Advances in ABC Relaxation: Applications and Inventories

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Advances in ABC Relaxation Applications and Inventories

Jonathan C. Smith, PhD, is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist, Distinguished Professor of Psychology, and founder and Director of the Roosevelt University Stress Institute. He has published numerous articles and 11 books on stress, relaxation, and meditation; and has taught stress management and relaxation to thousands of individuals, corporations, and clinics. Roosevelt University has granted Dr. Smith a Distinguished Professorship in order to conduct ABC relaxation research and develop the Stress Institute.

Advances in ABC

Relaxation Applications and Inventories

Jonathan C. Smith, PhD, Editor

Springer Publishing Company

Copyright © 2001 by Springer Publishing Company, Inc. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Springer Publishing Company, Inc. Springer Publishing Company, Inc. 536 Broadway New York, NY 10012-3955 Acquisitions Editor: Sheri W. Sussman Production Editor: Pamela Lankas Cover design by Susan Hauley

01 02 03 04 05 / 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Advances in ABC relaxation: applications and inventories / Jonathan C. Smith, editor p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8261-1397-4 1. Relaxation. 2. Stress management. I. Smith, Jonathan C. BF637.R45 A38 2001 155.9'042—dc21 00-052657 Printed in the United States of America by Maple-Vail Book Manufacturing Group

Rev. Gregory Dell Rev. Mel White

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Contents

Preface

xiii

Contributors

xv

List of Tables and Figures

xvii

Part I: Four Advances in the ABC Approach 1 Advances in ABC Relaxation Theory: The 14+1 Map Jonathan C. Smith

3

2 Review of ABC Relaxation Research: Implications for Practice Jonathan C. Smith

33

3 Advances in Assessment: The ABC Relaxation Report Jonathan C. Smith

59

4 Advances in the Grand Tour: The Great and Most Holy Laughing Meditation Jonathan C. Smith

82

Part II: Original Studies Section 1: Individual

Differences

5 Gender Differences for Recalled Relaxation States, Dispositions, Beliefs, and Benefits Rachael Bowers, Renee M. Darner, Corie L. Goldner, and Steven Sohnle

111

6 Ethnic and Racial Differences in Relaxation States for Recalled Relaxation Activities Jonathan C. Smith, Stephen R. McDuffie, Tim Ritchie, and Robert Holmes III

115

vii

viii

Contents

7 Race, Gender, and ABC Relaxation Theory Stephen R. McDuffie

117

8 The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire and Recalled Relaxation States in One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Kathrine A. Leslie and Sherry L. Clavin

122

9 The NEO Personality Inventory—Revised and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs Regina F. Hughes

126

10 The Millon Index of Personality Styles and Recalled 132 Relaxation States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Steven Sohnle 11 The Symptom Checklist-90—Revised and Relaxation States During One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Katheryn P. Anderson

138

Section 2: Stress, Coping, and Relaxation 12 Stress, Relaxation Dispositions, and Recalled Relaxation States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Jonathan C. Smith and Steven Sohnle

143

13 Health Status, Stress and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs Jonathan L. Gaff

145

14 Coping Styles and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs Yoshie Sonobe

149

Section 3: Factor Analyses and Correlations 15 Oblique Factor Analysis Applied to Recalled Relaxation States Dan Allen and Tim Ritchie

157

16 The Factor Structure of Recalled Relaxation States 161 for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity, Stress, and the Effects of Grouped Versus Random Presentation of Questionnaire Items Robert C. Holmes III, Tim Ritchie, and Dan Allen

Contents

ix

17 The Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs Pearson Mui

165

18 The Factor Structure and Correlates of Negative Relaxation Attitudes Jonathan C. Smith

167

19 The Factor Structure and Correlates of Claimed Relaxation Benefits Jonathan C. Smith

172

20 The Relationship Between Relaxation Beliefs and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Recalled States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Shahyad Ghoncheh, Kristie Byers, Stacey E. Sparks, and Mark A. Wasik

176

21 R-States, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Concerns Jacquie E. Lewis

180

22 Correlations Among Relaxation Beliefs, States, Attitudes, and Concerns Claudiu Dumitrescu, Elizabeth K. Fagerman, Natalie E. Goc, David J. Kinzer

183

Section 4: The Practice of Relaxation 23 Preferred Relaxation Activities and Recalled Relaxation States Timothy D. Ritchie, Robert C. Holmes III, and Dan Allen

187

24 Recalled Relaxation States and Preferred Relaxation Activities: II Jacquie Lewis

190

25 Practice Variables As Predictors of Stress and Relaxation Dispositions for Yoga and Meditation Steve Rice, Louis Cucci III, and Julian Williams

193

26 ABC Relaxation Theory and Yoga, Meditation, and Prayer: Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, Beliefs, and Practice Patterns Jonathan C. Smith

197

x

Contents

27 Breathing Exercises and Relaxation States Jonathan C. Smith and LuElla Jackson

202

28 Seok Chan Bang's Study of ABC Relaxation Training As a Treatment for Depression for the Korean Elderly Jonathan C. Smith

205

29 ABC Relaxation Training As a Treatment for Depression for Puerto Rican Elderly Raphael Gonzales

209

30 Initial Trial of the Smith Intercentering Inventory: Progressive Muscle Relaxation Versus Yoga Stretching Versus Breathing Relaxation Jonathan C. Smith, Natalie L. Goc, and David J. Kinzer

212

31 Test-Retest Reliability of the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series Natalie L. Goc, Elizabeth K. Fagerman, Claudiu Dumitrescu, and David J. Kinzer

215

References

217

Appendix A: Smith Relaxation Inventory Series Inventory Templates Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (SRDI) Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory (SW/SDI) Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (STO/RDI) Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory (SW/SMI) Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory (STO/RMI) Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory (SRPI) Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI)

222 224 227 228 229 230 232 234 235 236

Contents

xi

Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI) Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI) Quick Stress Test: S Quick Stress Test: D Experimental Inventories Smith Intercentering Inventory (SII) Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory (SIRCI) Scoring Keys and Norm Tables Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (SRDI) Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory (SW/SDI) Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (STO/RDI) Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory (SW/SMI) Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory (STO/RMI) Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI) Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI) Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI) Quick Stress Test (Dispositional Form) Quick Stress Test (State Form) Smith Intercentering Inventory (SII) Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory (SIRCI)

237 238 239 240 241 242 244 246 247 252 254 254 254 254 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 262

Appendix B: Tables Table B.1 Correlations Between Relaxation States and Dispositions and the 16PF, SCL-90-R, NEO-PI-R, MIPS, and Carver COPE

264

Table B.2 Correlations Between Recalled Relaxation States, Relaxation Dispositions, and Stress

268

Table B.3 Recalled Relaxation State Factor Solutions for Grouped and Randomized Relaxation State Items

270

Contents

xii

Table B.4 Correlations Between Stress and Recalled Relaxation Factors for Grouped and Randomized Items

271

Table B.5

Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs

272

Table B.6

Final Relaxation Attitudes Scales

275

Table B.7

Items Reflecting Relaxation-Induced Anxiety and Concerns over Disengagement

276

Table B.8

Factor Structure of Claimed Benefits for Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen, and Anderson Samples

277

Table B.9

Tukey's LSD Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities

279

Table B.10 Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities

281

Table B.ll

284

Frequencies (Number of Participants Reporting), Means, and SDs of Reported Onset Times for R-States

Table B.12 T-tests Comparing Onset Times for Frequently-Reported R-States

285

Table B13 Test-Rest Reliabilities (Test-Retest Pearson Product-Moment Correlations) for the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series

286

Index

289

Preface

Advances in ABC Relaxation: Applications and Inventories offers original studies on the Attentional Behavioral Cognitive approach to relaxation and centering. In this volume the practitioner will find a wealth of suggestions for enhancing the instruction of all techniques. Whether your approach is ABC Relaxation, progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, yoga, imagery, or meditation, we offer specific, ready-to-use, evidence-based, ideas. Here is a quick tour of what's inside. Part I summarizes practical advances in ABC Theory, Research, Assessment, and a Grand Tour workshop presentation. Part II is an anthology of 27 original studies on ABC Relaxation, none of which have seen published elsewhere. These studies are organized into four sections: Individual Differences; Stress, Coping, and Relaxation; Factor Analyses and Correlations; and The Practice of Relaxation. Finally, both practitioners and researchers will find the complete Smith Relaxation Inventory Series, with accompanying scoring keys and norm tables. Those who have purchased this book automatically have permission to make unlimited unmodified copies of these inventories for clinical or research purposes. There is an untold story in this book. The edifice of ABC Relaxation is based almost entirely on a foundation of student research—35 studies involving 9,143 participants. This reflects a bias I have concerning graduate training. If student research is worth doing, it is worth publishing. Contributing to the scientific literature should be an intrinsic part of training in psychology, one that helps firmly define a young psychologist. I wish to offer my sincere thanks to my young colleagues for choosing to join forces in an uncertain journey through uncharted lands. I also wish to thank Rosemary Moran and Erlinda B. Santos, whose tireless support, practical assistance, infinite tolerance for practical jokes, friendship, and coffee kept things going. And of course, again, Moco and Clyde. xiii


Contributors

Dan Allen, MA Katheryn P. Anderson, MA Seok Chan Bang, MA Rachael Bowers Kristie Byers Sherry L. Clavin, MA Louis Cucci III Renee M. Darner Claudiu Dumitrescu Elizabeth K. Fagerman Jonathan L. Gaff, MA Corie L. Goldner Shahyad Ghoncheh Natalie L. Goc

Regina F. Hughes, MA LuElla Jackson, MA David J. Kinzer Kathrine A. Leslie, MA Jacquie E. Lewis Stephen R. McDuffie, MA Pearson Mui, MA Steve Rice Timothy D. Ritchie, MA Steven Sohnle, PsyD Chicago School of Professional Psychology Chicago, IL Yoshie Sonobe, MA Stacey E. Sparks Mark A. Wasik Julian Williams, MA

Raphael Gonzales, MA Robert Holmes III, MA

All contributors can be contacted at: School of Psychology, Roosevelt University, 430 S. Michigan Ave, Chicago, IL 60605.

xv



Tables 1.1

Relaxation Variables (R-Variables)

15

1.2

Relaxation State, Disposition, and Motivation Factors

26

1.3 Stress States, Dispositions, and Motivations

27

1.4

Relaxation Concern Factors

28

1.5

Relaxation Belief Factors

29

1.6

Relaxation Attitude Factors

30

1.7

Idiosyncratic Reality Claim Factors

31

1.8

Comparison of R-States

18

3.1

Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client)

66

3.2

Summary Score Sheets (for Hypothetical Client)

74

4.1

Potential Attempted Uses of Centering (Professional Relaxation) Techniques

102

4.2

Centering Quiz

104

4.3

Centering Quiz Answer Key

106

B.1 Correlations Between Relaxation States and Dispositions and the 16PF, SCL-90-R, NEO-PI-R, MIPS, and Carver COPE

264

B.2

268

Correlations Between Recalled Relaxation States, Relaxation Dispositions, and Stress

B.3 Recalled Relaxation State Factor Solutions for Grouped and Randomized Relaxation State Items xvii

270

xviii


B.4

Correlations Between Stress and Recalled Relaxation 271 Factors for Grouped and Randomized Items

B.5

Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs

272

B.6

Final Relaxation Attitudes Scales

275

B.7

Items reflecting Relaxation-Induced Anxiety and Concerns over Disengagement

276

B.8

Factor Structure of Claimed Benefits for Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen, and Anderson Samples

277

B.9

Tukey's LSD Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities

279

B.10

Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities

281

B.11 Frequencies (Number of Participants Reporting), Means, and SDs of Reported Onset Times for R-States

284

B.12

T-tests Comparing Onset Times for Frequently Reported R-States

285

B.13

Test-Retest Reliabilities (Test-Retest Pearson Product-Moment Correlations) for the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series

286

Figures 1.1

14+1 map of relaxation/centering states.

4.1

The centering triangle.

9 108

Part I Four Advances in the ABC Approach


1

Advances in ABC Relaxation Theory: The 14+1 Map Jonathan C. Smith

For millennia, wise men and women have inspired the world with stories of healing and renewal. Religious texts proclaim miracles of meditation, prayer, and faith. Self-help books promise a plenitude of rewards for yoga, imagery, tai chi, self-hypnosis, all bolstered by affirmative mental attitude. Taken together, the perennial message of this bestselling literature is that relaxation and positive state of mind can enhance health and well-being. In the present chapter we see how ABC Relaxation Theory can help us understand and explore this vision of human potential. RELAXATION AND POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Over 2,000 scientific studies have examined more than 200 clinical and performance-enhancing applications of relaxation techniques (Smith, 1999a). Studies show that relaxation enhances the immune system, reduces destructive stress-related hormones, and may actually have an impact on specific diseases (Smith, 1999a). It is likely that many variables are in operation, including a generalized antistress "relaxation response" of lowered physiological arousal (Benson, 1975) as well as various specific somatic and neurological relaxation processes with selective impact on restricted symptom patterns (Smith, 1999a; for a complete review see Smith, 1999a). Research on positive states of mind is relatively new and undeveloped. Studies have examined something of a grab bag of variables—optimism, hope, and happiness, as well as attentiveness, 3

4

Four Advances in the ABC Approach

caretaking, contentment, courage, faith, "flow," forgiveness, humor, insight, interest, joy, joviality, love, mindfulness, pleasure, productivity, rest, satisfaction, self-assurance, sensuous nonsexual pleasure, sensuous sexual pleasure, and sharing. Of these, a respectable empirical literature has emerged concerning optimism and positive affect (Seligman & Csikszentmihali, 2000). Optimism, although variously defined, generally refers to positive expectations one may have toward the future, or concerning the outcome of a specific stressful challenge. An optimistic state of mind is associated with enhanced perseverance and problem solving, work success, popularity, health, immune system functioning, recovery from surgery, and longevity (Peterson, 2000). Similarly, research shows a relationship between "subjective positive affect" and higher levels of health and functioning, and increased immune system competence (Salovey, Rothman, Detweiler, & Steward, 2000). Clearly, a positive state of mind, as with relaxation, is healthy. BASIC ABC RELAXATION THEORY I propose that variables such as the relaxation response, optimism, and various positive feelings are fragments of a bigger picture. Research has been limited because of a reigning methodology— deductive empiricism. First, one defines a preferred variable, a specific technique, or state of mind. For example, an idea about a promising exercise or psychological construct may be suggested from spiritual text, pure theory, case observation, anecdotal report, hunch, God, or a single line of experimental research. Once defined, the preferred variable is subjected to research. This "top down" approach is analogous to how wisdom concerning states of mind and relaxation techniques have emerged through millennia. Specifically, wise men and women, and eminent experts, have offered learned advice to students and followers, an approach that is authoritarian rather than evidence driven (Smith, 1999a). Deductive empiricism has been widely applied to such topics as optimism, positive mood, progressive muscle relaxation, hypnosis, yoga, imagery, meditation, relaxation response, self-actualization, and Type A (B and C) behavior. Again, the initial selection of such preferred variables to the exclusion of other possibilities represents a profound initial deductive experimenter bias.

Advances in ABC Relaxation Theory

5

Two consequences of the deductive empirical (and authoritarian) approach have been the premature commitment to a few defining variables, and fragmentation of research. Not only has little research integrated relaxation with state of mind, but the scientific investigation of specific relaxation techniques or states of mind has often proceeded independently. A contrasting methodology, inductive empiricism makes few a priori assumptions about which potential variables should be studied and which ignored. Instead, one first identifies an inclusive list of potential variables, systematically reduces these to the most representative, and finally proceeds with research. This is how ABC Relaxation Theory evolved. DEVELOPMENT OF ABC RELAXATION THEORY ABC Relaxation Theory defines relaxation, or centering, as the act of sustaining passive simple focus (sustaining Attention, while minimizing overt Behavior and covert Cognition). Thus we consider relaxation and centering to mean the exactly same thing; the decision to use one term or another depends on context and audience. Secular researchers and physicians may respond better to the term "relaxation." Psychologists, counselors, and the spiritually inclined may prefer to use "centering." The terms have slightly different connotations; relaxation tends to suggest the absence of physiological or psychological tension, whereas centering has deeper psychological and spiritual overtones. For the remainder of this chapter, we use a combined term, "relaxation/centering." When limiting our attention to research (chapter 2 and part II) we use "relaxation." Relaxation/centering is different from how we deploy attention in everyday life. Ordinary activities are goal directed and discursive; we move from one topic and task to another (like a roving computer cursor). Indeed, such efforts are often required to get by and succeed. We make and complete our plans, and then review what we have done. Ordinary casual relaxation is also often discursive. Recreation and sport involve goal-directed movement and change. In moments of discursive passivity, we may wander through various daydreams, or mull over the day's activities. We may use discursive,

6


attention-dulling drugs such as alcohol for relaxation. Finally, even sleep is discursive, moving from phases of relative inactivity to activity. In contrast, all secular relaxation and spiritual centering; activities involve sustaining passive simple focus in one way or another, Different approaches to relaxation/centering target varied focal stimuli, such as the sensation of tensing up and letting go (progressive muscle relaxation), following a relaxing suggestion (autogenic training), feeling the flow of breath or a stretch, envisioning an image or a meditation. Techniques achieve passivity differently, through the deliberate releasing of muscle tension, maintaining indifference to relaxation suggestions, quietly breathing, holding a posture or stretch, entertaining an image that is not effortful or goal directed, or simply meditating on a mantra while doing nothing else. The core attentional act of sustaining passive, simple focus is not easy, but once achieved can set in motion a cycle of healing and growth, the cycle of renewal. Its three phases are: (a) withdrawal, (b) recovery from fatigue, effort, and tension as well as release from the constraints and burdens of adult, analytic, verbal thinking and ordinary everyday expectations; and (c) opening up to the world, renewed and refreshed. The phases of withdrawal, recovery/release, and opening up are manifest in specific conscious experiences, relaxation/centering-related states of mind, termed R-States. R-States define the empirical core of ABC Theory. Relaxation/ centering disciplines are hypothesized to work only when they evoke certain R-States. Different techniques should evoke different R-States. And many of the clinical and developmental benefits attributed to relaxation and spiritual disciplines should be mediated by R-States. Of the thousands of states of mind suggested in a typical dictionary, which are properly viewed as R-States, and which are worthy of consideration? A deductive empirical approach might seek insights from theory, spiritual texts, or perhaps a personal hunch. In contrast, the inductive empirical approach makes few initial assumptions, and attempts to map the universe of R-States. To this end, my first task was to construct a comprehensive lexicon of words used to describe states of mind associated with relaxation or spiritual disciplines. In all, I examined over 200 texts and manuals of a wide range of relaxation/centering approaches, including progressive muscle relaxation, yoga, breathing exercises,


7

imagery, creative visualization, tai chi, self-hypnosis, meditation, contemplation, and prayer. My first relaxation dictionary contained over 400 words (Smith, 1990). Through a series of eight factor-analytic studies, involving several thousand individuals, I reduced this lexicon to 15 R-States: 14 primary states and 1 meta state (Smith, 1999a, 1999b). The primary states include: Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Rested/Refreshed, At Ease/Peace, Energized, Joyful, Mental Quiet, Mystery, Positive Detachment (manifest as Childlike Innocence), Awe and Wonder, Thankfulness and Love, Prayerfulness, and Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite/At One. The one meta R-State is Aware. It is important to note that these R-States were not derived from theory, personal insight, religious dogma, or popular spiritual selfhelp culture. Instead, each was carefully identified through extensive factor-analytic research. Put differently, ABC Theory does not reflect the notions of a single expert or guru, but the wisdom of a thousand voices. THE R-STATE CENTERING TRIANGLE The first step in making sense out of our 14+1 R-States is to look for patterns. Which are correlated? What are their conceptual similarities and differences? I propose R-States can be organized along two dimensions defined in terms of the cycle of renewal and centering. The three phases of the cycle of renewal can be linked readily to R-States. For example, Disengagement is defined as withdrawal from and reduced awareness of external stimuli. Rested/Refreshed is a manifestation of recovery/release, and Energized reflects opening up. We explore more subtle distinctions later. In addition, R-States can be organized along five levels of centering: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Centered Stress Relief, Centered Pleasure and Joy, Centered Selflessness, Centered Spirituality, and Centered Transcendence.

Each level is characterized by increased sustained passive simple focus (that is, increased relaxation/centering). Level 1, centered

8


stress relief, and Level 2, centered pleasure and joy, involve relatively high levels of concrete discursive activity. The remaining levels, centered selflessness, spirituality, and transcendence, require higher levels of passive attentional focus and are abstract and general, associated with "universal" philosophical stances that can be applied to a wide range of life situations. Together, the interacting two dimensions of the cycle of renewal and the five levels of centering yield a three-sided relaxation/ centering triangle. Please refer to Figure 1.1 for a diagram of how this construction actually appears. Level 1: Centered Stress Relief Level 1 includes R-States of relatively concrete sensory and affective input associated with immediate stress relief. For Level 1, withdrawal is represented by Disengagement ("far away," "indifferent," "distant") from and decreased awareness of the world. Recovery and release are expressed in R-State Rested/Refreshed, a direct result of reduced effort and fatigue. Opening up is defined concretely by the R-State Energized; when stress and fatigue are gone, one can open up to full and effective involvement in the world. (Note: For assessment and research, R-States Energized and Aware are combined into R-State Strengthened and Aware. These R-States may be assessed separately, if desired.) Level 2: Centered Pleasure and Joy This includes positive states of sustained passive simple focus that have a rich and intense affective and sensory component. One withdraws into a world of pleasant physical relaxation ("limp," "warm," "heavy"). One enjoys feeling At Ease and Peace after recovery and release from tension and conflict. One opens up to stimuli that evoke feelings of Joy. Level 3: Centered Selflessness This level includes R-States that reflect reduced self-referent, analytic, goal-directed thinking, without the spiritual context of a larger,

FIGURE 1.1 14+1 map of relaxation/centering states.

10


greater other. Mental Quiet involves withdrawing from the world into inner silence and quiet, while displaying less self-referent, analytic, and goal-directed thought. The capacity for such selfdirected thought is minimized and subdued. In subtle contrast, Positive Detachment involves a release from self-referent concerns and burdens. Such detachment does not refer to withdrawal or escape from the world, as might be the case with Disengagement. Instead, one lets go or releases dominant adult self-referent, analytic, and goal-directed thought while maintaining a degree of engagement with the world. One is "in the world, not of it, free, unencumbered, and unattached." Positive Detachment is an R-State suggested by my talented friend and colleague of Spain's Basque Country, Alberto Amutio. It can appear in a variety of ways. A person might experience a selfless resignation and acceptance of one's lot in life, or a humble letting go of worldly cravings, desires, and possessions. However, these are somewhat esoteric notions. A manifestation that is perhaps more understandable to most practitioners of relaxation/centering is the R-State Childlike Innocence. Here one thinks at a level that is "childlike," released from the burdens of an adult analytic, goal-directed role. For the remainder of this chapter, we use Childlike Innocence as our primary example of Positive Detachment. Opening up at level 3 is displayed by the R-State Thankfulness and Love. Self-directed concern diminishes as one becomes selflessly aware of the outside object of one's gratitude. Self-referent, analytic, goal-directed thought is replaced by other-directed affective appreciation (Thankfulness and Love). To summarize, at the level of centered selflessness, the defining feature of each R-State is a reduction in self-directed worries, concerns, desires, and so on. Such thoughts are stilled (Mental Quiet), released as adult burdens (Positive Detachment or Childlike Innocence), or supplanted by other-directed thought (Thankfulness and Love). Level 4: Centered Spirituality Level 4 goes beyond centered selflessness and connotes a selfless awareness of a larger, greater reality beyond oneself. It is beyond the scope of this book to specify what this reality may be; the reader


11

has both supernatural and natural options: God, Allah, the unconscious, the flow of being, or perhaps just the night sky (or a certain small dark starless spot close to the handle of the Big Dipper). The spiritual R-State Mystery ("I sense the deep mystery of things beyond my understanding") reflects an appreciation of a deeper and greater reality that is beyond comprehension. Mystery suggests a certain distance, or withdrawal from a deeper reality. This reality may itself be "far away" from one's understanding. ("The universe is so big I can't possibly understand it all.") Or one might experience a withdrawal from concepts and appraisal processes that had provided a false sense of understanding of the incomprehensible. ("Now that my mind is quiet, I realize I never fully appreciated how big the universe actually is.") The R-State Awe and Wonder reflects a nonanalytic goalless awareness of a larger and greater reality that is new, awesome, beyond ordinary expectations; it is extra-ordinary. Put simply, one releases everyday and familiar expectations. This can occur several ways. One might feel profoundly free and detached from the preoccupying burdens and expectations of daily life, and see the world freshly through different eyes. Awe and Wonder can reflect a Childlike and Innocent release from adult, verbal, analytic thinking; one might feel like a small child facing a wonderful larger world. Awe and Wonder can also result from momentary "decommissioning" of adult analytic thinking. The grand canyon can leave one "struck with awe." Here the intensity and immensity of an external stimulus leave one temporarily "shocked" or "blinded." Our language provides many phrases that convey this notion: "shock of the new," "blinding truth," "dumbstruck," "speechless," "far out," "blows one's mind," "knocks one's socks off," or simply "Wow!" or "Amazing!" However expressed, one's adult, verbal, analytic thinking cap has been knocked ajar; one is temporarily freed or released from the constraints of adult, verbal, analytic thinking, and sees things anew. The R-State Prayerful is an affective response of openness to a perceived larger, greater reality. One opens up and feels reverent, spiritual, and worshipful. In a religious context, one might express opening up through expressions of profound love or surrender. The three spiritual R-States often appear together; one may well feel Mystery, Awe and Wonder, and Prayerful at the same time. However subtle, distinctions can be made. Awe and Wonder is not

12


quite the same as Mystery. For example, a master panting, elegantly designed automobile, unexpected achievement from a child may evoke Awe and Wonder, while remaining fully understandable. A repeated unexplained premonition in a dream may seem mysterious, but not unexpected. Perhaps it is useful to view these R-States as different facets of a spiritual response, one that can be expressed in three simple statements: Mystery—"I do not understand this," Awe and Wonder—"I do not expect this," and Prayerfulness—"I feel reverence towards this." Level 5: Centered Transcendence Level 5 is defined by the R-State Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One. Here too one is aware of something larger or greater than oneself. But for the first time one forgets oneself as much as is absolutely possible and becomes completely aware of a transcendent "other." How is centered transcendence different from centered spirituality? In one simple way. Centered spirituality always involves awareness of a relationship between oneself and some larger greater other. You feel mystery when you cannot figure out this reality. Your expectations are challenged when facing what is awesome. You relate to a larger greater other in prayer. It is always you and the larger greater other. In centered transcendence, you forget yourself as much as is absolutely possible and are just aware of the larger greater other in and of itself. At this level of abstraction, obviously everything is included ("infinite, boundless"); therefore, there is no fundamental distinction between any conceivable component, including oneself and the world. One can feel a profound harmony and oneness with all that is. The component descriptors of R-State Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite/At One loosely parallel our dimensions of withdrawal, recovery/release, and opening up. "Timeless" suggests withdrawal from moment-to-moment, day-to-day temporal awareness. One forgets time itself. "Boundless" reflects a release from conceptual boundaries, distinctions, and limits. "Infinite" reflects an experience of opening up, not just to a specific experience, but to all that is. Finally, Meta-R-State Aware can theoretically appear at any level, for any tier. One can be Aware and Disengaged, Aware and


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Physically Relaxed, Aware and Mentally Quiet, and so on. Or one might be just Aware, not particularly cognizant of any other R-State. However, our research has found that Aware most often appears with Energized, and somewhat less so with Mental Quiet, suggesting that Awareness can be manifest at two levels. At a basic level of centered stress relief, reports of feeling Aware reflect strength, energy, and confidence, a readiness to open up to the world. At a higher level of centered selflessness, Aware may reflect a basic quality of Mental Quiet, an experience that remains when affective, somatic, and cognitive content have stilled. Thus, feeling Aware can depict opposite experiences, one of increased cognitive content, and one of reduced content. THE DEEPER SIDE OF R-STATES An R-State can be experienced as either free-floating or articulated. A free-floating R-State exists in and of itself without an identified referent. That is, one cannot specify the "why," "meaning," or "gist" of the R-State; it is just there. This is analogous to the clinical construct of "free-floating anxiety" in which one might feel a diffuse sense of unexplained apprehension. For R-States, one might feel Joyful for no reason whatsoever. One might be filled with feelings of Thankfulness and Love and not know why. One might be overcome with a deep sense of Mystery. An R-State is articulated when its referent is more deeply understood. To continue our analogy with clinical anxiety, an apprehensive client might realize he or she is fearful of losing love. Similarly, a practitioner of relaxation who feels "Joy" might realize "I am happy I am alive," free-floating Thankfulness and Love might evolve into gratitude for having learned a specific exercise and a desire to share it with others. A vague sense of Mystery might yield an articulation that "at the deepest level, the very nature of the universe is incomprehensible." Obviously each person can have a highly individualized articulation of an R-State. An articulated R-State that is abstract and differentiated has broad implications and applications for other R-States (Smith, 1999a); it has a referent that can lead and apply to lower R-States. Levels 1 and 2 are relatively concrete, whereas levels 3,4, and 5 are increasingly abstract and differentiated. One who experiences

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articulated Physical Relaxation may report "My muscles feel nicely warm and loose because I just finished a massage exercise and let go of the tensions of the day." Links to other R-States are simple lateral associations. "I feel Joyful for feeling so Physically Relaxed." In contrast, an articulated abstract and differentiated R-State can supply a referent and reason for lower level R-States. "I feel Thankful and Loving that I have discovered this capacity to relax, and I am also Joyful and Energized." "The very world in which I live fills me with Awe and Wonder, and this leaves me feeling Innocent as a Child, and At Ease/At Peace." SUMMARY OF R-VARIABLES R-States are the immediate psychological states associated with relaxation/centering exercises and activities. R-States interact with a variety of other relaxation/centering variables (R-Variables; see Table 1.1). An R-Disposition is the enduring propensity to report R-States over time. Dispositions are "traits," in contrast to shorter lasting states. An R-Motivation is the reported desire to experience more of specific R-States. R-Beliefs are philosophical affirmations hypothesized to facilitate deeper and more generalized relaxation/centering. A comprehensive series of studies has Identified eight: Deeper Perspective ("My hassles are small when seen in perspective"), God, Inner Wisdom, Honesty, Love, Taking it Easy, Acceptance (of what's unchangeable), and Optimism. R-Concerns are specific outcome objectives relaxation/centering clients most frequently report. R-Attitudes are antirelaxation/centering ideas presumed to interfere with starting or continuing with a relaxation/centering discipline. Our research identifies six: Concerns about RelaxationInduced Anxiety, Concerns about Unwanted Disengagement in Relaxation/Centering, Concerns about Trainer Qualifications, Practical Concerns, Fantasy Concerns, and Concerns about Religious or Hypnotic Control. Relaxation/centering can be enhanced through a special category of belief, claims about the objective nature of reality that are idiosyncratic or peculiar to an individual (group, sect, cult, or religion) and exist apart from normal science. We can call such beliefs idiosyncratic reality claims, or IRCs. Smith and Karmin have


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TABLE 1.1 Relaxation Variables (R-Variables) Relaxation states (R-States; assessed by the Smith Relaxation States Inventory, SRSI; the Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory, SRPI; and the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory, SRRAI) Relaxation dispositions (R-Dispositions; Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory, SW/SDI; Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory, STO/RDI. Note that early R-Dispositions research considered only generalized dispositions reported as experienced any time over a two week period.) Relaxation motivations (R-Motivations; Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory, SW/SMI; Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory, STO/RMI. Note that early R-Motivations research considered only generalized motivations without reference to work/school or time off/relaxation.) Relaxation beliefs (R-Beliefs; Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory, SRBI) Relaxation attitudes (R-Attitudes; Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory, SRAI) Relaxation concerns (R-Concerns; Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory, SRCI) Idiosyncratic reality claims (IRCs; Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory, SIRCI)

identified five IRC factors: Literal Christianity; Magic; Space Aliens; After Death; and Miraculous Powers of Meditation, Prayer, and Belief. An IRC may conflict with current science, because it is untestable, accepted in spite of contrary evidence, unexplained by current theory, or yields implications that are incompatible with the body of current scientific knowledge. Note that this conceptualization makes no claims about future science. Today's IRC may be tomorrow's breakthrough discovery. It is important to recognize that IRCs may have value unrelated to relaxation/centering, such as fostering group cohesion, motivating social and political action, and the like. However, IRCs can enhance relaxation/centering in a variety of ways. They can serve as prompts or suggestions for certain R-States. They can contribute to social support among like-minded believers, facilitating group and individual practice. Because of their irrational quality, IRCs

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can contribute to sustained passive simple focus by reducing rational, goal-directed thought. However, IRCs, unlike R-Beliefs, are perhaps not necessary for the full development of R-States. Indeed, they can get in the way. One might be preoccupied with an IRC, distracted from R-States and activities that may be desired. Because IRCs are idiosyncratic and not objective or consensual, individuals, groups, and societies often espouse blatantly contradictory claims. This in turn may contribute to impoverished, parochial, egocentric, and pseudoscientific conceptualizations of relaxation/centering, which in turn may foster intolerance, conflict, and even violence. At the least, primary allegiance to an IRC can foster divisiveness and interfere with mutual respect and understanding among divergent relaxation/centering disciplines. Finally, IRCs are essentially scientific claims made outside of consensual science. As such, they can contribute to misconceptions of the nature of scientific inquiry. The literature abounds with claims of "yoga science," "meditation science," "healing science," "Christian science," and the like that perhaps have little to do with actual science. As I hope this book demonstrates, a rigorous application of the scientific method in no way conflicts with a deeply spiritual life. To return to, and summarize what we have considered so far, ABC Relaxation Theory proposes that relaxation/centering techniques work by evoking R-States, the effects of which are moderated, sustained, enhanced, and generalized through R-Beliefs, R-Dispositions, R-Motivations, R-Attitudes, R-Concerns, and possibly IRCs (Smith, 1999a). See Tables 1.2-1.7 at the end of this chapter. A full understanding of relaxation/centering requires an appreciation of all related R-Variables. More than once, students and colleagues have commented on the possible overlap and redundancy of R-Variables. How is the R-Belief "Love" different from the R-State "Love and Thankfulness"? I have two answers to such questions, one operational and one empirical. First, an R-Belief is a self-statement, a client utterance prefaced by the words "I believe"; an R-State is prefaced by "I feel." I have yet to meet a research participant or client who can't tell the difference. My second answer to the question of R-Variable redundancy is empirical. If two variables consistently correlate highly, we can consider them to be redundant.


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ABC RELAXATION THEORY NOW AND THEN ABC Theory presented here is an updated version of original ABC Theory (Smith, 1999a). For the record, let me spell out the differences. To begin, the three-phase cycle of renewal has been refined to Withdrawal-Recovery and Release-Opening Up rather than Withdrawal-Recovery-Opening Up. Note that phase two, "Recovery," has been expanded. The additional term "Release" connotes not only recovery from fatigue, effort, tension, but reduction of the constraints and burdens of adult, analytic, verbal thinking as well as of ordinary everyday expectations. Our expanded triangular map of 14+1 R-States takes a reasoned speculative step beyond the careful inductive empiricism of original ABC Relaxation Theory. I have taken license to differentiate existing R-States, and extend the model by hypothesizing states that, although not identified in factor analytic research, complete missing symmetries implicit in the map. Level 1, centered stress relief, is defined by two clear early R-State factors: Disengagement and Energized (from Strength and Awareness), reflecting withdrawal and opening up. This leaves an unfilled slot for recovery and release. I selected Rested/Refreshed to fill this slot because both correlate highly with At Ease/Peace. To continue, Level 2, centered pleasure and joy, has complete symmetry, with R-States Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, and Joy occupying slots for withdrawal, recovery and release, and opening up. The next level, centered selflessness, has one opening, again for recovery and release. I define the R-State Positive Detachment to fill this slot. Conceptually this is similar to "carefree," which loads on At Ease/Peace (Smith, Amutio, Anderson, & Aria, 1996). Experience with relaxation/centering trainees has suggested to me that Childlike Innocence is perhaps a frequent manifestation of this R-State. For Level 4, centered spirituality, Mystery and Prayerful occupy slots for withdrawal and opening up, leaving an opening for recovery and release. On an a priori basis, I chose Awe and Wonder to fill this slot; this state has a spiritual element of awareness of a greater other and connotes release—childlike and innocent release from adult thinking, a temporary "extra-ordinary" release from everyday thinking. Alexander (1991) did find a weak "Pausing/Wonder" factor. Please see Figure 1.1 for a clear representation of original and added R-States. Table 1.8 summarizes key characteristics of R-States.

Stress Relief

TABLE 1.8 Comparison of R-States Recovery / Release Opening Up Withdrawal Disengagement. Physical Rested/Refreshed. Direct Energized. Once recovered from withdrawal from external manifestations of distracting tension and stress, world; psychological recovery from stress and one is strengthened, confident, and energized—ready to engage withdrawal from world effort (especially physical) with the world. Energized is through reduced awareness primarily a physical manifestation.

Pleasure and Joy

Physical Relaxation. Joyful. Attending to the external At Ease, Peace. Relief from cognitive aspects of stress world, undistracted by tension Withdrawal from external and stress, one is increasingly sensory input and (conflict, frustration, etc.) increased absorption with aware of its rewarding one feels a pleasurable state pleasant somatic relaxation of Mental Relaxation, potential; Joyful sensations specifically At Ease, Peace

Selfless

Mental Quiet. Cessation or Childlike Innocence. One is "quieting" of externally relieved not just from engaged cognitive activity; Somatic Stress and tension, one ceases to think about, cognitive conflict and analyze, plan, or attempt frustration, but the self-centered burdens of to change external world; assuming an adult role; a diminution of one becomes "Childlike" self-directed and self-reflective effort, and "Innocent." hence selfless

Thankfulness and Love. Grateful for the rewards of opening up to a world of joy and happiness, one experiences Thankfulness and a desire to selflessly and lovingly share with others.

Withdrawal

TABLE 1.8 (Continued) Reco very / Reléase

Opening Up

Spiritual

Mystery. Withdrawal from Awe and Wonder. Relie ved Prayerfulness. One opens up further to a deeper greater world implies a distance of ordinary expectations, perhaps in a state of from the world, which world seen as more becomes far away and Child-like Innocence, encompassing than the simple mysterious; world is one is more likely to concrete pleasure and joy. "far away" from conceptual experience Awe and Wonder, Reverent and spiritual. understanding i.e., things as extraordinary

Transcendent

Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One. One's experience of "Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One" transcends categories of withdrawal, recovery/reléase, and opening up. Withdrawal, recovery/reléase, and opening up all characterize this R-State (Withdrawal from constraints of time, reléase from the bounds of ordinary expectations, open to the infinite).

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I have separated "Aware" from "Strengthened and Aware," and view it as a meta-R-State, the "A" in ABC theory. R-State Aware can conceivably be a part of all other R-States. One might be Aware and Energized, Aware and Joyful, Aware and Thankful, Aware and Disengaged, Aware and Mentally Quiet, and so on. Or one might be simply Aware, not particularly conscious of any specific R-State content. Although our early research has found Aware and Energized to load on the same factor, more recent studies often find that they do not.

