachers and education. China has always respected teachers and knowledge. In theory, even the emperor had to respect teachers and Confucian scholars. However, respect for teachers was limited in China’s feudal era and the conception of knowledge was always pragmatic in nature. In terms of the value of pursuing education, China’s traditional education emphasized the merits of being cultivated. Confucianism stressed the importance of moral education and demanded that educators should first and foremost practice ethics. In the course of Chinese history, religion never attained the dominant position of power, but ever since the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Confucian moral doctrine took on religious significance throughout China. Over the following 2,000 years, although there was fluctuation, the goal of moral education became more pronounced. The Three Cardinal Guides and Five Constant Virtues of Confucianism became the legislative basis and ethical foundation of ancient China.
Zhou Dunyi of the Song Dynasty was a philosopher of great virtue. His masterpiece “Love of the Lotus” is very influential.
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Confucian education required that educators set a good example. Confucius also held high expectations of himself. Among his students, Yan Hui (521–481 bc) attained the highest level of cultivation; it was said that his words and deeds were completely consistent with Confucian standards. Zeng Shen (505–435 bc) was also an excellent student, which was reflected in his cultivation. The traditions of Confucian education were passed on from generation to generation. The knowledge and cultivation of many Neo- Confucian masters of the Song and Ming Dynasties were not the best of their time, but they had high prestige and influence and had an impact on future generations. One important reason why they maintained their piety was their sincerity in protecting traditional moral principles. Zhou Dunyi wrote an essay entitled “Love of the Lotus,” which praised the lotus flower for its ability to grow in mud yet never be contaminated. Such a work can be seen as an expression of the Confucian masters’ ideal conception of the self and their high personal expectations in self-cultivation. This pursuit of an educational system emphasizing moral cultivation played a significant role in the consolidation of the feudal empire of the time and helped to sustain the normal operation of a natural agricultural economy. Later, however, its shortcomings were slowly exposed and in some cases, produced extreme dogmas that emphasized moral practices that nearly opposed human nature itself. For example, adhering to a maxim like “Death by starvation is preferable to the loss of chastity” could be considered “murder by morality.” Although morality is important, it should not exceed certain limits of human nature, otherwise it would oppose progress. This was a profound lesson left by the traditional Chinese educational system.
The Shortcomings and Deficiencies of the Traditional Educational System Chinese education and Western education developed along different paths. Comparing the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods with the ancient Greeks, their styles were different and it is difficult to say which one was superior. However, since the 12th century, Western education began to take on new directions and by the 14th century, which was during China’s Ming Dynasty, the European education system had adopted all new characteristics. With the rise of cities at that time, large numbers of guilds and guild schools appeared across Europe. These schools focused on teaching practical knowledge and technology, and their educational methods and content broke the barriers of traditional education—these were feats
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unattainable by the Chinese educational system in the years following the Song Dynasty. By the 17th and 18th centuries, following the maturation of modern Western civilization, the Western education system was developed. At the same time, China’s education system remained rigid, old-fashioned, and lacked both vitality and the spirit of innovation. The reasons for the decline of China’s traditional education are complex; there were social reasons as well as problems with the educational system itself. On the social side, China was mired in economic backwardness, political corruption, cultural decline, social instability, and so on. In this case, economic backwardness does not necessarily mean a struggling GDP, but mainly problems in the industrial structure. Many history books and research projects have proven that China’s economy was not backward in the Song and Ming Dynasties. However, the data misses a crucial point. Since the 14th century, Europe had taken the route of the market economy; although its GDP was hardly higher than China’s, its structure was more advanced: the West had abandoned agriculture as the driving force of the entire society and economy, and replaced it with urban handicraft. This modern economic model nurtured strong social productivity. During the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, China’s politics became increasingly corrupt. The governments of the time felt humiliated when they compared themselves to the outside world and practiced tyranny within their
A private school during the late Qing Dynasty.
