Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition: Nucleation and Early Growth Stages (Materials Science and Process Technology Series)

DIAMOND CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION Nucleation and Early Growth Stages Huimin Liu Department of Chemical Engineering Col...

Author: Huimin Liu David S. Dandy

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DIAMOND CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION Nucleation and Early Growth Stages

Huimin Liu Department of Chemical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado and

David S. Dandy Department of Chemical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado

I

nP

NOYES PUBLICATIONS Park Ridge, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Copyright 0 1995 by Noyes Publications No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95-30332 ISBN: 0-8155-1380-l Printed in the United States Published in the United States of America by Noyes Publications Mill Road, Park Ridge, New Jersey 07656 10987654321

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Liu, Huimin, 1961Diamond chemical vapor deposition : nucleation and early growth stages ! by Huimin Liu and David S. Dandy cm. P. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-81551380-I 1. Diamonds, Artificial. 2. Chemical vapor deposition. I. Dandy, David S. II. Title TP873.5DSL58 1995 ^_ ^^^__ 666-3u*jz CIP

Rointan F. Bunshah, University of California, Los Angeles (Series Editor) Gary E. McGuire, Microelectronics Center of North Carolina (Series Editor) Stephen M. Rossnagel, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center (Consulting Editor)

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Preface

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) process, one ofthe most important technological developments in the past decade, has made production of high-quality diamond coatings on preshaped parts and synthesis of freestanding shapes of diamond a reality. Epitaxial diamond has been grown on diamond and cubic-BN. Polycrystalline diamond films have been deposited on various non-diamond substrates, including insulators, semiconductors, and metals, ranging from single crystals to amorphous materials. However, further technological developments in CVD of diamond films, particularly in such challenging areas as single-crystal growth for electronic applications and low-temperature deposition for coating on optic and plastic materials, requires a detailed understanding and effective control of the fundamental phenomena associated with diamond nucleation and growth. These phenomena, especially the nucleation and early growth stages, critically determine film properties, morphology, homogeneity, defect formation, adhesion, and the type of substrates that can be successfully coated. In an effort to enhance diamond nucleation and control film morphology, extensive studies on the nucleation and earlv growth stages have been performed. A number of surface pretreatment methods have been developed and the dependence of the nucleation process on deposition parameters and substrate surface conditions has been investigated. In particular, highly oriented and textured growth methods provide a novel approach to obtaining diamond films of a near-single-crystal morphology over large areas and may allow diamond to realize its potential as an electronic material inthe near future. Therefore, it is important to summarize these research results in a concise; structured manner in order to improve our understanding and control over the nucleation and early growth stages

vii

viii

Preface

This book presents an updated, systematic review of the latest developments in diamond CVD processes, with emphasis on the nucleation and early growth stages of diamond CVD. The objective of this book is to familiarize the reader with the scientific and engineering aspects of diamond CVD, and to provide experienced researchers, scientists, and engineers in the academic and industry communities with the latest developments in this growing field. The scope ofthe present book encompasses the developments and applications of diamond CVD, starting with a brief description of atomic and crystal structures of diamond and a review of the various processing techniques used in diamond CVD. It is followed by an extensive discussion of fundamental phenomena, principles and processes involved in diamond CVD, with emphasis on the nucleation and early growth stages of diamond during CVD. Diamond nucleation mechanisms, epitaxy and oriented growth are discussed on the basis of experimental observations. The nucleation enhancement methods developed to date are summarized. The effects of surface conditions and deposition parameters on surface nucleation are described. Finally, theoretical and modeling studies of surface nucleation are reviewed. There have been recent books on CVD of diamond films and coatings, but this book is probably the first one specifically addressing the nucleation and early growth stages in diamond CVD. We have attempted to correlate many diverse nucleation effects and mechanisms and to encompass fundamental phenomena, principles and processes associated with the nucleation and early growth stages into this book. Huimin Liu David S. Dandy

November, 1995 Fort Collins, Colorado

NOTICE 10 trrc oest or our krmwiedge the information in this pubiication is accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information. This book is intended for informational purposes only. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Publishcr. Final determination of the suitability of any information or product for use contemplated by any user, and the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user. We recommend that I”.,A”P ,,,L.,'LU"'~ ;ntS=trrl;nn tn YPl,, ",, nn ‘2L.J sn,r ,""",,,,,,"I,"ULn",I ~P,.AmmP”A9t;AII "I nf ,II‘LL"IIcLIY mnt,v;str nr U","'." L" I"', Y, procedures mentioned in this publication should satisfy himself as to such suitability, and that he can meet all applicable safety and health standards.

Contents

1 General Introduction . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - -i

2 Atomic and Crystal Structures

ofDiamond

.......... 8

3 Diamond CVD Techniques ................................... 1.O HOT-FILAMENT CVD ......................................................... 2.0 PLASMA-ASSISTED CVD .................................................. 2.1 Microwave Plasma-Assisted CVD ................................... 2.2 Direct-Current Plasma-Assisted CVD ............................... 2.3 Radio-Frequency Plasma-Assisted CVD ........................... 2.4 Direct-Current Thermal Plasma CVD .............................. 2.5 Radio-Frequency Thermal Plasma CVD ........................... 3.0 FLAME CVD ...................................................................... 4.0 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIAMOND CVD PROCESSES ...................................................................... 4.1 Crystallite Morphology ..................................................... 4.2 Gas-Phase Activation ........................................................ 4.3 Gas Species and Gas Compositions ................................... 4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Pressure ............................................. 4.5 Substrate Materials and Pretreatment Methods .................. 4.6 Substrate Temperature .....................................................

ix

14 18 .23 .26

27 28 .28 .29

30 31 31 33 35 36 39 .42

x

Contents

4.7 Substrate Position and Size .............................................. 4.8 Effects of Electric and Magnetic Fields ............................ 4.9 Impurities and Defects ..................................................... 5.0 SUMMARY .....................................................................

.43 .44 .44

.45

4 Diamond Nucleation Mechanisms . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 46 1.O HOMOGENEOUS NUCLEATION-GAS-PHASE NUCLEATION . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.0 HETEROGENEOUS NUCLEATION-SURFACE NUCLEATION . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ._.... . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 50 2.1 Nucleation Processes and General Features . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.2 Nucleation on an Intermediate Layer of Diamond-like Amorphous Carbon . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.3 Nucleation on an Intermediate Layer of Metal Carbides . . . . .64 2.4 Nucleation on an Intermediate Layer of Graphite . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72 3.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 77

5 Diamond Epitaxy, Oriented Growth, and Morphology Evolution .......................................... 1.0 EPITAXY ...................................................................... 2.0 ORIENTED AND TEXTURED GROWTH ........................... 3 .O MORPHOLOGY EVOLUTION ............................................. 4.0 SUMMARY ......................................................................

6 Effects of Surface Conditions on Diamond Nucleation .............................................................. 1.0 SUBSTRATE MATERIALS .................................................. 2.0 SURFACE PRETREATMENT METHODS AND NUCLEATION ENHANCEMENT MECHANISMS .......... 2.1 Scratching ...................................................................... 2.2 Seeding .................................................................... 2.3 Biasing .................................................................... 2.4 Covering and Coating ..................................................... 2.5 Ion Implantation ............................................................. 2.6 Pulsed Laser Irradiation .................................................. 2.7 Carburization ................................................................. 2.8 Catalytic Effects ............................................................. 3.0 SUMMARY ....................................................................

79 79 81 87 89

92 92 .94 96 103 106 114 12 1 123 124 124 126

Effects of Deposition Conditions on Diamond Nucleation ............................................................ 1.O SUBSTRATE TEMPERATURE .......................................... 2.0 GAS-PHASE ACTIVATION ............................................... 3.0 GAS PRESSURE AND FLOW RATE ................................. 4.0 GAS COMPOSITION.. ........................................................ 5.0 OXYGEN ADDITION ......................................................... 6.0 SUMMARY ....................................................................

Theoretical and Modeling Studies on Diamond Nucleation ............................................................ 1.O IDENTIFICATION OF NUCLEATION AND GROWTH MODE ............................................................. 2.0 THEORETICAL STUDIES ON NUCLEATION THERMODYNAMICS ...................................................... 3 .O THEORETICAL MODELING OF NUCLEATION KINETICS .................................................................... 4.0 CLUES OF STRUCTURE, CHEMISTRY, AND SIZE OF DIAMOND NUCLEI .......................................... 5.0 SUMMARY ....................................................................

131 13 1 134 134 135 137 141

143 143 145 150 156 158

References . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 160 Index . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

1 General

Introduction

The extreme hardness, high thermal conductivity, excellent infrared transparency, and remarkable semiconductor properties (Table 1) combine to make diamond one of the most technologically and scientifically valuable materials found in nature.l’l-I31 However, natural diamond is rare and only obtainable as gem stones in small sizes and at great expense. The scarcity and high cost have motivated researchers to attempt to duplicate nature and synthesize diamond since it was discovered in 1797 that diamond is an allotrope of carbon. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, graphite is the stable crystalline form of carbon, with an enthalpy only 2 k.I mol-’ lower than diamond. Diamond is thermodynamically stable relative to graphite only at high pressures, as evident from the carbon phase diagram, Fig. 1.131 Although thermodynamically feasible at relatively low pressures and temperatures (Fig. l), graphite to diamond conversion faces a considerable kinetic barrier, and the rate of conversion apparently decreases with increasing pressure.121 Therefore, the early attempts to convert graphite into diamond by simply increasing pressure were unsuccessful for over one hundred years 111until high-pressure high temperature (HPHT) processes came into being. The development of the HPHT processes is a result of the extensive research during the 1940’s that built upon detailed knowledge of the carbon phase diagram developed by 0. I. Leipunskii et al.1’1 The HPHT synthesis of diamond essentially duplicates the natural process by converting graphite into diamond under conditions at which diamond is the I

2

Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition

thermodynamically favored phase. Direct conversion of graphite to diamond in static HPHT processes (Fig. 1) requires high pressure (>120 kbar[‘]-[3]) and high temperature (~:300O~C[‘]-[~]) to overcome the kinetic barrier and obtain any observable conversion rate, and hence not economically viable. The difficulties in the direct conversion spurred the development of various processes to lower the temperature and pressure.

Table 1. Properties of CVD Diamond and Single-Crystal Diamondr2] CVD

Diamond Density (g cmm3)

2.83.51t4)

Thermal capacity at 27’C (J mot-’ K-l)

6.12

Single-crystal Diamond 3.515 6.195

Standard entropy at 27% (J mol“ K-l)

2.428

Standard enthalpy of formation at 27’C (J mol-‘)

1.884

Effective Debye temperature at 0-827°C

(K)

1860 * 10

Thermal conductivity at 25’Ca (W m-l KM’) Thermal expansion coefficient at 25-200°Cc

(x 10s6 ‘C-I)

Band gap (eV)

2100b _2.OI2lI51

2200 0 .8-l .2[21[51

5.45

5.45

10’2-10’6

10’6

Dielectric constant at 45 MHZ to 20 GHz

5.6

5.7

Dielectric strength (V cm-‘)

106

106

Electrical resistivity (Q cm)

Loss tangent at 45 MHZ to 20 GHz Saturated electron velocity (x 10’ cm s’) Carrier mobility (cm2 V’ s-l) electron (n) positive hole (p) Young’s modulusa (GPa) Compression Poisson’s Coefficient

~0.0001 2.7

2.7

1350-1500 480

2200 1600

820-900d at 0-800”Ct61

910-1250

strength (GPa)

8.68-16.53

ratio of friction in air

Vickers hardnessa (GPa) [varies with crystal orientation] Index of refraction at 10 pm

0.10-0.16 0.035-0.3t71

0.05-O. 15

50-100

57-104

2.34-2.42

2.40

a Higher than any other known materials b Anisotropic characteristic of thermal conductivity of thick CVD diamond films may be found in Ref. 9. ’ Lower than Invar d Young'smodulus=89_5(1-1.04x1~(7'-20)~, (GPa), where T in “Ct*).

General Introduction

3

Pressure, kbar

loo0

zoo0 3ooo Temperature. ‘c

4ooo

so00

Figure 1. Carbon phase diagram with temperature and pressure ranges corresponding to various diamond synthesis processes, as indicated by the shaded areas. (Reproduced wifh permission

from ReJ 3, 0 American

Chemical

Society,

1989)

The first breakthrough came in 1953 when H. Liander at Allemanna Svenska Elektriska A. B. (ASEA) in Sweden developed a HPHT processl”] using a liquid metal solvent-catalyst at pressures and temperatures where diamond is thermodynamically stable. Independently, the General Electric team, F. P. Bundy and co-workers, synthesized diamond using the HPHT technique in 1954, 1111followed by H. B. Dyer and co-workers at De Beers Adamant Research Laboratory in South Africa .l121Through surmounting the kinetic barrier by the solvent-catalyst reaction with a transition metal-Fe, Ni, Co, Cr, Pt, Pd, Fe-Ni, Co-Fe,121 or Mn, Al as well as B141--the solventcatalytic HPHT process permits graphite to diamond conversion to occur at conditions much nearer the graphite-diamond equilibrium line but at lower temperatures (Fig. 1). Typically, pressures range from 50 to 100 kbar and temperatures from 1300 to 2300”C.111131141 This technique, commercialized by General Electric in the U.S., along with the dynamic HPHT technique, i.e., shock-wave synthesis, U3]industrialized by Du Pont in the U.S., provides a reproducibility and tailorability unavailable in natural diamond in terms of chemistry, morphology, size, shape, toughness, and other properties important for abrasive and heat-sink applications.141 The development of the techniques also increases knowledge ofthe carbon phase diagram, which has

4


advanced carbon research in general. Large crystals of approximately 8 mm diameter have been synthesized by Sumitomo Electric in Japan, and recently, even larger single crystals, up to 17 mm, by De Beers in South Africa.[21131 Research in the HPHT synthesis of diamond is still underway in an effort to lower production costs and produce even larger crystals. The second breakthrough came with the discovery by W. G. Eversole of the Union Carbide Corporation in the U.S.l141 that diamond could be deposited on a substrate from a hydrocarbon gas or a CO/CO, mixture by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) at low pressures and temperatures where diamond is metastable with respect to graphite (Fig. 1). Eversole’s effort, starting in 1949 and proceeding in parallel with the early studies ofthe HPHT processes, led to first successful synthesis of diamond by CVD, predating the first successful HPHT synthesis. 1151[161In 1953, H. Schmellenmeier at Potsdam Teachers College in East Germany reported the formation of very hard carbon films from acetylene in an electrical discharge.l171 Although Schmellenmeier was not attempting to synthesize diamond films in his experiments, the x-ray data of the coatings revealed crystalline diamond present in the films. Contemporarily, B. V. Derjaguin and co-workers at the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Science of the former U.S.S.R.l181 and J. C. Angus and co-workers at Case Western Reserve University in the U.S. llgl initiated efforts to grow diamond at low pressures. These two groups worked independently of one another, and both were unaware of Eversole’s work. The experiments conducted by these two groups were characterized by the co-deposition of diamond and graphite on diamond seed crystals. The deposition processes required frequent interruptions to remove accumulated graphite by hydrogen etching at temperatures and pressures greater than 1000°C and 50 atm, or by oxidizing in air at atmospheric pressure. 118]The typical growth rates of diamond were less than 0.1 pm h-‘. In 1966 it was found by J. J. Lander and J. Morrison of Bell Telephone Laboratories in the U.S. that hydrogen may permit metastable growth of diamond by impeding the conversion of diamond to graphite at temperatures between 900 and 1300°C.1201 They pointed out that the growth of single-crystal diamond layers on a single-crystal diamond substrate should be possible as long as carbon atoms are added at a rate low enough to prevent stable graphite nuclei from forming. In 1978, E. C. Vickery of Diamond Squared Industries in the U.S. developed a process for growth of diamond layers on a diamond substrate,131 in which the deposition/removal cycles were combined into a single step by using a


