Английский для гуманитариев. Учебник по английскому языку для студентов неязыковых специальностей

A.S. CHISLOVA

ENGLISH FOR HUMANITIES

Rostov-on Don

РОСТОВСКИЙ ОРДЕНА ТРУДОВОГО КРАСНОГО ЗНАМЕНИ

Государственный Университет

А.С. ЧИСЛОВА АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ДЛЯ ГУМАНИТАРИЕВ УЧЕБНИК по английскому языку для студентов неязыковых специальностей

Ответственный редактор кандидат филологических наук Г.С. Пшегусова Редактор магистр английского языка Питер Браун

Учебник озвучен Питером Брауном Ростов-на-Дону 1999

Печатается по решению редакционной комиссии кафедр иностранных языков редакционноиздательского совета Ростовского государственного университета

Рецензенты: кафедра английской филологии РГПУ и зав. кафедрой кандидат филологических наук Е.Н. Степанова; кафедра иностранных языков гуманитарных факультетов РГПУ и зав. кафедрой кандидат филологических наук Н.О. Овчинникова; кандидат филологических наук Н.Г. Милых.

Учебник состоит из 4-х разделов: Базового курса (восемь уроков), Разговорной практики (диалоги и разговорные клише), Грамматики (песни, стихи и оригинальные грамматические упражнения), Материалов для внеаудиторной деятельности (англо-американские праздники). Каждый урок состоит из предтекстовых заданий, базового и нескольких дополнительных текстов диалогов, упражнений, направленных на развитие навыков как разных видов чтения, так и общения на заданную тему. В конце каждого урока даются творческие задания и тесты. Учебник рассчитан на студентов гуманитарных факультетов, а также широкого круга лиц, изучающих английский язык.

Предисловие В настоящее время благодаря Новым Информационным Технологиям и Телекоммуникациям для выпускников школ и вузов появляются реальные возможности получить международный сертификат об окончании тех или иных курсов, не выезжая за границу. Целью данного учебника является привить студентам гуманитариям навыки и умения общаться на английском языке с преподавателями и со сверстниками из-за рубежа в системе дистанционного обучения. Общаться, как на тему по специальности, так и на бытовые темы; углубить знания в конкретной области, используя раритетные издания, а иногда и самую последнюю информацию с симпозиумов и конференций. Учебник рассчитан на тех, кто продолжает изучать английский язык, овладев лексическими и грамматическими основами школьной программы. Главной задачей данного учебника является развитие коммуникативных способностей, т.е. обучение языку как реальному средству общения между специалистами разных стран. Общения как в письменной форме, через Интернет и электронную почту, так и в форме устных контактов (общение с приглашенными лекторами из-за рубежа, участие в телеконференциях). Данный учебник построен по принципу взаимосвязанного обучения видам речевой деятельности (чтению, говорению, аудированию, письму) на профессиональной основе, т.к. гуманитарные дисциплины призваны формировать у студентов свои собственные взгляды, и прививать умения вести дискуссию, отстаивать свою точку зрения. Настоящий учебник предназначен для студентов гуманитариев первого и второго годов обучения. Учебник состоит из четырех разделов: 1. Базовый курс; 2. Разговорная практика; 3. Грамматика; 4. Материалы для внеаудиторной деятельности. Первый раздел включает 8 уроков (Units): 1. Введение в специальность. 2. Происхождение общества. 3. Древние цивилизации. 4. Памятники материальной культуры. 5. Из истории образования. 6. Мифы, легенды, искусство древних. 7. Алфавит, календари, библиотеки. 8. Истоки демократии. Каждый урок состоит из нескольких текстов, предназначенных для различных видов чтения, диалога-беседы по теме урока (для развития коммуникативных навыков), текстов для перевода с английского на русский, и, с русского на английский, текста-теста (для проверки усвоенного лексического и грамматического материала), который может быть использован как со зрительной опорой, так и в качестве аудирования. В каждом уроке предлагается ролевая игра, которая способствует развитию творческих способностей студентов. В ряде случаев предлагаются дополнительные тексты, под рубрикой ‘It’s interesting to know.’ В виду того, что тексты представляют собой оригинальную английскую и американскую литературу, они снабжены подробнейшими сносками с фонетической транскрипцией, комментариями, что облегчает работу слабых студентов и корректирует работу сильных студентов. Обилие текстов объясняется тем, что они различны по уровню сложности и могут быть использованы слабыми студентами частично, в то время как сильные студенты могут охватить материал полностью.

В конце каждого урока даются творческие задания для самостоятельной работы над лексикой, устной речью, письмом. Второй раздел, состоящий из “Warming-up” и “ Conversational formulas”, знакомит обучаемых с наиболее употребительными разговорными формулами и серией диалогов, направленных на развитие навыков устной речи. Это поможет студентам правильно выбирать языковые средства в зависимости от ситуации и личности собеседника. Третий раздел, “Songs” и “Grammar exercises” , состоит из демонстраций различных грамматических правил и структур в виде песен и стихов и непосредственно грамматических упражнений, закрепляющих эти структуры. Четвертый раздел, “Festivities”, дает возможность расширить рамки аудитории и провести знакомство с англо-американскими праздниками либо на занятии, либо вынести этот праздник за рамки аудиторных часов. В этом разделе даются как сведения о праздниках, так и дополнительный материал в виде игр, загадок, историй, песен и шуток, который может быть использован практически. Задания второго, третьего и четвертого разделов сгруппированы и вынесены отдельно, чтобы, с одной стороны, представлять единое целое по данной теме, а с другой стороны, дать возможность преподавателю использовать эти разделы по своему усмотрению. Настоящий учебник предназначен для гуманитариев и направлен на предоставление студентам информации по истории образования, по литературе и литературным источникам (мифы, легенды, крылатые выражения), по философии, истории, юриспруденции (основы демократии и права человека) по биографиям древних историков, великих полководцев, искусству первобытных людей и др. В учебнике также находят отражение материалы, связанные с историей России вообще и историей Юга России в частности (например, славяне, скифы). Тексты представлены в разных оригинальных жанрах: энциклопедические статьи, научные статьи, монографии, музейные буклеты, мифы и так далее. Выбор тематики способствует повышению обшекультурного уровня студентов-гуманитариев. Учебный материал расположен по принципу нарастания трудности и направлен на развитие и совершенствование у студентов-гуманитариев еще и навыков самостоятельного чтения, знакомства с элементами реферирования и аннотирования, активизации и совершенствования речевых умений и навыков. Автор приносит искреннюю благодарность коллегам по кафедре А.С.Акоповой за оказанную помощь при подборе материала, Н.Г.Милых за рецензирование, ценные советы и замечание. Слова особой признательности автор выражает Питеру Брауну, магистру английского языка, за редактирование и озвучивание текстов учебника. Методические рекомендации Материал одного урока (Unit) рассчитан на 10-12 часов и предполагает как аудиторную, так и самостоятельную работу студента.. Учебник предусматривает активную работу студентов, как индивидуальную, парную, так и групповую. Необходимо обратить внимание студентов на следующие задания: а) по накоплению вокабуляра, б) по практике речи, – где обозначены темы небольших выступлений, а также миниконференций, в) по выполнению письменных заданий на пройденную тематику. Об этих заданиях студентов следует предупредить в начале работы над уроком. Следует отметить, что все эти задания выполняются произвольно, что позволяет студентам проявлять индивидуальность, дополнять и расширять свои знания, как в плане устной, так и письменной речи. Слабые студенты могут воспользоваться материалами из учебника. Примерное прохождения материала урока.

1. Урок начинается с разделов “Warming-up”, “Conversational formulas”, т.е. активизации лексико-фонетических навыков, в дальнейшем включает заучивание диалогов и разговорных клише наизусть. 2. Прослушивание текста целиком или его отрывка и повторение за диктором. 3. Проверка понимания текстов: Вопросы, предваряющие текст, позволяют проверить начитанность учащихся. Эти упражнения рекомендуется проходить на предыдущем занятии, чтобы после чтения основного текста студенты могли сравнить свои ответы с прочитанным и определить, что нового они почерпнули из предложенного материала. Далее: а) для изучающего чтения – выборочный перевод, ответы на вопросы, лексические упражнения, нахождение тех или иных грамматических структур, беседа по прочитанному; б) для ознакомительного или поискового чтения (где время ограничено) – определить характер текста, количество фактов, изложенных в тексте, найти основное доказательство главной идеи; вычленить главную идею абзаца, текста, свернуть информацию до трёх-пяти предложений; в) для восприятия на слух – озаглавить прослушанный текст; определить главную мысль текста, сравнить прослушанную информацию с прочитанным материалом, кратко ответить на вопросы. 3. Грамматические иллюстрации и упражнения представлены в традиционной последовательности, и именно преподавателю решать в каком месте урока и какие упражнения выполнять. Количество упражнений и их разнообразие позволяет преподавателю неоднократно возвращаться к тому или иному разделу, что обеспечивает более глубокое усвоение наиболее употребительных грамматических структур. 4. Диалоги на профессиональные темы, заученные наизусть, помогают обучаемым подготовлено вступать в дискуссию. 5. Осуществление двухстороннего перевода помогает студентам запомнить необходимую лексику, закрепить грамматические структуры, пройденные ранее. 6. Тексты-тесты предусматривают не только проверку пройденного материала в виде теста, но и последующее обсуждение этих текстов. 7. Мини-конференции и письменные задания дают возможность студентам самостоятельно и индивидуально применить накопленные знания и разговорные клише как в устной, так и письменной форме. 8. Завершает прохождение урока ролевая игра, которая предусматривает использование накопленных знаний на практике, в конкретной ситуации. Активная и заинтересованная работа студентов над этим учебником поможет им освоить как профессиональную лексику, так и навыки общения.

DEAR FRIEND! Entering a university has to be one of the most important events in a person’s life. It is a step into another world of learning and experience in the company of other equally interested and intelligent students. In it you will learn more about the world, its peoples and its values. You will discover new knowledge, new skills and new opportunities. You will grow in intellect, in judgement, in competence and in confidence owing to the English language not in the last instance. I wish you every success in your daily work. The author

UNIT 1

HISTORY AND HISTORIANS Before you start: Do you like history? When did you become interested in history? What history do you like best Ancient History or Modern one?

1. Read, translate the text, and be ready to speak and write about your future profession. My Future Profession If you ask me why of all humanities I have chosen History, my answer will be: it interests me as a science because it helps one to understand and explain the processes going on in various aspects of human history. It also helps one to foresee the course of events in the future. But no one can really study any particular period of history unless he knows a lot about what preceded it, and what came after it. If one casts a retrospective look at the historical past, one can see that the entire history of human society is that of wars and struggle for power. Wars, except just ones, were always waged for the purpose of conquering other lands and peoples. All the monarchs brutally oppressed their own people, and enslaved and plundered the conquered nations. But, in the course of time, some empires and monarchies gradually came to a downfall. As a result of democratic revolutions, some monarchs were overthrown and republics were proclaimed. I suppose we'll soon discuss all these points at our seminars. There are many historical subjects in our programme. When we are through with Ancient History, we'll pass over to the study of the Middle Ages. As to Russian History, I think, we'll start learning the pre-revolutionary period (the period of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century) next year, but not until we are through with the feudal period. When I am in my third year, I wish to devote myself to the special study of Modern and Contemporary History to which I am greatly attracted. It was shortly before leaving school that I made up my mind to enter this faculty and take up History seriously as my future speciality. Whether I'll make a very good teacher or a research worker remains to be seen, but I'm sure that eventually I'll become quite knowledgeable in the field of History and perhaps social sciences. Notes: Ancient ['ein∫ənt] History - история древнего мира the Middle Ages - средние века Modern History - новая история

ʌ

Contemporary [kən'tempərəri] History -новейшая история World [wə:ld] History - всеобщая история humanity [hju:'mжniti] = mankind [mжn'kaind] - человечество humanities - гуманитарные науки to choose [t∫u:z], chose [ou], chosen [ou] - выбирать to explain [iks'plein] - оъяснять to forsee - предвидеть

event [i'vent] - событие to precede [pri:'si:d] - предшествовать If one cast a ... look, one can see ... - Если бросить ... взгляд, можно заметить... entire (the whole) - целый, весь society [sə'saiəti] - общество except [ik'sept] - за исключением just - зд. справедливый to wage - вести (войну) purpose ['pə:pəs] - цель to conquer ['kɔnkə] - завоевывать, покорять to oppress [ 'pres] - угнетать slave [ei] - раб to enslave - порабощать to plunder [∧] - грабить empire [‘empaiə] – империя emperor [‘empərə] – император monarch [‘mɔ:nək] – монарх downfall [‘daunfɔ:l] – падение overthrow [,ouvə ‘иrou] – свергать, свержение to proclaim [prɔ‘kleim] – провозглашать subject [‘s∧bdzikt] – предмет feudal [‘fju:dl] – феодальный century [‘sent∫uri] – век, столетие but not until we’re through – но лишь тогда, когда мы закончим to devote to – [di’vout] – посвящать to attract – привлекать, интересовать Whether I’ll make … remains to be seen – Получится ли из меня … будущее покажет research [ri’sə:t∫ ] – научное исследование; научный knowledge [‘nɔlidz] – знание knowledgeable [‘nɔ lidzəbl] – зд. подготовленный 2 a) Answer the questions: 1. Did you enter the history faculty by vocation (по призвaнию)? 2. What periods of World and Russian History do you study at the faculty? 3. Do you take a course of America's Modern and Contemporary History as a first-year student? 4. What history attracts you most of all: ancient, medieval or modern ? 5. Do you know the difference between 'historic' and 'historical'? 6. What do you call a scholar (a specialist) in the field of history? 7. In what year of study do the students of your faculty begin their specialization? 8. What interests you most in the history of your country (your region)? 2 b) Consult the text and find the English equivalents of the following wordcombinations in the text. Use them in the story about yourself. Xод событий; с целью; в ходе, в течение; пасть, рухнуть; в результате чего-то; закончить что-либо; в отношении, что касается; учиться на первом курсе; посвятить себя чему-либо; окончить школу; решить сделать что-то;

поступить в университет (на факультет); заняться изучением истории; уверенным, что...; быть уверенным в чем-либо; в области .

3. Read and translate the dialogue. Learn it by heart. History Science Professor: What is History? Student: It's a science dealing with the development of human society. Prof. When did historical thought appear? St. I think it goes back as far as the 4th - 3rd millennium B.C. Prof. You are quite right. Could you give me the names of the most famous ancient historians? St. Certainly. They are: Herodotus, who was the "father of History", Xenophon and Polybius. They all come from Ancient Greece. As to the historians of Ancient Rome Titus, Tacitus and Plutarch are most well-known. Prof. That's right. What can be said about the first historical writings? What were they like? St. As far as I know they were stone inscriptions, reviews and chronicles showing various events in Egypt, Babylon, Assyria and Persia. Prof. Exactly so. Do you know any Russian historians of the 18th or 19th century? St. If I am not mistaken, Russian historiography was represented by Karamzin, Granovsky, Solovyev, Kluchevsky and others. Prof. So much for today. See you tomorrow. Notes: Herodotus [he'rdətəs] - Геродот Xenophon ['zenəfən] - Ксенофонт Polibius [pɔ'libiəs] - Полибий Greece [gri:s] - Греция Rome [roum] Titus ['taitəs] - Тит Tacitus ['tжsitəs] - Тацит Plutarch ['plu:ta:k] - Плутарх Egypt ['i:ʤ ipt] - Египет Babylon ['bжbilən] - Вавилон Assyria [ə'siəriə] - Ассирия Persia ['pə:∫ə] - Персия human society ['hju:mən sə'saiəti] -человеческое общество to appear [ə'piə] - появляться millennium [mi'leniəm] - тысячелетие stone ins'criptions - надписи на камнях reviews [ri 'vju:z] - обзоры chronicles [k'rɔniklz] - летописи to deal with - рассматривать, иметь дело to go as far back as - восходить к

быть

What were they like? - Что они из себя представляют? So much for today.- На сегодня достаточно. If I'm not mistaken - Если я не ошибаюсь B.C. (Before Christ [ai]) - до н.э. A.D. (Anno Domini) - н.э. Exactly so - Совершенно верно to represent - представлять

4. Listen to the dialogue, and then take the part of the 3rdyear student. At the University Applicant: What department do you study at? The 3rd year student: I'm a 3rd year student of the History Department. I've already passed my last exams and soon I'll have my museum practice. A. I am going to take entrance exams this summer. I've chosen History as my future profession. I hope to pass the exams successfully but many applicants failed last year. S. It depends on your knowledge. If you study well and if you're fond of History, you'll be enrolled in the University. A. Is it difficult to study at the History Department? S. If you work hard at all lectures, tutorials and seminars, if you read a lot of specialized literature and analyze it, then I hope you'll be a good historian. A. What subjects did you study when you were a first-year student? S. We studied Archaeology, Ancient History, Latin, Russian History (the period of feudalism), English and some other subjects. At the end of each term we took tests and exams. Each year we present an essay to our scientific adviser and make contributions in class and sometimes at the students' conferences on historical themes/ topics. A. It sounds attractive. S. I'm sure you'll enjoy your studies at the University. I wish you good luck at your entrance exams. A. Thanks a lot. Notes: applicant - абитуриент department - факультет, отделение, кафедра to take (pass) an exam - держать (сдать) экзамен to fail in (at) - провалиться на экзамене to be going to - собираться (намереваться) что-либо сделать entrance exam - вступительный экзамен success [sək'ses] - успех successfully - успешно to depend on (upon) - зависеть от to be fond of = to like to be enrolled in - быть зачисленным в hard [ha:d] - зд. усердно archaeology [,a:ki'ɔləʤ i] to present an essay - представить курсовую работу test - зачет scientific [,saiən'tifik] - научный adviser [əd'vaizə] - руководитель it sounds attractive - звучит привлекательно

to enjoy [in'ʤɔi] - получать удовольствие luck - удача 5 a) Do the following two-way translation: On the History of Saint Petersburg University - Как преподаватель (a lecturer from) Лондонского университета мне хотелось бы узнать как можно больше об истории Санкт- Петербуржского (Saint Petersburg) университета. Это старый университет, не так ли? Разве его история не восходит ко временам Петра Первого (Peter the Great)? = Yes, the university dates back to 1724, annually marking January 28th as the day of its foundation. It resumed its activities as an educational and scientific centre on February 19th, 1819. It's well known that the building of "Twelve Colleges" was designed in the time of Peter the First by architect Domenico Tresini. At that time it was composed of three departments: Philosophy and Law, History and Philology and Physics and Mathematics. In 1854 a fourth department was added to these three - the Department of Oriental Studies. - Это старейший университет в вашей стране? = No, it isn't. It's younger than the universities of Moscow, Kazan. In terms of fame and scope it is second only to Moscow University. Even during the early years of its foundation, the university was famous for its high intellectual standards. - Не могли бы вы напомнить (mention) некоторые известные имена, связанные с университетом. Хотелось бы уточнить (I wonder), знаю ли я их. = You're sure to. You've certainly heard of Dmitry Mendeleyev, a world famous chemist and founder of the Table of Periodic Elements. - Конечно же, я знаю этого ученого. И как преподаватель истории я знаю имя Евгения Тарле, выдающегося и наиболее одаренного (gifted) историка. Я также слышал, что изобретатель радио в России работал в Санкт Петербурге. Он работал в университете? = Yes, both of them, worked here - Evgeny Tarle and Alexander Popov. You've probably also heard of Ivan Sechenov - world famous physiologist, Ilya Mechnikov and Kliment Timiryazev, outstanding biologists. - Я уверен, что многие известные писатели (men of letters), также работали здесь. = The university owes much of its fame to such celebrated writers as Turgenev, Gogol, Pisarev, Chernyshevsky, Uspensky, and Block who either studied or lectured there. - Да, действительно, я могу понять, как достопримечательности (the sights) вашего прекрасного города вдохновляли (inspired) Блока. Очевидно (Obviously), вы очень гордитесь тем, что такие великие имена связаны с этим университетом. = You're quite right. 5 b) Speak on the history of the university you are studying at and the prominent people whose life or activity is/was connected with the university. Do it in pairs. 6. Read the text and find the information about a) the methods of teaching in the UK; b) the peculiarities of climate in the UK; c) the advantages of getting education in the UK; d) some strict regulations; e) tell your friends the necessary information (from your point of view) about studying in the UK. STUDING IN THE UK Studying in the UK can be exciting and challenging. It is an opportunity to get to know a different culture, make friends from many countries, gain new insights, stretch yourself academically and develop skills that will be beneficial to your society as well as to yourself. The experience can enrich your life and enhance your career in many ways. The academic facilities available to students are of the best modern standards and include laboratories, libraries, computing facilities and study areas.

To get the best out of your study period, however, it is important to plan and prepare carefully. Once you have decided to study in the United Kingdom and have been offered a place at a college, ensure that you: # have enough money for the course and your living expenses; # have somewhere to live and know how to get there; # have obtained entry clearance for the UK, if necessary, and can meet the requirements of UK immigration control; # know when you have to register at your college; # know when you have to pay your fees; # have made all the necessary arrangements for your family, including accommodations, if they are coming with you. Once you are in the UK, it will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain extra funds, and you will not be able to pay for your study by working in the UK. The climate in Britain might be quite different from your own and can be very unpredictable. The temperatures are not generally extreme, averaging between 5 C in the winter and 19 C in the summer. You will need warm clothing and an umbrella! From October to March the weather is often cold and wet, with the possibility of freezing temperatures, frost and snow. Rain is common throughout the year. UK universities and colleges use a range of teaching methods. You might find a combination of: LECTURES - given to large groups of students, sometimes up to 200. SEMINARS - discussions between one member of staff and a small group of students on a previously arranged topic, which everyone has prepared. Often, one student reads out an essay or seminar paper, then everyone joins in the discussion. TUTORIALS - discussions between a member of staff and two or three students, sometimes only one. 7 a) Read the text and define the character of this text (scientific, popular science, or biographical) and say whether there is some new information for you. The "Father of History" Part I Herodotus (485 - 425 B.C.), Greek historian, called the "Father of History", was born at Halicarnassus [,hжlika:’nжsəs] in Asia Minor ['ei∫ə 'mainə]. Herodotus was thus born a Persian subject and as such he continued until he was 30 or 35 years of age. The family of Herodotus belonged to the upper rank of the citizens. It is clear from the extant work of Herodotus that he has devoted himself to the literary life. It is probable that from an early age he was interested in travels both in Greece and in the foreign countries. He traversed Asia Minor and European Greece, he visited all the most important islands of the Archipelago ['a:ki'peləgou] - Rhodes [roudz], Cyprus ['saiprəs], Delos ['di:ləs], Crete, Aegina [i:'ʤ ainə]. He undertook the long and dangerous journey from Sardis ['sa:dis] to the Persian capital, Susa, visited Babylon, and the western shores of the Black sea - as far as the estuary of the Dnieper; he travelled in Scythia ['siрiə] and in Thrace, explored the antiquities of Tyre, coasted along the shores of Palestine ['pжlistain], and made a long stay in Egypt. At all the more interesting sites he examined, he enquired, he made measurements, he accumulated materials. Having in his mind the scheme of his great work, he gave much time to the elaboration of all its parts, and took care to obtain by personal observation a full knowledge of the various countries. Part II The great work of Herodotus has been called "a universal history", "a history of wars between the Greeks and the barbarians", and "a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia". But these titles are too comprehensive. Herodotus, who omits wholly the histories of Phoenicia [fi'ni∫iə], Carthage ['ka:θiʤ] and Etruria [i'truəriə] - three of the most

important among the States existing in his day - cannot have intended to compose a "universal history", the very idea of which belongs to a later age. He speaks in places as if his object was to record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; but as he omits the Trojan ['trouʤən] War, the wars connected with the Ionian [ai'ounjən] colonization of Asia Minor and others, it is evident that he does not really aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars between Greeks and barbarians with which he was acquainted. Nor does it ever seem to have been his object to give an account of the entire struggle between Greece and Persia. His intention was to write of a particular war - the great Persian war of invasion. In tracing the growth of Persia from a petty subject kingdom to a vast dominant empire, he has occasion to set out the histories of Lydia, Media, Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Scythia, Trace; and to describe the countries and the people inhabiting them, their natural productions, climate, geographical position, monuments, etc.; while in noting the contemporary changes in Greece, he is led to tell of the various migrations of the Greek race, their colonies, commerce, progress in the arts, revolutions, internal struggles, wars with one another, legislation, religious tenets and the like. Notes: cannot have intended – не мог иметь намерений Nor does it seem to have been his object - Он также не ставил себе целью

7 b) Read, translate the second part of the text and be ready to fulfil the assignments. TEST 1. The idea of “universal history” belonged to a) later historians, b) Xenophon, c) Herodotos 2. Herodotus’ great work is connected with a) a history of wars between the Greeks and the barbarians. b) a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia. c) a history of a particular war - the great Persian war of invasion. 3. In this text ‘universal’ means a) system of suns and stars, b) general (history), c) history of university. 3. Herodotus devoted himself to studying a) Phoenicia, Cathage, Etruria; b) Persia as a great power; c) Scythia, Babylon, Assyria. 5. Tracing the history of Persia, Herodotus paid attention to a) geographical position, climate, the people inhabiting Lydia, Egypt, Media. b) describing all the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians. c) three of the most important states existing in his time. 6. The word “subject” means in this text a) grammar term (подлежащее), b) something to be studied, c) under foreign government, not independent.

7 c) Explain (in your own words) to a non-historian student why Herodotus was called the "father of history". Vocabulary Study 8. Write out all the words from the texts grouping them under the headings: 'History as a scientific study', 'The profession of a historian', 'University education'. Speech Practice 9. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •The history of your university. •The present day of our university. •The famous people whose names are associated with the university. •Tell your classmates the biography of the most prominent scientist (from your point of view). 10. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above. Composition 11. 1. Excite your friend's curiosity of historical science. 2. Write your friend a letter informing him about your first impressions of the university. 3. Write a paragraph about one of the ancient historians. 4. Study carefully this paper and make up your own Curriculum Vitae. CURRICULUM VITAE Name: Nick Famin Date of Birth: May 5, 1972 Address:199/5,Stachky Ave., Apt.17,Rostov-on-Don, 344090 Russia Sex: Male Marital Status: Unmarried Native language: Russian

EDUCATION School: 1980 - 1990 Secondary School # 95, Rostov-on-Don (Honour Degree). University: I entered the Physics Department of Rostov State University in 1990 and now I am a 5th-year student. My major is radio-physics. The area of my research is the physics of lasers and optical electronics. I am expecting to receive my Diploma Degree in June 1995. In 1995 I graduated from the Military Department of Rostov State University as a 2nd Lieutenant of radio-communication troops. WORKING EXPERIENCE During the 1993/94 academic year, I worked as an assistant at the school computer lab. From October 1993 to February 1994 I worked as a typist and operator editing systems for a private company. INTERESTS/ ACTIVITIES My main interest is connected with electronics and computer technology. In sports, I like running, swimming, and gymnastics. OTHER INFORMATION I have completed 8 years of study of the English language at School # 95 (1984-1990), and at Rostov State University (1990-1995). In 1990 I completed 2-year Computer Science courses. I have experience of working with computers. ROLEPLAY Student A: Look at the text about Christopher Columbus. Can you choose the correct version of the story? Student B: Check A’s answer.

Example: Christopher Columbus was born in Spain/Portugal/Italy in 1451. A I think it was in Spain where Christopher Columbus was born. B No, it wasn’t Spain. A OK. Was it …? CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS Christopher Columbus was born in Spain / Portugal / Italy in 1451. He believed that he could reach India / China / America by sailing west. Manuel I of Portugal / Ferdinand of Spain / Henry VII of England eventually agreed to pay for a voyage, and in August 1492 / 1494 / 1496 he set sail on the Santa Maria / Hispaniola / Mayflower and two other ships. They reached the coast of Labrador / the West Indies / New England on October 12, and took the news back to Europe. After three more voyages to America, Columbus died in poverty in Spain /Italy /Portugal in 1506.

UNIT 2

THE PRIMITIVE SOCIETY Before you start: What do you know about primitive people? From what sources can people today find out the information about the past? 1. Read and translate the text. Consult a dictionary. Learn the text by heart. Compare the primitive community with the utopian society.

The Primitive Community The history of mankind begins with the primitive community. The appearance of new tools and new methods of labour led to the replacement of the human herd by the clan. Several clans, that is communities, or related individuals formed a tribe. Both the tribe and the clan were governed by elders who were chosen for their life experience and knowledge. The human herd and the clan were two consecutive stages in the development of primitive society. The related members of the clan jointly owned their hunting grounds and the lands which they tilled. They lived and worked together, and consumed in common the products of their labour. Since they lived together in groups, they could provide themselves with food and keep fires burning. The primitive human herd possesses the simplest tools: a hand-axe, a digging stock and a wooden club. Thousands of years passed before stone tools were replaced by those made of metal (bronze, iron). When people invented the harpoon, they took up fishing. The invention of bows and arrows helped to start cattle-breeding, and axes made it possible to go over to farming. In primitive society there was no private property, therefore there were no classes and no exploitation - that is, appropriation by the rich of the fruits of other men's labour. Since there were no classes, there was no state system, that is no armed forces, no prisons, no courts, no overseers, no government bodies. 2 a) Consult the text and find the English equivalents of the following: Первобытная община, первобытное общество, человеческое стадо, род, племя, образовать племя, старейшины, орудия труда (металлические, бронзовые, железные, каменные), дубинка, лук, топор, стрела, мотыга, управлять, заниматься (охотой, рыбной ловлей, сельским хозяйством, разведением скота), выбирать, владеть, обеспечивать, изобретать, заменять, еда, огонь, совместно, сообща. 2 b) Sum up the contents of the text by answering the following questions. 1. What does the history of mankind begin with? 2. What led to the replacement of the human herd by the clan? 3. Who governed the clan? 4. What tools had the people? 5. What was their main occupation? 6. What was the structure of primitive society? There are some original American texts about American Indians. Remember as many facts about their life as you can.

You'll need the information in your future work. 3. Listen to the text, entitle it and answer the question: What holiday do the people of North Carolina celebrate during the 3rd week in September and why? Indians were the first people to live in our country. That is why they are called Native Americans. Because they were here before the white settlers, it is important to remember and thank the Indians. Indians gave modern Americans many gifts and taught the settlers many new ways of doing things. Each year in North Carolina [‘kжrəlainə], we celebrate Indian Heritage Week during the third week in September. Notes: gift -дар Heritage -['heritiʤ] – наследие 4. Read the text, entitle it and see whether you can answer the following questions: 1. Did the Indians live in caves? 2. What materials did they use for their dwellings? 3. Could one find any pieces of furniture there? Indians in North Carolina did not live in teepees. Most of the Indians in North Carolina lived in small buildings made of wood and reeds. The frame of the house was made from wooden poles that were tied together. The walls and roof were made from reed mats or sheets of tree bark. Long tables or benches were usually the only furniture in their structures. Notes: teepee = wigwam - дом, помещение reed = rush - тростник, камыш pole - кол, жердь, столб mat - настил sheet of bark - полоска коры 5 a) Read and translate the text. Dress Indians wore clothes made from deer skins. It took many days to prepare the skin before it was ready to be sewn. First, the hair had to be scraped off the skin. Then the excess flesh had to be removed. Next the hide was stretched and softened. The final step was to smoke the hides to give them a golden brown color. Earrings, necklaces and bracelets were worn by men and women. This jewelry was made from bone, copper, shell and polished-stone beads. Most men wore their hair long. Women usually had long hair with bangs across the forehead. Both men and women would use braid wraps that were decorated with certain beads. This is one way that showed which tribe they belonged to. Notes: sew (sewed, sewn) [sou], [soud], [soun] - шить to scrape off - очищать excess - излишек flesh - мясо hide - шкура to soften ['sɔfn] - смягчать necklace ['neklis]- ожерелье bracelet ['breislit]

jewelry ['ʤ ju:əlri] - драгоценности bead [bi:d] - бусинка bang - челка forehead ['fɔ:rid] - лоб braid wrap - шаль, плед из тесьмы to belong to [bi ‘lɔ:n] - принадлежать 5 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: 'Certainly you are right' or 'I am afraid you are wrong'. 1. The usual dress for men and women was the same. 2. There were no special preparations for the skins to be sewn. 3. The jewelry was made of silver and gold. 3. There was no way to determine which tribe the people belonged to. 4. It took no time to prepare the skin for dress. 5 c) Consult the text and find English equivalents of the following: одежда (2 значения); шкура (2 значения); требовалось много дней; приходилось очищать; приходилось устранять; смолить (коптить шкуру); придать им золотисто-коричневый цвет; серьги; ожерелье; челка; лоб; украшать; принадлежать; украшения делались из кости (меди, раковин, бусинок). 6 a) Read the text, and find the key words in each passage and use them to review the text. Food The Indians taught the settlers new ways to hunt and fish when they came to North Carolina many years ago. The Indians caught their fish in nets called weirs that were made from reeds woven or tied together. Another way the Indians caught fish is with spears. The Indians hunted big animals mostly with bows and arrows. They hunted deer and bear. The Indians cooked the fish and meat over a grill of reeds or sticks. But most of the cooking was done in clay pots. They would put the pot on a fire and boil different foods. In this way they would cook vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots and meat. Native Americans planted gardens much like gardens are planted today. They grew beans, peas, melons, pumpkins, sunflowers, potatoes and other foods. The men took turns guarding the fields and scaring away the birds and wild animals. They were probably some of the first scarecrows! Notes: net - сеть to catch (caught) [kжt∫ ], [kɔt] - ловить reed - тростник to weave [i:] (wove [ou], woven [ou]) - ткать to tie - связывать spear [s'piə] - копье stick - прут, палка clay [ei] - глиняный would put - обычно ставили pot - горшок to boil - кипятить beans [i:] - бобы peas [i:] - горох melon - дыня

pumpkin - тыква take turns guarding - поочередно охраняя scare [skɛə] away - отпугивать scarecrow [skɛəkrou] - пугало 6 b) Translate the following word combinations and use Participles in the sentences of your own: a) nets called weirs; reeds woven and tied together; b) nets were made from reeds; the cooking was done in pots; c) the men took turns guarding the field and scaring away the birds. 7 a) Read and give the main idea of the text in 3 sentences. Indians Today Did you know that there are many Indians still living in North Carolina today? In fact North Carolina has the largest Indian population east of the Mississippi River. There are more than 65.000 Native Americans living in North Carolina. The state of North Carolina recognizes 6 tribes. They are: Cherokee [,t∫erə‘ki:],

Coharie [,kou’nжri],

Haliwa-Saponi [,hжliwa:sə ‘pouni], Lumbee [‘lʌʌmbi], and others. Indian children today look and live very much like other children. They live in houses and go to school. They wear jeans, shorts, shirts and shoes like those you wear. Native Americans drive cars, go to church and enjoy sports and entertainment like everyone else. Like other people, they are very proud of their heritage and ancestors. To help remind them of their past, the Indians have special holidays and celebrations. The Indian way of life was to live in harmony with nature. Many of today's organisations are influenced by the arts, crafts and culture of Native Americans. Notes: entertainment [entə 'teinmənt] - развлечение ancestor ['жnsistə] - предок to help remind - зд. чтобы не забыть way of life - образ жизни harmony [‘ha:məni] influence ['influəns] - влияние craft [kra:ft] – ремесло 7 b) Take notes of the usage of the word 'like' in this text and compose your own sentences with this word. Now you'll get acquainted with the way of life of the Ancient Slavs. Discuss similarities and differences between ancient people: the Americans and the Slavs.

8. Read the text,

put in the correct articles and say: a)who the ancestors of the Russians were; b) what their main occupation was; c) whether tilling the land was an easy task for men; d) what other occupations ancient Slavs possess. Long, long ago there dwelled in … Eastern Europe … Eastern Slavs, … ancestors of … Russian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian peoples. Excavations of Slav villages as well as ancient manuscripts and folklore have helped us to learn much about their life and occupations.