IN SEARCH OF A MAP Several elements of our complex triangular map merit comment. First, R-States may emerge in any of a number of sequences. Second, several R-States may appear simultaneously; one may feel Peace and Joy at the same time. Third, R-States related to stress relief and pleasure and joy are conceptually most distinct, least likely to appear together; selfless and spiritual states have much more in common (hence the triangular structure). The metaphor of a map conveys most of these qualities. INTEGRATING RELAXATION/CENTERING AND STATE OF MIND Elsewhere I have proposed that ABC Relaxation Theory can integrate diverse worlds of relaxation/centering techniques and activities (Smith, 1999a). For example, some techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation appear to be good for Disengagement and Physical Relaxation, while others, such as yoga stretching, enhance Strength and Awareness. But ABC Theory does more; it has the potential for integrating the fragmented perennial religious, self-help, and scientific literatures on positive states of mind and relaxation /centering. To begin, practitioners of relaxation/centering experience some states of mind, R-States, and not others. The deepest moments of meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing, and passive imagery are probably not associated with the same subjective states as winning a football game, riding a roller coaster,


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watching an absorbing thriller movie, or even working hard and well on the job. Some states, although positive, are goal-directed and discursive, not passive and focused. Thus, I propose two types of positive states of mind. The emerging literature of positive states has focused on states associated with goal-directed discursive activity, for example the thrill of winning, courage in dealing with illness, creative absorption in an inspiring task, reeling dominant, various motivational states such as achievement or affiliation motivation, feelings of efficacy, "flow," sexual arousal, and the excitement of a riding roller coaster or reading a mystery novel. Researchers have relied on the deductive empirical approach and have yet to attempt a thorough cataloging of the universe of discursive, goaldirected positive states. (I recommend starting with a careful reading of a thesaurus and dictionary.) ABC Theory is interested in a different set of positive states of mind, those that are passive and focused. Elsewhere (Smith, 1999a) I have more fully described the passive and focused quality of R-States. For example, after withdrawing from the world, one may feel Disengaged, that is, distant and detached. Once conflict has been resolved, one may feel At Ease and At Peace. After an invigorating set of breathing exercises, one might pause and feel Energized. With the distractions of stress, conflict, and effort put aside, one might fully appreciate surrounding beauty, and experience happiness and Joy. Each R-State is a state of sustained passive simple focus rather than pleasurable discursive and goal-directed activity. Each R-State is a positive state of mind; traditional relaxation/centering literature, as well as our own extensive research, clearly shows that R-States are desired by practitioners of relaxation/centering (Smith, 1999a). In sum, sustained passive simple focus can be seen as either an activity (relaxation/centering) or a certain type of positive state of mind (R-State). Furthermore, the act of sustaining passive simple focus has the potential for evoking positive psychological states of sustained passive simple focus. INTERCENTERING Relaxation/centering is not a single process, but many. During an exercise or activity, much can happen, resulting in sequences of

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centered R-States. A client may feel Sleepy, then Refreshed, then Energized. He or she may feel At Ease/Peace once daily hassles have been put aside, then discover the Joy of living in a beautiful world, undistracted by self-directed concerns, and eventually feel Thankfulness and Love concerning this positive sequence of experiences. I term such sequencing of R-States intercentering. Formally: the act of sustaining passive simple focus triggers a sequence of R-States characterized by increased passive simple focus. Perhaps the most general sequence of R-States during Relaxation/Centering exercises proceeds from the lower left to the lower right of our triangular map (from Sleepiness, Disengagement, and Physical Relaxation to Rested/Refreshed and At Ease/Peace to Energized. I term this the Basic Stress Relief Intercentering Path. What is the relationship between intercentering and life at large? Let us consider four broad realms of life—R-States, recreation, coping, and belief. To maintain symmetry, we can consider again a triangular ordering of each set of variables. One can postulate a triangular map of three classes of recreation, discursive activity done just for the fun of it. Engaged recreational activities (sports, singing, dancing, etc.) involve approaching and becoming more aware of the world. Disengaged recreational activities (taking a distant hike) involve pulling away from the world. And spiritual recreational activities (singing hymns, religious ritual, spiritual stories) involve discursive activity with neither the aim of approaching or pulling away from the world; instead, one simply enjoys ("celebrates") one's spiritual or transcendent world. Lazarus (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) organizes coping strategies into those that are emotion focused (venting emotion, getting support) and problem focused (planning, changing a situation). To these we can add what might be termed spiritual coping, or actions taken to deal with one's larger, greater reality (choosing to share, give, confess, ask for help, pray, etc.). Emotion focused, problem focused, and spiritual coping form a triangle, roughly parallel to the three points of our map, withdrawal, opening up, and spiritual/transcendence. The world of personal, life-related beliefs and philosophies includes the R-Beliefs we have identified: Deeper Perspective, God, Inner Wisdom, Honesty, Love, Acceptance, Taking it Easy, and Optimism. These too can be put into a triangle. Deeper Perspective, God, and Inner Wisdom are beliefs that reflect our appraisal of a greater, deeper other and can be seen as spiritual/transcendent


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beliefs. Acceptance (of things that can't be change and Taking it Easy (knowing when to let go) seem to be reflect withdrawal, or disengagement. And Love, Honesty, and Optimism reflect opening up to the world. Taken together, R-States, recreation, coping actions, and beliefs define more fully the process of relaxation in life. Each triangle can be seen as a page in a larger story. The pages are removable (like a loose-leafed notebook) and can be assembled in any combination or left out. For one person, it might be meaningful to consider salient spiritual/transcendent beliefs, recreations, and R-State relaxation centering/activities—specifically belief in Deeper Perspective, trips to meditation retreats, and the practice of meditation. For another, we might consider opening up beliefs, coping activities, and R-State relaxation/centering activities—belief in Honesty, coping through active and rational planning, and yoga stretching. To move further in our metaphor, one's story of relaxation is illuminated by the meta R-State Aware, adding a fifth dimension to the four we have considered. And the plot or direction of one's relaxation story adds yet a sixth dimension, one of meaning and purpose. SURFACE AND DEEP PROCESSES Centering and intercentering are descriptive or "surface" constructs that identify self-reports associated with relaxation/centering. Elsewhere (Smith, 1999a) I have outlined various subprocesses that may underlie such experiences. My analysis has been objective, heavily influenced by principles from physiology, neurology, and operant conditioning. However, I believe it is important to recognize how practitioners subjectively conceptualize deep intercentering processes. Psychology has often had difficulty dealing with such phenomenological constructs, at times dismissing them as inappropriate concerns of scientific inquiry. However, personal perspectives do form the heart of much useful contemporary psychology. For example, what is "grief"? Although much interesting research has focused on brain functions and neurotransmitters, the first fact of grief is client selfreport. One grieves the loss of a loved one. And what is relaxation? What are centering and intercentering? At one level we can speak of a simple act of sustained passive

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focusing and a sequence of passive, focused states of mind resulting from various deep centering processes. However, for relaxation/ centering clients such objective conceptualizations can be mechanical and lifeless. Subjectively, they are simply not true to life. One does not define grief over a loved one as a "serotonin imbalance/' One does not define a major developmental life event, such as graduation or marriage, as a "rush of adrenalin." Arid clients who sincerely grapple with the process of growth in relaxation/ centering must face the core phenomological task of articulating what is happening. Fundamentally, relaxation/centering and intercentering are semiautonomous and paradoxically work best when one ceases overt planning and striving (Smith, 1999a). In most other life pursuits we succeed when we plan and exert effort. If we were to deliberately plan and effortfully execute every step of a sequence of progressive muscle relaxation, a yoga stretch, a breathing exercise, imagery, or meditation, the exercise would cease to work. It would become a clumsy, self-conscious, and unsatisfying ritual. Relaxation/centering works when one sustains passive simple focus. Relaxation/centering works when one ceases planning and striving and lets various deep centering processes to their job. Many relaxation/centering clients simply do their relaxation/ centering exercises and enjoy the results. However, our research consistently shows that those who have a way of articulating what might be termed underlying centering source processes report a deeper level of relaxation/centering, and are more likely to practice regularly (itself one of the best predictors of success at relaxation/centering). Furthermore, research suggests that three popular R-Beliefs are Inner Wisdom ("There are sources of wisdom and healing deep within"), God, and Deeper Perspective ("Life has a greater purpose than my wants and concerns"). It is not my intent to proclaim these as desirable R-Beliefs. Instead, I propose that relaxation/centering clients who feel comfortable with some notion of a guiding "centering source" do better at relaxation/centering. CONCLUSIONS ABC Relaxation Theory proposes that sustained passive simple focus triggers a universal human process of healing and growth.


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The full vista of R-States associated with this cycle of renewal offers a window into human potential. World religions, armies of selfhelp philosophers, and a growing number of psychologists have had much to say about relaxation and centering. Their diverse wisdom and inspiration can be seen as different ways of construing or understanding what may be the same underlying process. ABC Relaxation Theory reminds the proponent of any particular religion, philosophy, or psychology to consider what may be one psychological basis of his or her beliefs or techniques. It is a theory that challenges us to differentiate central universal human potential from the accretion of millennia of dogma, ritual, politics, myth, prejudice, magic, and superstition. In sum, ABC Relaxation Theory invites different cultures of thought, too often at odds with one another, to share and learn from each other; their varied perspectives can be viewed as stories painted on the same panoramic window.

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Four Advances in the ABC Approach TABLE 1. 2 Relaxation State, Disposition, and Motivation Factors

Sleepiness Drowsy and sleepy Dozing off and napping Disengagement Distant and far away Indifferent and detached Physical Relaxation Limp Warm and heavy Mental Quiet Silent and calm Quiet and still Rested / Refreshed Rested and refreshed At Ease/Peace (also termed "Mental Relaxation") Peace At ease Carefree Energized (incorporated in "Strengthened and Aware" in inventories) Energized, confident, strengthened Aware (incorporated in "Strengthened and Aware" in inventories) Focused, aware, clear Joy Happy Joyful Thankfulness and Love (also "Love and Thankfulness") Thankful Loving Prayerfulness Prayerful Reverent Positive Detachment (Childlike Innocence) Innocent and childlike Awe and Wonder Amazing, awesome, extraordinary


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TABLE 1. 2 (Continued) Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One (also "Timeless") Timeless, boundless, infinite Mystery Deeper mystery of things beyond understanding Note. Relaxation states ("How do you feel right now, at the present moment"); Relaxation dispositions ("Think back over the past 2 weeks. To what extent did you experience the following?" "To what extent did you experience the following when you were taking time off relaxing?" "To what extent did you experience the following when you were busy at work or school?") Relaxation motivations ("To what extent do you want to experience less or more of the following?" "To what extent do you want to experience less or more of the following when taking time off relaxing?" "To what extent do you want to experience less or more of the following when you are busy at work or school?")

TABLE 1.3 Stress States, Dispositions, and Motivations Somatic Stress Tight and tense Breathing nervous and uneven Physical discomfort or pain Worry Negative Emotion Irritated, angry Sad, depressed, blue Anxious Note. Stress states ("How do you feel right now, at the present moment"); Stress dispositions ("Think back over the past 2 weeks. To what extent did you experience the following?"); Stress motivations ("To what extent do you want to experience less or more of the following?")

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Four Advances in the ABC Approach TABLE 1.4 Relaxation Concern Factors

Medical Preparing for or recovering from surgery Managing anxiety over medical/dental procedures Managing the side effects of prescription medication Substance Abuse Controlling tobacco use Controlling use of illegal substances Controlling eating problems Psychological Distress Managing depression Managing anxiety, worry, and frustration Physical Distress Reducing pain and discomfort Managing physical symptoms Sleep Dealing with insomnia Enhancing sleep Interpersonal Stress Dealing with interpersonal conflict Coping with others General Health Enhancing physical health Increasing personal strength or stamina Enhancing resistance to disease Creativity Artistic work Enhancing creativity Enhancing personal insight Spirituality Spiritual growth Developing ability to pray Enhancing ability to meditate Physical Performance Enhancing personal alertness and energy Enhancing sex Preparing for or recovering from exercise workouts Enhancing performance at sports Note. Instructions: "What are your concerns? In what areas are you doing OK? In what areas could you do better?"


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TABLE 1.5 Relaxation Belief Factors Deeper Perspective Life has a purpose greater than my personal wants and desires. There's more to life than my personal concerns and worries. God God guides, loves, and comforts me. I put myself in God's hands. Inner Wisdom I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers. There are sources of strength and healing deep within me. Love It is important to love and respect others. Treat people with compassion and understanding. Honesty I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do. I believe in being honest and open with my feelings. Acceptance (also "Acceptance of Things That Cannot Be Changed" and "Acceptance") I can accept things as they are. There's no need to try to change what can't be changed. Taking It Easy Sometimes it is important to simply take it easy. It is important to know when to stop trying, let go, and relax. Optimism I'm optimistic about how well I will deal with current hassles. I believe in being optimistic.

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TABLE 1.6 Relaxation Attitude Factors Relaxation-induced Anxiety Becoming too sensitive to my problems when practicing relaxation Discovering things I don't want to know when relaxing Having strange (or uncomfortable) experiences when relaxing Becoming more aware of my problems when relaxing Losing touch with reality when relaxing Unwanted Disengagement Wondering if relaxation would slow me down too much Spending less time at things that are important when relaxing Withdrawing in relaxation Relaxation interfering with coping and problem solving Becoming less effective (at work, school, sports, etc.) when relaxing Fantasy Concerns Thinking relaxation is too much like daydreaming Getting lost in my fantasies while relaxing Trainer Concerns Having a relaxation trainer who might not tailor techniques for me Thinking relaxation trainer might not teach me what is best for me Practical Concerns Not slowing down enough for relaxation to work Being distracted by other things while relaxing Finding it hard to put relaxation to use in everyday life Religious/Hypnotic Control Concerns Having religious concerns that might cause problems for me Having concerns about being hypnotized in relaxation Note. Instructions: "People sometimes have problems with relaxation. Imagine in the future you are practicing a relaxation technique. What problems might you have?"


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TABLE 1.7 Idiosyncratic Reality Claim Factors Literal Christianity The virgin birth account of Jesus is literally true The biblical account of the resurrection of Jesus is literally true The devil is literally real, not a mental creation or fantasy The biblical account of creation is literally true Angels are literally real, not mental creations, fantasies, or space aliens Magic Certain gifted individuals can read palms and see into a person's personality, history, and future Supernatural voodoo rituals can have a magical effect that cannot be explained by today's science Qualified individuals can see into the future using special tools like Tarot cards, tea, and crystal globes Witches exist and can influence others by casting spells on them The alignment of distant planets and stars outside of our solar system can influence human behavior It is possible to use your thoughts alone to move physical objects (without saying or doing a thing) Certain objects such as religious relics, crystals, miniature pyramids, and special stones and gems can possess superhuman powers that can't be explained by today's science Space Aliens Space aliens visited the earth and built the pyramids Space aliens have visited the earth and influenced the course of history Flying saucers from others worlds have visited earth Space aliens have visited the earth and implanted superhuman germ seeds in the brains of all humans After Death Some people have had near-death experiences in which the person actually nearly dies and has a glimpse of what the afterlife is like Ghosts are real; so are haunted houses The dead can communicate with the living in a variety of ways, perhaps including specially qualified mediators, videotape, and answering machines Reincarnation is fact The afterlife is fact (continued)

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TABLE 1.7 Idiosyncratic Reality Claim Factors (Continued) Miraculous Powers of Meditation, Prayer, and Belief Through special meditations or prayer one can achieve miraculous superhuman feats that can't be explained by today's science Through belief or faith alone, one can achieve miraculous superhuman feats that can't be explained by today's science Note: From Idiosyncratic Reality Claims: ABC Relaxation Theory and Relaxation Dispositions, by J. C. Smith and A. D. Karmin, 2001, Chicago: Roosevelt University. Copyright 2001 by Smith and Karmin. Reprinted by permission.

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Review of ABC Relaxation Research: Implications for Practice Jonathan C. Smith

The marketplace of relaxation is crowded with techniques and ideas. Why bother with yet another entry? The answer can be found in ABC Relaxation research, the fruits of which apply to all forms of professional and casual relaxation. Whether your technique is progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga, imagery, or meditation, ABC research has something to say. This chapter reviews current ABC relaxation research, including studies presented in Part II. To set the stage, we consider a few concrete practical issues that might confront relaxation trainers. For each issue, most traditional approaches to relaxation have little to say whereas the ABC approach offers substantial insight. I present these issues in the form of a quiz. RELAXATION TRAINING QUIZ: WHAT WOULD YOU DO? • You are having difficulty persuading a client of the value of relaxation. What specific resistances should you address? How might these resistances interfere with the mastery of relaxation? What treatment preparation strategies might you deploy for such clients? • Your client has practiced meditation (or imagery) for six months and reports he or she is "in a rut." Specifically, sessions seem "dull and ineffective." Should he or she continue practicing and trust things will get better? Should the practice be altered, or changed? How? 33

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• A client complains that they can't find time to practice relaxation. "Yet they seriously want to learn relaxation. How might one address the problem of finding time to practice? • What type of client is not an appropriate candidate for progressive muscle relaxation? Autogenic training? Yoga stretching? Breathing exercises? Imagery and visualization? Meditation? • What steps can one take to help practitioners of progressive muscle relaxation continue with their technique and practice on a daily basis— especially when they complain that their technique is boring? • A client reports feelings of fear and anxiety during a relaxation session. Should these reports be taken seriously or ignored? How might such experiences contribute to, or interfere with, the deepening of relaxation? • Previously you have had difficulty with clients quitting relaxation because of relaxation-induced anxiety. You wish to screen prospective clients and identify those at greatest risk for this problem. What should one screen for? Once you have identified clients who might be at high risk for relaxation-induced anxiety, what techniques might you consider or avoid? How might you modify training to minimize relaxation-induced anxiety? • Several of your relaxation clients have shared their philosophies of life. They are quite diverse, including traditional Judaism, an existential perspective of "living in the moment," a spiritual belief in the importance of trusting "deeper powers," and a devout Roman Catholic belief in God. What would be the advantage of incorporating these beliefs into relaxation training? How could this impact compliance and outcome? How might one achieve such an integration of belief with relaxation? • If you are teaching relaxation to a group of women (or men), what special gender-specific techniques and strategies might you consider? • You run two relaxation programs, one for groups and one for individuals. Which relaxation clients might benefit most from each? • A client receiving psychotherapy for generalized anxiety has read about Zen meditation and is interested in various claims that Zen can help reduce anxiety. She asks your advice about attending traditional Zen meditation classes in a local Buddhist temple. What would be your recommendations? What problems might she encounter? • A client comes to you wanting to learn relaxation. He or she knows something about the many techniques available, and is confused about what might work best. How might you help them find a technique? • You have only 60 minutes to teach a client relaxation. What basic information do you need? What technique or techniques should you present?

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• What should you do if a client feels "sleepy" during relaxation? Is this a problem, a natural side effect of relaxation, or part of the relaxation process that can be used to enhance the depth of relaxation? How can you tell the difference? • A highly motivated relaxation client wants to maximize the efficacy of their technique. They ask "Should I practice 20, 40, or 60 minutes a day? Should I practice once or twice a day? How many months or years will I have to practice before I begin to experience an effect?" How would you address these questions? • Your PMR client reports feeling "far away and distant" near the beginning of a relaxation session. How might you use this information to enhance and deepen relaxation training? • Your autogenic training client enjoys a technique very much, and would like some advice on what everyday activities might be considered to enhance the effects of relaxation. What might you suggest? • A pain management patient wants to learn how to "tune out" and divert attention from pain. Another patient wants to learn to calmly accept pain and minimize its disruptive impact. What relaxation strategies would you apply, and avoid, for each? Which relaxation states of mind and philosophies might you cultivate or discourage? • You are teaching active coping and assertiveness techniques to college students. You would like to begin each session with 15 minutes of relaxation. Considering PMR, breathing exercises, and meditation, which should you avoid in this context? Which might you seriously consider? • A hospital has asked you to give a 90-minute relaxation seminar to patients with various medical concerns (e.g., recovering from surgery, dealing with medication side effects, enhancing healing). What relaxation states might you emphasize in your presentation? What philosophies and beliefs, and what specific exercises might you present? • Which relaxation techniques should be avoided, and which seriously considered for the following populations? (Your relaxation options include PMR, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery, meditation, and the ABC combination approach.) A group of hospitalized schizophrenics A moderately depressed single man in his 20's A middle-aged woman reporting generalized anxiety An African American female health professional seeking relaxation to increase energy and stamina at work A 30-year-old male in treatment for substance abuse (cocaine)

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Four Advances in the ABC Approach A 60-year-old recovering alcoholic An 18-year-old male receiving stress inoculation training (or desensitization) for dating anxiety An athlete desiring to use relaxation to enhance his or her game.

I suspect more than a few relaxation trainers would not do particularly well on this quiz. Health professionals who have restricted their practice to one or two techniques—whether it be progressive muscle relaxation, yoga, visualization, or meditation—deprive their clients of the full range of benefits relaxation has to offer. We now have applicable empirical evidence of what these benefits can be. The following pages, studies presented in part II, and two ABC books (Smith, 1999a, 1999b) provide useful, testable hypotheses based on extensive research and on actual practitioner reports. We begin with basic individual differences. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Gender and Race The question of possible individual differences in relaxation begins with the standard demographic variables included in every study, for example, gender and race. Such information is often available to the clinician before training begins and provides initial clues as to how techniques might be tailored. Men and women experience relaxation differently. Bowers, Darner, Goldner, and Sohnle (chapter 5) found that females report and desire higher R-States and R-Dispositions (Thankfulness and Love, for example); males report and prefer lower-level R-States and Dispositions (Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Energized). Consistent with this is the finding that females also report R-Beliefs (Deeper Perspective, God, Love) that tend to be associated with higher level R-States (Ghoncheh, Byers, Sparks, & Wasik, chapter 20). Females also claim relaxation works best for goals that involve modifying affect, that is, reducing negative emotion and psychological distress and enhancing spiritual growth. Not surprisingly, the goals of relaxation for males are more concrete and less affectively charged, including improving performance at athletics or enhancing healing (Bowers et al., chapter 5).

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Practical Suggestions for Trainers Relaxation training for males might begin with relatively concrete physical techniques, such as PMR, autogenic training, yoga stretching, and breathing. One might target goals that are concrete and physical, such as enhancing physical health and performance. And for males one might initially avoid discussion of R-Beliefs and philosophies. In contrast, trainers might consider a greater diversity of techniques for initial training with females, freely exploring and incorporating client R-Beliefs and more affective goals. Females may also tend to prefer techniques associated with abstract R-States of high levels of affective energy (imagery, meditation, and prayer).

Smith, McDuffie, Ritchie, and Holmes (chapter 6) found that African Americans more than Caucasians (and to some extent, Asian Americans) show higher levels of Thankfulness and Love as well as Prayerfulness throughout life. McDuffie (chapter 7) found that African American females, when compared with African American males, and Caucasian males and females, display a strong pattern of spiritual relaxation. Specifically they report that their preferred and most effective passive activities for "relaxation and renewal" are solitary prayer and reading the Bible/Koran. During these activities, African American females display higher levels of all R-States studied, including Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Love and Thankfulness, Joy, Prayerfulness, and Timelessness (Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One). They also report high levels of R-Beliefs belief in God, Deeper Perspective, and Acceptance of Things That Cannot Be Changed. This finding was replicated by Smith and Jackson (chapter 27). Practical Suggestions for Trainers ABC Relaxation Theory (Smith, 1999a) strongly recommends tailoring relaxation training to a client's religious beliefs and experiences. Theory supported by research (Smith, 1999a) suggests that such a strategy is likely to increase client motivation to practice. There are many ways religious beliefs and experiences can be incorporated into any approach to relaxation. Most generally, a technique can be fashioned as a form of personal prayer or worship. Exercises can be tailored around favorite prayers, songs, or passages. Even specific exercises can be transformed into spiritual expression (Smith 1999b). Tense-release cycles of PMR can be presented as ways of "letting go of tension to God." Autogenic

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" warmth [heaviness" suggestions can be described as "feeling the warmth of God within." Breathing exercises can focus on "the flow of God's life-giving air," and yoga stretching as "stretching and opening up oneself to God's love and guidance." Imagery and meditation can be particularly effective when presented in a religious context. Many relaxing religious stories can be rendered as relaxation imagery. And all religious traditions already incorporate some form of simple meditation, either described as such or as some form of contemplation or prayer. Individuals who do not prefer to state a religious affiliation, or a belief in God, may not be without spiritual inclinations. Indeed, strong spiritual feelings can spontaneously emerge in the most secular of techniques, such as PMR. Nonreligious individuals may well report R-Belief Inner Wisdom ("I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers"; "there are sources of strength and healing deep within me"). Such a pattern of beliefs opens up a different set of opportunities for relaxation training. Here, techniques can be fashioned as ways of tapping internal sources of healing and strength. See Smith (1999a), tables 13 A and 13.5 (pp. 179-184) for an extended list of affirmations associated with core R-Beliefs.

Relaxation-Induced Anxiety According to ABC Theory, a practitioner of relaxation may experience a number of negative relaxation states (N-States). These can include any distracting or distressing thoughts images, emotions, or physical sensations. Others have given this a variety of names, including stress release, abreactive experiences, uncovering, and most notably, relaxation-induced anxiety (Heide & Borkovec, 1983). It is likely that any approach to relaxation has the potential for evoking N-States. Indeed, many relaxation trainers claim that such states are an important part of relaxation training and provide valuable practice in sustaining passive simple focus. Specifically, through a relaxation deepening cycle, the very act of relaxation eventually unearths N-States. The relaxer can then chose to terminate relaxation and deal with the N-State, or direct attention from the N-State back to the focal task of relaxation, whether it is letting go of targeted muscle tension (PMR), passively repeating "warm and heavy" (autogenic training), breathing, stretching, engaging in imagery, or meditating. It is through such return action that the relaxation skill of sustaining passive simple focus is developed.


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We now know more about N-States and relaxation-induced anxiety. Anderson (chapter 11) has found that individuals displaying all forms of psychopathology are most likely to display Worry and Negative Emotion during their preferred and "most effective" relaxation activity. The effect is pervasive, displayed by individuals who score high on the following SCL-90-R scales (Symptom Checklist-90—Revised; Derogatis, 1994): Somatization, ObsessiveCompulsive disorder, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, and Paranoid Ideation. Huges (chapter 9) found that those who score high on the NEO-PI-R (NEO Personality Inventory—Revised; Costa & McCrae, 1992) Neuroticism scale display lower R-Dispositions reflecting moderate and high affective energy (At Ease/Peace, Mentally Quiet, Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Thankfulness and Love). Consistent with earlier research, optimism is associated with less negative moods and increased physical and psychological well-being. Taken together this research suggests a common thread; those with low emotional stability and high anxiety may be most prone to relaxation-induced anxiety. According to ABC Theory, psychologically disturbed individuals have less affective energy available to experience high affective energy R-States. Why may unstable and anxious individuals experience anxiety even during what they profess to be their best and most effective relaxation activity? Leslie and Clavin (chapter 8) found that relaxation-induced anxiety is associated with 16PF (16 Personality Factor Questionnaire; Cattell, Eber, & Tatsouka, 1970) Vigilance and low Ego Strength, suggesting that such individuals may be particularly sensitive to and likely to detect and attend to (see also Sohnle, chapter 10) distress in relaxation, and lack resources for dealing with such distress. Consistent with this pattern, Sohnle (chapter 10) found the relaxation-induced anxiety-prone individual may be less likely to seek positive experiences or expect positive states from relaxation. He or she may hesitate trying potentially rewarding activities because of the feared risk of possible discomfort (note R-Attitudes discussed later). Sohnle, extending this portrait, has found that such individuals may well be shy and unassertive, experiencing social anxiety, with difficulty trusting others (note the R-Attitude Trainer Concerns) and possibly resistant when others try to help (as when teaching relaxation).

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In addition to relaxation-induced anxiety, a variety of attitudes can interfere with the practice of relaxation, or prevent potential clients from even trying relaxation. Smith (chapter 18) has cataloged such relaxation-resistant attitudes into six factors: 1. Concerns over relaxation-induced anxiety (increased sensitivity to problems, emergence of anxiety symptoms), 2. Concerns over disengagement (concerns over relaxation slowing one down, withdrawing from the world, becoming less effective, not solving one's problems, wasting time), 3. Trainer concerns (having a trainer who does not individualize techniques), 4. Fantasy concerns (fear of getting lost in fantasy, or daydreaming in relaxation), 5. Practical concerns (not slowing down enough for relaxation, being distracted, finding hard to put relaxation to use, finding time to practice), and 6. Concerns over being subjected to unwanted religious indoctrination or hypnotic control. Practical Suggestions for Trainers Distressed clients who need and desire relaxation may have special problems when attempting to learn and continue with a relaxation technique (Dumitrescu, Fagerman, Goc, & Kinzer, chapter 22; Smith, chapter 18). They appear to fear the anxiety and disengagement relaxation may evoke and have reservations about practical problems associated with actually practicing a technique. In addition, they appear to be deficient in relaxation states that may well facilitate and reinforce regular practice (Smith and Sohnle, chapter 12). Given these constraints, relaxation trainers may consider enhancing the structure, external support, and reinforcing potential of techniques taught, as suggested by Smith (1999b). Care should be taken in teaching clients how to put relaxation to use in everyday life, dealing with distraction in relaxation, and finding a time and place for relaxation. In addition, careful attention should be devoted to preparing such clients for relaxation in order to alleviate any distorted perceptions they may have about relaxation. The Grand Tour workshop presented in this volume is designed to appropriately orient trainees. Individuals at risk for relaxation-induced anxiety might be especially good candidates for ABC relaxation training. The diversity of approaches presented in ABC training may help clients experience a wide range of


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relaxation reinforcements. The ABC focus on individualizing sequences of exercises can enable the trainer to minimize specific strategies that might evoke relaxation-induced anxiety. At the very least, the ABC multi-technique approach provides the client with many strategies for dealing with possibly distracting anxiety that might emerge. Finally, clients who do not suffer from high levels of relaxation- induced anxiety or everyday distress, may nevertheless be troubled by relaxation attitudes that could interfere with practice. For example, those who desire to improve their quality of sleep generally have anxiety concerns about relaxation. For most clients, it is perhaps a good idea to explore possible misconceptions and anxieties about relaxation before training.

Disengagement and Relaxation The R-State Disengagement is emerging as a variable of considerable significance for the instruction of relaxation. I define Disengagement as withdrawal from and reduced awareness of discursive stimuli. Key operational descriptors are "distant, far away, and indifferent." Conceptually, Disengagement can be differentiated into five components: somatic/sensory ("loss of sensation of extremities"), cognitive-spatial ("far away, distant"), cognitive-attitudinal ("detached and indifferent"), perceptual ("loss of awareness of external surroundings, including the relaxation trainer"), and memory ("forgetting where one is, what one is doing, etc."). Disengagement can readily shift into the R-States Sleepiness or Physical Relaxation. Disengagement is closely associated with relaxation-induced anxiety. Anderson (chapter 11) found that those who display a wide variety of forms of psychological distress (Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, and Paranoid Ideation on the SCL-90-R) report Disengaging during their "most rewarding and effective activity for relaxation and renewal." Anderson, as well as Khasky and Smith (1999) found that within-session Negative Emotion and Worry correlate with Disengagement. And Sohnle (chapter 10), using the MIPS (Millon, 1994) found that Disengagers also tend to be pessimistic and focus on problems and difficulties, perhaps contributing to withdrawal. One interpretation of these findings (Khasky & Smith, 1999; Smith, 1999a) is the relaxation-session

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Disengagement is a coping mechanism in which the relaxer deals with distress, especially Negative Emotion and distraction, through withdrawal. According to ABC theory, this may be part of the relaxation deepening cycle described earlier. Specifically, relaxers may withdraw from distraction and return to their relaxation task through Disengagement. It is important to distinguish Disengagement as a normal relaxation process from Disengagement as a pathological withdrawal from active coping outside of the relaxation session. Disengagement in a relaxation session may not interfere with, and in terms of ABC Theory may actually prepare for, positive states later in relaxation. Disengagement as a life-coping strategy may contribute to reduced happiness. Practical Suggestions for Trainers When teaching disturbed individuals relaxation (particularly techniques that tend to foster Disengagement, including PMR and AT), trainers should take care to minimize the generalization of Disengagement to life outside of the session. This might be achieved by 1. Strictly limiting the time and place of relaxation practice, 2. Clearly explaining the possible risks of overgeneralized Disengagement, 3. Focusing on adaptive coping strategies a client may apply in everyday life, and 4. Identifying clear "trigger cues" that may signal the appropriate application of Disengagement onside of relaxation (for example, cues that may signal the onset of a phobic anxiety attack).

Types of Disengagement As previously mentioned, Disengagement may be a complex of several states. Our research has focused on sensory-cognitive and attitudinal manifestations, operationalized by the key terms "Distant " (also "far away") and "Indifferent." It now appears that Distant and Indifferent may have different properties. Individuals who report Distancing in relaxation report higher levels of relaxation session stress; this pattern did not emerge for those reporting Indifference. One might argue that Distancing is a way of coping

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with relaxation-induced anxiety, and may eventually contribute to the deepening of relaxation. Leslie and Clavin (chapter 8) found that Indifferent individuals are Abstracted and display low levels of emotional stability and poor coping resources. Sohnle (chapter 10) found that they are also unconcerned with the reactions of others perhaps having little concern for external issues. Practical Suggestion for Trainers Relaxation training may be an appropriate intervention for those who report feeling "far away and distant" during relaxation, and less appropriate for profoundly indifferent and detached individuals.

Disengagement and Personality It is important to recognize the potential association between Disengagement and normal personality. Leslie and Clavin (chapter 8) found that Disengagers are particularly likely to be Vigilant and Abstracted on the 16PF; and Sohnle found them high on Introversing. Practical Suggestion for Trainers Inner-focused individuals with a rich internal fantasy life, who gather information based on their own experience, thoughts and reactions as opposed to those of others, may benefit from relaxation exercises that foster distancing from the external world and heeding the promptings that come from within. Generally, Disengagement correlates positively with distress and negatively with higher level R-States reflecting high affective energy (Joy, Energized, Thankfulness and Love, Prayerfulness). However, interesting exceptions emerge. Bang (Smith, chapter 28) found Disengagement correlates positively with Joy after two weeks of ABC relaxation training. Gonzales (chapter 29) found a correlation between Disengagement and Strength and Awareness (Energized). And McDuffie (chapter 7) found that African American females score dramatically high on all R-States, including Disengagement as well as Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Prayerfulness. As we reported earlier, McDuffie's females also displayed high levels of Belief in God, Deeper Perspective, and Acceptance of Things That Cannot Change. Their preferred relaxation activities are solitary prayer and reading the Bible/Koran.

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To further explore the relationship between Disengagement and high affective energy R-States, I re-analyzed data from 10 separate studies in which both Disengagement and one central high affective energy state, Joy, was considered. Clearly, when Disengagement and Joy are dispositions or recalled R-States, they are either negatively or not correlated. When both are assessed as immediate states, the correlation is nearly always positive. This is consistent with a conceptualization that R-State Disengagement reflects an adaptive coping strategy that may enhance the effects of relaxation practice. In contrast, dispositional Disengagement generalized to life at large may be maladaptive. Practical Suggestion for Trainers When relaxation is presented in a spiritual context, or when an individualized and comprehensive array of techniques are taught, as in ABC relaxation training, a wide range of low and high affective energy R-States may emerge. These may be supported both by spiritual beliefs (Deeper Perspective, God, perhaps Inner Wisdom) as well as by Disengagement. POSITIVE STATES Historically, relaxation has been defined in terms of negative reinforcement, reduction of cognitive or somatic arousal symptoms. ABC Theory broadens our focus to include positive states and beliefs. As such, ABC Theory is best considered as a one representative of "positive psychology," a fledgling area of study that has focused primarily on happiness and optimism.

Beliefs, Happiness, and Optimism Individuals who score low on R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism also score high on Neuroticism facets Anxiety, Angry Hostility, Depression, and Vulnerability (Hughes, chapter 9). Thus, the R-Belief Inner Wisdom may have to be added to the positive belief, Optimism, as an important correlate of low levels of distress. However, if we expand our perspective and look beyond the absence of negative states, the importance of R-Beliefs becomes complex.

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Interestingly, all R-Beliefs predict higher level high affective energy R-States in one's "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activity (Ghoncheh et al., chapter 20). Smith (chapter 19) found that R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Acceptance correlate most often with perceived benefits of relaxation. It is understandable that those who believe in the healing powers of the body would see a healing potential for all R-States. Perhaps an attitude of accepting things that cannot be changed is also supportive of this relationship. Not surprisingly, individuals who see relaxation as having benefit for spiritual growth also have spiritual beliefs, that is, belief in God, Inner Wisdom, and Love. If we move beyond the experience or expectation of positive states during relaxation practice to the propensity to experience positive states throughout life, a different pattern emerges. Hughes, using the NEO Personality Inventory—Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992), (chapter 9) found extra verts who characteristically experience positive emotion throughout life are, not surprisingly, also likely to report R-Dispositions At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness. They also score higher on the R-Beliefs Deeper Perspective, Love, and Optimism. This suggests that for extraverts the link between dispositional positive affect may be mediated by a belief that there is more to life than one's wants and concerns (Deeper Perspective), a belief in relating to others with love and compassion (Love), and a belief in viewing one's current problems, and the world at large, with optimism (Optimism). For a more general population, positive dispositions appear to correlate with Inner Wisdom Acceptance and Optimism (Ghoncheh et al., chapter 20). These findings invite the speculation that positive beliefs in general can enhance relaxation training, perhaps by increasing motivation to practice and the expectation of results. For those suffering from stress, physical symptoms, or psychopathology, an optimistic and accepting belief in internal healing powers may assist in reduction of distress. Such clients may be most receptive to the internal healing power of relaxation. However, to go beyond such negative reinforcement and experience positive states throughout life, one must go beyond a self-centered focus on symptom-reduction and pay heed to a world larger and greater than oneself.

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Practical Suggestion for Trainers When applied to practice, one might structure relaxation training to incorporate different R-Beliefs at different phases of training. Initial orientation and the Grand Tour might emphasize a wide range of R-Beliefs in order to motivate and inspire participants. Actual training might begin with a focus on symptom-reduction and R-Beliefs Acceptance, Inner Wisdom, and perhaps Optimism, given the wide-ranging and concrete influence of these beliefs. Later training might go beyond symptom relief and focus on higher positive states. Here, one might begin to attend to R-Beliefs, Deeper Perspective, Love, and perhaps God. Such a focus may be particularly effective when directed to applying the insights of relaxation to external life concerns. Other R-Belief and Positive State Patterns The NEO-PI-R dimensions of Competence (feeling capable of dealing with life; having high self-esteem, internal locus of control) and Self-Discipline (the ability to begin tasks and get them done despite boredom and distraction) correlate with R-Dispositions Strength and Awareness and Love and Thankfulness, and R-Beliefs Honesty and Optimism. Perhaps optimism stems from the energy and competence such individuals experience (or the other way around); and their feelings of Love and Thankfulness may reflect a gratitude for the inner strength they experience. Finally, R-Belief Honesty correlates with most facets of competence. A sense of competence may contribute to or result from honest openness to oneself and the world. Consistent with this finding, R-Belief Honesty predicts regularity of practice of relaxation techniques. Prayerfulness ("prayerful, reverent, spiritual") is a positive state of mind not considered in state of mind research. Hughes (chapter 9) found that both the desire for and disposition to experience Prayerfulness correlate with NEO dimension Aesthetics (having a deep appreciation for art, music, poetry, and other things of beauty). Aesthetics also correlates with the R-Belief Inner Wisdom. In addition, those who believe in Inner Wisdom, and to a lesser extent Deeper Perspective, God, and Love want more Prayerfulness in life (Ghoncheh et al., chapter 20). Individuals with such beliefs may benefit from relaxation taught

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in a religious or spiritual context (prayer groups at temple, synagogue, or church. Yoga or meditation retreats that have a spiritual focus). It is interesting to note that the R-Motivation Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite/At One correlates with NEO Openness facet Fantasy (openness to fantasy, belief in the role of imagination in a rich and creative life). Perhaps a certain subjective creativity forms the basis for experiencing this transcendent R-State. Finally, those who believe in Honesty, Taking it Easy, and Acceptance express no particular desire for spiritual R-States; they have little desire to feel more prayerful, reverent, or spiritual. Perhaps relaxation training for such individuals should emphasize secular and practical outcomes, and avoid spiritual content. Practical Suggestion for Trainers If one's relaxation goal is to evoke Sleepiness, Disengagement, or Physical Relaxation, it appears not to matter much what one believes. However, beliefs make a difference if one is relaxing for enhancing At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Prayer fulness, and by extension, Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One. Furthermore, beliefs become increasingly important as the level of abstraction of R-States increases from At Ease/Peace, to Energized and Joy to Thankfulness and Love and Prayerfulness.