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own borders. In addition, through the years, the country as a whole became progressively more closed off from the outside world. During the Yuan Dynasty, corruption reached an unprecedented level. During the Song and Ming Dynasties, Neo-Confucianism was far less dynamic than the Confucianism of the Qin Dynasty and was out of date in comparison to modern Western philosophy. The instability in the latter part of China’s feudal society was caused by both internal and external factors. Internal factors included natural causes and social causes. However, the main external factor of the instability was an invasion by hostile forces. In 1840, British warships and artillery opened the doors of China as the ancient Chinese empire could not carry on. Chinese traditional education also came to an end. In terms of the educational system itself, the first and most crucial problem was its obsolete content. Chinese traditional education emphasized the Confucian classics, and after the Yuan Dynasty, only the Four Books and the Five Classics remained. These classics had their own value, but they could not replace modern science. Education should be an open system and each generation should have its own classics. The structure of China’s traditional education and teaching content also became increasingly unreasonable; the burden of the classics was overwhelming and there was no place for modern scientific knowledge. The educational methods were also backward. Western education was applicable to modern life and society; Western disciplines were full of practical lessons and scientific experiments were important. Western thought emphasized experimentation in the sciences, as well as the importance of demonstrating theories—these things stood out as special facets of Western education. Although it cannot be said that such an educational system was perfect, in comparison, the Chinese traditional education revealed its fatal drawbacks through its lack of scientific experimentation and rational spirit. The Chinese educational system had been closely related to the bureaucratic political system since the Qin Dynasty. Although the administration and the educators worked together, the administration ultimately maintained supremacy. The administrative institutions controlled all things, and all things followed the principles of Confucianism. Education could not be selfdetermined, science could not be independent, and the status of educators and administrative officials could not be equal. This system obviously could not meet the demands of the times. The Chinese traditional education system had a fine tradition but also had serious shortcomings and deficiencies described above. Just as the Chinese economy and society had to be modernized, the Chinese education system also had to be modernized. Respect for teachers and dedication; using the new and upcoming practices—these should have been the goals of Chinese education. Respect
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Chinese readers in a bookstore.
for teachers means giving educators their rightful place in politics, economics, and other aspects of society. Dedication means following the principles of education itself as it naturally develops and avoiding excessive administrative interference. Using the new methods and all advanced human knowledge, culture, science, and technology as educational content, especially in the realm of higher education should be the goal. Keeping up with the needs of modern life and the economy, which means adjusting the teaching profession according to market demands and focusing on cultivation of practical and realistic human talent, would form an integral part of a modern education system. Since the 20th century, Chinese education has mainly followed this direction. From the 1970s onward, Chinese education made substantial progress by following this path.
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Chapter 9
Arts and Literature
In order to measure the achievement of a nation in arts and literature, we may use the most basic two standards: whether the subject and form are extensive, and whether the art forms are world class. According to these standards, Chinese traditional arts and literature have tremendous historical and artistic value. There are unique creations in many forms of arts and literature, for example, poetry, prose, novels, drama, calligraphy, drawing, and painting.
Colorful Chinese Literature Chinese literature is one of the most valued components of Chinese culture. China is a kingdom of poems. It is famous for the Tang poems, which are only one of the outstanding representations of Chinese poetry. The earliest classic Chinese poetry starts with The Book of Songs. Chinese prose began long before; Pre-Qin prose is splendid, the pinnacle of Chinese prose. After Han articles and Wei and Jin essays, Tang and Song prose is another high point. Ming and Qing essays are somewhat interesting. After The May Fourth Movement, Chinese literature was vulgarized, forming another peak of poetry and prose. Chinese history of drama is shorter than in the West. It started in the Tang Dynasty, matured during the Song Dynasty, peaked in the Yuan Dynasty, and survived through the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Modern drama was brought in from the West. In recent years, local drama, like the Kun Opera, has attracted
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Murals from the Yuan Dynasty found in the Water God’s Temple in Hongdong County, Shanxi, portraying the performance of Za Ju.