Crop farming was … main occupation of … ancient Slavs. It was not easy to till … land, especially in forest zones. First, all the trees had to be destroyed. This was beyond … strength of …single person. …people in … encampment jointly cut …trees and burned them when they were dry. … ashes left behind by …forests fire fertilised …land. …next task was to remove … stumps. Land thus cleared was divided between families. …land was tilled with …hoes and …harvest gathered with …sickles. …ancient Slavs owned cattle, but not much, and it was very valuable. Animals provided people with …food and …wool, out of which they made their clothes. Food was also procured by hunting and fishing. Notes: to dwell = to live excavation [ekskə 'vei∫n] manuscript ['mжnjuskript] folklore ['fouklɔ:] crop = harvest ['ha:vist] - урожай to till - обрабатывать землю, возделывать especially [is'pe∫əli] - особенно This was beyond the strength of a single person. - Такое было не по силам одному человеку. encampment [in'kжmpmənt] - лагерь to burn ['bə:n] – сжигать ashes - зола to fertilise ['fə:tilaiz] – удобрять to remove [ri'mu:v] – удалять stump - пень hoe ['hou] - мотыга sickle ['si:kl] - серп to procure [prə 'kjuə] - добывать 9. Read the text, entitle it and get its main idea. The ancient Slavs were industrious, cordial and hospitable towards friends. However, when attacked by enemies, the Slavs fought courageously and skillfully. During military campaigns every tribe elected a leader - the prince. Gradually the prince acquired an entourage whose main occupation became the use of arms. The members of this entourage were called druzhinniki. The druzhinniki grew strong in constant struggle against invading nomads - first the Pecheneges and later the Polovtsi (Kipchak Turks). Notes: industrious - трудолюбивый cordial - сердечный hospitable - гостеприимный courageously [kə'reiʤəsli] - храбро skillfully - умело to acquire [ə'kwaiə] - приобретать, получать entourage [əntu'ra:ʤ ] - окружение

to invade - вторгаться nomad ['nɔ:məd] - кочевник 10. Do the following two-way translation.

- Мне бы хотелось уточнить, когда впервые упоминаются скифы? = Assyrian cuneiform texts of the first half of the 7th century B.C. mention the Scythians. - Как вы считаете, какую роль скифы играли в истории? = They played an important part in the history of Asia Minor. It has been established, that the Scythians had controlled Media for 28 years, that they had taken part in the storming of the Assyrian capital of Nineveh and in the final overthrow of Urartu. - А когда они появляются в причерноморских степях? = By the end of the 7th century B.C. the Scythians had gone back to their steppes. An eventful period in the ancient history of our country had begun, which was to last five hundred years and become known as the Scythian Period. - А вы можете сказать, где они обитали? = The frontiers of Scythia ran, according to "the father of history" Herodotus, along the Danube in the west, the Black Sea coast, the land of Tauri (i.e. the foothills and mountainous part of the Crimea) and the coast of the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov) in the south, and up the river Don in the east. The Northern boundary must have stretched roughly from the upper Dniester, across the upper reaches of the Bug, and, on to a point on the Dnieper about eleven day's sailing upstream from its estuary. - Кто же населял Скифию? = As to the tribes that inhabited Scythia, the land between the Bug and the Dnieper was peopled by the agricultural Callipidae and Alazones. North of the Alazones lived "Scythian tillers of the land who sow corn not for eating but for selling". On the lower reaches of the Dnieper lived "farming Scythians" (Herodotus doubtlessly had good reason to distinguish the "Scythian tillers of the land" and the "farming Scythians"). The steppes along the left bank on the Dnieper were inhabited by "nomad Scythians, who sow nothing nor plough". Still farther east, as far as the Don, lay the lands of the Royal Scythians, "who deem all other Scythians their slaves". -Что еще известно о Скифах? = The science of history owes to Herodotus much of its knowledge of the Scythians and their customs, way of life and the area of distribution of their tribes. The Greek historian described them as an "invincible and unapproachable" people, the might of whom frightened even the Egyptian pharaoh. Herodotus singles out the Scythians as the most advanced nation of the steppes of the Black Sea coast. - На какое время приходится расцвет Скифии? = Scythia reached the height of its greatness between the late fifth and the fourth centuries B.C., that is to say, the period when the Scythians created the first state to appear in Eastern Europe.

-Мне бы хотелось еще кое-что узнать о Скифах: об их правлении, о царском кладбище (the royal cemetery), о загадочной области Герр (the Gerrhi), об археологических находках, свидетельствующих о высоком культурном уровне. = Unfortunately, I have no more time. Let's meet tomorrow and I'll be glad to give you some more information about these wonderful people. Notes Scythia [‘siрiə] Scythian [‘siрiən] Media [‘mi:diə] Assyrian [ə‘siriən] Nineveh [‘ninivi] Urartu [u’ra:rtu] Danube [‘dжnju:b] Palus Maeolis [‘pжləs mei’ɔlis] Callipidae [‘kжlipidə] Alazones [‘жləzounz] Egyptian [i’ʤip∫ən] 11 a) Look through the text (you are given 5 minutes) and be ready to fulfil the assignments. The Stone Age The Stone Age was a period of history which began in approximately 2 million B.C. and lasted until 3.000 B.C. Its name was derived from the stone tools and weapons that modern scientists found. This period was divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic Ages. During the first period (2 million to 8000 B.C.) the first hatchet and use of fire for heating and cooking were developed. As a result of the Ice Age, which evolved about 1 million years into the Paleolithic Age, people were forced to seek shelter in caves, wear clothing, and develop new tools. During the Mesolithic Age (8000 to 6000 B.C.) people made crude pottery and the first fish hooks, took dogs hunting, and developed a bow and arrow, which was used until the 14th century A.D. The Neolithic Age (6000 to 3000 B.C.) saw humankind domesticating sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle, being less nomadic than in previous eras, establishing permanent settlements, and creating governments. Notes Paleolithic [,peiliou’liиk] Mesolithic [,mezɔ‘liиik] Neolithic [‘ni:ou ‘liиik] Test 1. Into how many periods was the Stone Age divided? a) 2, b) 3, c) 4, d) 5. 2. Which of the following was developed earliest? a) the fish hook; b) the fist hatchet; c) the bow and arrow; d) pottery. 3. Which of the following developments is NOT related to the conditions of the Ice Age?

a) farming; b) clothing; c) living indoors; d) using fire. 4. Which period lasted longest? a) Paleolithic; b) Ice Age; c) Mesolithic; d) Neolithic. 5. Which of the following periods saw people develop a more

communal form of living? a) Paleolithic; b) Ice Age; c) Mesolithic; d) Neolithic. 6. The author states that the Stone Age was so named because a) it was very durable, b) the tools and weapons were made of stone, c) there was little vegetation, d) the people lived in caves. 11 b) Read the text for the second time and do the following: 1. Give your own title to the text. 2. What are the characteristic features of each period of history? 3. What is the origin of the term "Stone Age"? 4. Compress the text into 5 sentences. Vocabulary Study 12. Write out all the words from the texts grouping them under the headings: 'Periods of ancient history', 'Social structure', 'Tools', 'Occupations', 'Jewelry'. Speech Practice 13. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •The main features of primitive society. •The main occupations of primitive people. •The structure of government in primitive society. •The character and manners of primitive people. •Characteristic features of each period of ancient history. 14. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above. Composition 15. a) Compare in writing the way of life of American Indians and Ancient Slavs. b) Add any information you like about the Scythians. c) Write a short definition of primitive society. ROLEPLAY

You have just read an article in “National Geographic” and would like to tell your friend about it.

You

Your friend Answer the telephone call and say your name.

Say who are you and the reason why you are calling. Express interest in this article. Say about the origin of the name. Ask where and when they were found. Reply and mention Darwin’s theory of evolution. Express surprise and ask about the origins of the Neandertals. Reply and describe them. Thank your friend and ask the article for reading.

THE DAWN OF HUMANS Found by miners near Dusseldorf, Germany, 1856, the first recognized Neandertal fossils took their name from the picturesque Neanderthal, or Neander Valley, where they were found. (The silent “h” in thal has been dropped in modern German.) The valley – featured in 19th-century travel guides – has been largely destroyed for its limestone, but the controversy surrounding its famed fossils endures. One early scientist dismissed them as the remains of “some poor idiot or hermit.” Another, citing the Neandertal’s heavy, bowed legs, declared the skeleton’s owner to be a Mongolian cavalryman who had suffered from rickets. Eventually the Neandertal bones would play a key role in supporting the most radical new scientific idea of the time – Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Though Neandertals have been intensely studied for nearly 150 years, much about them still sparks debate. Cannibalism. Cut marks on a skull from Krapina Cave in Croatia suggest to some that Neandertals had a taste for human flesh. Others believe the marks are ceremonial. Mystery provokes controversy, which the Neandertals have caused since the discovery of the remains of a Neandertal in the Neander Valley of Germany in 1856. The original Neandertal man was proclaimed by some to be the missing link between apes and human. Others argued that this odd speciman with the apelike brows was simply a misshapen freak from the Middle Ages. But soon more bones with the same strange features were unearthed in Belgium, France, and other parts of Europe. Then, at the turn of the century, the bones of as many as 80 Neandertals

were discovered in a cave in the Croatian village of Krapina. By then it was clear: These people were not modern humans. The origins of the Neandertals are uncertain, but scientists suspect that they share a common ancestor with modern humans: a tall, slender species known as Homo erectus, which migrated into Europe probably from Africa through western Asia between 700,00 and a million years ago. Notes controversy [‘kɔntrəvə: si] – prolonged argument fossil [‘fɔsl] – recognizable prehistoric animal hermit [‘hə:mit] – man in early Christian times, living alone rickets [‘rikits] – disease of childhood to spark [a:] – to lead to be the immediate cause of freak [ i:]– person, that is abnormal in form Neanderthal [ni’ жndəta:l] Mongolian [mɔn’gouljən] Darwin [‘da:win] Cannibalism [‘kжnibəlizəm] Croatia [krou’ei∫ə]

UNIT 3

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS Before you start: What ancient civilizations do you know? Which of them are the oldest? Which of them flourished on the territory of your country (your native place)?

1. Read

and translate the text, paying attention to the translation of passive constructions.

The Civilizations of Ancient Mexico Many ruins, the remnants of ancient cities and villages, are scattered over nearly all the present-day Mexico. Sculptures, great monoliths, small terracotta masks and idols have constantly been ploughed up in some parts of the country. These, as well as arms, jewels, and many other objects discovered there, are proofs of a great degree of culture attained by the native people. The study of ancient Indian civilizations, the problems, which are connected with the origin of these peoples, their languages and scripts have agitated scholars for centuries. The Spaniards were the first to arrive in America. The first conquest in the West Indies during last years of the 15th century was a failure for the Spanish adventurers in search of riches. Then a rumour began to spread that beyond the mountains there lived the emperor of the people called the Aztecs. It was said that he lived in a gold castle, slept in a gold bed and ate from gold plates. In 1519, six hundred Spaniards led by Hernando Cortez landed at the Mexican coast. In two years and five months they conquered the capital of the "Aztec Empire". The Aztec Empire flourished on the territory of present Mexico at the time of the Spanish conquest. The Aztecs and other highly civilized peoples inhabited the central and southern parts of the country. One hundred and twenty five languages were spoken throughout the area. A system of writing and an efficient numerical system were widely used. They had a calendar of their own which was based in part on the solar year. The Aztecs raised maize, beans and other aboriginal crops. Trade was highly developed. They had an organized government and a priesthood which administered their elaborate religion. The conquerors were greatly impressed by the wealth of the native rulers and the advanced culture of the priests. But they were more ruthless in trampling out the "heathen" civilizations of the American Indians and a decade later all the beautiful towns were churned to rubble, the manuscripts reduced to ashes and most of the people destroyed or enslaved. Notes: remnant -остаток to scatter [s'kжtə] - разбрасывать idol ['aidl] to plough [p'lau] - пахать arms pl. - оружие jewels ['ʤ u:əlz] - драгоценности proof [p'ru:f]-доказательство

to attain - достигать script -зд. письменность to arrive = to come to conquer ['kɔnkə] - завоевывать conqueror ['kɔnkərə] -завоеватель conquest ['kɔnkwest] - завоевание failure ['feiljə] - неудача, провал adventurer [ d'ventʧərə] - искатель приключений search [sə:ʧ ] - поиск rumour ['ru:mə] - слух, молва to spread - распространяться Aztec ['жztek] Spaniard ['spжnjəd] Hernando Cortez [er'na:ndou 'kɔ:rtez] to flourish ['flʌriʃ] - процветать to raise ['reiz] -выращивать priest ['pri:st] -священник priesthood ['pri:sthud] - священство, жречество elaborate [i'lжbərit ] - тщательно разработанный advanced [əd'va:nst] -передовой ruthless -безжалостный trampling - попирание heathen [hi:dn] -зд. языческий to churn to rubble [ʧ’ə:n tə rʌbl] -сжигать дотла to reduce [ri'dju:s] - зд. превращать ashes [жʃiz] pl. - пепел, зола to destroy [dis'trɔi] -разрушать to enslave - порабощать 2. Consult the text and find the words a) close in meaning to: area, precious stone, weapons, evidence, to grow (crops), to manage, commerce; b) opposite in meaning to: foreign, success, decay, inefficient; c) the English equivalents of: достичь высокой степени цивилизации; выращивать различные культуры; распространять слухи; производить сильное впечатление на; управлять делами государства; коренное население; таинственная маска; сжигать дотла; в поисках богатств.

3. Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: "I think it's true". "I'm afraid I can't agree to that". "I think it's wrong". 1.Remnants of civilization of Ancient Mexico are proofs of a great degree of culture attained by the native people. 2. Ancient Indian civilizations present no riddles to solve. 3. The first Europeans to arrive in America came from Britain in search of riches. 4. A rumour began to spread that the Aztecs were wild people, dangerous to deal with. 5. Spaniards led by Cortez landed at the Mexican coast in 1519.

6. The Aztec Empire is known to have perished long before the

Spaniards landed in America. 7. The conquerors were greatly impressed by the advanced culture of the American Indians. 4. Render the text in detail using the following plan: 1. The Aztec civilization of ancient Mexico. 2. The discovery of the American continent by the Europeans. 3. The conquest of the Aztec state by the Spanish adventurers. 4. The end of the civilizations of the American Indians. 5. Remnants of the ancient Indian civilizations found in present Mexico.

5 a) Read the text, put in the right article, and define its general idea and character (scientific, popular science or fiction). The Mayas ... Mayas are one of ... most important aboriginal peoples of ... America. On the basis of the dates of ... Mayan inscriptions it is considered that there existed ... Maya Old Empire. It flourished for about 450 years in ... Southern Yucatan. ... most probable date of ... beginning of Maya Old Empire civilization is ... first century of ... Christian Era. The Old Empire period was ... golden age of Mayan art and culture. Great cities rose up and flourished on ... territory of ... Empire. The mathematical and astronomical science attained high degree of development. Their calendar was even more accurate than the Julian calendar. Their system of writing presents ... remarkable stage of advancement. Their art was highly developed. By ... time of ... Spanish conquest ... Maya Empire had already come to ... end. ... reason of its end is uncertain. It is to be hoped that future investigation will find ... real solution of this and other problems. Notes: Southern Yucatan ['sʌрən ju:kə'tən] accurate ['жkjurit] - точный Julian ['ʤ u:liən] investigation - научное исследование 5 b) Listen to the statements and answer which of them are not true to fact. Correct them. 1. Maya Old Empire flourished only for one hundred years. 2. It began to exist in the 1st century A.D. 3. There were only villages on its territory. 4. Science was highly developed. 5. There is a definite reason for the end of the Maya Empire. 5 c) Give the main points of the text in a few sentences. 6 a) Listen to the text and answer the question: In what connection are the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs mentioned in this text? MYSTERIES OF THE MAYA /A question of class/ In the great epoch of Maya civilization, there was a profound cultural dichotomy. On one hand, you find the elite - a small group of priests and chiefs charged with preserving knowledge. They understood astronomy, architecture, engineering, art. They alone knew how to plan the building of the great monuments. They alone knew the meaning of

everything in the temples. They could predict eclipses and cast horoscopes. In return, they led splendid lives. It was the function of the rest of the population to provide luxuries for the lords, as well as to meet all their everyday needs. So the common people farmed, cut wood, hunted, and then brought the fruits of their labour to the ceremonial centres. When the elite traveled, it was even the duty of the people to carry them in litters on their shoulders. Among the ruins of Palenque there is the somber, awesome tomb of Pacal, the powerful ruler who died A.D.694, and who is buried deep in the heart of a pyramid called the Temple of the Inscriptions, the most elaborate pyramid tomb in the New World. The similarities between this tomb and the crypts of the Egyptian pharaohs who ruled earlier beside the Nile are striking. In each instance, pyramids rose above the burial sites, and the builders took elaborate precautions to conceal the entries; inside the tombs, grave goods accompanied the corpse into the afterlife; the sarcophagus top bore the likeness of the dead king. Yet the burial tomb of Pacal is more barbarious. Six youthful victims were slaughtered outside this ruler's door to serve him in the hereafter. Notes profound [prə‘faund] - глубокий dichotomy [di’kɔ:təmi] – дихотомия (последовательное деление на две части) elite [‘eilit] to charge with – вменять в обязанность, возлагать ответственность eclipse [i’klips] - затмение cast horoscope [‘hɔrəskoup] – составлять гороскоп luxury [‘lʌkʃəri] - роскошь litters - носилки somber - мрачный awesome [‘ɔ:səm] – внушающий благоговение crypt - склеп precaution [prə‘kɔ:ʃn] - предостережение to conceal [kən’si:l] – скрытьб утаить sarcophagus [sə‘kɔfəgəs] bear (bore, born) – зд. нести изображение slaughter [‘slɔ:tə] – убить 6 b) Look through the text (you are given 2 minutes) and find the places where it is said about: 1) class division; 2) the duties of each class; 3) the striking similarities between Mexican and Egyptian pyramid tombs; 4) more barbarious character of Pacal's burial. 6 c) Tell your classmates the gist of the text. 7a) Read the text to get its general idea. Entitle it. Most Mayanists advance uncertain theories for the sudden collapse of the Classic culture. A failure of trade, overtaxing of agricultural means, earthquake, hurricane, invasion and disease are cited. Sir Thompson has written that peasant revolt played a key role in the collapse. Professor Barrera agrees. "The gap between the elite and the peasantry grew wider with the passage of time," he says. "At a certain point, the everincreasing demands of the aristocracy became unbearable. The people rebelled. Their only weapon was their overwhelming numbers. They probably strangled most of their overlords with their bare hands". /Today, only the ruins remain. But they possess a power of their own - an immortality compounded of stone, silence and solitude. Overhead, the constellations, so familiar to

the Maya as priest-astronomers, still move in their changeless patterns. But new men in new countries with new instruments now track their progress. The priest-astronomers are gone./ Chichen Itza and Bonampak lie empty in the silver moonlight. The Maya prophets knew this, too, would happen. Long ago one of them wrote: "All moons, all years, all days, all winds take their course and pass away". Notes: to advance - зд. выдвигать collapse = downfall overtaxing - зд. истощение unbearable - невыносимый to strangle - душить (задушить) immortality - endless life solitude - уединение constellation - named groups of fixed stars prophet ['prɔfit] – пророк 7 b) Translate in writing the part of the text given in brackets. 7 c) Tell your classmates the central idea of the text, using the words in bold type (key words). 8 a) Read the text and translate in writing the part of the text given in brackets without using a dictionary. 'Sweat of the Sun' - Gold of Peru /Exhibition of Peruvian prehistory/ /South American Indian civilizations, in an intriguing similarity with the ancient Egyptians, had elaborate burial rituals. The burial practices of Inca and pre-Inca societies required that members of the ruling elite should be mummified, wrapped in exquisite textiles, and laid in burial chambers accompanied by gold and silver objects, high quality ceramics, and beautifully ornamented wooden and metal tools. In death, as in life, the ancient Peruvians were adorned by gold earrings, gold nose ornaments and necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones. In many of the cultures featured in the exhibition, the death of a king or noble could result in human sacrifice. The Incas believed that human fortunes were directed by gods, and human sacrifice was used in an attempt to win favour these mystical forces./ The exhibition, which covers 3,000 years of Peruvian prehistory, includes artifacts from the Nazca civilization which, around 300 A.D., created massive figures and geometric forms on the surface of the Peruvian desert. Some of the Lines are up to 120 metres across and can only be properly appreciated when viewed from the air. The subject of serious scholarship and sensational speculation, it has been argued that the Nazca Lines are a gigantic astronomical calendar, ritual pathways, or even runways for visitors from outer space! 'Sweat of the Sun' Gold of Peru is unique opportunity to admire the arts and crafts of long lost civilizations. 8 b) Ask your classmates questions to cover the contents of the text. Do it in written form. 8 c) Discuss with your classmates burial rituals, human sacrifices, artifacts of the Nazca civilization.

9 a) Read the text and then speak on one of the wonders. Add whatever information you can. The Seven Wonders of the World Of the seven celebrated creations of the ancient world known as The Seven Wonders of the World only the pyramids have survived. In the 6th century B.C. Nebuchadnezzar [,nebjukəd'nezə] the king of Babylon, ordered to build beautiful gardens on the roof of his palace. These were the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon. They rose terrace upon terrace to a height of 64 metres and covered an area of 1,5 hectares. All sorts of trees and flowers were planted there. According to the story, these wonderful gardens were laid out to please a queen who came from a hilly country. Next comes the statue of Zeus [zju:s], which was made by the famous sculptor Phidias ['fidiəs] for the temple in Olympia. Zeus - a gigantic figure, seven times lifesize - was seated on a golden throne decorated with precious stones. The fate of it is unknown. The temple of Artemis ['a:timis] was erected in Ephesus ['efisis], a city in Asia Minor. According to a legend, in 356 B.C. the temple was set on fire by Herostratus [hi'rɔstrətəs], who sought thereby to become famous. Some years later it was rebuilt. The new temple was all of white marble and filled with statues and works of art. Its columns were 20 metres in height, its length was 135 metres and its width 70 metres. It was destroyed by the Goths in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. One of the Wonders has supplied by a widow's tender thought of her husband. Upon the death of king Mausolos [mə'sɔ:les], who had reigned over a small ancient state in Asia Minor, his queen ordered to erect a beautiful tomb known as the Mausoleum [,mɔ:səliəm]. It was 50 metres high and its pyramid-like top was surmounted by gigantic statues of Mausolos and his queen. At the beginning of the 15th century it was destroyed by the Crusaders. The Colossus of Rhodes [roudz] had a short and inglorious history. A bronze statue of the Greek sun god Helios ['hi:liəs] of about 35 metres in height, it was set up in 260 B.C. at the entrance to the harbour of Rhodes. Sixty years later it was overthrown by an earthquake. The last of the Wonders was the Pharos ['fɛərəs] - the lighthouse of Alexandria [,жlig'za:ndriə]. It was built late in the third century B.C. on the island of Pharos at the entrance to the harbour of Alexandria. For years the flames on its top guided the ships safely into the harbour of Alexandria. It was destroyed in an earthquake. 9 b) Compete in a contest: Who knows more about Wonders. Work in pairs.

10. Tell this story in English to a non-historian student. The Discovery of the Sumerian Civilization Когда в середине 19 века начались раскопки в древней Месопотамии (Mesopotamia), находки (the findings) ассоциировались с ассирийцами и вавилонянами (the Assyrians and Babylonians), народами, известными с древних времен. И только постепенно (Only gradually) совершенно (entirely) незнакомый народ, (гораздо более древний) появляется из небытия (emerged) - шумеры (the Sumerians). Никто не слышал о них сотни лет назад, т.к. они сошли со сцены (had disappeared from the scene) задолго до прихода Александра Македонского (Alexander the Great) в Западную Азию (Western Asia). Тем не менее (Yet), их цивилизация стояла у истоков (the very beginning) прогресса человека и представляла, вероятно, самую древнюю цивилизацию на земле.

Сегодня полагают, что именно шумерам принадлежат (have introduced) всемирно известные открытия в математике, сельском хозяйстве, технологии, управлении, архитектуре, литературе и, прежде всего, в изобретении письменности. Именно благодаря изучению (It was through the study) особенностей клинописных писаний (cuneiform scripts), ученые впервые предположили (suspected) существование гораздо более древнего народа, чем народов, которые были известны как прародители (originators) клинописи. Это стало возможным после расшифровки глиняных табличек, в которых находились случайные упоминания (occasional reference) о королевских личностях: Короле Шумер и Аккад (King of Sumer and Akkad). 11 a) Test. Read the text with the help of a dictionary and be ready to fulfill the assignments. The Rosetta Stone Napoleon Bonaparte's ambition to control all the area round Mediterranean Sea led him and his French soldiers to Egypt. After losing a naval battle, they were forced to remain there for three years. In 1799, while constructing a fort, a soldier discovered a piece of stele (stone pillar bearing an inscription) known as the Rosetta stone. This famous stone, which would eventually lead to the deciphering of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics [haiərə‘glifiks] dating to 3100 B.C., was written in three languages: hieroglyphics (picture writing), demotic (a shorthand version of hieroglyphics), and Greek. Scientists discovered that the characters, unlike those in English, could be written from right to left and in other directions as well. Twenty-three years after discovery of the Rosetta stone, Jean Francois Champollion, a French philologist, fluent in several languages, was able to decipher the first word Ptolemy- name of an Egyptian ruler. This name was written inside an oval called a "cartouche". Further investigation revealed that cartouches contained names of important people of that period. Champollion painstakingly continued his search and was able to increase his growing list of known phonetic signs. He and an Englishman, Thomas Young, worked independently of each other to solve the deeply hidden mysteries of this strange language. Young believed that sound values could be assigned to the symbols, while Champollion insisted that the pictures represented words. Notes: cartouche -[ka:’tu:ʃ] - картуш -орнаментальный завиток Test 1. How many years elapsed between the date of the oldest hieroglyphics deciphered by means of the Rosetta stone and stone’s discovery? a)1,301; b) 1,799; c) 3,100; d) 4,899. 2. Which of the following languages was NOT written on the Rosetta stone? a)French, b) demotic, c) Greek, d) hierogliphics. 3. Which of the following statements is NOT true? a) Cartouches contained names of prominent people of the period. b) Champollion and Young worked together in an attempt to decipher the hieroglyphics. c) One of Napoleon’s soldiers discovered the Rosetta stone. d) Thomas Young believed that sound values could be assigned to the symbols. 4. When was the first word from the Rosetta stone deciphered?

a)3100 B.C. b) 1766 c) 1799 d) 1822 5. What was the first word that was deciphered from the Rosetta stone? a) cartouche, b) Ptolemy, c) demotic, d) Champollion. 6. Why were Napoleon’s soldiers in Egypt in 1799? a) They were celebrating a naval victory? b) They were looking for the Rosetta stone. c) They were waiting to continue their campaign. d) They were trying to decipher the hieroglyphics. 7. Who was responsible for deciphering the first word? a) Champollion, b) Young, c) Ptolemy, d) Napoleon. 11 b) Explain why you think the deciphering of the Rosetta stone is important for both archaeologists or philologists? Vocabulary Study 12. Write out all the words from the texts for describing: a) the archaeological evidence of ancient civilizations; b) the level of their development. Speech Practice 13. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •The earliest known civilizations that flourished in the ancient Near East, America, Africa (the time of their existence, the place of their location, main occupations of the inhabitants). •Proof (evidence) of the existence of ancient civilizations (archaeological finds, historical records, inscriptions, epic poems, etc.) •The system of government and religious beliefs. •The burial rituals. •Advanced level of development of ancient civilizations. 14. Have a round-table discussion on the following problems: 1. What contributions were made to the progress of mankind by each of the ancient civilization? 2. Why did the ancient civilizations perish? 3. Did the conquerors try to preserve the civilization of ancient people? 4. The unsolved problems of the ancient civilizations. 15.

Composition 1. Write a short definition of an ancient civilization. 2. Give a brief account of the ancient civilizations in Asia, Africa or America. If you have some latest information, don't forget to mention it. 3. Write about the importance of studying ancient civi lizations.

It's Interesting to Know 16. Look through the text. Explain the meaning of the phrase and say whether it is used nowadays. Give examples. Bread and Circuses

The phrase 'bread and circuses' is taken from a satire by Juvenal, a Roman satirical poet. During the reign of Emperor Augustus it was the demand of the Roman populace. The phrase is a translation loan of the Latin 'Panem et circenses!' (bread and cirsus games!) The parties struggling for political influence in Rome tried to canvass supporters among the poorest but most numerous city population by arranging for them feasts with free food and spectacular amusements, the favourite amusement being circus games. But the people did not care which party stood them free dinner, and Juvenal in his satire castigates the Roman mob for their indifference to politics. Notes: Juvenal ['dzu:vinl] Augustus [ɔ:'gʌstes] satire ['sжtaiə] circuses ['sə:kəsiz] populace ['pɔpjuləs] - простой народ, чернь to canvass ['kжnvəs] - собирать голоса (перед выборами) spectacular [spek'tжkjulə] - эффектный to stand - зд. ставить to castigate ['kжstigeit] - жестоко критиковать, бичевать mob - толпа, сборище ROLEPLAY You are a student of Art College. Write to your friend a letter, telling him about the ancient Maya’s culture and present day Mexican folk art. Use the following expressions: The civilization dates back to… To flourish… Marvelous architecture… Brilliant culture… Sophisticated system of astronomy… Elaborate calendar… Preservation of craft skills… Folk art in today’s Mexico… To reflect craftsman’s cultural histories… CHICHEN ITZA Master builders, the lowland Maya flourished after A.D. 250 for at least a thousand years. Ruins of their cities dot the Yucatan Peninsula. While Europe endured (continued) the Dark Ages, the Maya established scores of city-states. Governed by hereditary rulers, city-states often shared power as political allies. The Maya developed the most sophisticated system of writing in the Western Hemisphere, traced the path of the planet with great precision, and marked the passage of time with an elaborate calendar system. Between A.D. 500 and 1200 the Maya built Chichen Itza. Encounters (meetings) with other Mesoamerican cultures may have influenced the blend (mixture) of architectural styles at this commercial and ceremonial center, where archaeologists have revealed steam baths, ball courts, temples, and what may be an observatory. The focal point of Chichen Itza is El Castillo, a 79-foot-high pyramid crowned by a temple. El Castillo is thought by many to be the Maya calendar constructed in stone. Its four staircases have 91 steps each; include the top platform and the total is 365, the number of days in a solar year.

Inside the pyramid is yet another building of similar construction that houses a jade-inlaid [ʤeil ‘inleid] (инкрустируемый нефритом) throne in the image of a jaguar ['ʤжgjuə], a symbol of power. Nearby a sculpted human figure, a Chac Mool, may have served as an altar for religious offerings. FOLK ART Mexican folk art reflects artisans’ cultural histories and views of the environment. Artists often use materials supplied by nature to create practical housewares, decorative objects, musical instruments, and religious icons. Collectors wander the local markets, where they can find palm-frond figures crafted in Puebla, ceramic trees of life fired in Acatlan, shawls woven in Tenancingo, and dance masks carved in Iguala. Passed from one generation to the next, from mentor (tutor) to student, skills are shared by entire families, who create pieces for each other and their neighbors that may find their way to museums and the galleries of private collectors. Yet economic need has caused many artists to produce their work in great quantity for export, removing their craft from the realm [‘relm] of traditional folk art. “What makes true folk art is how it is used,” says curator of Latin American Art at the San Antonio Museum of Art in Texas. “It changes with the needs of the people. It dies every day and is born every day.”

UNIT 4

ARCHAEOLOGY Before you start: What does archaeology study? Is archaeology an independent science or it is a part of history science? Archaeology is a science that came into being towards the beginning of the XX century, isn’t it? 1.Read, translate the text with the help of a dictionary, and see whether you can answer the questions: a) What is the other profession which can be compared to archaeology? b) How do the two compare?

Archaeologists are Detectives Who Dig in the Dirt Archaeologists have often been compared with detectives, as they hunt for clues about the lifestyles of ancient peoples. Like detectives, archaeologists go into the field to locate and preserve all kinds of information. They also use high-tech scientific tools to analyze the evidence they collect and then carefully interpret their data. In addition, like detectives, archaeologists today are not solely concerned with the traditional ‘what’, ‘when’, and ‘where’ questions but try to answer the ‘how’ and ‘why’ ones, too. Moreover, like criminologists, archaeologists attempt to generalize from specific ‘why’ answers to broader theories. Like many comparisons, however, the similarities between archaeologists and detectives cannot be pushed too far. One obvious difference is that archaeologists do not have informants or suspects they can question. The record that archaeologists study is mute. Thus, the archaeologists’ problem is how to get the remains of the past - from broken bits of pottery to large monuments - to “talk”. 2 a) Read the first part of the dialogue, translate it and be ready to speak on archaeology in general terms. Analyse and explain the words in bold type. Part I - What do you know about archaeology? = Frankly speaking, not much. To some people the word archaeology suggests something as dry as dust, a pursuit followed by elderly, long-bearded professors; to others the word is full of romance, suggesting buried treasures. - Neither idea is very close to the truth. Archaeology is the scientific study of the material remains of past human life and activities. These materials include relics, artifacts, monuments, etc. = But how do archaeologists manage to find out something about the earliest inhabitants who lived before a word of their history was written? - It is owing to the fact that an archaeologist deals with all the material remains of man: the objects he used and made, his dwelling places, his tools and weapons, his own bones and burial places with buried treasure. = I see. So the main thing for an archaeologist is the romance of treasure hunt, isn't it? - On the contrary, most archaeologists are not working with the expectation of finding a king's tomb or similar riches. They are aiming at throwing light on some portion of man's past by the careful piecing together of evidence, much of it apparently insignificant in itself. Notes:

to suggest [sə'ʤ est] - предполагать, наводить на мысль neither ['naiрə] - никакой; ни тот ни другой to include [in'klu:d] - включать (в себя) to manage ['mжnidz] - удаваться, ухитряться to find out - обнаружить, узнать owing to the fact - благодаря тому, что expectation [ekspek'teiʃn] - ожидание to aim at - нацеливать, направлять to throw light on - проливать свет на что-либо piecing ['pi:sin] - составление из кусочков apparently [ə'pжrentli] - очевидно insignificant [ insig'nifikənt] - незначительный

Archaeological terms: archaeology [,a:ki'ɔləʤ i] archaeologic(al) [,a:kiə’lɔdzik(l)] archaeologist [,a:ki'ɔləʤ ist] pursuit [pə'sju:t] - занятие to bury ['beri] - хоронить, прятать burial ['beriəl] - захоронение burial hill (mound) - могильный холм burial place - место погребения buried ['berid] - захороненный, спрятанный treasure ['treʒə] - сокровище, клад to remain [ri'mein] - оставаться remains - останки, остатки relics - останки, остатки artifact ['a:tifжkt] - остатки материальной культуры древнего человека tomb [tu:m] - могила, надгробный памятник evidence ['evidəns] - зд. археологические свидетельства, находки 2 b) Read the second part of the dialogue and answer the questions. Part II = Can you explain why the archaeologists carry on their excavations? - To begin with, archaeology is not an end in itself, not just an abstract study. It is the method of finding out about the past of the human race in its material aspects, and the study of the products of this past. These aspects may be the way people lived, the way they worshipped, the way they built, their art, their trade, their travels. = But all these aspects are studied by historians as well, aren't they? - Certainly, but historians are concerned primarily with written records, and the earliest systems of writing were only invented some five thousand years ago, whereas man's apelike ancestors appeared on earth about half-a-million years ago. The past does not vanish without a trace. The ruins of ancient buildings and of graves remain. In them clothing, utensils, weapons and other things are found. To learn how people lived long ago these things have to be dug up and studied. = What instruments do archaeologists need for their work?