5

mixture of 95 vol.% hydrogen and ~5 vol.% hydrocarbon in the presence of catalysts such as Pt or Pd. Although the average growth rates at the time were too low to be of commercial significance, the sustained efforts of Derjaguin, Angus and their co-workers ultimately led to the discovery of the crucial role of atomic hydrogen to preferentially etch graphite deposits and to permit high nucleation and growth rates on non-diamond substrates. This discovery was a historic milestone in the development of diamond CVD techniques.[2’l-1241 It was the recognition of the crucial role of atomic hydrogen that led Derjaguin and co-workers125l to the first successful growth of diamond crystals on nondiamond substrates at a commercially practical deposition rate (> 1 pm h-‘) in the mid 1970’s. This was followed by the development ofvarious methods, to increase the concentration such as electric discharge and hot-filament, 1261 of atomic hydrogen during CVD. These successes triggered considerable interest and an extensive research effort on diamond CVD in Japan. In the early 1980’s, the Japanese research group at National Institute for Research in Inorganic Materials (NIRIM) synthesized individual faceted diamond crystals at growth rates of 10 urn h-’ by microwave plasma and hot-filament assisted CVD.1271-1291 These results, with convincing characterization evidence by electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, and Raman spectroscopy, confirmed the earlier experiments and refocused worldwide attention on the synthesis of diamond by CVD. In the past decade, a wide variety of energetically assisted CVD processes have evolved for diamond synthesis on various substrates at practical growth rates. 1271-1411 In particular, the strong Japanese research effort led to significant strides in the practical synthesis and applications of polycrystalline diamond films and coatings. Deposition areas as large as 400 cm2 have been achieved.131 Linear growth rates have been increased to the order of hundreds of micrometers per hour,l37l and recently to 930 pm h-l in DC plasma arc-jet CVD.1421 Diamond-coated boring and drilling tools have been developed by Mitsubishi Metals in Japan. High-fidelity loudspeakers for high-frequency sound with a diaphragm coated with diamond thin film have been manufactured by Japanese Victor Corp. and Sumitomo Electric Co. in Japan.131 The commercial production of free-standing shapes of diamond, >lOO cm* in area and 1 mm in thickness, has been realized by Norton and General Electric in the U.S., and others.121 The potential for economic scale-up of diamond CVD techniques qualifies it as a viable processing alternative to the HPHT methods for

6


production of diamond abrasives or heat sinks at a cost that is still high but will be reduced as the technology improves. Moreover, CVD processes offer an opportunity to exploit many desirable physical properties of diamond (Table 1). The ability to coat a large area on a variety of substrate materials with diamond films vastly expands the potential application areas of diamond (Table 2) over those possible with natural or HPHT-synthetic diamond. This capability, along with the need to explain the improbable growth of diamond under apparently metastable conditions, has stimulated active research into all aspects of diamond CVD in all the major industrialized countries over the world. As potential applications of CVD diamond are continuously discovered, it may be anticipated that the ultimate economic impact of this emerging technology on the defense, space, and commercial areas will outstrip that of high-temperature superconductors with more immediate applications141 (Table 2). By making an updated and systematic review of diamond CVD processes, the objective of this book is to familiarize the reader with the scientific and engineering aspects of diamond CVD, and to provide experienced researchers, scientists, and engineers in academic and industry community with the latest developments in this growing field. The scope of the present book encompasses the development and applications of diamond CVD, starting with a brief description of atomic and crystal structures of diamond and a review of the various processing techniques used in diamond CVD. It is followed by an extensive discussion of fundamental phenomena, principles and processes involved in diamond CVD, with emphasis on the nucleation and early growth stages of diamond during CVD. Diamond nucleation mechanisms, epitaxy and oriented growth are discussed on the basis of experimental observations. The nucleation enhancement methods developed to date are summarized. The effects of surface conditions and deposition parameters on surface nucleation are described. Finally, theoretical and modeling studies on surface nucleation are reviewed.


7

Table 2. Actual and Potential Applications of CVD Diamond[2][3][431-[46]

Application areas Grinding/cutting tools

Application examples

Physical properties of diamond utilized in the applications

Inserts

greathardness

Twistdrills

great wear resistance high strength and rigidity good lubricating properties general chemical inertness

Whetstones Industrial knives Circuit-board drills Oil drilling tools Slitter blades surgical scalpels .savrr

Wearparts

Acoustical coatings

D@io&corrosion

protection

Optical coatings

Photonic devices Thermal management

Semiconductor devices

Bearings

pat hardness

Jet-nozzle coatings Slurry valves Extrusion dies Abrasive pump seals Computer dish coatings Engine parts Mechanical implants Ball bearings Drawing dies Textile machinery Speaker diaphragms

great wear resistance high strength and rigidity good lubricating properties general chemical inertness

Crucibles Ion barriers (sodium) Fiber coatings Reaction vessels Laser protection Fiber optics X-my windows Anti reflection W to IR windows Radomes Radiation detectors Switches Heat-sink diodes Heat-sink PC boards Thermal printers Target heat-sinks High-power transistors High-power microwave Photovohaic elements Resistors Capacitors Field-effect transistors W sensors

high sound propagation speed high stiffness low weight general chemical inertness high strength and rigidity good temperature resistance transparency from W through visible into IR good radiation resistance

large bandgap high thermal conductivity high electrical reaistivity

high dielectric strength high thermal conductivity good temperature resistance good radiation resistance high power capacity good high- frequency performance low saturation resistance

Atomic and Crystal Structures of Diamond

A comprehensive understanding of diamond nucleation and growth processes during CVD necessitates knowledge of atomic and crystal structures of diamond, as well as of the competing crystallites or amorphous phases that may be produced by CVD. Three hybrid carbon orbitals available for bonding--sp, sp2, and sp3-complete the series of electronic building blocks of all carbon allotropes and compounds. Vapor-grown fullerenes,[47] diamond polytypes,J4*J carbynes J4’j and amorphous hard carbon, a-C (diamond-like carbon, DLC, and diamond-like hydrocarbon, a-C:H)t15J[50]have been found in diamond growth experiments, yet the significant competition during CVD occurs between sp2 and sp3 types of carbon, i.e., graphite and diamond. In the graphite lattice structure, each carbon atom combines with its three neighbors using hybrid sp2 atomic orbitals, forming a series of continuous hexagonal structures, all located in parallel planes, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The strong (J bonds are covalent, forming equal angles of 120’ to each other, with a short bond length of 0.141 nm and a high strength of 524 kJ mo1-1.[2j The fourth orbital, i.e., the delocalized electron, is directed perpendicularly to the planes and paired with another delocalized electron of the adjacent plane by a much weaker van der Waals bond (the subsidiary n:

8

Atomic and Crystal Structures

of Diamond

9

bond) of only 7 kJ mol-i. The weakness ofthe n:bonds plus the large spacing of 0.335 nm between two planes, gives rise to the anisotropic characteristic of graphite. In the diamond lattice structure, each carbon atom is tetrahedrally coordinated, forming strong bonds to its four neighbors using hybrid sp3 atomic orbitals, with equal angles of 109’28’ to each other. Each tetrahedron combines with four other tetrahedra forming strongly-bonded, uniform, three-dimensional, entirely covalent crystalline structure. The covalent bonding between carbon atoms is characterized by a small bond length of 0.154nmandahighbondenergyof711 kJmol-‘.I*]

A

A A

C 0 0

0

A

A

A

GRAPHITE

LONSOALEITE

DIAMONO

Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing crystal structures of hexagonal graphite, cubic diamond, and hexagonal lonsdaleite. The shaded hexagonal rings of carbon: planar for graphite, chair form for cubic diamond and boat form for hexagonal lonsdaleite. The letters depict the stacking sequences of carbon: planar layers for graphite, puckered planes for cubic diamond and lonsdaleite.

Diamond has two basic crystal structures, one with a cubic symmetry (more common and stable) and the other with a hexagonal symmetry (rare but well established, found in nature as the mineral lonsdaleite). The closepacked layers, { 1 1 1} for cubic and { lOO} for hexagonal, are identical. The cubic structure can be visualized as stacking of puckered planes of sixmembered saturated carbon rings in an ABC ABC ABC sequence along (111) direction, referred to as 3C diamond (Fig. 1). All ofthe rings exhibit the chair

10


conformation, as indicated by the shaded areas, and all C-C bonds are staggered. In the hexagonal structure, the stacking occurs in an AI3 AB AI3 sequence, known as 2H diamond (Fig. 1). The rings in the stacking direction show the boat conformation, and the C-C bonds normal to the chair planes are eclipsed. The formation of a lonsdaleite layer on a diamond surface is equivalent to the formation of a stacking fault during diamond growth. The cubic structure is the dominant crystal structure in both natural and synthetic diamond since the staggered conformation is more stable than the eclipsed due to the slightly lower energy (0.1-0.2 eV per carbon atom).I*I Diamond polytypes and carbyne phases form only during the homogeneous nucleation and growth of diamond powder.14’I Diamondhas several crystal shapes (habits), including the { lOO}cube, the { 1 lo} dodecahedron, the { 111} octahedron (Fig. 2), and other more complicated shapes (Figs. 3-5). In CVD diamond, the { 11 l} octahedral faces are observed at low temperatures and low hydrocarbon concentrations; the { 100} cubic faces predominate at high temperatures and high hydrocarbon concentrations,1151[261 and cube-octahedral crystals combining both these faces are commonly found. The dependence of crystal shapes on deposition conditions has been correlated to the ratio of growth rates in ( 100) and (111) directions,1261 defined as a growth parameter 01, a = (v~~,,/v~~~)~.I~~I

Cubic (100)

Dodecahedron

{llO)

Octahedron

{ill}

Figure 2. Simple crystal shapes of diamond.

In Fig. 3a, cubic and octahedral faces are evident, and in Fig. 3b the twinned crystals with pseudo-fivefold symmetry can be clearly seen. This twinned fivefold symmetry is prevalent in CVD diamond thin films and apparently never develops on homoepitaxially grown crystals.152al152bIBalllike diamond crystals are grown at high supersaturations1151 (Fig. 3~).


of Diamond

Figure 3. Diamond crystals grown from 1.5 vol. % CH,-H, at 10 torr using a combined microwave and hot-filament CVD method. (a) Cube and octahedral faces, (71)twinned crystals with pseudo-fivefold symmetry, (c) ball-like diamond grown at high supersaturations; the scale in (a)-@) is 12 pm and in (c) is 15 pm. (Reproduced with permission,[“] 0 American

Associationfor the Advancement

of Science,

1988.)

In Fig. 4, it can be seen that, with the a value increasing from 1 to 3, the crystal shape changes from cube to cube-octahedron and then to octahedron (upper); and the crystals grown with a >1.5 exhibit rough { 1 1 1} facets whereas the crystals grown with 01 Cl.5 show very smooth { 11 l} facets (lower). L511

12


tb)

Figure 4. (Upper) Idiomorphic crystal shapes of diamond for different values of the growth parameter CL(CL= (v,c&~~,&&; the arrows indicate the direction of fastest growth. (Lower) SEM micrographs of isolated diamond crystals grown under different growth conditions; the cube-octahedral shapes with values of 2.4,2.05, 1.65, and 1.4 for (a) to (d), respectively.[“l (Reproduced with permission.)

Faceted diamond dendrites may form in flame synthesis (Fig. 5a). Twinning, or stacking fault, occurs frequently on the { 1 11 } planes.t53]-t55] A computer simulation t55]shows that a single stacking fault on parallel { 11 l} planes leads to very slowly growing triangular platelets; two or more stacking faults on parallel { 1 1 1} planes lead to hexagonal, platelet shaped crystals (Fig. 5b); truncated triangular shaped platelets are formed when a small odd number of stacking faults occur on parallel { 1 1 1 } planes; two stacking faults on non-parallel { 1 1 1} planes result in fivefold twinned decahedra1 crystals; and three stacking faults on non-parallel { 11 l} planes result in twinned icosahedral crystals.


of Diamond

I3

Figure 5. CVD diamond crystals. (a) Faceted dendrites of flame CVD grown diamond,[52a] @) hexagonal platelet crystal with fully developed three-dimensional facets grown from 1 vol.% 0, - 1 vol.% CH, - H, at 30-40 torr and 850°C substrate temperature using microwave plasma assisted CVD, the hexagonal platelet is -2.5 pm in maximum linear dimension.[53] (Reproduced with permission.)

Diamond

CVD

Techniques

A large variety of carbon-containing gas species have been employed to synthesize diamond by CVD. These include methane, aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ketones, amines, ethers, and carbon monoxide t21t31t561 with methane being the most frequently used reagent. In additibn to these carbon carriers, the gas phase usually must contain powerful non-diamond carbon etchants and surface site preparation species such as hydrogen, oxygen, or fluorine atoms. In a methane/hydrogen mixture, for example, hydrogen concentrations must generally exceed 97-99 vol.% in order to grow high quality diamond films. It has been observed that a necessary condition for diamond growth to occur is the presence of a gas-phase non-equilibrium in the region adjacent to the deposition substrate. The gas-phase non-equilibrium is generated through gas-phase activation. The gas-phase activation is achieved typically using one of the three basic methods: 1. External heating (as in hot-filament CVD) 2. Plasma activation (as in plasma assisted CVD) 3. A combination of thermal and chemical activation (as in flame CVD) To obtain the gas-phase activation state required for the stable growth of well-crystallized diamond, a variety of energetically assisted CVD techniques have been developed and employed. These may be classified into three major categories:

14

Diamond CKD Techniques 1. Hot-filament

15

CVD (HFCVD)[271[28~[301

2. Plasma assisted CVD (PACVD)[2g1[311[38] 3. Flame (combustion)

CVD[571[581

Laser-enhanced CVD[401[5gl-[621 h as also been applied to synthesize diamond. In addition, hybrid techniques utilizing various combinations of these processes have been developed and employed, differing primarily in the means of producing the gas-phase activation state. The concept of applying catalytic processes to diamond CVD t63]has not attracted close attention, due primarily to the difficulty in controlling chemistry and the fact that adding catalytic mechanisms to an already complex and poorly understood process involving atomic hydrogen and hydrocarbon species requires considerably more time and effort, in spite ofthe potential importance ofthe approach from an energy and economic viewpoint. The advantages and disadvantages of the diamond CVD techniques, along with typical technical data, are summarized in Table 1,[31[641[65] with a survey of typical growth rates versus gas-phase temperatures given in Fig. 1. Typical reactor operating conditions with C/Hmixtures are listed in Table2, and a schematic diagram of the diamond CVD techniques is depicted in Fig. 2. Table 1. Typical Technical Data and Characteristics

Method Hot-filament DC discharge (low P) DC discharge (medium P) DC plasma jet RF (low P) RF Ithermal, 1 atm) Microwave lo.9 - 2.45 GHz) Microwave (ECR 2.45 GHz) Flame. (combustion)

Rate (clrn h-l) 0.3 - 40

Area (cm2) 100-400

Quality’ (Raman) +++

2OOO”C)and high heat fluxes in the flame CVD make it mandatory to cool substrates. As a result, large temperature gradients are formed which are difficult to control. The deposition efficiency is low due to generally low nucleation rates. Further, gas consumption, energy requirements and hence cost are high.