STRESS, COPING, AND HEALTH In this section we consider illness, stress, coping, and relaxation. Positive state of mind researchers frequently posit the relationship between optimism, coping, and health status. Our research suggests that exclusive focus on these positive variables may be premature. Predictors of Illness and Stress In a correlational study, Gaff (chapter 13) found that physical health status as defined by the Health Status Inventory (a comprehensive medical symptom checklist that correlates highly with patient records and physician assessments; Sheridan, Mulhern, & Martin, 1998) is predicted by R-State At Ease/Peace and R-Belief

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Optimism. Health status correlates highest, and negatively, with dispositional Somatic Stress, and somewhat less with dispositional Worry and Negative Emotion. This set of findings is consistent with what others have found: individuals under stress are more likely to get sick, are less optimistic, and generally less relaxed. It is useful to invoke the popular model that stress (in our research, Somatic Stress, and to a lesser extent Worry and Negative Emotion) is an antecedent to illness. If so, what are the predictors of stress? Low levels of Optimism appear to predict Somatic Stress and Negative Emotion, but not Worry. Low levels of At Ease/Peace predicts all manifestations of stress, which is understandable given Smith's (1999a) interpretation that At Ease/Peace is essentially the absence of conflict and tension. A variety of studies have found that manifestations of stress also correlate positively with Sleepiness and negatively with At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Mental Quiet, and Res ted/Refreshed (Smith & Sohnle, chapter 12; Sonobe, chapter 14). Note that relaxation training can evoke all of these R-States as well as Disengagement and Physical Relaxation. Practical Suggestions for Trainers Previous research has found that different approaches to relaxation appear to have different effects (Smith, 1999a). All techniques appear to foster At Ease/Peace, suggesting that to a limited extent all relaxation techniques should have an impact on Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry. However, progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training appear to have enhanced specific effect on Physical Relaxation, suggesting their appropriateness for Somatic Stress. Yoga stretching and breathing exercises appear to impact R-State Energized, suggesting their value for negative emotion. Meditation appears to evoke Mental Quiet, suggesting its value for worry. Consistent with our finding that worriers desire Mental Quiet, Gilliani (in press) found that Zen meditators display significant reductions in Worry (but not Somatic Stress or Negative Emotion).

Coping Sonobe (chapter 14) examined the relationship between coping (assessed by the Coping Operations Preference Enquiry (COPE); Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub,1989), dispositional stress, and


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R-Dispositions. Individuals who engage in active coping and planning generally report higher levels of dispositional Strength and Awareness and At Ease/Peace, and Inner Wisdom, variables which are in turn associated with reduced stress. Contrary to previous optimism research Sonobe did not find a relationship between Optimism and coping. Practical Suggestion for Trainers Clinicians who are teaching active coping and planning as stress management strategies might consider supplementing training with relaxation that fosters Strength and Awareness and At Ease/Peace (breathing exercises, yoga stretching). Sonobe also examined specific coping patterns associated with Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion. Those suffering from high levels of dispositional somatic stress also believe in being Honest (especially when it comes to telling others about their symptoms). Preoccupied by pain and discomfort, they may have little remaining energy to feel Strength and Awareness (Smith, 1999a) and are too distracted to feel Mental Quiet. And they have little to feel Thankful about. Sonobe found that Worriers cope by focusing on and venting their emotions and, as we already reported, by Disengaging. Disengagement may be a cognitive relaxation disposition, deployed more by individuals reporting cognitive symptoms, such as worry. Individuals reporting high levels of Negative Emotion cope through denial and venting of emotion. In general terms, the predictors of Negative Emotion appear to be somewhat diffuse and affective in nature. Part of the task of teaching clients to cope better is identifying client perceptions of what they need, their R-Motivations. Those experiencing Somatic Stress desire more Physical Relaxation, understandable given the somatic focus of their distress. Those suffering from anxiety, depression, or hostility additionally desire more Strength and Awareness, perhaps because somatic and emotional concerns are especially likely to deplete one of energy. Worriers desire more Mental Quiet and Disengagement (Gaff, chapter 13; Sonobe, chapter 14). The results of the studies just reviewed provide interesting leads for prospective research. Which comes first—good health or

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relaxation? Perhaps Inner Wisdom is a precursor to Optimism, and thus more associated with coping. Perhaps any impact of Optimism is mediated by R-States. And perhaps as long as one is generally relaxed apparent deficiencies in coping may not matter. Practical Suggestion for Trainers Relaxation training may be more than a palliative form of emotion-focused coping with limited and somewhat superficial applicability (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Instead, relaxation may well be first line of defense against life's onslaughts and challenges. First relax, then attempt to cope, and then perhaps deal with enduring psychopathology. THE EFFECTS OF RELAXATION I: RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES ABC Relaxation theory predicts that different approaches to relaxation evoke different patterns of R-States. In contrast, prevailing relaxation response (Benson, 1975) and cognitive/somatic specificity hypotheses predict various degrees of technique equivalence. We examine several lines of evidence with respect to these various perspectives. What R-States do practitioners recall for a recent session of their preferred "most effective" relaxation activity? Wheit benefits to practitioners claim for these activities? Do R-States in themselves have any health benefits? What R-States are associated with continued practice of a technique? We first consider retrospective studies. Claimed Benefits One way of looking at the effects of relaxation is to ask relaxers what their preferred and most effective techniques are good for. Smith (chapter 19) found that those who report concrete and low affective-energy R-States Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, and Sleepiness in their preferred relaxation activity claim that relaxation helps with physical problems, including recovery from surgery, dealing with dental anxiety, pain, and perhaps insomnia. Both concrete and abstract R-States are associated with a wide range of problems with a strong psychological component, including substance abuse, anxiety, depression.


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For enhancing desired positive attributes, such as creativity, spirituality, and athletic performance, we see a different pattern, an association with abstract and high affective energy R-States, including At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Pray erf ulness. Practical Suggestions for Trainers We have indirect evidence of the therapeutic effect of R-States; concrete and low affective energy states may be best for physical problems, all R-States for psychological problems, and abstract, high affective energy states for performance enhancement and spiritual growth. Techniques can be selected and modified to enhance desired R-States.

Recalled Preferred Relaxation Activities What R-States and R-dispositions are associated with different preferred passive relaxation activities? Smith, Amutio, Anderson, and Aria (1996) assessed 663 practitioners of massage, PMR, yoga stretching, breathing, imagery, meditation, and various combinations of these techniques. In all, 11 technique groups were examined, each with at least 20 participants. Participants were asked to check R-States they recall having experienced during a recent (within the past 14 days) session. Practitioners of PMR report low levels of Joy and high levels of Disengagement and Physical Relaxation. Yoga stretching, breathing exercises, and meditation score high on Strength and Awareness. All combinations of meditation score high on Pray erf ulness. Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen (chapter 23) as well as Lewis (chapters 21, 24) examined R-States associated recollections of one's most rewarding and effective relaxation activity. Both studies found no differences among a wide range of casual and professional techniques in level of stress experienced during the activity. This is consistent with Benson's relaxation response hypothesis (Benson, 1975) that all techniques have the same impact in reducing stress. However, dramatic technique differences emerge when we examine R-States. Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen (chapter 23), Holmes, Ritchie, and Lewis (chapter 24) found that meditation and prayer, the most passive and simple techniques, evoke the widest range of

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R-States, those involving low and high affective energy (Strength and Awareness, At Ease/Peace, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness). This pattern is consistent with my hypothesis earlier in this chapter that relaxation techniques with supporting R-Beliefs are particularly likely to evoke diverse R-States. It is also consistent with ABC Theory's proposal that sustained passive simple focus is a central variable in relaxation. In addition, Sleepiness is associated with resting/happing, bathing/showers, and daydreaming. However, no casual technique appears to be superior for evoking Disengagement. This may have important clinical implications. If Disengagement is a relaxation process important for preparing for higher R-States, or for managing psychopathology and stress, then causal relaxation activities may have very limited clinical value. For nonclinical relaxation goals (enhancing creativity, spiritual growth, etc.), causal activities may have value as supplements to formal relaxation training. Practical Suggestions for Trainers Casual relaxation activities may have limited value for enhancing clinical relaxation, although such forms of relaxation may supplement relaxation for enhancing performance and spiritual growth.

Practice and R-Variables What R-States and R-Beliefs are associated with the practice of relaxation? Rice, Cucci, and Williams (chapter 25) found that daily practice of yoga and meditation correlates with lower levels of stress and higher levels of relaxation (At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness). It is important to note which variables did not predict differences in stress or relaxation: number of times practiced a day, and duration of each practice session. The typical advice given by respected relaxation scholars Monitor (Clay, 1997), is to practice "twice daily." This may not be necessary. Advice on length of an ideal practice session varies considerably, with the minimum perhaps being the transcendental meditation (TM) suggestion to practice 20 minutes. We found no evidence that length of practice session makes any difference.


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Practical Suggestion for Trainers Combining relaxation techniques and practicing regularly are the most effective ways of evoking high affective energy relaxation states. Conversely, perhaps those who already display high levels of dispositional affective energy relaxation states, and low levels of stress, are most likely to combine relaxation techniques and practice regularly. Encouraging clients to practice their relaxation techniques regularly on a daily basis is more important than specifying any session length. Indeed, regularity of practice is one of the single best predictors of success at relaxation.

Beliefs can be organized according to whether they characterize practitioners of prayer, yoga/meditation, or both yoga /meditation and prayer. As previously noted, belief in God is most exclusively associated with Prayer. Belief in Taking It Easy is most associated with yoga/meditation. And belief in Deeper Perspective, Inner Wisdom, and Optimism is most likely to characterize practitioners of both yoga/meditation and prayer. Curiously, those who practice group yoga/meditation regularly in a group are less likely to report a desire for increased Strength and Awareness (Smith, chapter 26). One might speculate that the motivations for those practicing individual and group variations of Eastern techniques differ; individual practice may be associated with personal goals of self-improvement, whereas group practice may be maintained by other reinforcements, perhaps affiliation. In addition, overall inspection of the results suggests that regularity of solitary practice of yoga/meditation, more than group practice, is associated with relaxation dispositions and beliefs. In contrast, both solitary and group practice are associated with relaxation for prayer. Perhaps prayer, more than yoga, can be an interpersonal pursuit with interpersonal reinforcements. Practical Suggestion for Trainers Regular solo practice (not in a group) of relaxation may he important for relaxation goals involving self-improvement. Group practice can be important for those who need the structure and reinforcement of practicing with others.

Those who believe in God ("God loves, guides, and comforts me"; "I put myself in God's hands"), and experience pray erf ulness, are more likely to regularly practice yoga, as well as meditation or

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prayer. In addition, those who believe in being honest with themselves and others ("I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do"; "I believe in being honest and open with my feelings") are more likely to practice yoga/meditation regularly. This suggests that belief in God may well enhance regularity of practice for a wide range of Western and Eastern techniques. Alternatively, honesty can be part of a more encompassing philosophical stance, one involving a commitment to see deeper realities that may exist beyond everyday preoccupations and distortions. Practical Suggestion for Trainers For nonreligious clients who profess spiritual and existential beliefs, including the importance of personal honesty, relaxation might be presented as a tool for seeing beyond oneself and clearing the "windows of perception." In teaching PMR, one might suggest "letting go of tensions that are as barriers to feelings of relaxation." Autogenic suggestions might state "let yourself be open to feelings of warmth and heaviness." Breathing and stretching exercises could similarly reflect openness to associated R-States of Strength and Awareness. Imagery and Meditation can be presented as opportunities to put aside personal biases and expectations, and with simple openness and honest, let the imagery and meditation proceed in its own way. THE EFFECTS OF RELAXATION II: EXPERIMENTAL TRIALS Perhaps the greatest challenge to relaxation research is to rigorously measure and compare the effects of different approaches. Here, we consider three types of studies: 1. those that have examined or compared relatively standard traditional approaches to relaxation, 2. evaluations of the multi-technique individualized ABC approach to relaxation training, and 3. examination of within-session intercentering processes. Traditional Techniques Khasky and Smith (1999) taught one session of PMR, yoga stretching and imagery (verbatim instructions in Smith, 1999b) to college


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students and compared both to a control task of reading popular magazines. Imagery appeared to work best for reducing negative affect. PMR worked best for reducing somatic symptoms. Both imagery and yoga displayed significant increases in physical relaxation. Matsumoto (in press) randomly divided 40 students into two groups and taught PMR or breathing exercises (Smith, 1999b instructions). Both groups practiced and were tested each week for five weeks. PMR practitioners displayed greater increments in R-State Physical Relaxation while breathing practitioners displayed higher levels of R-State Strength and Awareness. Effects were most pronounced at weeks 4 and 5. Gilliani (in press) compared an hour of traditional ZaZen seated meditation with a control treatment of silently reading popular magazines. Participants included 59 ZaZen meditators with at least six years experience and a control group of 24 college students inexperienced in meditation. Analyses revealed that meditators were less likely to believe in God; more likely to believe in Inner Wisdom; and more likely to display the relaxation dispositions Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, and Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One. Pre-post session analyses revealed that meditators showed greater increments in the R-States Mental Quiet, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness, as well as reduced Worry. Practical Suggestion for Trainers ZaZen meditation may be particularly appropriate for clients with spiritual concerns and low levels of stress and psychopathology.

ABC Training Bang (Smith, chapter 28) conducted the first direct study of ABC relaxation training. Geriatric residents of a Korean American retirement home were taught PMR, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga, imagery, and meditation, and then received an individualized group program that combined and integrated group preferences into a 20-minute exercise program. Participants practiced this program daily for two weeks. When compared with a no-treatment control group, relaxers displayed significantly greater reductions in depression (Beck Depression Inventory,

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Korean version) and greater increments in the following R-States: Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness. Gonzales (chapter 29) replicated Bang's study on a Spanish-speaking sample of Puerto-Rican elderly. He too found that ABC relaxation reduces depression and appears to have a broad range of effects, including Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, and At Ease/Peace. The results of these studies are consistent with an interpretation that comprehensive, tailored relaxation training can reduce depression among the elderly. ABC Relaxation also appears to enhance feelings of Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness. One can speculate that Physical Relaxation, Disengagement and possibly Sleepiness may contribute to reduced depressive thinking and symptomatology, which in turn may contribute to more positive relaxation states of Joy as well as Love and Thankfulness. The results of these studies suggest a possible difference between ABC Relaxation Training and other approaches. Different traditional approaches appear to have relatively restricted impact. As we have noted, PMR is associated with Physical Relaxation and Disengagement, Breathing and Yoga with Energized, and so on. In contrast, ABC Relaxation Training may well evoke a broad range of R-States. Intercentering Intercentering is the sequencing of R-States during a relaxation activity or exercise. We have deployed three methods in assessing intercentering processes. The uninformed recall approach involves giving practitioners an R-State inventory, in which items are randomly presented with instructions to "Indicate which states you experienced at first, later, and near the end of your exercise." The prepared recall approach involves explaining the R-State triangular map before relaxation, much as is done in the Grand Tour in chapter 4 of this volume. After practice, practitioners are given the R-State triangle and are asked to check which R-States emerged. Next, they place the number "1" by states experienced early in practice, "2" by states experienced later, and "3" by states experienced near the end of practice. This approach can be termed prepared


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recall. Finally, the cross-sectional state method involves using at least three separate groups of practitioners. Group 1 is interrupted after 5 minutes of practice and given an R-States inventory. Groups 2 and 3 are interrupted 15 and 30 minutes into training with the same inventory. Smith, Goc, and Kinzer (chapter 30) report the first empirical demonstration of intercentering. Three groups of participants were assigned to 30 minutes of PMR, yoga stretching, or breathing, and then took the Smith Recalled Intercentering Inventory. PMR practitioners reported this sequence of R-States: Stress —> Physical Relaxation —> At Ease/Peace —> Energized. Breathing practitioners reported: At Ease/Peace —> Energized. A number of patterns are worth noting. First, stress, or relaxation-induced anxiety, when it appeared, emerged near the beginning of a session. Second, practitioners of PMR may deal with such anxiety through withdrawal (Physical Relaxation), a pattern consistent with Khasky and Smith's (1999) findings. In contrast, breathing may be less likely to foster withdrawal and Disengagement, and more likely to evoke immediate recovery from psychological tension through high affective energy low abstraction R-States (At Ease/Peace). Third, a consistent sequence emerges, with At Ease/ Peace following relaxation stress, and leading eventually to feelings of Energy. This is consistent with the 14+1 map, which places At Ease/Peace close to Energy. Also, Smith (1999a) describes At Ease/Peace as "Mental Relaxation," reflecting an absence of effort, conflict, and tension. Our understanding of the Cycle of Renewal (withdrawal-recovery/release-opening up) perhaps can be modified. Withdrawal indeed comes first, but may not be essential for relaxation-based stress reduction. However, one may indeed experience recovery/release (At Ease/Peace) followed by opening up (Energy). Finally, yoga stretching appears to be a particularly benign technique that does not evoke relaxation-induced anxiety but is likely to evoke a wide range of reinforcing states; as such, yoga stretching may be a safe and rewarding technique to try on a wide range of individuals.

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Practical Suggestion for Trainers yoga stretching exercises and breathing appear to be good for enhancing personal energy. However, yoga may not have the potential for evoking deep levels of relaxation that may be required in psychotherapy. It is, however, a relatively easy, rewarding, and safe technique that can be recommended with only modest precautions.

These patterns may or may not be replicated. However, they appear to demonstrate that intercentering occurs and may have clinical implications. If one R-State reliably emerges as a precursor to another desired R-State, then relaxation trainers can target the precursor state as preparation for later progress. Clients who report one R-State in a known sequence might be counseled which R-States may follow. Techniques can be presented in an order that matches most common sequences of R-States, perhaps enhancing the impact of these R-States. At the very least, knowing the order in which R-States emerge furthers our understanding of the rich and diverse map of relaxation, and provides us with indicators of what paths may be available to practitioners. CONCLUSION Traditional relaxation training has focused primarily on negative arousal symptom reduction. ABC Relaxation goes beyond body symptoms and considers the world of what clients say about relaxation in their lives. Here we discover vast new training opportunities and challenges. It all begins by taking seriously what our clients have to say.

3

Advances in Assessment: The ABC Relaxation Report Jonathan C. Smith

Assessment should be an important part of professional relaxation training. A trainer needs to know a client's strengths and weaknesses, relaxation deficiencies and relaxation assets. Traditional tools include behavioral assessment of relaxation (breathing style, posture, tense movement) and biofeedback, topics not considered here. This chapter suggests an approach to psychological assessment of relaxation. For clients with a clear medical condition, psychological relaxation assessment does not replace comprehensive medical and biofeedback assessment; however, it can provide a very useful supplement. Four psychological relaxation assessment options include: (1) an initial report to a referring health care professional who would like a client to receive ABC relaxation training, (2) a orienting and informational report to a client interested in obtaining relaxation training, (3) a pre- and posttraining outcome evaluation of relaxation as part of a program evaluation, and (4) a preparatory report designed to provide a relaxation trainer with suggestions as to which strategies to pursue when teaching relaxation. Preparation I recommend presenting a client with an appropriate packet of relaxation assessment inventories, specifically the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI), the Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventories (RW/SDI, STO/RDI), the Smith Relaxation 59

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Motivations Inventories (SW/SMI, STO/RMI), the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI), the Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI), and the Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI) (Appendix A). Score the results using the supplied percentile tables. See Tables 3.1 and 3.2 at the end of this chapter (pp. 66-81) for a sample report and completed score sheets. Before attempting to interpret the results, the trainer should discuss apparent patterns (high percentile scores and low percentile scores) with the client to correct any distortions or inaccuracies and elaborate a client's interpretation of certain items. THE REPORT Part 1: Test Results and Summary Begin by listing general client information, including: • Referral source • Age • Gender • Marital status • Race/Ethnic background • Education • Religious affiliation • Employment • Context for learning relaxation (part of therapy, rehabilitation, medical treatment, stress management, personal enrichment • Relaxation history (previous formal techniques tried) • Relaxation Inventories given Present inventory scores, as shown in Table 3.1. Summarize assessment conclusions and relaxation plan recommendations. Part 2: Assessment of Relaxation Functioning and Training Plan Begin by describing client relaxation strengths and weaknesses. Focus on those relevant for constructing a relaxation training

Advances in Assessment

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plan. Describe your recommendations as to what ABC Relaxation Training should include. Reports written for referral sources or clients should begin with the specifics of ABC Relaxation Training. Assume the referring professional (or client) may have a number of misconceptions. The following is a sample introductory orientation: I recommend teaching the referred client, [insert client name] ABC Relaxation Training. In this approach, the trainer meets with the client for [insert number of sessions!, each lasting [insert number of minutes]. I recommend a(n) [individual or group format]. The overall idea of ABC Relaxation Training is that different approaches to relaxation have different effects and work for different people and relaxation objectives. Because no single technique can provide a complete relaxation effect, a balanced combination of approaches is preferred for most clients. I recommend teaching the six major approaches used most by health professionals and supported most consistently by relaxation research (progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery/ visualization, and meditation). An individualized relaxation protocol would be tailored to client strengths, weaknesses, and objectives. ABC Relaxation Training is not hypnosis, and is a purely secular, scientifically-based approach not linked to any specific religion.

Generally, a report should attempt to answer the "eight major questions" of assessment (Smith, 1999a, p. 23): Goals Why does my client want to learn relaxation? What R-States does he/she desire for work and school or for time off relaxation? What specific goals does he/she have [use: STO/RMI, SW/SMI, SRCI, SRBI in Appendix A]. Include results from other forms of relaxation assessment, including biofeedback. Relaxation and Other Treatment/Training Objectives How can I integrate relaxation into whatever other treatment my client is receiving (psychotherapy, counseling, medical treatment, rehabilitation, exercise programs, religious ceremony and prayer, creative performance, and sports). Some treatment interventions (such as classical desensitization, stress inoculation training, and anger management) have clearly specified how and when

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relaxations should be introduced. Unfortunately, for other treatment and training programs, the trainer must rely on his or her professional judgement. Casual Relaxation (and Possible Technique Preferences) What casual relaxation activities does my client already engage in? Are these similar to any formal relaxation techniques, both in terms of relaxation family and R-State evoked (please see Smith, 1999a, pp. 55-59, "The Seven Families of Relaxation")? Can these be woven into a relaxation program [use: SRRAI]? R-Dispositions What R-Dispositions does my client generally report at work and school or when taking time off for relaxation? What techniques may facilitate these dispositions? Is it desirable to teach techniques that augment dispositions already present, or dispositions that go beyond what the client already experiences [use: SW/SDI and STO/RDI]? R-Attitudes What attitudes does my client have that may interfere with relaxation? How might I as a trainer address these negative attitudes? Are there any specific techniques my client clearly does not want [use: SRAI]? R-Beliefs What beliefs does my client have that may enhance or deepen relaxation? Are there any techniques these beliefs may facilitate [use: SRBI1? Problems Does my client have any specific medical problems that may interfere with relaxation training? If so, what exercises should be avoided or presented with caution? Here are some guidelines I present elsewhere (Smith, 1999b, p. 18). On rare occasions relaxation exercises can have unwanted physical effects. Although relaxation is comfortable and safe for most people, some physical exercises present a level of risk perhaps comparable to that of a mild exercise program, such as walking for 2 minutes or climbing four flights of stairs. Most important, clients


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should stop practicing and consult a physician if they experience any of the following possible cardiac symptoms: Pain or tightness in the chest Irregular heartbeat Extreme shortness of breath Feeling light-headed, nauseous, or dizzy (these can also be associated with breathing exercises Loss of sensation, numbness, loss of sight, headache. Clients under treatment for any medical condition should inform their physicians of the nature of the relaxation exercises they plan to practice. Relaxation training can alter the required dosage levels for prescription medication, particularly for patients undergoing treatment for hypertension, diabetes, depression, anxiety, and any disorder influenced by changes in general metabolic rate. Although the potential for risk has not been consistently demonstrated, the state of relaxation itself is frequently associated with changes in general metabolic rate. As a result, need for medication may decrease (and in a few paradoxical cases temporarily increase). If clients report any physical symptom associated with a specific organ, joint, or muscle group, exercises targeted to this group should generally be avoided (unless part of a supervised rehabilitation program). Caution should be taken for clients displaying or reporting injury or recent surgery, pregnancy, weakness, or illness. Logistics Can my client develop a realistic relaxation practice schedule? Has he/she successfully completed a week of "taking time aside" for relaxation (Smith, 1999b, p. 22, pp. 72-74). Completion of this task provides substantial evidence that a client can establish and maintain a practice schedule. In considering the eight assessment questions, it can be useful to highlight relevant phases of relaxation training. Generally relaxation training proceeds through three phases: (1) Introduction and orientation, (2) Technique training and selection, and (3) Scripting and tape preparation. Relaxation assessment should address each phase. Specifically, client R-Motivations, R-Concerns, and R-Attitudes

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are most appropriately discussed during the introduction and orientation phase. Clarify just why a client wishes to learn relaxation. Are the goals concrete, simple, and realistic? Grandiose and magical expectations should be put into perspective. If a client displays any R-Attitudes that may interfere with relaxation, these should be discussed and, when based on misinformation or distortion, corrected. Often the grand tour of relaxation is sufficient to foster appropriate expectations. Practical concerns (R-Attitudes) may require additional attention, possibly application of the "Setting Time Aside for Rest" exercise (Smith, 1999b, pp. 72-74). An assessment report should describe how R-Dispositions, R-Motivations, and R-Concerns might impact the actual selection of relaxation techniques. Here keep in mind that the full ABC approach involves teaching all six approaches to relaxation. However, current research may suggest that some techniques are better suited for some R-States than others. This research should not be used to eliminate certain approaches. Instead, it suggests which techniques to highlight and further explore and which techniques might be taught with caution. See Smith (1999b) for precautions and suggestions for specific techniques. Pay particular attention to the "Troubleshooting" suggestions on pages 207-213. R-Beliefs, R-Concerns, and R-Motivations provide a useful source of material for the third phase of relaxation training, scripting. Scripts can incorporate suggestions of desired R-States as well as supportive beliefs. More generally, take care to direct your report to the person who will be reading it. Avoid technical phrases, such as R-States and R-Beliefs. When presenting a potentially ambiguous concept ("disengagement") illustrate it with actual questionnaire items ("feeling far away, distant"). Describe relaxation dispositions as "relaxation-related states typically experienced in a variety of situations." Relaxation motivations are "relaxation states desired more." Relaxation beliefs are "personal affirmations of philosophies possibly conducive to relaxation." Reports written directly for clients should be optimistic and supportive, emphasizing strengths and opportunities for growth.


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TABLE 3.1 Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client) Date: 3 / 8 / 9 9 Referral Source: Robert Brim, Ph.D. Relaxation Trainer: Rosemary Sanchez, Psy.D. Client: Jules A. James (38 yr, married Caucasian male, Protestant, Accountant, Finished undergraduate school) Relaxation Context: Relaxation as part of ongoing psychotherapy for depression Relaxation History: Went to imagery/visualization class in 1997, which "Made me anxious" Inventories Given: Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory, Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventories, Smith Relaxation Motivations Inventories, Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory, Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory, Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory. Test Results Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory Preferred Relaxation Activity Leisure walks Other Relaxation Activities Daydreaming, Listening to Music Level of Relaxation States Experienced in Leisure Walks Sleepiness High Disengagement Very High Physical Relaxation Average Mental Quiet Average At Ease/Peace Average Rested arid Refreshed Average Strength and Awareness Average Joy Average Love and Thankfulness Average Prayerfulness Average Childlike Innocence Average Awe and Wonder Average Mystery Average Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One Average Level of Stress Experienced in Leisure Walks Somatic Stress High Worry High Negative Emotion Very High (continued)

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TABLE 3.1 Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventories R-States Experienced at Work/School Sleepiness Very Much Disengagement Very Much Physical Relaxation None Mental Quiet None At Ease/Peace None Rested and Refreshed None Strength and Awareness None Joy None Thankfulness and Love None Prayerfulness None Childlike Innocence None Awe and Wonder None Mystery None Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One None Stress Experienced At Work/School Somatic Stress Moderate Worry Moderate Negative Emotion Moderate Depression Very Much Anxiety A Little Hostility A Little R-States Experienced During Time Off/Relaxation Sleepiness A Little Disengagement ^ Little Physical Relaxation None Mental Quiet None At Ease/Peace None Rested and Refreshed None Strength and Awareness None Joy None Thankfulness and Love None Prayerfulness None Childlike Innocence None Awe and Wonder None Mystery None Timeless/Boundless/Inf inite/At O n e . . . . . . . None Stress Experienced During Time Off/Relaxation Somatic Stress Moderate


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TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Worry Moderate Negative Emotion Moderate Depression Very Much Anxiety A Little Hostility A Little Smith Relaxation Motivations Inventories R-States Desired More at Work/School Sleepiness None Disengagement None Physical Relaxation None Mental Quiet Moderate At Ease/Peace Moderate Rested and Refreshed None Strength and Awareness Very Much Joy None Thankfulness and Love None Prayerfulness None Childlike Innocence None Awe and Wonder None Mystery None Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One None Stress States Desired More at Work/School Somatic Stress None Worry None Negative Emotion None Depression None Anxiety None Hostility None R-States Desired More During Time Off/Relaxation Sleepiness None Disengagement Very Much Physical Relaxation Very Much Mental Quiet Very Much At Ease/Peace Very Much Rested and Refreshed None Strength and Awareness A Little Joy None Thankfulness and Love None Prayerfulness None Childlike Innocence None (continued)

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TABLE 3.1 Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) R-States Desired More During Time O f f / R e l a x a t i o n (continued) Awe and Wonder None Mystery None Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One None Stress States Desired More at Time Off/Relaxation Somatic Stress None Worry None Negative Emotion None Depression None Anxiety None Hostility None R-States Desired Less at Work/School Sleepiness Very Much Disengagement Very Much Physical Relaxation None Mental Quiet None At Ease/Peace None Rested and Refreshed None Strength and Awareness None Joy None Thankfulness and Love None Prayerfulness None Childlike Innocence None Awe and Wonder None Mystery None Timeless/ Boundless/Infinite/At One None Stress States Desired Less at Work/School Somatic Stress Very Much Worry A Little Negative Emotion Very Much Depression Very Much Anxiety A Little Hostility A Little R-States Desired Less During Time Off/Relaxation Sleepiness None Disengagement None Physical Relaxation None Mental Quiet None At Ease/Peace None


TABLE 3.1

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(Continued)

Rested and Refreshed Strength and Awareness Joy Thankfulness and Love Prayerfulness Childlike Innocence Awe and Wonder Mystery Timeless/Boundless/Infinite/At One

None None None None None None None None None

Stress States Desired Less During Time 0 f f/Re1axa ti on Somatic Stress Moderate Worry Moderate Negative Emotion Moderate Depression Very Much Anxiety A Little Hostility A Little Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (Beliefs supportive of relaxation) Deeper Perspective Average God Average Inner Wisdom Very High Love Average Honesty Average Acceptance Low Taking it; Easy Very Low Optimism Low Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (Potential desired goals of relaxation) Medical Benefits Low Substance Abuse Low Psychological Distress Very High Physical Distress High Sleep Average Interpersonal Stress Average General Health Average Creativity Average Spirituality Average Physical Performance Average (continued)

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Four Advances in the ABC

Approach

TABLE 3.1 Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (Beliefs about relaxation that might interfere with relaxation) Relaxation-Induced Anxiety Average Unwanted Disengagement Very High Fantasy Concerns High Trainer Concerns Average Practical Concerns Very Low Religious/Hypnotic Control Very High Summary Mr. James displays high levels of stress, particularly negative emotion and depression, and possesses relatively few relaxation skills. He desires to learn relaxation techniques that will not induce feelings of sleepiness and disengagement at work, and will during time off periods devoted to relaxation evoke physical relaxation, disengagement, mental quiet, and feelings of being at ease and at peace. In addition, at work he would like to experience increased levels of strength and awareness, and to a lesser extent, mental quiet and at ease/peace. I recommend the full ABC Relaxation Training program, beginning with progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training, and proceeding to breathing exercises and yoga stretching. Relaxation Functioning Mr. James was administered the entire Smith Relaxation Inventory Series. His scores were compared with available general norms. Generally, Mr. James has few activities he finds deeply relaxing. His preferred "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activities give us a hint of the highest level of relaxation he currently achieves; these include relaxation states of sleepiness and disengagement (feeling "distant, far away"). Even during his "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activity, Mr. James experiences stress. If we consider everything Mr. James does when he takes time off for relaxation (and not just his "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activity),


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TABLE 3.1 (Continued) we find he still experiences little relaxation, occasionally sleepiness and disengagement. Again, he experiences moderate levels of somatic stress, worry, negative emotion, and especially depression. He very much wants during time off /relaxation to experience more disengagement, physical relaxation, mental quiet, and at ease/peace and less stress (somatic, worry, and emotional). At work, Mr. James reports high levels of sleepiness, disengagement, and negative emotion (especially depression), and moderate levels of somatic stress and worry. He would like to experience higher levels of feelings of mental quiet, at ease/peace, and especially strength and awareness at work. He very much wants less sleepiness, disengagement, somatic stress, and negative emotion at work. Finally, Mr. James has a strong belief in inner wisdom (the healing powers and wisdom of the body), a strong desire to learn relaxation to reduce psychological and physical distress, and a fear that relaxation may reduce his effectiveness at work and contribute to withdrawal and disengagement. Treatment Plan I recommend teaching the referred client a new approach to professional relaxation, ABC Relaxation Training. The entire treatment would take eight sessions, each lasting 60 minutes. The overall idea of ABC Relaxation Training is that different approaches to relaxation have different effects and work for different people and relaxation objectives. Because no single technique can provide a complete relaxation effect, a balanced combination of approaches is preferred for most clients. I recommend teaching the six major approaches used most by health professionals and supported most consistently by relaxation research (progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery/visualization, and meditation). I also recommend tailoring an individualized relaxation protocol tailored to client strengths, weaknesses, and objectives. ABC Relaxation Training is not (continued)

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Four Advances in the ABC

Approach

TABLE 3.1 Relaxation Report (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) hypnosis, and is a purely secular, scientifically-based approach not linked to any specific religion. One goal of ABC Relaxation is to take into account relaxation states a client can readily experience and minimize states a client does not desire. I recommend starting with techniques progressive muscle and relaxation as well as autogenic training; these might enhance relaxation states Mr. James already experiences to some extent, sleepiness and disengagement, and provide immediate reductions in somatic stress. These techniques could serve as effective preparation for later techniques by reducing potentially distracting tension and providing personal evidence that relaxation can have a desirable impact. However, I recommend including reassurances that relaxation is not just disengagement or sleep and moving on to breathing and yoga stretching, techniques less likely to produce disengagement and more likely to foster strength and awareness and other states Mr. James desires. In addition, I would proceed cautiously with imagery and meditation, given his concerns about being lost in fantasy, concerns about religious/hypnotic control, and unfavorable history with imagery and the modest possibility these techniques may also evoke excessive disengagement. I recommend presenting techniques in a structured environment, with the instructor continually presenting guiding instructions and little "silent time." Mr. James already enjoys music as a source of relaxation, suggesting the possibility of introducing musical background to training. Although Mr. James also finds daydreaming relaxing, I do not recommend incorporating this into his relaxation protocol because of the possibility of inducing sleepiness and disengagement and evoking these states at work. Relaxation training might be enhanced with trainer suggestions of reduced worry and enhanced feelings of strength and awareness as well as reassurances of personal control. Mr. James professes a strong belief


73

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) in "inner wisdom" ("I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers. There are sources of strength and healing deep within me.") Such affirmations might be incorporated into a relaxation script or tape, as a further counter to unwanted disengagement and to provide an enduring philosophical and motivational foundation for technique practice. Finally, I suggest supplementing relaxation training with prescribed pleasure walks, an activity Mr. James already enjoys and which can enhance the very relaxation feelings he desires.

TABLE 3.2 Summary Score Sheets (for Hypothetical Client) Client: J. James SRRAI: Smith Recalled Relaxation Activity Inventory Part 1: Activities (Check the Preferred Activity)

No. Item la 2a 3a 4a 5a 6a 7a 8a 9a lOa lla 12a

Art/Pictures (looking at, appreciating) Audio relaxation tapes Breathing exercises Church /Synagogue, Temple (attending) Daydreaming Hot Tubs/baths Hypnosis (self) Imagery / visualization Massage Meditation, claimed "TM"* Meditation, mantra, not TM* Meditation, breathing, Zen Mindfuiness*

PERCENTILES

Times/ week practiced

SD

Low

4.01

7.20

0

60

0

5.75 3.84 1.34

8.29 4.31 .83

0 0 0

50 7 2

0 1 1

1

12.36 3.57 3.57 7.21 2.15 4.80 3.78 4.48

2.22 2.36 2.51 9.83 1.70 5.92 2.08 5.55

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 10 7 70 10 7 7 7

16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0-2

1

1 2 1

6.96

5.98

0

30

0 16 0

1

2-4

3

4-6

High Score

13a

Music (Playing for self)

14a

Music (Listening to)

11.02

16.69

0

150

15a

Nature Appreciation

4.08

4.40

0

36

Very Low

1

Very High

Low

Average

High

0-1

2-3

4-6

7

2 1

3-5 2-3

10 7

0

1

6-9 4-6 2

3^ 1 1 2

5-7 2-4 2-4 3-6 1-2 2-5 3-4 2-4

8-15 5-6 5-6 7-15 3 6-7 5-7 5-7

16

5-7 7 2-4

8-15

16

8-15

;i6

5-7

8

1

7 7 16

TABLE 3.2

(Continued)

Client: J. James SRRAI: Smith Recalled Relaxation Activity Inventory Part 1: Activities (Check the Preferred Activity)

No. Item 16a 17 a 18a 19a 20a 21 a 22a 23a 24a 25a 26a 27a 28a 29a 30a 31 a 32a

Times/ week practiced

14.52 Petting Pets 6.95 Prayer (Alone, not in group) 2.11 Prayer (with others, in group) Progressive muscle relaxation (claimed)* 3.37 9.35 Radio, listening to 3.73 Reading scriptures (Bible, Koran, etc.) Reading fiction 4.40 3.47 Reading contemporary inspirational Reading Nonfiction 3.88 3.17 Reading Poetry 6.67 Resting in bed 6.95 Showers, baths 3.65 Steam baths 2.19 Sunbathing 8.07 TV, watching (including video tapes) 3.62 Yoga (hatha) 3.85 Walking (leisurely)

PERCENTILES Very

SD

Low

High

25.81 4.69 1.72 3.45 12.04 2.87 3.65 2.42 2.63 2.39 2.71 2.71 3.54 1.23 9.74 2.22 2.86

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

50 28 7 15 100 14 20 10 14 10 8 19 10 5 100 7 20

Score Low 2 0 0 2 0 0 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 2 0 0 7

1

Low 3-6 3-6 1-3 5-6 1 2 1 1-2 1 6 6 1 1 3-4 1 2

Average 7-9

High 10-25

7 1-2 4-7 7 2-6 3-4 2-4 3^ 2-3 7 7 2-4 2 5-7 2-5 3^

8 3-4 8 8-12 7 5-9 5-6 5 4-6 8 8 5-6 3 8-14 6

5-7

Very High 26 5

13 10 7 7

7 4

TABLE 3.2 Summary Score Sheets (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) SRRAI Part 2: Relaxation states recalled in "Most rewarding Scoring Key Add Items; Put Total in "Score Box" Scale to Right M Basic R-Scales 4 + 12 Sleepiness 4.05 Disengagement 5.28 10 + 23 Physical Relaxation 6 + 19 4.00 1+26 5.30 Mental Quiet At Ease/Peace 3 + 9 + 30 9.01 Rested and Refreshed 2.87 29 Strength and Awareness 11 + 18 5.31 Joy 7+16 5.91 Love and Thankfulness 13 + 22 5.16 24 Prayerfulness 1.96 1.95 Childlike Innocence 20 Awe and Wonder 5 2.05 Mystery 1.96 28 14 Timeless / Boundless / 2.36 Infinite /At One

and effective" passive relaxation activity Percentiles SD

2.05 1.74 1.88 1.70 1.99 .92

1.74 1.65 1.97 1.12 1.00 1.02 1.13 1.10

Low High 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 I 1 1

8 8 8 8 12 4 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 4

Alpha .85 .70 .82 .67 .66 .75 .80 .74

Score Very Box Low Low 6

.