- Archaeology involves skilled and laborious work. So they use different machines, then spades and picks. In places where machines and spades are found too big, smaller tools like knives, pincers and brushes are used. = As far as I've understood the data of archaeological research is used to reconstruct various social and economic periods of history for which no written sources exist. - Good for you. Now you know what archaeology deals with. = Thanks a lot. - You're welcome. Notes: to carry on - проводить end - зд. цель to be concerned [kən'sə:nd] - быть заинтересованным primarily ['praimərili] - главным образом to invent [in'vent] - изобретать to appear [ə'piə] - появляться clothing [k'louрin ] - одежда to involve [in'vɔlv] - зд. включать в себя skilled - опытный, квалифицированный laborious [lə'bɔ:riəs] - трудный, трудоемкий Archaeological terms: to worship ['wɔ:ʃip] - поклоняться ancestor ['жnsistə] - предок to vanish ['vжniʃ] - исчезать trace ['treis] - след grave [greiv] - могила utensils ['ju:tenslz] pl. - утварь to dig up - рыть, копать spade - лопата pick - кирка pincers ['pinsəz] - щипцы, пинцет brush ['brʌʃ] - щетка, кисть data ['deitə] - данные, факты research [ri'sə:ʧ] - научное исследование 3. Answer the questions: 1. How does the study of the remnants of the past help archaeologists in their work? 2. In what way does the work of archaeologists differ from that of historians? 3. Do you know what stages of excavations are and what archaeologists need for their work. 4. What do you think of this profession? Isn't it a romantic one? 5. What is a short definition of archaeology as a science? 4 a) Read the text, put in the correct articles, and say: a) whether you know the meaning of the word 'Stonehenge'; b) what this monument was used for (give your reasons); c) if Stonehenge is still a mystery to scholars (give your reasons).

Stonehenge Stonehenge is ... oldest of Britain's famous monuments. It has stood in ... middle of southern England for over 3,500 years. We don't know who built it, but it must have taken them ... very long time. They had to bring ... biggest stones, which weighed thirty tonnes, from hills twenty miles away, and they brought ... smaller fourtonne stones 200 miles from Wales. Even today this would be extremely difficult to do. Archaeologists used to think that Stonehenge was just ... temple for religious ceremonies. Now they think it was also ... kind of calendar, which showed ... movements of ... sun and ... moon. These were probably very important to ... builders of Stonehenge for religious reasons, and because they were farmers who needed to know exactly when they had to plant and harvest their crops. If Stonehenge and the many smaller stone circles in Britain and France really are calendars, we have to change our ideas about people long ago. They weren't primitive or ignorant people because it must have taken years of careful study to learn where to put the huge stones. They must have also thought very carefully about how to move ... stones over long distances. Though it's interesting to see Stonehenge today, ... early Britons who built it are far more fascinating. Notes: Stonehenge [stounhendz] must have taken - должно быть им потребовалось used to think - прежде думали 4 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: ’Certainly you are right’ or ‘ I'm afraid you are wrong’. 1. Stonehenge belongs to the Paleolithic Age. 2. The builders of Stonehenge were known as farmers. 3. It wasn't easy for the ancient people to build this monument, was it? 4. This monument was important for druids. 5. It took people 20 or 30 years to build Stonehenge. 6. The ancient people who built Stonehenge acquired much scientific knowledge. 7. Stonehenge was built just for the fun of it.

5. Read

the text and say who came before Columbus and by what way. Do you agree with the main idea of the text? Give your reasons. They came before Columbus A team of Russian and American archaeologists said that their discovery of 9,000-yearold artifacts on an Aleutian Island was the 'first direct link' that the first men in North America came from Siberia. The archaeologists said several kinds of tool blades unearthed on Anangula Island this summer matched other blades previously discovered in Siberia. 'This is the first direct link we've had that the Aleuts came to the United States via the Bering land bridge that connected Siberia and Alaska about 9,000 years ago', Dr. William Laughling, head of the American team of eight, told a press conference at the University of Connecticut. 'With this recent expedition, we have now found all three links: the skeleton of the Aleut who killed the whale, what he killed it with and the bones of the whale.' Notes: blade ['bleid] – the cutting part of an instrument or tool to match [mжʧ] - соответствовать, подходить via ['vaiə] - через

whale ['weil] - кит Connecticut [kə'netikət] 6 a) Test. Read the text (you are given 5 minutes) and fulfil the assignments. The Sepulchre of a Sarmatian Queen Found Decorations made by an antique master, and cult and everyday objects dating to the 1st-2nd centuries A.D. have been found in a sepulchre [‘sepəlkə] of a Sarmatian queen unearthed by an archaeological expedition from Donetsk University (the Ukraine). There are about 4,000 burial mounds on the territory of the Donetsk Region. Some of them date back to the Scythian-Sarmatian era. The warlike tribes of Sarmatians came to the steppes near the Black Sea in the 3rd century B.C., routing the Scythians who were related to them by origin. The flourishing of Sarmatian culture and might happened in the 1st-2nd centuries A.D., and it is also to this period that the rare finds from the sepulchre of a Sarmatian queen in Ukraine belong. The remains of a woman's dress made of goldbrocaded fabric, as well as a multitude of golden decorations, led the archaeologists to believe that their find was a sepulchre of a Sarmatian queen. Through some ancient custom she had died a violent death to follow her dead husband. On a bronze pot discovered in the mound the archaeologists found a tamga - the sign of a royal dynasty. The same sign was found on bronze jars and bowls of Roman and Hellenic make from the same mound. Telling about the Sarmatians' way of life, historians noted that even the women of that nomadic tribe were warriors and fought the enemies as men's equals. The fighting nature of the young Sarmatian woman did not prevent her from remaining feminine: she liked exquisite decorations, nice clothes and makeup. Archaeologists uncovered in the mound gold rings, earrings, a gold medallion and a gold vessel with remains of perfumes, inlaid with filigree and precious stones - a masterpiece of a jeweller. Also found in the tomb were bronze scales, dice cut out of amber, religious miniature figurines, antique masks. All these, archaeologists believe, are objects of cult. Obviously, the young Sarmatian woman was also a priestess. "The study of the Sarmatian tomb", says the head of the expedition, "gives us new information on the mode of life, customs and connections of the Sarmatian tribes". Test

1. Archaeological expedition unearthed a) the sepulchre of Sarmatian king; b) the unknown tomb; c) the grave of Sarmatian queen. 2. There are … burial mounds on the territory of the Donetsk region a) practically no; b) approximately to four thousand; c) more than 4,000. 3. The archaeological finds belong to a) the 3rd century B.C.; b) the 1st - 2nd centuries A.D.; c) the 3rd century A.D. 4. The Sarmatian queen a) was killed; b) died a natural death; c) starved to death. 5. Sarmatian women were

a) peaceful persons; b) interested in military affairs; c) warlike as well as peaceful persons.

6. Archaeologists found … a) stone beads; b) luxurious jewelry; c) modest objects.

in the grave

6 b) Read the text for the second time and answer the questions: 1. What kind of people were Sarmatians? 2. What artifacts made archaeologists think that the grave belonged to a) woman; b) a Sarmatian queen, c) a priestess. 3. Did these finds enlarge the knowledge of archaeologists of the Sarmatian tribes? In what way?

7. Explain in English the main idea of this text to a non-historian student.

В начале ХХ века выдающийся русский археолог В.А.Городцов на Северном Донце (in the Northern Donets basin) вел раскопки курганов (barrows), большинство из которых (most of them) относились к эпохе меди-бронзы (to the Copper-Bronze Age). Городцов заметил, что наиболее древние погрения располагались в простых ямах (in simple pits), последующие по времени (that later burials) - в так называемых катакомбах (in the so-called "catacombs"); наиболее поздние находились в деревянных срубах (in timber-framed structures). Взяв за основу зти три типа погребальных сооружений (tomb construction), В.А.Городцов выделил (distinguished) три археологические культуры: ямную, катакомбную и срубную (Old Pit, Catacomb and Timber-Frame). При этом было замечено, что каждому типу соответствуют определенная поза захороненного (the skeleton's position) и разные вещи (grave goods), положенные в могилу. Особенно явно (Notably) различалась керамика (the pottery). Благодаря работам исследователей удалось установить (have been able to establish) территорию, которую занимали племена каждой из культур, выяснить время их существования (the time of their existence), изучить хозяйство и быт (to study their economy and everyday life), познакомиться (to examine) с произведениями древнего искусства.

8. Translate this text into English in writing.

Микенцы С момента первой публикации в 1964 г. книга лорда Тейлора "Микенцы" (William Taylour "The Mycenaeans" [mai’sinianz]) зарекомендовала себя (has established itself) как лучшая исследовательская работа в области археологии о микенцах. В книге рассматриваются великие открытия, сделанные Шлиманом (Schliemann) и его последователями в цитаделях Микен (Mycenae [mai’sini]), Тиринфе (Tiryns

[‘taiərins]),

Пилосе (Pyloc [‘pailɔk]), подтверждающие, что рассказ Гомера (Homer) о

Троянской войне (Troy [trɔi]) не сказка, а быль. В книге рассматриваются и произведения искусств, проливающие свет на блестящую цивилизацию; и, прежде всего, книга охватывает историю подъема и падения (the rise and fall) в течение 400 лет этой великой цивилизации, которая оставила свой отпечаток на (that set its trace on) на бронзовом веке Средиземноморья и завещала (bequeathed [bi'kwi:рt]) свое наследие Грекам Классического периода. Vocabulary Study

9. Write out a)all the archaeological terms from the texts grouping them under the headings: 'Remains or Relics', 'Artifacts', 'Monuments'; b) all the verbs that deal with the work of archaeologists. Speech practice 10. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •Archaeology is a science. •The main aims of archaeology. •The specific features of archaeology. •The profession of an archaeologist is important for present-day life. •Tell your classmates about one of the most interesting (mysterious) discoveries from your point of view. •Tell your classmates about one of the most prominent archaeologists. 11. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above. Composition 12 a) Write a short definition of archaeology as a science. b) Excite your friend's curiosity of archaeological profession. c) Write a paragraph about the latest discovery in archaeology. It's interesting to know. 13 a) Look through the text and explain the meaning of the phrase and say whether it is used nowadays. Give examples. To bury one's talent A talent was an ancient monetary unit, a gold or silver coin. The phrase to bury one's talent was taken from a Gospel parable. A slave buried in the ground the money (a talent) given to him by his master. When the man returned and asked the slave what he had done with the money, the latter replied that he had hidden the talent in the ground and had it quite safe. The master reproached his slave for being lazy, adding that he could have lent the money to the traders and thus have made more money. In the course of time the word talent changed its meaning and came to denote the natural endowments of man. To bury one's talent means to disregard one's abilities and gifts, to make no use of them. Notes: Parable ['pжrəbl], course ['kɔ:s], endowments [in'daumənts] 13 b) Do the following two-way translation: - Откуда возникло выражение зарыть талант в землю? = The phrase is drawn from a Gospel parable about a slave and his master. - В притче, насколько я помню, слово талант имеет значение отличное от современного. = You are right. There talent is used in its original meaning and denotes an ancient monetary unit. - Как распорядился раб деньгами, полученными от хозяина? = The slave secreted the talent in the ground and on his master's return said that he had all his money safe. - Но хозяин, кажется, вовсе не стал благодарить или хвалить его за бережливость, не так ли? = Just on the contrary. The master reproached the slave for being lazy. - А как, по мнению хозяина, раб должен был распорядиться деньгами? = The master said that the slave could have lent the money to the

traders and thus could have made more money. - С течением времени слово талант изменило свое значение и стало синонимом природных способностей человека. = And the expression 'to bury one's talent' changed the meaning accordingly. Now it means to disregard one's abilities and gifts, to make no use of them. ROLEPLAY You are a great scientist in antiquity. Mark the following statements as true or false, according to the contents of the article. 1. The most important heritage of antiquity in Italy was architecture. 2. The Greek and Latin writers’ influence on the Italian mind in the 14th century was great due to the discovery of new conception. 3. Only some privileged Latin writers can draw their inspiration from the ancient treasure. 4. Petrarch worshiped Homer as he could read Homer’s works in the original. 5. A complete Latin translation of Homer’s Iliad was not a good one. 6. The 15th century saw a real boom in the field of translation from Greek in Italy. THE CLASSICS

But the literary bequests of antiquity , Greek as well as Latin, were of far more importance than architectural, and indeed than all the artistic remains which it had left. They were held in the most absolute sense to be springs of all knowledge. The literary conditions of that age of great discoveries have often been set forth; no more can here be attempted than to point out a few less-known features of the picture.

Great as was the influence of the old writers on the Italian mind in the 14th century and before, yet that influence was due rather to the wide diffusion of what had long been known than to the discovery of much that was new. The most popular Latin poets, historians, orators and letter-writers, together with the number of Latin translations of single works of Aristotle, Plutarch, and a few other Greek authors, constituted the treasure from which a few favoured individuals in the time of Petrarch and Boccaccio drew their inspiration. The former, as is well known, owned and kept with religious care a Greek Homer, which he was unable to read. A complete Latin translation of the Iliad and Odyssey, though a very bad one, was made at Petrarch’s suggestion, and with Boccaccio’s help, by a Calabrian Greek, Leonzio Pilato. But with the 15th century began the long list of new discoveries, the systematic creation of libraries by means of copies, and the rapid multiplication of translations from the Greek.

UNIT 5

CALENDARS, ALPHABETS, LIBRARIES Before you start: In the course of history men used various calendar systems. Could you name some of them? How many alphabetic scripts do you know of? What was the largest and the most famous library in the ancient world? 1 a) Read and translate the text.

How the Calendar Came about The word "calendar" has been derived from the Latin "calends", the day of the new moon and the first day of the ancient Roman month. The calendar now in use throughout the world is called the Gregorian calendar; it was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in the 16th century. Though in early days a calendar was required primarily for religious observance, it was used for civil purposes as well. Unlike modern man, who uses artificial time intervals, primitive man utilized the cycle of recurring natural phenomena, the most obvious and most precise of which were the alternation of night and day and phases of the moon. Other less precise but naturally recurring phenomena were also made use of for calendar purposes, e.g. the sprouting of leaves, the coming of the rains, etc. Longer periods of time were often marked off by the number of harvests, the number of winters or some other occurrences. Thus a child who had lived through ten harvests or ten snows was ten years old. Primitive man was intrigued by various celestial phenomena which displayed themselves in the clear night skies. He had recognized stars long before he invented written records. Principal stars were grouped into patterns which men identified with familiar animals or with the gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines and creatures of mythology. Since the appearance of the predominant constellations coincided with the natural phenomena, it was possible to trace the path of the moon and that of the sun through the sky. Those constellations were visible just before sunrise, or just after sunset, so primitive man naturally watched them as he rose with the dawn and 'went to bed' at sundown. The risings and settings of stars allowed him to derive the position of the sun among the stars and thus a calendrical year was ultimately obtained. The height to which the sun rose above the horizon at midday was carefully observed by men and finally it was noticed that the sun was above the horizon for the longest period at midsummer. The shadows which were cast by trees were used by primitive civilizations to measure the altitudes of the sun. In such a way the seasons were discerned. Notes: cycle ['saikl] phenomenon [fi'nɔ:minən], pl. phenomena occurence[ə'kʌrəns]-случай, событие hero ['hiərou] heroine [‘herouin] to intrigue [in'tri:g] to coincide [koun'said] -совпадать height [hait] - высота altitude ['жltitju:d] - высота to discern [di'sə:n] - различать, распознавать

crescent [kresnt] - полумесяц phase [feiz] precise [pri'saiz] - точный calendar ['kжlində] artificial [,a:ti'fiʃəl] - искусственный to utilize ['ju:tilaiz] - использовать to recognize ['rekəgnaiz] - узнавать to identify [ai'dentifai] mythology [mi'рɔlɔdzi] predominant [pri'dɔminənt] - преобладающий constelation [,kɔnstə'leiʃn] - созвездие approximation [əpr,ɔksi 'meiʃən] - приближение celestial [si'lestjəl] 1 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: 'Certainly you are right' or 'I'm afraid you are wrong'. 1. The Latin "calends" from which the word "calendar" is derived was the first day of the ancient Roman week. 2. Early man required a calendar only for religious purposes. 3. The alternation of night and day and phases of the moon were the most obvious and most precise of the recurring natural phenomena which primitive man used for calendar purposes. 4. Man began to recognize stars long before he invented written records. 5. Primitive people did not pay attention to various celestial phenomena.

2. Consult the text and find:

a) a word close in meaning to: aim, route, event, exact, different, mainly, evidently, to show, to puzzle; b) a word opposite in meaning to: coward, late, unfamiliar, invisible, disappear; c) the English equivalents of the following: григорианский календарь; явление природы; соблюдение религиозных праздников; смена дня и ночи; мифологические существа; главные созвездия; различать времена года; в отличие от современного человека; отождествлять с... . 3. Translate the sentences into English. 1. Появление календаря было вызвано (объясняется) потребностью человека вести отсчет времени года. 2. Календами в древнегреческом календаре назывался первый день каждого месяца. 3. Юлианский (Julian) и григорианский календари называют календарями старого и нового стиля. 4. Юлианский календарь был заменен григорианским в 1582г. 5. В нашей стране григорианский календарь впервые введен в феврале 1918г.

4. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the origin of the word "calendar"? 2. What calendar is used now throughout the world?

3. Why is it called the Gregorian calendar? 4. What did primitive man utilize to discern time divisions? 5. What celestial bodies could primitive man observe in the sky? 6. What helped obtain a calendar year? 7. What did people identify principal stars with? 8. In what way were the seasons discerned?

5. Read, translate and entitle the text. Render it by

answering the following questions: 1. What is the text devoted to? 2. What facts does it provide the reader with? 3. Find the sentence in the text where the main idea is expressed. 4. Do you agree with the author's point of view? (Give your reason).

Up to now historians have assumed that calendars came into being with the advent of agriculture, for man was faced with a real need to understand something about the seasons. Recent scientific evidence seems to indicate that this assumption is incorrect. Historians have long been puzzled by dots, lines and symbols that have been engraved on walls, bones, and the ivory tusks of mammoths. The nomads who made these markings lived by hunting and fishing during the last Ice Age which began about 35.000 B.C. and ended about 10.000 B.C. By correlating markings made in various parts of the world, historians have been able to read this difficult code. They have found that it is connected with the passage of days and the phases of the moon. It is in fact a primitive type of calendar. It has long been known that the hunting scenes, depicted on walls, were not simply a form of artistic expression. They had a definite meaning, for they were as near as early man could get to writing. It is possible that there is a definite relation between these paintings and the markings that sometimes accompany them. It seems that man was making a real effort to understand the seasons 20.000 years earlier than have been supposed.

6. Read and translate the text (you are given 3 minutes). Remember as many facts as you can to speak on the first historical writings. Of course, the ruins of buildings, weapons, jewelry and other objects can tell us much about how people used to live in ancient times. But we learn most about the past from what people wrote. People learned to write a very long time ago. In Armenia, for instance, one could find stone tablets with inscriptions that were carved on them more than two thousand five hundred years ago. Carved by the orders of the kings, who ruled them, these inscriptions described various military campaigns and conquests, the capture of prisoners and other booty as well as the building of canals and cities. During excavations in Central Asia, wooden tablets and bits of leather with writing on them were discovered. Scholars are still unable to read many of them. In Novgorod archaeologists found birch-bark scrolls. These scrolls proved to be letters, receipts, student notes, and the like. Most of the ancient books that had come down to us were written on parchment. One such manuscript was discovered in the library of an old monastery. This splendid poem was written about eight hundred years ago and was called 'The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor'. In it, the ancient poet described a campaign that Russian people fought against the warlike nomads. Scholars took great pains to collect and study ancient objects and manuscripts as well as folklore and legends.

Notes: jewelry ['ʤ u:əlri] - драгоценности tablet [tжblit] - табличка carved ['ka:vd] - высеченный capture ['kжptə] - захват prisoner of war [‘prisənə] - пленник booty [bu:ti] - трофей leather [leрə] - кожа (выделанная) birch-bark [bə:ʧ ba:k] - береста scroll [skroul] - свиток receipt [ri'si:t] – рецепт (особенно кулинарный), расписка parchment ['pa:ʧment] manuscript ['mжnjuskript] folklore [fouk'lɔ:] legend [leʤ end] 7. Answer the following questions: 1. What did the first inscriptions describe? 2. Where were these inscriptions found? 3. What forms of the first alphabet do you know? 4. Was it difficult to read the first alphabets? 5. What material did people use for ancient books? 8 a) Read, translate the text and be ready to make up a dialogue on the theme. Libraries of Ancient Times When was the first library established? Only a hundred years ago the two Egyptian libraries which were mentioned by the Greek historian Diodorus (1st century B.C.) were looked upon as the earliest examples of such institutions, if indeed, they were not fabulous. Now we have indisputable evidence of libraries at a much earlier date. In 1850 the famous English archaeologist Layard, being then engaged in unearthing Assurbanipal's palace (VII c. B.C.), came across several chambers containing a great number of records - decrees of Assyrian kings, accounts of wars, works on astronomy - as well as dictionaries and text-books. Having deciphered the tablets, the philologist had good reason to believe that the library had been extensively used. It had a kind of catalogue and a systematic arrangement of shelves. Four decades later, while excavating an ancient Babylonian site, archaeologists exposed a series of rooms. And there, stored neatly upon shelves were some 25.000 clay tablets, part of an ancient temple library. The library existed in the third millenium B.C. and was adjunct to the temple school. Judging by its careful arrangement under separate subjects and on separate shelves, the students could enjoy the use of a good library of reference. The greatest library of the ancient world grew up in Alexandria in Egypt in the 3rd century B.C. It consisted of two large collections. The larger and more famous one was housed in a school which was modelled after Aristotle's Academy in Athens. The smaller collection was placed in a temple of an Egyptian god. At the height, around 200 B.C., the collections contained several hundred thousand rolls. Being connected with a number of outstanding names in Greek literature, the Alexandrian library was the greatest centre of culture in the ancient world. The ultimate fate of the library is almost uncertain as are the names of the librarians. Apparently at least part of the larger collection was burnt in the fighting between the Egyptians and Romans around 43 B.C. Having later been complemented by the

collections of other ancient libraries, the library in Alexandria came into world prominence again. But in 391 A.D. the library was burnt by the order of one of the Christian emperors. Notes: Diodorus [,daiə'dɔ:rəs] Assurbanipal [,eisur 'ba:nipa:l] Aristotle ['жristɔtl] Layard [lɛəd] fabulous ['fж bjuləs] - мифический indisputable [,indis 'pju:təbl] evidence ['evidəns] - доказательство chamber ['ʧeimbə] - зд. комната to decipher [di'saifə] - расшифровывать series ['siəri:z] adjunct ['жdzʌnkt] - зд. дополнение separate ['seprit] reference ['refrəns] - справка, ссылка to model [mɔdl] - создавать по образцу ultimate ['ʌltimit] - окончательно to complement ['kɔmpliment] – дополнять 8 b) Explain the underlined grammar forms in the text. 8 c) Consult the text and find the English equivalents of the following: рассматриваться; неоспоримое доказательство; наталкиваться; иметь достаточно оснований, чтобы считать; широко использоваться; древняя библиотека храма; в университете при храме была библиотека; судя по; справочная библиотека; размещаться, располагаться; собрание книг, рукописей; окончательная судьба; будучи дополненной; повидимому; занимать видное положение; по приказу. 8 d) Make up a dialogue by answering the following questions. Work in pairs. 1. What library is considered to be the earliest example of this institution? 2. Where and by whom was it unearthed? 3. When did it exist? 4. What makes the historians think that the rooms excavated by Layard contained a library? 5. What century does that library belong to? 6. From what sources do we know about the two ancient Egyptian libraries? 7. What was the largest and the most famous library in the 3rd century B.C.? 8. When and why was the Alexandrian library damaged?

9. Read and translate the dialogue and be ready to explain to a non- historian student the main idea of it.

Inca Calendar May Be Hidden in Shrines - There is an interesting article in the 'Herald Tribune'. = What is its title? - "Inca calendar may be hidden in shrines." = Isn't it about the ancient civilizations? - You are right. From a study of early Spanish chronicles and of the layout of Cuzco [kuzkə], capital of the Incas, a specialist in Andean archaeology has concluded that the shrines around that ancient city, the design of its central temple and even the "spring run" described by the chroniclers, were all closely linked to the Inca calendar. = What is the name of this specialist? - The researcher is Mr.Vescelius, who has taught at the City University of New York. From his analysis of the calendar he has also proposed radical revisions in the chronology of Andean history prior to the crushing of the Incas by the Spanish conquistadors [kɔn’kwistədɔ:z]. = Were the results of his work published anywhere? - His thesis was recently presented to the Columbia University seminar on primitive and pre-Columbian art. = What is the attitude of other scientists toward his hypothesis? - Specialists said that, while the hypothesis was speculative, it brought together many previously puzzling aspects of what is known of Inca culture. = But hadn't scientists enough evidence of the Mayas and the Incas? - Unlike the Mayas, the Incas had no well-developed system of writing. Knowledge of their history and of their calendar is incomplete, being largely dependent on chronicles written by Spanish visitors. Among the puzzling features of those accounts was the "spring run" for which, on the vernal equinox [‘və:nl ‘i:kwinɔks], 400 runners assembled in the central square of Cuzco in what is now Peru. = Certainly there were some earlier sources than that of Spanish visitors, weren't there? - Mr. Vescelius suspects that the initial runners were assigned to 328 shrines whose distribution around the city and its suburbs was, in effect, a manifestation of the calendar. The shrine location, and the manner of their maintenance by the Cuzco families, some royal and plebeian, were described by the chroniclers. A large number of these shrines, according to the chronicles, lay along a series of 41 lines or sequences which, in general, radiated from Cuzco. = What conclusion did the scientist come to? - He believes that each shrine represented one day of the year. Each line represented a week. And each recurring triplet of lines was a month. It is known that the Inca year was divided into 12 months of three weeks each. If, for each week, there was a "sabbath" not represented by a shrine, those 36 days, plus one special festive day and the 328 days for which there were shrines, would add up to 365, representing a full year. = I am very much interested in this subject. Could you give me this article for a couple of days. - With pleasure. Here it is.

10. Do the following two-way translation. All The Calendars Are Lying - What character in a world-famous play said "All the calendars are lying"? Was the person who said it wrong? = Вы, конечно, помните, что эти слова из бессмертной (immortal) грибоедовской комедии "Горе от ума" (“Woe of Wits”). Как ни парадоксально, но старуха Хлестова, оказывается, была права. - Do the Gregorian and the true solar calendar coincide? = Григорианский календарь далек от совершенства (perfection). Астрономы убедились (made certain of), что наш календарь отстает ежегодно (is annually left behind by) от истинного солнечного примерно на три секунды. - When and how will the difference between the two calendars tell? = Расхождение невелико. Полные сутки (twenty-four-hour period) набегут лишь в 4915 году. Значит, в тогдашнем феврале окажется 30 дней. Впервые "куцый (short) месяц", который древние посвящали теням предков, станет полноправным, таким же, как апрель или сентябрь. - What is bad about being born on February 30, 4915? = Плохо тому, кому доведется (will happen to) появиться на свет в тот уникальный день: следующий свой день рождения он сможет отпраздновать только через 3333 года! - What is the principal inconvenience of the Gregorian calendar? = Разумеется (it goes without saying), не только этим не удобен наш нынешний календарь. Гораздо больше мешает (hinders) то обстоятельство, что после каждого високосного года (leap year) в нем меняется общее количество рабочих дней: первое января падает то на воскресенье, то на среду. = Is it reasonable to believe that in time the Gregorian calendar will be replaced by a new type of calendar? Is anything being done? - Сейчас в мире существует около 200 совершенно разных проектов реформы календаря. При ООН работает даже "календарная" комиссия. Пока (For the present) ею признаны самыми приемлемыми (are admitted as the most acceptable) два варианта. = Do you know of any practical suggestions to change the present-day calendar for the better? What are they? - Первый таков: год будет состоять из 13 месяцев, по 28 дней в каждом. Тогда одним и тем же дням недели будут соотвествовать одни и те же числа. Но в году окажется лишь 364 дня. Куда исчез 365-й? Это будет день без числа. День нового года. Сторонников (Supporters) второго проекта вполне устраивают (agreed with) 12 месяцев в году. Причем год разбивается на равные кварталы. В каждом - два месяца по 30 дней, а третий - 31. И также устанавливается единый день отдыха - день после 31 декабря. 1 января каждого года тоже обязательно будет выходным. = Why hasn't the new calendar been introduced as yet? - Остановка теперь за малым. (A tiny thing is holding us up). Любой из новых проектов можно будет ввести лишь после согласия всех стран мира, которое далеко еще не достигнуто (far from having been achieved). 11 a) Test. Read, translate the text (you are given 7 minutes) and be ready to fulfil the tasks. Sequoyah [si’kwɔiə] was a young Cherokee Indian, the son of a white trader and an Indian squaw (an American Indian woman). At an early age, he became fascinated by "the talking leaf," an expression that he used to describe the white man's written records. Although many believed this "talking leaf" to be a gift from the Great Spirit, Sequoyah refused to accept that theory. Like other Indians of the period, he was illiterate, but his

determination to remedy the situation led to the invention of a unique 86-character alphabet based on the sound patterns that he heard. His family and friends thought him mad, but while recovering from a hunting accident, he diligently and independently set out to create a form of communication for his own people as well as for other Indians. In 1821, after twelve years of work, he had successfully developed a written language that would enable thousands of Indians to read and write. Sequoyah's desire to preserve words and events for later generations has caused him to be remembered among the important inventors. The giant redwood trees of California, called "sequoias" in his honor, will further imprint his name in history. Test

1. What is the most important reason that Sequoyah will be

remembered? a) California redwoods were named in his honour. b) He was illiterate. c) He created a unique alphabet. d) He recovered from his madness and helped mankind. 2. How did Sequoyah’s family react to his idea of developing his own “talking leaf”? a) They arranged for his hunting accident. b) They thought he was crazy. c) They decided to help him. d) They asked him to teach them to read and write. 3. What prompted Sequoyah to develop his alphabet? a) People were writing things about him that he couldn’t read. b) He wanted to become famous. c) After his hunting accident, he needed something to keep him busy. d) He wanted the history of his people preserved for future generations. 4. The word ILLITERATE means most nearly a) fierce, b) poor, c) abandoned, d) unable to read or write. 5. How would you describe Sequoyah? a) determined, b) mad, c) backwards, d) meek. 6. Which of the following is NOT true? a) Sequoyah developed a form of writing with the help of the Cherokee tribe.

b) Sequoyah was a very observant young man. c) Sequoyah spent twelve years developing his alphabet. d) Sequoyah was honoured by having some trees named after him. 11 b) Read the text again and ask your classmates questions to cover the contents of the text. 11 c) Agree or disagree: It was due to the giant redwood trees that Sequoyah received his name. Vocabulary Study 12. Write out all the words from the texts grouping them under the headings: 'Calendar', 'Library'. Speech Practice 13. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: • Roman republican calendar. • The names of the months (their origin). • The Inca calendar was “more sophisticated” than formally believed. • The Julian calendar is named after Julius Caesar. Could you say a few words about the man? Do you happen to know the popular phrases: "The die is cast", "To cross the Rubicon", "Veni, vidi, vici"? On what occasions is Caesar said to have used them? 14. Have a round-table talk on the topics: 1. The alphabet suits the progress of mankind. 2. The inventors of the alphabetic system of writing. 3. Clay tablets are of exceptional importance a) to philologists and archaeologists; b)for studying the history of ancient civilisations.

Composition 15. Give a brief account of the origin and the story of the alphabet used by Russians and other peoples speaking Slavonic languages. Use the following words: Cyril [‘siril]; Methodius [me’ di s]; the Cyrillic [si’rilik]; the Glagolitic [,gl gou’litik]; to go back to...; it was used by; it was connected with religious, political and cultural activity; to recieve a brilliant education; to master five languages; to convert somebody to Christianity; to use the Greek alphabet; to be widely spread. ROLEPLAY You are a journalist. Your partner is a well-known historian of the Indies. Your task is to find out What Kind of Man Opened the Door to the New World. Use information from the article and your own imagination. The notes below will help you to prepare your interview. When / Where born? If there was any portrait of his? What documents his life preserved in? What his education was? What his height was? If he was of good stature? What colour his hair was? His preferences in eating, drinking, clothes. His manner of speech. His religious belief. His revealing of anger.

COLUMBUS, THE MAN Many of those who new Columbus took pains to study his character and appearance. In addition to Columbus’s own documentation, his life and work as written by some of his contemporaries have been preserved in letters, manuscripts, and books. No portrait or drawing of Columbus during his lifetime is known to exist. Our knowledge of the early life of Columbus and his family has been pieced together by less than two dozen documents. He was born in 1451 in Genoa. By his own account he became a sailor at age 14. Although he left Genoa illiterate, he rapidly mastered Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin. A description of Columbus’s personal appearance given by El Capitan Gonzalo y Valdes, says: “According to what I have learned, he was of good stature and appearance, of more than medium height, and with strong limbs, his eyes bright and his other features of good proportion: his hair very red and his face somewhat burned and freckled.” Bartolome de Las Casa, the Historian of the Indies, who was as a youth knew Columbus after his return from the New World describes him as follows: “His form was tall, above the medium; his face long and his countenance imposing; his nose aquiline; his eyes clear blue; his complexion light, tending toward a decided red; his beard and hair were red when he was young, but very soon turned gray from his labors.” Ferdinand Columbus, who spent all his time with his father between the ages of 12 and 18 describes him in his biography: “The Admiral was a well built man of more than medium stature, long visaged with cheeks somewhat high, but neither fat nor thin. His complexion was light, but kindling to vivid red. In youth his hair was blond, but when he came to his thirtieth year it all turned white. In eating and drinking and the adornment of his person he was always continent and modest. Among strangers his conversation was affable and with members of his household very pleasant, but with a modest and pleasant dignity. In matters of religion (as a devout Catholic) he was so strict that for fasting and saying all the canonical offices he might have been taken for a member of a religious order. And he was so great an enemy to cursing and swearing, that I swear I never heard him utter any other oath than ‘by San Fernando!’ and when he was most angry with anyone, his reprimand was to say, ‘May God take you' for doing or saying that. And when he had to write anything, he would not try the pen without first writing these words, Jesus cum Maria sit nobis in via, and in such fair letters that he might have gained his bread by them alone.” He died on May 20, 1506, at the age of 55.

UNIT 6

MYTHS, LEGENDS, PRIMITIVE ART Before you start: Do you know: a) any mythological character; b)how myths originated; c)in what forms these myths come to us. 1.Read and translate the text with the help of a dictionary. Define the character of the text (annotation, book review or abstract of a book).