new attention from China and the rest of the world. Modern Chinese drama is also influenced by traditional opera. In form, the Chinese novel has two categories: classical and vulgar. The classical novel has its origin in Pre-Qin fables and Han and Wei biography and anecdotes, while the vulgar novel originated from the Tang variant and the Song story manuscripts. The Ming and Qing novels were the peak of artistic achievement both in classical and vulgar works, masterpieces of which are Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Outlaws of the Marsh, Journey to the West, A Dream of Red Mansions, and Strange Tales from Make-Do Studio. Due to the intrinsic features of the Chinese language, there are some other unique forms of literature. For example, forms between poetry and prose—Chu songs emerging in the Warring States Period, longer prose written in the Han Dynasty. In addition, the couplet is an exclusive form of Chinese literature, which is witty and symmetrical not only in semantics but also in phonetics. Chinese literature is extensive, deep, and varied. Take Tang poetry for example. About 50,000 poems are still in existence, whose styles are colorful and
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TH E TOP FOUR CLASSIC AL N O VELS O F CH INESE CLA S SICAL LITE R ATUR E
The top four classical novels of Chinese classical literature are: Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Outlaws of the Marsh, Journey to the West, and A Dream of Red Mansions. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a historical novel that describes the military and political struggle among the three kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu at the end of the East-Han Dynasty, during the period of three kingdoms. Outlaws of the Marsh describes the peasant war launched by Song Jiang and others at the end of the Northern-Song Dynasty and creates the memorable characters of the Mount Liang heroes, such as Wu Song, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen, Li Kui, and so on. Journey to the West is a mythological novel based on the story of the monk Xuan Zang’s acquiring the sutra, and describes the story of Tang Seng, Sun Wukong, and others going to the west for the Buddhist scriptures and defeating various monsters. A Dream of Red Mansions was created in the middle 18th century, and describes the process of the decline of the feudal bureaucratic Jia family and the romantic tragedy between a young man and woman. The four novels are representative works of Chinese traditional literature. Known to all in China, they deeply influence the thoughts and values of Chinese people. Now, they not only belong to China, but to the whole world. personalized. Li Bai’s romanticism, Du Fu’s depth, Wang Wei’s leisure, Li He’s (790–816) charm, and other poets are also special, in numerous styles and schools. Chinese prose is also colorful, in various styles and schools. It is believed that Pre-Qin prose had four styles or schools, just as Western classical psychology is divided into four basic mental states. The four styles and their respective representatives are: prudent Xunzi, aggressive Han Fei, eloquent Mencius, and imaginative Zhuangzi, much admired by Chinese intellectuals. Based on the four basic styles, each author interactively learned, integrated, extended, and created their works, and made Chinese prose the most charming field of literature. There exists a large body of folk literature, mostly in the form of folk songs. Folk literature is more vivid than intellectual, both in substance and form, and it reflects more natural and bolder thoughts and emotions. For example, folk songs are more vivid and tangible than intellectual works in expressing love.
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“Grand View Garden” (detail) of the Qing Dynasty, depicting the golden era of the Jia Family according to A Dream of Red Mansions.
Chinese literature is famous for its great works in every era, and the art is representative of every period in China. Chinese classic literature is not lengthy. Tang and Song prose, though excellent, can be counted in hundreds of words, some even in dozens of words. For example, Zhou Dunyi’s masterpiece “Love of the Lotus” is just over a hundred words long. Chinese literary history is populated by numerous famous works, such as Zhuge Liang’s (181–234) Memorial on Going to War, Tao Yuanming’s Returning Home, Wang Bo’s (650–676) Preface of Teng Wang Attic, Su Shi’s Ode of Chibi, and others. Their influence is no less than the longer works. Long works such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, A Dream of Red Mansions, and others impart more than their content. Studies on the latter have become a specialty school—Red Studies—involving many energetic experts, just like Western scholars of Shakespeare’s works. Chinese literature has its own historical rules. Its direct origin is the literature of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods, including
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TWENTY-FOU R HISTO R IE S
This is the collection of 24 ancient Chinese histories, from the Historical Records, the History of the Late Han Dynasty to the History of the Ming Dynasty. Such histories were “official histories” prepared by royal scholars, biographically telling stories covering more than 4,000 years. Twenty-Four Histories covers ancient Chinese politics, militarism, thought, culture, astronomy, and geography, and they have high academic value and cultural status.