4.0

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS PROCESSES

OF DIAMOND

CVD

In spite ofthe differences between the various CVD methods developed so far, it is interesting to note that there exist many common points for these techniques, as summarized below. 4.1

Crystallite Morphology

Single-crystal diamond can be grown epitaxially on a single-crystal diamond or cBN substrate, yet diamond thin films deposited on other nondiamond substrates in various CVD processes all exhibit a generally similar, polycrystalline morphology, consisting of randomly oriented crystals and containing a varying amount of non-diamond carbon and defects. Crystallite size may range from several tens of nanometers to several tens of micrometers 91311411701 depending primarily on gas composition, flow rate and pressure,

32


substrate temperature and surface pretreatment, as well as film thickness. At substrate temperatures of SOO-lOOO’C, crystallite size in diamond films of about 5 pm in thickness is typically l-5 pm.t41 Large grains (l-50 pm) are also common in CVD polycrystalline diamond films, approaching 100 urn in thick films (-200 pm in thickness).1701 The top surface of films is usually rough and highly scattering due to the large grain size and random orientation ofthe crystallites that make up the films, limiting optical, electrical and tribological applications. Two approaches have been suggested to overcome this drawback: (a) single-crystal films (essentially zero nucleation density) and (6) submicron grain-sized films (extremely high nucleation density). The latter is a better approach for applications in which deposition occurs on non-diamond substrates and for which mechanical properties of the deposited films are important. Various polishing methods have also been developed and applied to smooth the diamond film surface on the growth side.11311-11351 The polycrystalline morphology may change from well-defined facets to poorly-defined rounded shapes, or highly irregular forms. Within the optimum range of deposition conditions, diamond films are highly faceted.1541 Independent of the deposition methods used, octahedral crystals with { 1 1 1} faceting are the dominant growth form at low temperatures and low carbon supersaturations, i.e., low gas-phase carbon concentrations;I’51 with increasing temperatures and/or carbon concentrations, the morphology evolves to cube-octahedra composed of both { 11 l} and { lOO} facets, then to cubic { lOO} facets, and finally to a spherical shape at the highest supersaturation.11361 Twinning or stacking fault occurs frequently on { 11 l} planes. Spherical clusters of diamond microcrystals and flat hexagonal platelets, as well as multiply twinned decahedrons and icosahedrons are also observed.In’l In MW PACVD experiments, 11361t1371 at a substrate temperature of about 800°C and a gas pressure of 30 torr, { 11 l} faces dominate diamond crystals at CH,concentrations of CO.4 vol.%; at CH,concentrations between 0.4 and 1.2 vol.%, { 100} faces are prevalent; and at even higher CH, concentrations, the deposits become structureless. Another study 113*1 showed that at temperatures of 900°C and lower, { 11 l} faces are dominant in the crystallite morphology, and at 1000°C or higher, { lOO} faces are dominant. These results suggest that low substrate temperatures and low CH, concentrations favor { 11 l} faces, whereas high substrate temperatures and high CH, concentrations favor { 100} faces. Consistent observations have been

Diamond CVD Techniques

33

It should be noted, however, reported by other researchers. [151[261[661[13g1[1401 that the influence of temperature on faceting during diamond CVD is complex, and the change of predominant faces from { lOO} to { 11 l} with increasing temperature has also been reported.t541

4.2

Gas-Phase

Activation

Gas-phase activation above the deposition surface is essential for achieving appreciable diamond growth rates. The various CVD methods differ primarily in the way they produce gas-phase activation. The most abundant carbon-containing gaseous species present in most activated systems are methyl radicals and acetylene molecules which are also considered to be predominant growth precursors for diamond, almost independent of the deposition methods used. However, in systems that dissociate a significant fraction of H2, such as DC plasma arc-jet CVD, carbon atoms, aside from acetylene, are also abundant in the gas phase. One of the critical factors affecting growth rates is the gas-phase temperature which can be reached in a CVD method. A comparison of the various CVD methods to each other demonstrates[64l that typical linear growth rates correlate positively with estimated gas-phase temperatures (Fig. l), approaching 1 mm h-’ in atmospheric pressure plasma arc-jet CVD with temperatures around 6000 to 7000 K. The partial pressures of various gas species in typical CVD processes have been calculated as a function of the gas-phase temperatures and summarized in Fig. 3 for two gas mixtures. High rate CVD methods obviously operate at high temperatures where neutral H and C atoms dominate the gas phase. In the complex C-H-O systems, CO remains present at high temperatures, but the CO partial pressure hardly varies with temperature from 1000 to 6000 K and hence would not explain any rate change. Angus et a1.t1131indicated that linear growth rates in different diamond CVD processes increase approximately linearly with the area1 power densities employed. It is also suggested 11131that the higher concentrations of hydrogen atoms and other activated carbon species, and the higher mass transfer rates are responsible for the much larger growth rates observed in atmospheric pressure DC or RF thermal plasma or flame CVD processes than those in low pressure MW, DC, or RF plasma or HFCVD processes.

34


W: -e-H

-4-H

a-c2 -eCH + A

gas-phase

temperatures

4 C2”2 C2H

[K]

(a)

LOQWKI:

%-H +H

2 4-C + CH4 a C2H2 -L C2H -= “2 -A- Co -0 CH -*cn2 -0% -*c3 -* 0 -0 H20 0

loo0

2wo gas-phase

3ooo

4oal

temperatures

5ow

woo

[K]

(b) Figure from a at 37.5 which

3. Calculated temperature dependence of partial pressures of gas species formed gas mixture of (a) 0.5 vol.% CH, in H,, and (b) 53 vol.% C,H, and 47 vol.% O2 torr. The shaded areas represent the approximate gas-phase temperature regimes can be reached in different diamond CVD methods.[64] (Reproduced wiih

permission.)


4.3

35

Gas Species and Gas Compositions

Diamond of similar quality and morphology has been grown using a variety of species, including aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, ketones, amines ethers PlPl[471 &&&,U 1W211[1411~1421 carbon ,ono~de,[6011431-[147J carbon dioxide,11481t14gland halogen (CC14/H~‘501 and CF4/H2t1471t151J). Methane has been the most frequently used gas. Large hydrogen gas dilution, typically 0.1-2 vol.% CH, in H,, is necessary with a trade-off between high rates (at about 5-6 vol.% CH4t4111521) and large crystal size and good quality (at about 0.2-0.5 vol.% CH4141).Increasing CH, concentration results in an increase in growth rate I1531and a decrease in crystal size due to increased nucleation density and number of secondary nucleation on the exiting facets of diamond crystals. ~1 High CH, concentrations may lead to the formation of amorphous carbon or diamond-like carbon. In flame CVD, low 02/C2H2 ratio may lead to the formation of DLC on Mot’241 and suppress the formation of SiO, on Si. Diamond films of good quality have been grown from CO at a concentration of 50 vol.% or even higher.t41 However, it is found that the efficiency of diamond growth from CH, (possibly via CH, radicals) is about two orders of magnitude higher than that from CO, and the growth of diamond from CO occurs via the conversion of CO to hydrocarbons.t1431 The high thermodynamic stability and kinetic inertness of CO make it a relatively inefficient carbon source for diamond deposition.l143l Nevertheless, additions of oxygen and/or oxygen-containing species to HZ-hydrocarbon gas mixtures can lead to higher growth rates and better film qualities, and allow lower growth temperatures and higher carbon concentrations.l65l The presence of halogens in reaction systems has been found to lead to an increased activation of the deposition surface, especially at low temperatures.t471 The rate coefficient of the abstraction reaction of surface H atoms by gaseous F atoms is more than two orders of magnitude greater than that of the abstraction reaction by H at 900°C or lower.t471 The deposition of diamond films at substrate temperatures as low as 250°C and relatively mild gas activation has been achieved in which fluorine was added to the gas mixture. 11541In addition, the sp2 carbon components may be preferentially etched by F atoms. 11541The use of chlorine-permuted methane as a carbou source also favors high-purity diamond deposition at low temperatures and high methane concentrations.t1551

36


The gas compositions used in a number of diamond CVD experiments from more than 30 years are summarized in Fig. 4, which also provides a common scheme for all major diamond CVD methods used to date. It can be seen that the gas compositions suitable for diamond deposition are restricted to a well-defined area within the diagram, independent of the deposition methods or carbon species used.

0 n

diamond no growlh

@

nondlmnondcarbon

0

porlllon of undllulal compound otbnlaflon llno

,b*’ flmlf of dkmond domaln /

WI of connacled wqwlnunfal da@

Figure 4. C-H-O phase diagram showing points/regions of gas compositions suitable for diamond growth as well as non-diamond carbon growth region and no-growth region.[56] (Reproduced with permission.)

4.4

Gas Flow Rate and Pressure

While gas flow rates vary between the different systems, ranging from 20 to 300,000 sccm,141[1511651 film quality and to a lesser extent, deposition rates are relatively insensitive to gas flow rates.141


37

Gas pressures may range from 10 mtorr in ECR MW PACVD[‘451 to atmospheric pressure in flame CVD,i70] depending on deposition techniques.[156]-[158] F or example, the gas pressure is typically 10 to 100 torr in HFCVD, DC PACVD, and h4W PACVD, and the plasma may begin to become unstable at gas pressures above 100 torr. A DC glow discharge plasma may be sustained at a medium pressure of about 150 torr, whereas DC or RF thermal plasma CVD and flame CVD may operate at 1 atm. A relatively low gas pressure favors a high nucleation density and a small crystal size, [1561whilea relatively highgas pressure fosters ahigh linear growth rate (Fig. 5). [22] A low gas pressure also lowers the rate of atomic hydrogen recombination in the gas phase.

Figure 5. Temperature and pressure dependence of growth rates of epitaxial diamond films on (111) planes of natural diamond crystals (gas pressure = 12, 66, and 162 torr, respectively); the maximum growth rate in the experiments, 3 pm h-‘, was attained at a gas pressure of 760 torr.lz21 In another experiment, a higher growth rate was also achieved at atmospheric pressure (see Fig. 8). (Reprintedjom ReJ 22, 0 1988, with kind permission jPom Elsevier

Science

Ltd, The Boulevard,

Langford

Lane,

Kidlington,

OXSlGB,

UK.)

A recent study on DC thermal plasma CVD of diarnond[r’*] demonstrated the existence of an optimum pressure at 270 torr, at which the

38


maximum growth rate occurs. This optimum pressure was related to the balance between generation and recombination of atomic hydrogen and active carbon-containing species above the substrate surface. Brunsteiner et a1.t15glinvestigated the influence of gas pressure on the growth of diamond films on SiAlON substrates from CH,iHz in HFCVD. The total gas pressures varied from 5 to 500 torr and the filament temperatures were 2200-25OOT. In the lower pressure range (5-10 torr), 0.5 vol.% CH, was the optimum concentration for producing well-faceted diamond, while concentrations above 1.0 vol.% CH, led to ballas-type diamond. Between 20 and 300 torr, faceted diamond films could also grow at high CH, concentrations (1 .O vol.%), while the highest deposition rate (1.44 urn h-l) was obtained at 20 torr, with a filamenttemperature of25OO”C. From 50 to 500 torr the deposition rate decreased with increasing gas pressure, even falling below 0.05 urn h-i at the highest pressure. This drastic decrease in the overall deposition rate with pressure is related to the drastic decrease in diamond nucleation rate. The observed effects of gas pressure on diamond nucleation and growth were also attributed to the changes in the formation and recombination rates and the resultant concentrations of atomic hydrogen with pressure. In another HFCVD experiment, 11531 the influence of gas pressure on diamond film coverage and crystal size was studied. As shown in Fig. 6, the crystal size and surface coverage attain a maximum at 1.3 kPa (-10 torr). Crystal quality and phase purity are both optimized around a pressure value of4 kPa (30 ton-). At 665 Pa (-5 ton) an amorphous film covers the substrate and ball-like particles form.

0.y 0

-+-~sur.~ 2

4

6

1 8

10

12’

Pressure @Pa) Figure 6. Crystal size and film coverage versus gas pressure; growth conditions: 0.5 vol.% CH, in H,, 22OOT filament temperature, 75O’C substrate temperature, 5 mm tilamentsubstrate distance, 45 seem total flow rate and 3 hour run duration.[‘53] (Reproduced with permission.)

Diamond Cvz) Techniques

4.5

39

Substrate Materials and Pretreatment Methods

Diamond has been nucleated and grown on diamond, plus a large variety of non-diamond substrates, including metals, semiconductors, insulators, graphite, and even fused silica glass, such as MO, W, WC, Ta, Cr, Co, Pt, Au, Al, Cu, Ni, Fe, stainless steel, NiAl, NisAl, FeSi,, Ti, Ti-2Al-1 SMn, Ti-6Al-4V, TiN, TIC, Si, SIC, S&N,, silica, SiAlON, MgO, Al,O,, cBN, and Y_ZrO, ~~~~~~1~~~~1~~~1~~~1[1171[160l~~t~~l h ong these, Si wafer is probably the most commonly used substrate in diamond CVD. Diamond nucleation on a substrate surface critically depends on the chemical nature Ill71 and surface condition of the deposition substrate.[52a] Figure 7 shows the dependence of the nucleation and growth of diamond in CVD on the substrates used. There is usually an initial incubation period in diamond CVD, i.e., a delay in nucleation before individual crystallites can be observed, followed by a delay in growth before these crystallites grow and coalesce together to form a continuous film.

2.26 z 1.06 f.

6

lo

&noJtlon time

16

20

[hrrl

Figure 7. Nucleation and growth of diamond on different substrates CVD.[S2a] (Reproduced with permission.)

in low pressure


40

Substrate

surface pretreatment (scratchingt73)[‘70]t’72]-t179] or substrate surface with diamond powder or nondiamond powderst181] as well as graphite flakest’61t182)[183]etc., biasing substrate,[‘781[‘841-[‘911 or covering/coating substrate surface with carbon clusters[1921t’93]etc.) is the most effective method for increasing surface nucleation density and decreasing the incubation period. The effect of substrate surface pretreatment on diamond nucleation depends not only on the pretreatment methods but also on the type of substrates.[118] The various surface pretreatment methods developed to date and the nucleation enhancement mechanisms are extensively discussed in Ch. 6. The physical properties of the currently used or potential substrate materials are summarized in Tables 5 and 6. seeding[‘661[‘801

Table 5. Physical Properties of Currently Used or Potential Substrate Materials for Diamond Epitaxy Substrate lllalerlill diamond

Melting

3797

(hexagonal) a-axis c-axis

con\tantb

Dearity’ (k. L m.’