All Thoughts of Centuries, All Dreams, All Worlds... Russian Encyclopaedia Publishers has put out the first volume of a new two-volume encyclopaedia called "Myths of the Peoples of the World", containing materials on mythological characters and tales of all epochs, countries and peoples - from the indigenous tribes of Australia and South America to Buddhist, early Christian and Muslim mythology. What we all have considered since childhood to represent mythology has been given prominence: antique myths, the mythological legacy of Greece and Rome which has contributed so much to subsequent culture. There are extremely interesting articles devoted to the Christian tradition and its Biblical roots. The ancient mythologies of Asia Minor, reflected in the earliest known manuscripts, are described in detail. In the article "Fine Arts and Mythology" the author traces the mythological roots of art, from the cave paintings to the Renaissance artists. Myths are regarded not as a simple play of the imagination, but as the reflection of historical events (as transformed in people's minds) and, even more interesting, of our ancestors' ideas about the world around them and its structure. When the myth pertaining to the origin of man (see the article "Anthropogonic Myths") is based on the outward resemblance of man and the monkey, one can only admire the power of observation of the people who created the myth. The same is true of myths about the stars in the sky (the article "Astral Myths"), reflecting ancient astronomical knowledge, whose high level has been confirmed by archaeology. One case is the earliest inhabitants of Europe who created primitive observatories - stone structures like Stonehenge (Britain, second millennium B.C.) The mythological characters and images incorporate the wisdom of the peoples of the world, their thoughts about their history and about the earliest and the most important cultural achievements, which in the myths are ascribed to "heroes", for example, the invention of fire - to Prometheus, in the Greek myth. The authors and editors have produced not only a reference book, but an original piece of research which many enjoy reading. The encyclopaedia will undoubtedly attract those interested in philosophy as well as in culture and art. Notes: Encyclopaedia [en'saiklo(u)'pi:djə]

epoch ['i:pɔk] -эпоха indigenous [in'diʤ inəs] - туземный, местный Buddhist ['budist] Christian ['kristjən] Muslim ['mʌslim] mythology has been given prominence - мифологии отдавалось предпочтение antique [жn'ti:k] - старинный, античный legacy ['legəsi] - наследие subsequent ['sʌbsikwənt] - последующий Asia Minor ['eiʃə 'mainə] - Малая Азия Renaissance [rə'neisəns] pertaining [pə: 'teinin] - относящийся Anthropogonic [жnиrə 'pɔgənik] - антропогенный Prometheus [prə 'mi:иju:s] reference book ['refrəns buk] - справочник 2. By answering the following questions sum up the contents of the text: 1. Who can be interested in such an encyclopaedia? 2. Is it of any use for historians? Give your reasons. 3. When do people first collide [kɔ 'laid] (сталкиваются) with mythological characters? 4. Why do different nations have the same myths? 5. Why do myths still exist in our epoch? 6. Can scientists refer to myths as the historical data? 3 a) Read the text, entitle it and be ready to speak on this topic. In a very early period in the progress of man, and long before he was advanced enough to make use of letters, he felt the want of some resource to amuse his leisure in peacetime and to stimulate his courage in war. This need was supplied by epic songs, legends or ballads which, in one shape or another, are to be found among all the peoples in all parts of the world. It is largely through these old tales that we know something of the people whose stories the minstrels or bards told. They were practically the first to provide for historical accounts. Unconsciously they were handing down a historical record of their day, and, as archaeologists have found, the main outlines of these ancient stories are valid enough to be trusted and regarded as historically true. One of the most ancient epics to be found in Europe is Kalevala, the Finnish saga. When minstrelsy had died out, it continued to live in the memories of Finnish peasants until in the 19th century it was put together, arranged and published by Scandinavian scholars. Of Russian old epic songs the most celebrated is 'The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor' which treats of the defeat suffered by a Russian prince in his campaign against the enemies of Russia - the Polovtsy (Kipchak Turks). Notes: Kalevala [ka:li'va:la:] Scandinavian [skжndi'neivjən]

3 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: "Certainly you are right" or "I'm afraid you are wrong ". 1. The main task of bards was to preserve the stock of traditions. 2. Archaeologists have found that the main outlines of the ancient stories are historically true. 3. Ancient myths and legends can only be found among few peoples. 4. Finnish ancient epics were published by Scandinavian scholars in the 16th century. 5. One of the most ancient epics of Europe, Kalevala, is practically the only collection of ancient tales that provides for historical accounts. 6. The profession of a bard was handed down from father to son through countless generations. 3 c) Match the words close in meaning: 1) advance, want, tale, bravery, to gather, to look upon (as), very old, famous, chief, bard; 2) to collect, ancient, celebrated, progress, main, minstrel, need, courage, to regard, story.

4. By answering the following questions speak on the glorious Russian epic 'The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor'. You may consult any reference literature. Work in pairs. A. 1. The glorious ‘The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor’ is one of the most celebrated Russian epics. Will you classify it as an epic poem or a ballad? Give your reasons. 2. Was it handed down to us in oral tradition or in written form? 3. When was it produced (in the 10th century under Vladimir the Great or in the 12th century under Svjatoslav, prince of Kiev)? 4. Do you know the name of the poet who produced ‘The Lay’ or is it an anonymous work? 5. What events does the poem deal with (a heroic deed, a military campaign, or a thrilling adventure)? 6. What evidence do we have to prove that the events described in ‘The Lay’ are historically true (archaeological finds, another version of the same tale, a historical record, or an account in a chronicle)? 7. Did Prince Igor march far into the steppe to meet the Polovtsy, or fight them from the walls of his native town which they besieged? 8. Did he lead a large army, or a small armed force into the steppe? 9. Was the army of the Polovtsy larger or smaller than Igor's force? 10. Did Prince Igor suffer a defeat from the Polovtsy or win a victory over them? 11. Was Igor slain in battle, or wounded and taken prisoner? 12. Did all the other princes of the Russian lands express sorrow for Igor's failure, or did they delight in it? 13. The so-called Jaroslavna's lament (a passionate expression of great grief) is one of the most poetic parts of the poem and is regarded as a masterpiece in world literature. Was Jaroslavna Igor's wife, sister, or mother? 14. Did Prince Igor stay as prisoner with the Polovtsy, or make his good escape? B. 1. When and where was the manuscript of ‘The Lay’ found? 2. As you know, the manuscript of ‘The Lay’ perished in the Great Moscow Fire of 1812. Had the text of ‘The Lay’ been published

before the Fire, or copied by hand, or photographed? 3. Where are the first printed copies of ‘The Lay’ preserved? 4. Who was the first to translate ‘The Lay’ into modern Russian? 5 a) Read the story, get ready to ask questions about the legend. Work in pairs. The Legend of the Tower of Babel You may have heard the story about the Tower of Babel. It is one of the myths people made up to say that having different languages keeps people apart, and that it is hard for people to become friends if they can't talk to each other. The people of Babylonia were rich and powerful. They were also happy. They loved each other and they enjoyed working together. But one thing was lacking. Men had only the earth to enjoy. God had kept heaven for himself and his angels. The King of Babylonia decided that his people should have Heaven as well as Earth. So he ordered them to build a great tall tower. Six hundred thousand men began making bricks and mixing mortar and piling up a building higher and higher. All day every day men carried bricks and mortar up a stairway on the east side of the Tower. Then they walked down another stairway on the west. This went on for forty-two years until the Tower was twenty-seven miles high. It was so high that it took a man a whole year to carry bricks from the ground to the top. Now the Tower had risen nearly to Heaven and God saw that he would have to do something to keep the invaders out. Perhaps if he made it hard for people to co-operate, they would not be able to finish the Tower. To carry out his plan God sent seventy angels down to Earth. The angels had orders: first to take away the one language everybody understood, then to split the people up into groups, with each group speaking a new tongue of its own. In no time the men who made bricks couldn't talk to the men who carried them. And the men who carried bricks couldn't say an understandable word to the men who laid the bricks. Everything was a mess, and everybody blamed everybody else for not understanding. People no longer talked about the Tower of Heaven. Instead they talked about the Tower of Babel, which meant the Tower of Confusion. Work came to a dead stop. The builders went away carrying their new languages with them. That is how it happened that different tongues are spoken in different parts of the world. Notes: Babylonia [,bжbi'lounjə] to lack [lжk] - испытывать недостаток, нуждаться heaven ['hevn] - небо, небеса The king of Babylonia decided that his people should have - ... решил, чтобы у его народа было mortar ['mɔ:rtə] - известковый раствор; скреплять раствором God saw that he would have to do something - Бог увидел, что ему придется что-то сделать, чтобы ...if he made it hard ... they would not be able... - если бы он сделал трудным... они бы не смогли... to split up - разделять, раскалывать tongue ['tʌn] - язык to blame ['bleim] - винить no longer - более не the Confusion [kən'fju:ʒ(ə)n] - библ. смешение языков. 5 b) Finish this legend by translating the following:

Сначала была сказка о том, как бог накажет (would punish) вавилонян. А потом, когда прошли столетия и башня, которую пощадил (to spare) Кир, разрушил Ксеркс (Xerxes ['zə:ksi:z]) и сравнял с землей (to churn to rubble) Александр, перестала существовать, миф о гибели Вавилонской башни вошел в библию (the Bible). 6 a) Translate in writing the following text. Indian Rock Art: A National Treasure in Jeopardy [‘ʤepə di] Like the monoliths of Easter Island and the prehistoric cave paintings of Altamira, North American Indian rock art is surrounded by an aura of mystery. Who were the long-ago artists? What do the carvings and paintings signify? Although examples of rock art exist at some 15,000 sites - in canyons, deserts, caves in at least 43 states, few Americans are aware of this immense legacy from the continent's past. Dating back as far as 5000 years, rock art represents a unique history of aboriginal Americans. It is one of the Indians' richest archaeological remains and their most abundant artistic legacy. In most cases, the art is a visual expression of a prehistoric ideology depicting, often with striking artistic sensitivity, such ritual practices as hunting cults, fertility and religious rites. Unfortunately, many of these ancient relics have been obliterated by the ravages of nature and man. Wind and water have eroded, and continue to wear away, unprotected sites. But the biggest threat is man. The construction of roads, homes and dams has destroyed thousands of rock carvings and paintings. 6 b) Prove that primitive arts represents a unique history of ancient people; c) Speak on the fact that the paintings and carvings are increasingly falling victim to vandalism; d) Are there any champions of art? Their goal is the protection and preservation of rock-art sites, isn't it? 7 a) Read and translate the text paying attention to the special structure of this text. Burial Customs as an Archaeological Source Archaeologists, however, are interested in many other things besides finds. Method of barrow construction, types of surface structures and details of the funerary ritual also throw light on the material and spiritual culture of ancient society. Burial practices as an archaeological source contain a variety of information. Since they represent a stable system, the reconstruction of burial practices permits one to identify six informational units. The first unit reveals the ancients' ideas about the means of passage of the deceased to the other world and of life in the realm [ri:lm] of the dead. The second unit permits the reconstruction of the process of replacement of the archaeological culture by another. The third unit can be used to draw conclusions about the social positions of various sex-age groups in ancient societies. The fourth unit allows one to characterize the social differentiation of ancient societies, as many features of the burial rite are determined by the social rank of the deceased. The fifth unit provides information about the evolution of forms of the family in ancient societies and permits the identification of "outsiders" in the community to which the cemetery belongs; the presence of "outsiders" may be explained in terms of marriage contacts with neighboring communities. The sixth unit contains demographic factors such as life span, stature, decease, and trauma. Thus the burial rite is an indispensable source of religious, cultural, sociological, and demographic information on ancient societies. 7 b) Explain the character of this text and give your reasons. 8. Explain the main idea of the following text to a non-historian student.

Происхождение народов, их расселение (distribution) и их родственные отношения, особенности окружения, общественного строя и культуры - все это и является предметом исследования этнографии (ethnography). У истоков поведения человека (at the root of men's behavior) находятся идеи о мире и месте людей в нем; идеи о природе реального; и о том, что, в человеческом мире хорошего и, что плохого. Без понимания общественно эталонных значений (socially standardized meanings), которые лежат за поступками людей (lie behind people's actions), многое из поведения других может показаться (may appear to be) иррациональным, если не совершенно бессмысленным (if not downright nonsensical). Но мы не можем классифицировать культуру людей как религиозную, магическую, научную. Любая культура содержит элементы всех трех. Для того чтобы существовать (In order to survive), культура должна быть основана на огромном количестве эмпирических знаний (a great amount of empirical knowledge). Там, где люди не в состоянии предсказать (are unable to predict) или проконтролировать ход событий с определенной степенью достоверности (with some degree of satisfaction), они могут искать (may seek) другие источники объяснения - не эмпирические. Антропологи (Anthropologists) классифицируют верования людей на те, которые связаны с естественным, эмпирически познаваемым (which are concerned with the natural, empirically knowable) миром, и те, которые связаны со сверхестественным (the supernatural). Внутри последней (Within the latter) категории имеет место еще одно подразделение (a second distinction), которое делит верования на магические и религиозные. 9 a) Test. Read the text (you are given 5 minutes). Be ready to fulfil the assignments.

The Great Pyramid of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza [‘gizei], a monument of wisdom and prophecy, was built as a tomb for Pharaoh Cheops [‘ki:ɔps] in 2720 B.C. Despite its antiquity, certain aspects of its construction make it one of the truly great wonders of the world. The four sides of the pyramid are aligned almost exactly on true north, south, east, and west - an incredible engineering feat. The ancient Egyptians were sun worshippers and great astronomers, so computations for the Great Pyramid were based on astronomical observations. Explorations and detailed examinations of the base of the structure reveal many intersecting lines. Further scientific study indicates that these represent a type of time line of events - past, present, and the future. Many of the events have been interpreted and found to coincide with known facts of the past. Others are prophesied for future generations and are presently under investigation. Was this superstructure made by ordinary beings, or one built by a race far superior to any known today? Test 1. Approximately how long ago was the Great Pyramid constructed? a) 640 years, b) 2,720 years, c) 4,000, d) 4,700 years. 2. On what did ancient Egyptians base their calculations? a) observation of the celestial bodies, b) advanced technology, c) advanced tools of measurement, d) knowledge of the earth’s surface. 3. Why was the Great Pyramid constructed? a) as a solar observatory, b) as a religious temple, c) as a tomb for the pharaoh,

d) as an engineering feat. 4. Why is the Great Pyramid of Giza considered one of the seven wonders of the world? a) It is perfectly aligned with the four cardinal points of the compass and contains many prophecies. b) It was selected as the tomb of Pharaoh Cheops. c) It was built by a super race. d) It is very old.

9 b) Read the text for the second time and answer the following questions: 1. Where are the most ancient pyramids situated? 2. Why are the tombs of the ancient pharaohs listed among the most wonderful constructions of the ancient world? 3. What can be said about the ancient Egyptians? 4. Were calculations for the Great Pyramid based on advanced technology? 5.The Great Pyramid wasn't built by ordinary people, was it? Vocabulary Study 10. Write out all the words from the texts which can help explain the meaning of the following notions: a myth, a legend, primitive art. Speech Practice 11. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •The origin of mythology. •Unwritten literature is the historical evidence. •The investigation of myths, legends, epics, ballads - is one of the main laws of preserving culture. •The information we get through unwritten literature. •The reasons of existence of myths in modern society of high technology and space flights. 12. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above. Composition 13. Write in English the definition of a myth, a legend, an epic, a ballad. 14. The main outline of the ancient epic poem of Iliad, as archaeologists have found, can be regarded as historically true. Write briefly a) what the poem of Iliad treats; b)what you know about the man who unearthed the ancient town of Troy. ROLEPLAY You are a teacher of literature at school. Your partner is a curious schoolboy of the 5th grade. Answer all his questions.

Your partner Could you tell me when/ The Lay/ written? Would you explain who/ the author? I wonder what / known/ about the author? What do you think about…? When /the first publication? What level of culture /in the 12th century? What trend /“scientific skepticism”?

You It’s a pleasure … As far as I know … On the one hand …on the other. Don’t forget to … Remember to … As far as I can see … I think /I believe …

The Lay / a historical tale? Why /important / till today? Oh, I see… Now I understand.

The reason is… The thing is …

THE LAY OF THE WARFARE WAGED BY IGOR The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor was written as long ago as in 1187, but time has not muted its patriotic appeal or dimmed its brilliant colours. Interest in The Lay, far from slackening, is actually growing wider and deeper. Why is this not very long epic poem enjoying such a long life? Why do the ideas it carries and the writing itself continue to move us till this day? The Lay was first published in the autumn of 1800. Count Alexei MusinPushkin, a well-known collector and lover of Russian antiquities had acquired the manuscript a few years previously. True, it was not the original author’s text, but one of the copies made by a scribe in the 16th century and included in a collection of old Russian secular writing. And it was this collection that Musin-Pushkin bought among other manuscripts through a commission agent from Archimandrite Joel of the since closed down Spasso-Yaroslavsky Monastery. The manuscript perished in the Moscow fire of 1812 together with the whole invaluable collection of Musin-Pushkin, which he kept in his house. At the beginning of the 19th century, ancient Russia had been little studied as yet. People had only a very vague notion of ancient Russian literature and the literary language, of its wonderful architecture, painting and jeweler’s art. Therefore, it was not surprising that when The Lay was discovered the skeptics refused to believe that a marvelous work like that could have belonged to the 12th century. Their voices were all the louder because “scientific skepticism” in general was widespread at the beginning of the 19th century. In Russia, as in the West, there existed a whole trend in historical science, a “skeptical school” which subjected to doubt the authenticity of most ancient writings (Russian, Ancient Greek, and West European) among them, for instance, even Nestor’s Chronicle (The Tale of Bygone Years) although hundreds of 14th-16th century copies and numerous testimonials of its authenticity have been preserved. The more The Lay was investigated, the clearer it became that it was genuine. At the end of the 18th century, ancient Russian was so little known that an imitation was hardly possible. In the course of research some passages in The Lay which first seemed obscure were clarified, as were also many references to actual historical events found in the poem. The poem was written at a time when the feudal fractioning of Russia was at its height. The economical, political and cultural life of the princedoms was insulated within their local little worlds. A great number of the smaller princes fought with each other, contending for land, for seniority, and becoming involved in fratricidal wars for the sake of purely personal, local claims. And Kiev lost its significance as the centre of the Russian lands. Just a cursory enumeration of 12th century cultural achievements is evidence enough that The Lay was not the time’s only work of art. It had its contemporaries in different spheres: in architecture, in painting, in applied arts. Literature – oral or written – was really the pride of Russian 12th century culture. The little that has come down to us of the wealth that was destroyed in enemy raids, that perished in fires or was lost through negligence, proves not just the existence of good literary works but also the general development of literature at the time. There were several literary schools, numerous genres, a demand for literature and an ingrained habit of reading. The diversity of schools, styles, traditions and genres in architecture, painting and literature, reflecting the fractionisation of the land into separate feudal princedoms,

must also be put down to another development, typical for the 12th century, that is, the intensified influence of the old local folk tradition exerted on the development of the Russian national culture. This influence was at its strongest during the writing of The Lay, although it had begun long before, and the poem with its natural combination of folk tradition and elements of refined literature is indisputably typical for the 12th century. The name of the author is unknown to us, and will hardly ever be known. So far, all the attempts to establish his identity have been based on the most fantastic assumptions. Still, there are some things we can assume about the author, his views, and his social position. First of all, he was not a monk, he was most likely a soldier, seeing how familiar he is with military concepts. He was undoubtedly an educated man and did not belong to the toiling class. In his political views, however, he clearly gave his sympathies to the working population of Russia, and had none for the class interests of the feudal elite. That is why he uses elements of folk poetry so freely. He wrote The Lay soon after Igor’s campaign of 1185. It is not a historical tale about the remote past, it is a response to a recent happening, agrievous happening that still hurts. He speaks of things that are very well known to him. It is a fresh impression of something that his readers, his contemporaries, still vividly remember, and therefore the poem is full of hints, reminders, and muted indications. There is no doubt that in the 16th century The Lay was copied out in Pskov or else in Novgorod.

UNIT 7

FROM THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION Before you start: Do you know who was called scribes in Ancient Egypt? What ancient methods of education do you know? Which of them are preserved today? 1. Read and translate the text and explain the underlined grammar forms.

THE EGYPTIAN SCRIBES In Ancient Egypt officials who could read and write were required for all posts in the highly centralized administration, and the first necessity of any man who wished to follow a professional career was that he should be properly educated in one of the schools attached to a palace or temple where books were copied and formal instruction given. In the reign of Rameses II, instruction began at the age of four and was completed twelve years later. In learning the classical utterance of the Middle Kingdom, which was used for some monumental and literary purposes down to Graeco-Roman days, the pupil of a later day had to wrestle with a language which was already dead and which he understood very imperfectly, as his copies of the classics clearly reveal. It is often only in such garbled forms that Egyptian literature has come down to us. The pupil began by learning by heart the different hieroglyphs and from that he progressed to words. From this stage he went on to copy extracts from the classics, sometimes translating them into his native language. Papyrus was too expensive for beginners to spoil and potsherds and flakes of limestone (ostraka) had to serve instead. The instruction in reading and writing comprised other subjects as well. Learning without tears may have been the ideal in some respects, although the Egyptians also had a belief in the efficacy of corporal punishment. It is not surprising that under such treatment the schoolboy should have thought of running away to become a soldier or charioteer or farmer. When the scribe had graduated from school he had his foot on the first rung of a career in the higher ranks of the army, the treasury, or the palace. Notes: scribe -писец to require [ri'kwaiə] - требовать should be properly educated - зд. должен был получить достаточное образование attached - зд. прикрепленный instruction - обучение reign [rein] - царствование Rameses ['rж misi:z] utterance ['ʌtərəns] - изречение to wrestle ['resl] = to struggle to reveal [ri'vi:l] - обнаруживать It is often only in such garbled forms that Egyptian literature has come down to us. - Часто египетская литература доходила до нас именно в таких искаженных формах. hieroglyph ['haiərəglif]

papyrus [pə'paiərəs] to spoil - портить potsherd ['pɔtʃə:d] - глиняный черепок flake [fleik] - зд. осколок (черепок) limestone - известняк ostraka ['ɔstrəkə] pl. from ostrakon efficacy ['efikəsi] - действенность, сила corporal ['kɔprl] - телесный, физический punishment ['pʌniʃmənt] - наказание should have thought of - подумывал о том, чтобы charioteer ['ʧжriə'tiə] - уст. возница rung [rʌn] - ступенька the treasury ['treʒəri] - казначейство 2. Answer the questions. 1. What periods is the History of Ancient Egypt divided into? 2. Why was it important to be a scribe in Ancient Egypt? 3. What role did scribes play in the development of Egyptian culture? 4. Was it an easy matter for pupils to be instructed in Ancient Egypt? 5. When did Rameses II reign? What was he famous for? 6. Was Ancient Egypt a mighty state in Ancient East? Prove your answer.

3. Read the text, translate it and say what the main method of instruction was in Ancient Greece. Early Greek Education The method of instruction that early men used was through imitation. Children began to imitate their elders first in play. In fact, children of all periods have done this. Toys and games were miniatures of adult activities. As children grew older, they imitated their elders more closely by participating directly in the hunt, in agriculture, in domestic duties and in religious ceremonies. Even after the development of writing, the method of instruction continued to depend upon imitation and memorization. The same method also pervaded early Greek education. During the Homeric age and for a long time afterward the youth were given noble examples of great men to imitate. There was no separation between word and deed. The young were constantly under the supervision of their elders. And if they obeyed, well and good; if not, they were punished. Notes: miniature ['minjəʧə] imitation and memorization - подражание и заучивание the youth were set noble examples of great men to imitate юношам приводили примеры, достойные подражания divorce [di'vɔ:s] of word and deed - расхождение между словом и делом supervision [,sju:pə'viʒn] - зд. наблюдение, надзор

4. Read the dialogue, translate and entitle it. Be ready to reproduce it.

- Have you heard anything about Spartan education? =Not much, though I know that it was a very severe upbringing.

It was owing to Lycurgus, a legendary Spartan law-giver of the 9th century B.C. The laws settled by Lycurgus arranged the lives of Spartans from birth to death. =Whom was a Spartan boy taken to on the day of his birth? And what for? - He was taken to the elders for a careful examination. All deformed and weakly infants were considered useless to the state. =What happened to them? - They were taken to a near-by mountain top and left to die of cold and hunger. =What were the further steps of upbringing? - If boys were found physically fit, at the age of seven they were taken from their parents and placed at the public schools. They lived in barracks in the hardest and simplest way possible. =What were the reasons of such upbringing? - A Spartan boy was taught to become a strong and fearless soldier able to endure hardships and suffering. =What does that mean? - Even in winter he went barefoot and slept outdoors. His chief food was a very badtasting broth, but as part of his training he was taught to feed himself by stealing food from farms and gardens. If he was caught, he was whipped - not because he had stolen, but because he was found out. =Did they go in for any kind of sports? - No doubt. Their sports and exercises were regulated by the severest discipline, and made up of labour and fatigue. = At what age did a Spartan boy become a soldier? - At the age of 20 when he approached manhood and service in the army, he was beaten in public. = Isn't it the so-called strange tradition? - Yes, it is, but this taught him to endure pain in silence. = What other rules were they guided by? - Spartan youths were taught to be modest in manner and brief in speech. In fact they were known for their short speech which is now called laconic, after Laconia, the state ruled by Sparta. = Is the popular phrase "With the shield or on it" somehow connected with the Spartans? - You are quite right. When a soldier was leaving for the battle his mother handed him his shield and usually warned: "Come back with your shield or on your shield." = Thank you very much. It was interesting to know about Spartan education in detail. -

Notes: severe upbringing [si'viə 'ʌpbrinin] -суровое испытание Lycurgus [lai'kə:gəs] - Ликург for a careful examination - для тщательного осмотра were found physically fit - с нормальным физическим развитием fear [fiə] - страх fearless ['fiələs] - бесстрашный to endure hardships [in'djuə 'ha:dʃips] (suffering, pain, difficulties) переносить лишения (страдания, боль, трудности) to feed himself by stealing food from - добывать себе продукты питания воруя ...

whip [wip] - кнут; стегать кнутом was found out - был обнаружен fatigue [fə'ti:g] - усталость approached manhood [ə 'prouʧt 'mжnhud] - достигал совершеннолетия to be modest in manner and brief in speech - быть скромным и немногословным to warn [wɔ:n] - предупреждать 5. Complete the dialogue by translating the following: - А что стало с самим Ликургом? =Легенда рассказывает, что, составив свод законов, Ликург покинул Спарту, взяв с жителей города торжественную клятву (binding the Spartans by a solemn oath) соблюдать (to obey) законы до его возвращения. - И как скоро он вернулся? =Для того, чтобы заставить спартанцев вечно повиноваться этим законам, Ликург так и не вернулся в Спарту. - Известно ли что-нибудь о нем? =Легенда утверждает, что он добровольно отказался от пищи и умер голодной смертью (he voluntarily starved himself to death).

6. Read the text, translate it. Be ready to compare systems of education in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Do it in pairs. Education of Roman Youth The Romans were no innovators in educational methods. They copied their educational method from the Greek. Roman boys were given noble examples of manhood to imitate. But unlike the Greeks, they were under the supervision not of a pedagogue ( as he often was a slave), but of their fathers. Thus a Roman youth was his father's frequent companion in forum, camp, and field. He learned the Roman virtues of fortitude, honesty and pity not only by imitating the heroes of legend and history but also by observing these virtues in his father and his father's companions. Rome's great schoolmaster Quintilian (42-118) mentioned that the way of learning by precept was long and difficult but by example short and easy. Later the education of Roman youth became more literary in character. More time was spent on grammar and effective speech. By the time the Greek or Roman youth had learned enough to begin the reading of some authors, another method of instruction was employed. First, selected passages were analyzed and discussed, then a literary critique of the passage as a whole was given. The selected passages were given for an exact reading with particular regard to pronunciation, punctuation, and rhetorical expression. Thus the youth were taught to express themselves artistically. Notes: innovator [,inouveitə] - новатор Roman boys were expected to memorize - Полагали, что мальчикиримляне должны заучивать slave [sleiv] - раб frequent ['fri:kwənt] - постоянный, частый virtue ['və:tju:] - достоинство, качество fortitude ['fɔ:titju:d] - стойкость

honesty ['ɔnisti] - честность pity ['piti] - зд. сострадание to observe [ɔb'zə:v] - наблюдать Quintilian [kwin'tiljən] - Квинтилиан, крупнейший представитель педагогической мысли др. Рима to mention ['menʃn] - упоминать by precept ['pri:sept] - путем наставлений to employ [im'plɔi] - зд. применять, использовать

7. Read the text, translate it and say whether you can explain the great influence of Greek literature on the world culture. The Heritage of Greek Literature Only a small fraction of what ancient Greeks composed has come down to modern times. The greater part of their literature is irretrievably lost. So it is surprising that Greek literature has exercised such an unparalleled influence. The very words for different dramatic and poetic forms - 'tragedy', 'comedy', 'lyric', 'epic' - or for the different verse metre - 'jamb', 'dactyl', 'hexameter' - bear witness to its importance. What schoolchild or student of modern times has not heard of Homer, has not dreamed of the mighty deeds of his heroes? What modern reader would not be awed by the breadth of Homer's vision of the human race, his insight into human emotions, the charm and meaningfulness of his parables? What poet or lover of poetry would not be captured by the infinite warmth and tenderness of the lyrics of Sappho, Pindar, or Anacreon? Their names may be less familiar than Homer's, but their influence has been felt, consciously and unconsciously; and their poetry has given direction to the form and content of songs and poems in all subsequent ages. Equally potent has been the influence of the Greek dramatists, of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Aristophanes. Their individual topics, whether mythological or political, have lost much pertinence, but their general significance has remained undiminished. Notes: iamb ['aiжmb] - ямб dactyl ['dжktil] - дактиль hexameter [hek'sжmitə] - гекзаметр bear witness to its importance - свидетельствует о ее значимости would not be captured - не увлекался бы Sappho ['sжfou] - Сапфо (или Сафо), древнегреческая лирическая поэтесса (7-6 вв. до н.э.) Pindar ['pində] - Пиндар (522 или 518 - ок. 442 до н.э.), древнегреческий поэт, видный представитель торжественной хоровой лирики Anacreon [ə'nжkriən] - Анакрион (ок. 570 -478 до н.э.), древнегреческий поэт лирик Sophocles ['sɔfəkli:z] - Софокл (ок. 497- 406 до н.э.), великий драматург Древней Греции Aeschylus ['i:skiləs] - Эсхил (525 - 456 до н.э.), великий древнегреческий поэт-трагик Aristophanes [,жris'tɔfəni:z] - Аристофан (ок. 446 -383 до н.э.), выдающийся представитель древнегреческой комедии

8 a) Read and translate the text paying attention to Emperor's activity. You'll need this information for the next assignment. The Augustan Age The Augustan age, in its direct historical sense, is a period in the history of ancient Rome during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the most flourishing period in the culture of the Roman state when Latin literature reached its climax. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian Augustus (63 B.C. - A.D.14), the nephew of Julius Caesar, became the first Roman emperor, occupying the throne from 27 B.C. to his death. He was a great statesman, a very shrewd and clever politician. While being nominally a princeps i.e. 'the first among equals', his power depended largely on public opinion, and Octavian Augustus took great pains to influence public opinion in his own favour while standing his ground firmly. For instance, he restored many customs, traditions and institutions of the Roman republic, the effect of which action was substantially lessened by his nominating himself or someone of his family as the head of all those institutions. Augustus encouraged the building of beautiful marble temples and palaces, thus providing commissions for many architects and sculptors; but it is worth remembering that the temples and other public edifices were to glorify Augustus and his 'divine' descent. Poetry and literature are very important means of influencing public opinion, and patronage of poets and writers was in fact a part of Augustus' national policy carried out by Gaius Maecenas, the emperor's friend and adviser (whose name has come to mean a generous patron of literature and art). The best-known poets of the period are Virgil, with his chief work 'Aeneid', an epic poem of the Roman people describing the adventures of Aeneas and his Trojans; Horace, with his 'Satires', 'Odes', etc.; Ovid, whose major work is 'Metamorphoses'; Tibullus, a lyrical poet. Of the historians, the most celebrated is Titus Livy, who wrote a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the 9th century B.C. The term 'Augustan Age' is applied in English literary history to the beginning of 18th century when English poets translated Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid. Notes: Augustus [ɔ:'gʌstʌs], Augustan [ɔ:'gʌstən], Octavian [ɔk'teivjən], Virgil ['və:ʤ il], Horace ['hɔrəs], Aeneid ['i:niid], Aeneas [i(:)'ni:жs], 'Ovid, Metamorphoses [,metə'mɔ:fouziz], satire ['sжtaiə], Trojan ['trouʤən], Tibullus [ti'bʌləs], Titus Livy ['taitəs 'livi], climax ['klaiməks], princeps ['prinseps], edifice ['edifis], patron ['peitrən], patronage ['pжtrɔnidz], Maecenas [mi'si:nəs]

8 b) Make up a dialogue by translating the following questions into English and supplying the answers. 1. Какой период в истории древнего Рима называют 'веком Августа'? 2. Чем прославился 'век Августа'? 3. Можете лм вы назвать годы жизни императора Августа? 4. Что можно сказать о внутренней политике Августа? 5. Какую роль играла литература в период его правления? Cправедливо ли называть это время золотым веком римской литературы? 6. Кто такой Меценат? 7. Кого из прославленных поэтов того времени вы можете назвать? 8. Что вам известно о поэме "Энеида" и ее авторе? 9. Какое время называют 'веком Августа' в английской литературе. 9. Translate the following text in writing. The two greatest poets of Ancient Rome, Virgil and Horace, and their promoters, Augustus and Maecenas, all came to light within a very few years (70-63). Augustus was the youngest, and Virgil possibly the oldest. The relation between Virgil and Homer is particularly close, because the former imitated the latter. This is a magnificent example of the dependence of the Roman genius upon the Greek. Even as Lucretius and Cicero explained Greek philosophy in Latin, so did Virgil create a Latin epic, the 'Aeneid', that was modelled upon Greek patterns, the 'Iliad' and the 'Odyssey'. The ancients admired Homer so much and knew him so well that learned Romans were led into fantastic belief that Rome had been founded by descendants of the Trojan kings. The 'Aeneid' was the mature development of that legend. From its point of view the 'Iliad' was a kind of introduction not only to Greek history, but to Roman.

10. Test. Read the text (you are given 3 minutes). Be ready to fulfil the assignments. Although the period that we call the Renaissance began in Italy in the fourteenth century, this idea of rebirth in learning characterized other epochs in history in different parts of the world. In 800 A.D. Charlemagne [‘ʃa:lə‘mein] became king of the Franks and initiated the Carolingian [kжrə‘laigiən] Renaissance, a period which saw beautiful and more modern cities patterned on Roman architecture. His improvements in instruction for boys expanded the educational system, helped maintain Roman culture, and continued a society in Western Europe, as well as created libraries (a carryover from Alexandrian Egypt of 323 B.C.). Kievan Russia also enjoyed a period of rebirth some 200 years later under the able rule of Yaroslav the Wise. Like Charlemagne, he founded schools, established libraries, and brough about many architectural achievements. Test 1. Which was the earliest period of rebirth mentioned? a) Russian, b) Italian, c) Carolingian, d) Roman. 2. Which city did Charlemagne look upon as model for his architectural improvements? a) Kiev, b) Rome, c) Carolingian, d) Frank. 3. Which of the following was not mentioned as a characteristic of the Renaissance movement? a) maintaining the status quo,

b) improved education, c) architectural advances, d) creation of libraries. 4. How many centuries separated the Kievan and the Italian Renaissance? a) 2, b) 3, c) 4, d) 5. 5. What can we assume about Yaroslav? a) He was demented. b) He was a competent leader. c) He was inept. d) He was cruel. 6. The word ‘carryover’ in this selection most nearly means a) remnant, b) residue, c) innovation, d) barbarism. Vocabulary Study 11. Complete the list of words from the texts which are essential for discussing: a) methods of instruction; b) the life of Egyptian scribe; c) Spartan Education. 12. Write out all the words from the texts which can help describe the role and significance of education in early times. Speech Practice 13. Choose one of the topics for a short talk to be given in class: •Early education in Greece and Rome. •The importance of being properly educated in ancient world. •Heritage of Greek and Roman literature. 14. Have a round-table discussion on one of the topics given above. Composition 15. 1. What useful methods of instruction can be borrowed from the ancient systems of education? 2. The importance of being properly educated nowadays. (Give your reasons). ROLEPLAY You are a philologist who is interested in handwriting of Columbus. Tell your colleagues what you think about Columbus’ monogram. HANDWRITING OF COLUMBUS Columbus used a sevenlettered monogram in connection with his ordinary signature. The significance of these seven letters remains unclear. However, Columbus considered his monogram especially important and provided that his heirs forever employ its form. “Don Diego, my son, or any other who shall inherit this entail, after inheriting and coming into possession of the same, shall sign with my signature which I now employ which is an X with an S over it and an M with a Roman A over it and over that an S and then a Greek Y with an

S over it, preserving the relations of the lines and the punctuation.” The heirs did not follow his instructions and Columbus never revealed the meaning of this cipher. Only the bottom line varied from its usual Xpo FERENS, a half Greek and a half Latin form of Columbus (“bearer for Christ”) to the occasional, “el Admirante” meaning the “Admiral”, as shown above. A number of documents and letters bearing Columbus’s unique signature have been preserved. The Admiral generally marked a cross at the head of any piece of paper on which he was to write. According to his son, Ferdinand, he began all his writings in Latin with “Jesus cum Maria sit nobis in via” which means “May Jesus and Mary be with us in our way.” Unfortunately, these words do not aid in deciphering his monogram. Although there has been much speculation, it is unlikely that any accurate meaning will be discovered.