7 6 7 11 3 6 6 4 1 1 2 1 2

2-3 2-3 3-6 2-3 2-3 2

Average

High

4-5 5-6 3-4 5-6

S5BS£

2-3 4 2 4 7 2 4 4-5 3

8-10 3

1

1-2 2 1-2 2-3

1

5-6 6 4-6 1-2

6 5-6 7 11 4 7 7-8 7 3 3 3 2-3 4

Very High 8

;2Pyfg 7-8 8 12 8 8 4 4 4 4

TABLE 3.2

(Continued)

SRRAI Part 2: Relaxation states recalled in "Most rewarding and effective" passive relaxation activity

Scale

Scoring Key Add Items; Put Total in "Score Box" to Right

M

SD

Stress Scales Somatic Stress Worry Negative Emotion

2 + 21+25 8 15 + 17 + 27

3.90 1.57 3.97

1.39

Percentiles

.76

1.55

Low High 3 1 3

12 4 12

Alpha .58 .69

Score Very Box Low Low 5 3 7

Average 3^ 1-2 3-4

High

Very High

5

6-12

jjfrfls,™

5

|6-12

Smith Relaxation Motivations and Dispositions Scales R-Dispositions Score Interpretation Client claims to have "very much" of this disposition 3.6-4 Client claims to have this disposition "moderately" 2.6-3.5 Client claims to have this disposition "a little" 1.6-2.5 Client claims not to have this disposition 1-1.5 R-Motivations Score 3.6-4 2.6-3.5 1.6-2.5 1-1.5

Interpretation Client wants to experience this R-State "Very much more" or "Very much less" Client wants to experience this R-State "Somewhat more" or "Somewhat less" Client wants to experience this R-State "A little more" or "A little less" Client has no desire to experience more of this R-State (continued)

TABLE 3.2 Summary Score Sheets (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) Instructions: Add the items indicated below. Divide by number of items summed. Put the resulting scores in appropriate boxes to the right. Interpret each score using the key above. Basic Relaxation Scales Sleepiness (4 + 12) / 2 Disengagement (10 + 23) / 2 Physical Relaxation (6 + 19) / 2 Mental Quiet (1 + 26) / 2 At Ease/Peace (3 + 9 + 30) / 2 Rested and Refreshed 29 Strength and Awareness (11 + 18) / 2 Joy (7 + 16) / 2 Love and Thankfulness (13 + 22) / 2 Prayerfulness 24 Childlike Innocence 20 Awe and Wonder 5 Mystery 28 Timeless 14 Stress Scales Somatic btress (2 + 21 + 25) / 3 Worry 8 Negative Emotion (15 + 17 + 27) / 3 (Depression) 17 (Anxiety) 27 (Hostility) 15

R-Dispositions (Client claims to have these)

Positive-R-Motivations (Client wants more of these)

Negative R-Motivations (Client wants less of these)

Work/ School SW/SDI

Time Off/ Relaxation STO/RDI

Work/ School SW/SMI

Time Off/ Relaxation STO/RMI

Work/ School SW/SMI

Time Off/ Relaxation STO/RMI

4

2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 3 3 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 4 4 4 4 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3 3 3 4 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

4 2 4 4 1 1

3 3 3 4 1 1

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3

3 3 4 2 2

TABLE 3.2

(Continued)

SRBI Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory

Scale


Deeper Perspective God Inner Wisdom Love Honesty Acceptance Taking it Easy Optimism

1 +9 3 + 11 5 + 13 8 + 16 4 + 12 2 + 10 6 + 14 7 + 15

Percentiles

M

SD

7.00 5.93 5.99 7.44 6.64 5.16 6.95 6.37

1.26 2.08 1.43 1.05 1.24 1.53 1.18 1.34

Very Score Very Low High Alpha Box Low Low Average High High 7-9 2 2-5 6 .61 7 8 7-9 2 2-3 4-5 .88 6 8 8 •' e^ , 2-4 5 7 8 .66 8 2 6 •- p.- '-• 7-9 7 2-6 8 .76 8 2 4 6 .58 7 2 2-5 8 7-9 2-3 •?*,!'• 5-6 4 8 2 7-8 .49 8 2 6 7-8 .58 5 3r«" •; ' .62 2-4: *Wt52 6-7 5 8 8 ' •'•' :

SRCI Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory

Scale


M

Medical Benefits Substance Abuse

1 + 14 + 24 9 + 18 + 20

4.35 4.76

Percentiles Very Score Very SD Low High Alpha Box Low Low Average High High "^.- *' 3-4 1.85 3 12 .63 3 5-6 7-12 14J&J 1.82 12 .32 3 3 4-5 6 7-12 *$£ (continuea)

TABLE 3.2 Summary Score Sheets (for Hypothetical Client) (Continued) SRCI Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory

Scale Psychological Distress Physical Distress Sleep Interpersonal Stress General Health Creativity Spirituality Physical Performance

Scoring Key Add Items; Put Total in "Score Box" to Right 5 + 26

Percentiles Very Score Very Low High Alpha Box Low Low Average High High 2 .67 3 4-5 6 ^, 8 7 4.48 1.77 2 M

SD

3 + 11 4.22 1.76 12 + 19 3.76 1.75 7 + 16 4.44 1.59 6 + 10 + 22 7.48 2.23 2 + 8 + 17 6.54 2.24 4 + 13 + 27 7.12 2.75 15 + 21 + 23 + 25 8.36 2.65

2 2 2 3 3 3 4

8 8 8 12 12 12 16

.72 .73 .62 .68 .62 .75 .57

8 4 5 7 6 6 10

2 3 3-4 3 4-5

2-3 2 3 4-6 5 4-5 6

4-5 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4 3-4

7-8 I-.* 6-8 5 7 6 10 11-12 8-9 10-12 9-10 11-12 11 12-16

TABLE 3.2 SRAI Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory Scoring Key Add Items; Put Total in "Score Box" to Right Scale Relaxation-Induced 2 + 5 + 8 + 12 + 19 Anxiety Unwanted 1 + 4 + 6 + 11 + 15 Disengagement 10 + 17 Fantasy Concerns 3 + 16 Trainer Concerns Practical Concerns 7 + 14 + 18 Religious / Hypnotic 9 + 13 Control

(Continued)

Percentiles Score Very

Very

SD Low High Alpha Box Low Low Average High High .77 8.01 3.15 5 20 9-10 11-20 5 8 M

8.40

3.21

5

20

.74

3.30 3.86 7.35 3.07

1.46 1.99 2.45 1.47

2 2 3 2

8 8 12 8

.52 .80 .70 .46

13

5-6

4 4 2 '3LM•w. ^*i— 5-6 7

7-9 2-3 i .27, p > .0005) and positively with Sleepiness, Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry (r > .37, p > .0005). These findings are consistent with symptom patterns associated with psychopathology. According to Smith (1999a), psychologically disturbed individuals have less affective energy available to experience high affective energy R-States. Extraversion (E) correlated positively with R-Dispositions Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness (r > .28, p > .0005) and positively with Relaxation Beliefs Honesty, Love, and Optimism (r > .26, p > .0005). Finally, Openness (O) correlated positively with R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism (r > .32, p > .0005), Agreeableness positively with R-Belief Love (r - .32, p > .0005), Conscientiousness (C) positively with R-Dispositions Strength and Awareness and Love and Thankfulness (r > .27, p > .0005) and R-Belief Honesty (r = .33, p > .0005). (See Appendix B, Table B.I.)

DISCUSSION As hypothesized, Neuroticism correlates negatively, and Extraversion positively, with R-Dispositions reflecting high affective energy (Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness). However, correlations for specific facets are revealing.

Neuroticism Facets (Anxiety, Angry Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, and Vulnerability) In apparent contradiction to our results, Anderson (chapter 11) found that psychopathology correlates strongly and positively with R-State Disengagement, and not at all with high affective energy R-States.

NEO-PI-R and Relaxation

129

I found that neuroticism correlates negatively with high affective energy R-States and not with Disengagement. The difference between our results is quickly resolved when we examine the instruments used. Anderson used the SCL 90-R, whereas I used the NEO-PI-R. The SCL 90-R is a clear measure of psychopathology; the NEO-PI-R measures the normal range of negative affectivity. Inspection of items for both inventories illustrates this difference. On the SCL 90-R, Anxiety, Depression, and Hostility are tapped by serious pathological descriptors, including feelings of panic, suicidal thoughts, and a history of overt violence against oneself and others. In contrast, on the NEO-PI-R, descriptors of Anxiety, Depression, and Hostility are mild expressions of negative mood ("feeling blue, irritated, nervous"). Perhaps those displaying serious psychopathology deploy the R-Disposition Disengagement to cope with their distress; those experiencing nonpathological levels of negative affect may simply experience less positive affect, and have little impulse to disengage. Another interpretation is that Anderson used a relaxation test that measures relaxation state, specifically states experienced during ones "most rewarding and effective relaxation activity." I used a measure of enduring relaxation dispositions. Perhaps only as a state does Disengagement emerges as a coping response to negative affect; as a disposition, Disengagement may instead be associated with the absence of positive affect. Individuals who score low on R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism also score high on Neuroticism facets Anxiety, Angry Hostility, Depression, and Vulnerability. Consistent with earlier research, optimism is associated negatively with less negative mood (Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny, & Fahey, 1998) and positively with physical and psychological well-being (Scheier & Carver, 1992). However, "positive state of mind" researchers may wish to broaden their horizons to consider positive beliefs other than optimism. Extraversion Facets (Positive Emotions and Feelings) Positive Emotions correlate with R-Dispositions At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness. This finding is consistent with Costa and McCrae's (1992) observation that extraverts tend to experience positive emotion. Extraverts displaying

130

Individual

Differences

Positive Emotion also score higher on R-Beliefs Deeper Perspective, Love, and Optimism. This suggests that the link between extraversion and positive affect may be mediated by a belief that there is more to life than one's wants and concerns (Deeper Perspective), a belief in relating to others with love and compassion (Love), and a belief in viewing ones current problems, and the world at large, with optimism (Optimism). Love, Optimism, and Deeper Perspective may be the beliefs that keep extraverts happy. Of these, individuals who are Optimistic also score higher in Openness facet Feelings (a receptivity to one's own emotions and a belief that emotion is an important part of life). Openness Facets (Aesthetics and Fantasy) Openness facet Aesthetics correlates with R-Disposition and R-Motivation Prayerfulness and R-Belief Inner Wisdom. According to Costa and McCrae (1992) Aesthetic individuals have a deep appreciation for art, music, poetry, and other things of beauty. We have found that such individuals also report and desire feeling "spiritual, reverent, and prayerful" and believe in inner sources of healing and wisdom. Inner Wisdom is at time associated with low levels of stress (Smith, 1999a), suggesting the value of aesthetics and artistic pursuits in stress reduction. It is interesting to note that the R-Motivation Timeless (desiring to feel more "timeless, infinite, boundless") correlates with Openness facet Fantasy (openness to fantasy, belief in the imagination in contributing to a rich and creative life). Perhaps a certain subjective creativity forms the basis for experiencing Timelessness. Agreeableness Facets (Altruism and Tender-Mindedness) Not surprisingly, Altruism correlates with the R-Disposition Love and Thankfulness. Altruism and Tender-Mindedness (sympathy and concern for others; moved by other's needs) correlate with R-Beliefs Deeper Perspective and Love; clearly those who believe that caring for others (R-Belief Love) is more important than one's personal concerns and hassles (R-Belief Deeper Perspective) are Altruistic and Tender-Minded.

NEO-PI-R and Relaxation

131

Conscientiousness (Competence and Self-Discipline) Competence (feeling capable of dealing with life; having high selfesteem, internal locus of control) and Self-Discipline (the ability to begin tasks and get them done despite boredom and distraction) score higher in R-Disposition Strength and Awareness and Love and Thankfulness, and on R-Beliefs Honesty and Optimism. People who feel Competent also feel aware, strengthened, energized, focused, confident, and clear. Perhaps their optimism stems from the energy and competence they experience (or the other way around); and their feelings of Love and Thankfulness may reflect a gratitude for the inner strength they experience. Finally, a sense of competence may contribute to a belief in honesty. Indeed, a belief in honesty correlates with most facets of competence. Consistent with this finding, Smith (chapter 26) found that R-Belief Honesty predicts regularity of practice of relaxation techniques. In conclusion, this study reveals a rich pattern of associations between basic personality dispositions and relaxation dispositions, motivations, and beliefs. Clearly, relaxation is a part of all of life.

10 The Millon Index of Personality Styles and Recalled Relaxation States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Steven Sohnle Millon (1994) considers three broad areas of personality: motivating aims, cognitive modes and interpersonal behaviors. Motivating aims are a person's typical or preferred ways of gaining reinforcement from the environment—how people get what they want. Cognitive modes refer to the way a person processes information, what they do with what they learn. For example, some rely more on their thoughts in decision making while others focus on how they feel. Some like to organize information in a systematic way, others find new and innovative ways to put it all together. Interpersonal behaviors focus on how a person goes about interacting with others. For example, while some people are very outgoing and social, others are more reserved and keep to themselves, and so forth. The present study examines the relationship between personality style, stress, and relaxation states (R-States) recalled for ones preferred relaxation activity. METHOD Participants Participants included 189 individuals (130 females, 59 males, age = 26.38, SD = 8.64) attending junior colleges and universities in 332

Millon Index

133

Chicago and neighboring suburbs. Participants were treated in accordance with the "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct" (American Psychological Association, 1992). Materials All participants completed the Millon Index of Personality Styles (MIPS; Millon, 1994). The MIPS is a self-report instrument consisting of 180 true/false items that measure personality styles of normally functioning adults (ages 18 through 65). The 24 scales of the MIPS are grouped in 12 pairs of theoretically opposite scales which are further organized into three categories: Motivating Aims, Cognitive Modes, and Interpersonal Behaviors. I used an early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) to identify R-States. The instrument used taps stress states Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion and R-States Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/ Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. Procedure Participants completed the MIPS and the SRRAI in a single testing session. I administered the tests in counterbalanced order. In return for their participation, I provided an educational presentation on relaxation techniques and stress management or on applied psychological research. In all cases, the presentation was provided after the instruments had been administered. RESULTS Two R-States, Worry and Disengagement, correlated with several MIPS variables. Worry correlated with MIPS Enhancing, Preserving, Hesitating, and Yielding (r > .30, p < .0005). These correlations survived the Bonferroni correction. In addition, Disengagement correlated with MIPS Preserving, Accommodating, Introversing, Hesitating, Dissenting, and Complaining (r > .27, p < .0005).

134

Individual

Differences

Disengagement is defined by two items, "Distancing" and "Indifferent." To explore more extensively the relationship between Disengagement and the MIPS, I performed separate correlations for both "Distancing" and "Indifferent." Distancing correlated with Preserving and Hesitating. Indifferent correlated with Dissenting (r > .28, p < .0005). Stepwise multiple regression of MIPS Enhancing, Preserving, Hesitating and Yielding on SRI Worry revealed one predictor: Preserving (Adjusted R2 = .10, p < .0005; Beta - .33). Stepwise multiple regression of MIPS Preserving, Accommodating, Introversing, Hesitating, Dissenting, and Complaining on SRI Disengagement revealed two significant predictors (Adjusted R2 = .13, p < .0005): Dissenting (Beta = .24) and Hesitating (Beta = .21). Bowers, Darner, Goldner, and Sohnle (chapter 5) and McDuffie (chapter 7) have reported differences in R-States across racial and gender groups. I compared the means of all variables for African Americans and Caucasian and for men and women. No gender differences were significant after Bonferroni correction. African Americans scored higher than Caucasians on MIPS Conforming, t (84) = 3.91, p < .0005, and on Prayerfulness, t (84) = 3.99, p < .0005. (See Appendix B, Table B.I for correlations.) DISCUSSION Is personality style related to experiences one reports having in his or her most effective relaxation activity? Individuals prone to worry during their "best relaxation" are less Enhancing and more Preserving. That is, relaxation session worriers are less likely to actively seek positive reinforcement from their environment and tend to be pessimists and see things in a negative light. These same individuals score high on Preserving; perhaps attempting to avoid negative stimulation, they shy away from many potentially rewarding situations because of the feared risk of possible discomfort during relaxation. Put differently, Preservers are pessimists who have difficulty shifting their attention away from life's problems; even in their "best relaxation session" they mentally focus on the bad things that might happen and they act to avoid them. Those who worry in relaxation are also Hesitating and Yielding. Hesitating individuals are shy and unassertive, desiring to relate

Millon Index

135

to others and be accepted and liked, but experiencing anxiety in social settings. They tend to be sensitive with strong fears of rejection and have difficulty trusting others. Hesitaters frequently experience fear which leads to isolating behaviors and loneliness. Yielders tend to be self-defeating in their interactions, often more familiar with pain than pleasure, and ready to submit to the desires of others. They are resistant to the efforts of others to help them. They frequently pass up opportunities to attain successes well within their abilities. In sum, Hesitaters are more likely to worry than experience R-States during relaxation, and Yielders, tending towards pain, perhaps avoid potentially pleasurable R-States associated with relaxation. People who experience the R-State Disengagement (feelings of distance "far away, moving deeper" or indifference "detached, nothing matters") while relaxing tend to score high on Preserving and Accommodating. As noted above, Preservers tend toward pessimism and focus on problems and difficulties. Accommodators are not very active in trying to influence their environment. They adapt to situations that others create and do not actively pursue their preferred outcomes. Why do pessimistic and passive people tend to Disengage during relaxation? Perhaps their negative outlook on life has led them to believe that they are unable to make things better or produce much, even a relaxed state, and their accommodating style leaves them unaccustomed to actively changing any part of their environment. In order to avoid having to try and influence anything, they disengage or cut themselves off from their experience. Alternatively, it may be their detached and distant approach which renders them ineffective in their efforts. These results are not surprising in light of Anderson's (chapter 11) findings that people with high levels of psychological distress on the SCL-90 (e.g., Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, and Paranoid Ideation) score high on Disengagement. Disengagers also score high on Intro versing. Intro versers gather information based on their own experience, thoughts and reactions as opposed to those of others. Intro versers "experience greater serenity and comfort by distancing themselves from external sources, preferring to heed the prompting that comes from within" (Millon, 1994). The Introverser pays little attention to information

136

Individual

Differences

that comes from others and may even see it as a distraction. Thus the distancing and indifference associated with The R-State Disengagement allow these people to focus on their valued inner processes. Disengagers also score high on Hesitating, Dissenting and Complaining. As discussed earlier, Hesitating people are avoidant, timid and shy and often isolate themselves to avoid rejection. Dissenters are nonconformists. They reject convention and are quick to challenge established traditions and standards. Complainers, as the name implies, are people who are hard to please. Often passiveaggressive, they display emotional and behavioral lability. Disengagement is defined in terms of two items, "Distant" and 'Indifferent," possibly reflecting cognitive and attitudinal withdrawal (Smith, 1999a). Distant correlates with Preserving and Hesitating on the MIPS, Indifferent with Dissenting. Therefore, it seems that Disengagers fall into two categories: Pessimistic (Preserving) and avoidant (Hesitating) individuals perhaps cut themselves off from a world they think they cannot change (Distant) as a means of self-protection. In contrast, those unconcerned with the reactions of others (Indifferent, Dissenting) perhaps believe they are better off in independent solitude. Other relaxation researchers have noted a difference between Distancing and Indifference. Leslie and Clavin (chapter 8), in their study of R-States and the 16PF, found that individuals who report "Distancing" in relaxation report higher levels of relaxation session stress. This supports the idea that Distancers experience pessimism and anxiety. Distancers also score high on some positive Relaxation States, including Physical Relaxation and Joy. Leslie and Clavin speculate that Distancing is a situational variable that reduces stress and allows for more positive relaxation experiences. Perhaps Distancers initially have difficulty when trying to relax, but eventually use distancing as a coping mechanism during relaxation. Conversely, Leslie and Clavin reported that those who scored high on Indifference in relaxation are less likely to report higher relaxation stress, or higher levels of positive Relaxation States. As with the present study, Indifferent individuals were not as easily perturbed. Instead, they score higher on 16PF Abstractedness and lower on Emotional Stability. Leslie and Clavin suggest that Indifference may be a dispositional variable, a global cognitive coping strategy deployed by Abstracted individuals who display high levels of dispositional anxiety and lack the coping resources

Millon Index

137

that define Emotional Stability. Such individuals may experience little stress, or little deep relaxation, while practicing relaxation. In other words, the Indifferent person may avoid anxiety and fear (such as that of rejection) but at the cost of a limited ability to experience deeper relaxation, joy and emotional stability. Relationships clearly exist between relaxation and personality style. The practitioner who understands the vicissitudes of a patient's personality has an understanding of how that person is likely to experience relaxation. For example, the clinician who knows that her patient is fearful, avoidant and not enthusiastic or optimistic about effecting change in his environment can hypothesize that this patient will be most likely to achieve a sense of distance and feeling "far away" when relaxing. This knowledge can aid in the selection of techniques and the clarification of the goals the techniques are intended to achieve. Techniques that facilitate Distancing (progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training) may prove to be the most helpful.

11 The Symptom Checklist-90— Revised and Relaxation States During One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Katheryn P. Anderson Are distressed people relaxed? Traditionally, relaxation has been viewed as the opposite of distress; one who is distressed is, by definition, not relaxed. ABC Relaxation Theory prompts a different set of questions. What Relaxation States (R-States) are disturbed individuals less or more likely to report? What benefits do disturbed people claim to gain from relaxation? A differentiated answer to this question may have clinical implications. A therapist teaching relaxation may consider augmenting relaxation strengths clients may already have, and teach relaxation skills they may lack. In this study I examine the correlation between major categories of psychopathology, as assessed by the Symptom Checklist-90—Revised (SCL-90), and the R-States college students claim to experience while practicing their "most effective" relaxation activity. METHOD Participants Participants included 157 (61 males and 96 female; mean age = 23.80, SD = 8.75) college student volunteers recruited from Chicago's Roosevelt University and local community colleges. All APA ethical guidelines were followed. 138

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139

Instruments Participants were given an early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRAAI), the SCL-90-R (Derogatis, 1994), and the Smith Relaxation Belief Inventory (SRBI). The SRAAI used here tapped R-States Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. Three items tap Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion. The SCL-90-R is a symptom inventory designed to assess symptomatic psychological distress. Items tap the extent to which one has experienced (over the past 7 days) symptoms indicative of Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, Paranoid Ideation, and Psychoticism. Procedure The experimenter explained that the SCL-90-R is a test that measures psychological distress and that this project was investigating the relationship between distress and relaxation. Tests were given in counterbalanced order. RESULTS R-State Disengagement correlated positively with all SCL-90-R scales except Paranoid Ideation (r > .30, p < .0001; threshold level after application of the Bonferroni correction). Sleepiness correlated positively and highest with Somatization, Depression, and Psychoticism (r > .29, p < .0001). Physical Relaxation correlated positively with Anxiety, Somatization, and the GSI (r > .29, p < .0001). Worry correlated positively and significantly with SCL-90-R scales Depression, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Interpersonal Sensitivity (r < .30, p < .0001). Negative Emotion correlated positively and significantly with all SCL-90-R scales except Anxiety, Phobic Anxiety, and Paranoid Ideation (r > .29, p < .0001). And Sleepiness correlated positively and significantly with Somatization, Depression, and Psychoticism (r = .29, p < .0001). (See Appendix B, Table B.I for correlations.)

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DISCUSSION Individuals who display a wide variety of forms of psychological distress report Disengaging during their "most rewarding and effective activity for relaxation and renewal." Specifically, those who report symptoms of Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, and Paranoid Ideation claim they relax most effectively by pulling away from and becoming less aware of the world, that is, feeling "distant," "detached," and "indifferent." Distressed individuals also report higher levels of Worry and Negative Emotion during their preferred relaxation activity, perhaps reflecting higher levels of relaxation-induced anxiety (Heide & Borkovec, 1983). Individuals who report high levels of Physical Relaxation in their preferred relaxation session also report high levels of Anxiety and Somatization. This could reflect relaxation-induced anxiety; physical relaxation may increase sensitivity to or unearth discomfort. Physical Relaxation may also be a relaxation coping mechanism; when relaxers find they are anxious or tense during a relaxation session, they may first attempt to induce Physical Relaxation as a way of managing their discomfort. Disengagement correlates moderately with Negative Emotion, perhaps also reflecting relaxation-induced anxiety or Disengagement as a relaxation coping mechanism. This study brings into focus an important clinical question. Disturbed individuals appear to know how to Disengage during relaxation. Disengagement is most associated with the relaxation technique preferred by psychologists, progressive muscle relaxation (Smith, Amutio, Anderson, & Aria, 1996). One could argue that psychologists are teaching troubled clients a relaxation skill they do not need, and missing skills they lack. Perhaps troubled clients would benefit more by learning to augment their capacity to Disengage with skill at evoking Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. If so, we should be teaching clients yoga, breathing exercises, imagery, prayer, and meditation (just about anything but progressive muscle relaxation). Conversely, a case can be made that exclusive reliance on progressive muscle relaxation is a good idea, enhancing strengths (at Disengagement) disturbed individuals already have. This is a question for future research.

Section 2

Stress, Coping, and Relaxation


12 Stress, Relaxation Dispositions, and Recalled Relaxation States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Jonathan C. Smith and Steven Sohnle

Relaxation is traditionally viewed as the opposite of stress. ABC Relaxation Theory prompts us to examine a variety of differentiated questions. Which R-States and R-Dispositions correlate negatively with stress? Leslie and Clavin (chapter 8) and Anderson (chapter 11) found that some R-States actually correlate positively with stress; those who report higher levels of Disengagement also report higher levels of negative emotion, worry, and somatic stress, possibly because of relaxation-induced anxiety (or negative states associated with relaxation itself). The present study examines data from four studies that utilized early versions of relaxation questionnaires. We then examine three sets of current norm samples. METHOD Participants First we accessed four early samples. The combined Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen (chapter 16) plus Anderson (chapter 11) samples yielded 541 usable cases (130 males, 365 females, and 46 who failed to indicate gender; average age = 28.56, SD = 12.02). The Leslie and 143

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Clavin (chapter 8) sample included 106 usable cases (63 females, 42 males; average age - 37.38, SD = 12.06). The Sohnle (chapter 10) sample yielded 221 usable cases (72 males, 149 females; average age 26.34, SD = 9.01). And the Rice, Cucci, and Williams (chapter 25) sample yielded 113 cases (39 males, 73 females, 1 unindicated gender; average age = 40.52; SD = 15.65). An early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) was distributed by Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen; Leslie and Clavin; and Sohnle. An early version of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/ Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI) was distributed by Rice, Cucci, and Williams. R-States and Dispositions tapped included Sleep, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Prayerfulness. Next, we accessed three current norm samples with both relaxation and stress data: the SRRAI (n = 225, 71 males, 124 females, 30 unindicated, age = 28.73, SD = 12.53), the SRD/MI (Dispositions; n = 311; 85 males, 198 females, 28 unindicated, age = 29.48, SD = 12.29), and the SRSI (n = 427,136 males, 242 females, 49 unindicated, age = 28.47, SD = 11.80). In sum, this study accesses 1944 cases. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For all seven samples, stress correlated positively and significantly with Sleepiness and negatively with At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy (p < .0005). For recent norm samples, stress also correlates negatively with Mental Quiet and Rested/Refreshed. In addition, the results of this study are consistent with the interpretation that Sleepiness can be a response to relaxation-induced anxiety. Three samples revealed a modest correlation between Disengagement and stress, consistent with the hypothesis that relaxers disengage in order to reduce relaxation-induced anxiety. Curiously, there was no strong relationship between self-reported Physical Relaxation (feeling "limp," "warm and heavy"') and selfreported stress. For two samples we see a positive correlation for Physical Relaxation as an R-State in one's preferred relaxation activity. (See Appendix B, Table B.2 for correlations.)

13 Health Status, Stress and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs Jonathan L. Gaff

Considerable research has examined the relationship between negative dispositions, belief patterns, behaviors, and health status; few have looked at the positive impact of positive dispositions and beliefs. One exception has been research on optimism, the propensity to hold positive expectations about the future (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989), or the belief that one has the capacity to make a difference (Kobasa, Maddi, & Courington, 1981). Scheier and Carver (1987) found optimism, as measured by the Life Orientation Test (LOT; Sheier & Carver, 1985) to be negatively associated with the reporting of symptoms. In another study, Scheier and Carver (1992) found that optimism is associated with psychological and physical well-being. They also found a negative correlation between optimism and postpartum depression. The present study examines the relationship between health status and the Relaxation Belief Optimism, while examining the contribution of other R-Beliefs, R-Dispositions, and R-Motivations. METHOD Participants Participants included 150 adult volunteers (63 males and 87 females; average age = 36.31; SD = 15.27). All participants were treated in 145

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accordance with APA ethical guidelines (American Psychological Association, 1992). Tests and Procedure Participants were given early versions of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI) and the Inventory of Health Status (IHS; Sheridan & Smith, 1987; Sheridan, Mulhern, & Martin, 1998). The SRD/MI taps Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness, Timeless/ Boundless/Infinite/At One as well as Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion. The IHS contains a checklist of 70 items that include symptoms commonly reported to family physicians (back pain, chest pain, heartburn, constipation, diarrhea, headaches, asthma, seizures, diabetes, etc.). Respondents indicate which they have experience over the past month or two. Similar inventories display a 94 percent agreement with medical records and physician diagnoses (Brodman, Erdman, & Wolff, 1949). Alpha reliabilities range from .83 to .88 (Mulhern, 1994; Schmidt, Sheridan, & Martin, 1995). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Stepwise multiple regressions were performed for health status, Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry, entering those R-Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs that correlate most highly. For health status two I entered two variables, both of which emerged as significant predictors (Adjusted R2 = .11, p > .0005): At Ease/Peace (Adjusted Beta = -.23) and Optimism (Adjusted Beta = -.20). For Somatic Stress, I entered Optimism, the R-Dispositions At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Prayerfulness; and the R-Motivations Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, and Strength and Awareness. Three predictors of Somatic Stress emerged (Adjusted R2 = .30, p < .0005): R-Disposition At Ease/Peace (Adjusted Beta = -.38), R-Motivation Physical Relaxation (Adjusted Beta = .25), and R-Belief Optimism (Adjusted Beta = -.22). Those who experience

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high levels of Somatic Stress report the lowest levels of At Ease/ Peace, considerable desire for Physical Relaxation, and low levels of Optimism. For Negative Emotion I entered R-Belief Optimism; R-Dispositions At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy; and R-Motivations Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Prayerf ulness. Three predictors of Negative Emotion emerged (Adjusted R2 = .38, p > .0005): Optimism (Adjusted Beta - -.35), R-Motivation Strength and Awareness (Adjusted Beta = .32), and R-Disposition At Ease/Peace (Adjusted Beta = -.31). Those displaying high levels of Negative Emotion are not Optimistic or feeling At Ease/Peace and they desire more Strength and Awareness. For Worry I entered Optimism; R-Dispositions At Ease/Peace and Strength and Awareness; and R-Motivations Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, and Strength and Awareness. Two predictors emerged (Adjusted R2 = .29, p < .0005): R-Disposition At Ease/Peace (Adjusted Beta = -.50) and R-Motivation Mental Quiet (Adjusted Beta = .28). Worried individuals do not feel At Ease and Peaceful and desire more Mental Quiet. DISCUSSION Results of this study are consistent with the general consensus that stress, specifically somatic stress, negative emotion, and worry, appears to be a precursor to illness (i.e., health status). Of these, somatic stress appears to be the best predictor. However the direct relationship between optimism, relaxation, and health status is weak and appears to be mediated by stress; note that only R-Belief Optimism and At Ease/Peace correlate directly with health status, whereas optimism and a variety of relaxation variables correlate with various measures of stress. Furthermore, the pattern of relaxation predictors for Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry are different, the first time this has been uncovered in stress research. Optimism appears to be an important predictor for Somatic Stress and negative emotion, but not worry. All manifestations of stress correlate negatively with At Ease/Peace, which is understandable given Smith's (1999 a) interpretation that At Ease/Peace is essentially the absence of conflict and tension.

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Specific differences between types of stress are intriguing. Those reporting somatic stress uniquely desire more physical relaxation, understandable given the somatic focus of their distress. Those suffering from anxiety, depression, or hostility additionally desire more Strength and Awareness, perhaps because somatic and emotional concerns are especially likely to deplete one of energy. Worriers desire more Mental Quiet. These findings suggest a number of clinical implications. Previous research has found that different approaches to relaxation appear to have different effects (Smith, 1999a). All techniques appear to foster At Ease/Peace; suggesting that to a limited extent all relaxation techniques should have an impact on somatic, negative emotion, and worry. However, progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training appear to have enhanced specific effect on physical relaxation, suggesting their appropriateness for Somatic Stress. Yoga stretching and breathing exercises appear to impact Strength and Awareness, suggesting their value for negative emotion. Meditation appears to evoke mental quiet, suggesting its value for worry. Consistent with our finding that worriers desire Mental Quiet, Gillini (in press) found the Zen meditators display significant reductions in Worry (but not somatic stress or negative emotion).

14 Coping Styles and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Beliefs Yoshie Sonobe

Substantial research has explored the impact of coping and mental state on stress and health (Lazarus, 1999; Segerstom, Taylor, Kemeny, & Fahey, 1998). Coping, especially active coping and planning, appears to be related to positive state of mind and optimism (Boland & Cappeliez, 1997; Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989; Fontaine, Manstead, & Wagner, 1993). However, are unhappy, effective copers healthy? What about happy, ineffective copers? Few studies have compared the simultaneous impact of coping and state of mind. Perhaps this is because research on state of mind is relatively new and undifferentiated. Whereas coping inventories (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) typically tap 15 or so different dimensions (active coping, active planning, behavioral disengagement, social support, humor, religion, etc.), state of mind research has been restricted to one state, usually optimism or happiness. The present study examines the relationship between stress (somatic stress, worry, and negative affect) and both coping and state of mind. I hypothesize that low levels of somatic stress, worry, and negative emotion are associated with active coping and planning on the Carver COPE (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989), the R-Belief Optimism, and R-Dispositions Strength and Awareness, Mental Relaxation, and Joy. 149

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METHOD Participants Two hundred twenty-six volunteers participated in this study (62 males, 163 females, 1 unindicated; age = 30.30, SD = 11.54). Of these, 191 were undergraduate college students and 35 were employees at a Chicago business. Psychology students received extra credit. This sample included 63 African Americans (27.9%), 16 Hispanics (7.1%), 116 Caucasians (51.3%), and 31 Asians (13.7%). Claimed religious affiliation included 10 Buddhists (4.4 %), 72 Catholics (31.9), 10 Jews (4.4), 6 Muslims(2.7), 49 Protestants (21.7), and 60 None (26.5). Inventories and Procedure All participants received the Coping Operations Preference Enquiry (COPE; Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) as well early versions of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI) and Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI). The COPE measures 15 different coping strategies: Active Coping (e.g., I take additional action to try to get rid of the problem), Planning (I make a plan of action), Suppression of Competing Activities (I keep myself from getting distracted by other thoughts or activities), Restraint Coping (I force myself to wait for the right time to do something), and Instrumental Social Support (I try to get advice from someone about what to do), Positive Reinterpretation and Growth (I try to grow as a person as a result of the experience), Emotional Social Support (I discuss my feelings with someone), Religious Coping (I put my trust in God), Acceptance (I accept that this has happened and that it cannot be changed), Denial (I refuse to believe that it has happened), Humor (I make jokes about it), Focusing on and Venting of Emotions (I feel a lot of emotional distress and I find myself expressing those feelings a lot), Substance Use (I use alcohol or drugs to make myself feel better), Behavioral Disengagement (I just give up trying to reach my goal), and Mental Disengagement (I turn to work or other substitute activities to take my mind off things). Instructions ask participants to indicate what they generally do and feel when they are exposed to stress. Participants then rate

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each item on a 4-point Likert Scale: 1 (I usually do not do this at all), 2 (I usually do this a little bit), 3 (I usually do this a medium amount), and 4 (I usually do this a lot). The SRD/MI measures R-Dispositions Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Prayerfulness, and Timeless. The SRD/MI also assesses three stress variables: Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry. RESULTS This study found a rich pattern of relationships among relaxation variables and stress. We focus only on those correlations that survive the Bonferroni correction. Coping and R-Variables Both Active Coping and Planning correlated positively with R-Dispositions Strength & Awareness and At Ease/Peace, and R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism. See Appendix B, Table B.I. A Stepwise Multiple Regression performed entering these variables on a combined variable of Active Coping and Planning revealed three significant (Adjusted R2 = .33, p < .001) predictors: R-Belief Inner Wisdom (Beta - .45), R-Disposition Strength & Awareness (Beta = .19), and At Ease/Peace (Beta = .14). The final model did not include R-Belief Optimism. Stress, Coping, and R-Variables Separate Stepwise Multiple Regressions were performed for Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion, entering as potential predictors all coping and R-Variables that survived the Bonferroni correction. Somatic Stress Six variables predicted Somatic Stress (Adjusted R2 = .33, p < .000): R-Positive Motivation Physical Relaxation (Beta = .28), R-Dispositions Strength & Awareness (Beta = -.15), Sleepiness (Beta - .21), Mental

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Quiet (Beta = -.19), R-Belief Honesty (Beta = .13), and R-Disposition Love (Beta = -.15). Worry Six variables predicted Worry (Adjusted R2 = .30, p < .000): R-lDisposition At Ease/Peace (Beta = -.19), coping style Focusing on and Venting of Emotion (Beta = .21), R-Disposition Sleepiness (Beta = .19), R-Positive Motivation Disengagement (Beta = .17), R-Belief Honesty (Beta = .15), and R-Disposition Joy (Beta = -.14). Negative Emotion Negative Emotion was found to have nine predictors (Adjusted R2 = .46, p < .001): R-Disposition At Ease/Peace (Beta = -.20), coping style Focusing on & Venting of Emotion (Beta - .29), R-Disposition Sleepiness (Beta - .28), R-Disposition Love (Beta = -.23), R-Positive Motivation Joy (Beta - -.19), coping style Denial (Beta - .16), RNegative Motivation Sleepiness (Beta = -.14), and R-Positive Motivation Physical Relaxation (Beta = .13). See Appendix B, Table B.I for correlations. DISCUSSION Are happy copers healthy? Can one cope poorly, and yet be happy and healthy? This study reveals a number of interesting patterns, some of which challenge prevailing thinking and research on coping and optimism. Individuals who engage in active coping and planning generally report higher levels of Strength and Awareness and At Ease/Peace; in addition, they believe in Inner Wisdom. Contrary to previous research (Boland & Cappeliez, 1997; Carver et al., 1989; Fontaine, Manstead, & Wagner, 1993), I did not find a relationship between Optimism and coping. The present study also examined three types of chronic stress: Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry, all of which are negatively associated with health status (Gaff, chapter 13). Those suffering from high levels of Somatic Stress also report feeling Physical Relaxation, Sleepiness, and a belief in Honesty. They display low levels of Strength and Awareness, Mental Quiet, and Love and Thankfulness. Some of these associations are easy to interpret.