Pre-Qin works represented by the history record Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. Poetry is marked by the Book of Songs, in addition to Qu Yuan’s (about 340–278 bc) Chu-style songs which are representative of southern literature, while the former depicts northern Chinese culture. These two great books influenced their literary descendants. Longer Han prose is bombastic and exaggerated, and its meticulous form can perhaps be a flaw. Despite the over-exaggeration, it is an important style of Chinese literature. Sima Qian’s (145–c. 86 bc) Historical Records, is not only
An illustration of Romance of the Western Chamber, portraying heroine Cui Yingying’s bold pursuit for true love and the ideal marriage. Here, she is reading a letter from her beloved.
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a great work of historiography, but also of prose. As the opening work of the Twenty-Four Histories, this work is demonstrative, leaving an unusual effect on descendant literature. In the Wei and Jin and the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Chinese literature was in an era of consciousness. Folk songs experienced great development during this period and were geographically distinct: romantic in the south and straightforward in the north. In this period, parallel prose was popular, particularly detailed about parallelism and rhyme, showing a tendency toward formalism. Intellectuals began to explore poetic rhythm, which prepared the way for the development of Tang poetry. Tang literature was at its historical peak in Chinese literary history. So far, it is unsurpassed in quality though not in quantity. Song poetry opened up new avenues for both long and short poems. The poetry was good for discussion and reasoning, therefore not purely poetic. The longs and the short were features of Song poetry, and rivaled Tang poetry. In the Song Dynasty, the storytelling novel was vulgarized, spawning Ming and Qing vulgar novels. During the Yuan Dynasty, poetic drama was most developed. Yuan drama made up for the shortage of Chinese drama in classic literature and produced many masterpieces. Famous dramatists Guan Hanqing (about 1220–about 1300), Wang Shifu (1260–1336), and others could rival Quyuan, Sima Qian, Li Bai, and Du Fu. For example, Wang Shifu’s Romance of the Western Chamber is a treasure of Chinese literary history. Ming and Qing literature peaked in the novels Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Outlaws of the Marsh, Journey to the West, Plum in the Golden Vase, and A Dream of Red Mansions. These are not only gems in Chinese literature, but also immortal works of human literary history. Ming drama also gave birth to new developments and produced the legend form, with masterpieces such as The Palace of Eternity, Peony Pavilion, and Peach Blossom Fan, which signaled the peak of the development of Chinese drama.
A Comparison of Chinese and Western Literature Chinese traditional literature is independent and distinct from the literature of the West. Take poetry, for example. Chinese poetry is different from the Western form in two respects: language and preference. The Chinese language is very different from Western languages and poetry in the form that depends most on
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language. It is said that poetry is untranslatable. It is true that translated poetry loses its original essence. With regard to creative preferences, Western poetry prefers to tell stories, while Chinese poetry is prone to express emotions; Western poetry discusses, while Chinese poetry depicts. A narrative poem is not considered ordinary. Chinese poetry has a more personal feeling, with personal trials represented. Chinese people love poetic scenes. The Chinese narrative poem is not as long as Western epics. Even Bai Juyi’s narrative poem “Everlasting Regret” is more lyrical than narrative. Chinese poetry lacks epics like Homer, Dante’s (1265–1321) La Divina Commedia, and Goethe’s (1749–1832) Faust. Chinese prose is more depictive and lyrical than poems. It does not lack discussion or reasoning, like Mencius’, Xunzi’s, Han Yu’s, and Su Shi’s. However, generally speaking, Chinese prose is good at recording people, events, scenes,
“Lady of Guoguo on a Spring Outing” (detail, a copy of the Song Dynasty), portraying the scene of a spring outing of Lady of Guoguo and her followers. Lady of Guoguo was the sister of Concubine Yang.
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and emotions, particularly, in the Historical Records and other historical prose. It is close to nature and humanity and less rational or logical than Western prose. Chinese classic novels are good at third-person narration; the author is a sober and objective observer. Few of them were narrated in the first person, and even when based on the author’s personal experience, the author would behave like an onlooker and retell the story with the background of another epoch, another place, and from the perspective of another person. For example, A Dream of Red Mansions was written with great emotion, but the author was still sober and detached with few expressions of sentiment. The narrative sequence of the Chinese classical novel is rigidly linear with few flashbacks, unlike Western novels whose conventional style contains flashbacks.