(A)

--

3.567 121 ----

_...__

2.52 I42

[2] 121

3515 (21 3520 [2] ----__

[ 1941 -__ .___

---2.46 121 [2] 6.71

2260 [2] -------

3057

(cubic) (hexagonal) a-axis c-axis

graphite

Lalllce

pomp” (‘c) [ lY4]

cBN (cubic)

2727[197]

3615[lY7]

Co ( a ) (hcp) (p) >390 ‘C (fee)

-1494 [ 19x1

cu (ICC) I~e(y)912-1400~C(fcc) Fe ( a) I46[lYXI 12.1 [IYX]

2.364/l

I IYXI 1lY7[ I IYX]

I .46

4.63

---7.lo.Y

[,9X]

2.10-h

[ I’)71

X.Y 9.0 [IYX] 6 52

IO-X [52h]

2 OX ( 1001 l1’PIl 2.Y3Y/l.Y23[200]

13 J IIYX[ 7.6

7 10.1Sll~7,

[lY7]

TIC (fee) (cubic)

Thcl Illal cxpnwion cucllicx!nP(

----

[ IYX[

4.35 [IYX[

4.32

5-1,

I~lrJ-X[19x[

2.95, 4 6X [IYX] 3.29 [19X]

(1971

--1667 [19X]

(cm*

3490[197[

2.Sl,4.~17[lYX[ 3.54 [IYX]

Ti (a)

C dilfusivityd

,

77~[200~

(I I I) (I I

2.S70/1.723[200~

I lY7[

Y -!s [ lY7] 7 43 [lY7[

----

12.X3 [I971

the phases exist.

at 20 ‘C. calculated 81 800 “C for most metals; phases ex,sr,nX above 800 ‘C. O-100

‘C Car melals.

surface energy

diamond

at 25 ‘C/surface

surface reconstruction,

31 II00

and graphw

‘C for carhidcs

25.500

energy a, melung

physisorplionlchelnlsorptlon.

[52b]:

nt Ihc lower

limit

of tcmpcr;~rc

range

for ~bc

‘C for ccwm~cs. lompcralure.

The surlacc cncrg,cr

or other surlnce rcxtiws.

du no, mclude

the efl’ccts 01

41


Table 6. Physical Properties of Currently Used or Potential Substrate Materials and Their Carbides, Nitrides, or Oxides Subslrue material

McldnX point” (‘C)

Al (ICC) Al4C3 (rhombic)

660 [19X] 2200 [201

Al203 Au

204911971 1064(19X]

(hexagonal)

(kc)

Lattice wnswuh (A) 4.04 [19X]

I

[

BqC (rhomb.,hedral) Cr(a) SiC.l244l For

Effects of Surface Conditions on Diamond Nucleation

99

example, in HFCVD, [244]nucleation was observed within 5 ruin on diamondpolished substrates; however, no evidence of nucleation could be detected even after 30 min on substrates polished with other abrasives (cBN, Sic, TaC, WC, Al,O,, S&N,, etc.). Maeda et a1.t177] used the ultrasonic method with various ceramic particles (borides, carbides, nitrides and silicides) suspended in acetone to abrade a p-type Si(100) wafer, and subsequently investigated morphology and nucleation densities during the early stages of diamond growth in MW PACVD. The abrasion treatment is believed to implant fine abrasive particles on the substrate surface and these implanted particles then act as nucleation sites for diamond. The effect ofthe abrasives on nucleation enhancement increases in the order silicides < nitrides < carbides < borides, with the resultant nucleation densities ranging from lo4 to 4 x lo7 cmw2.Among the abrasives, MOB, LaB,, and TaB, particles show the best effect on increasing diamond nucleation density, nearly equivalent to the effect of cBN particles. Because of the quite different sizes and shapes ofthese particles (Table 2), the equivalent effect appears to demonstrate that the efficacy in enhancing diamond nucleation would be dependent upon the chemical properties of the implanted ceramic compounds, rather than the surface characteristics produced by the abrasion processes. Therefore, Maeda et al. concluded that the nucleation enhancement by abrading with MOB, LaB,, TaB,, or cBN is due to the presence of boron atoms and the stability of these seed ceramics in the microwave plasma. The active participation of boron compounds in surface nucleation processes is similar to that in the gas-phase nucleation processes.[220] Regarding the effect of abrasive particle size, Ohtake et a1.[321] reported that, in the arc discharge plasma CVD, the nucleation density on a diamond-lapped MO surface attained a maximum when 1 pm diamond paste was used, approximately 25 times larger than that on an untreated surface. The nucleation densities on the surfaces lapped with 15 and 6 pm diamond paste were only slightly larger than that on the untreated surface. Zhang et a1.t’70]observed that, in the oxyacetylene combustion synthesis on Ti-2Al1SMn alloy substrates, nucleation density tended to increase with decreasing size of Sic grit used for scratching. However, there exist also some contrary arguments and observations, i.e., scratching with coarse particles increases nucleation density more effectively due to the increased roughness.[52a] Polishing with 1 pm diamond grit did enhance diamond nucleation on Nb, Ta, and W substrates, but not on MOsubstrates.t528]On MO substrates, polishing/scratching was effective only with 7 pm diamond grit. This behavior is believed to be caused by the dissolution of the very small diamond

100


particles into the MOsubstrates prior to diamond nucleation, since the diffusion rate of carbon in MO is higher than in Nb, Ta, and W, and the high substrate temperatures favor the dissolution.[5&IA similartendency was also observed on nucleation densities of 3.4 x lo’, Si substrates. In HFCVD experiments, t3161 2 x lo’, 5.4 x 106,and 7.7 x lo5 m2 were obtained on Si substrates lapped with 6,1 and 0.25 pm diamond grit, as well as on untreated surfaces, respectively. Table 2. Size and Physical Properties of Diamond and Various Ceramic Compounds Used for Scratching Pretreatment Abrasive material Diamond Oxides A1203 ZtQ2 SiO2 Borides [ 1771 TiB2 CTB aB2 NbB2 MOB m6 TaBZ WB Carbides [ 1771 B4C SiC Tic VaC7 Cr3C2 Ztc NbC Mo2C TaC WC Nitrides [ 1771 BN AIN Si3N4 TiN VN Cr2N ZrN NbN TaN SiKcides [ 1771 TiSi2 CrSi2 ZrSi2 NbSi2 MoSip TaSi2 WSi2

Patti& size (run) 0.25 - 40 (ultrasonic)[317.320] 0.25 - 15 1316,317,321]

Density (kg nr3) 3515 [2]

HardocSS (kg mnr2) 5700 - 10400 [2]

CIyStal stmchlre Cubic/ hexagonal [2]

0.3 - 1 [52,164,174] 0.1 - 0.3 [305] [305]

3970 [I971 5560 [ 1971 2320 [198]

2OcG [197] 1019 [I971 790 [ 1971

Hexagonal [ 1971 Cubic [ 1971 Hexaeonal~202~

2- 10 5 - 20 5- 15 0.5 - 1 l-5 10 - 40 0.5 - 1 l-5

4530 6110 6090 7000 8670 4720 12620 15730

3370 1250 2252 2600 2350 2770 2500 3700

Hexagonal Orthorhombic Hexagonal Hexagonal Tetragonal Cubic Hexagonal Temagonal

10 - 20 5 - 20 10 - 30 20 - 40 2- 10 2- 10 10 - 30 0.5 - 3 10-20 20-30

2510 3220 4920 5480 6740 6660 7820 9180 14400 15770

2750 2550 3170 2480 1800 2950 2170 1499 1720 1716

Rhombohedml Hexagonal Cubic Cubic Ortborhombic

8- 12 I- 10 0.2 - 1 3- 15 l-5 0.5 - 3 3 - 15 5 - 30 l-5

3480 3260 3180 5440 6100 6510 7350 8310 14360

4530 1200 2100 2050 1310 1571 1670 1461 2416

Cubic Hexagonal Hexagonal Cubic Cubic Hexagonal Cubic Cubic Hexagonal

10-30 10 - 50 10-30 IO-40 10-40 IO-60 5- 15

4040 4980 4860 5660 6240 9100 9860

892 1131 1063 1050 1200 1407 1074

Orthorhombic Hexagonal Onhorhombic Hexagonal Tetragonal Hexagonal Teuagonal

Cubic

Cubic Hexagonal Cubic Hexagonal


101

Ascarelli and Fontanat31~ correlated the nucleation densities of diamond on Si in HFCVD to substrate pretreatment processes and diamond abrasive particle (grit) sizes, as summarized in Figs. 3a and b. The results in these figures clearly show dissimilar grit-size dependence of diamond nucleation densities on substrate surface pretreatments. From Figs. 3a and b, it is evident that diamond nucleation densities after polishing and ultrasonic pretreatments range from 10’ to lop and from 10’ to 10” cm2, respectively. Diamond nucleation densities decrease with increasing mean particle size of diamond abrasive paste used in the polishing pretreatment. Conversely, diamond nucleation densities increase with increasing mean size of diamond particles used in the ultrasonic pretreatment. Further, it was observed that, after the polishing pretreatment, diamond nucleated at a higher density along scratches and at a lower density away from the scratches, while the ultrasonic pretreatment with diamond particle suspensions generated a more homogeneous morphology over the entire deposition surface. 10’0

10' 0.1

Figure 3. Dissimilar grit-size dependence of diamond nucleation densities on substrate surface pretreatments. (a) Nucleation density versus inverse abrasive paste mean-size used in polishing pretreatment.t3r7) (a) Nucleation density versus single-particle mean-size used in ultrasounding pretreatment; solid squares: Ref. 317, blank squares: Ref. 322, solid circles: Ref. 323. (Reproduced with permission.)

102


To explain the dissimilar grit-size dependence of diamond nucleation density, Ascarelli and Fontana suggested that, for brittle materials, the scratching pretreatment results in breaking of a certain number of surface bonds, a fraction of which remains organized in bonding configurations that would act as suitable “sites” for diamond nucleation. If the load and time of the scratching pretreatment are kept constant, this fraction of the broken bonds is in proportion to the energy Edissdissipated during the scratching pretreatment in a volume given by a depth dg (i.e., the mean particle size of the diamond abrasive paste) and a surface area S,. Accordingly, diamond nucleation density is directly proportional to the density of the “sites” and inversely proportional to the condensation energy Econdper unit volume: Ediss

const .

1

Nd CC--‘XS&g Econd

dg

Hence, diamond nucleation density is inversely proportional to the mean particle size of the diamond abrasive paste used in the scratching pretreatment. In the ultrasonic pretreatment, the fraction of the broken bonds is in direct proportion to the collision energy of the particles suspended in the solution. A particle generates a deformation depth L on a contact surface SP on a substrate. The collision energy may be correlated to the mass of a particle mP and the speed of sound v,. The total number of the collisions is assumed to be roughly independent of the particle concentration due to the high sound frequency ( lo4 Hz) and the relatively short pretreatment duration (-30 min). If the particle concentration in the solution is kept constant, diamond nucleation density can then be correlated to the mean size of diamond particles suspended in the solution such as ‘hrn&

1

d3 &ocdg

spL

Econd

d;

Nd ~--

i.e., diamond nucleation density is proportional to the mean size of diamond particles in the ultrasonic pretreatment. The similar trend has also been reported in Refs. 322 and 323.


103

The size and shape of scratches affect diamond nucleation by altering the migration of carbon atoms on the substrate surface, the formation of critical nuclei, and the re-evaporation of the nuclei. Yugo et a1.l32ol correlated the optimum size of scratches produced by the ultrasonic pretreatment to the nucleation density and the critical nucleus size of diamond on Si( 100) substrates in MW PACVD. It was found that scratches less than 5 mn in depth are ineffective for diamond nucleation, whereas the smooth, Vshaped scratches of 5-15 nm (resulted from the ultrasonic pretreatment with diamond powder of 20-40 urn) act as effective nucleation centers at which carbon atoms can aggregate rapidly to form critical nuclei against the reevaporation. The small scratches may pin the arriving carbon atoms and inhibit their migration, making difficult the aggregation of a sufficient number of carbon atoms and the formation of critical nuclei within the average residence time of carbon atoms. It was estimated that the optimum size of scratches necessary for generating diamond nuclei is 30 nm, and the diameter of the critical nucleus is 3 nm. Correspondingly, the possible maximum nucleation density of diamond would be - 10’1cm‘*. However, the optimum size of scratches depends on growth conditions, especially the saturation degree of carbon atoms in the gas phase. This size will decrease as the deposition rate of carbon atoms increases or as the substrate temperature decreases. In addition, etching the substrates in both a hydrogen plasma and an acid solution decreased the size of scratches, leading to a decrease in diamond nucleation density. Clearly, the optimum size of abrasive particles depends on pretreatment processes, deposition methods, growth conditions, and substrate materials. Moreover, the efficacy of scratching also depends on substrate materials, descending in the order Si > MO > WC.l54l 2.2

Seeding

Substrate surface seeding with submicron diamond powder has been employed to enhance surlhce nucleation density and rate of diamond.13241-13261 The diamond seeds littered on the surface serve as nuclei for immediate growth. Other non-diamond powders used for seeding include Si, cBN, Al203 , TaC , and Sic , [1811[3241 and graphite flakes. [161[1**1[1*31 Several

104 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition seeding techniques have been attempted, including dipping, spinning, and spraying.t324] Uniform seeding densities of lo8 to log cmm2submicron diamond particles on Si wafer were obtained through electrophoretic seeding pretreatment.t32fl This technique has been demonstrated to be simpler than alternative methods and far less damaging to substrates.[308] In Smolin et al.‘~t~~~]experiments using DC arc discharge, diamond nucleation density was increased to 2 x log cmm2by seeding MO substrates with ultrafine diamond grit (-20 run), and smooth thin films were produced from CH,-H, mixtures. Seeding also offers the possibility for epitaxial or oriented growth of diamond films. tr‘WW81 WJI ~ighl y oriented diamond films have been grownt32g] in MW PACVD and HFCVD by seeding Si substrates with diamond crystals such that most of the crystals had a {11 l} orientation. Large-area mosaic diamond films approaching single-crystal quality have also been obtained by a seeding technique. t328]In this process, pyramidal pits or sawtooth-profile gratings were made by etching (lOO)-oriented Si wafers. Diamond seeds of 75 to 100 urn diameter were deposited onto the substrates in a slurry. The diamond films were then grown in HFCVD, PACVD and flame CVD, respectively. As discussed previously, a graphite interlayer generally forms immediately when a Ni substrate is exposed to a methane-hydrogen CVD environment.[256] This interlayer excludes the possible development of an orientational relationship between a diamond film and a Ni substrate, even though diamond eventually nucleates and grows on the graphite interlayer. However, through seeding and using a multistep HFCVD process, Yang et al.t1a6]have deposited well-crystallized and highly oriented diamond on Ni substrates without initial graphite formation. The oriented nucleation and growth of diamond and the suppression of graphite formation on Ni substrates are speculated to be achieved through the dissolution of seeded diamond fragments into Ni lattice and the subsequent alignment of the partially dissolved diamond with the orientation of the Ni substrates. Diamond nucleation density has been found to be linearly proportional to diamond seeding site density; it is approximately a tenth of the seeding site density,t301]as shown in Fig. 4.


105

Residual Diamond Dust Density, RDD [ #/cm21

Figure 4. Dependence of diamond nucleation site density (NSD) on residual diamond particle density (RDD) under various deposition conditions. The dotted line shows NSD equal to RDD and the solid line shows NSD being 10% of RDD. Solid circles: ultrasonic polishing, followed by MW PACVD; crosses: hand polishing, followed by hIW PACVD; b&-&es: ultrasonic polishing, followed by HFCVD (filament temperature = 2973 K); squares: ultrasonic polishing, followed by HFCVD (filament temperature = 2773 K); open circles: ultrasonic polishing, followed by HFCVD (filament temperature = 2573 K); dotted circles: fluidized-diamond polishing, followed by Mw PACVD,t30’] (Reproduced with permission.)