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Symptom-ridden people may believe in being honest (especially when it comes to telling others about their symptoms). Preoccupied by pain and discomfort, they have little remaining energy to feel Strength and Awareness (Smith, 1999a) and are too distracted to feel Mental Quiet. And they have little to feel Thankful about. But why do symptom-ridden people report higher levels of Physical Relaxation? Perhaps the items used to measure Physical Relaxation (I feel relaxed and limp, warm, and heavy) can also serve as symptom descriptions (I'm so tired and sink, my muscles are limp, warm, and heavy), especially when rated as dispositions and not states. Another possibility is that those suffering from somatic symptoms are more likely to be internally-focused and aware of subtle internal sensations, including sensations of relaxation. Perhaps symptom suffers are more likely to use and report Physical Relaxation as a response to their symptoms. Worry We found that worriers are not At Ease, Peaceful, or Joyful; however, they, like somatic sufferers, do report higher levels of Sleepiness and Honesty and focus on and vent their emotions. They also desire Disengagement, to feel distant and far away from their problems. Disengagement may be a cognitive relaxation disposition, deployed more by individuals reporting cognitive symptoms, such as worry. Smith defines At Ease/Peace as an absence of conflict and tension reflected by such items as at ease, and at peace. These also may be cognitive manifestations of relaxation particularly lacking in individuals suffering from worry. Negative Emotion Individuals reporting high levels of Negative Emotion (anxiety, depression, hostility), like worriers, are not At Ease, Peaceful, or particularly Thankful or Loving about their condition. They are more Sleepy and desire more Physical Relaxation. In addition, they cope through denial and venting of emotion. In general terms, the predictors of Negative Emotion appear to be somewhat diffuse and affective in nature. In sum, three variables are conspicuously absent from our pattern of predictors of reduced stress: optimism, active coping, and planning. I found that optimism does not predict coping, or low levels of stress symptomatology. Inner Wisdom (the belief in inner

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wisdom and healing powers) is the only belief we found associated with coping, and even it does not predict lower levels of stress. Instead, individuals displaying low levels of stress are more likely to display At Ease/Peace, Mentally Quiet, and Strength and Awareness; in addition, they avoid emotional venting and denial. The failure to find a relationship between coping and stress is consistent with Watson, David, and Suls's (1999) suggestion that neuroticism/negative emotionality and extra version/positive emotionality are potentially important "third variables" that account for the relationship between coping and adaptational outcomes. In simple terms the answer to our initial question concerning the relationship between happiness, coping, and health appears to be: healthy individuals are at least generally happy (that is, At Ease and Peaceful, Mentally Quiet, and Strengthened arid Aware) and avoid potentially maladaptive forms of coping, such as denial and emotional venting. In contrast to what previous research has suggested, healthy people are not necessarily optimistic, nor are they particularly likely to engage in active coping or planning. The results of this study provide interesting leads for prospective research. Which comes first—good health or relaxation? The apparent lack of a relationship between optimism, positive coping, and stress calls for replication. Perhaps Inner Wisdom is a precursor to optimism, and thus more associated with coping. Perhaps, as long as one is generally relaxed, apparent deficiencies in coping do not matter. The clinical implications of this study, if replicated and elaborated, are simple. Considerable previous research (Smith, 1999a) has found a wide range of professional relaxation techniques effective for enhancing relaxation dispositions, including At Ease/Peace, Mental Quiet, and Strength and Awareness. Relaxation training may be more than a palliative form of emotion-focused coping with limited and somewhat superficial applicability (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Instead, relaxation may well be first line of defense against life's onslaughts and challenges. First relax, then attempt to cope, and then perhaps deal with enduring psychopathology.

Section 3 Factor Analyses and Correlations


15 Oblique Factor Analysis Applied to Recalled Relaxation States Dan Allen and Tim Ritchie

Past factor-analytic studies of various Smith relaxation inventories have used orthogonal rotation to identify relaxation states (R-States). An alternative approach yet to be used is oblique rotation. The primary difference between these two methods is that an oblique rotation calculates the extracted factors as correlated, whereas an orthogonal rotation prohibits this. In other words, oblique rotation assumes that factors should be related and orthogonal rotation assumes they are not (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1995). Smith's notion of intercentering (chapter 2) proposes that relaxation can be a fluid experience, with one state shifting into another. This suggests that R-States may be correlated. The present study is the first to apply factor analysis with oblique rotation on an early version of the Smith Relaxation States Inventory. We hypothesize that three relaxation factors will emerge consistent with the three phases of Smith's cycle of renewal: withdrawal, recovery/release, and opening up. We use Cronbach's alpha to eliminate non-contributing items and assess internal consistency of factors. METHOD Participants Participants (N = 528) for this study were obtained from archival data (Holmes, Ritchie, & Allen, chapter 16; Sohnle, chapter 10). 157

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The sample was randomly divided into two equal groups (n = 264). Group 1 consisted of 127 males (mean age = 27.43 years, SD = 9.97), 129 females (mean age = 29.04 years, SD = 11.62), and 8 participants who did not report their gender. Group 2 consisted of 119 males (mean age = 26.52 years, SD = 10.78), 141 females (mean age = 27.46 years, SD = 9.52), and 4 participants who did not report their gender. Primary Factor Analyses We conducted separate factor analyses for Groups 1 and 2, utilizing oblique rotation and specifying three factors. We retained items loading at least .50. Next, we conducted Cronbach's alpha reliability analysis for of each respective factor and eliminated items that subtracted from the variance explained by the factor. If an item loaded on a factor for one group but not the other, that item was included in the reliability analysis of that factor for both groups. Our primary analysis and item screening yielded three factors for Groups 1 and 2; factor content for both groups was the same. For both Groups 1 and 2, Factor 1 (alpha for Group 1 = .88; Group 2 = .90), was defined by 14 items: beauty, thankful, creative, deeper understanding, spiritual, joyful, optimism, energized, loving, harmony, aware, safe, focused, and fun. For both Groups 1 and 2, Factor 2 (alphas = .77 and .72) was composed of seven items: distant, limp, losing sensation, indifferent, forgetting, speechless, and drowsy. For Group 1 Factor 3 (alpha = .79) was composed of seven items: calm, renewed, relaxed breathing, harmony, energized, joyful, and safe. For Group 2, Factor 3 (alpha = .83), was composed of six of these items, omitting "safe." Secondary Factor Analyses Next, we factor analyzed each of the initial three primary factors again using oblique rotation. We specified three factors for Factor 1, three factors for Factor 2, and two factors for Factor 3. This selection was determined by an assessment of R-States Smith (chapter 1) proposes to be associated with withdrawal, recovery/release, and opening up. We used the same inclusion and reliability criteria as applied in the primary factor analyses. The factor solution of Factor 1 for both Groups 1 and 2 yielded three secondary factors: Factor la (alphas = .84 and 86; loving, thankful, beauty, safe, spiritual, deeper understanding, and harmony), Factor Ib (alphas = .78 and .77; aware, focused, optimism,

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creative, and energized) and Factor Ic (alphas = .67 and .73; fun and joyful). The factor solution of Factor 2 yielded three secondary factors: Factor 2a (alphas = .63 and .60; indifferent, forgetting, and distant), Factor 2b (alphas = .66 and .68; drowsy, distant, speechless, and limp), and Factor 2c (alphas = .58 and .53; losing sensation and limp). Factor 3 yielded 2 secondary factors: Factor 3a (alphas = .74 and .81; energized, joyful, renewed, harmony, and safe) and Factor 3b (alphas = .65 and .56; relaxed breathing and calm). DISCUSSION Oblique factor analysis of relaxation items yielded replicated factors of remarkable internal consistency ranging from .72 to .90. Three primary factors correspond to Smith's cycle of renewal. Specifically, his withdrawal phase corresponds to our primary Factor 2 (distant, limp, losing sensation, indifferent, forgetting, speechless, drowsy), recovery/release to Factor 3 (calm, renewal, relaxed breathing, harmony, energized, and joyful), and opening up with Factor 1 (beauty, thankful, creative, deeper understanding, spiritual, joyful, optimistic, energized, loving, harmonious, aware, safe, focused, and fun). Oblique factor analyses permit the same item to load on multiple factors. We found "calm," "energized," and "harmony" load both on our recovery/release Factor 3 and our opening up Factor 1. Furthermore, secondary analyses of our recovery/release Factor 3 shows two component factors: Factor 3a (calm and relaxed breathing) and Factor 3b (energized, joyful, harmony, safe, and renewed). Smith (1999a) has proposed that some relaxation states are transitional and may contribute to a "crossover process" in which a relaxer shifts from one general R-State to another. Our finding that "energized," "harmony," and "joyful" loads both on a recovery/release factor and an opening up factor suggests that these experiences may signal, or facilitate, movement in relaxation from intermediate levels of recovery/release to higher affective states associated with opening up. Furthermore, our factor analyses suggest that "energized, harmony, joyful" form a single secondary factor when considered in the context of recovery/release; however, these same items appear to have diffuse impact on opening up,

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with each item associated with at least one of the three component secondary factors of this third phase of the cycle of renewal. Put differently, we can hypothesize the following intercentering path in relaxation: Calm —> Energized /Harmony, Joyful —> diffuse array opening up R-States, including (in current map) Energized, Joyful, Thankful and Loving, and Prayerful.

16 The Factor Structure of Recalled Relaxation States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity, Stress, and the Effects of Grouped Versus Random Presentation of Questionnaire Items Robert C. Holmes III, Tim Ritchie, and Dan Allen

The present study examines the factor structure of relaxation states (R-States), the correlation between R-States and stress, and the relative merits of randomized versus grouped presentation of relaxation questionnaire items. Smith, Amutio, Anderson, and Aria's (1996) factor analysis of 82 relaxation words for practitioners of formal relaxation techniques found ten interpretable factors: Joyful, Distant, Calm, Aware, Prayerful, Accepted, Untroubled, Limp, Silent, and Mystery. We utilize two versions of a shortened list of relaxation-related words. Would the Smith et al. (1996) factor solution be reflected in a shortened, 25 item list of relaxation states? Second, most questionnaires in psychology present items in random order, in order to minimize confounding effects of test-taking fatigue and item familiarity, as well as subject expectations of what the test measures. A few notable exceptions, such as the Spielberger Anxiety Scale (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970), 161

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Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961), and various special scales abstracted from the MMPI, present similar items together, making it relatively easy for test-takers to figure out what is being measured. We examine whether randomized and grouped presentation impacts both the factor structure of stress and relaxation and the correlation between stress and R-States. METHOD Participants We distributed 500 inventories to about 40 yoga/meditation centers in Chicago, and 1500 inventories to psychology classes in Chicago universities and junior colleges. Four hundred and thirty six grouped item questionnaires were returned (130 males, 304 females, and 2 participants that did not report gender, age = 30.30, SD = 12.58). This sample consisted of 132 African-Americans, 39 Hispanic-Americans, 219 Caucasian-American, 13 who reported other, and 11 that did not report racial identification. Three hundred and six randomized item questionnaires were returned (97 males, 198 females, and 11 subjects that did not report gender, age = 28.58, SD = 11.34). No other demographic information was obtained from the randomized item questionnaires. Instrument Subjects were given an early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI). In a grouped-item version items are organized into a priori relaxation categories, beginning with stress, followed by those presumed to reflect R-States Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Relaxation, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness as well as stress states Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion. In addition, six versions were constructed each of which presented items in a different random order. We decided to use six different randomized versions in order to minimize the possibility of unexpected or undetected order effects.

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Procedure Questionnaires were distributed to yoga/meditation and university or junior college students. Average group size was 20 participants. No extra credit or monetary reward was provided. All APA ethical guidelines were followed. RESULTS The data were subjected to two factor analyses. An initial principal components analysis with varimax rotation revealed five factors for the grouped version, and six factors for the randomized version with eigenvalues of 1.0 or greater. We then specified five, or six orthoginal factors. A minimal criterion item loading of .50 was found to be most interpretable. Factor analysis of grouped items revealed five independent factors: Factor 1, Spiritual; Factor 2, Joy/Fun; Factor 3, Distancing; Factor 4, Aware; and Factor 5, Calm. Factor analysis of randomized items revealed six independent factor: Factor 1, Spiritual; Factor 2, Calm; Factor 3, Aware; Factor 4, Distancing; Factor 5, Drowsy; and factor 6, Fun/Joy. Next, we created factor variables by summing the items that met the loading criteria (.50) on each factor. Then, each stress item was correlated with each factor variable. Grouped item Factor 3 (Aware) negatively correlated with Worry, and both Factors 2 (Joy/Fun) and 5 (Calm) correlated negatively with Worry, Negative Emotion, and Somatic Stress. Randomized item Factors 4 (Distant) and 5 (Drowsy) correlated positively, and Factor 2 (Calm) negatively with Worry, Negative Emotion, and Somatic Stress. Factor 2 (Joy/Fun) correlated negatively with Negative Emotion. (See Appendix B, Tables B.3 and B.4.) DISCUSSION We found relaxation to be a complex experience consisting of at least five or six factors, depending on whether questionnaire items are organized into groups of similar items or randomized. Grouped item factors include: Spiritual, Joy/Fun, Distancing, Aware, and Calm; and randomized items factors include: Spiritual, Calm, Aware,

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Distancing, Drowsy, and Joy/Fun. Factor content for both versions are generally similar. The present study indicates that the Smith et al. (1996) large Joyful Affects and Appraisals Factor reduces into what appears to be its key items: "joyful" and "fun/' Smith et al. (1996) found two disengagement factors, Factor 2 (Distant) and Factor 7 (Limp). We found two similar factors, Factor 4 (Distancing) and 5 (Drowsy). This suggests that disengagement can be meaningfully differentiated into two components, one somatic ("limp" or "drowsy") and the other cognitive ("distant" or "detached"). We replicated the Smith et al. Factors Spiritual, Calm, and Aware. Our finding of a positive correlation between randomized version Factor 4 (Distant) and 5 (Drowsy), and stress symptoms in relaxation may reflect relaxation-induced anxiety. As proposed by Heide and Borkovec (1983), many individuals report transient episodes of increased anxiety while practicing a relaxation technique. Khasky and Smith (1999) have suggested that disengagement (they did not examine drowsiness) may be one way relaxers cope with such distress in relaxation. Finally, many widely used inventories, including the Spielberger Anxiety Scale (Speilberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970), Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961), and numerous scales abstracted from the MMPI, present similar items together. The present study suggests that such grouping of similar items can impact factor structure as well as the correlation of factors with other variables. We found that Joy/Fun and Aware correlate negatively with stress when items are grouped; Distant and Drowsy correlate with stress for randomized items. Calm correlates negatively with stress for both grouped and randomized items. Perhaps grouping of items enables respondents to report their expectations (that stress is the opposite of Joy/Fun and Aware), whereas randomized items may minimize any perceived relationship. Correlations of grouped items may also reflect expectations about how items are grouped. We recommend randomly introducing neutral filler items for single-dimension questionnaires, and randomly presenting items for questionnaires that tap more than one dimension.

17 The Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs Pearson Mui Smith (1999a) has assembled a catalog of relaxation beliefs (R-Beliefs) based on reports of relaxers using a wide range of techniques from many cultures. He has proposed (Smith, 1990) that such beliefs can be concrete or abstract/differentiated, restricted to a specific relaxation technique ("It is good to let go when doing yoga") or having application to life at large ("It is good to let go in life"). The present study subjects Smith's catalog of R-Beliefs to factor analysis. METHOD Two samples of data were collected. I tested 496 individuals (204 males, 285 females and 7 no indication; age = 22.70, SD = 8.41), primarily from Harper College near Chicago ("MUI 1 Sample"). A second sample from Chicago-Area Junior Colleges, Roosevelt University, and Local Meditation and Yoga programs (about 10%) included 1167 individuals (461 males, 698 females, 8 no indication; age = 22.92, SD = 7.90). Participants were given a package of inventories including an early version of the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI) and the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/ Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI).

Results I conducted two factor analyses, one for each sample. For each I specified a principal components analysis with orthogonal varimax 165

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rotation. Sample 1 yielded 7 factors with eigenvalues equal to or greater than 1; Sample 2 yielded 10 factors. Both samples yielded the following same factors: Deeper Perspective ('There's more to life than my personal concerns and worries"), God ("God guides, loves, and comforts me"), Taking it Easy ("Sometimes it is important to simply take it easy"), Optimism ("I'm optimistic about how well I will deal with my current hassles"), Acceptance ("There is no need to try to change things that can't be changed"), and Inner Wisdom ("I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers"). Sample 1 yielded an inclusive Factor 1, "Psychological Health," which in Sample 2 differentiated into factors reflecting Change ("It is important to acknowledge mistakes and be willing to change"), Love ("It is important to show love and respect for all"), CognitiveBehavioral Honesty ("I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do"), and Affective Honesty ("I believe in being honest and open with my feelings"). (See Appendix B, Table B.5.) DISCUSSION This study revealed a consistent factor structure of relaxationrelated beliefs. A global psychological health factor can be differentiated into factor dimensions reflecting willingness to change, love, honesty. Separate replicated factors include belief in Deeper Perspective, God, Inner Wisdom, Taking it Easy, Optimism, and Acceptance. We can organize differentiated factor dimensions and replicated factors into three groups. Deeper Perspective, God, and Inner Wisdom have transcendent qualities, suggesting a reality beyond oneself ("God," "something more important," "inner wisdom"). Love and Honesty have an interpersonal component, reflecting how one deals with others. And Willingness to Change, Taking it Easy, Optimism, and Acceptance appear to reflect strategies for coping with thoughts concerning life's challenges and hassles as they emerge in relaxation. It remains for future research to determine the relationship between each factor and success at relaxation.

18 The Factor Structure and Correlates of Negative Relaxation Attitudes Jonathan C. Smith

Smith (1999a) has cataloged 115 reasons why individuals avoid or quit practicing professional relaxation. The present study describes an attempt to screen these R-Attitudes, determine their factor structure, and correlate resulting factors with Relaxation Dispositions (R-Dispositions), Relaxation Motivations (R-Motivations), Relaxation Beliefs (R-Beliefs), and Relaxation Concerns (R-Concerns). METHOD Participants Participants included 333 college student volunteers (80 males, 193 females, 60 unstated, age = 24.63, SD = 7.20). All applicable APA ethical guidelines were followed. Instruments A revised R-Attitudes scale was constructed based on Smith's (1999a) 115-item scale. Items with lowest means, and redundant items, were deleted, resulting in a scale of 72 items. Instructions ask participants to indicate if they have ever tried biofeedback, breathing exercises, hypnosis, imagery/visualization, meditation, progressive relaxation, or yoga. Instructions then ask: "If you 167

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have practiced (or still practice) one of these relaxation techniques, what experiences have you had? If you have never tried these techniques—what do you think the effects might be. Please take a look at the items that follow. How well does each fit what you have thought or felt (or might think or feel)? Rate each item using this key: 1 = Doesn't fit me at all; 2 = Fits a little; 3 = Fits somewhat; 4 = Fits very much." In addition, participants were given an early version of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI, the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI), and the Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI). The SRD/MI was scored for Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness, and Timelessness as well as the stress variables Somatic Stress, Negative Emotion, and Worry. Procedure Participants were informed that this was a questionnaire study on relaxation experiences and states. Each was randomly given two of the four possible questionnaires. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The revised R-Attitudes scale was subjected to three factor analyses (principal components, orthogonal varimax rotation, specifying eigenvalues of at least 1.0). After each analysis, items loading less than .60 on any factor were deleted and a factor analysis was repeated on the remaining items. The final factor solution yielded four factors. All factors were clear and easy to interpret, except factor 2, which included four items: "Feeling anxious when doing a relaxation exercise"; "Experiencing things in relaxation I do not understand"; 'Thinking my relaxation trainer is not teaching me what is best for me"; "Thinking my relaxation trainer might not tailor techniques to me." I judged the first two and last two items to contain conceptually distinct content, one reflecting anxiety over relaxation, and one, concerns over relaxation trainers. Given this, I specified five factors. The final solution yielded five factors, all

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with item loadings over .70. Factor 1 appears to reflect concerns over putting relaxation to use, slowing down, becoming distracted. Factor 2 clearly reflects apprehension over relaxation trainers (a trainer who might not personally tailor techniques, or teach what is best for one). Factor 3 reflects concerns about fantasies that may emerge in relaxation, specifically that relaxation is much like fantasy or daydreaming, or that one might become lost in fantasy in relaxation. Factor 4 depicts relaxation-induced anxiety, specifically feeling anxious during relaxation or experiencing things one doesn't understand. Finally, Factor 5 appears to reflect apprehension about a specific type of loss of control, experiencing excessive indifference, drowsiness, or lack of care throughout the day. Each of these reflects what we term Disengagement; hence our interpretation that Factor 5 depicts apprehension about relaxationinduced disengagement. Anxiety and Disengagement had low alpha reliabilities, .54 and .47 respectively. Given this, I decided to try a different strategy for these two scales. I began by identifying all items in the initial 72-item pool that appeared to reflect anxiety (a total of ten items). Together these had an alpha of .83. I then conducted a series of additional alpha analyses, each time deleting that item that contributed least to the overall alpha. I stopped with five items, which together yielded an alpha of .76. I repeated this strategy on Disengagement, first identifying items (10) which in my judgement reflected Disengagement. Together, these had an alpha of .86. After selective analyses, I reduced the list to 5 items which together have an alpha of .79. This selection of items appears to reflect an externally oriented focus of Disengagement, that of its impact on the world. Given the high alphas for the initial proposed relaxationinduced anxiety and concerns over disengagement scales, it is instructive to examine scale content. Our final Anxiety scale focuses on unwanted increased sensitivity to problems; concerns, anxieties, and strange/uncomfortable experiences that might arise in relaxation; and fears of losing touch with reality. Such individuals are also likely to fear things they do not understand in relaxation, have concerns about what others may think when they practice relaxation, and worry about losing self-control. Our final Disengagement scale focuses primarily on the impact of disengagement in active life, reflected in concerns about relaxation

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contributing to withdrawal; slowing one down; reducing effectiveness at work, school, sports, or coping and problem-solving; or simply spending less time at important things when relaxing. These individuals also have concerns about increased feelings of indifference; not caring enough about things; feeling less energetic; and feeling drowsy, lazy, or passive. See Appendix B, Table B.6. What are the correlations among R-Attitudes and R-Dispositions, Motivations, Beliefs, and Concerns? Do individuals who have resistant attitudes towards relaxation techniques display different levels of everyday relaxation and stress, desire for more or less relaxation and stress, beliefs conducive to deeper relaxation, and goals that might be targeted in relaxation? First, dispositional stress is associated with anxiety concerns, unwanted Disengagement, and practical concerns in relaxation. Specifically, individuals with chronic somatic stress report concerns about unwanted Disengagement in relaxation (r = .60, p < .0005) and chronic worriers have practical concerns (r = .63, p < .0005), a pattern also displayed by individuals who display high levels of chronic sleepiness (r - .50, p < .001). Belief in Taking it Easy correlates slightly and negatively with unwanted Disengagement in relaxation (r = -.33, p < .01). Previous research finds Disengagement to correlate positively and consistently with high levels of stress and even psychopathology (Anderson, chapter 11; Leslie & Clavin, chapter 8; Ritchie, Holmes, & Allen, chapter 23; Sohnle, chapter 10). Interestingly, such distressed individuals accurately perceive, and have concerns about, the possibility of disengaging when practicing a relaxation technique. If so, this suggests that relaxation training for distressed individuals should avoid techniques that tend towards Disengagement (progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training) and start with techniques least likely to evoke Disengagement (yoga stretching, breathing exercises). Generally, those who have largest number of goals often targeted in relaxation also have the largest number of negative relaxation attitudes. This is particularly true for those who desire help with psychological distress (r = .46, p < .001), interpersonal stress (r = .43, p < .01), and general health (r = .44, p < .01). Also, those who desire to improve their quality of sleep generally have anxiety concerns about relaxation (r = .58, p < .001). If confirmed in future research, this pattern suggests that relaxation training addressed to psychologically distressed individuals should pay particular

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attention to initial practical concerns (putting relaxation to use in everyday life; dealing with distraction in relaxation; finding a time and place for relaxation). This is consistent with Smith's (1999b) suggestion that the first week of relaxation be devoted to the targeted task of "finding time to relax." (See Appendix B, Tables B.6 and B.7.)

19 The Factor Structure and Correlates of Claimed Relaxation Benefits Jonathan C. Smith

People practice relaxation for many reasons. Over the years, I have collated what clients report as desired benefits of relaxation. Some, such as stress and pain management, involve reducing aversive stimuli, whereas others, such as increasing creativity and strength, involve augmenting desired stimuli. The present study reports two factor analyses of these benefits, and their correlation with R-States recalled in one's preferred relaxation activity. METHOD Participants I selected two samples in which participants identified claimed benefits of relaxation. Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen (chapter 16) and Anderson (chapter 11) gave an early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) and Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI) to respective samples of 434 participants (130 males and 304 females, age = 30.29, SD = 12. 58) and 157 participants (61 males and 96 females; mean age = 23.80, SD = 8.75). Anderson also gave the SCL-90-R. All participants in this sample also identified from a 37-item list the benefits they had experienced from relaxation. 172

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RESULTS I subjected both samples to an initial principal components factor analysis, specifying an orthogonal varimax rotation. Nine factors emerged for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample and 13 for the Anderson sample. I then repeated the factor analysis, specifying 9 and 13 factors. Factor analysis of the Anderson sample failed to converge with Principal components factor analysis; as an alternative I successfully applied a principal axis factor analysis. See Table B.8, Appendix B. Using the factor solution for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample, I then created factor scores by summing the items loading most highly for each factor. For both samples, I correlated factor scores for each sample with R-States, R-Beliefs, and for the Anderson sample, SCL-90-R scores. See the Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (Appendix A) for a complete listing of factors. R-States • Those who claimed their preferred relaxation activity helps medical problems reported all R-States in relaxation, especially Disengagement and Physical Relaxation (r > .39, p < .0005). • Those who claimed their relaxation helps control substance abuse problems, including overeating, reported Disengagement, Physical relaxation, Prayerfulness, Love and Thankfulness, and Sleepiness (r>.l2,p< .005). This pattern appeared in the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen (chapter 16) sample only. • Claimed reductions in psychological distress correlated with Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness (r > .13, p < .005) for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample only. • Claimed relief from pain and Insomnia correlated with Sleepiness, Disengagement, and Physical Relaxation (r > .22, p < .0005) and less with Strength and Awareness for both samples. • Claimed enhancements in general health correlated with At Ease/Peace (r = .24, p < .0005) and less from Strength and Awareness for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample only. • Claimed enhancements in creativity correlated with Prayerfulness, At Ease/Peace, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and

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Strength and Awareness (r > .17, p < .0005) for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample. Correlations for At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy were replicated in the Anderson sample (r > .166, p < .05). • Claimed enhancements in spirituality correlated with Prayerfulness and Love and Thankfulness, as well as Joy, Strength and Awareness, and At Ease/Peace (r > .179, p < .0005) for both samples. • Claimed athletic benefits correlated with Strength and Awareness and Joy (r > .184, p < .0005) for both samples. • Claimed reductions in interpersonal stress correlated with At Ease/Peace, Physical Relaxation, Prayerfulness, and Disengagement (r > .138, p < .005) for the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample only. R-Beliefs For the Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen sample we see a correlation between all R-Beliefs and all claimed benefits of relaxation. Perhaps it is appropriate to consider thoughts concerning the benefits of relaxation part of one's relaxation belief structure. The beliefs Inner Wisdom and Acceptance correlate with the largest number of benefits; Belief in God and Taking it Easy correlated with the fewest claimed benefits for relaxation. Spiritual Growth, creativity, and improved athletic performance are the claimed benefits most espoused by individuals claiming relaxation beliefs. SCL-90-R Individuals who, on the SCL-90-R, scored high on symptoms, especially obsessive/compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, and depression, claimed relaxation to be effective for dealing with psychological distress (r > .19, p < .05) . Interestingly, these same individuals claimed relaxation is valuable for managing a variety of forms of substance abuse, including tobacco, alcohol, and illegal substance abuse. Perhaps emotionally disturbed individuals are more likely to utilize substances in an attempt to deal with their distress.

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DISCUSSION The results of this study generally suggest that people claim their preferred form of passive relaxation has many benefits. Those who report R-States Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, and even Sleepiness in their preferred relaxation activity claim that relaxation helps with physical problems, including recovery from surgery, dealing with dental anxiety, pain, and perhaps insomnia. Both concrete and abstract R-States, Prayerfulness and Love and Thankfulness are associated with a wide range of problems with a strong psychological component, including substance abuse, anxiety, depression. For desired attributes, such as Creativity, Spirituality, and Athletic performance, we see a different pattern, an association with more exclusively with abstract and high affect/energy R-States, including At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. Belief in Inner Wisdom and Acceptance correlate most often with perceived benefits of relaxation. It is understandable that those who believe in the healing powers of the body would see a healing potential for all R-States. Perhaps an attitude of accepting things that cannot be changed is also supportive of this relationship. Not surprisingly, individuals who see relaxation as having benefit for spiritual growth also have spiritual beliefs, that is, belief in God, Inner Wisdom, and Love. One direction for future relaxation research is to directly explore the differential impact of concrete R-States of Sleepiness, Disengagement, and Physical Relaxation on problems with a strong physical component; all R-States on psychological and physical problems, and abstract high affective energy R-States on personal and spiritual development.

20 The Relationship Between Relaxation Beliefs and Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, and Recalled States for One's Preferred Relaxation Activity Shahyad Ghoncheh, Kristie Byers, Stacey E. Sparks, and Mark A. Wasik

A vast popular literature of relaxation has proclaimed that beliefs and philosophies are essential to the mastery, deepening, and generalization of relaxation. Yet the scientific literature of relaxation, also vast, has remained largely mute on this topic. The present study examines the relationship between Relaxation Beliefs and R- Dispositions, R-Motivations, and R-States recalled in one's preferred relaxation activity. METHOD Participants We examined several samples of archival data: two samples from Mui (chapter 17), and combined data from Anderson (chapter 11) and Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen (chapter 16). In sum, we examined 2125 usable cases. Participants took the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRAAI; Holmes, Ritchie, & Allen; Anderson), the Smith 176

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Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (Mui; SRD/MI), the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (Anderson; Holmes, Ritchie, & Allen; Mui); or the SCL-90-R (Anderson). RESULTS All R-Beliefs correlated slightly with R-States At Ease/Peace (r > .13, p > .01), and significantly and positively with Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness (r > .24, p > .0005). Correlations for Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness were higher than those for Strength and Awareness and Joy. A complex pattern of correlations emerged between R-Beliefs and R-Dispositions. The largest number of R-Beliefs correlated with Love and Thankfulness (r > .22, p < .0005). R-Beliefs God and Inner Wisdom both correlated with Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness, although Inner Wisdom also correlated with Strength and Awareness (r > .22, p < .0005). R-Beliefs Taking it Easy and Honesty both correlated negatively with Disengagement and Mental Quiet (r > .19, p < .001). Finally, R-Beliefs Acceptance and Optimism both correlated with At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy (r > .19 p < .001), although Optimism also correlated with Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness (r > .20, p < .001). The R-Belief Love correlated with the largest number of RMotivations, all but desired Sleepiness and Disengagement (r > .22, p < .0005). Belief in God correlated with Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness (r>.21,p< .0005). R-Beliefs God, Inner Wisdom, Deeper Perspective, and Love all correlated with desired Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness (r > .19, p < .0005). Specific correlations are revealing. R-Belief Deeper Perspective correlated additionally with desired Mental Relaxation (r = .18, p < 0005.), and R-Belief Taking it Easy with desired Mental Quiet, Love and Thankfulness (r > .16, p < .0005), and to some extent desired At Ease/Peace (r = .16, p < .001). DISCUSSION This study clarifies the relationships between beliefs, philosophies, and relaxation. First, beliefs and philosophies predict higher, but

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not lower affective energy R-States reported in ones "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activity. That is, if one's relaxation goal is to evoke Sleepiness, Disengagement, or Physical Relaxation, it appears not to matter much what one believes. However, beliefs make a difference if one is relaxing for enhancing At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. Furthermore, beliefs become increasingly important as the level of abstraction of R-States increases from at Ease/Peace, to Strength and Awareness and Joy, to Love and Thankfulness and Prayerfulness. Examination of R-Beliefs reveals some interesting patterns. Acceptance, Inner Wisdom, and Optimism are associated with At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy, more so than is Belief in God or Love. In contrast, simply affirming a belief in "God's guidance and love" and "putting oneself in God's hands" may not in itself be sufficient to contribute to relaxation, perhaps because of the lack of specificity and the cultural saturation of such affirmations Consistent with is this our finding that Belief in God correlates slightly and positively with reports of distress during ones "most effective and rewarding" relaxation session. It is perhaps a considerable speculation to suggest that those who Believe in God most choose prayer as desired relaxation, yet what transpires in prayer may not always be relaxing (accounting of personal shortcomings, confronting uncomfortable expectations). No relaxation belief correlates with any form of psychological distress or pathology. Individuals who are emotionally disturbed, and those who are emotionally healthy, appear not to differ in what relaxation-related beliefs they profess. If there are differences, they may be manifest in how well personal philosophies are put into action. Those who believe in Love desire just about every R-State (except Sleepiness and Disengagement). One might speculate that such other-directed individuals may deny themselves the rewards of relaxation in order to serve others. Conversely, those who believe in Love in fact may be expressing affiliation-related frustrations, reflected in a desire for positive states in general ("Love is important to me; I'm not getting enough love; therefore, I'm not getting enough of all forms of happiness"). For either possibility, we would expect a negative correlation between belief in Love and R-States and R-Dispositions; those who believe in Love should

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show low levels of positive affect. This pattern was not observed; love-oriented individuals are just as relaxed as others. An alternative explanation is that those who believe in Love, although they may not lack Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Mental Relaxation, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness, desire more of these R-States so they can have more to share with others. Belief in God, Inner Wisdom, and Optimism are more likely associated with feelings of spirituality, prayerfulness, and reverence throughout life. However, belief in God may not be enough to confer peace, awareness, energy, and happiness. Optimism and Inner Wisdom are R-Beliefs most likely to be associated with both heightened spiritual experience and greater Strength and Awareness, At Ease/Peace, and Joy. Belief in Taking it Easy and being Honest correlate negatively with Mental Quiet and Disengagement. Those who believe in the importance of Taking It Easy desire to be more At Ease/Peaceful in life, and to be more Disengaged and Mentally Quiet; in contrast, those who believe in being honest with themselves and others show no such pattern. Perhaps those who believe in Taking it Easy are dissatisfied with the low levels of Disengagement and Mental Quiet they possess, and want more of these R-States; in contrast, those in believe in Honesty desire, and have, low levels of R-States that may reflect reduced active involvement with the external world. Those who believe in Honesty, Taking it Easy, and Acceptance express no particular desire for more transcendent feelings. They have little desire to feel more prayerful, reverent, or spiritual; in contrast, those who believe in Deeper Perspective, God, Inner Wisdom, and Love want more Prayerfulness in life. Individuals with such beliefs may benefit from relaxation taught in a religious or spiritual context (prayer groups at temple, synagogue, or church; yoga or meditation retreats that have a spiritual focus). In contrast, those believing in Honesty, Ease, and Acceptance may respond more to secular presentations of relaxation. Nearly everyone wants to feel more Love and Thankfulness, as one might expect.

21 R-States, Beliefs, Attitudes, and Concerns Jacquie E. Lewis

This study examines the relationship among R-States, R-Beliefs, R-Attitudes, and R-Concerns. Ghonchech, Byers, Sparks, and Wasik (chapter 20) found that R-Beliefs Optimism and Inner Wisdom are associated with high affective energy R-States At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, arid Prayerfulness. They found no correlation between R-Beliefs and any form of psychological distress or pathology. Smith (chapter 19) also found that dispositional stress is associated with relaxation-resistant R-Attitudes relating to concerns over relaxation-session anxiety, unwanted disengagement, and practice issues. Specifically, individuals with chronic Somatic Stress report fears of unwanted disengagement in relaxation and chronic worriers have practical concerns, a pattern also displayed by individuals who display high levels of chronic sleepiness. Generally, those who have the most relaxation concerns, that is, who have the largest number of goals often targeted in relaxation also have the largest number of practical concerns with respect to relaxation practice. This is particularly true for those who desire help with psychological distress, interpersonal stress, and general health. The present study attempts to replicate these findings. 180

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METHOD Participants This study selected six samples used for producing the Smith Relaxation Inventory norms presented in this volume. Each participant had been given two inventories. Demographics of each sample were: Sample 1 (SRBI + SRSI), n = 157, 68 males, 81 females, 16 unindicated; age = 29.58, SD = 11.67; Sample 2 (SRBI + SRAI), n = 122,47 males, 61 females, 14 unindicated; age = 29.55, SD = 12.64; Sample 3 (SRBI + SRCI), n = 154, 45 males, 90 females, 16 unindicated; average age - 33.03, SD = 13.08; Sample 4 (SRSI + SRAI), n = 108,27 males, 68 females, 13 unindicated; age = 32.91, SD = 11.21; Sample 5 (SRSI + SRCI), n = 141, 45 males, 78 females, 18 unindicated; age - 30.56, SD = 12.09; Sample 6 (SRAI + SRCI), n = 110,43 males, 62 females, 5 unindicated; age = 28.15, SD = 12.24. The total sample included 792 participants. Inventories Inventories used included the Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI), Smith Relaxation Beliefs inventory (SRBI), Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI), and Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Relaxation Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism correlate with the largest number of R-States, generally high affective energy states of Strength and Awareness, Joy, and Thankfulness and Love. The pattern for belief in God was slightly different, correlating with Joy, Thankfulness and Love, and Prayerfulness. Both Inner Wisdom and Optimism, but not belief in God, correlate with At Ease/Peace (r > .27, p < .001). This pattern replicated what other research has found (Ghonchech, Byers, Sparks, & Wasik, chapter 20). This research sheds light on the characteristics of individuals who have concerns about relaxation that might prevent or interfere with their practice of relaxation. Anxious individuals, and

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those who express the greatest desire for reduced psychological distress and stress, also worry most about practical problems in practicing relaxation and the potential of relaxation techniques for evoking anxiety and disengagement. They experience lower levels of At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, and Joy. This replicates what Smith has found (chapter 18). These findings may have practical implications for the clinical instruction of relaxation. Anxious clients who need and desire relaxation may have special problems when attempting to learn a relaxation technique. They appear to fear the anxiety and disengagement relaxation may evoke and have reservations about practical problems associated with actually practicing a technique. In addition, they appear to be deficient in high affective energy relaxation states that may well facilitate and reinforce practice (Rice, Cucci, & Williams, chapter 25). Given these constraints, relaxation trainers may consider enhancing the structure, external support, and reinforcing potential of techniques taught, as suggested by Smith (1999b). Finally, those interested in enhancing spirituality or general positive health seemed to have only practical concerns about relaxation.