UNIT 8

ANCIENT GREECE AND ANCIENT ROME

Before you start: What was ancient Rome famous for? What prominent Roman rulers do you know? What is the birthplace of 'democracy'? What person was 'democracy' connected with for the first time in ancient Greece. 1 a) Read, translate the text in writing with the help of a dictionary, and be ready to express the main idea of the text. Polybius and Rome's Eastern Policy 'Who,' Polybius asks, 'is so worthless and so indolent as not to want to know by what means and under what constitution system the Romans in less than 53 years have succeeded in subjecting nearly the whole inhabited world to the sole government - a thing unique in history?' It is perhaps not unfair to judge a historian by the degree of success he attains in tackling his main theme. If that seems a reasonable proposition, we may ask ourselves: Does Polybius in fact offer a satisfactory answer to the question he has raised? From one point of view it is, of course, quite obvious that if he had given an answer that was entirely satisfactory to everybody, generations of later historians from the Roman annalists onward would not have occupied their time furnishing alternative explanations. But Polybius himself is a more serious problem, since as a historian specifically concerned with Roman world power, he should have been applying stricter criteria. There are, however, several reasons why Polybius has committed himself to an interpretation of Roman policy which is inconsistent with the detailed narrative which his honesty and sincerity have led him to write. In the first place, Polybius was also a Greek and he therefore began with the assumptions a Greek would naturally make about the normal tendency of imperial states to expand. So, I have not attempted to disguise his shortcomings. On the one hand, a disposition to arrange events in a schematic form - one-sided concept of cause which he produces in explanation of the outbreak of various wars - on the other his conviction that the rise of Rome was a transcendental affair. But a history is not necessarily the worse because it is sustained by a conviction that it reveals a purpose; and perhaps without Demetrius [di’mi:triəs] of Phalerum [‘fжlərəm] and Polybius' belief that he had witnessed the unfolding of a superhuman plan there would have been no H i s t o r i e s certainly no Histories in the form we have them today. At least we can congratulate ourselves that the dichotomy in his thought and writing is so clear to detect and that the detailed events can tell their own story independently of the author's views about the purpose of Providence. Despite the contradictions in his thought, we are left with the truism that Polybius' narrative still remains the essential basis for any reconstruction of Roman policy during these critical years. 1 b) Give the English equivalents of the following:

быть никчемным, никудышним; единоличное правление; справедливо судить, оценивать; предложить убедительный (удовлетворительный) ответ; с одной точки зрения; поколения поздних историков; летописец; более строгий критерий; взять на себя обязательства; правдивость и искренность; скрывать чьи-то недостатки; с одной стороны ... с другой стороны; одностороннее понятие; независимо от взглядов автора; существенный (отправной) пункт. 1 c) Complete the following: 1. Polybius wrote his most important book about ... 2.The main problem Polybius discussed was ... 3. It's not unfair to judge a historian by ... 4. If he had given a satisfactory answer ... 5. Polybius himself is a more serious problem ... 6. Polybius was a Greek and began with the assumptions ... 7. We can congratulate ourselves that ... 2 a) Listen to the dialogue and take the part of B. - As far as I know, in the 1st century B.C. the Roman Empire became the strongest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean. = You are quite right. It was the last and the greatest of the civilizations of the ancient world. The Romans ruled all the civilized world and in the 1st century A.D. they conquered Britain. - What differed Roman society from the others ? = It was a slave society divided into classes: the slaves and the slave-owners. The slave-owners made up the minority of the population but they owned the land, tools, buildings and slaves. The slaves possessed neither land nor tools and they could be bought and sold, kept in chains, whipped or put to death. - Without doubt slavery was the most inhuman form of exploitation. The slave-owners appropriated almost all the results of the slaves' labour, therefore the slaves were not interested in the results of their labour. = By the way what were the functions of the Government bodies ? - Overseers forced the slaves to work more. The disobedient slaves were severely punished. Government bodies issued acts beneficial to the exploiters. With the help of the army the slave-owners put down the uprising of the exploited. The army also helped the slave-owners to protect their riches against foreign enemies and to wage endless wars in order to conquer new lands and to seize more slaves. = By what means did the Roman secure their position in the conquered countries, e.g. in Britain? - The Romans had to set up many camps to defend their provinces and station their legions. Straight roads were built so that the legions might march quickly whenever they were needed. The roads were made so well that they lasted a long time and still exist today. = Did the Roman build only roads? - Oh, no. Bridges of stone were built whenever a road crossed a river, some of these bridges can still be found in Britain today. Besides, to guard the province against the Picts and Scots who lived in the hills of Scotland a high wall was built in the North. It was called "Hadrian's Wall" because it was built by command of the Emperor Hadrian. From one end of the wall to the other forts were built a mile apart. But the most interesting fact was that the civilized Romans were city dwellers, and as soon as they had conquered Britain they began to build towns, splendid villas, and public baths as in Rome itself. = So we can say that the Roman conquest of Britain brought positive results to the native people.

- We can't give one reply to this statement. On the one hand the Romans brought high civilization to the British Isles, but on the other they also brought exploitation and slavery to the native people. 2 b) Express agreement or disagreement with the following. Begin your answer with: "If I'm not mistaken..." or "If my memory doesn't fail me..." 1. The Roman Empire was one of the strongest slaveowning states in the 1st century B.C. 2. Slaves made up the majority of the population. 3. The minority of the population possessed neither land nor tools. 4. Slaves were interested in the results of their labour. 5. The acts issued by the government bodies were beneficial to the exploited. 6. The only duty of the army was to put down uprisings. 7. Today we can't see the remnants of roads, bridges, towns built by the Romans. 2 c) Characterize the community.

slave-owning

system and compare it with the primitive

3. Read the text (you are given 3 minutes) and give the reasons for the weakening and fall of the Roman Empire. Explain these reasons to your classmates. The Fall of the Roman Empire In the 3rd-4th centuries the power of the Roman Empire gradually weakened. The unproductive labour of the slaves led to the economic decline of the empire. Neither new method of land cultivation nor new technical inventions were introduced. Slavery became an obstacle to technical progress. Poor cultivation exhausted the fields, the harvests became poorer from year to year. The uninterrupted struggle of the exploited against the slave-owners greatly weakened the Roman Empire too. The enormous number of slaves presented a great danger to the Roman Empire. The end of the 4th century found the Germanic tribes invading the Western Roman Empire and the slaves who hated the Roman state were joining them by the thousand. Early in the 5th century (407), the Roman legions were recalled from Britain to defend the central provinces of the Roman Empire from the attacks of the barbarian tribes. During the 5th century the Germanic tribes overran the empire and settled in all parts of it. The fall of the Western Roman Empire meant the end of the slave-owning system in Western Europe. Notes : to weaken - ослабевать decline - упадок neither... nor - ни ... ни obstacle - препятствие, помеха to exhaust [ig'zɔ:st] - истощать The end of the 4th century found the Germanic tribes invading - В конце IV века германские племена вторгались… 4 a) Read, translate the text, and remember as much as possible. You'll need the information while speaking about Caesar. The Republic Defends Itself When Caesar's tour of duty in Gaul ended, the Senate ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome alone. Shortly afterwards Caesar sent back the reply: "If Pompey disbands his army I shall do the same". But Pompey would not disband his

army, and a fierce struggle between the two great men began. It was a struggle for absolute power. In 49 B.C. Caesar led his army on Rome and reached the Rubicon River. If he led his army across the river, he would break the Roman law, but if he went to Rome alone, they would kill him. For a moment Caesar was undecided. Then saying, "The die is cast" he led his troops into the water. The Senate was caught unawares. As soon as the news came that Caesar had crossed the Rubicon, a meeting of the Senate was hastily called to discuss the situation and take the necessary measures. As a result, Pompey was offered the supreme command of the Republic's army. It was decided that all the forces of the Republic should be concentrated in the South, and Pompey set out promptly southwards. Some time passed and one afternoon young Julius Caesar suddenly turned up in Rome. Pompey realised that it was too late for his hastily-collected detachments, to enter the city captured by his opponent. So he had to retreat. Finally he was completely defeated, and Caesar became master of Rome and the rest of Italy. After the conquest of Gaul it was Caesar's second great victory. Having defeated all his opponents Caesar came to Rome and called himself emperor. By the way, in Latin the word "emperor" means "ruler" and at that time was only used for military commanders. Caesar was like a king. He sat on a chair made of ivory and gold. His statues were set side by side with those of gods and goddesses. Some of the senators, however, disliked the way he ruled. Besides, they were afraid of the autocratic ruler. They organized a plot against him with Brutus[‘bru:təs] and Cassius [‘kжsiəs] at the head. On 15th of March, 44 B.C. during one of the Senate sessions the plotters drew out their swords which they had hidden under their togas, and killed him. All those present at the session ran away in a panic. Notes : Caesar ['si:zə] tour of duty - зд. срок полномочий Gaul [gɔ:l] order - приказывать, приказ to return - возвращаться reply - отвечать, ответ to disband -распускать, расформировывать would not disband - так и не распустил to break the law - нарушать закон decide - решать, принимать решение to take measure ['meʒə] - предпринимать меры troops - войска to set out = to start off capture - захватить, захват retreat - отступать, отступление defeat - наносить поражение, поражение the rest of - остальная часть ivory ['aivəri] - слоновая кость autocratic [,ɔ:tə'krжtik] - самодержавный plot – заговор 4 b) Answer the following question : 1.What did the Senate order Caesar to do after his tour of duty in Gaul ended? 2. What reply did Caesar send?

3. What did Caesar's refusal lead to? 4. Did he cross the Rubicon? Was it legal? 5. What happened when the news about Caesar reached the Senate? 6. Who was made commander of the Republic's troops? 7. Where did the Senate decide all the military forces of the Republic should be concentrated? 8. Why did Pompey have to retreat? 9. Later he was completely defeated, wasn't he? 10. What finally became of Caesar? 4 c) Listen to and correct the wrong statements. Start with: "I don't think it was really so" or "I'm not sure" or "I doubt." 1.When Caesar's tour of duty in Gaul ended, he led his army to Spain to help Pompey. 2.The Senate ordered Caesar to raise an army and bring it to Rome. 3. Pompey disbanded his army and reached the Rubicon. 4. After a long discussion of the situation in the Senate it was decided that Crassus should be made commander of the Republic's army. 5. When Caesar turned up in Rome, Pompey realized that it was the right time to enter the city. 6. Finally Pompey won the victory over Caesar and became Emperor. 4 d) Could you tell your classmates what you know about Caesar (his biography, his military victories, his literary career, his death). 4 e) Arrange the following in the pairs of antonyms: 1) military, to leave, powerful, to suffer a defeat, to observe the law, right, to retreat; 2) powerless, to break the law, to advance, civilian, wrong, to win a victory, to come. 5 a) Read and translate the story; Pompey was one of the greatest Roman soldiers, a talented state man and a diplomat. In the 60's of the 1st century B.C., he played a leading role in the political life of Rome. While the Romans were suffering under the rule of Sulla, he was away in Africa, defeating the enemies of Rome. Six years later Pompey suppressed [sə'prest] an uprising of gladiators. Gladiators were people who were given arms and made to fight against each other in the arena for the amusement of the spectators. In later years they were forced to fight for their lives against wild animals. Many of the gladiators were Gauls and barbarians. There were schools in Rome where they were trained. One day a number of men ran from one of the schools and encamped on Mount Vesuvius. Here they were joined by other gladiators and slaves and became a great force. They easily defeated the Roman army which was sent by the Senate to fight against them. It was Pompey who finally put down the revolt: by his order tens of thousands of slaves were captured and put to death. After his victorious campaigns in the East, which led to complete Roman domination over Asia Minor, he returned to Rome and formed the first triumvirate [triai'ʌmvirit] together with Caesar and Crassus. But he had never expected that Caesar would soon become his enemy and defeat him. 5 b) make an outline of the story, showing: Pompey as a good soldier, Gladiators as a great force, Pompey's victories, the

First Triumvirate. 6a) Read, translate, entitle the text, and get its main idea. For the phenomenon as complex as democracy, its first appearance is remarkably easy to pinpoint: the city-state of Athens in the fifth century B.C. Periclean Athens, named for its most celebrated leader, inspired generations of later political theorists and statesmen. Yet many aspects of Athenian democracy appear strange and unfamiliar to modern eyes. The central political institution in Athens of the sixth and fifth century B.C. was the Assembly, usually composed of 5,000 to 6,000 members , and open to all adult male citizens. (Women, slaves and foreigners were excluded.) By simple majority vote, the Assembly could decide virtually any domestic issue without any legal restrictions. Trials were conducted by juries of 501 citizens who also decided guilt or innocence by majority vote. Perhaps most remarkably, the leaders of the Assembly were not elected, but chosen by lot, since Athenians believed that any citizen was capable of holding public office. Not that there were many such offices to fill: generals were elected for one-year terms, but otherwise Periclean Athens lacked any recognizable executive institutions such as president, prime minister, Cabinet or permanent civil service. The weight of decisionmaking fell almost exclusively upon the citizen-members of the Assembly - a burden of public service that most people today would find unacceptable. Without constitutional limits, the Athens of Pericles was prone to factionalism and manipulation by shrewd or eloquent orators. It was democratic Athens, after all, which condemned to death the philosopher Socrates - thereby earning the undying enmity of Socrates' most celebrated pupil and fervent antidemocrat, Plato. Despite its enemies and weaknesses, Athenian democracy was no fragile flower. It endured for approximately 200 years - surviving even defeat in the Peloponnesian War in 404 B.C. at the hands of its archrival, Sparta. Notes : to pinpoint - определять точное положение virtually ['və:tjuəli] - фактически trial - суд jury ['ʤ uəri] - присяжные guilt ['gilt] - вина, виновность innocence ['inəsns] - невиновность lot - жребий to hold -зд. владеть to lack - зд. не иметь, отсутствовать executive [ig'zekjutiv] - исполнительный burden ['bə:dn] - ноша, бремя to be prone to - быть склонным к factionalism ['fжkʃənəlizm] - фракционность hrewd [ ru:d] - зд. искусный, находчивый eloquent ['eləkwənt] - красноречивый to condemn to death - осуждать на смерть earn ['ə:n] - зарабатывать undying [ʌn'daiin] - бессмертный enmity ['enmiti] - вражда, неприязнь fervent ['fə:vənt] - ревностный, ярый

fragile ['frжʤ ail] - хрупкий, слабый endure [in'djuə] - длиться 6 b) Answer the following question : 1. What's the birthplace of 'democracy' ? Why ? 2. What do you know about Pericles ? 3. Many aspects of Athenian democracy seem strange today, don't they ? 4. What was the central political institution in Athens? 5. Who were deprived of their rights? 6. How could the Assembly decide any issue? 7. Who conducted the trials ? 8. Why were the leaders of the Assembly chosen by lot? 9. What official institutions were there in Ancient Athens? 10. Whose duty was it to make decisions? 11. Why was Socrates condemned to death? 12. Why is Plato called an anti-democrat? 13. What’s the age of Athenian democracy? 7. The following sentences make up a story. Retell the story in English. 1. 'Разделяй и властвуй' (Divide and rule) - одна из формул (one of the guiding foreign policy principles), которой руководствовался еще римский сенат. 2. Формула выражает (conveys) реакционный принцип государственной власти, согласно которому лучший метод управления многонациональным (multinational) государством - разжигание национальной розни (arousing hatred) между народами. 3. Эта формула часто цитируется (is often quoted in) по латыни: divide et impera. 4. Автор формулы в точности неизвестен. 5. Часто эти слова приписываются (are ascribed to) Макиавелли (Machiavelli [,m ki ‘veli]), итальянскому политическому деятелю и историку. 8. Do the following two-way translation: - Вы, конечно, знаете, кому принадлежат слова 'И ты, Брут?' (Et tu, Brute?)

(And

thou too, oh Brutus ['bru:təs ]) = These were the words of the dying Caesar, were they not? - А Вы можете сказать, почему умирающий Цезарь произнес их? = I believe Brutus used to be his friend. And it came as a shock to Caesar to see him among the conspirators [kən 'spirətəz]. - Мне кажется, Брут не всегда был единомышленником (to support) Цезаря. Разве Вы не помните, что Брут выступал против (had fought against) Цезаря на стороне Помпея? = Pompey? But I think at one time Pompey sided with Caesar. - А... Вы имеете в виду триумвират. = Yes, something like that. Triumvirate [tria’ʌmvirit]. I think that's the word. You know, I never cared much for history. To tell the truth, I had no end of (масса) trouble with the subject when I went to school. - А я думал, Вы интересуетесь древней историей. = No, I'm the wrong person for you.… Here's John Cable. He's just what we call historically-minded.

9. Put in the correct article and retell the story. Caesar's Wife

.... words "Caesar's wife" are used to describe ... person on whom even ... shadow of suspicion must not be allowed to fall. Julius Caesar divorced his wife on ... strength of ...rumour: her name was often mentioned whenever people talked about one of his men. He did not take ... trouble to enquire into ... matter and establish ... correctness of ... accusation. A Caesar's own reputation in matters of morality was not above reproach, someone asked him why he had divorced his wife on ... mere suspicion. His reply was that it did not matter for Caesar himself, but... woman who got herself talked about was not fit to be Caesar's wife; Caesar's wife must be above all suspicion. 10 a) Test. Read, translate the text and be ready to fulfil the task . Prisoners of war on Roman Coins. Prisoners of war are frequently depicted on Roman coins, beginning about 100 B.C. and continuing into the 5th century A.D. Coins served the Romans as an effective medium for propagandizing, even beyond the frontiers of the empire, the message of Roman strength and success in war as well as the disastrous consequences to those who opposed them. Captives first came to be used on Roman coins at the beginning of the last century of the Roman Republic. Together with other signs, such as Victory and the trophy, they represented the enemy soldiers captured during particular military campaigns. This continued to be true until the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. At that time Roman society entered into a period of rapid change, politically, economically and socially. The increased militarization of government and the rigid stratification of social ranks that occurred in that century are reflected in the coinage: captives on the designs of coins were frequently used to express the complete authority of the state over the individual. The paper concludes with a discussion of the rather fascinating transformation of the prisoner-of-war motif which occurred in the 5th century under the influence of Christianity. Like other pagan symbols, the prisoner of war was engulfed in the stream of Christian iconography thereby becoming another manifestation of the triumph of Christianity over paganism in the 5th century. Test 1. Captives on the designs of Roman coins were used a) very often, b) very seldom, c) never. 2. Coin-types with depicted prisoners of war appeared in the Roman Empire a) in the 5th century B.C.; b) in the 100 A.D.; c) between 100 B.C. and the 5th century A.D. 3. Coins served the Romans a) by satisfying the needs of poor people; b) as a propaganda for the Roman might; c) as military ambitions of plebeians. 4. Captives on Roman coins represented a) scenes of a Roman’s peaceful life; b) the enemy prisoners caught in certain military campaigns; c) political pretensions of patricians. 5. In the 3rd century A.D. captives on the designs of coins were used to show a) might of the state over each person; b) strict monopoly of trade;

c) financial position. 6. The last century of the Roman Republic means a) the 5th century A.D.; b) the 5th century B.C.; c) the 3rd century A.D. 7. The prisoner-of-war motif in the 5th century was typical for a) Christianity; b) paganism; c) both religions.

10 b) Read the text once more and answer the questions: 1. What was usually depicted on the Roman coins ? 2. How long did the prisoner-of-war motif last in the Roman Republic? 3. Did the Romans depict prisoners on their coins for one and the same purpose in different periods? 4. What did the transformation of the prisoner-of-war motif occur in the 5th century A.D. 5. What happened to this motif ? Vocabulary Study 11. Write out all the words from the text characterising a) the importance of being a historian; b) slave-owning society; c) Caesar. Speech Practice 12. Choose one of the topics for a short report to be given in class: 1.Popular phrases and proverbs connected with Caesar. 2.The outcome (исход) of the fight between Pompey and Caesar. 3. The origin and the meaning of the notion (понятие) 'democracy'. 4. The Roman Empire as the last and greatest slaveowning states in the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D. 5. The value of Polybius' evidence for the student of the hellenistic world.

13. Have a round table discussion on whether the Roman conquest brought only positive results to the inhabitants of the British Islands. Composition Pillars of Democracy * Sovereignty of the people. *Government based upon consent of the governed. *Majority rule. *Minority rights. *Guarantee of basic human rights. *Free and fair elections. *Equality before the law. *Due process of law. *Constitutional limits on government. * Social, economic and political pluralism. *Values of tolerance, pragmatism, cooperation and compromise.

14. What 'pillar' could be added or cancelled to the above-mentioned, according to your opinion. ROLEPLAY Make the correct list of the questions the reporter asked to get these answers from the political leader.

1. What is the fundamental principle of democracy? 2. What is Thomas Jefferson’s fundamental principle upon which democratic government is founded? 3. What is the most famous definition of democracy? We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men. In these memorable words of the American Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson set forth a fundamental principle upon which democratic government is founded. 1. What is the function of the government in the democratic society? 2. What freedoms can be granted to the people? 3. Why are the governments created? Governments in a democracy do not grant the fundamental freedoms enumerated by Jefferson; governments are created to protect those freedoms. 1. Do the people know their rights? 2. Is this a complete list of rights? 3. What are the inalienable rights of people? In their formulation by the Enlightenment philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries, inalienable rights are God-given natural rights. These rights are not destroyed when civil society is created. They include freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly and the right to equal protection before the law. 1. What’s the essence of freedom of speech and expression? 2. No law can break freedom of speech, can’t it? 3. May individuals be free when their government is not? Freedom of speech and expression is the lifeblood of any democracy. To debate and vote, to assemble and protest, to worship, to ensure justice for all – these all rely upon the unrestricted flow of speech and information. 1. Is religious faith a profoundly personal matter? 2. People must follow only officially established religions, mustn’t they? 3. What does freedom of religion mean? Freedom of religion, or more broadly freedom of conscience means that no person should be required to profess any religion or other belief against his or her desires. Additionally, no one should be punished or penalized in any way because he or she chooses one religion over another or, indeed, opts for no religion at all. 1. When do the citizens give the state their loyalty? 2. What’s the main aim of any government’s existence? 3. Does the government demand loyalty and service from its people? Democracies rest upon the principle that government exists to serve the people; the people do not exist to serve the government. In other words, the people are citizens of the democratic state, not its subjects.

WARMING UP Read the dialogues and learn them by heart. UNIT 1

Greetings - Good afternoon, Miss Smith! - Good afternoon, Mr. Brown! - How’s life? - No complaints. Thank you. How are things with you? - Nothing to boast of. Thanks. * * * - Hello, everybody! - Hello, Mary! - Excuse my being late. I was delayed by the traffic.- Never mind. * * * - Hi, Helen! - Hi, Peter! - It’s a long time since I saw you last. Where have you been all this time? - I have just returned from Italy. - Was it a business trip? - Exactly. - Was it successful? - I am afraid not. - Sorry to hear it. * * * - Why, if it isn’t Richard! - Hi, Bob! What a pleasant surprise! - Never expected to meet you here. - This is a small world! - What are you doing in this restaurant? - You see, we are celebrating my wife’s birthday. - Many happy returns of the day to her! - Thank you. * * * - Hi, Brett! - Hi, Heathen! - What are you doing? - I am translating an article. - Since when have you been translating it? - Since 10 a.m. - Have you done much? - I’ve just translated half of it.

Parting with people -

Thank you for enjoyable evening! Thank you for coming. Hope we’ll meet soon. Let’s hope for the best. * * - It’s half past ten, isn’t it? - Yes, it is. - I must be going. I’m very sorry about it.

*

- It was a pleasure to talk with you. - The pleasure was mine. Bye for now. * * * - I am going to the country for the weekend. - A happy weekend to you. - The same to you. - Thank you. UNIT 2

Weather -

-

The weather is fine, isn’t it? Yes, it is. The temperature is about 20 degrees above zero. It’s warm and sunny. No wind. Let’s go for a walk. Good idea. * * * Is it raining? Oh, yes. It has been raining since morning. Don’t forget to take your umbrella before going out. I won’t. * * * My favourite season is spring. It becomes warmer and the days are lighter and longer. Do you like spring? I do, though it is not my favourite season. I prefer summer. I am fond of summer sports, you know. * * * The weather changes very often this winter, am I right? I wouldn’t put it like that. This winter is extremely warm. The temperature is unusually high. There is no snow. It often rains. The roads are very wet and muddy.

Introduction -

-

Who’s the tall girl next to Barbara? That’s Mary Anderson. Didn’t you meet her at Steve’s party? No, I wasn’t at Steve’s party. Oh! Then let me introduce you to her now… Mary, this is my cousin Jim. Hi, Jim. I’m glad to meet you. I’m glad to meet you too. Can’t we sit down somewhere to talk? - Sure. * * * Mr. Wilson, I’d like you to meet Dr. Edward Smith. How do you do, Dr. Smith. How do you do. Dr. Smith is an economist. He’s just finished writing a book on international trade. Oh? That’s my field, too.

Time -

Excuse me, what’s the time, please? Half past eleven. Thanks. * * * - What time is it? - It’s a quarter to five. - Aren’t we supposed to be at Jim’s house by five o’clock?

- Five or five thirty. He said it didn’t make any difference. UNIT 3

A Telephone Call -

-

Hello. Hello. May I speak to Alice, please? Just a minute… Alice, it’s for you. Hello. Hi, Alice. This is Brett. Would you like to go to a movie tonight? Thanks, I’d love to. Good. The movie starts at eight. Fine, I’ll be ready. * * * Hello, can I speak to Jill Murray? Mr. Murray isn’t in. Any message? My name is Swindler. Frank Swindler. Please, spell your name, Sir? S-w-i-n-d-l-e-r. Swindler. I’ve just come from California. I’ve brought a letter and a parcel for Mr.Murray. I am staying at the Ritz Hotel, room 406. Please, tell him to call me back. - O.K. As soon as Mr.Murray comes, he will call you. Fine. I am waiting for his call. Good bye.

Asking the Way - Excuse me, but can you tell me how to get to the Wallace Collection? - Certainly. Walk straight on and then turn to the left. It’s in Manchester Square. - Thank you so much. - Not at all. * * * - Is Green Street far from here? - Yes. Turn left and you’ll see a big parking lot. Take the fourth turning on your right and you’ll find yourself in Green Street. - Thanks a lot. UNIT 4

Appearance, Character -

Have you seen our new computer programmer? Not yet. Why? She is a very pretty girl. Really? She is tall, slim and I’d say she has a very good figure. Her long hair is fair. Her eyes are blue. She has a snub nose and full lips. - What’s her name? - Jane Butler. She is about twenty five years old. - Is she married? - That’s what I would like to find out. - What kind of person is she? - She has been working here for about two weeks. They say she is qualified for the job, has good manners, very reserved and efficient. - I see.

UNIT 5 Talking art, music politics - You are fond of art, aren’t you? - Yes, I am. I am not very good at painting but I try to go to every art exhibition. Besides, I’ve read a lot about Russian painters. - Do you collect books on painting? - I wouldn’t say so. I’ve several books on art, but in general I borrow books from our libraries. Are you fond of art? - Yes, I am. Besides, I like music, or to be more exact classical music. - Who is your favourite composer? - I like Chaikovsky, Rakhmaninov, Mussorgsky… - I appreciate your taste. Modest Mussorgsky depicted the most tragic events of Russian history in his operas. Take his opera “Boris Godunov”… - Don’t you think that Mussorgsky and Andrey Tarkovsky have very much in common? - That’s exactly what I mean. Their talents match. * * * - What are you reading? What’s the title of the book? - It’s “A Farewell to Arms” by Hemingway. - What do you think of it? - As a matter of fact Hemingway is one of my favourite writers. I have read all of his novels and stories in Russian. Now I am reading the book in the original. - Any language problems? - Sometimes I’ve got to look up some words in the dictionary. That’s all. frankly speaking Ernest Hemingway is not among my favourite writers. I prefer detective stories. - Tastes differ. UNIT 6

Talking politics -

-

-

When I was looking through the paper the other day, I came across a very interesting article dealing with the development of cultural relations between this country and Great Britain. I’d like to read it too. Where was it published? Let me think… I believe it was in The Independent of June 3, … I’ll give you a copy of it. Do please. * * * Will you make a review of the Herald Tribune dated 3rd June and say a few about the situation in the Middle East? By all means. I’ll dwell on it later. * * * What does the article deal with? It’s devoted to the latest achievements in science and technology. * * * Anything new about the negotiations in today’s papers? Nothing much. No agreement has been reached so far. * * * Does the newspaper comment on the coming election in the USA? It carries an article which says that the Democratic/the Republican candidate addressed a big rally in… * * * As is reported from … over ten thousand transport workers went on strike in … last week.

- What were the strikers’ demands? - Higher wages and better working conditions. There are also some local problems the strikers want to be solved. * * * - The topics dominating the front pages of today’s morning papers are ecology, terrorism, a rise in crime, corruption of politicians, to say nothing of unrest caused by social, political and ethnic problems. - In short, there’s nothing they left out. * * * - Did he touch upon the national economy problem? - Yes. He spoke about it in detail and gave a lot of facts and figures. UNIT 7

Invitation - Do you feel like going for a drive in the country this afternoon? - Yes, I’d love to. It’s a beautiful day. * * * - Are you doing anything special on Saturday night? - No, I don’t think so. Why? - Well’ I’m having a little party and I’d like you to come. - Thank you. That would be very nice. What time? - Half past seven. - Fine. I’ll see you then. * * * - How about going to the Tate Gallery tomorrow? There’s an interesting new exhibition there. - I’d like to but I’m afraid I’ve got to finish a translation. Couldn’t you do it some other time? No. You see, I promised to finish it by Friday.

Receiving Guests - I’ve cooked some new cakes. I want you to taste them… Help yourself, please. - Oh, it’s delicious. - Here is your tea, Polly. - Thank you. Two lumps of sugar, please. - Mrs. Bright, do you like strong tea? - No, I don’t. And I always have my tea without sugar. - Here you are. - Thank you. Have you seen the new horror film? - No, I haven’t. I hate horror films. - Really? Well, I must be going. I am very sorry about it. It was a pleasure to see you. - The pleasure is ours. UNIT 8

Applying for a job Look at the newspaper advertisement for a secretarial job at Hat-In-Han Ltd. Write a letter to the Personnel Department applying for the job and giving reasons why you want it. Hat-in-Hand Limited is looking for a full-time

ADMINISTRATION ASSISTANT Applicants must… *have administrative experience *like meeting people *be able to type *have a working knowledge of computers *have office experience Starting salary over $ 12,000. If you are interested in this job please write to: The Personnel Department Hat-in-Hand Ltd. 187 Old Brompton Road South Kensington London W11 4UL REASONS WHY YOU THINK YOU ARE THE RIGHT PERSON FOR THE JOB

• • • • • • •

You have worked in an office for five years. You enjoy administrative work. You think you are assertive. You like working with people. You are hard-working. You can type 100 words a minute. You are trained to use most computer systems. CONVERSATIONAL FORMULAS

Expressing and finding out intellectual and emotional attitudes. - expressing one’s opinion: -I think… -I feel that… -As far as I’m concerned…. - asking for someone’s opinion: -Do you think that…? -What do you feel/think about…? -Are you sure that… - giving reasons: -I think … is right because… - … That’s why I feel that … -… and so I think that… - asking for reasons: -Why? -Why do you think that…? -What makes you feel that…? - defending one’s opinion: -Yes, but what I really mean is … -What I am trying to say is … -On the contrary, I … -What you said is really an argument for my point of view. I feel … - agreeing / supporting other people’s opinions:

-Yes, that’s right. -That’s what I feel, too. -I think so, too. -Exactly. -I (fully) agree with you. -X put it very well. -I feel that X is right. -X raised some good points. -O.K. - disagreeing / contradicting other people’s opinions: -I don’t agree. -I don’t think so. -That’s not … -You can’t say that. -That’s no proof. -That’s not the point / question / problem… -But surely… -Oh, no… - stating whether something is right or wrong -True. -That’s right. -That’s it exactly. -Wrong. -That isn’t right. -Absolutely not. - expressing certainty and uncertainty, probability and possibility -I’m absolutely certain that… -I’m sure that… -There is definitely… -There may be… -Perhaps… -…might… -I’m not at all sure if… -… could be … -I don’t think that… -… is not very likely. -That could /may /might happen. -… is not possible. -If A happens X will come. -If A happened X would go. - making comparisons -… is not as … as … -… are as … as … -… is a much more important … than … -… are less important than … -There are far fewer /not as many arguments for … as against… -You can’t compare … with … -You have to compare … with … - expressing interest or indifference -I’m interested in … -I’d like to know more about … -I’d like to do something on … -… sounds interesting.

-Please tell me more about … -… doesn’t interest me. -I don’t care. -What a boring topic. - expressing likes and dislikes -I love /I like… -…is great /very good /fun /fantastic. -I enjoy … -What I like best is … -I hate /dislike … -What I don’t like about … is … - stating preferences -I’d rather… -I prefer … to … -I’d much rather … than … - expressing intentions -I’m going to… -In 10 years’ time I’ll… -When I’m twenty I’ll… -I want to… -I intend to … - expressing doubts -I can’t say if… -I have my doubts about it. -Do you think that …? I doubt it. -It’s very doubtful whether… -You haven’t convinced me yet. -You may have a point there, but I’m still not sure… -OK, but… - expressing personal insights -I learnt that… -I became clear that / obvious that… -I realized that… -I found out about…

Poems and Songs to Study and Enjoy Grammar

1. Listen to the English song and a) write down all the questions you’ve heard in it, b) ask your friends the same questions, c) learn this song by heart. - Do you speak English? Do you speak English? =Yes, but just a little bit. - Are you from Chile? Are you from Chile? =No, I'm not. I'm from Brazil. - My name is Victor. My name is Victor. What's your name and where're you from? =My name is Alice. My name is Alice. I'm from Washington, D.C. =I'm glad to meet you. I'm glad to meet you. I'm so glad to meet you too. 2. Listen attentively to the English song and a) draw the girl's family tree, b) answer the question of this song, c) learn this song by heart. Well, my father has a sister And her name's Patricia Grand, And her children are my cousins, And their mother is my aunt. Well, my father has a sister, And her name's Patricia Grand, And her husband is my uncle, And his wife, well, that's my aunt. Well, my father has a sister And her name's Patricia Grand, And her brother is my father, And his sister is my aunt. And my aunt has got a brother, And her brother's name is Chris, And his wife, well, that's my mother, Can you tell me who Chris is? 3. Listen to the song and tell your classmates a) the name of the village and the street where the hero's friend lives, b) what the name of this friend is and whether it is a girlfriend, c) write down the way to her place. Pardon me, please tell me, How to get to Greenwich Village. My good friend Sarah Leigh Lives at Bank Street Number three. First turn right at the light, Walk two blocks, stop at the corner, Then turn left at the Zoo That is Greenwich Avenue. Walk two blocks straight ahead, Pass the school and pass the market, Then turn left at the store That's the street you're looking for. Now I know where to go, I'll just follow your directions. Thanks so much. Now, I'm fine. You're quite welcome any time. 4. Listen to the English song and say a) what things Grandma needs,

b) what shops they are sold in, c) what Pete's answer is, d) what kind of character has got (kind or naughty). - I need salad, Pete, I need salad, Pete. = There's a little grocery store right across the street. - I need lamb chop, Pete, I need lamb chop, Pete. = There's a little butcher's shop right across the street. - I need pastry, Pete, I need pastry, Pete. = There's a little pastry shop right across the street. - I need flowers, Pete, I need flowers, Pete. = There's a little florist shop right across the street. - I need aspirin, Pete, I need aspirin, Pete. = There's a little pharmacy right across the street. 5. Listen to the song and a) say what tense is used in it and why, b) ask questions about the young boy's actions, c) describe the young boy's activity, using the Present Continuous Tense, d) explain the usage of the Simple Tense in the refrain (припев) of this song, e) explain the usage of articles. I'm walking down a street, I'm waiting for a bus, I'm watching an old lady, who's holding a small dog. I'm looking through the windows Of the shops along the way, I'm thinking of my true love who's the angel of the day. I can't see her in the city of light, I can't hear her in the dark of the night. I'm sitting in a train, I'm looking for my love, I'm watching an old lady who's holding a small dog. I'm looking through the windows At the trees along the way, I'm thinking of my true love who's the angel of the day. 6. Listen to the song and a)say what tense is used in it and why, b) say who this song is about, c) ask questions about Mr. Monday's activity, d) tell your classmates the life-story of Mr. Monday using the Present Simple tense. He gets up at eight o'clock On cold clear winter days, He eats his food at half past eight And clears the pots away. He drives his car in the city streets And he meets along the way A lot of tall dark people, Who stand there all day. He's Mr. Monday, Mr. Monday, He works all day from 9 to 5, He's Mr. Monday, Mr. Monday, He lives alone in our city. I see him in the evening, I pass him at the door, I say, "Hello, how are you?" And I know he's very old. He looks at the street through his windows, He watches the people pass by, He loves little dogs and children,

Pete

And he never tells a lie. 7. Listen to the song and a) say what tense is used in it and why, b) who this song is about, c) describe Alice's activity and character using the Past Simple tense. What were you doing When I saw you in the stable, Alice? What were you doing When I saw you there? I was listening to the stories Of the big white horses, They were telling me All about their favourite courses. I was listening eagerly To what they had to say. What were you doing When I saw you at the station, Alice? What were you doing When I saw you there? I was reading all the books About the Queen of England. I was writing poems That I want to send to her. I was looking for a word To write about her hair. What were you doing When I saw you at the Palace, Alice? What were you doing When I saw you there? I was talking to the Queen About my latest novel. She was asking me to come to tea again. She was asking me to come to tea again. What were you doing When I saw you there? 8. Listen to the song and say a)what this song is about, b) what new places the girl may see and under what circumstances, c) explain why the Present Simple is used in "if" and "when" clauses, d) what the short forms: "I'll", "won't", "that's" stand for. If you go to Rome You'll see the Coliseum, If you go to London Maybe you'll see the Queen. If you stay with me You won't see anything, But you'll be very happy, That's for sure ! If you climb that mountain, You'll be above the noisy crowds, If you catch a jet plane, You'll see above the clouds. If you stay with me You won't see anything, But you'll be very happy, That's for sure !