The grain boundary and grain size of substrate materials also influence diamond nucleation density. t1701t3301 It was observed that the effect of the grain boundary on diamond nucleation is more important than that of the crystal lattice of substrate materials. ~~‘1This effect is related to the intrinsic characteristics of the grain boundary. Nucleation on the grain boundary results in a minimization of the interface energy. The presence of more vacancies, dislocations and dangling bonds at the grain boundary helps in the chemisorption of nucleation species. Thus, diamond nucleation density increases with decreasing grain size or increasing number ofgrain boundaries of substrate materials. In MW PACVD, diamond nucleation on a WC substrate tended to occur selectively at the edges of WC grains.l33ol For coarse WC grains (-1 pm), diamond nucleation density was -9 x lo6 cmSz. It increased to -5 x lo7 cm2

106


when using a finer-grained substrate (-0.5 pm). A considerable enhancement of diamond nucleation density (up to 5 x 10’ cmv2)was achieved through introducing a number of fine microflaws onto the substrate surface. In the microflawing treatment, fine diamond powder (co.25 pm) was suspended in an ultrasonic cleaner bath. The size of diamond crystals decreased with increasing microflawing time. 2.3

Biasing

Scratching and seeding cause surface damage and contamination, and cannot be easily applied to substrates of complex geometry and shape. Therefore, these pretreatment methods are incompatible with many applications that require extremely smooth, clean surfaces, such as diamond films for electronic devices, optical window materials and smooth wear-resistant coatings. Alternative pretreatment methods that can yield high diamond nucleation densities without damaging substrate surfaces are therefore of particular importance. Recently, biasing pretreatment of substrates has been increasingly employed to enhance surface nucleation of diamond [8][106][178][186]-[190][331]-[333] u sing a positive or negative bias to obtain large nucleation densities on unscratched substrates provides an opportunity to control nucleation densities by varying the applied voltage and current, while at the same time reducing surface damage. Suzuki et a1.t35]reported the same nucleation density (10’ cmW2 after 30 min) in DC PACVD on a mirror-polished Si wafer as on diamond-scratched Si substrates. Kobayashi et a1.t260b] investigated the infhrence of a positive bias of 0 to 140 V applied to substrates. For voltages of 60 to 140 V, the substrates ultrasonically-scratched with diamond powder were completely covered by diamond. However, this was not the case when biasing was not used. Diamond films of good crystalline quality were obtained with a concomitant increase in nucleation and growth rates when the gas pressures ranging from 30 to 50 torr and the voltages from 100 to 140 V were applied. These were found to be the optimum growth conditions for the system used. Yugo et a1.[333] employed a negative bias and high CH, concentrations during pretreatment to generate diamond nuclei on a Si mirror surface in PACVD. The several-minute pretreatment resulted in an enormous nucleation enhancement. Diamond nucleation densities as high as 10” cmm2were achieved. For the onset of diamond nucleation, a minimum voltage of -70 V and a minimum concentration of 5 vol.% CH, in H2 were necessary.


107

Recently, Katoh et a1.t190]presented thorough experimental results for diamond nucleation on mirror-polished Si( 111) wafers in MW PACVD via both positive and negative biasing. The positive or negative biasing pretreatment was conducted for 30 min at substrate bias voltages ranging from -100 to +lOO V, MW power of 300 W, a substrate temperature of 900°C, gas pressures from 0.2 to 15 torr, CH,/H, from 2 to 40 vol.% and a gas flow rate of 100 seem. The pretreatment was followed by the conventional h4W PACVD growth for 3 h at a substrate temperature of 950°C, 0.5 vol.% CH,/H,, agas pressure of 35 torr and a gas flow rate of 200 seem. By varying the negative or positive substrate bias voltages, diamond nucleation density may be changed over six orders of magnitude, as shown in Fig. 5.

1. log 10' a 0 % e

+-

10s

0.2TorrcH42+

-t_

2TonCnb2X

+

l!firOKCH4 2%

-+

0.2TonCH4 10%

%Id

-f-

PTorCH4lMC

*

1sT0nCH410%

-100 -50 T tw+loo SubstrateBias Voltage I V

m

3 log 10'

0C

i! B 2

105 ld-

-100 -50

0

-o_

0.2TonCH44o%

-t_

2TomCH44O9b

-o_

1!monCH440%

40 tloo

Substrate Bias Voltage I V

Figure 5. Diamond particle density as a function of substrate bias voltage. During bias pretreatment, the gas pressure was 0.2,2, and 15 torr, and CH, was (a) 2 vol.%, (b) 10 vol.%; and (c) 40 VOI.~~.[‘~~](Reproduced with permission.)

108


It is evident from this figure that: 1. both positive and negative biasing are, effective for enhancing diamond nucleation density; 2. lower pressures, higher CH4 concentrations, and/or larger absolute values of substrate bias voltages lead to higher nucleation densities; 3. at the same absolute value of substrate bias voltage and for CH,concentrations ranging from 10 to 40 vol.%, the nucleation densities on the negatively biased substrates are one to two orders of magnitude higher than those on the positively biased substrates. For example, nucleation densities of lo’, lo*, and log cmm2were obtained for bias voltages of 0, +20 and -20 V, respectively, under the same deposition condition. The attraction of cations in negative biasing led to rough Si surfaces, whereas the positively biased substrates maintained smooth surfaces. It was then proposed that, for Si substrates, the positive biasing is a more suitable pretreatment condition than the negative biasing.ligOl Mechanical properties of diamond films are greatly affected by both the grain size and the non-diamond carbon content incorporated in the films, which in turn can be affected by biasing current. In the I-IFCVD experiments conducted by Baba and Aikawa, 1’1relatively large compressive stresses, -100 MPa, were observed in the diamond films grown at DC bias currents less than 500 mA. Stresses turned to be tensile when the bias current was increased to 700 mA. With increasing bias current (from 0 to 700 mA), both the grain size (from 0.6 to 0.3 pm) and the non-diamond carbon incorporation in the diamond films decreased, while Young’s modulus increased from -240 to 860 GPa with a concomitant increase in fracture strength. Young’s modulus reached a maximum of 860 GPa, which is close to the value of single-crystal diamond (Table 1, Ch. 1). In an in-depth study of diamond nucleation on Si in MW PACVD,l”*l substrates were pretreated by negative biasing in a 2 vol.%CH,-H2 plasma. The biasing enhanced diamond nucleation density on unscratched Si wafers, up to 10” cmm2,as compared to 10’ cmm2 on scratched Si wafers and 103- 1O5 cm-2127g* on untreated Si wafers (Fig. 6).


0.5

1.0 Bias Time (h)

109

1.5

(4

10” Legend*

___--

I? 6 0 . !z 2 a

+Silicon +Hafnium 10’

+Titanium *Tantalum

a” 4

+Niobium -Tungsten

10’

+-Copper

:: G d lo5 0

20

40

60

80

100

Bias Time (minutes)

Figure 0. Diamond nucleation density as a function of bias time: (a) on a Si substrate,[‘78] (b) on different metal substrates.[275] (Reproduced with permission.)

110


The results shown in Fig. 6 suggest that diamond nucleation density may be varied over seven orders of magnitude by controlling the duration of the biasing pretreatment. In addition, the SEM observations show that, once the bias was turned off, nucleation no longer continued and diamond grew on the existing nuclei. Ifthe bias remained on throughout the deposition process, the resulting film was of much poorer quality than if the bias was turned off, suggesting that the conditions which are favorable for diamond nucleation are not necessarily ideal for diamond growth. The efficacy of biasing in enhancing diamond nucleation not only depends on the applied voltage, current, and duration, as well as the deposition conditions (gas composition and pressure), as discussed above, but also appears to depend on substrate materials to some extent. In an invacua surface study of diamond nucleation on Cu and Si in MW PACVD,t’*‘l a negative substrate bias was employed. The biasing pretreatment step proved to have a tremendous influence on the nucleation density on Si( loo),but the nucleation density on polycrystalline Cu was only slightly increased. The Si( 100) substrates were characterized by the formation of a carbide with some form of non-diamond carbon present on the surface throughout the biasing, whereas the Cu substrates were covered by a 10 A thick, highly graphitic layer that was quite stable in thickness after 15 min of the biasing. Another study of diamond nucleation on Cu, Ni, and Si substrates11581demonstrates a different tendency. Diamond was nucleated at low pressures and low temperatures in ECR MW PACVD. Microwave power of 1.5 kW was used for 30 min with 15 to 100 vol.% CH&I,, a substrate bias voltage of 0 to -60 V, a substrate temperature of 500°C, and a gas pressure of 0.1 torr. The experiments reveal that under the identical pretreatment conditions the resultant deposits on Cu, Ni, and Si substrates were different in both nucleation density and morphology. The nucleation density on Cu was higher than on Si. A completely contiguous film formed on Cu, and a non-contiguous film on Si, while no diamond nuclei formed on Ni. The morphology of diamond on Si was irregular, whereas most of diamond crystallites on Cu exhibited ‘a morphology with the { 11 l} planes parallel to the substrate surface. These differences were attributed to the different physical processes occurring on the surfaces during the pretreatment. Si was etched and roughened by the large amount of H ion species present in the plasma, while Cu was not etched to that extent. On Cu, non-diamond phases


111

(graphite or a-C) tended to deposit from the CH,-H, plasma at a negative substrate bias. As discussed previously, graphite can be well fitted to the diamond lattice depending on the orientation of planes, and a-C also easily takes the form of the sp3 bond. Ni did not create diamond nuclei because it effectively interacted with carbon through adsorption and dissolution. Stoner et al.t”*] proposed a model to explain diamond nucleation mechanism on Si during biasing pretreatment, as displayed in Fig. 7: 1. Before biasing begins, there may exist both adsorbed oxygen and amorphous carbon on the Si surface. 2. The adsorbed carbon is either etched away or converted to Sic, and the physisorbed oxygen is converted into a thin SiOz layer. 3. As biasing continues, the SiO, layer is completely removed while the carbide islands continue growing. Preferential etching of Si from the Sic and continued high flux of carbon to the surface create an excess concentration of carbon on the surface which is calculated to be -5 A thick at 5 min ,a;“dto increase to 10 A by 1 h. 4. When the local carbide islands reach a critical thickness (9 nm under the experimental conditions) such that continued carbide growth is unlikely, the excess carbon on the surface becomes free to form small clusters. Surface mobility of the carbon may be enhanced by the bombardment during the biasing. Some of these clusters become stable and form diamond nuclei. The SIC layer is calculated to reach a maximum of -9 nm by 1 h and then to decrease to -5 nm by 2 h. 5. As most of the carbide islands reach the critical thickness, more free carbon becomes available to form new diamond nuclei. 6. As biasing continues, there are ongoing adsorption of carbon and etching of the surface, with SIC etched preferentially relative to the more stable diamond nuclei. The preferential etching creates a rougher Sic surface.

112 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition Since Si is preferentially depleted from the carbide, carbon concentrations in those local regions are increased so that carbon clusters may actually form on thinner regions of the carbide, close to the Si substrate. The etching, cluster formation, and diamond nucleation continue until the surface is eventually covered with diamond nuclei.

(a) Before

Bias

Cd) 30min

(b)

5 min

Cc) 15 min

(4 1 hr

(f) 2 hrs

Figure 7. Model of diamond nucleation on Si substrate via biasing.[“*l permission.)

(Reproduced wifh

The mechanisms of the nucleation enhancement by biasing have been addressed in several studies,t1781t190] as depicted in Fig. 8. In negative biasing of a Si substrate (Fig. Sa), the role of the biasing is suggested to: 1. increase the flux of carbon-containing cations (C?, CH+, CH,+, CH,+, CL&,+)to the surface, expediting the local carbon saturation on the surface and leading to a thin layer of amorphous carbon on the Sic layer to form small clusters favorable for diamond nucleation; 2. transfer higher energy to the surface due to ion bombardment, resulting in an increased surface mobility of adsorbed species;


113

3. reduce and suppress oxide formation on the surface, and remove native oxides (SiOJ which impede diamond nucleation process;[30gl-[311] and 4. enhance reactions abovethe substrate surface as a result of the increased ion-neutral collisions and the higher energy within the sheath region, leading to much higher concentrations of dissociated hydrocarbons and atomic hydrogen near the substrate surface.

Figure 8. Schematic diagram ment on biased substrates. (a) toward the substrate surface. substrate surface and bombard (Reproduced with permission.)

showing the mechanisms of diamond nucleation enhanceNegative biasing: carbon-containing cations are accelerated (b) Positive biasing: electrons are accelerated toward the carbon-containing molecules adsorbed on the surface.t’gO]

114


The nucleation enhancement on positively biased substrates is deemed to be due to the presence of a high electron density (Fig. Sb). The electron velocity (in terms of kinetic energy) is approximately one hundred times greater compared to the carbon atom velocity, and the electron impingement rate on the substrate is approximately ten times greater. Although the electron mass is approximately four orders of magnitude smaller than that of carbon, the effect of electrons on surface processes cannot be neglected due to their high velocities and impingement rates. Through the high-speed impingement, electrons play an important role in the decomposition of molecules physisorbed on the substrate surface, such that hydrogen is sequentially removed from hydrocarbon species, CH,+CH,+CH,+CH+C, as shown in Fig. 8b. The decomposed hydrocarbons contribute to diamond nucleation more effectively than those formed in the gas phase since they are already on the substrate surface. Hence, the electron bombardment of the adsorbates on the surface may enhance diamond nucleation. Finally, the process parameters used in biasing pretreatments are summarized in Table 3 for an overview. 2.4

Covering and Coating

Another alternative surface pretreatment method, which can enhance diamond nucleation and avert surface damage, is covering or coating substrate surfaces with overlayers. The overlayers may involve clusters ~1 or films,[2521~2781 thin films of metgraphite fibers, [2801[2811 BN, Sic, als W'*lPO31 C70,W’*1tW a-c, [17b’71 DLC,f3341 Y_ZrO,,[lW &

[254][274][297][303]

or hydrocarbon oil. t304] Covering or coating substraies with carbon clusters[151~[1g2~[1g3] has been reported to yield an effect on diamond nucleation equivalent to that of diamond seeding or substrate biasing, while the use of thin metal overlayers or other materials , t303]or fluorinated plasmas, [151]etc., does not produce as significant a degree of nucleation enhancement as that obtained by diamond seeding or substrate biasing.