22 Correlations Among Relaxation Beliefs, States, Attitudes, and Concerns Claudiu Dumitrescu, Elizabeth K. Fagerman, Natalie L. Goc, and David J. Kinzer

Gaff (chapter 13), Lewis (chapter 21), Ghoncheh, Byers, Sparks, and Wasik (chapter 20), and Sonobe (chapter 14) have reported that R-Beliefs Inner Wisdom and Optimism correlate with high affective energy R-States, and to some extent with reduced stress. Individuals who experience high levels of stress (and low levels of positive R-States) may need and want relaxation, but often have concerns that could prevent them from exploring or pursuing specific relaxation techniques. Smith (chapter 18) found that such individuals are often concerned about relaxation-induced anxiety and disengagement, as well as with practical problems associated with learning to practice. The present study is an attempt to replicate this pattern on a different sample of individuals, using a revised series of relaxation instruments. METHOD: PARTICIPANTS AND INSTRUMENTS Thirty-four (12 males, 22 females, age = 20.62, SD = 4.08) individuals were give the Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) and the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI). A separate group of 44 (11 males, 33 females, age = 25.31, SD = 8.22) were given the Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI) and the Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI). 183

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The relaxation belief Optimism correlates strongly and negatively with state Somatic Stress (r = -.49). Sonobe and Gaff found a weak association, and Gaff found that Optimism correlated more strongly with Negative Emotion than with Somatic Stress. Thus, the results of this study are partially consistent with what others have found; the primary difference is that we found a stronger negative association between stress and optimism. In addition, we found that distressed individuals have concerns about relaxation-induced anxiety and disengagement, which replicates what Smith has found. Contrary to what Smith found, we did not find that such individuals are particularly concerned with trainer limitations or practical limitations. We found that those who desire to improve their quality of sleep have concerns about relaxation-induced anxiety, a finding that replicates what Smith found. Finally, we found those who have strong desires for spiritual growth and improving their spiritual life have the largest number of concerns about practicing relaxation or inadequate trainers.

Section 4 The Practice of Relaxation


23 Preferred Relaxation Activities and Recalled Relaxation States Timothy D. Ritchie, Robert C. Holmes III, and Dan Allen

Relaxation therapists have focused on formal professional techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery, and meditation. Smith (1999b) has proposed that the effects of these approaches can be supplemented by casual activities individuals do for relaxation and renewal. Unlike formal relaxation, active forms of recreation and leisure, such a sports, hiking, and sex, are relatively discursive and effortful. However, passive activities such as sunbathing and listening to music are more passive and focused, and perhaps more likely to evoke effects similar to passive and focused professional relaxation techniques. The present study examines what forms of casual passive relaxation individuals prefer, and the relaxation states associated with these activities. Benson's (1975) relaxation response perspective would predict no differences among activities, whereas Smith's ABC theory suggests that activities should be highly differentiated. METHOD Participants This study used an archival data with cases randomly selected from Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen (chapter 16). Participants included 306 187

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Chicago-area university and junior college students supplemented by some yoga class attendees (198 females, 97 males, 11 unreported; mean age = 28.77, SD = 11.12).

Procedure All participants were given an early version of the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) scored for Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness, and Global Stress (a combination of Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion). The experimenter explained that the purpose of the study was to study what people do for relaxation. All American Psychological Association (APA) ethical guidelines were followed. RESULTS Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) revealed that different relaxation activities are associated with different R-States and levels of stress (Wilks' Lambda = 1.73; /? < .0005). Ten univariate analyses performed for each R-State as well as stress revealed significant differences (p < .05) for Sleepiness, Physical Relaxation, Strengthened and Aware, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. No differences appeared for stress, At Ease/Peace, or Disengagement. Post hoc comparisons revealed that Love and Thankfulness was most associated with prayer and meditation; Joy with playing, talking and chatting, and listening to music; Strength and Awareness with prayer, talking and chatting, and yoga; Prayerfulness with prayer and meditation; Sleepiness with resting/napping as well as with bathing and taking showers; and Physical Relaxation with yoga. (See Appendix B, Table B.9.)

DISCUSSION There appear to be no differences among preferred "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activities, whether casual or professional,

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in level of stress experienced during the activity. This is consistent with Benson's relaxation response hypothesis (Benson, 1975) that all techniques have the same impact in reducing stress. However, dramatic technique differences emerge when we examine R-States. The R-State Love and Thankfulness is most likely to be experienced by those who prefer to relax by praying, meditating, talking and chatting, playing, and to a lesser extent daydreaming, writing in journals, receiving massages, and doing yoga. This is somewhat similar to the pattern of activities associated with Strength and Awareness (praying, talking and chatting, doing yoga, reading, playing, and writing), Joy (play, talking and chatting, listening to music, daydreaming), and Prayerfulness (praying, meditating, listening to music, and doing yoga). One might speculate that a broad range of relaxation activities can evoke Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. It is clear that Strength and Awareness as well as Joy appear to be more associated with active and often interpersonal pursuits (talking and chatting, listening to music), whereas Prayerfulness may be more associated with quiet and solitary activities (meditating, music, yoga). Prayer is associated with both Prayerfulness and Strength and Awareness, perhaps because this activity can be active/interpersonal as well as passive/solitary. One can pray quietly alone, or with great energy in a group. Physical Relaxation is most associated with practicing yoga and bathing/taking showers, not with any of the 13 other activities reported. And Sleepiness is associated with resting/napping, bathing/showers, and daydreaming. These patterns provide clinicians with simple, inexpensive suggestions for supplementing relaxation. When Physical Relaxation is a targeted R-State, clients may augment what they learn in the clinic with yoga and long, rewarding baths and showers; those suffering from insomnia may try naps, bathing/showers, and daydreaming. To extend this line of thinking, each pattern of activities associated with different R-States provides a clinician with supplementary inexpensive activities to do at home. Strength and Awareness may be fostered through prayer, talking and chatting, yoga, reading, play, writing, and so on. In sum, the results of this study indicate the rich variety of effects associated with relaxation, and the clinical implications of considering R-States when teaching relaxation.

24 Recalled Relaxation States and Preferred Relaxation Activities: II Jacquie Lewis

ABC Relaxation Theory proposes that different relaxation activities evoke different R-States. Clearly, this appears to be the case for formal professional relaxation treatments (Smith, Amutio, Anderson, & Aria, 1996; Rice, Cucci, & Williams, chapter 25). However, there is only limited evidence for casual everyday relaxation activities. Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen (chapter 23) found that activities are associated with the same level of physical, cognitive, and emotional stress during practice, a finding consistent with Benson's (1975) hypothesis that all relaxation evokes the same general relaxation response. However, these same researchers found significant R-State differences. Prayer, meditation, talking and chatting, playing, daydreaming journal writing, and yoga are associated with Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. Strength and Awareness as well as Joy appear to be more associated with active and often interpersonal pursuits (talking and chatting, listening to music), whereas Prayerfulness may be more associated with quiet and solitary activities (meditating, music, yoga). Physical Relaxation is most associated with practicing yoga and bathing/taking showers, and Sleepiness is associated with resting/napping, bathing/showers, and daydreaming. The present study examines 32 causal relaxation activities identified as "most rewarding and effective." 190

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METHOD This study selected cases used for producing the Smith Relaxation Inventory norms presented in this volume. Participants included 225 individuals (71 males, 124 females, 30 unindicated; average age = 28.73, SD = 12.53) from 30 Chicago-area universities, junior colleges, as well as local businesses. All were given the Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI), scored for Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion as well as R-States Sleepiness, Disengagement, Rested and Refreshed, Strength and Awareness, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Joy, Mental Quiet, Childlike Innocence, Thankfulness and Love, Mystery, Awe and Wonder, Pray erf ulness, and Timeless/Boundless/Infinite). RESULTS Participants identified a wide range of preferred "most rewarding and effective" relaxation activities. The most popular included reading fiction, watching TV, taking baths and showers, listening to music, and resting in bed. We conducted MANOVAs on R-States for activities preferred by five or more participants and conducted post hoc comparisons for R-States with significant overall F's. No technique was best for within-session levels of Somatic Stress, Worry, or Negative Emotion. Although within-session levels of Worry were very low for all (experienced generally "not at all"). In contrast, within-session levels of Somatic Stress and Negative Emotion were slightly higher (experienced "a little"). Physical Relaxation was reported by those preferring meditation and taking baths and showers (F = 4.45, p < .0005). Praying alone or meditating appear to have the broadest impact, associated with At Ease/At Peace, feeling Rested and Refreshed, and Prayerfulness, Awe and Wonder, Mystery, and Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite. Praying Alone was associated with Strength and Awareness (F > 1.93, p > .04). Petting pets and praying alone were associated with Joy as well as Thankfulness and Love and; petting pets and meditation were associated with Childlike Innocence (F > 2.39, p < .01). (See Appendix B., Table B.10).

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DISCUSSION The most popular and "most rewarding and effective" activities for relaxation and renewal are reading fiction, watching TV, taking baths and showers, listening to music, and resting in bed. This corresponds very closely to what Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen (chapter 23) have reported. Interestingly, these activities are not particularly effective for evoking relaxation states of mind other than Sleepiness. They are not even effective for physical relaxation. There are several implications of this finding. ABC Relaxation Theory proposes that to be relaxing, an activity must involve sustained, passive, simple focus. Although people clearly identify reading, TV, bathing, music, and bedrest as legitimate and effective forms of relaxation, they likely involve too much discursive activity to have a deep relaxing impact. Our other major findings replicate what Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen have found. Meditation and Prayer, the most passive and simple techniques we studied, evoke the widest range of R-States, particularly those involving high affective energy (Strength and Awareness, At Ease/At Peace, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness). In contrast, joy is more likely to be associated with discursive playful activities, such as petting pets (our study) or playing, chatting, or listening to music (Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen). Finally, as Ritchie, Holmes, and Allen found, techniques do not differ in level of Somatic Stress, Worry, or Negative Emotion experienced during practice. This finding is consistent with Benson's (1975) relaxation response hypothesis, and reveals the limitations of this point of view.

25 Practice Variables As Predictors of Stress and Relaxation Dispositions for Yoga and Meditation Steve Rice, Louis Cucci III, and Julian Williams

Virtually all schools of relaxation urge diligent, sustained, and regular home practice. However, Lehrer and Woolfolk (1993) have concluded that research appears to suggest that "some home practice of relaxation techniques is necessary to produce clinical success, although lengthy and regular practice does not appear necessary." Indeed, research is conflicting. For example, Blanchard, Andrasik, Neff, Saunders, Arena, Pallmeyer, Teders, Jurish, and Rodichok (1983) found a relationship between regularity of home practice and headache reduction. In contrast, Libo and Arnold (1983) found continued pain reduction benefits for 3-5 years even those who practiced relaxation only occasionally or "as needed." In addition, Peters, Benson, and Porter (1977) found little stress reduction among individuals who practiced fewer than three times a week; however, two practice sessions a day appeared not to be necessary to produce positive results. Higher levels of practice time appeared to be related to reduced behavioral symptoms and increased well-being, whereas somatic symptoms tended to respond with less practice. In the present study we restrict our attention to yoga and meditation treatments. We examine four practice variables: number of minutes in a practice session, one or two practice sessions a day, 193

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number of days out of the week practiced, and number of years practiced. We look at seven relaxation-related stress variables: Worry Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Physical Discomfort, Stressed Breathing, and Muscle Tension; and seven relaxation dispositions (R-Dispositions): Disengagement, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Pray erf ulness. METHOD Participants Participants included 113 individuals (39 males, 73 females, 1 unindicated gender; age = 40.52; SD - 15.65) recruited from 84 Chicago programs that teach at least one of the following techniques: active yoga stretching, deep or diaphragmatic breathing, or meditation. Collecting this number of participants took over a year, given that over half the sites we approached chose not to participate, each site could provide only 10-20 practitioners, and about half of the sites visited yielded no data. Participants were not in psychotherapy or receiving psychiatric medication. Materials and Procedure We gave all participants an early version of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI dispositions form). Finally, we asked participants to indicate their preferred yoga stretching, breathing, and meditation relaxation techniques, and indicate for how long and often they have been practicing. Specific practice variables included total number of months practiced (months), days out of the week practiced (daysweek), number of times practiced a day (timesday) and number of minutes practiced in each session (minutes). We scored the SRD/MI for stress dispositions Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion and for R-Dispositions Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace Relaxation, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness.

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RESULTS Participants practiced a wide range of combinations of yoga and meditation. We first divided participants into three groups: yoga, meditation (either Zen, mantra meditation, or TM) or a combination of yoga and meditation. We then created five differentiated groups: mantra meditation alone (including TM), zen meditation alone, yoga alone, yoga combined with mantra meditation, and yoga combined with zen meditation. ANOVAS revealed significant technique differences on At Ease/Peace (F= 4.94, p < .001); specifically those who practice either mediation alone or meditation in combination with yoga scored higher than those who practice yoga alone. Participants practiced an average of nearly four days a week. The number of days practiced out of the week correlated negatively and significantly with all stress variables (r > -.30, p < .001) and positively and significantly with At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness (r > .20, p < .05). Total number of months practiced, number of practice sessions a day, and duration of each practice session failed to correlate with a single relaxation variable (r < .14, p > .05). DISCUSSION Combining yoga with either mantra (including TM) or zen meditation appears to be more effective than yoga alone for cultivating both At Ease/Peace and feelings of Prayerfulness. Daily practice of yoga and meditation correlates with lower levels of stress and higher levels of relaxation (At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness). One can interpret this pattern in at least two ways. Perhaps combining relaxation techniques of yoga and meditation and practicing regularly are the most effective ways of evoking high affective energy relaxation states. Conversely, perhaps those who already display high levels of dispositional relaxation, and low levels of stress, are most likely to combine relaxation techniques and practice regularly. Finally, it is important to note which variables did not predict differences in stress or relaxation: number of times practiced a day,

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and duration of each practice session. The typical advice of transcendental meditation (TM) instructions, reflected by more general advice given by respected relaxation scholars in the APA Monitor (Clay, 1997), is to practice "twice daily." This may not be necessary. Advice on length of an ideal practice session varies considerably, with the minimum perhaps being the TM suggestion to practice 20 minutes. We found no evidence that length of practice session makes any difference.

26 ABC Relaxation Theory and Yoga, Meditation, and Prayer: Relaxation Dispositions, Motivations, Beliefs, and Practice Patterns Jonathan C. Smith

What relaxation practices are conducive to a life of relaxation? The world's popular authoritarian relaxation literature has much to say. You must believe in God, yourself, others, and so on. You must want love, wisdom, or peace. You must practice twice day, at least 20 minutes a session, alone, or in a group. You must pray. You must do yoga. You must meditate. This study approaches such questions empirically. Just what is the relationship between Relaxation Beliefs, Relaxation Motivations, and relaxation practices and a "relaxed life" defined in terms of R-Dispositions? Both Eastern and Western approaches with a significant literature of wisdom and advice were examined: Yoga, meditation, and prayer. Specific questions included: (1) Are different R-Beliefs associated with regularity of practice for those practicing yoga, meditation, and prayer? ABC Relaxation Theory (Smith, 1999a) proposes that strongly-held R-Beliefs contribute to greater dedication to and practice of one's relaxation technique. (2) Are R-Motivations associated with regularity of practice? (3) Is regularity of practice associated with any R-Dispositions? Again, ABC Relaxation Theory suggests that development of R-Dispositions is a consequence of practicing a relaxation technique (Smith, 1999a). 197

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METHOD Participants This study utilized archival data collected by Miu (chapter 17). We identified 808 cases who claimed to practice relaxation (480 males, 328 females, average age = 23.54, SD = 7.88). Of these, 572 who claimed to practice prayer, 33 practitioners of yoga, 168 meditators (techniques not differentiated), 12 practitioners of various combinations of yoga and meditation, and 23 practitioners of various combinations of prayer and yoga and/or meditation.

Instruments Relaxation Dispositions and Motivations were assessed through early versions of the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI) and the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI). R-Dispositions assessed included Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Mental Quiet, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness. In addition, participants were asked to check which, if any, of the following do they "now practice": Yoga, TM, Zen, Other Meditation, Prayer. Finally two regularity of practice questions were asked: "How many days out of the week do you practice alone, by yourself?" (0-7) and "How many days out of the week do you practice in a group, with others?" (0-7). RESULTS Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) for yoga, meditation, prayer, combination yoga, and combination prayer reveal overall significant differences for: R-Dispositions Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, At Ease/Peace, Love and Thankfulness, and Prayerfulness (F > 2.67, p < .02); R-Motivations Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet and Prayerfulness (F > 2.94, p < .01); and R-Beliefs Deeper Perspective, God, Inner Wisdom, Love, Taking it Easy, and Optimism (F > 8.07, p < .0005). Post hoc comparisons reveal that practitioners of combination yoga scored higher on Physical Relaxation, meditation on At

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Ease/Peace, and practitioners of prayer on Love and Thankfulness and Pray erf ulness. Practitioners of prayer desired more Prayerfulness. Practitioners of meditation and prayer scored higher on the R-Belief Deeper Perspective and (along with practitioners of combination yoga) Optimism; practitioners of prayer and combination prayer score higher in belief in God and Love. Practitioners of Meditation as well as combination prayer and combination yoga score higher on Inner Wisdom. Practitioners of yoga, meditation, and combination yoga score higher on the R-Belief Taking it Easy. Belief in God correlated with regularity of solo practice for yoga/meditation, and regularity of practice for both solo and group practice for prayer (r > .19, p > .0005); additionally, regularity of practice correlated with Honesty for yoga/meditation (r = .22, p > .005). Regularity of group yoga/meditation practice correlated negatively with desire for Strength and Awareness (r -.51, p < .001). Prayerfulness correlated with regularity of solo practice for yoga/meditation and both regularity of solo and group practice for prayer (r = .22, p < .005). DISCUSSION Results of this study suggest practitioners of a combination of yoga and meditation are Physically Relaxed, those who practice meditation are At Ease/Peaceful, and practitioners of prayer report higher levels of Love and Thankfulness as well as Prayerfulness. To the extent that a combination of yoga and meditation can be considered a physical technique, and meditation a cognitive technique, these results are consistent with the cognitive/somatic specificity hypothesis (Davidson & Schwartz, 1976). One might postulate that higher levels of Love and Thankfulness as well as Prayerfulness reflect the belief system of those who frequently engage in prayer. Not surprisingly, practitioners of prayer and combination prayer are more likely to believe in God and Love. Beliefs can be organized according to whether they characterize practitioners of prayer, yoga/meditation, or both yoga/meditation and prayer. As previously noted, belief in God is most exclusively associated with Prayer. Belief in Taking it Easy is most associated with yoga/meditation. And belief in Deeper Perspective, Inner

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Wisdom, and Optimism is most likely to characterize practitioners of both Eastern and Western techniques. Curiously, those who practice group yoga/meditation regularly in a group are less likely to report a desire for increased Strength and Awareness. One might speculate that the motivations for those practicing individual and group variations of Eastern techniques differ; individual practice may be associated with personal goals of self-improvement, whereas group practice may be maintained by other reinforcements, perhaps affiliation. In addition, overall inspection of the results suggests that solitary practice of yoga/meditation, more than group practice, is associated with relaxation (dispositions and beliefs). In contrast, both solitary and group practice are associated with relaxation for Prayer. Perhaps prayer, more than yoga, can be an interpersonal pursuit with interpersonal reinforcements. Those who believe in God ("God loves, guides, and comforts me"; "I put myself in God's hands"), and experience prayerfulness, are more likely to regularly practice yoga, meditation, or prayer. In addition, those who believe in being honest with themselves and others ("I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do"; "I believe in being honest and open with my feelings") are more likely to practice yoga/meditation regularly. ABC Relaxation Theory (Smith, 1999a) predicts such an association between belief and practice. This study suggests that belief in God may well enhance regularity of practice for a wide range of Western and Eastern techniques. Alternatively, honesty can be part of a more encompassing philosophical stance, one involving a commitment to see deeper realities that may exist beyond everyday preoccupations and distortions. In the context of such existential/spiritual honesty, one might practice a relaxation technique as a way of seeing beyond oneself and clearing the "windows of perception." Smith (1999b) provides a variety of suggestions of how to weave theistic beliefs into every approach to relaxation. He does not address how to do this for belief in honesty. Concretely, one might consider fashioning techniques as expressions of honesty and openness to oneself. In teaching PMR, one might suggest "Let go of tensions that are as barriers to feelings of relaxation." Autogenic suggestions might state "Let yourself be open to feelings of warmth

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and heaviness." Breathing and stretching exercises could similarly reflect openness to associated R-States of Strength and Awareness. Imagery and Meditation can be presented as opportunities to put aside personal biases and expectations, and with simple openness and honest, let the imagery and meditation proceed in its own way.

27 Breathing Exercises and Relaxation States Jonathan C. Smith and LuElla Jackson Breathing is an important part of all of relaxation. Specific breathing exercises have evolved over the millennia, beginning with those associated with prana yoga. Smith (1987, 1999b) has identified three general groups of relaxation techniques; active stretching and breathing, diaphragmatic breathing, and passive breathing (breathing exercises without vigorous stretching or manipulation of the diaphragm). As with most approaches to relaxation, many claims have been made about the effects of breathing. Breathing may induce mild increases in blood CO2, or hypercapnia. Smith, Amutio, Anderson, and Aria (1996) found that breathing exercises appear to be associated with feelings of Strength and Awareness. However, Smith (1999a) also suggests that the precise R-States associated with breathing may depend on the type of exercise. The present study examines the psychological state effects of four popular breathing exercises. METHOD Participants Participants included 24 male and 72 female social service employees (average age = 36.60; SD = 11.99). Of those reporting race, 39 were African American, 27 Caucasian, 1 Native American, 1 Hispanic, and 1 Asian. Of those reporting their religious affiliation, 44 were Protestant, 13 Catholic, and 2 Jewish. All relevant APA ethical guidelines were followed. 202

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Inventories We used an abbreviated version of the Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) based on the one-item finger-rating system in Smith (1999b). Participants were asked how they feel "right now" on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 4 = the most ever). Participants were also given the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory. Procedure The second author presented instructions for four separate breathing exercises: Stretching and Breathing, Diaphragmatic (stomach squeeze) breathing, Breathing through Lips, and Deep Breathing. Prior to receiving the exercises, participants indicated their level of initial, baseline relaxation. Precise verbatim instructions are presented in Smith (1999b). Participants practiced each exercise, along with the instructor, for about 5 minutes. After each exercise, participants were given the abbreviated SRSI and asked how they felt at the time. The abbreviated SRSI, as well as the SRBI, were given prior to the onset of the project. Participants were taught in small groups (from 5-20 individuals). Exercises were presented in a different random order for each group. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) reveal that different breathing exercises are associated with different R-States. Ten univariate analyses performed for each R-State as well as stress revealed significant differences (p < .05) for all R-States. Deep breathing clearly has the largest impact on all R-States, when compared with pretraining baseline relaxation and other breathing exercises. Its greatest impact is on Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Sleepiness, and Strength and Awareness (Wilks' Lambda = 5.65, p < .0005). The second most effective technique is breathing through lips, which, unlike deep breathing, has less an impact on Strength and Awareness and Joy. The superiority of deep breathing on R-States associated with high affective energy (Smith, 1999a) may be consistent with Smith's suggestion that such

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techniques increase oxygen flow to the brain. In contrast, breathing through lips, an exercise in which air flow is reduced, may decrease oxygen content of the blood, perhaps contributing to mild hypercapnia and Disengagement (Smith, 1999a). Clearly, as Smith has proposed, different breathing exercises may have different effects. All breathing techniques appear to reduce the R-State Love and Thankfulness (Wilks' Lambda = 6.58, p > .0005), a curious finding that awaits replication. African American participants score higher on R-States Mental Relaxation, Prayerfulness, Physical Relaxation, and Sleepiness. In addition, they score higher on R-Beliefs Belief in God, Love, and Accepting Things That Cannot be Changed. Racial differences in Belief in God and Love replicate what other researchers found (McDuffie, chapter 7; Smith, McDuffie, Ritchie, and Holmes, chapter 6).

28 Seok Chan Bang's Study of ABC Relaxation Training As a Treatment for Depression for the Korean Elderly Jonathan C. Smith

Many have noted that depression can be a problem for the elderly (Blazer, Hughes, & George, 1987; Newmann, Engel, & Jensen, 1991), one that can be compounded for Korean immigrants to America (Lee, Crittenden, & Yu, 1996). Generally, age-related depression can be due to chronic health problems and functional difficulties (Roberts, Kaplan, Shema, & Strawbridge, 1997). Immigrant Korean elderly are additionally burdened by language difficulties, separation from family, discrimination, and cultural changes associated with immigration (Hurh & Kim, 1990; Kuo, 1984; Lee, Crittenden, &Yu, 1996). Seok Chan Bang (Bang, 1999) has conducted the first study of the ABC combination approach to relaxation, one that combines progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery, and meditation. He examined an understudied population, the elderly. Participants included 22 (8 males, 14 females; age = 82, SD - 9.99) Korean elderly volunteers recruited from a nursing home in a Chicago suburb. This study measured depression using a Korean translation (Han, Yum, Shin, Kim, Yoon, & Chung, 1986) of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbauch, 1961). Relaxation states were assessed with an early version of the Smith 205

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Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI). The SRSI was scored for Sleep, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, At Ease/Peace, Strength and Awareness, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Prayerfulness, and Speechlessness (a precursor to Mental Quiet). Bang, along with a doctoral candidate in school psychology at another university, separately translated the SRSI into Korean and compared the differences between the two translations. After discussing areas of agreement and disagreement, both translators showed the product to Smith for review. Bang met with participants and explained that they would receive a widely used approach for helping to cope with daily life. No deception was involved. Male and female participants were randomly divided into treatment and control groups. The control group received relaxation training after the conclusion of the experiment. Each group consisted of four males and seven females. Before and after the experiment, all participants were given the BDI and SRSI as pretests and posttests. The researcher met with each participant individually, read both inventories, and recorded responses. Bang met with participants 20 minutes a day for 14 consecutive days. On day 1 he briefly reviewed instructions for progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing exercises, yoga stretching, imagery, and meditation, as presented in Smith (1999b). On day 2 he presented progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training; day 3, breathing and stretching; and day 4, imagery and meditation. At the end of each session, participants were asked which specific exercises they would prefer to include in a group relaxation sequence to be practiced after day 5. On day 5, all techniques were reviewed, and participants were again asked what techniques they preferred. Using instructions offered by Smith (1999b), Bang then made a 20-minute composite relaxation script based on techniques the group preferred. This script consisted of progressive muscle relaxation, breathing, meditation, and guided imagery combined with traditional Korean flute music. The precise preferred sequence included: lip breathing—deep breathing—hand squeeze—arm squeeze—shoulder squeeze—neck squeeze—face squeeze—foot squeeze—deep breathing—hand stretch—bowing and stretching—face stretch—shoulder stretch—arm stretch—rocking meditation—deep breathing—imagery (traveling to an outdoor place

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with friends)—deep breathing. Breathing exercises were accompanied by suggestions of "getting better; exhaling despair, fatigue, age; inhaling hope, health, youth." Imagery instructions were accompanied by suggestions of youth, strength, freshness, and absence of worry." The same relaxation script was presented each day for the remaining sessions. The control group received no relaxation training during the experiment. At the conclusion of the experiment, the control group received relaxation training; no data were collected. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Relaxation and control groups did not differ in age or initial depression and relaxation scores. Independent group Mests comparing pre-posttest difference scores revealed that the relaxation group displayed a significantly greater reduction in depression (t = -2.04, p < .05). The relaxation group also displayed significantly greater increments in the following R-States: Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness (t > 2.11, p < .05). In addition, posttest depression correlated negatively and significantly with Disengagement, At Ease/Peace, Joy, and Speechlessness (r > -.52, p < .01). Finally, when posttest Disengagement and Joy were entered as covariates, group differences on depression change scores disappear (F = 1.44, p = .26). The results of this study are consistent with an interpretation that comprehensive, tailored relaxation training can reduce depression among the elderly. Relaxation also appears to enhance feelings of Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Joy, and Love and Thankfulness. One can speculate that Physical Relaxation, Disengagement and possibly Sleepiness may contribute to reduced depressive thinking and symptomatology, which in turn may contribute to more positive relaxation states of Joy as well as Love and Thankfulness. Finally, this study uncovered two apparent anomalies. Posttest Disengagement correlates positively with Joy (r = .68, p < .01). Smith and his colleagues (Smith, Amutio, Anderson, & Aria, 1996) have found these same variables to correlate negatively, a pattern frequently found in similar research. Perhaps for this sample, successful disengagement from concerns of the day contributes to

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genuine feelings of joy. We also found that Disengagement correlates negatively with Depression. Other studies (Holmes, Ritchie, & Allen, chapter 16) have found that disengagement correlates positively with negative emotion, perhaps as a way of coping with relaxation-induced anxiety. It appears that the relationships among R-States may depend partly on sample characteristics.

29 ABC Relaxation Training As a Treatment for Depression for Puerto Rican Elderly Raphael Gonzales

Culture plays an important role in coping. This may be especially true for senior members of a culture, those who have spent a lifetime dealing with the problems of living. Research has revealed some of these differences. Gibson (1986) reported that elderly African Americans rely more on external support from helpers. How do members of different cultures respond to relaxation training? Bang (Smith, chapter 28) taught 2 weeks of ABC relaxation training to 11 elderly Koreans aged at least 65 compared the results with two weeks of no treatment for a control group of 11 Korean elderly. Participants filled out an early version of the Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). He found that ABC Relaxation Training reduces depression and increased the R-States Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, loy, and Love and Thankfulness. In addition, posttest depression correlates negatively and significantly with Disengagement, At Ease/Peace, Joy, and Speechlessness. The present study is an attempt to replicate Bang's findings on elderly living in Puerto Rico. METHOD Participants included 24 elderly Puerto Ricans, residents of Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. All participants lived at home and attended 209

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a community center for relaxation training. Residents were randomly assigned to an ABC Relaxation group (3 males, 9 females, age = 75, SD = 6.38) and a no treatment control group (3 males, 9 females, age = 73, SD = 5.08). Participants received the BDI and SRSI before session 1 and at the end of training. Spanish versions of both inventories were used. An early version of the SRSI, translated by the author, was used that taps R-States Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Rested and Refreshed, Strength and Awareness, At Ease/Peace, Joy, Love and Thankfulness, Childlike Innocence, Awe and Wonder, Prayerful, Mystery, and Timeless. State Somatic Stress, Worry, and Negative Emotion were also assessed. I met with with the ABC group 22 minutes a day for 14 days. At day 1,1 explained and demonstrated progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, breathing relaxation, yoga stretching, imagery, and meditation as well as the overall objectives of the ABC approach (to learn five basic techniques, construct a group-tailored composite exercise of preferences, and practice this composite for the remainder of the program). In day 2, progressive muscle relaxation and autogenic training were presented. Breathing and Stretching were taught the third day. Imagery and meditation were presented at day 4. Specific instructions were in Spanish, as described by Amutio (1999). At the end of each day's training, participants were asked which specific exercises they liked for the techniques presented. On the fifth day, all exercises were reviewed. The researcher orally described each exercise and participants voted on which they preferred. After reviewing and comparing current and earlier preferences (taken at the end of each previous day), participants were asked to chose which techniques they liked. The research demonstrated the preferred techniques and asked participants to suggest exercises that might be deleted or added. Finally the researcher constructed a 20-minute script of group relaxation exercise preferences, and read this script as relaxation instructions for each of the 9 remaining consecutive days. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ABC relaxation and control treatments did not differ at pretest for any variable. After 14 days, the relaxation group displayed

Treatment of Depression

211

significantly higher levels of Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Rested and Refreshed, and At Ease/Peace, and lower levels of Worry and Depression (t > 2.50, p < .05). The results of this study are consistent with Bang's (1999) findings. ABC Relaxation Training appears to reduce depression, worry, and enhance a broad range of R-States reflecting low and high affective energy. Bang hypothesized that the simultaneous emergence of both Disengagement and high affective energy states may reflect Oriental Korean culture. The present study suggests that the broad emergence of R-States may be a characteristic of ABC Relaxation Training.

30 Initial Trial of the Smith Intercentering Inventory: Progressive Muscle Relaxation Versus Yoga Stretching Versus Breathing Relaxation Jonathan C. Smith, Natalie L. Goc, and David J. Kinzer Intercentering refers to the sequencing of R-States during the course of a relaxation activity or exercise. As a new construct, it has yet to be empirically observed. One reason for this has been the difficulty of formally assessing states of mind at various points during a relaxation exercise. The present study describes results obtained from an early version of the Smith Intercentering Inventory (SII). The SII is a measure of recalled R-States. Given immediately after a relaxation exercise or activity, it asks one to circle from a list of R-States which were experienced, and then on accompanying time-lines, the onset time ("Start of Exercise-Early on-Midpoint-Later on-Erid of exercise") and duration of the R-State. R-States are assessed by single items in random order (R-States in parentheses): quiet (Mental Quiet), discomfort (stress), at ease (At Ease/Peace), drowsy (Sleepy), amazing (Awe and Wonder), limp (Physical Relaxation), happy (Joyful), distant (Disengagement), energized (Energized), thankful (Thankful and Loving), timeless (Timeless/Boundless/Infinite), childlike (Childlike Innocence), mystery (Mystery), rested (Rested/ Refreshed), and prayerful (Prayerful). Large print is used to facilitate quick reading. 212

Smith Intercentering Inventory

213

METHOD Participants Participants included three groups of junior college students, 21 assigned as the progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) group (8 males, 12 females, 1 unindicated, age = 23.59, SD = 7.17), 32 yoga stretching (15 males, 16 females, 1 unindicated, age = 22.62, SD = 3.55), and 17 breathing relaxation (17 total, 8 males, 9 females, age = 22.35, SD = 5.31). Procedure The experimenters (NLG and DJK) first explained that a standard 30 minute relaxation tape would be played, followed by a simple one-page questionnaire. Groups listened to audiotapes (made by the first author) of PMR, yoga stretching, or breathing. Each tape was made by reading verbatim scripts in Smith (1999b). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Relaxers appear capable of recalling what R-States they experienced in a 30-minute relaxation exercise. Furthermore, relaxers appear capable of reporting meaningful sequences of states. The specific differences and similarities among PMR, yoga stretching, and breathing are intriguing and merit further investigation. We limit our attention to R-States reported by at least half of our participants. For each group, Mests were computed comparing mean time of emergence for each R-State. Thus, a ngnificant i indicates that one R-State first appeared significantly later than another. We report significant ts (t < .05). PMR is the one technique most likely to evoke Physical relaxation. The practitioner of PMR appears to experience Sleepiness and Physical Relaxation near the beginning of an exercise, At Ease/Peace at midpoint, and Rested/Refreshed and Energized at the end. When discomfort did emerge, it appeared at onset. Taken together, this suggests that PMR may enable one to at first disengage from Somatic Stress (Sleepiness and Physical Relaxation), and then

214


experience At Ease/Peace, followed by more generalized feelings of Energy. Mental Quiet, when it appeared, did so after Physical Relaxation and Rested and Refreshed. Yoga was not associated with relaxation-session stress. In addition, it appeared to evoke a wide of R-States (Disengagement, At Ease/Peace, Joyful, and Rested and Refreshed), but in no particular order. Together, this suggests Yoga stretching is a particularly benign technique likely to evoke a wide range of reinforcing states; as such, yoga stretching may a safe technique to try on a wide range of individuals. Of the three techniques presented here, breathing appears most likely to evoke R-States of low abstraction and high affective energy. At Ease/Peace appeared near the beginning and Rested/Refreshed and Energized near the midpoint. When Thankful and Loving did appear, it emerged at the end of an exercise; and occasional discomfort appeared at the very beginning of an exercise. One might speculate the breathing exercises may rapidly reduce psychological tension and stress (Stress —> At Ease/Peace) without initial Disengagement (as for PMR), and later contribute to generalized feelings of Energy. As with PMR, At Ease/Peace appears to be an intermediate state, perhaps one of psychological tension reduction that can lead to generalized Energy. Rested and Refreshed appears to be a universal R-State, experience for all techniques. These patterns may or may not be replicated. However, the present study suggests a new tool for assessing relaxation process. We can now examine what happens within a particular relaxation session. The results of such research have a number of practical implications. If one R-State reliably emerges as a precursor to another desired R-State, then relaxation trainers can target the precursor state as preparation for later progress. Clients who report one R-State in a known sequence might be counseled which R-States may follow. Techniques can be presented in an order that matches most common sequences of R-States, perhaps enhancing the impact of these R-States. At the very least, knowing the order in which R-States emerge furthers our understanding of the rich and diverse map of relaxation, and provides us with indicators of what paths may be available to practitioners. (See Appendix B, Tables B.ll and B.12.)

31 Test-Retest Reliability of the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series Natalie L. Goc, Elizabeth K. Fagerman, Claudiu Dumitrescu, and David J. Kinzer

The present study examined the test-retest reliability of the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series. A total of 264 college students were given inventories twice, one week apart. Five different groups received different sets of questionnaires. The Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI) and the Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory (SRAI) were given together, as were the Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) and the Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI). The Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI), the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI, Dispositions Form), and the Smith Relaxation Dispositions/ Motivations Inventory (SRDMI, Motivations Form) were given independently to separate groups. The experimenter explained that this was a study measuring characteristics of relaxation. Pretest scores were correlated with posttest scores. Results revealed considerable variability in inventory and scale reliabilities. The SRCI (Relaxation Concerns), SRD/MI (Negative Motivations), SRAI (Relaxation Attitudes) generally displayed the highest test-retest reliabilities. This suggests that individuals are most consistent over time when reporting their frustrations and deficiencies. The SRCI taps areas of concern in which individuals desire improvement, the SRD/MI/Negative Emotions taps relaxation and stress states one would like to lessen, and the SRAI assesses worries one has about the possible negative effects of 215

216


relaxation. Across scales, greatest reliabilities emerge for reports related to dispositional negative emotion (particularly anxiety), physical symptoms, and general health. Generally, individuals have clear and consistent impressions of their distress. Perhaps greater efforts may be required to persuade potential relaxation clients of the value of higher R-States and the desirability of relaxation outcomes not directly associated with distress. State scales display lower reliabilities than dispositional or motivational scales. This is what one might expect, given that a psychological state is by definition a passing mood. Specific states Disengagement and Rested and Refreshed displayed the lowest reliabilities suggesting that these states may be especially transitory in relaxation (their low reliabilities are not reflected in Dispositions, Recalled Activities, or Motivations). One might speculate that during relaxation Disengagement and Rested and Refreshed have a preparatory or mediatory function, briefly setting the stage for the emergence of other R-States. See Table B.I3, Appendix B.

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Appendix A Smith Relaxation Inventory Series INVENTORY TEMPLATES The Smith Relaxation Inventory Series is designed to tap variables defined in ABC Relaxation Theory. Unless otherwise determined, all variables have been identified through extensive factor analytic research. The Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI) measures one's immediate level of relaxation and stress and is appropriate for examining immediate changes during the course of a relaxation activity. The Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) asks participants to recall and describe relaxation states associated with a preferred relaxation activity. This measure can be seen as a test of relaxation potential, type and degree of relaxation one can achieve. Much of the research on ABC Relaxation Theory is based on the SRRAI. The Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory (SRPI) asks participants to describe experiences in a just completed relaxation exercise or activity. An understanding of relaxation, particularly relaxation states as tapped by the SRRAI, is enhanced through an assessment of relaxation dispositions (R-Dispositions) and motivations (R-Motivations). In general, R-Dispositions are defined as one's propensity to be relaxed over a 2-week period; R-Motivations refer to one's desire for more or less of any particular relaxation (or stress) state. All research in this volume on R-Dispositions and R-Motivations has deployed the generalized Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (SRD/MI; only the Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory [SRDI] is supplied here). Recently, I have found it more useful to assess situational R-Dispositions and R-Motivations defined in two contexts, (1) at work or school (2) and at time off or relaxation. Hence, I now suggest two R-Disposition inventories: the Smith Work/School 222

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Dispositions Inventory (SW/SDI) and the Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (STO/RDI). Similarly, I also offer two R-Motivations inventories: the Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory (SW/SMI) and the Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory (STO/RMI). Both assess positive motivations ("I want more of this") and negative motivations ("I want less of this"). The Smith Relaxation Beliefs (R-Beliefs) Inventory (SRBI) measures beliefs hypothesized to be conducive to deeper and more generalized relaxation. The Smith Relaxation Concerns (R-Concerns) Inventory (SRCI) assesses the most frequent goals people have for learning relaxation. The Smith Relaxation Attitudes (R-Attitudes) Inventory (SRAI) explores attitudes hypothesized to contribute to resistance to starting or continuing with relaxation. Final stress items have been selected from the SRSI and SRDMI and fashioned into separate Quick Stress Tests, State and Dispositional forms. The Smith Intercentering Inventory (SII) taps recalled sequences of R-States that emerge during relaxation. The Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory (SIRCI) measures individual beliefs that may be associated with relaxation.

Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory (SRRAI) RELAXATION ACTIVITY People do many things for relaxation and renewal. We are interested in what can be done passively in a relaxed standing, seated, or resting position (this excludes hobbies, camping, hiking, taking trips, dancing, movies, tv, parties, sports, fitness exercises, forms of recreation, sex, eating, drugs, alcohol, tobacco. We are also excluding activities that involve talking to or interacting with other people.) Below are examples of passive forms of relaxation and renewal. Please check how many times a week you do each activity. Please write your answers in the blanks. 1a.

Art/pictures (Looking at, appreciating)

17a.

Prayer (alone, not in group)

2a. 3a. 4a. 5a.

Audio relaxation tapes

18a.

Prayer (with others, in group)

Breathing exercises

19a.

Progressive muscle relaxation

Church/synagogue, temple (attending)

20a.

Radio, listening to

Daydreaming

21 a.

Reading traditional religious scriptures (like Bible, Koran)

6a.

Hot tubs/baths

22a.

Reading fiction

7a.

Hypnosis (self)

23a.

Reading contemporary inspirational (not Bible/Koran)

8a.

Imagery/visualization

24a.

Reading nonfiction

Massage

25a.

Reading poetry

Meditation, TM

26a.

Resting in bed

Meditation, mantra, not TM

27a.

Showers, baths

Meditation, breathing, Zen, Mindfulness

28a.

Steam baths

Music (playing for self)

29a.

Sunbathing

Music (listening to)

30a.

TV, watching (including video tapes)

Nature appreciation

31 a.

Yoga (hatha)

Petting pets

32a.

Walking (leisurely)

9a. 10a. 11a. 12a. 13a. 14a. 15a. 16a.

Please think about the past two weeks. What was the single MOST REWARDING AND EFFECTIVE passive thing you did for relaxation and renewal? It doesn't have to be any of those listed above. Please describe this in the box below. As much as possible, be specific and detailed: MY PASSIVE FORM OF RELAXATION AND RENEWAL (DONE IN A RELAXED STANDING, SEATED, OR RESTING POSITION)

33a. How often do you engage in this activity alone, by yourself? Q Never d About once a month Q About twice a month Q About three times a month Q Once a week Q 2 days a week Q 3 days a week Q 4 days a week Q 5 days a week Q 6 days a week Q 7 days a week 34a. How often do you engage in this activity in a group, with others? l_l Never Q About once a month Q About twice a month Q About three times a month J Once a week Q 2 days a week Q 3 days a week Q 4 days a week Q 5 days a week Q 6 days a week Q 7 days a week 35a. For about how many years and/or months have you engaged in this activity? Years Months Now, please close your eyes and recall what you've just described in the box on the previous page. What was this activity like? What did you experience? On the next page are some phrases that describe experiences people often have. Please recall how you felt while engaged in the activity you put in the above box and answer the questions provided. © 2001 Springer Publishing Co.

(continued)

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Appendix A

SRRAI (continued) PLEASE CHECK WHAT YOU FELT DURING, OR JUST AFTER, THE ACTIVITY YOU DESCRIBED IN THE BOX ON THE OTHER PAGE. PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. II EXPERIENCED THIS... (i) Not at All

CD (!) © © (1) (!) CD © 'CD © © © CD © CD © © © © © © © © © © © (I) © © (I)

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(3) (4) C3) (4) ® ® © ® (3) (4) 0) ® C3) (4) C?) (4) (3) ® (3) (4) ® © 0) ® (3) (4) (3) (4) (3) (4) © (4) ® (4) 0) (4) (3) (4) (3) (4) (3) © (3D ® (3) ® (3) (4) (3) (4) C3) (4) C3) (4) (3) (4) (3) ® ® ®

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

(?) A Little

(3) Moderately

® Very Much

My mind was SI LENT and calm (I wasn't thinking about anything). My muscles felt TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). I felt AT PEACE. I felt DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seemed AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. My muscles were SO RELAXED that they felt LIMP. I was HAPPY. I was WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts went through my mind). I felt AT EASE. I felt DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. I felt ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. I was DOZING OFF or NAPPING. I felt THANKFUL. Things seemed TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. I felt IRRITATED or ANGRY. I felt JOYFUL I felt SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. I felt AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. My hands, arms, or legs were SO RELAXED that they felt WARM and HEAVY. I felt INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. My BREATHING was NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). I felt LOVING. I felt INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. I felt PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. I felt PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) My mind was QUIET and STILL I felt ANXIOUS. I sensed the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. I felt RESTED and REFRESHED. I felt CAREFREE.

© 2001 Springer Publishing Co.


227

Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (SRDI) THINK BACK OVER THE PAST TWO WEEKS. TO WHAT EXTENT DID YOU EXPERIENCE THE FOLLOWING ITEMS? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

I EXPERIENCED T H I S . . . (1) Not at All ;i) ® ',i; a; en CD (I) (i) ;i) (i; (V (i) en :i; :i; :n :i; u; in ;i: :,i; ',1; u: i) (\) CD © 0) 0) n)

® ® © (?) © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

® (?) ® ® ® 0) ® (3) ® ® ® ® ® @ ® ® ® ® ® ® © ® @ ® © ® © (3) ® ®

(4) ® ® ® ® (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

© A Little

® Moderately

® Very Much

1. My mind was SILENT and calm (I wasn't thinking about anything). 2. My muscles felt TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). 3. I felt AT PEACE. 4. I felt DROWSY and SLEEPY. 5. Things seemed AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. 6. My muscles were SO RELAXED that they felt LIMP. 7. I was HAPPY. 8. I was WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts went through my mind). 9. I felt AT EASE. 10. i felt DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. 11. I felt ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. 12 I was DOZING OFF or NAPPING. 13. I felt THANKFUL 14. Things seemed TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. 15. I felt IRRITATED or ANGRY. 16. I felt JOYFUL. 17. I felt SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. 18. I felt AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. 19. My hands, arms, or legs were SO RELAXED that they felt WARM and HEAVY 20. I felt INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. 21. My BREATHING was NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). 22, I felt LOVING. 23. I felt INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. 24. I felt PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. 25. I felt PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) 26. My mind was QUIET and STILL. 27. I felt ANXIOUS, 28. I sensed the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. 29. I felt RESTED and REFRESHED. 30. I felt CAREFREE.


228

Appendix A

Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory (SW/SDI) THINK BACK OVER THE PAST TWO WEEKS. TO WHAT EXTENT DID YOU EXPERIENCE THE FOLLOWING ITEMS WHILE YOU WERE WORKING (EITHER ON THE JOB OR AT SCHOOL)? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

I EXPERIENCED THIS (WHILE BUSY AT WORK OR SCHOOL)... ® Not at All

(l) (I) CO (I) 0) (1) CO CU CO 0.) •& O () C ;) (J 0.) (.1) ® ® (!) (1) (I) CD CO CO CO CD Ci) CD

@ 0) (?) (3) (?) (?) ® (3) (2) (3) C?) (3) C2) &) X C3) 2 (3) (£• (3) C2) (3) C?) (3) C2) © ®- C3) 2) (3) (?) (3) ® © (2) 0) ® O) (3) C?) @ (2) (3) (?) (3) C?) 0) (2) (3) (2) © ® (3) (2) (3) (2) (3) ® (3)

(4) (4) (4) (4) ® ® ® (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) ® ® ® C4) (4) ® ® ® (4) ® (4) © (4) (4) ® (4) ® ®

© A Little

CD Moderately

(4) Very Much

1. My mind was SILENT and calm (I wasn't thinking about anything). 2. My muscles felt TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). 3. I felt AT PEACE. 4. I felt DROWSY and SLEEPY. 5. Things seemed AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. 6. My muscles were SO RELAXED that they felt LIMP. 7. I was HAPPY. 8. I was WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts went through my mind). 9. I felt AT EASE. 10. I felt DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. 11. I felt ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. 12. I was DOZING OFF or NAPPING. 13. I felt THANKFUL. 14. Things seemed TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. 15. I felt IRRITATED or ANGRY. 16. I felt JOYFUL. 17. I felt SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. 18. I felt AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. 19. My hands, arms, or legs were SO RELAXED that they felt WARM and HEAVY. 20. I felt INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. 21. My BREATHING was NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). 22. I felt LOVING. 23. I felt INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. 24. I felt PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. 25. I felt PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) 26. My mind was QUIET and STILL 27. I felt ANXIOUS. 28. I sensed the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. 29. I felt RESTED and REFRESHED. 30. I felt CAREFREE.



229

Smith Time Off/ Relaxation Dispositions Inventory (STO/RDI)

THINK BACK OVER THE PAST TWO WEEKS. TO WHAT EXTENT DID YOU EXPERIENCE THE FOLLOWING ITEMS WHILE YOU WERE TAKING TIME OFF TO RELAX?

PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

I EXPERIENCED THIS (WHILE RELAXING). . . (i) Not at All

<j; 0; (P (i: 0) 0.) (i; (i! :i.' (i; ;i; n 0; m (i) •.I:n ,D n.) (i) tf a; oj a) c.u a) :i) u) CD 1)

© (2) C2) (2) (2) (2) (2; © (2) (2) © (2) (2) (2) (2) GO © © © ® ® (2) © ® © © © © © ©

0) (3) (3) C3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3; 0) (3) © (3) (3) GO C3) Q) (3) (3) (3) 0) (3) (3) © (3) ® ® ® ®

(4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) (4) C4) (4) ® (4) (4) (4) (4) C4) C4) ® ® (4; ®

(?) A Little

(?) Moderately

® Very Much

1. My mind was SILENT and calm (I wasn't thinking about anything}. 2. My muscles felt TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). 3. I felt AT PEACE. 4. I felt DROWSY and SLEEPY. 5. Things seemed AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. 6. My muscles were SO RELAXED that they felt LIMP. 7. I was HAPPY. 8. I was WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts went through my mind). 9. I felt AT EASE. 10. I felt DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. 11. I felt ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. 12. I was DOZING OFF or NAPPING. 13. I felt THANKFUL 14. Things seemed TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. 15. I felt IRRITATED or ANGRY. 16. I felt JOYFUL 17. I felt SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. 18. I felt AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. 19. My hands, arms, or legs were SO RELAXED that they felt WARM and HEAVY. 20. I felt INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE, 21. My BREATHING was NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). 22. I felt LOVING. 23. I felt INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. 24. I felt PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. 25. I felt PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) 26. My mind was QUIET and STILL, 27. I felt ANXIOUS. 28, I sensed the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. 29. I felt RESTED and REFRESHED. 30. I felt CAREFREE.


230

Appendix A

Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory (SW/SMI) DO YOU WANT TO EXPERIENCE MORE OF THE FOLLOWING WHILE YOU ARE WORKING (EITHER ON THE JOB OR AT SCHOOL)? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. I WOULD LIKE TO EXPERIENCE THIS (WHILE BUSY AT WORK OR SCHOOL)... ® I Don't Want More/Doesn't Apply © A Little More ® Somewhat More ® Very Much More ® (D ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

® © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

® (D (D ® (D ® ® ® (D ® ® ® © ©

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Mind is SILENT and calm (not thinking about anything). Muscles feel TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). Feeling AT PEACE. Feeling DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seem AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. Muscles are SO RELAXED that they feel LIMP. Feeling HAPPY. WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts going through my mind). Feeling AT EASE. Feeling DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns Feeling ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. DOZING OFF or NAPPING. Feeling THANKFUL. Things seem TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE.

® © (D ®

15. Feeling IRRITATED or ANGRY.

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

© © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

© ® © © © ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

Feeling JOYFUL. Feeling SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. Feeling AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. Hands, arms, or legs are SO RELAXED that they feel WARM and HEAVY. Feeling INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. BREATHING is NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). Having feelings of LOVE. Feeling INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. Feeling PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. Feeling PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue). Mind is QUIET and STILL Feeling ANXIOUS. Sensing the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. Feeling RESTED and REFRESHED. Feeling CAREFREE.



231

(SW/SMI) (continued) DO YOU WANT TO EXPERIENCE LESS OF THE FOLLOWING WHILE YOU ARE WORKING (EITHER ON THE JOB OR AT SCHOOL)? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. I WOULD LIKE TO EXPERIENCE THIS (WHILE BUSY AT WORK OR SCHOOL)... ® I Don't Want More/Doesn't Apply ® A Little More ® Somewhat More ® Very Much More ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

© © ® © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

® ® ® ® ® © (D (D (D (D © (D (D (D (D (D ® (D ® (D (D (D (D (D (D ® (D ® ® ®

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Mind is SILENT and calm (not thinking about anything). Muscles feel TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). Feeling AT PEACE. Feeling DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seem AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. Muscles are SO RELAXED that they feel LIMP. Feeling HAPPY. WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts going through my mind). Feeling AT EASE. Feeling DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. Feeling ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. DOZING OFF or NAPPING. Feeling THANKFUL Things seem TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. Feeling IRRITATED or ANGRY. Feeling JOYFUL Feeling SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. Feeling AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. Hands, arms, or legs are SO RELAXED that they feel WARM and HEAVY. Feeling INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. BREATHING is NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). Having feelings of LOVE. Feeling INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. Feeling PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. Feeling PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue). Mind is QUIET and STILL. Feeling ANXIOUS. Sensing the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. Feeling RESTED and REFRESHED. Feeling CAREFREE.

©2001 Springer Publishing Co.

232

Appendix A

Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory (STO/RMI) DO YOU WANT TO EXPERIENCE MORE OF THE FOLLOWING WHILE YOU ARE TAKING TIME OFF TO RELAX? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. I WOULD LIKE TO EXPERIENCE THIS (WHILE RELAXING)... CD I Don't Want More/Doesn't Apply © A Little More ® Somewhat More ® Very Much More ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

© © © (D ® © ® (D © © © © © © ® © © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

(D (D (D (D ® (D (D ® (D (D (D (D ® ® (D (D ® (D (D (D (D (D (D (D (D (D ® (D (D (D

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Mind is SILENT and calm (not thinking about anything). Muscles feel TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). Feeling AT PEACE. Feeling DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seem AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. Muscles are SO RELAXED that they feel LIMP. Feeling HAPPY. WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts going through my mind). Feeling AT EASE. Feeling DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. Feeling ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. DOZING OFF or NAPPING. Feeling THANKFUL. Things seem TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. Feeling IRRITATED or ANGRY. Feeling JOYFUL. Feeling SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. Feeling AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. Hands, arms, or legs are SO RELAXED that they feel WARM and HEAVY. Feeling INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. BREATHING is NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). Having feelings of LOVE. Feeling INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. Feeling PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. Feeling PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue). Mind is QUIET and STILL. Feeling ANXIOUS. Sensing the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. Feeling RESTED and REFRESHED. Feeling CAREFREE.



233

STO/RMI (continued) DO YOU WANT TO EXPERIENCE LESS OF THE FOLLOWING WHILE YOU ARE TAKING TIME OFF TO RELAX? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. I WOULD LIKE TO EXPERIENCE THIS (WHILE BUSY AT WORK OR SCHOOL)... ® I Don't Want More/Doesn't Apply ® A Little More (D Somewhat More ® Very Much More ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® (D ® ® ® ® ® ® (D

© ® © © © © © © (D (D ® (?) (D (D (D © (D ® © ® © ® © © ® ® © ® © ©

® ® (D (D (D (D ® (D (D (D (D (D (D ® (D ® (D (D (D ® (D (D (D (D (D (D (D (D (D (D

® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® © ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ® ®

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Mind is SILENT and calm (not thinking about anything). Muscles feel TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). Feeling AT PEACE. Feeling DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seem AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. Muscles are SO RELAXED that they feel LIMP. Feeling HAPPY. WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts going through my mind). Feeling AT EASE. Feeling DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. Feeling ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. DOZING OFF or NAPPING. Feeling THANKFUL. Things seem TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. Feeling IRRITATED or ANGRY. Feeling JOYFUL. Feeling SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. Feeling AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. Hands, arms, or legs are SO RELAXED that they feel WARM and HEAVY. Feeling INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. BREATHING is NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). Having feelings of LOVE. Feeling INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. Feeling PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. Feeling PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue). Mind is QUIET and STILL Feeling ANXIOUS. Sensing the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. Feeling RESTED and REFRESHED. Feeling CAREFREE.


234

Appendix A

Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory (SRPI)

HOW DID YOU FEEL WHILE DOING THIS EXERCISE? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

I EXPERIENCED THIS ... (I) Not at all

© © © © 1. © © © © 3. 2. © CD © (I) CD (i) 03 © Q) (1) © (I) ® (D © 0) (1) © © © © © © (I) © © © ©

© © © © © ® © © © © © © ® © © © © © © © © © © © © © © ©

© ® © © © © ® ® (3) © © © ® ® ® ® © © © © © © © © © © © ©

© 3. ® 4. ® 5. @ 6. ® 7. (4) 8. ® 9. ® 10. ® 11. ® 12. ® 13. ® 14. ® 15. ® 16. © 17. ® 18. (43 19. ® 20. © 21 ® 22. © 23. ® 24. ® 25. ® 26. ® 27. ® 28. ® 29. ® 30.

© A Little

(?) Moderately

® Very Much

My mind was SILENT and calm (I wasn't thinking about anything). My muscles felt TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). I felt AT PEACE. I felt DROWSY and SLEEPY. Things seemed AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. My muscles were SO RELAXED that they felt LIMP. I was HAPPY. I was WORRYING (Troublesome thoughts went through my mind). I felt AT EASE. I felt DISTANT and FAR AWAY from my cares and concerns. I felt ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. I was DOZING OFF or NAPPING. I felt THANKFUL. Things seemed TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE I felt IRRITATED or ANGRY. I felt JOYFUL I felt SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. I felt AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. My hands, arms, or legs were SO RELAXED that they feit WARM and HEAW. I felt INNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. My BREATHING was NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). I felt LOVING. I felt INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. I felt PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. I felt PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) My mind was QUIET and STILL. I felt ANXIOUS. I sensed the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. I felt RESTED and REFRESHED I felt CAREFREE.



235

Smith Relaxation States Inventory (SRSI)

HOW DO YOU FEEL RIGHT NOW, AT THE PRESENT MOMENT? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

RIGHT NOW, I'M EXPERIENCING THIS . . . CD Not at all

® A Little

© Moderately

(4) Very Much

(i) © © ® 1. My mind is SILENT and calm (I'm not thinking about anything). (i) © cD ® 2. My muscles feel TIGHT and TENSE (clenched fist or jaws; furrowed brow). 0> © © ® 3. I feel AT PEACE. (I) © C3) ® 4. I feel DROWSY and SLEEPY. UJ © (?) (43 5. Things seem AMAZING, AWESOME, and EXTRAORDINARY. On © © (4) 6. My muscles are SO RELAXED that they feel LIMP. ']) © ® ® 7. I am HAPPY. CD © © ® ® 11. I feel ENERGIZED, CONFIDENT, and STRENGTHENED. (i) © ® ® 12. I am DOZING OFF or NAPPING. 0 © © ® 13. I feel THANKFUL. ^ © ® ® 14, Things seem TIMELESS, BOUNDLESS, or INFINITE. c ; © ® ® 15. I feel IRRITATED or ANGRY. 1 i © @ ® 16. I feel JOYFUL. - © 3; ® 17. I feel SAD, DEPRESSED, or BLUE. ) (2) C30 ® 18. I feel AWARE, FOCUSED, and CLEAR. : ) (2) '3 ® 19. My hands, arms, or legs are SO RELAXED that they feel WARM and HEAVY. o © 3) © 20. I feeMNNOCENT and CHILDLIKE. c ) © © ® 21. My BREATHING is NERVOUS and UNEVEN (Or shallow and hurried). ' ) © ® ® 22. I feel LOVING. ^ © (3) (4) 23. I feel INDIFFERENT and DETACHED from my cares and concerns. ; •> © (3) ® 24. t feel PRAYERFUL or REVERENT. i © (3) ® 25. I feel PHYSICAL DISCOMFORT or PAIN (backaches, headaches, fatigue) : . © 0) ® 26, My mind is QUIET and STILL. : : © © ® 27. I feel ANXIOUS, '.'; © (?) ® 28. I sense the DEEP MYSTERY of things beyond my understanding. ; © ® ® 29. I feel RESTED and REFRESHED. ;C © ® ® 30. I feel CAREFREE.


236

Appendix A

Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory (SRBI)

WHAT DO YOU BELIEVE? PEOPLE HAVE MANY BELIEFS AND PHILOSOPHIES, LIKE THOSE BELOW. TO WHAT EXTENT DO YOU AGREE WITH EACH STATEMENT? PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY.

(!) Do Not Agree ® Agree a Little (1) CD 0 0 CO 0 0

® (3D © ® (?) ® ® C33 (?) ® ® ® ® (3)

(!) (2) ®

(4) 1. ® 2. ® 3. ® 4. © 5. (4) 6. (4) 7. @ 8.

CD ® (3) © 9. (I) ® C3) ® 10. 0

® (3) @ 11.

0 ® ® ® 12. 0 ® ® ® 13. CO ® ® CD ® ® CD ® ®

® 14. (4) 15. ® 16.

® Agree Moderately

® Agree Very Much

Life has a purpose greater than my personal wants and desires I can accept things as they are. God guides, loves, and comforts me. I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do. I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers. Sometimes it is important to simply take it easy. I'm optimistic about how well I will deal with my current hassles. It is important to love and respect others. There's more to life than my personal concerns and worries. There's no need to try to change what can't be changed. I believe in putting myself in God's hands. I believe in being honest and open with my feelings. There are sources of strength and healing deep within me. It is important to know when to stop trying, let go, and relax. I believe in being optimistic. It is important to treat people with compassion and understanding.



237

Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory (SRCI)

WHAT ARE YOUR CONCERNS? PEOPLE HAVE MANY DIFFERENT DIFFICULTIES, PROBLEMS, AND UNMET DESIRES. WHAT ARE YOUR CONCERNS? IN WHAT AREAS ARE YOU DOING OK? IN WHAT AREAS COULD YOU DO BETTER? BELOW IS A LIST OF COMMON CONCERNS. PLEASE INDICATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH EACH HAS BEENACONCERNFORYOUOVERTHE PASTTWO WEEKS.

PLEASE CHECK ALL THE ITEMS USING THIS KEY. (i) Not a Concern for Me ® I Could Do a Little Better © I Could Do Moderately Better (1) I Could Do Much Better

;.) @ ®

(4) 1.

' I (?) ® .' ) ® ®

(4) 2. (4) 3.

: .! &> (3)

(4)

4.

, ; (2) (3) (4) 5. -: ) (2} © ® 6. ) ; ® (3) (4) 15. : - (2; C5) ® 16. •' : Q) ® ® 17. '. : C? @ ® 18, : .05, * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .005, ***** p < .001, ****** p < .0005. Slee = Sleepiness,Dise = Disengagement, Phys = Physical Relaxation, Ease = At Ease/Peace, Quie = Mental Quiet, Stre = Strength and Awareness, Joy = Joy, Than = Thankfulness, Love, Pray = Prayerfulness, Time = Timeless/Boundless/Infinite, Soma = Somatic Stress, Worr = Worry, Nega = Negative Emotion

268

Appendix B

TABLE B.2 Correlations Between Recalled Relaxation States, Relaxation Dispositions, and Stress Somatic Negative Stress Worry Emotion Recalled Relaxation States (Combined Holmes, Ritchie, Allen/ and Anderson Samples, N = 536) Sleepiness .16***** .14**** .14**** Disengagement — — — Physical Relaxation — -.10* — At Ease/Peace -.18**** -.32***** -.35***** Strength and Awareness -.10* -.15***** -.19***** TOV —11** — 20***** — ?!***** Love and Thankfulness — — — Prayerfulness — — — Recalled Relaxation States (Leslie and Clavin sample; N = 105) Disengagement .32**** 34***** 34***** Physical Relaxation .34***** .26** .24** At Ease/Peace -.21* -.29** -.25** Strength and Awareness — — — Joy — — — Love and Thankfulness — — — Prayerfulness — — — Relaxation Dispositions (Rice, Cucci, and Williams sample; N - 108) Disengagement .24* .23* — Physical Relaxation — — — At Ease/Peace _47***** _48***** -.55***** Strength and Awareness -.30** .40***** _45***** Joy -.23* _45***»* -.50***** Love and Thankfulness — — -.26*** Prayerfulness — — -.19* Recalled Relaxation States (Sohnle sample; N = 220) Sleepiness .16* .23**** 23***** Disengagement — — .14* Physical Relaxation — — — Mental Relaxation -.28***** -.39***** -.41***** Strength and Awareness — -.23**** _29***** Joy — -.18** -.17* Love and Thankfulness — — — Prayerfulness — — — Relaxation Dispositions (Norm sample, N = 310) Sleepiness 28***** .20***** — Disengagement h-.13* -.16*** — Physical Relaxation -.13* _ ^9**** -.17** Mental Quiet -.30***** _.29***** -.30*****

Tables

269

TABLE B.2

(Continued)

Somatic Stress _ 44***** At Ease/Peace Rested / Refreshed -.38***** Strength and Awareness -.30***** Joy -.36***** _ 21***** Love and Thankfulness Prayerfulness — — Childlike Innocence — Awe and Wonder Mystery — — Timeless Relaxation States (Norm sample; N = 410) 29***** Sleepiness Disengagement -.09* Physical Relaxation — — 26***** Mental Quiet At Ease /Peace -.35***** Rested / Refreshed -.30***** — 20***** Strengthened / Aware — 20***** Joy — Love and Thankfulness — Prayerfulness .02 Childlike Innocence Awe and Wonder .15*** Mystery .16** Timeless .10* Recalled R-States (Norm Sample; N = 218) .23**** Sleepiness Disengagement -.09 Physical Relaxation — -.15* Mental Quiet _ ^2***** At Ease/Peace — 24***** Rested / Refreshed — Strength and Awareness -.21** Joy — Love and Thankfulness -.00 Prayerfulness — Childlike Innocence — Awe and Wonder Mystery — — Timeless

Worry — 45***** — 33***** — 35***** — 35***** -.13* — — — — —

Negative Emotion — 51***** — 41***** — 39***** — 47***** — 30***** — — — — —

23***** -.16**** -.10* — 30***** -.48***** — 28***** — 24***** — 26***** — — -.00 .12** .07 .08

29***** — — — 25***** -.46***** _ 29***** — 26***** — 33***** -.14** — .01 14*** .12* .08

23***** -.15* — -.17* _ ^2***** -.16* — -.14* — .03 — — — —

.127 -.137* — _ 19*** _ 31***** — 24***** — -.16* — .03 — — 2i**** -.03**

270

Appendix B

TABLE B.3 Recalled Relaxation State Factor Solutions for Grouped and Randomized Relaxation State Items Recalled Relaxation State Factor Solution for Conceptually Grouped Items Factor 1: Spiritual Spiritual (Item loading = .79); Deeper Understanding (.77); Mystery (.70); Loving (.69); Thankful (.69); Speechless (.56); Factor 2: Joy/Fun Fun (.85); Joyful (.79); Beauty (.74); Harmony (.67); Creative (.58); Optimism (.56) Factor 3: Distant Forgetting (.77); Distant (.77) Loss of Sensation (.75); Limp (.75); Indifference (.72); Drowsy (.56) Factor 4: Aware Aware (.83); Focused (.76); Energized (.74); Renewed (.57) Factor 5:Calm Calm (.77); Relaxed Breathing (.74); Safe (.69); Initial eigenvalues and cumulative percentage of variance accounted for: Factor 1 = 8.97, 35.90; Factor 2 = 3.54, 50.14; Factor 3 = 1.89, 57.78; Factor 4 = 1.35, 63.20; Factor 5 = 1.16, 67.83. Note: N = 436; Factors defined in terms of items loading at least .500 or greater. Recalled Relaxation State Factor Solution for Randomized Items Factor 1: Spiritual Loving (.71); Spiritual (.70); Thankful (.69); Safe (.57) Beauty (.57); Deeper Understanding (.54) Optimism (.49) \ Factor 2: Calm Calm (.79); Renewed (.72); Harmony (.60); Relaxed Breathing (.57) Factor 3: Aware Aware (.69); Creative (.66) Focused (.63); Energized (.47) Factor 4: Distant Indifference (.69); Forgetting (.63); Distant (.60) Speechless (.55) Mystery (.54) Factor 5: Drowsy Drowsy (.80); Limp (.67); Loss of Sensation (.43); Factor 6: Joy/Fun Fun (.81); Joyful (.55) Initial eigenvalues and cumulative percent of variance accounted for: Factor 1 = 6.59, 26.41; Factor 2 = 1.74, 33.41; Factor 3 = 1.90, 41.05; Factor 4 = 1.39, 45.51; Factor 5 = 1.40, 50.14; Factor 6 = 1.06, 54.41.

N = 306

TABLE B.4 Correlations Between Stress and Recalled Relaxation Factors for Grouped and Randomized Items Grouped Items Worry Physical Stress Negative Emotions

Distant

Calm

Aware

Joy /Fun

Spiritual

-.02 .04 .01

— 25*****

— ig***** -.14***

_ O1 *****

-.17 -.09 _ 21 *****

.04 .02 .05

Drowsy

Calm

Aware

Joy /Fun

Spiritual

-0.35***** -0.16*** —0 34*****

-.03 0.00 -0.09

-0.08 -0.02 -0.17***

-0.03 0.05 -0.08

Distant Randomized Items Worry Physical Stress Negative Emotions

0.02**** 0.11* 0 24*****

_ 1 9*****

21 *****

0.20***** Q 29*****

Note: Factor Variables defined as sum of items loading .500 or greater. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .005, **** p < .001, ***** p < .0005 (= .05 after Bonnferoni)

1 o*****

272

Appendix B

TABLE B.5 Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs Sample 1 Factor 1: Psychological Health

It is important to acknowledge mistakes and be willing to change (Item loading = .63); I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do. (.59); It is important to treat people with compassion. (.59); I believe in being honest and open with my feelings. (.58); It is important to show love and respect for all. (.53); It is important to see things as they really are. (.49); It is important to understand the world clearly, without bias and distortion. (.48); I believe in joyfully celebrating the gifts of life. (.46); At the deepest level, I'm an OK person. (.44); Live fully in the present. (.31); Sometimes it is best to forgive and go on with life. (.32) Factor 2: Deeper Perspective

There's more to life than my persona concerns and worries (.57); I believe I am part of a larger universe. (.55) Life has a purpose greater than my personal wants and desires. (.55); I believe it is important to live for something larger than oneself. (.52); I believe there is a deeper reality beyond my comprehension. (.52) There are more important things in life than my everyday hassles . (.48); It's OK if I don't have exactly what I want. (.42); Sometimes one should put aside and forget one's cares and concerns (.41)Sometimes one should put aside what seems pleasant or comfortable. (.29); Sometimes it is best to let go of habits and attachments. (.28); Factor 3: God

I put myself in God's hands. (.88); God guides, loves, and comforts me. (.85); Worship, devotion, and giving thanks are an important part of life/(.77) Factor 4: Taking it Easy

Sometimes it is important to simply take it easy. (.58); It's important to know when to stop crying for a while and let go and relax. (.56); It is important to get away from it all. (.54); Sometimes it is important to take time for quiet relaxation. (.49); Factor 5: Optimism I'm optimistic about how well I will deal with my current hassles. (.62); I accept myself as I am. (.52); I believe in being optimistic. (.47); I believe in fully enjoying every moment. (.39); Factor 6: Acceptance

There's no need to try to change things that simply can't be changed. (.51); I can accept things as they are. (.49)

Tables

273 TABLE B.5

(Continued)

Factor 7: Inner Wisdom

I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers. (.56); There are sources of strength and healing deep within me. (.57) N = 496 Initial eigenvalues and cumulative percent of variance accounted for: Factor 1,11.81, 32.81; Factor 2 = 2.40, 39.48; Factor 3 = 1.74, 44.33; Factor 4 = 1.56, 48.67; Factor 5 = 1.20, 52.01; Factor 6 = 1.13, 52.15; Factor 7 =1.03, 58.01. Sample 2 Factor 1: Deeper Perspective

There are more important things in life than my everyday hassles. (Item loading = 59); Life has a purpose greater than my personal wants and desires. (.58); There's more to life than my personal concerns and worries. (.56); I believe it is important to live for something larger than oneself. (.50); I believe there is a deeper reality beyond my comprehension. (.43); Sometimes one should put aside what seems pleasant, comfortable. (.41) It's OK if I don't have exactly what I want. (.40); Sometimes it is best to let go of habits and attachments. (.31); Sometimes it is best to forgive and go on with life. (.28) Factor 2: God

God guides, loves, and comforts me. (.88); I put myself in God's hands. (.85); Worship, devotion, and giving thanks are an important part of life. (.74); Factor 3: Taking it Easy

Sometimes it is important to simply take it easy. (.60); Sometimes it is important to take time for quiet relaxation. (.60) It is important to know when to stop trying for a while and let go and relax. (.55) It is important to get away from it all. (.41). Live fully in the present. (.41); I believe in fully enjoying every moment. (.38); Factor 4: Optimism

I'm optimistic about how well I will deal with my current hassles. (.76); I believe in being optimistic. (.64); At the deepest level I'm an OK person. (.26); Factor 5: Change

Sometimes one should put aside and forget one's cares, concerns. (.92) It is important to acknowledge mistakes and be willing to change. (.82); Factor 6: Inner Wisdom

I trust the body's wisdom and healing powers. (.66); There are sources of strength and healing deep within me. (.58) (continued)

274

Appendix B

TABLE B.5 Factor Structure of Relaxation Beliefs (Continued) Factor 7: Love

It is important to show love and respect for all. (.68); It is important to treat people with compassion. (.51); Factor 8: Acceptance

I can accept things as they are. (.61); I accept myself as I am. (.43) There's no need to try to change things that simply can't be changed. (.40) Factor 9: Cognitive-Behavioral Honesty

I believe in being direct and clear in what I say, think, and do. (.49); It is important to understand the world clearly, without bias or distortion. (.31); It is important to see things as they really are. (.27) Factor 10: Affective Honesty

I believe in being honest and open with my feelings. (.48); I believe in joyfully celebrating the gifts of life. (.33) N = 1167 Initial eigenvalues and cumulative percent of variance accounted for: Factor 1 = 8.31, 23.09; Factor 2 = 2.42, 29.82; Factor 3 = 1.95, 35.25; Factor 4 = 1.58, 49.64; Factor 5 = 1.44, 43.67; Factor 6 = 1.37, 47.48; Factor 7 = 1.33, 51.17; Factor 8 = 1.15, 54.17; Factor 9 = 1.22, 57.50; Factor 10 = 1.01, 60.31; Factor 11 = 1.00, 63.10.

Tables

275

Table B.6 Final Relaxation Attitudes Scales Practical Concerns Finding it hard to put relaxation to use in everyday life Not slowing down enough for relaxation to work Being distracted by other things while relaxing Trainer Concerns Thinking my relaxation trainer might not tailor techniques to Thinking my relaxation trainer is not teaching me what is best for me Fantasy Concerns Feeling that relaxation is too much like daydreaming Getting too lost in my fantasies while relaxing Relaxation-Induced Anxiety Becoming too sensitive to my problems when practicing relaxation Discovering things I don't want to know when relaxing Becoming more aware of my problems when relaxing Having strange (or uncomfortable) experiences when relaxing Losing touch with reality when relaxing Concerns about Disengagement Wondering if relaxation techniques slow me down too much Feeling too withdrawn in relaxation Becoming less effective (at work, school, sports, etc.) when relaxing Wondering if relaxation interferes with coping and problem solving Spending less times at things that are important when relaxing.

276

Appendix B

TABLE B.7 Items Reflecting Relaxation-Induced Anxiety and Concerns over Disengagement Relaxation-Induced Anxiety Feeling anxious when doing a relaxation exercise. Experiencing things in relaxation I don't understand. Becoming too sensitive to my problems when practicing relaxation Feeling concerned about what others think when I'm relaxing. Discovering things I don't want to now when relaxing. Losing some self-control in relaxation. Being troubled by worries when relaxing. Becoming more aware of my problems when relaxing. Having strange (or uncomfortable) experiences when relaxing. Losing touch with reality when relaxing. Concerns over Disengagement Feeling too indifferent when relaxing and not caring enough about things. Wondering if relaxation techniques slow me down too much. Spending too much time by myself in relaxation. Feeling less energetic during the rest of the day I practice relaxation. Feeling drowsy the rest of the day I practice relaxation. Feeling too withdrawn in relaxation. Becoming less effective I(at work, school, sports, etc) when relaxing. Wondering if relaxation interferes with coping and problem solving. Becoming too lazy or passive when relaxing. Spending less time at things that are important when relaxing.

Tables

277

TABLE B.8 Factor Structure of Claimed Benefits for Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen, and Anderson Samples Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen Sample Factor 1: Medical Surgery, recovering from (Item Loading = .72); Surgery, preparing for (.72) Dental Anxiety (.59); Medication Side Effects (.54); Physical Symptoms (.54); Recovery from Work (.46) Factor 2: Substance Abuse Tobacco (.68); Illegal Drugs (.64); Overeating (.51); Shyness (.39); Compulsive Thoughts (.38); Factor 3: Psychological Distress Anxiety (.67); Worry (.61) Depression (.57); Frustration (53); Productivity (.44); Stress (.33) Factor 4: Creativity Creativity (.74); Artistic Expression (.69); Psychological Insight/Growth (.43); Aggression (.38); Factor 5: Health Resistance to Illness (.62); Physical Health (.60); Strength and Stamina (.52); Recovery from Illness (.40); Meditation (.50) Factor 6: Pain/Sleep Insomnia (.66); Sleep (.56) Pain (.46); Factor 7: Performance Exercise Workouts (.70); Sex (.62); Sports (.63); Factor 8: Spiritual Growth Prayer (.81); Spirituality (.72)) Factor 9: Interpersonal Stress Interpersonal Effectiveness (.69); Interpersonal Conflict (.63) IV = 434 Initial eigenvalues and total percentage of variance accounted for: Factor 1 = 7.75, 20.95; Factor 2 = 2.41, 27.48; Factor 3 = 1.77, 32.27; Factor 4 = 1.76, 37.03; Factor 5 = 1.49, 41.06; Factor 6 = 1.36, 44.75; Factor 7 -1.16, 47.89; Factor 8 = 1.10, 50.89; Factor 9 = 1.00, 53.61. Anderson Sample Factor 1: Athletics/health Exercise Workouts (.70); Sports (58); Physical Health (.52); Strength and Stamina (.43); Alertness and Energy (.43); Sex (.34); Factor 2: Psychological Distress Worry (.62); Stress (.51); Interpersonal Conflict (.48); Depression (.32); Interpersonal Effectiveness (.37) (continued)

278

Appendix B

TABLE B.8 Factor Structure of Claimed Benefits for Holmes, Ritchie, and Allen, and Anderson Samples (Continued) Factor 3: Creativity/ Artistic Expression Artistic expression (.68); Creativity (.66); Meditation (.37); Aggression (.33): Psychological Insight/Growth (.34); Factor 4: Medical Recovery from Surgery (.68); Preparation for Surgery (.63); Recovery from Illness (.46); Dental Anxiety (.46); Factor 5: Substance Abuse Alcohol (.67); Illegal Drugs (.56); Tobacco (.58) Factor 6: Insomnia/Prayer/Eating/Productivity Insomnia (.43); Prayer (.44); Eating (.38); Productivity (.36); Sleep (13) Factor 7: Pain/Physical Symptoms Physical Symptoms (.72); Pain (.45); Factor 8: Work Recovery from Work (.64) Factor 9: Medications Medication Side Effects (.74); Factor 10: Resistance Resistance to Illness (.66); Spiritual Growth (.38) Factor 11: Anxiety Anxiety (.57); Shyness (.45) Factor 12: Frustration Frustration (.61) Factor 13: Compulsivity Compulsive Thoughts (.46) N=157 Initial eigenvalues and total percentage of variance accounted for: Factor 1 = 5.42,14.27; Factor 2 = 2.78, 21.60; Factor 3 = 2.27, 27.59; Factor 4 = 1.99, 32.84; Factor 5 = 1.63, 37.13; Factor 6 = 1.51, 41.13; Factor 7 = 1.37, 44.74; Factor 8 = 1.30, 48.18; Factor 9 = 1.30, 51.60; Factor 10 = 1.20, 54.77; Factor 11 = 1.06, 57.58; Factor 12 = 1.05, 60.36; Factor 13 = 1.03, 63.09.