If you leave me now, I'll be sad and lonely, If you walk away, I'll search around for you. If it takes a year, I'll find you, my darling, And you'll be very happy, That's for sure ! If you make some money, Will you come and live with me ? If I make some money, Will you change your mind? If I ask you nicely, Will you make a cup of tea ? Then I'll be very happy, That's for sure ! If you leave me now, I'll be sad and lonely, If you walk away, I'll search around for you. If it takes a year, I'll find you, my darling, And you'll be very happy, That's for sure ! 9. Listen to the song and a) say what tense is used in 'when' clauses, b) what other tenses are used in the song, c) ask your classmates questions about the hero's activity using the Future Continuous tense, d) explain his refusal to return home. When you wake tomorrow, I'll be walking down the road, I'll be thinking of the times We had together... I'll be wishing we'd done better, I'll be writing you a letter, Telling you I won't be coming home again. When you draw the curtains, I'll be standing at the station, I'll be lighting my first cigarette of the day. I'll be sitting on the train, Telling all those who'll be listening, About the loneliness of my poor life. The train'll be arriving at the station in the morning, Picking up the passengers one by one... I'll be playing a game of cards With the driver and the guard And I know I won't be coming home again. When I get to London You'll be looking in my room, You'll be wondering why the bed already made. You'll be wishing we'd done better, You'll be looking at my letter, You'll be reading that I won't be coming home. I'll be sitting on the train. Telling all those who'll be listening, About the loneliness of my poor life.

I'll be wishing we'd done better, I'll be writing you a letter, Telling you I won't be coming home again. And I know I won't be coming home again. 10. Listen to the song and a) say what the hero of this song is going to do, b)ask your classmates questions on his activity, c) say why he is going to leave his place, d) say whether you can guess what his profession is. I'm going to sell my car And my welcome mat, I'm going to hide my briefcase And my bowler hat, I'm going to buy a ticket And catch a plane, I'm going to sit in the sun And laugh in the rain. I'm going to go where they say The life is sweet, I'm going to let the grass Grow under my feet. I'm going to calm the waves Beside the sea, I'm going to be happy, I'm going to be free. I'm going to throw my shoes away I don't care what the people say, I'm going to spend my money, too, And then I don't know What I'll do! But I don't want to be alone, I'm going to miss my telephone. I'm not going to live without a friend, I'm going to sit and think again ! I'm not going to leave This beautiful town, I'm not going to watch The sun go down. Tomorrow at the station You are going to see Two hundred city gents All exactly like me. I'm going to buy a ticket And catch a train. I'm going to read a book And look at the rain. 11. Listen to the song and say a) where the main character lives now; b) where he lived before; c) whether he is used to living in the town; d) what life he longs for. I'm a city boy from the center of town, I'm used to seeing the rain come down, I'm a city boy and I like being free And living in the country isn't for me. I can't get used to the quiet of night,

I can't get used to the fields. I'm used to artificial light And the moon in the sky looks real. I can't get used to the fresh-faced girls Or the smell of flowers on the air. I'm used to eating food from tins And seeing motorcars everywhere. I'll never get used to waking up And hearing the birds in the trees. I'll never get used to them singing Or to the humming of the bees. But I'm going to get used to walking And smiling at the passers-by. Oh, country life is the life for me And I'm going to kiss the city 'good-bye'. I'm getting used to the country And I'm getting used to the trees, I'm used to like the city life. Now I long for birds and trees. He's getting used to the country And he's getting used to the trees, He's used to like the city life. Now he longs for the birds and trees. 12. Listen to the song and a) describe the situation in this place using the Passive Voice; b)say who won in this case and why; c) what kind of problem is touched in this song. The houses are built And then they are pulled down, The people are told To move out of the town. The letters are written, The protests begin But nothing is done, The battle is won. Won by whom? A motorway is needed, We must start right away A thousand trees are cut down The very first day. An election is held, The other party wins, And the very next day The motorway begins. Built by whom? A church is demolished, The protest's made, The office is named after The very famous things. The offices are damaged By an accidental fire, A hymn of thanksgiving Is sung by the choir. Nothing changed. A minister's invited

To open a road, A traffic jam delays him And the day is wet and cold. Several of guests Are taken down with flu. The minister arrives And catches it, too. Down with flu. A man was accused Of every social deeds. He tried to stop the motorway Rolling on his weeds. The case was defended But the prosecutor won. Everyone was happy For justice was done. 13. Listen to the song and say a) what the young man has been doing and why; b) what his thoughts are about; c) why he is going back home; d) explain the usage of tenses in this song. I am sitting all alone, In my girl-friend's home. I am sitting waiting for her To come home. I've been waiting for an hour, I've been making paper flowers, I've been thinking What she means to me... I am sitting all alone, Still she isn't home, I've been getting very, very sad. I've been cooking in the kitchen, I've been watching television, I've been reading letters That I wrote to her. All these years I've been thinking She wanted to marry me. But in fact she's been looking For another man but I couldn't see! I am standing all alone, I'm a long way from home, I've been watching all the ships sail by. I've been singing sad, sad songs, I'm going back where I belong, I've been living in this town too long! All these years I've been thinking She wanted to marry me. But in fact, she's been looking For another man but I couldn't see! I am standing all alone, I am a long way from home, I've been watching all the ships sail by. I've been singing sad, sad songs, I'm going back where I belong, I've been living in this town too long!

14. Listen to the song and say a) whether you can characterize the main hero of this song; b) what he used to think about his girl-friend; c) what news he found out about her; d) whether he was very much upset to learn the news. I used to wake up in the morning Watch the sunshine in my garden, I used to pick the flowers every day. I used to think she was an angel. I used to be like that But now I'm not ! Did you use to be like me ? Standing with your head up in the clouds? No, I didn't use to be like you, I didn't use to dream, I didn't use to think that love was real. She used to take the pearls and diamonds, She used to ask for more and more. She used to say she'd like to marry me. She used to have another lover. He used to live in a house next door, He used to live there, yes, But now he's gone... He used to tell her that he loved her, He used to use her telephone, He used to take her money To pay his rent. But now he's gone She is unhappy. He took away her pearls and diamonds. She used to watch them gleam But now she can't. 15. Listen to the song and say a) what things the main character dreams about; b) whether he is going to be happy and why; c) what tense is used here and why. Tomorrow will be wonderful, I'll drive my little car, I'll walk along the river bank, I'll watch the ships sail by. The next day will be better, I'll take you to the zoo, I'll show you bears and monkeys And a great gorilla too. Will you come to the party on Friday? Will you meet me under the tree? Will you marry me in September? Will you come and live by the sea? We'll have a house with windows But look out to the sea, We'll entertain our neighbours With chocolates, cakes and tea. They'll see us in a little house As happy as can be. They'll wish they were just like us

So happy, bright and free. We won't have to work all day, We'll just pass the time away. We won't catch those busy trains That whistle down the line. We won't sleep in basement flats With single beds and tabby cats. We won't have to worry, The sun will always shine. The sun will always shine. The sun will always shine. 16. Listen to the song and say a) whom this song is about; b) why he is called nowhere man; c) whether he is a bit like you. NOWHERE MAN (Lennon & McCartney ) He's a real nowhere man, Sitting in his nowhere land, Making all his nowhere plans for noboby. Doesn't have a point of view, Knows not where he's going to, Isn't he a bit like you and me ? Nowhere man, please listen, you don't know What you are missing, Nowhere man, the world is at your command. He's as blind as he can be, Just sees what he wants to see, Nowhere man, can you see me at all ? Nowhere man, don't worry, Take your time, don't hurry, Leave it all till somebody else lends you a hand. Doesn't have a point of view, Knows not where he's going to, Isn't he a bit like you and me ? Nowhere man, please, you don't know What you're missing, Nowhere man, the world is at your command. He's a real nowhere man, Sitting in his nowhere land, Making all his nowhere plans for nobody. 17. Listen to the song and say a) what kind of song is it: lyrical or philosophical one; b) what problems are touched here; c) whether he is going to get the answers to all his questions. Do you know the answers to my questions? Can you help me find the reason why? Are you trying to understand me? Or will I never know? Where are we going and What are we doing? Why are we lying and Who are we fooling now? Do you understand when people talk to you? Do you think that what they say is true?

Do you find that life's confusing Or will I never know? Why do people never mean what they say? Why do I always see the rain? Every day? Where does the sun go and star's night? Why do we wake up in the morning light? Did you hear me when I called you? Did you want to give a helping hand? Were you there or were you hiding? Will I never know? What did I do to make you go away? How did I hurt you? What did I say yesterday? Where did the clouds come from to fill the skies? Where did the love go That I used to see in your eyes? Will I never know? Will I never know? Will I never, never know? 18. Listen to the song and say a) what kind of song is it: lyrical or philosophical; b) what people can do in order to help each other; c) whether there are many ways to help each other. There are too many people And there is too much noise, There are too many cars On our roads. We are building too much On our beautiful land, All the people The cities can't hold. The children of the rich Have too many toys, But the children of the poor Have none. It's time to change The way we live and Give a little to everyone. There are not enough ways To help each other, Not enough ways to care. Too many people thinking too much Of the little we have to share, Have to share Have to share. The rich are too lazy To give up the cars, The poor are too hungry to fight. They say we're too young To know what is wrong We are too young To say what is right. I've got so much to say

But there's so little time. Perhaps it's too late to begin. There isn't much hope for our children If we can't love our fellow men. 19. Listen to the song and say a) what has just happened; b) what time it is by the watch; c) why Paul needs a strong cup of tea; d) why the Perfect Tense is used here. Peter's just received a letter from John, Susie's just bought a brand new puppy, Ann's just seen a cat in the street, And it's only a half past three. Yes, it's only a half past three. I've just returned from the grocer's shop. The grocer's just told me a funny story. We've just decided to go to the sea And it's only a half past three. Yes' it's only a half past three. We've just been for a swim, Though we are beginning to spin. We're going home now Back to our little flats in town. A-hey, A-hey. Here comes Paul in his brand new car. He's just met his girl friend's mother. I think he needs a strong cup of tea, And it's only a half past three. The day's just beginning to fade away, The street's lights have just begun to shine. I've just discovered my watch isn't working, Because it's only a half past three. It's only a half past three, It's only a half past three. 20. Listen to the song and say a) what problems are touched in this song: ecological or philosophical; b) whether there are the answers to all these questions; c) what role modal verbs play here. Blowing in the Wind How many roads must a man walk down, Before he is called a man? How many seas must the white dove sail, Before she sleeps in the sand? How many times must the cannonballs fly, Before they're forever banned? The answer, my friend, Is blowing in the wind. The answer is blowing in the wind. How many years can a mountain exist, Before it is washed in the sea? How many years can some people exist, Before they're allowed to be free? How many times can a man turn his head And pretend that he just doesn't see? The answer, my friend, Is blowing in the wind.

The answer is blowing in the wind. How many times must a man look up, Before he can see the sky? How many ears one man must have, Before he can hear people cry? How many deaths will take till he knows That too many people have died? 21. Listen to the song and say a) what the boy used to do in his childhood; b) whether he regrets to have become old; c) whether it is good for him to live too fast. When I was a boy I sometimes used to think That you knew the answers To everything. I often used to walk To the end of the lane When the sun was in the sky And it was raining. But I never reached the end And I never found my pot of gold And now I'm old. I never realized That time passed so quickly So it's good-bye, good-bye rainbow. I often stopped to wonder What you know Good-bye, good-bye rainbow. It's time to see more clearly Where we want to go, Where we want to go. Now that I'm a man I hardly ever think About the times I spent so happily. I can sometimes see A reflection of me In the child who sits And plays so quietly. Life will always be the same And I hope she'll never feel the pain It's just a game. Don't try to live too fast Or you'll end up living in the past. Don't try too hard. Most people usually find They rarely remember The bad times. So it's good-bye, good-bye rainbow I often stopped to wonder What you know Good-bye, good-bye rainbow It's time to see more clearly Where we want to go Where we want to go. 22. Listen to the song and say a) what places the hero went to; b) about the activity

of the hero; c) what happened to him when he returned home. One day I went to Paris. I met a man who said He was my friend. I bought some flowers That I wanted to send Them to mother. One day I flew to London I saw some people Walking in the park I took a picture of the palace In the dark And the sunset. I didn't call on you Because I didn't know Where you lived. I asked a man the way But I didn't understand What he said. One day I flew to Mexico I ate some chili and then I drank some wine I lay on the beach and Thought that it was fine In the sunshine. I didn't call on you Because I didn't know Where you lived. I asked a man the way But I didn't understand What he said. Yesterday I came back Home again I turned the key and opened My front door. I didn't want to travel anymore Until next time. 23. Listen to the song and say a) what problems are touched in this song: ecological or philosophical; b) what words the hero appeals to us with; c) what society you’d like your children live in. I'm looking forward to the day When everybody can stand and say: "You can't get away with that If you take out, you must put back." Someone to save our sky and seas And don't let them cut down all our trees. It's time to stand up and say with me Make sure that what they say is real Find out what they really mean Is it what you have often seen? What they have invented does to me. The ruin of our society. So listen to their words And look at their faces

And they going to wipe out Our wide open spaces? Think about the noise You have to put up with Is this the way you want Your children to live? I'm looking forward to the day When I see the clouds All roll away. If the airplanes don't fly We can make out the blue in the sky. Let's live a simple life again And time to get on with other men. So listen to their words And look at their faces. Are they going to wipe out Our wide open spaces? Think about the noise You have to put up with Is this the way You want your children to live? 24. Listen to the song and say: a) whether the character knows how to become a happier man; b) whether you agree with him; c) whether you can guess his profession; d)describe the brilliant quality of “Glitter” hair cream using the degrees of comparison. I used to be a little man, But I'm much taller now. You can be a happier person, And I can show you how. Feel better-looking, man Use new "Glitter" hair cream! "Glitter" will make you look much smarter Than you'd ever dream. Healthier hair makes you feel better, All the others feel worse. You'll be the most attractive man Because you found it first. Found it first. The rich and clearly mingled All use "Glitter" hair cream. The most successful pop stars Say "Glitter" makes all the girls scream. All the girls scream. "Glitter" will make you The best in the world At anything you choose. You'll be the fastest racing driver. And you'll never lose. Never lose. So go round to your local store, And ask the man for "Glitter" It's better, richer and cheaper Than a pint of bitter. 25.Listen to the song and a) give definition of a ‘Free man’, a ‘Poor man’, a

‘Friend’, an ‘Enemy’ etc. b) say whether you agree with the character of this song. A Free man is a man Who can wake up And smile in the morning. A Poor man is a man Who can die Without any warning. We are the ones who want to be free. They are the ones who say What we must be. A Friend is a man That I can go to When I'm feeling down. An Enemy is a man I don't want To see around. A Flower is something That blossoms In the spring. A Tree is something That makes me Want to sing. A Seagull is a bird That flies Near the sea. An Owl is a bird That's wise Wiser than me. A Pen is something I use to write How I feel. A Building is something They make out of Concrete and steel. A Song is something You sing To the trees. The Wind is something That tells you If you are free. 26.Listen to the song and say a) why the character is unhappy; b) whether he knows what to do; c) whether he’s got a place which he can call his home. Everywhere I go People seem so slow. Everything I do Brings back memories of you. Everyone I see Seems to be looking at me. Every time I open my door I feel I can't take any more. Nothing has changed In this town Since you've gone.

Nothing has changed And nothing gets done. No one has moved In this town Since you’ve gone Nothing has changed, But nowhere’s the same. Something inside me Tells me I was a fool. Somewhere in the big wide world You’re thinking that too. Someone should have told me What I had to do. Sometime in the future I’m going to get to you. I don’t need anybody To tell me I was wrong. I haven’t got anything to do The days are getting long. There isn’t anywhere I can call my home So please call me anytime You can be sure that I’m calm. 27.Listen to the song and say: a) if Peter was of any relations to the character; b) what happened to Peter and why; c) whether the relations between these two could have changed and in what way. When we met, Peter Though we were young If we’d been older, who can say? We would have known the way To talk to each other And he'd still be here today. I got angry when he was late, I never asked the reason why. If I had given him the time To tell me his story He wouldn't have had to lie. If I had told him That I needed him He wouldn't have gone away. If I had told him he meant The world to me He'd still be here today. If I hadn't been so cruel He would have been told me What was wrong. I would have seen that He needed love from me And I wouldn't be singing This song. If I had told him That I needed him He wouldn't have gone away. If I had told him he meant

The world to me He'd still be here today. But the day came When he left. If I had told him He would have stayed. Now he's far away And he's gone forever But the memory will never fade.

GRAMMAR WORD ORDER I. Two terrorists have kidnapped the only son of a very rich newspaper boss. They are going to send a letter to the family, and they have cut these words out of a newspaper. Put the words in the correct order.

1.

son

we’ve got

2.

is

boy

3.

us

must pay

4. money

the

safe

$500,000

you

can go when got the

5.

all right

6.

in

7.

to the

he

the money

8. should be 9.

your

this

bring

10. spy

on us

11.

sorry

talk to

he

will be $ 100 notes car park

red colour show

we’ve

letter

the

must be money

and BMW

the car

of

don’t

to the police

don’t if you

you’ll be

the police

2. Put the words into correct order. 1. you meet pleased to. 2. time do your spare like you what doing in? 3. coffee you tea or do want? 4. Roberts name your is David? 5. visitors there any the office in are? 6. briefcase take this don’t. 7. to understand difficult me for them it is. 8. the corner sit down in us let. 3. Fill in the notional words in the sentences, where only functional words are given. 1. The is ing a at the 2. The 3. Our

of our

is

ing a s many

for that s.

4. a) What parts of speech do the underlined words belong to. 1. We are having a mild winter this year. 2. It is getting cold enough to wear a winter coat. 3. Where did you winter last year? 4. At the end of the lecture

students asked many questions. 5. Everything will end well. 6.Put down my address. 7. Whom do you address such letters? 8. Pete is like his father. 9. Children like sweets. 10. I work at my English very hard. 11. It is a very hard work. 12 Pull down the blinds before you light the lamp. 13. That bright light blinds my eyes. 14. You must not be afraid of difficulties, you must face them. 15. It is too dark to see the face of the clock. 16. These young men are football fans. 17. She usually fans herself with a newspaper. 18. To feel like a fish out of water. 19. We are having fish soup today. 20. Do you want to go fishing with me? 21. He fished through his pockets for his keys. 22. Wishes father thoughts. 23. Labour physics pain. b) Find predicates in the following sentences. 1.The building houses many laboratories. 2. The second can exploded. 3.You must book your ticket beforehand. 4.My friends water flowers in the morning. 5.He usually hands his mother out of the railway carriage. 6.Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you. 5. Translate the following proverbs and sayings. 1. There is no place like home. 2. There is no smoke without fire. 3. There is no rose without a thorn. 4. There are spots even on the sun. 5. While there is a life, there is a hope. 6. While there is a will, there is a way. 6. Divide the following statements into separate words and answer the questions. 1. HETRAINSAGROUPOFYOUNGHORSES 2. WHENITRAINSHEPREFERSTOSTAYHOMENOTTOCATCHCOLD 3. HAVEALLTHETRAINSARRIVEDEARLYTODAY a) What sentence is an interrogative one? b) How many words are there in the first sentence, including articles, prepositions and conjunctions? c) What word coincides in the first and third sentences? d) What word that coincides in these two sentences is a noun? e) How many words are there in the second sentence? ARTICLES 1. Read the text and insert the correct articles, then tell your classmates what have you learnt about the main character. Rod Nelson is … young electrical engineer from …Canada. He is working in … England for … company called Western Aeronautics, which produces … electrical components. It is situated in … Bristol, …large city in … south-west of England. Rod works with Jack Cooper, … production manager at Western. Jack is also … member of … trade union committee. Rob likes Jack and enjoys his job. He also likes England because it is so different from Canada. He lives in … hostel in Bristol but he wants to rent … of his own. He started his job at Western in … September and … few weeks later he went to dinner at … Coopers’ house. There he Met Barbara, who is Cooper’s 24-year-old daughter. She is … manageress of … shoe shop in … centre of Bristol. 2. Insert A, THE or ZERO articles.

Bernard Shaw’s Reply … new play by … famous English satirist was performed in … London for … first time. Everybody wanted to see …author, and when he appeared on … the stage, he was received with … great enthusiasm. When everything was quiet … very loud voice was heard from …gallery: “ … play was bad.” In silence … satirist looked up and smiled. I agree with you sir, but what are we two against so many?” PRONOUNS 1. Translate the following sentences by choosing suitable English pronoun for the Russian one: 1. Несколько молодых учёных приняли участие в a) something конференции. b) any 2. Все написали перевод правильно. c) nobody 3. Ему всё нравится в этом музее. d) nothing 4. Он что-то писал, сидя за столом. e) anybody 5. Кто-нибудь есть сейчас в лаборатории? f) everything 6. Мне ничего не было известно об этом. g) everybody 7. Вы можете взять любую книгу почитать. h) anything 8. Никто не знал об этом событии. i) some 9. У вас есть что-нибудь почитать? 2. Choose the suitable pronoun: 1.Could you give me some … examples? 2.I saw this picture in … book. I don’t remember its title. 3.Could I trouble you for … cup of coffee? 4.Where are the girls? Some are at the exhibition and … went to the theatre. 5. -Can you go to the country on Sunday? = No, I can’t. - I can’t go … 6. –Do you like to read Dickens or Thackeray? =I like to red … of them.

a)another b)other c)the other d)others e)some f)several g)much h)either i)both

3. Choose the correct pronoun for the following sentences. 1. Она поедет куда-нибудь отдыхать летом? a) anywhere 2. Он купил этот портфель для себя. b) somebody 3. Я никого вчера не видела. c) anything 4. Вы что-нибудь видите в темноте? d) yourselves 5. Покажите мне свою тетрадь. e)your 6. Кто-то приходил ко мне сегодня. f) their 7. Вы сами должны пойти туда. g) nobody 8. Я не знаю, где их вещи. h) something 9. Летом мы всегда отдыхали где-нибудь на юге. i) herself 10. Она не узнала свой почерк. j) her k) somewhere l) nothing m) himself n) yourself o) them 4. Insert A MOST or THE MOST. 1. Arthur is … most punctual man in our office. 2. Hugh Cain is … most punctual man in our office.

3. 4. 5. 6.

I’ve always known Douglas Lewis as … most competent manager. If I were you, I’d apply to Mr. Carter, he is … most competent lawyer here. He said it with … most pleasant smile on his face. That is … most beautiful painting I have ever seen.

5. Insert MUCH or MANY, A FEW or A LITTLE. 1. I haven’t many/much cash on me. 2. How many/much will it cost? 3. How many/much leaflets have you sent to the firm? 4. These publicity materials don’t give many/much information on the new model. 5. There weren’t many/much people there. 6. Don’t put many/much sugar into my tea. I want just a few/a little. 7. Don’t buy many/much postcards here. I know a better shop. 8. Will you have a few/a little more coffee. 6. Insert A FEW or A LITTLE. Match a line in A with a line in B and a line in C. A

B

1. Does your tooth hurt? 2. Were there many people at the party? 3. Is there any food left over? 4. Have you got any whisky? 5. Do you have any books on French literature? 6. Would you like some cream? 7. Are there many Spanish people in your class? 8. Do you watch much TV? 9. Do you get many letters? 10. Do your children get a lot of homework.

C

a few

a little

It takes them about an hour a night. I’m trying to lose weight. You can borrow them if you want. The children ate the most of it. But I prefer reading. Do you want some ice in it? But most of them come from France. I’ll go to the dentist tomorrow. But no one that you know. But most of them are bills.

7. Rewrite the following sentences, crossing out every unnecessary pronoun. 1. The prizes they were given to the boys. 2. The girl she said nothing. 3. The teacher gave us an exercise to do it. 4. He went home and he brought his book. 5. The people having seen the game they went away. 6. The scorpion it has a sting in its tail. 8. This is a family tree. Examine it and complete the text below. Robert Grant (businessman )

David Sarah(works in a Tourist Morris Information office) (engineer)

Pamela Grant (teacher)

Christine (sales assistant)

Mark (at school)

My name is Pamela Grant. I’m … teacher. … husband’s name … Robert. He’s a …. We’ve … three children, … daughters and a …. Their names…

Sarah, … and Mark. Sarah … married and … husband’s … is David. Sarah … in a Tourist Information Office, and David is … engineer. …haven’t …any children. Christine is … sales …, and Mark is … . ADJECTIVE/ADVERB 1. Brett and Helen are at Lynn’s party. Complete their conversation by choosing the correct adjective or adverb in the brackets. Brett Well, the party is going very (nice/nicely), isn’t it? Have one of these sausages. They taste (good/well). Helen No, thanks. Brett You don’t sound very (happy/happily), Helen. And you look (pale/palely). Are you all right? Helen I feel rather (tired/tiredly). And I’m (hot/hotly). Brett It is getting a bit (warm/warmly) in here, isn’t it? Well I can easy/easily) open this window. Helen Thanks. Actually, my head aches quite (bad/badly) too. I think it’s (slow/slowly) getting worse. Brett I’m (sure/surely) the music isn’t helping. It seems rather (loud/loudly), doesn’t it? Look, would you like me to take you home? Helen No, it’s all right, thanks. But if I could sit (quiet/quietly) somewhere for a few minutes, I might be OK. Brett I’ll ask Lynn if there’s somewhere you can go. 2. Maria is writing to her friend Helen in England. She’s tired, and she’s left some of the words out by mistake. Rewrite the letter putting in the adverbs and adverb phrases on the right. Dear Helen, Thank you for your letter. Is it four months since I last wrote? I’m really sorry, but I’ve been very busy. lately I’m working for my exams already I’ve planned my revision. I work carefully until about ten o’clock in the usually evening. I’ve finished for today. just I don’t keep to my plan. I of course always saw a marvelous film. It was yesterday called ‘The Secret Game’. Have you seen it? I don’t go out. Suzanne actually, often comes about once a week. We here talk. a lot I hope to visit England again. next year I had a lovely time last year. there It would be great to see you. again I’m trying to save some money. hard How are you? Is your new flat all right? Please write. soon Love, Maria 3. Read and translate the following. The bread was stale It was three days old The milk was sour The coffee was cold

The butter was rancid The steak was tough The service was dreadful The waiter was rough My bill was huge Hip tip was small I’m sorry I went to that place at all.

DEGREES OF COMPARISON 1.Correct the following, giving reasons for your correction. 1. New York is the larger city in the United States. 2. He is the better student from all. 3. John is more stronger than his brother. 4. I am two years elder than my sister. 5. Which is the heaviest, you or I? 6. This boy’s manners are more good than his brother’s. 7. Which of the boys is the taller from the class? 8. Which of these three girls is the elder? 2. Translate the following. (a) A wise old owl lived in an oak. The more he saw the less he spoke. The less he spoke the more he heard. Why can’t we all be like that wise old bird? (b) The more we study, the more we know. The more we know, the more we forget. The more we forget, the less we know. The less we know, the less we forget. The less we forget, the more we know. So why study? (c) Better late than never, but better never late. Say well is good, do well is better. Those do least who speak most. East or West home is best. It’s better to see once than to hear twice. A good name is better than riches. The busiest men find the most leisure. One’s bark is worse than one’s bite. The pen is mightier than the sword. Better an open enemy than a false friend. Cheapest is the dearest. MODAL VERBS 1. Translate the following proverbs and sayings. 1. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. 2. No man can serve two masters. 3. A man can die but once. 4. One false move may lose the game. 5. Cloudy mornings may turn to clear evenings. 6. A cat may look at a king. 7. What must be, must be.

8. The best of friends must part. 9. He that doesn’t venture must not complain of ill-luck. 2. Choose for each sentence the most suitable one. 1. He must come at six. 2. He must have come. (I suppose he is somewhere here. I know that he has to come at six.) 3. I can go there tomorrow in the afternoon. (I shall be able to go there…; I shall have to go there…). 4. He may bring the book along with him (I am sure he will bring…, perhaps he will bring…). 5.We are to go there tomorrow (we want to go there… It has been planned that we shall go there…). 6. They may have spoken to him. (Perhaps they have spoken to him. I am sure they have spoken to him.) 7. You must think about it. (You are able to think… You have to think…) 8. They are to stay there a few days. (It has been planned that they will stay there… They wish to stay…) 9. He could swim across that river when he was young (He was allowed to swim… He was able to swim…) 3. Read the following sentences and explain the usage of the modal verbs. 1. He might come yet, it isn’t late. 2.He may have forgotten the address as he did not write it down. 3. You must never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. 4. He must have put off his report till next week; when I saw him a few days ago he said that he could not get one of the books he needed for his report. 5. We should test the new method once more. 6. You ought to have done it long ago. 7. They ought to read this article before starting with their experiments. 8. You needn’t heat the water. 9. The water had to be heated. 10. The conference was to take place on the 15th of May. TENSES 1. Read the joke and retell it: 1) as it is given; 2) as if you were the Frenchman. ONE WAY STREET A Frenchman was once in London for the first time. He could not say a single word in English. He remembered his friend’s warning. “You must be careful not to lose your way. Be sure to write down the name of the street where your hotel is. Then if you get lost you can show the paper to a policeman in a street or in a police station and he will show you the way to the hotel.” The Frenchman did as his friend told him to do. So when the Frenchman did get lost in London, he found a policeman and showed him the piece of paper with the address. The address written on the paper was: “No. 13, One way street”. 2. Choose the correct auxiliary: am, is, are, do, does. A Hello. 778855. B Hello. Is that Kate? A Yes. Who (a)_____calling? B This is Brett from New York. (b)______you remember me? A Of course I do. What (c )________you doing in England? B I (d)______having a holiday. A Are you on your own? B No. I’m here with my wife. I’m married now.

A B A B A B A B

A B A B

Oh! What (e)_____your wife do? She’s dentist. How interesting! Anyway. How are you? I’m fine. I (f)_______still studying. Listen. Where are you? Well, we (g)______staying in a hotel very near to you. It’s called The Mayfair. (h)________you know it? Yes, of course. It’s a lovely hotel – very expensive! (i) ______your wife like it? Yes, she does. Kate, what (j)______you doing tonight? Are you free? We’d like you to have dinner with us, here in the hotel. That’s lovely! What time? About 7.00. That’s fine. See you at 7 o’clock. Bye. Bye.

3. Check yourself whether IS or HAS is used in the following sentences. 1. He’s a policeman. 2. He’s 26. 3. He’s got a car. 4. Jan’s married. 5. Jane’s got a husband and two children. 6. She’s got a new coat. 7. It’s blue. 8. She’s wearing it now. 9. Her daughter’s hungry. 10. Her son’s hot. 4. Insert the correct forms of the verb TO BE. 1. Nobody ________there. 2. None of the boys ________present. 3. Tipperary and Galway ______playing today in Croke Park. 4. All except Kevin _________travelling to the seaside. 5. Not one of them _________coming. 6. The thief and captor ______handcuffed together. 7. All of them ________here. 8. Each one of them ______going to help. 9. Almost all ________supporting him in the election. 5. Insert IS or ARE in the following sentences. 1. The news I have received ____good. 2. Where ___the money? 3. His trousers ___worn out. 4. Mathematics ___my poorest subject. 5. Our furniture ___getting old. 6. This pair of scissors ___not sharp. 7. Fish ___not cheap today. 8. The sheep ___grazing in the field. 6. Choose and Use. 1. What did you do What have you done 2. I went to many countries I have been to many countries 3. He went to Greece He has been to Greece

last night. in my life. two years ago.

4. I study English I have studied English 5. I have known Mary I have known Mary 6. Where have you Where did you

for three years. for three weeks. since three weeks. bought your shoes. buy your shoes.

7. Choose the correct verb form Present Simple or Continuous. 1. I go/am going to work now. Goodbye! 2. I read/am reading a book about astrology. 3. I read/am reading lots of books every year. 4. We go/are going to a party on Saturday. 5. Nurses look/are looking after people in hospital. 6. Annie comes/is coming from Ireland. 7. She comes/is coming for dinner this evening. 8. I speak/am speaking four languages. 9. Do you want/ Are you wanting to go out tonight. 8. Choose the correct verb form Past Simple or Continuous. 1. I met/was meeting a friend while I did/was doing the shopping. 2. I paid/was paying for my things when I heard/was hearing someone call my name. 3. I turned/was turning round and saw/was seeing Paula. 3. She wore/was wearing a bright red coat. 4. We decided/were deciding to have a cup of tea. 5. While we had/were having a drink, a waiter dropped/was dropping a pile of plates. 6. We all got/were getting a terrible shock. 7. While the waiter picked/was picking up the broken plates, he cut/was cutting his finger. 8. We left/were leaving the cafe and said/were saying goodbye. 9. I finished/was finishing my shopping and went/was going home. 9. Put the verb into the more suitable form, Present Perfect (I have done) or Continuous (I have been doing). 1. Where have you been? ___________(you/play) tennis? 2. Look! Somebody _____________(break) that window. 3. You look tired. __________(you/work) hard? 4. ‘___________(you/ever/work) in a factory?’ ‘No, never.’ 5. ‘Jane is away on holiday.’ ‘Oh, is she? Where _________(she/go)? 6. My brother is an actor. He ___________(appear) in several films. 7. ‘Sorry I’m late.’ ‘That’s all right. I _______(not/wait)long.’ 8. ‘Is it still raining?’ “No, it ___________(stop).’ 9. I ________(lose) my address book. ________(you/see) it anywhere? 10. What meaning is implied in the following sentences? Choose the correct answer. 1. They had written the letter before we came. What happened earlier? a) a letter had been written b) we came

2. Ann’s umbrella was brought to me by Peter. Who brought the umbrella? a) Ann b) Peter 3. Mary was told by Bob about an interesting lecture. Who said about the lecture? a) Mary b) Bob 4. My mother was cooking dinner when we ran into the kitchen. When did we run? a) while the mother was cooking dinner b) after the dinner was cooked 5. My father’s friend is our doctor. Who is our doctor? a) the friend of my father b) the father of my friend 6. Tom is going to meet his friend. Does it mean that a) Tom met his friend b) Tom will meet his friend 7. Anyone knows about it. Who knows about it? a) everybody b) somebody 11. There is a poem and three forms of the verbs. What form is left out? DO DID ____ WHERE IS YOUR GUN? KNOW ______ KNOWN A FRIEND OF MY OWN. _______ KEPT KEPT WHAT HAVE YOU LEFT SHOW ______ SHOWN NEAR THAT GREY STONE? RUN RAN ______ AND WITHOUT GUN SEE SAW _____ YOU MAY COME IN. BE WAS _____ WERE AND I’M SURE, I’LL WIN. 12. Translate the following joke. They walked in the lane together, The sky was covered with stars, They reached the gate in silence, He lifted down the bars. She neither smiled nor thanked him Because she knew not how; For he was just a farmer’s boy And she – the farmer’s cow.