Effects of Surface Conditions on Diamond Nucleation Table 3. Process Parameters Used in Biasing Pretreatments Parameters Bias voltage (V)

Bias current (mA) m

power (w)

Pressure (torr)

Gas flow rate (seem)

CHq (vol.%)

Substrate temperature CC)

Duration (min)

Substrate

Values 0 to -60 [ 158] -170 to - 200 [ 1861 -100 to 100 [190] -200 to -300 [192] 100 to 140 [260b] -70 to -200 [333] 0 - 700 [S] 300 - 400 [ 1861 1500 [ 1581 1000 [186] 300 [ 1901 400 [ 1921 350 [333] 150 [S] 0.1 [158] 20 [ 1861 0.2 - 15 [190] 15 [ 1921 30 - 50 [260b] 15 [333] 306 [ 1861 100, [ 1901 100 11921 1 [81 15 - 100 [ 1581 2 [186] 2 - 40 [190] 10 [ 1921 1 [260b] 5 - 40 [333] 850 [S] 500 [US] 800 [186] 900 11901 lOg cmm2)on unscratched Si overlaid with graphite clusters. It was suggested that nucleation occurs on the edges of etch pits and carbon-rich particles. Both the etch pits and the particles satisfy the two criteria for spontaneous nucleation, i.e., carbon saturation and the presence of high-energy sites on edges and steps. To examine the effects of graphite film coating and film thickness, Feng et a1.I252lconducted diamond nucleation experiments on Si substrates in MW PACVD. They found that the application of a hydrocarbon oil or the evaporation of a thin carbon film on a variety of polished substrates increased both the nucleation density and uniformity of diamond films subsequently grown. Nucleation densities on the order of lo6 cmm2were obtained on the substrates coated with a carbon film thinner than 1 pm. The SEM and Raman spectroscopy results suggested that the nucleation enhancement and good-quality cube-octahedral diamond crystals may be attributed to the physical and chemical effects associated with changes of both the Si surface and gas chemistry. The change on the surface involves the development of a porous, ultra-thin residual carbon film which provides sites for diamond nucleation; the change in the gas-phase chemistry involves the variation of the local carbon concentration above the surface. Reactions between the solid carbon in the overlayer and the activated gas-phase species may increase the activated carbon concentration in the plasma, particularly in the case of thick carbon films, thereby shifting the gas-phase condition from the diamond growth domain to the non-diamond carbon growth domain, according to the CVD phase diagram developed by Bachmann et a1.t561Hence, thick carbon films will exert a detrimental influence on diamond nucleation. A critical thickness of carbon films was found to be less than 1.7 pm.[2521 Coating substrates with a thin film of metals, such as Fe, Cu, Ti, Nb, MO, or Ni, has been used to enhance diamond nucleation.[3021[3031[3151 Diamond nucleation on FeSi, substrates in HFCVD was enhanced by more than an order of magnitude relative to that on a bare Si substrate, as reported by Godbole and Narayan. I335lThe FeSi, was formed by laser deposition of Fe on Si substrates, followed by alloying during thermal annealing at 700°C. To enhance diamond nucleation by covering/coating substrate surfaces with carbon overlayers, several conditions are necessary:[rg21


117

1. A structured, pure carbon source on the surface is necessary to act as a diamond seed, which must be more thermodynamically stable than any hydrocarbon molecules under the typical diamond CVD conditions. 2. The structured carbon source needs to be both air-stable to facilitate application, and durable enough to withstand the environment in diamond CVD. 3. The structured carbon source must have steps or ledges to serve as diamond nucleation sites. 4. A means of initiating diamond nucleation is necessary during the nucleation stages. On the basis ofthese considerations, Meihmas et a1.t1g21t1g31 developed a unique method to use thin solid films of C& and C7,,clusters as nucleating agent layers for the growth of diamond films on different substrate surfaces, including metals (MO,W), insulators (quartz), and semiconductors (Si). It was found that, compared to other forms of carbon, such as graphite, amorphous carbon, soot, etc., the nucleation density on a C,, thin film in a microwave plasma discharge after a critical activation step is equivalent to those obtained on diamond-polished surfaces, v&h a nucleation enhancement of nearly ten orders of magnitude higher than on an untreated Si surface. The nucleation on a C&,tihn is less favorable. The activation step necessary for promoting diamond nucleation on C,, consists of negatively biasing (-200 to -300 V) the C,, film in a low power (400 W), hydrogen/methane (lo-20 vol.“/o>microwave plasma at a pressure of 15 ton; flow rate of 100 seem, and substrate temperature below 600°C for 15 min before the diamond deposition is initiated. The experiments show that the nucleation density of diamond on C,, is not critically dependent on the C,, film thickness. A C,, layer of -100 nm is sufficient for the nucleation and growth of fine-grain polycrystalhne diamond films and may substitute the diamond polishing pretreatment. The favorable nucleation on a CL,0film results from its chemical stability (against hydrogen plasma etching) and geometry: (a) the relatively planar surface of C,, allows diamond nucleation without major lattice distortion; (b) a grouping of four fused hexagonal rings serve to “lock in” a diamond lattice on the surface of the C,,, cluster; (c) the hollow shell structure of C,Oprovides both an inner and outer surface for chemical reactions to take place; and (d) the cage structure of C,Oprovides a non-rigid surface which relaxes to relieve any stress generated by bond angle strain between the nucleated diamond

118 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition sheet and the CT0 cluster base. Accordingly, this method may be applied to the growth of diamond on a wide range of substrates, and has the potential as a one-step lithographic template for growing diamond on selected regions of substrates. Hence, the carbon clusters could be of general use in the optical, electronic, and protective coating applications of diamond thin films. Very high nucleation densities, averaging around 3 x 1O’Ocm-*, have been obtained on Si substrates scratched with 0.5 pm diamond paste, cleaned in acetone and deposited with an a-C film in MW PACVD.[175j The nucleation densities are several orders of magnitude higher than those achieved on Si scratched alone (2x lo6 cm-*) under the same deposition conditions. Coating substrates with BN or SIC is considered to be anew, practical method for generating diamond nuclei to promote diamond film growth on non-diamond substrates.[274j Using HFCVD, Hirata et a1.[254]succeeded in preparing polycrystalline diamond films on non-scratched crystalline Si by depositing a very thin microcrystalline Sic layer. In Shing et al.‘s experiments,[274] the initial nucleation of diamond was achieved in ECR plasmas at a gas pressure of 0.013 torr on a-BN and cSiC coated Si substrates at 600°C. Diamond films with well-faceted crystallites were grown in MW PACVD using high methane concentration and oxygen addition (2-15 vol.% CH4 and 2-10 vol.% 0, in H2) at 10 torr pressure and at low substrate temperatures (400-75OOC). Morrish and Pehrsson[304] compared the effects of scratching with submicron diamond grit to those of scratching plus coating with a low vapor pressure, high thermal stability hydrocarbon oil, or a lo-20 nm thick layer of evaporated carbon on diamond nucleation. All these pretreatments enhanced the nucleation density and uniformity, led to good quality, and reduced the incubation period, relative to untreated surfaces. On diamondscratched plus oil-coated MO substrates, 0.5 urn thick, continuous diamond films were obtained within 4 h, while on non-oil-coated substrates, only large, isolated diamond crystais were grown. The same effect was also observed on Si, Cu, and Ag substrates. Nucleation density and crystal size can therefore be manipulated either by the use of a coating, or a coating in conjunction with scratching, thereby permitting tailoring of film structure, morphology and properties. Since coating with oil or evaporated C is easier, more controllable and less damaging than scratching, the method is potentially important to the exploitation of CVD diamond. In the combustion synthesis of diamond crystals and films on MO substrates,[124j[282] by reducing the 02/C2H2 ratio in the gas mixture to -0.75


119

for less than 30 s, thin (cl00 mn) DLC layers initially formed on the substrates. Followed by increasing the O,/C,H, ratio to -0.9 (the condition that produces diamond), diamond nucleation density was increased by an order of magnitude and growth rate by -6O%, relative to those on abraded MO and Mo,C substrates where no DLC films were present. The morphology was typified by dendritic growth on the substrates with the DLC layers versus well-faceted cube-octahedrons on the substrates without the DLC layers. Nucleation enhancement through the formation of the DLC layers was postulated to be a result of a high concentration of active surface sites for diamond nucleation, formed primarily due to the high surface defect density (in the form of dangling bonds) and the high hydrogen concentration in the DLC layers. The thin DLC layers not only substantially enhanced diamond nucleation density, but also facilitated microstructure control duringthegrowth ofthick diamond films, as discussed in Sec. 3, Ch. 5, above. In the HFCVD experiments conducted by Kanetkar et a1.,[1651 enhanced nucleation of polycrystalline diamond was achieved on Si( 100) coated with an epitaxial layer of yttrium-stabilized zirconia (Y-ZrO,). The Y-ZrO, layer, 150 nm in thickness, was grown by pulsed excimer laser ablation prior to diamond deposition, Since the diamond lattice constant is 3 567 1 A, while that of cubic Y-ZrO, is 5.13 A, the semiface diagonal of Y-ZrO, matches diamond within 1.85%. Diamond nucleation on the Y-ZrO, layer was the fastest at a gas pressure of 120 torr among the pressure values of40,80, and 120 torr, with CH,:H, of 1: 100, a substrate temperature of 850°C and W filament temperature of 2000°C. The use of a barrier layer in the form of oxides has three implications in terms of the growth of high-quality diamond films on different substrates at high growth rates. 1165lFirst, in a reducing environment such as the one present in a typical diamond CVD reactor, an oxide may release oxygen atoms to the ambient via the formation of O-H bonds (i.e., the Y-ZrO, layer reduces to Zr due to H,). The presence of such bonds is known to aid diamond growth. 1561[3361 Second, the continuous seeding of the freshly created metallic surface with reactive carbon radicals from the gas phase may lead to the formation of surface carbides (i.e., the reduced Zr evolves into a carbide), which may provide carbon-carbon bonding to the newly arriving carbon atoms and also may act as a Cdiffusion barrier. Third, the presence of the reactivity between the growing front and the gas phase may lead to a dynamic creation of a surface morphology in the form of steps and kinks, and thereby a

120


continuous creation of nucleation sites. These three factors are considered to be responsible for the nucleation enhancement on the Y-ZrO, coated Si. Coating substrates with other C-diftision barrier layers has also been attempted. A 25 nm thick film of TiN coated on a Fe substrate was found to be sufficient to prevent soot from formation on the Fe substrate and to inhibit C diffusion into the Fe substrate.t3371 The thickness of the overlayers used in covering/coating pretreatments is summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Thickness of Overlayers in Covering/Coating Pretreatments Typ;opoverlayer Cmphile Fe

Thickness Depowon of averlayer method Cl pm MWPACVD LOOnm HFCVD(W)

Tf (%) 2100

T, (‘C) 8.50 800

CH4 in H2 gun flow ( “0, c, mtc(wcm) 1 -loI 1.5 ‘!

P (a,*, 100 10

Nd (c,,r2) IO6 4.84 x I05 7.07

FL?

2-8nm

MWPACVD

-

835

?

MWPACVD

-

835

IOOnm

MWPACVD

-

>650

? 150 “m 25.50nm

MW PACVD HFCVD(W) MW PACVD

aBN

?

ECR PACVD

csic

IO0 nm

ECR PACVD

? ?

HFCVD(W) HFCVD(Re)

Cu.Ti.Ni.Mo.Nb C70 a-C Y-Zro2 TIN

2oW -

940 850 9W

I .95 CH4 0.49 co* I .95 cH4 0.49 co* I

205

40

205

40

0.7

503.5

I

IO0

I

?

?

x I07

lSXlO6 enhanceman

? =sccding effect 3x 10’0 40 40.80.120 enhnncemcn, 30 diffusion

Subrtma maerial~ St St

Rcfcrur ,252, 13021

so* SIC

(3031

Sic

13031

Mo.W.Sa S, St Fe

11921 ,175, ,164, 13371 I2741

bxrw

a-SiC:H Hydmcabon ail EvaporatedC WC r-C. cBN DLC ion sputtered O-SIC a-C:H

IOOnm

HFCVD(?)

600-750 2-15 CH4 2.,002 6&X750 2.15,Ch 2-1002 I 2000 850 2100. 850 2200 I 210% 850 2200 1.48 2003 800

?

HFCVD(?)

2wO

IO-20 nm

HFCVD (Re)

-

I

800

1.48

FlameCVD

-

SWII00

f

MW PACVD

-

850

3CH4 0.5 02

4Wom

MWPACVD

-

850

3CH4 0.5 02

;rBN

ZOOnm

MWPACVD

-

x50

Amarphic diamond@

8OOnm

MWPACVD

-

850

2 mm

MW PACVD

-

850

?

HFCVD (W)

2000

830

3 CH4 0502 3CH4 0.5 02 0.5

?

HFCVD (W) HFCVD (W)

2lKIo 2MK1

X30 830

0.5 0.5

HFCVD (W)

2000

830

thin coating HFCVD (W) of tlaker

2000

830

C60 3.4.Y.10 psrylenc levacarboxvlic acid dianhydd&~ Owphiw powder Highly oriented pyrolydc graphite

paw&r ? powder

cnhancemem

S,

?

IO

enhancelnr”,

Si

IO

IO-IO0 45

I”1

‘? S, enhanccmcnl Mo.Si.Cu.Ag

12741 ,254, 1XWI

101

45

cnhancemcnt Mo.Si.Cu.Ag

[ScLi,

?

20

enhancement

I2971

?

20

0.95 6-10~10~ 02M32H2

109 3x1010 = seeding effect enhancement enhancement enhancement enhancement 105 - 106 enhancement

[3151 12521 [1511 V751 ~1921 [3041 [3041 [ 165,254,274,303] H991 [341]

enhancement

[278.302]

I2971

128


Nucleation enhancement by scratching is attributed to (@ seeding effect, (6) minimization of interfacial energy on sharp convex surfaces, (c,J breaking of a certain number of surface bonds and the presence of a number of dangling bonds on sharp edges, (d) strain field effects, (e) rapid carbon saturation on sharp edges, fl removal of surface oxides, and (j$ formation ofnon-volatile graphitic clusters. Abrasives used for scratching pretreatment include diamond, oxides, silicides, nitrides, carbides and borides (Table 2). The effect of the abrasives on nucleation enhancement increases in the order: silicides < SiO, < nitrides < ZrO, < carbides < borides < Al,O, < BN < diamond. Nucleation density decreases with increasing particle size of diamond abrasive paste in the polishing pretreatment, but increases with increasing particle size in the ultrasonic scratching pretreatment. Generally, the optimum size of abrasive particles depends on pretreatment processes, deposition methods, growth conditions, and the nature of substrate materials. The efficacy of scratching on different substrates descends in the order: Si > MO > WC substrate. Dipping, spinning, spraying, and electrophoretic seeding have been employed to seed diamond, Si, cBN, A&O,, TaC, or Sic on various substrates. The size of seeds may vary from tens of nanometer to hundred of micrometer, with submicron diamond powder being used most frequently. Nucleation density is linearly proportional to the diamond seeding site density, being approximately a tenth ofthe seeding site density. The residual diamond seed particles on the substrate surface are the predominant nucleation sites (or the seed particles themselves are nuclei) and diamond growth occurs by means of homoepitaxy on these seed particles. Seeding also provides the possibility for epitaxial or highly oriented growth of diamond films on non-diamond substrates. Large-area mosaic diamond films approaching single-crystal quality have been grown by a seeding technique. Biasing substrates can enhance diamond nucleation without significantly damaging the substrate surfaces. Heteroepitaxial, highly oriented diamond films may be generated by means of bias-enhanced nucleation (BEN), followed by conventional growth under deposition conditions that favor oriented growth. Biasing can help to reduce and suppress oxide formation on the substrate surface, remove native oxides, and overcome the energy barrier for the formation of stable diamond nuclei by more effectively activating the substrate surface and increasing the flux and mobility of nucleation species. In DC PACVD and HFCVD, positive substrate biasing is effective for increasing diamond nucleation, while in MW PACVD both


129

positive and negative biasing can enhance diamond nucleation. By varying the duration of biasing pretreatment, the applied voltage and current, and/or the gas composition and pressure, diamond nucleation density can be controlled over several orders of magnitude. Lower gas pressures, higher CH, concentrations, longer biasing time, and/or larger absolute values of substrate bias voltage lead to higher nucleation densities. At the same absolute values of substrate bias voltage and for CH, from 10 to 40 vol.%, the nucleation densities on negatively biased substrates are one or two orders of magnitude higher than those on positively biased substrates. However, the attraction of cations in negative biasing leads to roughening of Si surfaces, whereas positively biased Si substrates maintain smooth surfaces. Therefore, positive biasing is a more suitable pretreatment condition for Si substrates. With increasing bias current, the grain size and non-diamond carbon incorporation in diamond films decrease with a concomitant increase in Young’s modulus and fracture strength, while large compressive stresses in films decrease and turn to tensile stresses. Nucleation enhancement has also been achieved by covering substrate surfaces with graphite fibers, clusters, or films, and coating substrate surfaces with thin films of metals (Fe, Cu, Ti, Nb, MO, Ni), CTO,a-C, DLC, Y-ZrO,, a-BN and SIC, or hydrocarbon oil, etc. The nucleation enhancement is attributable to the physical and chemical effects associated with changes to the substrate surface (the overlayers promote carbon saturation on the substrate surface, and provide high-energy sites or nucleation centers), and changes to the gas chemistry above the surface. The efficacy of overlaid materials on nucleation enhancement decreases inthe order: C,,, > a-C > DLC > graphite fiber > graphite film > Fe > Cu > Ti >Ni > MO> Nb. The thickness of the overlayers ranges typically from a few nanometers to about one micrometer (Table 4). The ion implantation method has been used to modi@ the surface energy and surface structure of substrates in order to enhance diamond nucleation. The effect of ion implantation on diamond nucleation depends on the type of ions and substrates, and ion dose and energy. Implantation of C+ (1018ions cmq2,65-120 keV) on Cu andAs+(1014 ions cme2, 100 keV) on Si enhances diamond nucleation, while Ar+ implantation (3 x 10” ions cmm2, 100 keV) on Si decreases diamond nucleation density. The lattice damages (strain, amorphous disorder and twinning) created by ion implantation are responsible for diamond nucleation enhancement. The strain is probably the