The tragedy Peach Blossom Fan being performed on stage.
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These two features imply that the Chinese novel cannot be so direct, passionate, and personal. It is simply linear in plot; however, it is worth reading carefully. Chinese classic drama always puts a happy end to a tragedy. For example, Hong Sheng’s (1645–1704) legendary drama The Palace of Eternity, depicting a king’s love story with his concubine was a tragedy, but in the latter half, the author made their souls live together in the kingdom of heaven—a happy ending. In fact, this story is still a tragedy. To be precise, there is no comedy in China either, except for some comedic elements. Serious drama is most suitable to traditional culture. On the one hand, the story and characters should conform to an ethical code; on the other hand, the audience would expect some solace with a good ending. Compared to Shakespeare, Moliere (1622–1673), and other greatest Western dramatists, Chinese dramatists developed along a different road. The May Fourth New Culture Movement was a great ideological and literary revolution in Chinese history. It called for democracy and science, and criticized Confucianism, the core of traditional Chinese culture. At that time, a vulgar literature movement was launched by Hu Shi and Zhou Shuren. The history of Chinese classic literature ended around The May Fourth Movement, but Chinese literature is still developing. Under the influence of Western literature, Chinese literature became very different from the classical one. In this new era, there were a group of modern literary works, represented by Lu Xun, in addition to Lao She (1899–1966), Ba Jin (1904–2005), Cao Yu (1910–1996), and others. Their new literary creations have lasting influence.
Unique Chinese Arts Besides literature, there are many wonderful arts in China, representing the Chinese spirit and the national style.
Architecture Ancient Chinese architecture is a symbol of traditional culture (especially ethical concepts), science, art, and utility, covering royal buildings, civil buildings, gardens, public buildings, religious buildings, and ethnic minority buildings with underlying folk customs, culture, art, and aesthetics. Simply from an aesthetic point of view, it is dazzlingly all-encompassing. Traditional buildings embody a philosophy of divine–human harmony. Western buildings are represented by stone religious buildings with high spires
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The Temple of Heaven in Beijing. Its round Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests and square walls reflect the ancient Chinese people’s idea of a round sky and square earth.
Orthographic projection of the Forbidden City in Beijing.
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and tall windows. Chinese buildings are mostly built with wood, like the allwooden Hall of Annual Prayer or The Temple of Heaven in Beijing. Chinese buildings, especially royal buildings, extend over one level and connect many spaces together, mainly featuring divine–human harmony and nature. Traditional Chinese buildings also embody Confucian ethical concepts. The standard of conduct and the essence of the Book of Changes are followed throughout the buildings. Layout is special in royal buildings, such as the Forbidden City, including the Ancestral Temple on the left, Land and Crops Altar on the right, Temple of Heaven in the south, Temple of Earth in the north, Solar Altar in the east, and Lunar Altar in the west, Positive Solar Gate (Front Gate) in the front, and Bell and Drum Tower in the rear. The main body of the Imperial Palace is on the mean axis of the city. The Hall of Supreme Harmony is the highest, mightiest, and solemnest building of the cluster. Ancient buildings also embody the culture of hierarchy. Royal buildings are superlative and the largest. Even the tile color is exclusively royal. Officials’ buildings are second to royal ones, while civil residences are the lowest in the hierarchy and the smallest. Even civil residences had different classes, for example, in a Beijing courtyard house, the northern house is the upper house, where the master of the family resides; the eastern and western houses are second to the upper house, where the elder brother (western) and the younger brother (eastern) reside; the southern house is the lowest level, where the servants reside or it is used as a warehouse. The door, garden, kitchen, and toilet are constructed in order according to the Eight Diagrams. Chinese architecture is influenced by traditional agro-economy, paying special attention to the “wall.” Walled courtyards are an old tradition. When Westerners first came to China, they found it strange that all schools, stores, and residences were walled. Chinese walls tell of a culture that is closed to the outside and connected on the inside. The Jia’s mansions in A Dream of Red Mansions exemplify this.
Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City is a place for holding court and grand ceremonies.
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Sketch map of Beijing’s residential quadrangle.
The Summer Palace.
The Master-of-Nets Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu, during the Qing Dynasty. A masterpiece of the private gardens of Southern China.
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Classical architecture is in high taste. It is symmetrical, except for a natural garden. Building artists would integrate the philosophy of divine–human harmony into the garden, for instance, in pursuit of natural happiness. In addition, ethnic buildings were featured, so were religious buildings.
Calligraphy Chinese characters play a dual role in use and appreciation, and the latter is calligraphy with brush pen. Chinese writing is based on ideographs, from bone inscriptions to Qin unified standard writing. Such writing is used for practical purposes; from late Han and Wei and Jin, calligraphy was developed and became a large class of Chinese traditional art, very different from other cultures. Famous calligraphers include Wang Xizhi (303–361), the Saint of Calligraphy. Chinese calligraphy peaked during the Tang and Song Periods. Ouyang Xun (557–641), Liu Gongquan (778–865), Yan Zhenqing (709–785), Monk Huai Su (737–799), and Zhang Xu in the Tang Dynasty; Su Shi, Huang Tingjian (1045– 1106), and Mi Fu (1051–1107) in the Song Dynasty; and Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322) in late Song-early Yuan, were all outstanding. Further, in the Ming and Qing Periods,
Traditional Chinese writing implements.
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The preface to the “Orchid Pavilion Collection” by Wang Xizhi. A treasure of ancient Chinese calligraphic art.
calligraphists were still emerging. From Wei and Jin to Ming and Qing, Chinese calligraphy developed both in practice and aesthetics. After the creation of the Chinese Republic, calligraphy brushes went into decline, and in modern times people rarely write with a brush. Since the 1990s, the personal computer became a common thing and now some people rarely use a pen; however, as an art, Chinese calligraphy is surviving and winning increasing international appreciation. Chinese calligraphy is a special art of lines. They are not lines, but fairies. Such fairy lines are also used in traditional drawing.
Drawing Chinese drawing has a long history from an unknown beginning. In the Han Dynasty, cloth drawing, lacquer drawing, wall drawing, brick drawing, and other decorative drawing emerged, and some have even survived till now. Wei and Jin and Southern and Northern intellectuals and officials created drawings and developed drawing theories as an art form. Tang drawing peaked with, for example, Wu Daozi (c. 685–c. 758), and Yan Liben’s (c. 601–673) figure drawing. Tang landscape drawing was divided into two skilled schools, colored and black-white. Flower-bird drawings started too. Song intellectual drawing, academic drawing, and folk drawing were rivals, and were another peak of Chinese drawing. Song landscape and flower-bird drawings belonged to a higher realm. Yuan, Ming, and Qing landscape drawings were thriving in more schools and appreciated by more experts. The Ming and Qing intellectual artists began to break tradition and present bright and peculiar artistic features. At that time, Western painting was also introduced in China, under whose influence Chinese drawings entered into a new era.
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“Rare Birds Sketched from Nature” by Huang Quan of the Five Dynasties (907–960), is a masterpiece of the flower-bird works of ancient China.
Traditional Chinese drawing is not based on anatomy and perspective studies and is thus distinct from Western drawing. Chinese drawing is not Western realism. In Western painting of the 19th century, French painter Ingres’s (1780–1867) masterpiece “Las Meninas” was criticized for the longerthan-real spine although it looked more beautiful. Conversely, Chinese artists justifiably make such distortions or modifications for the sake of resemblance to the soul, which may have some common ground with Western modernism emerging in the 20th century.
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S ONG A CA D EMIC DRAWIN G
This is a school of Chinese drawing, mainly of Song imperial artists and their works. Such artists were professional, exclusively serving the imperial purpose by mainly representing flower and bird, landscape, palace life, and religion in magnificent and detailed drawings that, at the same time, were not personalized. In Chinese drawing history, this school of drawing was the opposite of intellectual drawing (by intellectuals and ministers).