13. Translate the following poem and learn it by heart. “A Revolutionary Lyric” by Robert Burns The golden age we’ll then revive Each man will be a brother; In harmony we all shall live, And share the earth together. In virtue trained, enlightened youth Will love each fellow-creature; And future years shall prove the truth That Man is good by nature. Then let us toast, with three times three, The reign of Peace and Libertie! 14. Read, translate, and retell the poem. It’s a Different World Today Different kind of people telling me The snow was white, In former days the grass was green, The sun was really bright. You have to fight for freedom, That’s O.K. It’s a different world today. Nowadays they drive a car At eighty miles an hour Years ago there wasn’t all that traffic, So much power. There must be some improvement anyway It’s a different world today. Don’t look back, The world has got a lot in store. Wait and see People always want to have more, more, more. With all the ups and downs along the way It’s a different world today. Now that I am a woman I see the children grow And deep inside I wish I was so little, but I know You cannot turn back the pages, so they say: It’s a different world today! 15. Here’s a story for you to read, translate, and enjoy. Two middle-aged friends meet after a long separation. One of them is very thin, the other is very, very fat. At first they can’t recognize each other. At last one of them exclaims, “Why! Bless my soul! It’s Dick! I’m sure you’ve Been fasting ever since I saw you last!” “As to you, I’m afraid you’re been doing nothing but eating ever since”, replied the other, “and your efforts haven’t been wasted!”

Questions 1. Which is correct: a, b, or c? 1. What’s the man’s name? a) It’s name’s Pat. b) His name’s Pat. c)Her name’s Pat. 2. Are you English? a) Yes, he is. b) Yes, they are. c) Yes, I am. 3. What nationality are they? a) They Americans. b) He’s American. c) They’re Americans. 4. What does she do? a) She’s an artist. b) She’s in London. c) She’s English. 5. Do you like Brett? a) Yes’ he does. b) Yes, I like her very much. c) Yes, I do, I like him very much. 6. What do you do in your spare time? a) Yes, I do. b) I like reading. c) I like doing it. 7. How old is she? a) She has four. b) It’s her birthday. c) She is four years old. 8. He’s a manager. a) What does he do? b) How do you do? c) What is he doing? 9. They’re 70 pence a kilo. a) How much are those apples? b) How is this apple? c) How much is it? 2. Brett’s bicycle was stolen. He’s reporting it to the police. Complete the policeman’s questions by putting in a question word or phrase. Policeman

1 …’s your name 2 … do you live? 3 And … is the bicycle? … owns it? 4 … was it stolen? 5 … did you leave it? 6 … was this?

7 … of bicycle is it? 8 … is it? 9 … is it? 10 …did it cost?

Brett

Brett Colins. 46 Elm Road, Granby. It’s mine. I own it. This morning. Outside the town hall. About eleven o’clock. When I came back at half past eleven, it wasn’t there. It’s a racing bike, a Silverman Special. Blue. It’s two years old. Oh, about $100.

3. Complete these riddles using who, what, or which. You may first need to find the correct answer in the box below. 1. 2. 3.

… goes up but never comes down? … is paid money for taking something away from you? … can go through a closed door?

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

… of these words is longer: ‘laughs’ or ‘smiles’? … has fingers but no arms? … sheep eat more grass, black ones or white ones? … invented the first pen? … has more tails, one cat or no cat? … is the difference between an African elephant and an Indian elephant? … king of England wore the biggest shoes?

A hairdresser. About 3,000 miles. A pair of gloves. The one with the biggest feet. Your age. The Incas. (ink-ers!) A noise. No cat. (No cat has more then one tail.) White ones. There are more of them. ‘Smiles’ because there’s a ‘mile’ between the first and last letters.

4. Author Brenda Bagg has written a story called ‘Heartache’. It’s about a Lord who loves a film star who loves a pop singer and so on. The diagram shows who loves who. Brenda is showing the story to the film director Max Finkel. Give Max’s questions and Brenda’s answers. Example Mike Perry Who does Mike Perry love? ~ Princess Flora. Mike Perry And who loves Mike Perry? ~ Jackie Logan and Sophie Salinsky.

Princess Flora

Lord Midwinter

Tennis champion Peter Kane

Model Jackie Logan

Pop singer Mike Perry

Film star Sophie Salinsky

1 Princess Flora 2 Princess Flora 3 Peter Kane 4 Lord Midwinter

5 Lord Widwinter 6 Sophie Salinsky 7 Sophie Salinsky 8 Jackie Logan

5. Use the correct question word. Helen Good morning, Dad. Dad Good morning, my love. (a)____are you today? Helen Fine, thanks.

Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen Dad Helen

I didn’t hear you come home last night. (b)______time did you get in? About 11.00. ( c )______did you go? Just round to Berth’s house. There is a letter for you on the table. Oh! (d)_____is it from? I don’t know. Open it and see. Oh! (e)_____’s the matter? Nothing. It’s from Luis in Spain. That’s interesting. He says he’s coming to England soon. (f)______? Because he’s going to learn English. (g)______? Here in London. (h)______ school is he going to? He doesn’t know yet. (i)_____is he coming? Next week. You must invite him round. (j)_____don’t you write back and invite him to Sunday lunch? It’s a great idea! Thanks, Dad.

6. Use the appropriate question word in the following sentences. 1. …are you going to? - To Moscow. 2. …is the house made of? – It is made of brick. 3. …did he arrive? – At ten o’clock. 4. …of the pencils is longer? – The red one. 5. …told you to go there immediately? – The teacher did. 6. …bag was left in the corridor? – It was Peter’s. 7. …has he paid for his new suit? – Not much, I suppose. 7. Use the correct question ‘tag’ for the following sentences. 1. Nick wanted to write a letter,… a) wasn’t he? 2. Pete was absent yesterday,… b) isn’t there 3. There is a new film on television,… c) won’t he? 4. They grow wheat, fruit,… d) is there? 5. You want to buy some stamps,… e) hasn’t he? 6. Your friends have already seen this film,… f) did they? g) don’t you? h) haven’t they? i) didn’t he?

8. Match a line in A with a line in B and a line in C. A B It’s chilly today,

haven’t you?

C No. How do you do?

You don’t like this food, me. You know the Browns, This exercise isn’t difficult, You’ve got the car, You haven’t met Henry,

is it?

Yes, they live next door to

have you? do you? don’t you? isn’t it?

Yes. A Renault. Yes. There was a frost last night. Well, I find it a bit too salty. No. It’s quite easy.

9. Connect two remarks, paying attention to the grammar forms. 1. How old is your brother? a) At ten. 2. What’s the time? b) By ten. 3. When will you come? c) He is ten. 4. How many books are there on the shelf? d) On the tenth. 5. On which floor does he live? e) There are ten. 6. When does his train arrive? f) They are ten. 7. How old are these boys? g) It is ten. h) Since ten. SEQUENCE OF TENSES /Direct and Indirect speech/ 1. Translate the following sentences. 1. They all told him that the election campaign had begun a fortnight before. 2. She told me I might come any day. 3. The students told the teacher that they had learned that rule long before they joined the group. 4. She assured her fellow-students she would never neglect her social duties again. 5. The porter reminded us that the trams stopped running by I a. m. 6. He said he had never thought of such a possibility. 7. He answered that he could not afford buying such an expensive ticket at the time. 8. I often hear him say that he loves research work. 9. We told them that we never did it in that way. 2. Put into indirect speech.

What did the guest say? 1. The guest said: "I want to talk to your husband." 2. The guest said: "I admire your husband's music." 3. The guest said: " My name is William Smith." 4. The guest said: "I am a musician too." 5. The guest said: " I have something to tell your husband." What did the guest ask Mrs. Brown? 6. The guest asked: "What is Mr. Brown busy with?" 7. The guest asked: "What time does your husband usually come home?" 8. The guest asked: "Do you expect him soon?" 9. The guest asked: "Can I wait for him there?" 10. The guest asked: "Does your husband work much?" PASSIVE VOICE 1. Read, translate, and learn this poem by heart Solomon Grundy was born on a Monday

finished school on a Tuesday got married on a Wednesday fell ill one Thursday got worse on Friday died on Saturday was buried on Sunday That was the end of Solomon Grundy. 2. Translate into Russian. 1. Another building of our Institute is still being built. 2. Don't come into the room, it is being cleaned. 3. Hurry up, you are being waited for 4. Special mention must be made of the architecture of this ancient town. 5. Whom must the work be done by? 6. It was so dark in the room that nothing could be seen. 7. This competition may be held in June. 8. The statue has just been finished. 9. Many people have been invited to take part in the performance. 10. Two English novels have been translated into Russian by his friend. 3. Express the following in Russian, paying special attention to the words in bold type.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

The lecturer was listened to with great interest. Bergman's new play is much talked about. This picture is seldom looked at. The journal must be looked through and the new information made use of. The boy was looked for everywhere but could be found nowhere. Why wasn't he sent for immediately? I am sure this film will soon be spoken about. She looks very funny. No wonder she is often laughed at. The sick man was looked after all the time Children must always be taken care of. You will be waited for in the hall. This text-book is asked for every day.

4. Change the following sentences into the passive voice using the italicized words as the grammatical subject. Use a by-phrase where indicated. 1. Mary used this typewriter only a few times. (by) 2. They will give us an answer tomorrow. 3. The secretary always brings Mr. Palmer a cup of coffee. (by) 4. She has sent you a telegram. 5. The students are rehearsing a new play. 6. Will he paint the house in the summer? 7. They didn’t offer him any job. 8. They hadn’t opened the museum by August. 9. We are expecting him any minute. 10. These people will take care of everything. (by) 11. They were building a house near the river. 12. When I came, they had already arrived at a decision. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES 1. Connect the sentences by suitable clause maker.

1. This is a new watch. My uncle bought it for me. 2. Smith Hall is a village. Jack lives there. 3. Jack was working in the garden. His roommate was working in the garden. 4. Jack didn’t know much about it. His roommate didn’t know much about it. 5. Jack and his roommate didn’t know grammar. The other boys did. 6. Sunday is a weekend day. Bill doesn’t have classes. 7. Jack and Jane were walking home. It began to rain. 8. Smith didn’t attend class on Saturday. Professor asked him why. 9. I have a friend from Moscow. His father is a famous musician. 10. Joe borrowed his sister’s suitcase. He had no suitcase of his own.

a) where b) because c) and … either d) whose e) but f) while g) when h) which i) why j) and …too

2. Connect two parts of a sentence, paying attention to the grammar forms. 1. Although I had an umbrella … a) when it rains 2. I usually stayed indoors… b) it has rained every day 3. Since you arrived here… c) if it rains 4. I shall stay indoors… d) but it rained all the time 5. While we were talking… e) it began to rain 6. She usually stays indoors… f) I didn’t go out in the rain g) when it rained 3. Supply the verb tenses in these sentences. 1. When Antony got to school, he found that he (leave) his books at home. 2. The bus (leave) when we got to the bus stop, so we had to walk. 3. When Tom got to school, the lesson (start) already. 4. When Pedro began to learn English, he never (speak) to an Englishman. 5. When I got to the airport, I (learn) that the plane I (expect) to travel by (not yet arrive) from Manchester. 6. When Susan arrived in London, she soon (remember) her English she (learn) at school. 7. I (go) to see him as soon as I (know) he was in hospital. 8. When he (get) to the station he (remember) he (forget) to switch the tap off. 9. The exhibition (close) by the time when we (get) there. 5. Translate the following. Dreams by Langston Hughes Hold fast to dreams For if dreams die Life is a broken-winged bird That cannot fly.

Hold fast to dreams For when dreams go Life is a barren field Frozen with snow. 6. Read the poem and see whether you can give a Russian poetic translation of it. Rudyard Kipling If you can keep your head when all about you Are losing theirs and blaming it on you, If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you But make allowance for their doubting too; If you can wait and not be tired of waiting, Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies, Or being hated, don’t give way to hating, And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise; If you can dream – and not make dreams your master; If you can think – and not make thoughts your aim, If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same; If you can fill the unforgiving minute With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run, Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, And – which is more – you’ll be a Man, my son. PARTICIPLES /GERUND 1. Complete the newspaper story about an earthquake in a city called Kitamo. Put in either an –ing form or an –ed form. Use these verbs: break, burn, cry, damage, fall, frighten, injure, smoke. (You have to use one of the verbs twice.) There was an earthquake in the Kitamo region at ten o’clock yesterday morning. It lasted about a minute. Many buildings collapsed. … people ran into the streets. Many were injured by … bricks and stones. After the earthquake, buildings in many parts of the city caught fire. The heat was so great that firemen could not get near many of the … buildings. Hundreds of people have died. The hospital is still standing, but there aren’t enough beds for all the … people. Things look very bed in Kitamo now. There are hundreds of badly … houses, and those that caught fire are now just … ruins. The streets are covered with … glass, and … trees block the way. Everywhere there is the sound of … children. 2. Choose the right adjective. 1. I was disappointing/disappointed with the film. I had expected it to be better. 2. We were all horrifying/horrified when we heard about the disaster. 3. It’s sometimes embarrassing/embarrassed when you have to ask people for money. 4. Are you interesting/interested in football? 5. It was a really terrifying/terrified experience. Afterwards everybody was very shocking/shocked. 6. I had never expected to be offered the job. I was really amazing/amazed when I was offered it.

7. I enjoyed the football match. It was quite exciting/excited. 8. The kitchen hadn’t been cleaned for ages. It was really disgusting/disgusted. 9. Do you easily get embarrassing/embarrassed? 3. Read and translate the poem paying attention to the Gerund. On Sunday afternoon in the middle of July I like sitting in the sun just looking at the sky. I like listening to the birds singing in the trees - in July. I hate going to work when the sun shines, Or standing in the rain. I hate queuing at a bus stop, Or trying to read a paper on a train. On cold December mornings. I like walking through the snow. I like watching all the people as off to work they go. I love dozing in a chair, without a care - in December. On rainy April days I just like staying at home. I like reading a book or simply being alone. I love thinking of you, and all the things that you do - in April. But most of all, I like loving you. You’re a Sunday afternoon, a December morning too. You’re an April day, sunshine in June. You’re you. 4. Read the text and translate it in writing. Define each ‘–ing’ form: Here is a little story of a man who, having lost one job got another by showing that a rope may have three ends. After trying several places the man got tired of walking and sat down to rest for a while. The day being very hot, we must not be surprised at the man being tired and sitting down to rest under a tree. As he was sitting he thought of taking further steps. He remembered having worked on a ship for some years. So he came to the owner of a ship and asked him if there was any possibility of getting a job. The question being not very unusual, the owner was not surprised at hearing it. But he thought for a while before giving his answer. After examining the man from head to foot the owner said: “You see, I am looking for a man with brains. If you can find three ends to that rope, I’ll give you the job.” Saying those words, the owner picked up a piece of rope lying at his feet and handed it to the man. The man understood that his getting a job depended on his giving the right answer quickly. Without thinking long, he held one end of the rope before the owner saying: “That’s one end, sir. ” Then, taking up the other end, he remarked: “ That’s the second end, sir.” Then, throwing the rope overboard, the man said: “That is one more end to your rope, sir.” Having received this answer, the owner couldn’t help praising the man for having found the answer so quickly. Then he said: “You are the man I have long been looking for.” Having been given a good job the man used to say that for many people finding a job is like finding the third end to a rope.

5. Translate the sentences.

1. Walking home she didn't hurry. 2. While reading books I learn a lot. 3. Knowing the way Kate walked quickly. 4. Not knowing the address he couldn't find the house. 5. Being busy she couldn't speak to him 6. He stood at the window thinking about his childhood. 7. I saw her smiling face in the window. 8. In the window I saw her face smiling at us. 9. She said these words, smiling at me. 10. Smiling happily she hurried to the door. 11. When walking home he didn't hurry. 6. Translate into Russian, noting the use of Participle II. Two young boys Nick and Tom invited by their grandmother to spend their holidays in the country came to the railway station. They bought two tickets with the money sent to them by their grandmother. When they got on the train they heard the signal given by the station-master and the train started. Suddenly Nick saw the ticket left on the bench of the train. Nick put the found ticket into his pocket, but did not say anything to his brother. When the ticket-collector came, Tom could not find his ticket anywhere. Nick told his brother to get quickly under the bench. The ticket collector came near and Nick asked by the man to show his ticket took out both tickets. The ticket-collector seeing two tickets shown by one person asked Nick: "Whose ticket is the other one?" Nick enjoying his joke said: "It's my brother's. He likes to sit under the bench. 7. Use the right form of the Gerund instead of the infinitives in the brackets. Then retell the story. A Good Lesson. One day Turner's dog broke a leg. The artist loved his dog so much that he decided to send for the best doctor in London instead of (to send) for a veterinary. When the doctor arrived, Turner said to him: "Excuse me for (to send) for you. I know of your (to be) a great doctor but I beg you to help my dog. It is so important for me." The doctor was angry but didn't show it. The next day the doctor asked Turner to come to his house. When Turner arrived the doctor said: "Mr. Turner, I'm glad at your (to come). I am sorry for (to ask) you to come. But my door needs (to paint). I know of your (to be) a great painter but I beg you to do it. It's so important for me." 8. Read and translate the story, noting the Gerund. Then retell it. Othello with White Hands. Salvini was very famous in his day for playing tragic roles remarkably well. So, no wonder that theatre-goers didn't want to miss the opportunity of seeing Salvini on the stage when he was touring in different towns in Italy. Once it happened so that Salvini as Othello appeared in the first act without having put the make-up on his hands. On seeing Othello with white hands the audience began to whisper and make remarks. This spoilt the impression of Salvini's acting which was excellent as usual. In the interval between the scenes the famous actor couldn't be found anywhere. In the next scene on Salvini's appearing again with the white hands the audience began to hiss. They couldn't forgive even this actor for his having shown himself so careless the second time. Salvini paid no attention to the audience being

so noisy. And suddenly when hissing became especially loud Othello astonished everybody by taking off the white gloves and throwing them demonstratively before the senators. The story goes that on having found himself with white hands Salvini remembered of having a pair of white gloves at the hotel where he was staying. During the interval he rushed there. The interval was so short that nobody guessed of the gloves having been brought specially for the scene. INFINITIVE 1. Translate the following proverbs and sayings. 1. To know everything is to know nothing. 2. It’s never too late to learn. 3. When guns speak, it’s too late to argue. 4. It is enough to make a cat laugh. 5. It’s never too late to love. 6. It’s never too late to mend. 2. Read and translate the story noting the complex object. Then retell it. The Myth Pygmalion. We know Greek philosophers to call art an 'imitation of nature', but their own mythology tells a different story. The story of Pygmalion is the most famous of the myths that believe art to have the power of creation rather than the power of portraying. Here is the myth of Pygmalion. In ancient Greece there lived a sculptor, Pygmalion by name. People knew him to be a great sculptor. Once he made a statue of a young woman. The statue was so beautiful that Pygmalion fell in love with it. He wanted the statue to become alive and asked the gods to help him. For a long time he waited, expecting the statue to talk but it was silent. Then Pygmalion decided to go to Aphrodite, the Goddess of Love. He expected her to help him. "On, Aphrodite, Goddess of Love, only you can help me. I know you to be very kind. Give me a wife as beautiful as my statue or make my statue talk." On returning home Pygmalion ran up to his statue, looked at it, and suddenly he noticed it move and then heard it speak. Soon the statue turned into a beautiful woman, and Pygmalion married her. This myth inspired a number of artists (including such different ones as Boucher and Daumier) and writers as well.

3. Compare the sentences and translate them. 1. We saw him enter. He was seen to enter. 2. We know Richter to work 10 hours a day. He is known to work 10 hours a day. 3. They considered Tchaikovsky a talented conductor. Tchaikovsky was considered (to be) a talented conductor. 4. I supposed her to live in Moscow. She was supposed to live in Moscow. 5. Nobody expected the picture to be exhibited. The picture was not expected to be exhibited. 6. The director believed to know about the rehearsal. 7. The cameraman supposes these shots to be spoiled. These shots are supposed to be spoiled. 4. Here is a poem for you to enjoy.

A WORD TO HUSBAND by Ogden Nash To keep your marriage brimming With love in the loving cup Wherever you are wrong, admit it, Wherever you are right, shut up. 5. Make sentences with the FOR construction using the words provided. Example: It’s good for you to drink coffee. 1 important him to get his machine working 2 painful me to keep my eyes open for more than a few seconds 3 wonderful children to walk at that hour 4 harder any of them to do so 5 hard Mike to repair the damage 6 wrong child to tease the animal 7 easy him to get out of my way 8 not unusual my brother to drive at high speed

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 1. Read and translate the following. IF I RULED THE WORLD If I ruled the world Every day would be the first day of spring Every heart would have a new song to sing And we’d sing of the joy Every morning would bring. If I ruled the world Every man would be as free as a bird Every voice would be a voice to be heard Take my word, we would treasure each day that occurred. My world would be a beautiful place Where we’d need wonderful dreams My world would wear a smile on its face Like a man in the moon has When the moon beams. If I ruled the world Every man would say the world was his friend There’d be happiness that no man could end Not my friend, not if I ruled the world Every head would be held up high There’d be sunshine in everyone’s sky If the day ever dawns When I ruled the world. 2. Read and translate the following poem. Hymn to the Russian Land by Paul Winter If the people lived their lives

As if it were a song For singing out of light Provides the music for the stars To be dancing circles in the night. 3. Use the correct mood and tense forms and render the story, the first part is done for you. Daddy, what if the sun stopped shining, What would happen then? If the sun stopped shining, You’d be so surprised, You’d stare at the heavens With wide-open eyes, And the wind would carry Your light to the skies, And the sun would start shining again! But, Daddy, what if the wind (to stop) blowing, What (to happen) then? If the wind (to stop) blowing, Then the land (to be dry), And your boat (not to sail), And your kite (not to fly), The grass (to see) your trouble, And she’ll tell the wind, And the wind (to start) blowing again! But, Daddy, what if the grass (to stop) growing, What (to happen) then? Well’ if the grass (to stop) growing, You’d probably cry, And the ground (to be worried) By the tears from your eyes, And, like your love for me, That grass (to grow) so high, The grass (to start) growing again! But, Daddy, what if I (to stop) loving you, What (to happen) then? If you (to stop) loving me, Then the grass (to stop) growing, The sun (to stop) shining, And the wind (to stop) blowing. So you see, if you (to want) to keep This world go on, You’d better start loving me again! 4. Use the correct mood and tense forms and render the story. An American lady travelling in England (to get) into compartment in a smoking carriage where an Englishman (to smoke) a pipe. For a short time she (to sit) quietly expecting that the Englishman (to stop) smoking. But when the train (to be) under way for half an hour, she (to begin) to cough and

sneeze trying in this way to show him that, she (to object) to the smoke. At last seeing that all her efforts to attract his attention (to fail) she (to address) him impatiently: “If you (to be) a gentleman, you (to stop) smoking when a lady (to get) into the carriage”. “If you (to be) a lady,” (to reply) the Englishman, “you (not to get) into a smoking carriage”. “If you (to be) my husband,” (to say) the American lady angrily, “I (to give) you poison.” The Englishman (to look) at her for a moment or two. “Well,” he (to say) at last, “If I (to be) your husband I (to take) it with pleasure.” 5. Read the following jokes and retell them. If I WERE YOU Mr. X.: If I were you, I wouldn’t see too much of young Z. His daughter: Why shouldn’t I ? What’s wrong with him? Mr. X.: Well. If you were older, you’d understand. Daughter: And if you were younger, perhaps you might like him. Mr. X.: You’re just starting a new job. If I were in your place, I’d be very careful in choosing my friends. Daughter: If I were in my place, you wouldn’t choose differently. Mr. X.: Young people aren’t what they were. If I were Minister of Education, I should do something about it. Daughter: If I were Queen, I would have a young Minister of Education. * * * A friend of an Irishman said to him: “I hear your mother-in-law has died. How long has she been dead?” The Irishman replied: “If she had lived till tomorrow, she would have been dead three months.” * * * Coxcomb: I dare say you are the most beautiful girl in our town. Local Beauty: That’s a fine way of putting it. But you would say so even if you didn’t think so. Coxcomb: And you wouldn’t think so, even if I didn’t say so. 6. Read the dialogue and reproduce it. Harry: We shall be awfully late home if that No. 12 bus doesn’t come soon… Let’s stand in this doorway out of the wind. Nora: All right, but we must be careful not to miss the bus… How did you enjoy the film? Harry: I’d never have gone if I had known it was going to be so silly. Nora: Why, what was silly about it? Harry: Well, no sane man would have married that other girl so soon after he had murdered his wife. It was sure to make people suspicious. Nora: If he had been sane he wouldn’t have murdered her! Besides, the girl wouldn’t have waited for him if he hadn’t asked her immediately. Harry: All the better for him if she hadn’t. Nora: Yes, but then he wouldn’t have paid for his crime. Anyhow, I’d have enjoyed the film much more if Elsa Hollywood had been in it instead

of Linda Spangle. Harry: And I have enjoyed it more if we hadn’t gone at all. Nora: (Sharply) And I’d have enjoyed it more if you hadn’t been so rude to that woman in front. Harry: Well, I shouldn’t have been rude to her if she had stopped chattering when I asked her. Nora: I wish you’d behave better in public places. Harry: I behave better! I like that! Why, if that woman had … (Sound of the bus starting up) But look, isn’t that a No.12 bus just going? Nora: Yes, it is and we’ve missed it after all. We should have seen that bus Harry, if you hadn’t been so busy quarrelling. Harry: (In injured tones) Really Nora, I think it would have been much better if I had stayed at home tonight and let you go to the cinema alone.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense. (A variety of tenses will be needed, as well as some conditionals and imperatives; for be able use can/could where possible.) Dear Hilda, I just (hear) that my mother suddenly (be) taken ill, and I (like) to go and see how she is. The trouble is I can’t take my dog Tim with me. You (think) you (be able) possibly look after him for a week? You (have) him for a week last year, you (remember), and you (say) he (be) no trouble, and (get) on well with your dog. If you (be able) have him, I (be able) bring him along any time that (suit) you. He (have) his own bed and bowl, and I (bring) enough tinned dog food to last him a week. But if it (not be) convenient, (not hesitate) to say so. There (be) quite good kennels near here, and they (take) him if I (ask). He (be) there once before and (seem) to get on all right. Love, Pamela.

Dear Pamela, I (be) very sorry to hear about your mother’s illness, and (be) glad that you (go) to Scotland and see how she is. It (be) nice for her to see you. Of course I (look) after Tim. We thoroughly (enjoy) having him last year and my dog (miss) him when he (leave) and (look) for him everywhere. I’m sure he (be) delighted to see him again. You (bring) him on Tuesday afternoon? Or, if that (not suit), any time on Wednesday. (not bother) to bring dog food; I (have) plenty. I hope you (have) time to have tea with me when you (bring) Tim, and that by then you (have) better news of your mother. Love, Hilda. 2. Insert the following verbs into their appropriate sentences:

to use, to be used to, used to. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The old man who ____ live here has now gone away. My sister ____ be a very good tennis player. They ____studying here now, but they found it very difficult at first. You can ____our premises for a dance on Sunday. John ____writing business letters. My mother ____sit in the open air in summer knitting. If you ____ a ladder, you can reach it. Mary ____hard work. Mr. West ____ play football before he was married.

On New Year’s Eve, people traditionally take a shower in the fountains in Trafalgar Square! The Christmas tree is an annual gift from Norway.

I'm in love! On 14th February, St Valentine’s Day, many people send a card to the one they love or someone whom they have fallen in love with. People usually do not sign these cards and a lot of time is spent trying to guess who has sent them!

Pancake Day Ash Wednesday is the day in February when the Christian period of Lent begins. This refers to the time when Christ went into desert and fasted for forty days. Although not many people actually give up eating during this period, on Pancake Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednesday, they eat lots of pancakes. These are made from flour, milk and eggs, and fried in a hot pan. Some towns also hold pancake races on that day. People run through the streets holding a frying pan and throwing the pancake in the air. Of course if they drop the pancake they lose the race!

Easter eggs At Easter time, the British celebrate the idea of new birth by giving each other chocolate Easter eggs which are opened and eaten on Easter Sunday. On Good Friday Bakers sell hot cross buns, which are toasted and eaten with butter. Easter Monday is a holiday and many people travel to the seaside for the day or go and watch one of the many sporting events, such as football or horse-racing.

May is here As summer comes, Britain likes to celebrate the end winter. Much of this celebration is connected with which is performed to encourage life and growth drive away harmful spirits. Children may be seen round the Maypole on village greens, weaving their coloured scarves into a beautiful pattern. Morris all day long on 1st May, waving their white handkerchiefs to drive away the evil spirits and the new ones.

of

the dancing, and to dancing brightly men dance welcome in

Ghosts and witches Halloween means 'holy evening', and takes place on 31st October. Although it is a much more important festival in the United States than Britain, it is celebrated by many people in the UK. It is particularly connected with witches and ghosts. At parties people dress up in strange costumes and pretend they are witches. They cut horrible faces in potatoes and other vegetables and put a candle inside, which shines through the eyes. People may play difficult games such as trying to eat an apple from a bucket of water without using their hands. In recent years children dressed in white sheets knock on doors at Hallowe'en and ask if you would like a 'trick' or 'treat'. If you give them something nice, a "treat",

they go away. However, if you don't they play a 'trick' on you, such as making a lot of noise or spilling flour on your front doorstep!

Guy Fawkes Night In 1605 King James I was on the throne. As a Protestant, he was very unpopular with Roman Catholics. Some of them planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament on 5th November of that year, when the King was going to open Parliament. Under the Houses of Lords they had stored thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, which were to be exploded by a man called Guy Fawkes. However one of the plotters spoke about these plans and Fawkes was discovered, arrested and later hanged. Since that day the British traditionally celebrate 5th November by burning a dummy, made of straw and old clothes, on a bonfire, whilst at the same time letting off fireworks. This dummy is called 'guy' (like Guy Fawkes) and children can often be seen on the pavements before 5th November saying, 'Penny for the guy'. If they collect enough money they can buy some fireworks.

Christmas If you try to catch a train on 24th December you may have difficulty in finding a seat. This is the day when many people are travelling home to be with their families on Christmas Day, 25th December. For most British families, this is the most important festival of the year; it combines the Christian celebration of the birth of Christ with the traditional festivities of winter. On the Sunday before Christmas many churches hold a carol service where special hymns are sung. Sometimes carol-singers can be heard on the streets as they collect money for charity. Most families decorate their houses with brightly-coloured paper or holly, and they usually have a Christmas tree in the corner of the front room, glittering with coloured lights and decorations. There are a lot of traditions connected with Christmas but perhaps the most important one is the giving of presents. Family members wrap up their gifts and leave them at the bottom of the Christmas tree to be found on Christmas morning. Children leave a long sock or stocking at the end of their bed on Christmas Eve, 24th December, hoping that Father Christmas will come down the chimney during the night and bring them small presents, fruit and nuts. They are usually not disappointed! At some time on Christmas Day the family will sit down to a big turkey dinner followed by Christmas pudding. They will probably pull a cracker with another member of the family. It will make a loud crack and small toy and joke will fall out! Later in the afternoon they may watch the Queen on television as she delivers her traditional Christmas message to the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth. If they have room for even more food they may enjoy a piece of Christmas cake or eat a hot mince pie. 26th December is also a public holiday, Boxing Day, and this is the time to visit friends and relatives or be a spectator at one of the many sporting events.

Christmas Traditions Christmas stockings St. Nicholas may have filled the first stocking. When he threw gold inside a poor man’s house, it is said, the gold landed in a stocking hung by the fireplace to dry. Poinsettia

Mexican legend tells of a poor boy that wanted to give the Christ child a gift on Christmas Eve but had nothing to give. He prayed hard – and suddenly a poinsettia sprang up at his feet. Tree and gifts Hundreds of years ago, to celebrate Christmas, German people began placing evergreen trees in their homes and decorating them. The evergreen had long been a symbol of life. The people exchanged brightly wrapped presents as reminders of the Wise Men’s gifts to the Christ child and of the goodwill of St. Nicholas. Plum pudding This dish was first made in England more than 300 years ago. Everyone helped make the pudding – which was the highlight of Christmas, dinner. Actually, there are no plums in plum pudding, but there are lots of currants and raisins. From “National Geographic World”

JINGLE BELLS Dashing through the snow In one-horse open sleigh, Down the hills we go Laughing all the way. Jingle, bells! Jingle, bells! Jingle all the way! Oh! What fun it is to ride In a one-horse open sleigh! Bells on bobtail ring, Making spirits bright; What fun it is to ride and sing A sleighing song tonight. A day or two ago, I thought I'd take a ride, And soon Miss Fannie Bright Was seated by my side. The horse was lean and lank, Misfortune seemed his lot; He got into a drifted bank, And we, we got upset. Now the ground is white, Go it while you're young, Take the girls tonight, And sing this sleighing song.

Just get a bobtail bay, Two forty for his speed; Then hitch him to an open sleigh, And crack! You'll take the lead.

Compete in writing down as many words as you can, using the letters of the two words “ MERRY CHRISTMAS” 1. ____________

2._____________

3. ______________

4. ______________

5.____________

6.___________

7._____________

8.____________

HAPPY

NEW

YEAR

At midnight on 31st December, bells will ring out around the world to welcome the New Year. Although certain countries calculate time by other calendars, most countries in the world now number their years according to the Gregorian calendar introduced in the 16th century by Pope Gregory XIII. This calendar was intended to overcome the confusion caused by calculating time according to the moon’s phrases. Bell ringing is one way of celebrating the arrival of a new year which is common to all the countries welcoming the New Year at this time; but it is the differences in their celebrations and customs which are intriguing. In Europe traditions vary considerably, but most of them involve a meal or special food. Swiss housewives bake special bread, rich in butter, eggs and raisins. They also cook roast goose. Children go from house to house greeting the occupants and receiving invitations to come inside. People in Italy hold all-night parties, where salt pork and lentils are included on the menu. Lentils are supposed to be lucky and bring money – perhaps because they look like small piles of gold coins. There is a practical reason for meals featuring in these New Year festivities. Most people stay up all night, or at least until midnight to “ see the New Year in”, so sustenance is essential. Also there is a common superstition that if the New Year begins well it will continue like that. So great efforts are made to provide an atmosphere of goodwill and plenty. In Spain it is a custom to eat 12 grapes at midnight and toast the New Year in champagne at family gatherings. Groups of friends visit restaurants in Turkey intending to spend the night in celebrations, which include present giving. Some people in Greece play cards, hoping that a win will bring them luck for a whole year. Maureen Stack From BBC “Modern English”

OH, THE FROST, THE FROST Oh, the Frost, the Frost, Please, don’t freeze me, Frost. Please, don’t freeze me, Frost, Me and my nice horse. Me and my nice horse,

It’s too marvelous. I have got a wife, She’s too jealous. When I come back home, It’ll be sunset. I shall hug my wife, Then I go to bed. Oh, the Frost, the Frost, Please, don’t freeze me, Frost. Please, don’t freeze me, Frost, Me and my nice horse.

Here is a poem. All the lines except the first one and the last are mixed. Find the logical sequence of the poem and you’ll read it. FAITH, JOY AND LOVE IF LOVE IS IN THE STOCKINGS, GATHER LOVE ON CHRISTMAS DAY TO BLESSING IN THE COMING YEAR, IF FAITH IS IN THE GLOWING STAR, WITH FAITH AND JOY AND LOVE QUITE NEAR. THEN FRIENDSHIP IS THE KEY AND JOY IS ON THE TREE, AND LET YOUR HEART GIVE IT AWAY.

YES-NO-BLACKAND-BLUE TABOO GAME Certain words are unavoidable and we say them so frequently that it's difficult to imagine how we would manage without them. Since practice makes perfect, try avoiding the few words in the name of this as a beginning. DIRECTIONS 1. Divide the room in half with an imaginary boundary line. Separate the group into three teams, each standing in line - one player behind the other - on one side of the boundary line. 2. Explain that you are going to take turns asking players questions and that each player called upon must answer immediately - without hesitation. However, players may not use the words yes, no, black, or blue in their answers or they will lose their turns and go to the end of the line. Players will soon discover that maybe is a good answer and you may have to eliminate that word too. Players who answer successfully are allowed to cross the boundary line. 3. In order to play fast enough to confuse players, prepare a list of questions beforehand. For example: - "Are you eight years old?" - "Do you like homework?"