130


primary physical reason for diamond nucleation enhancement on ion implanted substrates. Pulsed laser irradiation of a thin buffer layer of a-C, WC or cBN deposited on Cu, stainless steel, and Si substrates leads to enhancement of nucleation and adhesion of diamond films on the substrates. The irradiation may convert a portion of the a-C on the surface into diamond or result in the formation of a reaction product that facilitates diamond nucleation. Carburization of substrates (MO, W, Si, Fe/Si) leads to diamond nucleation enhancement due to the formation of carbides and the saturation of carbon at the substrate surface. Among Fe, Cu, Ti, Ni, MO and Nb, Fe shows the best catalytic effect on diamond nucleation. Pd has also a positive catalytic effect on diamond nucleation, while Co suppresses diamond nucleation by promoting soot formation. The strong reactivity of these metals with carbon, the formation of metal carbides, the supersaturation of carbon in/on the metals and/or the deformation of graphite sheets by metal atoms to form diamond structure have been proposed as possible mechanisms governing the catalytic effects. Scratching and seeding are simple and effective for diamondnucleation enhancement, but cause surface damages and contamination. These pretreatment methods cannot be easily applied to,substrates of complex geometry and shape, and are incompatible with many applications requiring extremely smooth, clean surfaces, such as diamond films for electronic devices, optical window materials and smooth wear-resistant coatings. As an alternative, biasing or covering/coating substrates can yield high nucleation densities comparable to, or even over those achieved by seeding or scratching, without significantly damaging the substrate surface, and therefore is of particular importance.

Effects of Deposition Conditions on Diamond Nucleation

Deposition conditions, such as substrate temperature, gas pressure, and gas composition, critically influence diamond nucleation density and rate. It has been noted that ideal growth conditions may not be optima1 for nucleation. For example, the in-vacua surface analyses and microstructure characterization ofthe diamond nucleation processes on negatively biased Si substrates[‘781 reveal that the biasing could enhance diamond nucleation significantly, whereas a much poorer-quality diamond film was grown if the biasing was continued during the growth. Similarly, the optimum values of gas pressure and substrate temperature for growth are not identical to those for nucleation, as will be discussed below,

1.0

SUBSTRATE

TEMPERATURE

Haq et al.[3451 presented the time evolution of diamond nucleation on Si(100) in MW PACVD, as shown in Fig. 1. The effect of substrate temperature on the nucleation processes is evident in the figure. For each substrate temperature, the nucleation density increases drastically after the incubation period, and then rapidly attains its saturation level. For substrate temperatures less than 8 16”C, higher substrate temperatures lead to shorter incubation periods, higher nucleation rates and higher nucleation densities. 131

132 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition

\

t 2.0 Q

‘E 1.6 r? B $ 1.2 2 %08-

s ‘c‘ go.42 2 0

_.-.. .x . . . . . . . . . . . x . . . . . . . . . . . . . x 0 i. j

:I ;o/ - . :

,_CL-;--q-_,+~~

b

p

-

30

P 60

I 90

* 120

1 750

z 180

y/fI I 210 240 270 time (min I -

300

Figure 1. Time evolution of nucleation density and influence of substrate temperature on nucleation. Gas pressure: 30 torr; CH&2: 0.4 vol.%; Mw power: 700 W, and substrate temperature: (a) 81692, (b) 716°C and (c) 516°C. [3451 (Reproduced with permission.)

JSim et a1.[346]studied the effects of deposition conditions on diamond nucleation on Si substrates ultrasonically pretreated with SIC powder. Their HFCVD experiments reveal that the nucleation rate increased with increasing substrate temperatures up to -9OO”C, reached a maximum at a substrate temperature around 950°C, and then decreased with further increase in substrate temperatures. A similar tendency was also observed by Hayashi et a1.[72] during diamond nucleation on Si in MW PACVD. The Si( 100) substrates were pretreated by rubbing with submicron diamond powder and wiping off the residual powder until visually clean. The temperature dependence of the nucleation density was measured with an ellipsometric monitor for two values of applied microwave power, as summarized in Fig. 2. For substrate temperatures less than 860°C, the nucleation density increased rapidly with increasing substrate temperature, and reached a maximum at 860°C; for substrate temperatures higher than 860°C, the nucleation density gradually decreased, but remained above lOlo cms2 in the range of the higher temperatures considered. This overall dependence of the nucleation density on substrate temperature was speculated to be caused by the change in the adsorption state and surface diffusion length of growth precursors. The precursors are adsorbed on the substrate surface mainly by physical

Effects of Deposition Conditions on Diamond Nucleation

133

adsorption below 900°C and predominantly by chemical adsorption above this temperature. This change in the adsorption state results in an abrupt increase in diffusion length of the precursors around 900°C. Consequently, the capture rate of the precursors (sticking probability) on the substrate surface, and hence the nucleation rate and density, drastically increased when the substrate temperature approached 86OOC. These results reveal that an optimum substrate temperature exists around 860°C, at which a maximum nucleation density can be achieved.

I

/---

c---*

/

f

i

/

I 109 t

1 850

900

SubstrateTeapenture

950

CC>

Figure 2 Temperature dependence of nucleation density measured with an ellipsometric monitor. Closed circles and solid line show values for 1000 W microwave power; open circles and broken line show values for 1400 W microwave power. Other deposition conditions: 5 vol.% CO/Ha, flow rate of 100 seem, and pressure of 50 tom Using CO as reactive gas led to diamond films containing hardly any non-diamond phases.[‘*] (Reproduced with pemission.)

134


2.0

GAS-PHASE ACTIVATION

In Brunsteiner et al’s experimentsI15gl it was found that increasing filament temperature led to a high nucleation density and a higher deposition rate over the pressure range of 5-500 torr in HFCVD. Park and Lee’s experiments [347j show that the effect of filament temperature in HFCVD on diamond nucleation on Si is qualitatively similar to the effect of substrate temperature, i.e., with increasing filament temperature, the nucleation density initially increased, reached a maximum at 2 100°C and decreased thereafter. The drop-off for T > 2 100°C was explained by the observation that the etching of nucleation sites was enhanced with increasing filament temperature. Similar results were also reported in Ref. 346. In DC PACVD 1348]a nucleation density of 6 x 10’ cmm2was achieved on untreated substrates by increasing the discharge current to 1 A and the cathode temperature to 1400°C. It also has been suggested that diamond nucleation may be enhanced by using high power densities, such as in plasma jet, or DC plasma discharge CVD,134glin which H2 and CH, dissociation is promoted.

3.0

GAS PRESSURE

AND FLOW RATE

Chang et a1.I350linvestigated the effect of gas pressure on diamond nucleation density in microwave ECR discharge. It was found that the nucleation density decreased slightly, from 2.2 x IO6to 0.5 x lo6 cms2, as the gas pressure increased from 2 to 20 torr. Rim et a1.[157l studied the effect of gas pressure on the nucleation behavior of diamond on a Si( 100) substrate in I-IFCVD. The pressure was varied from 2 to 50 torr, while a filament temperature of 2200°C, a substrate temperature of 85O”C, a total flow rate of 20 seem and a CH, concentration of 0.8 vol.% were used. The characterization of diamond deposits using micro-Raman spectroscopy, SEM and OM revealed that the maximum nucleation density of diamond particles on the unscratched Si substrate occurred at a pressure of 5 torr. The pressure dependence of the nucleation density was explained by the competition effect between P-Sic formation, which increases the diamond nucleation density, and atomic-hydrogen etching, which decreases the number of nucleation sites. On the basis of this finding, a new fabrication approach for high-quality diamond films without

Effects of Deposition

Conditions on Diamond Nucleation

135

any substrate pretreatment was proposed, i.e., diamond nucleation at a lower pressure (5 ton-) and growth at a higher pressure (30 ton-). Increasing gas pressure may eliminate Si contamination from reactor walls to a substrate in MW PACVD, but it reduces diamond nucleation density.[1561An in situ treatment with an optimum combination of deposition conditions was proposed to reduce the nucleation delay and enhance the nucleation density on MO substrates, i.e., a higher CH, concentration at a lower pressure (12 seem CH,/4 seem 0,/184 seem HZ at 5 torr) to promote diamond nucleation by carburizing the substrate surface and enhancing the surface C concentration within a minimum time, followed by a lower CH, concentration at a higher pressure (12 seem CH,/4 seem 0,/392 seem HZ/ 196 seem Ar at 10 torr) to preserve diamond quality. Under these conditions, dense, homogeneous and well-crystallized diamond films were grown that would not have been achieved without using the initial nucleation stage at the higher CH, concentration and the lower pressure. Singh et al.‘st361experiments with hollow-cathode PACVD show that diamond nucleation density increased as the gas flow rate increased. A high gas flow rate may increase the mass transfer of gas species to the substrate surface, and hence diamond nucleation densities are enhanced.

4.0

GAS COMPOSITION

In HFCVD of diamond on Si1153113461t3511 and Cu13511substrates, diamond nucleation density was found to increase as the CH, concentration increased. Similar phenomena were also observed in MW PACVD W61[1371[1561[1W F'igure 3 clearly shows the effect of the gas composition on the nucleation density. As is evident in the figure, the nucleation density increases with increasing CH, concentration. The gas composition influences not only the nucleation density, but also the nucleation behavior and the resultant crystal morphology. Hyer et a1.t2471studied nucleation and growth of diamond in HFCVD under the following deposition conditions: 25 torr gas pressure, 250 seem gas flow rate, 1100 K substrate temperature and 2000 K filament temperature. At a lower CH, concentration (0.25 vol.% CH, in HZ), diamond nucleation terminated with a significant area of the substrate still unnucleated, and growth followed, leading to good-quality, well-faceted, isolated diamond

136


crystals of cube-octahedral morphology. At higher CH, concentrations (1.2-1.4 vol.% CH, in Hz), diamond nucleation did not show obvious termination. Non-diamond components were incorporated into the films with “cauliflower” and ball-like morphology forming during the nucleation and growth.

Figure 3. SEM micrographs of diamond grown on a Si(100) wafer at various CH,:H,, (a) 0.1 vol.%, (6) 0.5 vol.%, (c) 1.2 vol.%, and (d) 2 vol.%, in HFCVD at a W-filament temperature of 2200°C, a substrate temperature of 750°C, a total gas flow rate of 45 seem, a filament-substrate distance of 5 mm, a growth time of 3 h, and a total gas pressure of 30 tor~.[‘~~] (Reproduced with permission.)

The change in nucleation behavior is also closely related to the etching of the substrate surface. In HFCVD experiments of diamond films and particles on Si substrates, t347]the nucleation density decreased markedly with increasing hydrogen-treatment tune prior to deposition. The enhanced etching ofthe substrate surface with increasing hydrogen-treatment time was thought to be responsible for the decrease in diamond nucleation density.

Effects of Deposition Conditions on Diamond Nucleation 5.0

137

OXYGEN ADDITION

A number of diamond CVD experiments demonstrated that oxygen species in the gas phase can improve both the growth rate and quality of diamond films.[41~~3361[352]-t35*~ Shah and Waitef211]used XPS to study the effects of oxygen on the nucleation and growth of diamond films on a Si substrate during MW PACVD. The presence of oxygen was found to accelerate the saturation of carbon on the substrate surface, reduce the incubation period, and promote a much faster diamond nucleation and growth than with oxygen-free plasmas. The incubation period was 40-50 min in the absence of oxygen and decreased to 1 min in the presence of oxygen. These effects were attributed to the preferential formation of SiO, rather than SIC during the very early stages of growth due to the presence of oxygen. The formation of SiO, was postulated to impede Si diffusion to the substrate surface, and thus the available carbon rapidly saturates the surface, thereby accelerating diamond nucleation. Moreover, in the absence of oxygen, the substrate temperature must be higher than 850°C for growth to occur, while the presence of oxygen allows lower substrate temperatures due to the lower binding energy of OH to C (85 kcal mol-‘) relative to that of CH to C (107 kcal mol-‘). This lower binding energy makes it easier to abstract OH by H to form H,O, thus lowering the substrate temperature required for growth. Bou et al.l156]also reported that a small amount of oxygen favors diamond nucleation and can enhance diamond deposition while preserving a good film quality at higher methane concentrations. They argued that, in MW PACVD, oxygen may be considered to be a diamond nucleation activator since it enhances the concentration of H atoms in the gas phase by suppressing heterogeneous recombination on the reactor walls, and allows high methane concentrations. In addition, oxygen suppresses the surface pollution by Si (from the reactor walls due to plasma etching). The surface pollution may inhibit or delay diamond nucleation, introduce defects into the diamond lattice, and result in bulk contamination of diamond. However, oxygen addition has also been reported to reduce diamond nucleation.[2561[35glThe HFCVD experiments conducted by Belton and Schmieg12561 reveal that, although the addition of oxygen in the gas mixture did not suppress growth of existing diamond and generally gave better

138 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition Raman spectra and more sharply faceted crystals, it suppressed diamond nucleation by eliminating the nucleation sites on Ni and Pt substrates. As shown schematically in Figs. 4 and 5, at the very high gas-phase oxygen concentration (e.g., [O]/[C] = I), the surface carbon was very rapidly etched from the substrate, leading to an essentially clean substrate surface. When the oxygen concentration was lowered to [O]/[C] = 0.75, the deposition of graphitic carbon was observed. This graphitic layer did not lead to diamond nucleation due to the absence of nucleation sites at that oxygen concentration. Only at low oxygen concentrations ([O]/[C] I 0.5), could nucleation sites be formed. Once nucleation occurred, growth was not prohibited by high oxygen concentrations. Diamond nucleation took place on the defect sites in the graphite deposits, which were susceptible to attack by the gas-phase oxygen species. The reason, why oxygen addition leads to larger, more perfect crystals, is that oxygen suppresses secondary nucleation on existing diamond by etching nucleation sites.[256] Ohtake and Yoshikawa[35g]examined the effects of oxygen addition on nucleation, growth and crystallinity of diamond films in plasma arc jet CVD. The etch rate of graphite by an Ar-0, plasma was 130 times larger than by an Ar-H, plasma. The nucleation density ofdiamond decreased with oxygen addition. The growth rate of diamond decreased with the increase in the amount of added oxygen. The surface unevenness and porosity also decreased with the increase in the amount of added oxygen. The optimum oxygen concentration was determined to be -33 vol.%. At this oxygen concentration, the surface unevenness of a 1.2 mm thick diamond film was -100 pm and the film showed good crystallinity due to the isotropic growth rate of { 1 1 1} and { 100} planes. Regarding the optimum oxygen content, it was proposed[360j that a high oxygen content should be used for etching non-diamond components in a growing diamond film, and a low oxygen content for deposition to achieve a higher diamond growth rate without sacrificing diamond quality. Oxygen contents of 2-10 vol.% have been employed in low pressure, low temperature MW PACVD of diamond films at high methane concentrations (2-15 vol.% CH, in H2).[274]

Effects of Deposition

Conditions on Diamond Nucleation

139

Before GroMh

-

--.