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“Luo Xia Gu Wu Tu” by Tang Yin of the Ming Dynasty. It is an ink and wash painting complete with a poem and a seal on the upper left and represents the literati paintings.
A flower-bird painting by Zhu Da, is a masterpiece of the impressionistic style in China that had great influence on later generations.
Chinese classic drawing has many unique aesthetic aspects and special techniques, with meanings that are almost unfathomable without an understanding of traditional Chinese culture and an integrated survey of the arts. For example, there is a rule called “blank counts as ink,” that is, when a Chinese drawing is made by a brush pen and ink, some of the blank space will serve as elements of the drawing. This idea is full of dialectics.
Dramatic Art As mentioned earlier, Chinese drama is an inclusive performance art. Yuan drama was the first peak, then Ming and Qing drama developed, and late-Qing drama peaked with Beijing Opera, which is both national and typically traditional.
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A common painting portraying people watching a Beijing Opera performance in the late Qing Dynasty.
The Beijing Opera performance of “Farewell My Concubine” by Mei Lanfang and Yang Xiaolou.
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The characters in traditional Chinese drama included kings, generals, ministers, intellectuals, and beauties, mostly related to feudal ethical codes, some of which are not acceptable to modern Chinese people. Excellent programs are always favored, for example, Beijing Opera wins extensive audiences, from lateQing royalty and nobility to Republic of China politicians, celebrities, and to the People’s Republic of China leaders and personnel, as well as numerous common people. Despite differences in their political, cultural, and other outlooks, one thing they have in common is that they love Beijing Opera. This is a strange cultural phenomenon, reflecting the multilevel charm of Beijing Opera. Beijing Opera is presented in a very special form. Its performing systems include Mei System, named after Mei Lanfang (1894–1961) who was China’s most influential Beijing Opera artist. Compared to the Western Stanislavsky (1863–1938) System and Brecht (1898–1956) System, the Mei System stresses more on coordination in the relationship between player, character, and audience. In the Mei System, players are not only attached to characters but also directly connected with the audience. Particularly in clown performances, the player will speak modern words to engage the audience. Chinese national dramatic art is unreal, ideographic, and programmatic. It is unreal for there is no real thing on the stage, except for some simplified and symbolic props. In traditional stage drama, there are only a desk and two chairs, which may serve as a mountain, a bridge, or a pavilion if required. In order to perform martial art, the player will pile several desks up and stride over them beautifully. A player may also hold a horsewhip to show that he is driving a horse; hold a paddle to signify boating; erect two flags to indicate they are on board; players can also perform fights in darkness. It is ideographic for the player to wear facial stage make-up. Different make-up represents different personalities. For example, Zhang Fei is smiling, for he is frank and comic; Xiang Yu is crying, for he is a failure.
Two flags stand for vehicles—this shows the figurative nature of Beijing Opera.
The types of symbolic facial make-up in Beijing Opera.
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It is obligatory for the main actions to follow a strict program, and this rigidity extends to every action, every eye expression, and every stage line, each following the preset program. In addition, the music is also performed pragmatically. Such rules are easy to teach and learn, and perform and understand. Chinese traditional drama has feature performances. In addition, there are other Chinese arts, like folk music, dance, speaking, acrobatics, martial arts, and handicrafts, all with a long history and outstanding contributions. Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Western cultures have been influencing traditional Chinese arts, including traditional drawing, sculpture, drama, music, and dance. Some impacts are acute and some chronic. On one hand, such new forms of art may take some time to be used in the Chinese cultural environment; on the other hand, whether or not they are acceptable to Chinese people will be known in time. Rural Chinese people have made considerable achievements in many exotic arts, such as Western drama, film, and Western music.
Murals of Dancers (Ji Yue Tu) from the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, portraying the dancers playing the reverse Pipa with music.
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Opening up and reform means experimentation within Chinese arts that may result in prosperity for the arts. The May Fourth New Culture Movement and the Opening-up and Reform policy that begun in the late-1970s have brought the benefits of modernity. We follow the traditions and we learn from exotic elements; furthermore, we create and reinvent. The progress of the arts is dependent on opening up and reform.