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"What color is a black shoe?" "Do you have red pajamas?" "Can you ride a bike?" "Do you have twenty toes?" "What color is blackboard?" "Is your hair green?" 4. Go from team to team asking questions. As more and more players find ways to answer the questions without using the taboo words, they may join teammates on the other side of the boundary line. The first team to get all its players across is the winner.

TELLING THE FUTURE THE SHOE TEST Each player, in turn, removes his shoes and, while holding them right side in his hands, repeats the following verse: The shoes I toss into the air, Will they love me dark; will they love me fair? What future is mine? I pray you show By the turning of sole or pointing of toe! Give the shoes an upward toss and let them fall as they may, and the manner in which they reach the floor indicates the future: When both shoes land upside down and do not touch, the player will be a great traveler and have no settled home. When the right shoe is upside down, the future mate will be cross and selfish. When both shoes land right side up and do not touch, the player will go on the stage. When the left shoe is upside down, the future mate will be unselfish and kind. When the shoes are crossed, there will be an early marriage. When the toes of the shoes point in opposite directions, there will be a decided difference between husband and wife. When the toes of the shoes point in the same direction, husband and wife will be very congenial. When the soles cross, lying one on top of the other, the player will own a gold mine!

WISH ON A STAR When the Evening Star appears in the sky, repeat: Star light, star bright, First star I see tonight, I wish I may, I wish I might Have the wish I wish tonight. Later on, as you go to bed, repeat: I set my shoes in shape of a “T” Hoping tonight my true love to see, The shape of his face, the color of his hair, And everyday clothes he generally wears.

Halloween Halloween is both a British and an American holiday. In Britain it is celebrated in Scotland and Wales. In the United States it is celebrated in many towns and villages. It is a holiday for children and young people. On October 31st, dozens of children dressed in costumes knock on their neighbors' doors and yell, "Trick or Treat" when the door opens. Pirates and princesses, ghosts and popular heroes of the day all hold bags open to catch the candy or other goodies that the neighbors drop in. As they give the each child a treat, the neighbors exclaim over the costumes and try to guess who is under the masks. November 1st is a religious holiday known as All Saints' Day (or formerly, All Hallows' Day). The day before the holy day is known as All Hallows' Eve. The word "Halloween" comes from that form. Like some other American celebrations, its origins lie in both preChristian and Christian customs. October 31st was the eve of the Celtic New Year. The Celts were the ancestors of the present-day Irish, Welsh, and Scottish people. On this day, ghosts walked and mingled with the living, or so the Celts thought. The townspeople baked food all that day, and when night fell, they dressed up and tried to resemble the souls of the dead. Hoping that the ghosts would leave peacefully before midnight of the New Year, the people carried the food to the edge of town and left it for them. Much later, when Christianity spread throughout Ireland, and October 31 was no longer the last day of the year, Halloween became a celebration mostly for children. "Ghosts" went from door to door asking for treats; or else a trick would be played on the owners of the house. When millions of Irish people immigrated to the United States in the 1840s, the tradition came with them. Today, school dances and neighborhood parties called block parties are popular among young and old alike. More and more adults celebrate Halloween. They dress up like historical or political figures and go to masquerade parties. In larger cities, costumed children and their parents gather at shopping malls early in the evening. Stores and businesses give parties, with games and treats for the children. Teenagers enjoy costume dances at their schools, and the more outrageous the costume the better! Certain pranks such as soaping car windows and tipping over garbage cans are expected. But partying and pranks are not the only things that Halloweeners enjoy doing. Some collect money to buy food and medicine for needy children around the world.

Witches On 31 October the British celebrate Halloween. The word is a corruption of All Hallows Eve. It refers to the fact that this day comes before 1st November - the religious feast of all Saints. Halloween is particularly a children's festival and is connected with the telling of ghost stories, making masks, dressing up in some sort of disguise and playing tricks. The fairytale figure of the witch, dressed in black cloak, wearing a tall pointed hat and carrying a broomstick is a favorite disguise. The death penalty for witchcraft was abolished in Britain in 1736 but the practice of witchcraft remained officially illegal in Britain until 1951.

From "BBC English"

Symbols of Halloween Halloween originated as a celebration connected with evil spirits. Witches flying on broomsticks with black cats, ghosts, goblins and skeletons have all evolved as symbols of Halloween. Black is one of the traditional Halloween colours, probably because Halloween festivals and traditions took place at night. Pumpkins are also a symbol of Halloween, and orange has become the other traditional Halloween colour. Carving pumpkins into jack-o’lanterns is a Halloween custom also dating back to Ireland. The Irish people carved scary faces out of turnips representing “Jack of the Lantern,” or Jack-o’lantern. When the Irish brought their customs to the United States, they carved faces on pumpkins because in the autumn, they were more plentiful than turnips. Traditional Games One of the most popular is called pin-the-tail-on-the-donkey: One child is blindfolded and spun slowly so that he or she will become dizzy. Then the child must find a paper donkey hanging on the wall and try to pin a tail onto the back. Another game is bobbing for apples. One child at a time has to get apples from a tub of water without using hands! How? By sinking his or her face into the water and biting the apple!

FORTUNE

JINGLE

To determine the number of new friends you will the coming year, count the number of buttons on a dress or coat of the first person you meet after Halloween midnight: One is good fortune Two - a light heart Three is a carriage Four is a cart Five – a new dress Six – a new hat Seven – a pet dog Eight – a pet cat Nine - a letter Ten – a pleasure Eleven – a great joy Twelve is a treasure. Love Apples The younger and more romantically-inclined might like to try this game, which has its roots in pagan divination ritual. The aim is to find the initial of the person you will marry, and to do this; you peel an apple very carefully, removing the skin in one unbroken strip. Then at an appointed hour (midnight is best), you throw the peel over your left shoulder. The shape it forms on the ground will spell out the initial of the person you are going to marry. Bobbing for Apples Float some apples in a large tub filled with water. All players must have their hands tied behind their backs, and try to grasp one of the apples between their teeth, lifting it out of the water. The game can be played against the clock or with two or more players

competing simultaneously in the same bowl. Water gets everywhere during this game, so try and play it outdoors in old clothes. A less carpet-threatening alternative is to suspend an apple from the ceiling and get players to try and bite it as it swings to and fro. You can also replace the apple with a treacle-coated oatcake or 'bannock', as it is called in Scotland.

THE VAMPIRE The night is still and sombre, And in the murky gloom, Arisen from his slumber, The vampire leaves his tomb. His eyes are pools of fire, His skin is icy white, And blood his one desire This woebegotten night. Then through the silent city He makes his silent way, Prepared to take no pity Upon his hapless prey. And open window beckons, He grins a hungry grin, And pausing not one second He swiftly climbs within. And there, beneath her covers, His victim lies in sleep. With fangs agleam, he hovers And with those fangs, bites deep. The vampire drinks till sated, He fills his every pore, And then, his thirst abated, Licks clean the dripping gore. With powers now replenished, His thirst no longer burns. His quest this night is finished, So to his tomb he turns, And there awhile in silence He'll rest beneath the mud Until, with thoughts of violence, He wakes and utters … blood! Jack Prelutsky

A story for Halloween

October 31st is Halloween, the season for ghosts and witches. Some people in England have Halloween parties, and a popular activity is telling ghost stories, while eating hot chestnuts roasted in the fire. It's a good idea to tell a chain-story. One person starts a story (he makes it up as he goes along). At a dramatic moment he (or she) stops and another person goes on. Again, when everything is getting very exciting, the storyteller stops, and another person continues. You could be sitting round the fire all night! Here is the beginning of a story, to start you off. James Garrison lived alone in the country. Four times every year he came into town to do his shopping. One summer, he made a special visit to town. He needed money and he had some old pictures to sell. So, on August 5th 1906, he came into town with his pictures and visited an art dealer. While the art dealer was looking at his pictures, Mr. Garrison walked about the shop and looked at the pictures for sale. There were pictures everywhere - on the walls, and in big piles on the floor. Mr. Garrison started to look at a pile of pictures on the floor. There were pictures of people on the beach, of ships at sea, of mountains in Scotland and of families in their houses. At the bottom of the pile, there was picture of a market place. In the market place there was a gallows. Under the gallows stood a thin, sad man and a hangman with a black mask. Several other people were around. One woman was crying. When Mr. Garrison saw this picture, he stopped and stared at it. ‘I know that picture,’ he thought. ‘I know the man standing under the gallows. I know the market place and the other people. But how can I know them?’ The art dealer gave him £ 20 for his pictures. Mr. Garrison showed him the picture of the man at the gallows. 'How much is this painting?' he asked. 'Oh, that's £ 12,' said the art dealer. It's a good painting. But I don't like it.' Mr. Garrison thought for a minute. He did not like the picture, either. He needed the £ 12, too. But he had to have the picture. He did not know why. “I'll have it, please. It's interesting,” he said. Mr. Garrison had lunch at restaurant. After lunch, he did some more shopping. It was a warm day, and he did not want to go home yet. He decided to walk about the town for a while. He looked at his watch. It was 4 o'clock. He left his shopping and the picture in a shop, and asked the shopkeeper to look after them for him. “I'll be back soon,” he said. He walked into the center of the town. It was not a big town. Soon, he was on the other side. The road led out into the countryside. Mr. Garrison decided he would go on. After about an hour, he came to a little church. The churchyard was cool and green. There were trees growing inside the gates, and he wanted to go inside and rest. As he went in, he saw someone in the churchyard. It was a man sitting on the ground. He was working hard, with some tools. Mr. Garrison walked up to him, and stood behind him. He was carving a name on a tombstone. 'Good evening,' said Mr. Garrison. The man looked up. His face was friendly, but thin and sad. 'Good evening,' said the thin man. 'It's been a lovely day!' Mr. Garrison looked at the man's face. It was the face of the man in the picture he had bought that morning - the man under the gallows. 'Can I look at your work?' asked Mr. Garrison, 'I see you are carving a tombstone. Who is it for?'

'I don't know him,' said the thin man. 'But here is his name.' He pointed to the name on the tombstone. Mr. Garrison looked at it closely. He read: IN MEMORY OF JAMES WHYTE GARRISON who died suddenly, August 1906. James stared at the tombstone. “But that's my name”, he said… Now, you finish the story! From "Club" WITCH WEIGH / WHICH WAY?

A homophone is a word that sounds exactly like another word but has a different spelling and/or a different meaning. Circle the correct homophone in each of the sentences below. 1. (Eye, I) walked (buy, by) your house on my way home. 2. The (witch, which) could (knot, not) stay on her broom. 3. (Hour, Our) dog stepped on a (be, bee). 4. I (one, won) the game with (to, two) homeruns. 5. Tom lost his (blew, blue) jacket in the (hi, high) grass. 6. (WE, Wee) should not (waist, waste) food. 7. The (bare, bear) sat in the (we, wee) chair. 8. Did you (sea, see) the race between the (hare, hair) and the (foul, fowl)? 9. (Beet, Beat) the eggs before you add the (Flower, flour). 10. The tent (steak, stake) was wet with (do, dew). 11. I will (meet, meat) you in the (meet, meat) department. 12. She forgot to (pour, poor) the milk before she (eight, ate). 13. (You’re, your) usually (pail, pale) when you are sick. 14. At the (fare, fair), I saw the dancing (bear, bare). 15. (Its, It’s) impolite to (stair, stare). HALLOWEEN SPIRITS Fill in the blanks with words from the witch. In ancient times, people thought that ghosts, demons, and witches (1)________ the earth on Halloween night. People began dressing in terrifying (2)__________ to try to (3)__________ these evil spirits away. Fire was believed to be a good (4)_______________ against witches, so some people carried lighted (5)_____________ on Halloween (6)___________. Others hollowed out a turnip or (7)____________, carved a

scary face on it, placed a lighted (8)__________ inside and carried this jack-o'-lantern around to scare away the witches and all other evil spirits. Some people placed these jacko’-lanterns on (9)______________ or windowsills to frighten the spirits away from the (10)_____________. Although fire was considered to be the most trustworthy weapon against witches, (11)__________ was also supposed to be good. Iron (12)___________ were carried or hung above doors. Other people relied on making the sign of the (13) __________ to keep the evil spirits from harming them.

WITCHES BREW

Work out each problem. Find the correct letter to each answer below. Place the letter under your answer to find out what the old witch is putting in her magic brew. Then beware on Halloween night. A B C D E F G H I J 48 24 40 81 23 202 736 21 15 82 K L M N O P Q R S x97 72 3 65 50 47 19 33 42 T U V W 16 100 12 9

X Y Z 87 25 52

2 5 9 5 7 5 6 47 7 47 5 78 9 +53 ×6 -31 5 -13 ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

11 ×3

17 6 12 13

56 -40

4 ×4

73 -25

13 22 3 54 80 13 ×5 +18 -38 ____ ____ ____ _____ _____ ___

5 5 5

8 ×9

___ ____ ____ ____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ 3 419 36 8 4 10 87 9 13 -217 +12 ×2 9 ×5 -39 ×9 +29 ______ ______ ______ _____ _____ ______ _____ _____ _____ 8 12 4 282 2 13 12 603 79 320 52 ×6 -234 6 17 ×2 -531 -29 -270 +29 ____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____

Make a Word Use the letters in the word “HALLOWEEN” to make as many different words as you can. 1.____________ 2.______________ 3._______________ 4.____________ 5._______________ 6.________________

VALENTINE’S

DAY

Saint Valentine’s Day, a day of friendship and love, is celebrated on the 14th of February. Sending greeting cards or gifts to express affection is the traditional way to celebrate the holiday. The cards, or “valentines”, are usually decorated with hearts to symbolize love. The history of Valentine’s Day is not well documented. It probably comes from an ancient Roman feast and then became associated with the day of two Christian Saints, both named St. Valentine. On the Eve of St. Valentine’s Day young people used to meet and each gentleman chose a lady to become his “valentine”. Nowadays Valentine’s Day is the second biggest greeting card holiday after Christmas. Parents and children, teachers and students, husbands and wives, - almost everybody sends a lot of valentines as a message of caring and love. There are special “Valentine boxes” in American schools on the day where children drop their “valentines” to greet all the students and teachers in the class. Some cards say “Guess Who?’ for children to figure out who sent the valentine. You can make your own personal valentine, which will remain treasured for years after the holiday has passed. Decorate your extra-special valentine with rose petals, confetti, stickers or your own drawing and don’t hesitate to fill up the page with your favourite poem. WON’T YOU? Barbara’s eyes are blue as azure But she is in love with Freddy, Karen’s sweet but Harry has her, Gentle Jane is going steady. Carol hates me, so does May,

Abigail will not be mine, Nancy lives too far away… Won’t YOU be my Valentine? Shel Silverstein February the fourteenth day. It’s Valentine they say. I choose you from among the rest, The reason is I love you best. Sure as the grapes grow on the vine, So sure you are my Valentine. The rose is red, the violet blue, Lilies are fair and so are you. There are gold ships And silver ships But no ships Like Friendship. Let me call you sweetheart I’m in love with you Let me hear you whisper That you love me, too. Keep the lovelight glowing In your eyes so true. Let me call you sweetheart, I’m in love with you. I’ll be your sweetheart, If you will be mine, All of my life I’ll be your Valentine. “Dear Stephanie: I’m going to be a millionaire when I grow up. Now, will you be my Valentine? Jerome” “Dear Debbie: I can’t love you anymore. I have a dog now. Bruce.” “Dear Roger: I think I love you, but I won’t know for sure until I ask my mother. Your girlfriend, Denise.” “Dear William: Let’s get married so we can do our homework together. Love, Diana.”

GAMES In the following statement one letter is missed. It is used 16 times. Can you guess what letter it is and read the statement. VRY VNING RNST ARND IGHTN CNTS XCDINGLY ASILY Here is the poem, where all the lines are mixed, except the first and the last one. Could you find the logical sequence of these lines and read the poem? 1. What is this life if, full of care, And watch her feet, how they can dance. Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass. A poor life this is if, full of care, No time to turn at Beauty’s glance, Streams full of stars, like skies at night. We have no time to stand and stare? No time to see in broad daylight, No time to see, when woods we pass, 10. We have no time to stand and stare.

April Fool's Day "The first of April is the day we remember what we are the other 364 days of the year." Mark Twain April the first is known throughout English speaking world as All Fools' Day. By tradition it is the day on which jokes are played, when everyone is entitled, if he can, to make other people look ridiculous by getting them to believe something that is untrue or sending them unsuspectingly, upon some foolish errand. Those who fall into the trap set for them are then greeted with jeering laughter and shouts of "April Fool!" The children might decide to make their parents with the news that the house in on fire, or that some other disaster has occurred. When they see the looks of alarm on their victims' faces they shout, "April Fool" or April Fool, April Fool, Send your mother back to school. At school serious work is practically forgotten as the children try to pin notices on one another's backs. The notices say things like "Kick me", or "I'm a Fool". Teachers have to be particularly careful or they too might find themselves walking around with a silly sign on their backs. It is a very old custom, and people have kept it for hundreds of years in many parts of the world, either on the first of April, as in England, or, as in some district of India, on March the thirty-first. During the last century, many elaborate jokes were played upon unsuspecting people on April Fools’ Day. One of the most famous jokes took place in 1860, when a few days earlier several hundreds of people, some say thousands, received through the post an official-looking letter, which, when opened, was found to contain an invitation card. The card was headed “Tower of London” and on it was printed: “Admit Bearer and Friend to view the Annual

Ceremony of Washing the white Lions on the April first, 1860. Admitted only at the White Gate”. On the appointed Day crowds of people, some in cabs and carriages, some on foot, made their way to the White Gate. But there was no gate at the Tower called the White Gate, nor were there any white lions. And the victims understood that they had been made April Fools. But they left some consolation in thinking what a lot of money in postage and printing charges it cost to the author of the joke. On this day of national good humour, the television service joins in the fun. Recently they told the story of a building that had been built upside-down by mistake. They showed an example of modern architecture, which actually did look better when it was turned the other way. Many people must have been fooled, and perhaps the architect himself was given food for thought. Happy New Year In sixteenth-century France, the start of the new year was observed on April first. It was celebrated in much the same way as it is today with parties and dancing into late hours of the night. Then in 1562, Pope Gregory introduced a new calendar for the Christian world, and the new year fell on January first. There were some people, however, who hadn’t heard or didn’t hear or didn’t believe the change in the date, so they continued to celebrate New Year’s Day on April first. Others played tricks on them and called them “April fools.” They sent them on a “fool’s errand” or tried to make them believe that something false was true. In France today, April first is called “Poisson d’Avril.” French children fool their friends by taping a paper fish to their friends’ backs. When the “young fool” discovers this trick, the prankster yells “Poisson d’Avril!” (April Fish!) Today Americans play small tricks on friends and strangers alike on the first of April. One common trick on April Fool’s Day or All Fool’s Day, is pointing down to a friend’s shoe and saying, “Your shoelace is untied.” Teachers in the nineteenth century used to say to pupils, “Look! A flock of geese!” and point up. School children might tell a classmate that school has been cancelled. Whatever the trick, if the innocent victim falls for the joke the prankster yells, “April Fool!” The “fools’ errands” we play on people are practical jokes. Putting salt in the sugar bowl for the next person is not a nice trick to play on a stranger. College students set their clocks an hour behind, so their roommates show up to the wrong class – or not at all. Some practical jokes are kept up the whole day before the victim realizes what day it is. Most April Fool jokes are in good fun and not meant to harm anyone. The most clever April Fool joke is the one where everyone laughs, especially the person upon whom the joke is played. Jokes and Games Here is a statement:

Their is four errors in this sentence. Can you find them all? In a Budapest zoo: Please do not feed the animals. If you have any suitable food, give it to the guard on duty. In a Tokyo Hotel: It is forbidden to steal hotel towels please. If you are not a person to do such thing is please not to read notice. In the lobby of a Moscow hotel across from the Russian Orthodox monastery: You are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous Russian composers, artists and writers are buried daily except Thursday.

In Bangkok temple: It is forbidden to enter a woman even a foreigner if dressed as a man. From a Japanese information booklet about using the hotel air conditioner: Cooles and Heates: if you want just condition of warm in your room, please control yourself. On the menu of a Swiss restaurant: Our wines leave you nothing to hope for. In a Bangkok dry cleaner’s: Drop your trousers here for the best results. * * * Lawyer: Now that we have won, will you tell me confidentially if you stole the money? Client: Well, after hearing you talk in court yesterday I’m beginning to think I didn’t. * * * A man telephoned his doctor excitedly. “Quick!” He insisted “My wife has an appendicitis!” “Now, now,” said the doctor. “I took your wife’s appendix out five years ago. I never heard of anyone having a second appendix”. “Maybe not, Doc,” replied the anxious husband. But did you ever hear of a man having a second wife?” * * * -Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to walk from here? =That depends a good deal on where you want to get to, said the Cat. -I don’t much care where – said Alice. =Then it doesn’t matter which way you walk, - said the Cat. * * * -You don’t seem to realize on which side your bread is buttered. =What does it matter? I eat both sides. * * *

-Guest: “Look here! How long must I wait for you to bring me the half-portion of duck I ordered?” =Waiter: “Till somebody orders the other half. We can’t go out and kill half a duck.” * * * “It was so cold last winter,” said the Minnesota farmer, “that a sheep jumping into my truck just froze in mid-air.” “That’s impossible!” the stranger said. “That would defy the law of gravity.” “Yes,” answered the farmer. “in normal conditions that is true, but it was soooo cold that the law of gravity was frozen too!” * * * A farmer was telling a stranger about a remarkable ointment he used on his cows. “You can cut off a cow’s tail, rub the ointment on the stump, and a new tail will grow on the cow in five days.” “That’s nothing,” the stranger said. “In Wisconsin, you can cut off a cow’s tail, rub OUR ointment on the end of the TAIL, and in four days a new cow grows on the end of the old tail.” *

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The Iowa farmer said, “I have a friend who can run so fast that he can throw a baseball from the pitcher’s mound, run to the plate and hit the ball as it whizzes past.” “You should see my cousin,” said the other farmer. “He’s so fast that he can blow out a candle and be undressed and in bed by the time the room gets dark.” * * * Never tell a woman a secret. She will either think it is not worth keeping or it is too good to keep. * * * “Why has a woman never been President?” “Don’t you know the President has to be over 35?” * * * WHY BREAK YOUR CHINA WASHING UP? Do it automatically in a dishwasher! From John R. Fordham, Epping. Phone 33. Established 1923 (The Surrey Mirror) *

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Advertising may be described as the science of arresting the human intelligence long enough to get money from it. Stephen Leacock * * * NANYUKI farmer seeks lady with tractor with view to companionship and possibly marriage. Send picture of tractor. Littlewood. Box 132, Nanyuki. (The East African Standard) * * * PLEASE NOTE: You can order our

rings by post. State size or enclose string tied round finger. (Advert in Yorkshire paper) * * * 26th October R.D. Smith has one Sewing Machine for sale. Phone 66598 after 7 p.m. and ask for Mrs. Kelly who lives with him cheap. 27th October R.D. Smith informs us he has received several annoying telephone calls because of an incorrect ad. in yesterday’s paper. It should have read : R.D. Smith has one sewing machine for sale. Cheap. Phone 66598 after 7 p.m. and ask for Mrs. Kelly who loves with him. 28th October R.D. Smith. We regret an error in R.D. Smith’s classified advertisement yesterday. It should have read: R.D. Smith has one Sewing Machine for sale. Cheap. Phone 66598 and ask for Mrs. Kelly who lives with him after 7 p.m. (The Tanganyika Standard) * * * Doing business without advertising is like winking at a girl in the dark: you know what you are doing, but nobody else does. Edgar Watson Howe Actual Headlines from the Newspapers Include Your Children when Baking Cookies Something Went Wrong in Jet Crash, Expert Says Safely Experts Say School Bus Passengers Should Be Belted Survivor of Siamese Twins Joins Parents Iraqi Head Seeks Arms Teachers Strike Idle Kids Miners Refuse to Work after Death Two Sisters Reunited After 18 Years at Checkout Counter Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Times in 10 years Eye Drops Off Shelf Clinton Wins on Budget, But More lies Ahead Enraged Cow Injures Farmer With Ax Plane Too Close to Ground, Crash Probe Told Juvenile Court to try Shooting Defendant Stolen Painting Found by Tree If Strike Isn’t Settled Quickly, It May Last a While THE SCIENTISTS AND THE WATCHES

One night a crazy scientist got involved in a rather silly argument with a fellow scientist. They were arguing about whose watch was the better, the Swiss one or the Japanese one. Being scientists, they decided to do an experiment to test the watches. The first part of the test was to see if both were waterproof. (They were both so convinced of the quality of their watches that they were willing to risk ruining them.) They went into their laboratory looking very serious. They filled the sink with water, put the watches in, waited impatiently for ten minutes and took them out. They could see there was something wrong with both watches, but being cautious men of science they observed them for a couple of hours before speaking to each other. The tension was unbearable. They silently realized that the Swiss watch was losing sixty minutes an hour and the Japanese one double that. The scientist with the Japanese watch then slowly raised his head and said, "Both watches are now defective but my watch is right more often than yours, so it's better." The scientist with the Swiss watch left the room without saying a word. Was the man with the Japanese watch right? If so, how? 1. What were they arguing about at the beginning of the story? 2. Why couldn't they go on with the experiment after they took the watches out of the water? 3. What did they do for a couple of hours? 4. What did they realize the Swiss watch was doing? 5. If the Swiss watch was losing sixty minutes in sixty minutes in sixty minutes, was it a) going forward? b) stopped? c) going backwards? 6. So how often in every 12-hour periods would the Swiss watch show the right time? a) Once. b) Twice? 7. How many minutes was the Japanese watch losing every hour? 8. If a watch loses 120 minutes every sixty minutes, is it a) going forwards? b) stopped? c) going backwards? 9. How often in every 12-hour period will the Japanese watch show the correct time? a) Once. b) Twice. 10. Was the scientist right when he said, “But my watch is right more often than yours”? 11. Why is this absurd? From “Challenge to think” Now you could correct your answers with the following given ones. 1. The two scientists were arguing about whose watch was better. 2. They couldn’t continue the experiment because there was something wrong with both watches. 3. They observed the watches for a couple of hours without speaking. 4. They realize the Swiss watch was losing sixty minutes an hour. 5. (b) if a watch is losing sixty minutes in sixty minutes, it’s stopped. 6. (a) Once in every twelve hours the Swiss watch would show the right time. 7. The Japanese watch was losing 120 minutes every sixty minutes.

8. ( c) It is going backwards if it loses 120 minutes every sixty minutes. In other words, every time a clock telling the correct time moved forward an hour, the Japanese clock moved back exactly an hour. 9. The Japanese watch will show the correct time twice in every 12-hour period, i.e.,every six hours. 10. The scientist with the Japanese watch was right when he said, “My watch is right more often than yours.” 11. Neither watch tells the correct time – they only show it. You wouldn’t know they were showing it without a third watch to refer to.

T h a n k s g i v i n g Thanksgiving is a national holiday in the United States. It falls on the fourth Thursday of November, a different date every year. Almost every culture in the world has held celebrations of thanks for a plentiful harvest. The American Thanksgiving holiday began as a feast of thanksgiving in the early days of the American colonies almost four hundred years ago. In 1620, a boat filled with more than one hundred people sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to settle in the New World. This religious group had begun to question the beliefs of the Church of England and they wanted to separate from it. The Pilgrims settled in what is now the state of Massachusetts. Their first winter in the New World was difficult. They had arrived too late to grow many crops; and without fresh food, half the colony died from disease. The following spring, the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow corn (maize), a new food for the colonists. They showed them other crops to grow in the unfamiliar soil and how to hunt and fish. In the autumn of 1621, bountiful crops of corn, barley, beans and pumpkins were harvested. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so a feast was planned. They invited the local Indian chief and ninety Indians. The Indians brought deer to roast with the turkeys and other wild game offered by the colonists. The colonists had learned how to cook cranberries and different kinds of corn and squash dishes from the Indians. To this first Thanksgiving, the Indians had even brought popcorn. In following years, many of the original colonists celebrated the autumn harvest with a feast of thanks. After the United States became an independent country, Congress recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving, for the whole nation to celebrate. George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Then in 1864, at the end of a long and bloody civil war, Abraham Lincoln asked all Americans to set aside the last Thursday in November as a day of thanksgiving. Over the river, and through the woods American children still sing song as they look forward to spending Thanksgiving with grandparents. It was written around 1860 by Lydia Maria Child. Over the river, and through the woods, To grandmother's house we go; The horse knows the way, To carry the sleigh, Through the white and drifted snow.

Over the river, and through the woods Oh, how the wind does blow! It stings the toes, And bites the nose, As over the ground we go.

Play this game! Fingers out Two players stand facing each other, and each puts his right hand behind his back. Then they count together out loud, "one, two, three." At "three" they put out their right hands, either closed to make a first or with one or more fingers outstretched. They can stretch out one finger or two, three or four fingers, or hold their hand open so that all five fingers are outstretched. At the moment they put out their hands, each one shouts a number. This number is his guess as to how many fingers will be shown on both hands. The player who guesses the correct number of fingers or the closest number to it scores a point. The players write down the score, and the winner is the one who has the greatest number of points when it is decided to stop playing the game.

A curious little puzzle You ask somebody to perform a series of apparently silly little sums, and from them you deduce two very real fact. This is what you fell him to do: 4 1. Think of the number of his house, say 8 2. Double the above 13 3. Add 5 650 4. Multiply by 50 665 5. Add his age (say, 15) 6. Add the number of days in an ordinary year (365) 1030 415 7. Subtract 615 Then you ask him what the answer is, and when he says 415, you tell him that number of his house is 4 and his age is 15. The first figure supplies the number of the house and the last two his age. If you know your friend's house-number, ask him of her to think of someone else's, and add in flat person's age.

УФЫЕУК

E A S T E R The word ‘Easter’ comes from ‘Eastre’ or ‘Eostre’, the Anglo-Saxon goddess of the dawn whose spring festival was celebrated in April. Before the arrival of Christianity, people believed that the sun died in winter and was born again in spring; on the day of the spring equinox they would sing and dance as the sun rose in the sky. Many countries took their name for Easter from the Jewish festival of Passover. The Passover Festival developed partly from the Feast of Unleavened Bread

when Jews would destroy the sour dough which was used like yeast to leaven bread, so that the produce of the year to come would be protected. The first sheaf of the newly cut barley was then presented to the priests as a thanksgiving. This feast became combined with another, called Pesach, when Jews would sacrifice a sheep or goat in the spring to give thanks. As a protection against bad luck, the shepherds’ tent posts were painted with the blood of the creature. The name ‘Passover’ comes from the time when the Jews escaped the punishment received by the Egyptians for enslaving the Jews by painting sheep’s blood on their door posts during the Pesach festival. Nowadays, during the Passover Festival, Jews remember the day they escaped from slavery, whilst celebrating release from the grips of winter. They worship in the temple and celebrate at home. The day before Passover, homes are cleaned, leavened bread is thrown away and unleavened bread is baked in preparation for the feast. The first Easter took place during the Passover feast, which is always celebrated at full moon, so to keep Easter Day on a Sunday it was decided that Easter should always be celebrated on the Sunday following the first full moon after the spring equinox (21 March). EASTER TRADITIONS AND SYMBOLS THE CROSS Christ was crucified on a cross, so the cross has come to have a special meaning to Christians. It represents Christ’s victory over death. It is a significant Easter symbol. THE LAMB Jesus was known as the Lamb of God. At one time, the Jews sacrificed a lamb during a Passover festival, and early Christians adopted this as a sign of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross. Lamb is now a traditional Easter meal, and cookies and cakes are often made in the shape of a lamb for Easter. EGGS Of course, eggs represent new life. Long ago, some people believed that the earth was hatched from a gigantic egg! Eggs have been exchanged for centuries. Ancient Egyptians dyed eggs and gave them to friends as gifts. In England, friends wrote messages on colored eggs. The practice of coloring and exchanging eggs has been carried on in many parts of the world today. EASTER RABBITS In America and around the world, many children believe that the Easter bunny brings Easter eggs and hides them for finding on Easter morning. Where did this tradition begin? There are many different legends, but here is a popular one. Long ago in Germany there lived an old, loving woman who adored children. Each year she would give children gifts to celebrate spring. One year she had nothing to give because she had grown very poor due to a great famine in the land. All she had were some eggs. She did not want to disappoint the children, so quickly before they arrived for their gifts, she colored the eggs and hid them in the grass. When the children arrived, she told them to run out into the lawn to find their gifts hiding there. Of course, the children ran into the yard in search of their surprise. Just as one of the children uncovered the eggs, a large rabbit hopped away. So the children thought that the rabbit had left the eggs for them! And ever since, children have searched for the eggs left by the Easter rabbit on Easter morning. It is also true that in ancient Egypt the rabbit symbolized the moon. It also symbolized new life and birth. Because Easter’s date is determined by the moon, and

Easter occurs in the springtime, it was natural that the rabbit continued to be one of the symbols of Easter. Games Use the letters in the word “EASTER” to make as many different words as possible. 1.___________ 4._______________

2.___________

3.___________

Use the following code to learn the secret. Write the letters on the correct lines.

Are you ready to hunt for Easter eggs?

A B C D E 1 2 3 4 5

F G H I J K L M 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

N O P 14 15 16

Q 17

R 18

1 12 12 __ __ __

15 6 __ __

5 1 19 20 5 18 __ __ __ __ __ __ 1 18 5 __ __ __

S T U V 19 20 21 22

W X Y Z 23 24 25 26

20 8 5 __ __ __ 5 7 7 19 __ __ __ ___

8 9 4 4 5 14 __ __ __ __ __ ___

21 14 4 5 18 __ __ __ __ __

20 8 5 __ __ __

12 9 12 1 3 __ __ __ __ __

2 21 19 8 5 19 __ __ __ __ __ __

REFERENCES 1. Archaeologists Are Detectives Who Dig in the Dirt, by Jeremy A. Sabloff, Newsday, 4, 1990. 2. Archaeology (Сборник текстов на английском языке), Из-во ‘Наука’, М.1985. 3. “Columbus in the capital”. Quincentenary Edition, Washington, 1992. 4. Current Anthropology, The University of Chicago Press, Vol.24, No 2, 1983. 5. Early Britain, by S.D.Zaitseva, M. 1981. 6. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Chicago, London, Torronto. 7. “National Geographic”, July 1994, January 1996. 8. Popular Phrases. Из-во ‘Просвещение’, Л. 1971. 9. Study UK. Issue 2:5, 1994. 10. The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt, London, 1945.

11. The History of the USSR, by Alexeyev, M. 1975. 12. The Language Book, by Franklin Folsom. 13. “The Lay of the Warfare Waged by Igor”, preface to the book by D.Likhachev, Progress Publishers, 1981.

14. The Mycenaeans, by Lord William Taylour. Thames and Hudson Ltd. London, 1983. 15. Polybius and Rome’s Eastern Policy, by F.W.Walbank. London,

1963. 16. TOEFL, by M.A.Pyle, M.E.Munoz. Cliff Notes, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1982. 17. Treasures from Ukrainian Barrows, by A.Leskov. Из-во ‘Аврора’, Л., 1972. 18. What is Democracy? Us Informational Agency. October, 1991. 19. Е.А. Бонди, Учебник английского языка для студентов-историков. МГУ, 1977. 20. Книга для чтения по педагогике на английском языке. Из-во ‘Просвещение’, М. 1975. 21.Сборник текстов на английском языке. Из-во ‘Просвещение’, М. 1979. 22. М.А. Шерешевская, Н.М.Эльянова, Учебник английского языка для филологов и историков. Ч.1. ЛГУ, 1973. 23. American booklets /North Carolina Indians/. 1989. 24. English booklet /Sweat of the Sun - Gold of Peru/. 1990.

24. Periodicals: Moscow News, 1981, 1985. English, 1994, 1995. Herald Tribune, 1974. Reader’s Digest, New York, N.Y. 1976, 1978. The Times, 1987.

CONTENTS Предисловие 3 Section I Unit 1

7

Unit 2

17

Unit 3

27

Unit 4

37

Unit 5

46

Unit 6

56

Unit 7

66

Unit 8

75

Section II Warming up 86 Conversational Formulas 92 Section III Poems and Songs 95 Grammar exercises 113 Section IV Festivals

137

References

160