Tables

279

TABLE B.9 Tukey's LSD Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities Love and Thankfulness (F = 4.28, p < .0005) Praying > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** breathing exercises,***** bathing/showering,**** TV/movies,***** yoga,***** listening to music,*** reading,** massage,* Daydreaming,* playing* walking* Meditating > sleep, ***** resting/napping***** TV/mo vies,**** bathing/showering,** breathing exercises,* yoga* Taking/Chatting > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** TV/mo vies,**** breathing exercises,** bathing/showering* Playing > sleep,**** resting/napping,**** TV/mo vies,* breathing exercises* Daydreaming > sleep,**** resting/napping,*** TV/mo vies,* breathing exercises* Writing > sleep,**** resting/napping,*** TV/mo vies,* breathing exercises* Massage > sleep,*** resting/napping,** TV/movies,* breathing exercises* Yoga > sleep,*** resting/napping* Reading > sleep,* resting/napping* Bathing/Showering > sleep* Walking > sleep* Joy (F = 3.97, p < .0005) Play > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** breathing exercises,***** bathing/showering,***** yoga,*** prayer* Talking/chatting > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** breathing exercises,**** bathing/showering,*** yoga** Listening to music > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** breathing exercises,*** bathing/ showering*** Massage > sleep,***** resting/napping,*** breathing exercises,*** Daydreaming > sleep,**** resting/napping,*** breathing exercises,** bathing/showering,* yoga* Writing > sleep,*** resting/napping,*** breathing exercises,*** bathing/showering,* yoga* TV/movies > sleep,*** resting/napping,** breathing exercises,** bathing / showering* Meditating > sleep,*** resting/napping,** breathing exercises,* bathing / showering* Reading > Sleep,*** Resting/napping,** breathing exercises,* bathing / showering* Prayer > sleep* Yoga > sleep* (continued)

280

Appendix B

TABLE B.9 Tukey's LSD Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities (Continued) Strength and Awareness (F = 3.23, p < .0005) Prayer > sleep,***** resting/napping,***** breathing exercises,**** massage,**** listening to music,*** bathing/showering*** daydreaming,** walking,* TV/movies,* yoga* Talking/chatting > sleep,***** resting/napping,** breathing exercises Yoga > sleep,***** resting/napping,** breathing exercises* Reading > sleep,**** resting/napping,** breathing exercises/' massage* Playing > sleep,*** resting/napping,* breathing exercises* Writing > sleep,** breathing exercises,* resting/napping* Bathing/Showering > sleep** Daydreaming > sleep* Listening to music > sleep * Prayerfulness (F = 2.43, p < .005) Prayer > TV/movies,***** sleep,***** bathing/showering,***** resting/napping,**** daydreaming,*** talking/chatting,*** massage,** yoga,* reading,* listening to music,* playing* Meditating > TV/movies,*** sleep,* bathing/showering* Listening to music > TV/mo vies,** sleep,* bathing/shower ing* Yoga > TV/movies,** sleep,* bathing/showering* Walking > TV/movies,* sleep* Playing > TV/mo vies* Reading > TV/movies* Writing > TV/movies* Sleepiness (F = 2.03, p = .01) Resting/napping > walking,***** meditating,***** reading,***** playing,*** yoga,*** listening to music,*** prayer,*** writing,** talking/chatting,** breathing exercises,* sleep,* TV/movies* Bathing/showering > walking,*** reading,* meditating* Daydreaming > walking* Sleep > walking * Massage > walking,** reading,* meditating* Physical Relaxation (F = -1.93, p < .05) Yoga > walking,**** listening to music,*** praying,*** TV/movies,** writing,** playing,* reading,* talking/chatting* Bathing/Showering > walking,*** listening to music,* praying,* TV/mo vies,* writing* Massage > walking* Meditating > walking* Resting/Napping > walking* Sleeping > walking* N = 306. ***** p < .0005, **** p < .001, *** p < .005, ** p < .01, * p < .05.

Tables

281

TABLE B.10 Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities (Overall Wilks' Lambda-1.17, p > .00) Sleepiness (F = 4.45, p < .0005) Bedrest > Walks,***** Praying Alone, ***** Radio,*** " Petting Pets,* Reading Fiction,* Daydreaming* Baths and Showers > Walks,***** Praying Alone,**** Radio,* Petting Pets* TV > Walks,***** Praying Alone,**** Radio,* Petting Pets* Listening to Music > Walks,***** Praying Alone,*** Radio * Meditation > Walking** Physical Relaxation (F = 9.42, p > .001) Meditation > Walks,***** Reading Fiction,**** TV,**** Radio,**** Daydreaming,** Bedrest,** Petting Pets,* Praying Alone* Baths and Showers > Walks,***** Reading Fiction,**** TV,**** Daydreaming,*** Petting Pets,* Radio,* Praying Alone,* Resting in Bed* Listening to Music > Walks,** Reading Fiction* Praying Alone > Walks* At Ease/At Peace (F = 2.29, p < .01) Praying Alone > Bedrest,**** Radio,*** Daydreaming,** Reading Fiction,* Walks,* Listening to Music,* TV* Petting Pets > Radio,* Bedrest,* Daydreaming* Meditation > Petting Pets,*** Radio,* Daydreaming* Baths and Showers > Bedrest* Rested/Refreshed (F = 2.35, p < .01) Praying Alone > Daydreaming,***** TV,*** Petting Pets,* Radio* Meditation > Daydreaming,**** TV** Listening to Music > Daydreaming,*** TV* Baths and Showers > Daydreaming,*** TV* Reading Fiction > Daydreaming* Bedrest Bed > Daydreaming* Walks > Daydreaming* Strength and Awareness (F = 2.29, p < .01) Praying Alone > Resting in Bed,***** TV,***** Daydreaming,**** Reading Fiction,**** Baths and Showers,** Listening to Music,* Radio* Walks > Bedrest,*** TV* Meditation > Bedrest,*** TV* (continued)

282

Appendix B

TABLE B.10 Post Hoc Comparisons for Recalled Relaxation States Reported for Preferred Relaxation Activities (Overall Wilks' Lambda-1.17, p > .00) (Continued) Joy Petting Pets > TV,*** Bedrest,*** Reading Fiction,* Walks,* Listening to Music,* Baths and Showers* Praying Alone > TV,**** Bedrest,*** Reading Fiction,*** Walks,* Listening to Music,* Meditation > TV* Thankfulness and Love (F = 3.65, p < .0005) Praying Alone > TV,***** Walks,***** Reading Fiction,**** Bedrest,**** Daydreaming,*** Baths and Showers,***Listening to Music,** Radio* Petting Pets > TV,**** Walks ** Meditation > TV,*** Walks* Baths > TV*** Listening to Music > TV*** Prayerfulness (F = 4.69, p < .0005) Praying alone > TV, Daydreaming, Bedrest, Radio, Petting Pets, Walks, Listening to Music, Reading Fiction,***** Baths,**** Meditation*** Meditation > TV,**** Bedrest,* Daydreaming* Baths > Daydreaming,*** Bedrest,** TV** Innocence (F = 2.38, p < .01) Petting Pets > Walks,*** TV,** Radio,* Daydreaming,* Bedrest,* Reading Fiction* Meditation > Walks,**** TV,*** Bedrest,** Reading Fiction,** Daydreaming,* Radio* Listening to Music > Walks,* TV* Praying Alone > Walks,* TV* Baths and Showers > Walks,* TV* Awe and Wonder (F = 2.46, p < .02) Praying Alone > Bedrest,***** Listening to Music,*** TV,*** Petting Pets,** Walks,** Baths and Showers** Meditation > Resting in Bed,*** Listening to Music * TV* Daydreaming > Bedrest* Mystery (F = 3.57, p < .0005) Praying Alone > TV,***** Daydreaming,***** Bedrest,***** Walks,**** Radio,*** Reading Fiction,*** Listening to Music,*** Baths and Showers,*** Petting Pets* Reading Fiction,** Listening to Music,** Petting Pets* Meditation > TV,***** Daydreaming,**** Walks,**** Bedrest,**** Radio,* Reading Fiction,*

Tables TABLE B.10 (Continued) Mystery (F = 3.57, p < .0005) (continued) Listening to Music,* Baths and Showers* Baths and Showers > TV* Listening to Music > TV* Timeless/Boundless/Infinite (F = 1.93, p > .04) Meditation > Bedrest,*** Reading Fiction,*** Walks,* TV Praying Alone > Bedrest,*** Reading Fiction,* Walks* Radio > Bedrest*

283

TABLE B.ll

Frequencies (Number of Participants Reporting), Means, and SDs of Reported Onset Times for R-States Yoga

PMR

Stress Sleepiness Disengagement Physical Relaxation Mental Quiet Rested / Refreshed At Ease /Peace Childlike Innocence Energized Joy Thankfulness and Love Prayerful Mystery Awe and Wonder Timeless

Freq

Mean (SD)

Freq

5 10 3 20 5 15 8 0 18 3 2 0 0 0 0

1.00(1) 3.50 (4.67) 12.67 (2.30) 4.95 (4.03) 11.40 (4.21) 14.13 (4.83) 6.00 (4.63)

0 17 12 5 16 19 18 5 6 18 11 4 5 5 3

15.75 (2.97) 8.33 (2.89) 17.00 (0)

Mean (SD) — 14.88 (3.27) 10.42 (4.17) 11.20 (1.92) 9.19 (4.13) 12.68 (3.18) 11.11 (3.07) 9.00 (3.74) 13.00 (1.67) 11.27(2.92) 9.81 (3.70) 13.25 (1.89) 11.80 (.44) 8.00 (2.34) 10.33 (2.89)

Breathing Freq

Mean (SD)

3 7 2 0 3 8 12 1 9 4 4 1 0 0 0

1.00 (1) 3.42 (5.59) 6.00 (.00) 7.67 (6.51) 10.13 (3.27) 4.33 (4.79) 15.00 (0) 8.66 (5.03) 9.75 (7.97) 16.25 (2.21) 13.00 (0)

Tables

285 TABLE B.12 T-tests Comparing Onset Times for Frequently Reported R-States

Technique t Yoga Mental Quiet vs. Sleepiness -3.06 3.04 Sleepiness vs. Thankfulness and Love 4.28 Sleepiness vs. Childlike Innocence PMR Physical Relaxation vs. Energized -8.26 Physical Relaxation vs. Rested /Refreshed -7.93 2.6 At Ease/Peace vs. Physical Relaxation -3.43 Stress vs. Physical Relaxation 4.20 Mental Quiet vs. Physical Relaxation -4.77 At Ease/Peace vs. Energized -6.79 Sleepiness vs. Rested /Refreshed Stress vs. Rested /Refreshed -4.90 Breathing Thankfulness and Love vs. Rested /Refreshed 17.00 -11.37 At Ease/Peace vs. Rested and Refreshed -2.82 At Ease /Peace vs Energized -23.00 Stress vs. At Ease/Peace

df

P

8 4 3

.02 .04 .03

2 13 6 3 3 2 7 2

.01 .000 .04 .04 .03 .041 .000 .04

1 2 7 1

.04 .008 .03 .03

286

Appendix B

TABLE B.13 Test-Rest Reliabilities (Test-Retest Pearson Product-Moment Correlations) for the Smith Relaxation Inventory Series Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory Relaxation-Induced Anxiety, .77; Unwanted Disengagement, .65; Fantasy Concerns, .56; Trainer Concerns, .64; Practical Concerns, .70; Religious/Hypnotic Control Concerns, .47 N = 66 (19 males, 47 females, age = 22.98, SD = 7.89) Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory Medical Benefits, 70; Substance Abuse, .83; Psychological Distress, .72; Physical Distress;.69; Sleep, 78; Interpersonal Stress, .51; General Health, .82; Creativity, .59; Spirituality, 84; Physical Performance, .81. N (same as SRAI) Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory Sleep, .50; Disengagement, .65; Physical Relaxation, .64; Mental Quiet, .50; At Ease/Peace, .64; Rested and Refreshed, .44; Strength and Awareness, .70; Joy, .39; Thankfulness and Love, .68; Prayerfulness, .78; Innocence, .65; Awe and Wonder, .60; Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite, .47; Mystery, 60; Somatic Stress, 27; Worry, .50; Negative Emotion, .55 N = 51 (20 males, 31 females, age = 23.86, SD = 8.80) Smith Relaxation States Inventory Sleep, .53; Disengagement, .18; Physical Relaxation, .45; Mental Quiet, .23; At Ease/Peace, .35; Rested and Refreshed, .07; Strength and Awareness, .29; Joy; .51; Thankfulness and Love, .50; Prayerfulness, .46; Innocence, .51; Awe and Wonder, .56; Timeless/Bound less/ Infinite, 31; Mystery, .71; Somatic Stress, .42; Worry, 51; Negative Emotion, .38; N = 61 (24 males, 37 females, age = 20.09, SD = 3.23) Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory Deeper Perspective, .74; God, .88; Inner Wisdom, .54; Love, .29; Honesty, .52; Acceptance, .49; Taking it Easy, 49; Optimism, .64 N = same as SRSI Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (Dispositions) Sleep, .64; Disengagement, .48; Physical Relaxation, .63; Mental Quiet, .68; At Ease/Peace, .54; Rested and Refreshed, .39; Strength and Awareness, .42; Joy, .53; Thankfulness and Love, .58; Prayerfulness, .58; Innocence, .62; Awe and Wonder, .42; Timeless/Boundless/ Infinite, .44; Mystery, .55; Somatic Stress, .61; Worry, .50; Negative Emotion, .65 N = 51 (29 males, 21 females, 1 unindicated; age = 20.60, SD = 4.28)

Tables

287

TABLE B.13 (Continued) Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory (Motivations) Positive Motivations Sleep, .50; Disengagement, .66; Physical Relaxation, .68; Mental Quiet, .22; At Ease/Peace, .73; Rested and Refreshed, .64; Strength and Awareness, .60; Joy, .37; Thankfulness and Love, .63; Prayerfulness, .36; Childlike Innocence, .77; Awe and Wonder, .41; Timeless/Boundless/Infinite, .45; Mystery.45 Negative Motivations Sleepiness, .63; Disengagement, .46; Somatic Stress, .74; Worry,.72; Negative Emotion, .80 N = 43 (14 males, 29 females, age = 25.71, SD = 10.80)


Index

ABC Relaxation Theory; see also Relaxation assessment, advances in, 59-81 basic, 4-5 development of, 5-7 evolution of, 5,17-20 overview, 24-25 positive psychology, 45 research, 33-58 training, 55-57 depression Korean elderly, Seok Chan Bang's Study of, 205-208 Puerto Rican elderly, 209-211 update of original ABC Relaxation Theory, 17 ABC Relaxation Training, see ABC Relaxation Theory, training Abstracted personality, 43,123 Acceptance, 14, 22-23, 29, 37, 44, 46-47, 82, 161 Accommodating personality, 133 Activities, discursive, 5 Affective energy, 127 African Americans, 37, 116-121, 246 After death, beliefs regarding, 31 Agreeableness, 126-127,130 facets, 130 Alcohol for relaxation, 6 Aliens, space, beliefs regarding, 31 Altruism, 130 Amutio, Alberto, 10

Analytic thinking, decommissioning of, 11 Anger, 44,128-129 Anti-stress "relaxation response," 3 Anxiety, 14, 30, 37-42, 44-45,123, 128-129,139 phobic, 39, 42,139 Apprehension, 123 Art, appreciation of, 246 Articulation, of underlying centering source processes, 24 At Ease, Peace, R-State, 7-9,14, 17-18,21-22,26,37-39,44-45, 48-49, 51-53, 55, 57, 82 At One, see Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One, R-State Attentiveness, 3,126 Attitudes interfering with practice of relaxation, see R-Attitudes Audio relaxation tapes, 247 Authoritarian approach, to research of optimism, 4-5 Autogenic training, 55 Aware, R-States, 7, 17, 20-21, 23, 26, 38-39, 45-55,112,116, 123,127,133,139,144,146, 161,168 strengthened, distinguished, 20 Awe, Wonder, R-State, 7, 9,11-12, 14,17,19, 26 Bang, Seok Chan, Study of ABC Relaxation Theory Training, depression in Korean Elderly, 205-208

289

290

Bathing, 52, 247, 249 Beck Depression Inventory, 162 Beliefs, supportive of relaxation, see R-Beliefs Benefits of Relaxation, see R-Concerns Bias, of deductive empiricism, 4 Bible, reading, 248 Boundless, see Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One, R-State Breathing exercises, 24, 48-49, 54-57, 202-204, 247 vs. yoga stretching, vs. progressive muscle relaxation, Smith Intercentering Inventory, 212-214 Buddhism, 246 Candid Camera Therapy, 87 Carefree, feeling, 17 Casual relaxation, 61-62 Catholicism, 246 Caucasians, 37,116-121 Centered joy, see Joy, R-State Centered pleasure, see Pleasure Centered selflessness, see Selflessness Centered spirituality, see Spirituality Centered stress relief, see Stress relief Centered transcendence, see Transcendence Centering, 91-94; see also Relaxation defined, 5 levels of, 7-13 R-States, comparison of, 18-19 map of relaxation/centering states, 9 quiz, 105-106 answer key, 107 quiz answer key, 107-108

Index guiding, relaxation/centering and, 24 processes, underlying, articulation of, 24 state of mind, integrating, 20-21 triangle, 102 vs. Discursive Striving, 92-93 Childlike Innocence, R-State, 7, 9-11,14,17-18, 26 Christian religions, 246 Christianity, literal, 31 Church, attending, 247 Clinical relaxation, effects of different approaches, 50-58 Competence, 131 NEO dimensions of, 46 Complaining, 133 Concerns about relaxationinduced anxiety, 14, 30, 38-42, 45,123,128-129,139, 276 Concerns about religious./hypnotic control, 14, 30 Concerns about trainer qualifications, 14 Concerns about unwanted disengagement, 14, 30 Conscientiousness, 126-127,131 Contemporary inspirational literature, reading, 248 Contentment, 4 COPE, see Coping Operations Preference Enquiry Coping, 22, 49-50,141-154 actions, 23 dispositional stress, R-Dispositions, relationship between, 49 health and, 47-50 strategies, 22 styles, 149-154

Index Coping Operations Preference Enquiry, 150 Courage, 4 Cousins, Norman, 86 Creativity, 28 enhancing, 104 Cycle of renewal, 6, 58 Daydreaming, 52, 247 Death, see After Death, beliefs regarding Deductive empirical approach bias of, 4 inductive empirical approach, contrasted, 6 Deep, surface, processes, 23-24 Deep breathing, 20 Deeper Perspective, 14, 22-24, 29, 37, 44-47, 54 Depression, 39, 42, 45,123, 128-129,139 in Korean Elderly, ABC Relaxation Theory Training, Seok Chan Bang's Study of, 205-211 Detachment, see Positive Detachment Discursive activity goal-directed, sustained passive simple focus, contrasted, 5-6, 21 vs. centering, 92-93 Discursive passivity, 5 Disease-related processes, 3 Disengaged recreational activities, 22 Disengagement, R-State, 7-10,14, 17-18, 20-22, 26, 30, 37, 41-44, 47, 50-53, 56-57, 276 as life-coping strategy, contrasted, 42 normal personality, association between, 43

291

as normal relaxation process, as life-coping strategy, contrasted, 42 personality and, 43-44 types of, 43 Dispositional stress, coping, R-Dispositions, relationship between, 49 Dispositions, 167 Dissenting, 133 Distancing and disengagement, see Disengagement, R-State Effort, recovery from, with sustained passive simple focus, 6 Ego Strength, low, 39 Emotion, Negative, 27 Emotion focused coping strategies, 22 Emotional Stability, 123 Empirical approach, deductive, inductive, contrasted, 6 Empiricism, inductive, 5 Energized, R-State, 7, 9,14,17-18, 20, 22, 26, 37, 44, 48 Engaged recreational activities, 22 Ethnic differences in relaxation states, 115-116 Extra version, 126-128 correlates of, 127 facets of, 129-130 Factor analyses, 155-184 Factor structure claimed relaxation benefits, correlates of, 28,172-175 idiosyncratic reality claims, 31-32 negative relaxation attitudes, correlates of, 167-171 recalled relaxation states for one's preferred relaxation activity, 157-164

292

Factor structure (continued) relaxation beliefs, 165-166 relaxation concerns, 28, 172-175 Faith, 3-4 Fantasy, 47 concerns regarding, 14, 30 Fantasy life, internal, inner-focused individuals with, 44 Fear, 126 Fiction, reading, 248 Flow, 4 Focus, simple, passive, see Sustained passive simple focus Forgiveness, 4 Gender differences, 36-38,111-121 General Health, 28 Goal-directed discursive activity, sustained passive simple focus, contrasted, 5-6, 21 God, 14, 22, 24, 29, 37, 44-45, 47-48, 53,117-121; see also Centering, source Grand Tour of Relaxation, 46, 82-110 Grand Tour workshop, 41 Grief, 23-24 Guiding "centering source," relaxation/centering and, 24 Guilt, 126 Happiness, 3, 45-46 Health status inventory, 48 relaxation and, 145-148 stress and, 48-50 subjective positive affect, 4 Hesitating, 133 Hindu, 246

Index Hispanics, 37,116 Honesty, 14, 22-23, 29, 46-47 Hope, 3 Hostility, 39, 42, 45,123,126, 128-129,139 Hot tub, for relaxation, 247 Humor, 4, 82-110 Hypnosis, 4, 247 Hypnotic control, concerns about, 14 Idiosyncratic reality claims, 14-16 factors, 31-32 R-Beliefs, distinguished, 15 Illness; see also Health predictors of, 47-49 Imagery, 3, 4, 20, 24, 55, 246 Immune system, enhancement of, 3-4 Impulsiveness, 128-129 Indifference and disengagement, 43 Individual differences, 36-44, 109-140 Inductive empirical approach, deductive, contrasted, 6 Inductive empiricism, 5 Infinite, see Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At-One, R-State Inner-focused individuals, with internal fantasy life, 44 Inner Wisdom, 14, 22, 24, 29, 44-47, 49, 54-55 Insight, 4 Inspirational literature, contemporary, reading, 248 Intercentering, 21-23, 56-58 path, stress relief, 22 Interest, 4 Internal fantasy life, inner-focused individuals with, 44 Interpersonal Sensitivity, 39, 42, 139

Index Interpersonal stress, 28,104 Intro versing personality, 43,133 Inventory of Health Status, 146 IRC, see Idiosyncratic reality claims Joviality, 4, 126 Joy, R-State, 4, 7-9,14,17-18, 26, 37, 39,44-45, 48-49, 51, 53, 82 Judaism, 246 Koran, reading of, 248 Korean Americans, 55-56 Korean elderly, depression in, ABC Relaxation Theory Training, Seok Chan Bang's Study of, 205-208 Latino, 246 Laughing meditation, 82-110, 84 Length of practice session, 53 Levels of centering, 9 R-States, comparison of, 18-19 Life Orientation Test, 145 Limp, 161; see also Physical Relaxation, R-State Literal Christianity, 31 LOT, see Life Orientation Test Love, 14, 29; see also Thankful, Loving, R-State Low Ego Strength, 39 Magic, beliefs regarding, 31 Map of relaxation/centering states, 9,20 Massage, 247 Medical concerns, 28 Meditation, 3-4, 20, 23-24, 33, 36, 46-47, 52, 54, 56,162,165, 247; see also Imagery ABC Relaxation Theory, 197-201 laughing, 82-110

293

practice variables, as predictors of stress, relaxation dispositions, 193-196 transcendental, 53 Men; see also Gender goals of relaxation for, 114 women contrasting experience, of relaxation, 36-37, 111-114 goals of relaxation for, contrasting, 37 relaxation training for, contrasted, 37 Mental Quiet, R-State, 7, 9-10,18, 26, 37, 39, 49-50, 55 Mental Relaxation R-State, see At Ease, Peace and Rested, Refreshed, R-States Meta R-State, 23 Million Index of Personality Styles, 132-137 Mindfulness, see Meditation MIPS, see Million Index of Personality Styles Miraculous powers of meditation, prayer, belief in, 32 Muscle relaxation, progressive, 4, 20, 24, 36, 38-39, 52, 55-56, 58, 248 vs. yoga stretching, vs. breathing relaxation, Smith Intercentering Inventory, 212-214 Music, 248 Muslim, 246 Mystery, R-State, 7, 9,11-12,17, 19,27 N-states, see Negative relaxation states Napping, 52 Native American, 246

294

Nature appreciation, 248 Negative emotion, 27, 39, 42, 48, 50,123,127,133,139,146, 152-154,168 Negative relaxation attitudes, see R-Attitudes Negative relaxation states, 38-39 Neuroticism, 39, 45,126-128 correlates of, 126 dimensions of competence, 47 facets of, 128-129 R-Dispositions, Motivations, Beliefs, 126-131 scale, 39 Nonfiction, reading, 249 Oblique factor analysis, recalled relaxation states, 157-160 Obsessive-compulsive disorder, 39, 42,139 Opening-up stage, cycle of renewal, 7-9,17 Openness, 126-127,130 facets of, 130 Optimism, 3-4,14, 22-23, 29, 45-50, 54, 82,145 authoritarian approach to research of, 4-5 low levels of, 48 Ordinary activities, discursiveness of, 5 Paranoid Ideation, 39, 42,139 Passive imagery, see Imagery Passive simple focus, see Sustained Passive Simple Focus Passivity, discursive, 5 Peace, R-State, 7-9,14,17-18, 21-22, 26, 37, 39, 45, 48-49, 51-53, 55, 57, 82 Pets, petting, 247

Index Phases of renewal, 7 Phobic anxiety, 39, 42,139 Physical distress, 28,104 Physical performance, 28 improving, 104 Physical Relaxation, R-State, 7, 9, 14,17-18,20,22,26,37,47, 50-52, 55-57 Planning and coping, 24 Pleasure, 4, 8-9,17-18 PMR, see Progressive muscle relaxation Poetry, reading, 248 Positive affect, 126 Positive Detachment (Childlike Innocence), R-State, 7, 9-10, 17,26 Positive mood, 4 Positive psychology, 3-4 Practical concerns, 14, 30 Practice variables, as predictors of stress, relaxation dispositions, yoga, meditation, 193-196 Prayer, 3, 48, 52, 54,197-201, 248 alone, 248 with others, 248 Prayerfulness, R-State, 7, 9,11-12, 17, 19, 26, 37, 44, 47-48, 51-53, 55 Preferred relaxation activities, 52-53,119,187-192 Prepared recall, 56 Problem focused coping strategies, 22 Productivity, 4 Progressive muscle relaxation, 4, 20, 24, 36, 38-39, 52, 55-57, 248 vs. yoga stretching, vs. breathing relaxation, Smith Intercentering Inventory, 212-214

Index Protestantism, 246 Psychological distress, 28,104 Psychological relaxation assessment, options, 60 Psychopathology, individuals displaying forms of, 39,126 Psychoticism, 139 Puerto Rican Elderly, depression, ABC Relaxation Theory Training, 209-211 Qualifications, of trainer, concerns about, 14 Quick Stress Test Dispositional Form, 240, 260 State Form, 239, 261 Quiet, Mental, R-State, 7, 9-10,18, 26, 37, 49-50, 55-56 R-Attitudes, 14-16, 40, 63,119, 180-182 Concerns about Religious / Hypnotic Control, 14, 30 Concerns about Relaxation-Induced Anxiety, 14, 30, 38-42, 45, 123,128-129,139, 276 Concerns about Trainer Qualifications, 14 Concerns about Unwanted Disengagement, 14, 30 factors, 30, 167-171 Fantasy Concerns, 14, 20 Practical Concerns, 14, 30 Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory, 15 R-Beliefs Acceptance, 14, 22-23, 29, 37, 44-47, 82,161 Deeper Perspective, 14, 22-24, 29, 37, 44-47, 54 factor structure, 165-166

295

factors, 29 gender differences in, 111-114, 117-121 God, 14, 22, 24, 29, 37, 44-45, 47-48, 54,117-121 health status, 145-148 Honesty, 14, 22-23, 29, 47 Inner Wisdom, 14, 22, 24, 29, 44-47, 49, 54 Love, 16, 29 neuroticism and, 126-131 Optimism, 3, 4,14, 22-23, 29, 45-50, 54, 82,145 Taking It Easy, 14, 22-23, 29, 47, 53,82 R-Concerns, 15,120,167, 180-182 factors, 28,172-175 R-Dispositions, 14-16, 26-27, 45, 47, 52, 62,112,127,145 dispositional stress, coping, relationship between, 49 factors, 26-27 gender differences in, 111-114, 117-121 health status, 145-148 neuroticism and, 126-131 work/school and time off/relaxation, 15, 222 R-Motivations, 14-16, 27, 50, 111-114,127,145,167 factors, 26-27 gender differences in, 111-114, 117-121 health status, 145-148 neuroticism and, 126-131 work/school and time off/relaxation, 15, 222 R-States Aware, 7,17, 20-21, 23, 26, 39, 45, 47-54, 56,112,116,123, 127,133,139,144,146,161, 168

296

R-States (continued) Awe and Wonder, 5, 7, 9,11-12, 14,17,19, 26 Childlike Innocence, 7, 9-11, 17-18, 26 comparison of, 18 Disengagement, 7-10,14,17-18, 20, 22, 26, 30, 37, 41-44, 47, 50-53, 55-56, 276 At Ease, Peace, R-State 7-9,14, 17-18, 21-22, 26, 37, 39, 45, 48, 49, 51-53, 55-57 emerging, 20 Energized, R-State, 7, 9,14, 17-18, 20, 22, 26, 37, 44, 48 evocation of, 6 factors, 26-27 gender differences in, 111-114, 117-121 joyful, 7, 9,14,18, 82 levels of centering, comparison of, 18-19 Love, see Thankfulness and Love, R-State, 4, 7,10,14, 16,18, 22-23, 26, 29, 37, 39, 44-48, 51-53, 56,123,127, 133,139,146,168 Mental Quiet, 7, 9-10, 18, 26, 37, 49-50, 55 Mystery, 7, 9,11-12, 17,19, 27 during one's preferred relaxation activity, 138-140 Physical Relaxation, 7, 9,14,17, 18, 20, 22, 26, 37, 47, 50-52, 56-58 Positive Detachment, 7, 9-10, 17,26 Prayerfulness, 7, 9,11-12,17,19, 26, 37, 44, 47-48, 51-53, 55 Recalled relaxation states, preferred relaxation activity, 52-53,122-125,143-144, 187-192

Index Rested, Refreshed, 7-9,17-18, 22, 26, 49 simultaneous appearance of, 20 Sleepiness, 7, 9, 22, 26, 28, 37, 41, 47, 52, 56-57,104 Thankfulness and Loving, 7,10, 16,18, 22, 26, 37, 39, 44-48, 51-53, 56 Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One, 7, 9,12,19, 27, 37, 48, 55 triangle of, 7-13 R-Variables, 15-16, 53-55 summary of, 14-16 Race, 36-38,111-121 Racial differences, in relaxation states, 111-121 Radio, listening to, 248 Reading of scriptures, Bible, Koran, 248 Realms of life, 22 Recalled relaxation states, preferred relaxation activity, 52-53, 122-125, 132-137,143-144,187-192 Recovery stage, cycle of renewal, 7-9,17 Recreational activities classes of, 22 disengaged, 22 engaged, 22 spiritual, 22 Refreshed, see Rested and Refreshed, R-State, Relaxation deepening cycle, 39 defined, 5 positive psychology and, 3-4 state of mind, integrating, 20-21 training quiz, 33-36 why individuals avoid, quit, 167 Relaxation attitudes, see R-Attitudes

Index Relaxation beliefs, see R-Beliefs Relaxation concerns, see R-Concerns Relaxation dispositions, see R-Dispositions Relaxation-induced anxiety, 14, 30, 38-41, 39-42, 45,123, 128-129,139, 276 Relaxation motivations, see R-Motivations Relaxation report, for client, 65-72 Relaxation-resistant attitudes, see R-Attitudes Relaxation response, 3-4 Relaxation states, see R-States Relaxation variables, see R-Variables Release, 7-9,17 Religious beliefs, client's, tailoring relaxation training to, 38 Religious/hypnotic control, concerns about, 14 Renewal with sustained passive simple focus, 6 phases of, 7 Rested, Refreshed state, 7-9,17-18, 22, 26, 49 Sadness, 126 Satisfaction, 4 SCL-90-R, 39, 42, 139 Relaxation States During One's Preferred Relaxation Activity, 138-140 Scriptures, reading, 248 Self-actualization, 4 Self-assurance, 4,126 Self-consciousness, 128-129 Self-discipline, 47,131 Self-hypnosis, 3 Selflessness, 8-10,17-18 Sensuous nonsexual pleasure, 4 Sensuous sexual pleasure, 4

297

Seok Chan Bang, Study of ABC Relaxation Theory Training, depression in Korean Elderly, 205-208 Sequences, R-States, 20 Sharing, 4 Showers, for relaxation, 52, 249 SII, see Smith Intercentering Inventory Silence, 161 Simple focus, passive, see Sustained passive simple focus SIRCI, see Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory Sixteen personality factor questionnaire, 122-125 Sleep, 28,104 desire to improve, 41 Sleepiness, R-State, 7, 9, 22, 26, 28, 37, 41, 47, 52, 55-57,104 Smith Idiosyncratic Reality Claims Inventory, 15, 223, 244 Smith Intercentering Inventory, 57, 212-214, 223, 242, 262 Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory, 15, 60, 111-114,119,123,133, 139, 144,162,172,176,181, 188, 191, 215, 222, 224-226, 247-251 stress scales, 123 Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory, 15, 60,181,183, 215, 223, 238, 259 Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory, 15, 60,111-114, 119,127,150,165,168,172, 181,198, 236, 257 Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory, 15, 60,111-114, 119,168,181,183, 215, 223, 237, 258

298

Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory, 222, 227, 252 Smith Relaxation Dispositions /Motivations Inventory, 111-114,127,146, 150,168,177,194,198, 215 Smith Relaxation Inventory, series, 222-249 Pearson product-moment correlations, test-retest reliabilities, 287 scoring keys, norm tables, 246 test-retest reliability of, 215-216 Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory, 15, 222, 234 Smith Relaxation States Inventory, 15,157,181,183, 203, 206, 209, 215, 222, 235, 256 Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory, 15, 60, 222, 229, 254 Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory, 15, 60, 223, 232, 254 Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory, 15, 60, 222, 228, 254 Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory, 15, 60, 223, 230, 254 Solo practice of relaxation, 54 Somatic stress, 27, 48, 50,123, 127,133,139,146,151-152, 168 Somatization, 39, 42,139 Source, centering, guiding, relaxation/centering and, 24 Space aliens, beliefs regarding, 31 Spielberger Anxiety Scale, 162 Spiritual coping, 22

Index Spiritual feelings, emerging in most secular of techniques, 38 Spiritual R-States, 11 Spiritual readings, 48 Spiritual recreational activities, 22 Spiritual transcendence,, 19, 22 Spirituality, 9-12,17, 28 deepening of, 104 SRAAI, see Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory SRAI, see Smith Relaxation Attitudes Inventory SRBI, see Smith Relaxation Beliefs Inventory SRCI, see Smith Relaxation Concerns Inventory SRDI, see Smith Relaxation Dispositions Inventory SRDMI, see Smith Relaxation Dispositions/Motivations Inventory SRPI, see Smith Relaxation Posttest Inventory SRRAI, see Smith Recalled Relaxation Activities Inventory SRSI, see Smith Relaxation States Inventory State of mind, relaxation, integrating, 20-21 Steam baths, for relaxation, 249 STO/RDI, see Smith Time Off/Relaxation Dispositions Inventory; Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory STO/RMI, see Smith Time Off/Relaxation Motivations Inventory Story of Laughing Monks, 84

Index Strength, see Energized, R-State, 17, 20-21, 39, 45, 47-54,112, 116,123,127,133,139,144, 146,168 Strengthened aware, distinguished, 20 Stress, 141-154 factor structure, 161-164 health and, 48-50 predictors of, 48-49 relaxation and, 143-144 states, 27,123 Stress-related hormones, 3 Stress relief, 8-9, 17-18 intercentering path, 22 Stretching, see Yoga Striving, 24 Discursive, versus centering, 92-93 Subjective positive affect, health and, 4 Substance abuse, 28,104 Summary score sheets, for hypothetical client, 74-81 Sunbathing, for relaxation, 249 Surface, deep processes, 23-24 Sustained passive simple focus, see Passive simple focus attentional act of sustaining, 6 defined, 5 goal-directed discursive activity, contrasted, 5-6, 21 sequence of R-States, 22 SW/SDI, see Smith Work/School Dispositions Inventory SW/SMI, see Smith Work/School Motivations Inventory Synagogue, attending, 246 Tai chi, 3 Taking It Easy, 14, 22-23, 29, 47, 53,82

299

Techniques, integration of, 20 Television watching, 249 Temple, attending, 247 Tender-mindedness, 130 Tension, recovery from, with sustained passive simple focus, 6 Test-retest reliabilities, Pearson Product-Moment correlations, for Smith Relaxation Inventory series, 286 Thankful, Loving, R-State, 7, 9-10, 14,16,18, 22, 26, 37, 39, 44-53, 55-56, 82 Thinking, analytic, decommissioning of, 11 Timeless, Boundless, Infinite, At One, R-State, 7, 9,12,19, 27, 37, 48, 55 TM, see Transcendental meditation Trainer concerns, 30 Trainer qualifications, concerns about, 14 Transcendence, 9,12-13,19, 22 centered spirituality, distinguished, 12 Transcendental meditation, 52-53 Triangle, centering, 102 Underlying centering source processes, articulation of, 24 Uninformed recall, 56 Unwanted disengagement, concerns about, 14, 30 Vigilance, 39,123 Vigilant personality, 43 Visualization, 36, 247; see also Imagery Vulnerability, 45,128-129 Walking, 249

Index

300

Wisdom, see Inner Wisdom Withdrawal stage, cycle of renewal, 7-9,12 Women; see also Gender men contrasting experience, of relaxation, 36-37,111-114 goals of relaxation for, contrasting, 37 relaxation training for, contrasted, 37 Wonder, R-State, 7, 9,11-12,14,17, 19, 26; see also Awe and Wonder Worry, 27,39,42,48, 50,56,123,127, 133,139,146,152-153,168

Yielding, 133 Yoga stretching, 3-4, 20, 23-24, 36, 47, 49, 54-56, 58, 162,165,197-201., 249 practice variables, as predictors of stress, relaxation dispositions, meditation, 193-196 vs. progressive muscle relaxation, vs. breathing relaxation, 212-214 Zazen seated meditation, 55 Zen mindfulness, 247

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