INDEX B
J
Bao Zheng, 52, 98 Beijing Opera, 52, 160–162 Buddhism, 7, 19, 21, 28, 32, 43–44, 47, 49, 58, 60, 62, 65–66, 68–69, 72, 95, 129
Jin, 11, 28, 32, 44, 49, 53–54, 57, 62, 86, 100–101, 128, 145, 150, 153, 157–158 Joseph Needham, 116
C Cheng-Zhu Lixue, 33–34 Confucianism, 3, 5, 7, 15, 19, 23–24, 26–28, 30–35, 37–39, 41–44, 46–49, 57, 60, 62, 65, 68–69, 72, 94, 95, 98, 101, 123, 128–129, 134–135, 138, 141, 153
K Kun Opera, 145
L
Dai Zhen, 58, 134 Dong Zhongshu, 31, 40–41, 51, 134
Laozi, 17, 21–23, 26–27, 29, 35, 49, 124 Legalist Thought, 26 Li Hongzhang, 13 Li Shimin, 54–55 Li Zhi, 34, 134 Lin Yutang, 104 Lu-Wang Xinxue, 33–34, 49
E
M
Empress Dowager Cixi, 102
Mencius, 15, 17, 25–26, 30–31, 38–39, 41–44, 47, 128–130, 134–135, 147, 151 Ming Dynasty, 4, 7, 20, 26–27, 31, 46, 49, 58, 77, 113–115, 122, 128, 131–132, 134, 136, 139, 149, 160 Mozi, 17, 25, 127, 134
D
F Five Constant Virtues, 30–31, 34, 37–43, 138 Five elements theory, 33 Four Great Inventions, 108, 110, 112–113
G
N
Great Wall of China, 4 Gu Yanwu, 33
Northern and Southern Dynasties, 11, 28, 32, 62, 72, 113, 129, 150
H
O
Han Dynasty, 11, 19, 24, 27, 31, 34, 40, 53, 57, 62, 77–79, 86, 89, 98, 101, 108, 110, 128–129, 134, 136–138, 146–147, 149, 158 Han Feizi, 25, 55, 128 Han Yu, 28, 39, 136, 151 Huang Zongxi, 34 Hundred Schools of Thought, 18, 25, 134–135
Opium War, 12, 102
P Peking University, 132
Q Qin Dynasty, 11–12, 39, 134, 136, 141 165
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R Reform Movement of 1898, 13
S Shang Yang, 57, 103 Sheng Xuanhuai, 13 Sino-Japanese War, 13–14 Song Dynasty, 28, 32, 34, 39, 44–45, 53, 58–59, 68, 77, 81–82, 84, 87, 98, 111–112, 115, 129–131, 134, 137–138, 140, 145, 147, 150–151, 157 Spring and Autumn and Warring States Period, 11, 148 Sui, 28, 57, 79, 129, 136 Sun Yat-sen, 56–57
T Tang Dynasty, 11, 19, 21, 32, 39, 54–55, 57–58, 60, 68, 78–81, 129, 134, 136, 145, 157 Tang poetry, 146, 150 Taoism, 7, 15, 28, 32, 43–44, 49, 58–60, 65–66, 68–69, 72–73, 95–96, 101, 123, 129 Three Cardinal Guides, 30, 34, 37
W Wang Bi, 28–29 Wang Fuzhi, 34, 134
Way, 7, 10–11, 14–15, 17–20, 24, 26, 33, 51, 62, 97, 124–125, 136, 150 Wei, 11, 28, 32, 44, 53, 55, 57, 60, 72, 100–101, 145–147, 150, 157–158 Western Zhou Dynasty, 11, 24 Westernization Movement, 12–13, 28
X Xian (Chang’an), 79 Xinhai Revolution/1911 Revolution, 12, 57 Xunzi, 18–19, 26, 48, 128, 134, 147, 151
Y Yin and yang, 33, 128
Z Zhang Zai, 39, 43, 134 Zhang Zhidong, 13 Zheng He, 82–83 Zhu Xi, 34, 39, 47, 68, 129–130, 134 Zhuangzi, 15, 21–22, 26, 35, 44, 49, 128, 147