Oeposition of thick graphite deposit for a’f IO,1

l>,, o/c>,,

--

-_

_-

Nucleation Sites

o/c

VI Nucleation occurs only when OK: < 0.5

- (D

“Formation of nucleation sites’:

--

-_

_-

n

‘Nucleation’

i lb,O/C1,

0

‘Film Growih’

Assume growth proceeds for all 1021 as onpt

Figure 4. Schematic diagram showing the effect of oxygen on diamond nucleation and growth on scratched Ni foil substrates: oxygen suppresses the formation of diamond nucleation sites on the pre-deposited graphite layer. [*w (Reproduced with permission.)

140

Diamond Chemkal

o/c -

w -

1

Surface C rapidly etched by 0 species

"Clean"

--_

o/c

Vapor Deposition

= 3l4

Most slabte sites occupied

-

-v

“Deposition in scratches”

Nucleation Sites

3 (D “Formation of nucleation sites”

Nucleation occurs

1 o/c

= ‘I2

---

-

Diamond

02 does not impede growth

OIC - 1

“Growih”

Figure 5. Schematic diagram showing the effect of oxygen on diamond nucleation and growth on scratched Pt substrates: high oxygen concentrations clean the Pt surface of all graphite deposits so that diamond does not nucleate; if diamond has nucleated at low oxygen concentrations, growth will continue at the high oxygen concentrations at which diamond does not nucleate.t2s6] (Reproduced with permission.)

Effects of Deposition Conditions on Diamond Nucleation 6.0

141

SUMMARY

The optimum deposition conditions (ranges, values or tendency) for diamond nucleation reported in available literature are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Optimum ranges, values or tendency of deposition conditions for diamond nucleation

Parameters Substrate temperature MW PACVD HPCVD

Gas-phase activation Filament temperature in HPCVD Discharge current in DC PACVD Power density Gas pressure MW PACVD

Optimum ranges, values or tendency 860°C 1721 830 - 860°C [305] 925°C 900 - 1OOOT (3461 85O“C 1361.3621 2100 T 13471 Nd increases with increasing discharge current [348] Nd increases with increasing power density [349] 5 torr W51

q Gas flow rate hollow-cathode PACVD Gas composition MW PACVD Oxygen addition MW PACVD

HPCVD Plasma arc jet CVD Flame CVD

Ndincreaseswith

increasing gasflowrate

[36] Nd increases with increasing CHq vol.% in H2 f136.137.156.1741

Accelerates nucleation (21 l] Favors nucleation [ 1561 2 - 10 vol.% 02 + 2 - 15 vol.%CH4 in H2 12741 Suppresses nucleation [256] Decreases nucleation density, 33 vol.% 02 [359] 0.75 - OB/C2H2 [282]

An optimum substrate temperature exists around 860°C, at which a maximum nucleation density can be achieved. The effect of filament temperature in HFCVD on diamond nucleation is similar to that of substrate temperature, with 2 100°C being a possible optimum value. Nucleation may be enhanced by using high power densities, such as in plasma jet, or DC PACVD. Low gas pressures (-5 torr), high CH, concentrations, and/or high gas flow rates lead to high nucleation densities. The addition of oxygen in gas mixture can accelerate the saturation of carbon on the substrate surface,

142 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition reduce the incubation period, and promote a much faster diamond nucleation and growth than with oxygen-free plasmas. The presence of oxygen inthe gas phase allows low substrate temperatures, preserves a good film quality at high CH, concentrations, and suppresses eventual surface pollution by Si. However, the addition of oxygen has also been reported to suppress diamond nucleation by etching nucleation sites (graphite) on Ni and Pt substrates. A plausible optimum oxygen concentration is about 33 vol.% in plasma arc jet CVD, 2-10 vol.% in low pressure low temperature MW PACVD, and 0.75 0.9 O,/C,H, in flame CVD.

8 Theoretical and Modeling Studies on Diamond Nucleation

Compared to the significant development in nucleation enhancement methods, fundamental scientific issues related to diamond nucleation processes remain less well addressed. In this chapter, the theoretical and modeling studies on surface nucleation of diamond are reviewed on the basis of available literature.

1.0

IDENTIFICATION MODE

OF NUCLEATION AND GROWTH

In thermodynamic theory of heterogeneous nucleation of solid from vapor,[3631 a nucleus on a substrate is considered to be cap-shaped with a contact angle to the substrate. Young’s equation dictates the relationship among the surface and interfacial energies as: OS= cri + oo,cos e

143

144


where the subscripts s, i, o refer to substrate, interface, and overgrowth, respectively. Depending on the material parameters of the substrate and deposit, and the supersaturation of the vapor, [3641three different nucleation and growth modes can be distinguished using the value of the contact angle 0: 1. 8 > 0: Volmer-Weber three-dimensional (3-D) island growth.l365l In this case, o, = CT;+o, cos 8. The cohesion energy between the adsorbing and condensing adatoms (i.e., the forming nuclei) is greater than the adhesion energy between the substrate atoms and the adatoms. Island growth occurs from the beginning of deposition, i.e., nucleation. This nucleation and growth mode is typical for the materials with higher surface energies relative to the substrate. 2.

0 = 0: Frank-van der Merwe two-dimensional (2-D) layer growth.l366l In this case, a,> Oi+ 6,. The adhesion energy exceeds the cohesion energy and the film tends to grow layer-by-layer. This growth mode occurs typically for the overlayers with lower surface energies relative to the substrate.

3.

8 = 0: Stranski-Krastanov layer plus island growth.l367l In this case, KS,2 (Ti+ o, and the strain energy in the One or more overgrowth is large compared to o,. complete monolayers are initially formed during growth. The total strain in the layer(s) increases as growth proceeds due to lattice mismatch. The existence of the strain in the initially deposited monolayers facilitates the breakdown of monocrystalline to polycrystalline structure and induces 3-D island growth similar to the Vohner-Weber mode on the top of the layers, leading to a decrease in the total energy of the substrate/film system. This mode has been observed in most heteroepitaxial growth processes in which the associated materials satisfy the surface energy criterion (0 = 0). 13681Only if the substrate is chosen in such a way as to minimize or eliminate the onset of strain in the deposit, will it be possible to grow out a singlecrystal film.11g61

Theoretical and Modeling Studies on Diamond Nucleation

14.5

the Vohner-Weber 3-D island nucleation As indicated by Davis, [3681 and growth mode is the only mode predicted for the case of diamond nucleation and growth directly on almost all non-diamond substrates, since chemically unterminated diamond surfaces possess the highest surface energies of any known materials (Tables 5 and 6, Ch. 3). The high surface energies of diamond largely limit the number of substrates that could potentially stabilize 2-D layer growth. Analyses ofthe surface and interfacial energies of various diamond-substrate systemst36glreveal that Be0 and BN may be suitable substrate candidates for diamond heteroepitaxy, and the substrate bonding type is more important than the lattice constant match. For example, Cu has a good lattice match with diamond, however, its utility as a heteroepitaxial substrate may be limited because of its relatively low surface energy and low adhesion energyto diamond.t3701Appropriate surface modification is therefore necessary to produce epitaxial diamond on CU.[~~] Further, the high surface energies of diamond, along with the small sticking probability of diamondnucleation precursors on non-diamond substrates, are deemed as the reason for small nucleation densities of diamond.t721t1841 The Volmer-Weber 3-D island nucleation and growth mode has been observed in a number of experiments of diamond nucleation. ~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~11~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1~~~~1 Asageneralnucle_ ation model, the Volmer-Weber nucleation theoj13651may be applied to the calculation of the activation energy for nucleation when the nucleation density is known from experimental measurements. Bauer et a1.[174l estimated the activation energy for diamond nucleation on Si to be 52 kcal mol-’ on the basis of their experimental results (Nd = 1.29 x lo4 cmm2). However, such calculations could not provide detailed information about diamond nucleation processes or mechanisms.

2.0

THEORETICAL STUDIES ON NUCLEATION THERMODYNAMICS

Diamond is a metastable phase under CVD conditions. The processes competing with diamond nucleation and growth are the nucleation and growth of graphite and/or amorphous carbon, as well as spontaneous graphitization of the diamond surface. The graphite nuclei may also contribute to creation of planar defects, which along with other defects, constitute the major obstacles to growth of single crystal diamond fihn~.l~~l The free-energy

146


differences between these carbon phases are relatively small, so that kinetic factors, size effects, surface reconstruction, etc., during diamond nucleation may be more important than thermodynamic factors, and hence metastable diamond can be formed under kinetically controlled conditions. Searching such preferential conditions for diamond growth has taken decades of research.t21] Thermodynamic calculations [372]demonstrate that the equilibrium pressure of carbon vapor over diamond is -2 times higher than over graphite in the temperature range of 1000-2000 K. In the absence of other factors, graphite nucleation is more probable than diamond. To explain the improbable nucleation and growth of diamond under apparently metastable conditions, Derjaguin and Fedoseev[372]considered chemical kinetics based on macroscopic concepts of classical nucleation theory, adsorption-desorption kinetics and equilibrium, as well as surface mobility of the adsorbed carbon species, and revealed several key points: 1. The presence of a diamond surface, for example, an epitaxial or diamond-seeded surface, increases the probability of diamond nucleation. 2. There should be a small range of conditions under which the nucleation rate of diamond is greater than that of graphite. 3. Hydrogen dilution decreases the growth rate of graphite more than diamond. 4. Atomic hydrogen etches graphite faster than diamond. Thus, there exists a narrow range of conditions, such as pressure (supersaturation), temperature, and composition as well as substrate surface state (structure, roughness, etc.), under which the nucleation and growth of diamond are significant and graphite is etched. In this competition, graphite nucleation and growth will essentially cease or will be covered by diamond.[22] To determine this potentially small range of conditions, Derjaguin and Fedoseev[372]derived the ratio of the nucleation rates of diamond to graphite on the (111) diamond surface as a function of supersaturation, given by 0.9(++Yj2(I x(x -1)

-0.6~)

1


147

with

under the assumption of a two-dimensional nucleus. In these expressions, I is the nucleation rate, x is the supersaturation, +o is the bond energy of the closest neighbors in diamond crystal, K is the Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature, p is the partial pressure of carbon-containing vapor, pea is the equilibrium pressure of the vapor over graphite, and the subscripts D and G denote diamond and graphite, respectively. The calculated results show that a maximum of Idr, exists at x = 2.7. witbin a very narrow range around this value of X, the nucleation rate of diamond is high relative to that of graphite, but outside this small range, the nucleation rate of diamond is close to zero. Therefore, graphite nucleation will generally predominate, and only within a small range of conditions will diamond nucleation occur. Data on diamond deposition rates as a function of temperature118~t22~ show amaximum at about 1000°C. Surface reconstruction and relaxation on the { 1I 1} diamond surfacest221may occur in the range of 900 to 1000°C.t373~ Other phenomena and properties which critically depend on temperature in the same range (i.e., 900-1000°C) includet221adsorption/desorption and migration of atomic hydrogen, etch pit orientation, coefficient of static friction with metals, and oxidation rate. For example, two peaks in hydrogen desorption rates are present at -900°C and 1000°C.1221This temperature dependence of desorption clearly suggests the existence of a critical temperature in nucleation and growth processes of CVD diamond. This has been confirmed by recent experimental and theoretical results.t721t3461t3611t362] It has been recognized that large hydrogen gas dilution, typically 9899 vol.% H2, is the key to successful diamond growth under the metastable conditions.t221 Atomic hydrogen plays an important role in stabilizing diamond structure on the substrate surface relative to graphite:t221t’96113681~3741 1. As an adsorbent on the surface, atomic H acts to maintain the bonding of the surface carbon atoms in sp3 form, and the interchange of adsorbed H atoms with C atoms allows continuation of growth of the diamond structure; 2. Atomic H helps to reduce the amount of graphitic or amorphous C deposited on the substrate surface by rapidly reacting with these phases but allowing sp3 bonded diamond component;

148 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition 3. The dangling bonds at the surface of diamond are energetically unstable, and the surface will reconstruct to a graphite-like surface containing a mixture of single and double bonds to reduce the surface energies. A monolayer of reactive atomic H bonded to the dangling bonds will prevent the surface reconstruction and sp2 bond formation, and hence stabilizes the diamond structure relative to graphite. Additionally, by bonding to the surface and capping dangling bonds at the surface, atomic H reduces the surface energies of diamond. The role of atomic H in the nucleation processes of diamond is similar to that in the growth processes of diamond. It has been inferred that the influence of atomic H on diamond nucleation and growth is more important than the influence of temperature.t221 The role of various substrates in stabilizing diamond relative to graphite was evaluated by Machlin 11”1for conditions under which graphite is thermodynamically stable relative to diamond in the bulk. The theoretical calculations of entropy, bond, and bond angle strain reveal that many metallic substrates that bond to carbon can stabilize the diamond phase even in the absence of atomic hydrogen. This stability af the diamond structure relative to graphite is attributable to the large differences in the bond energies or strain energies between diamond-substrate and graphite-substrate systems so that the small difference in the free-energy between diamond and graphite in the bulk (about 0.454 kcal mol-‘) is overwhelmed. The substrate surfaces, that are most effective in achieving the thermodynamic stabilization of metastable phases, are those that can produce an epitaxial fit in atom arrangement between the crystal planes of the metastable phases and the substrate surfaces. Therefore, substrate materials should be limited to those that can minimize the difference in atom configuration between the substrates and diamond crystals. Pseudomorphic stabilization of diamond is possible on the following substrates:11g6l 1. Unreconstructed, clean diamond surfaces in ultra high vacuum (UHV) or exposed to atomic hydrogen. 2. Reconstructed, clean diamond surfaces in UHV or exposed to atomic hydrogen above the temperature for surface reconstruction.


3.

149

Clean surfaces of many metals in UHV or exposed to atomic hydrogen.

4. Clean liquid metals exposed to atomic hydrogen when the average of the metal-metal and carbon-carbon bond energies is less than the metal-carbon bond energies, and the metals do not bond strongly to hydrogen. The influence of substrate materials on the relative nucleation rates of diamond to graphite was quantitatively determined by Kernt1g5]on the basis of classical nucleation theory. The crux of the theory is the formation of a nucleus of critical size. The Gibbs free-energy of the formation of a critical nucleus of spherical geometry, AG, is expressed as

where CTis the surface free-energy at the nucleus-vapor interface, and A,u is the difference in volume free-energies between the vapor and solid phase. Assuming that the temperature is high enough for the thermodynamic driving forces of the nucleation of diamond and graphite, from a supersaturated vapor to be nearly equal, i.e., Ap,_, = A,u~_~,but not so high that diamond, when formed, reverts to graphite, the ratio of the Gibbs free-energies of the nucleation of diamond to graphite reduces to

where V is the volume of an atom. The relative nucleation rates of diamond to graphite are then governed by the surface energies. From the bond strength, lattice parameters and densities of diamond and graphite, the ratio is calculated to be AGdAGG = 16. However, on a substrate, this ratio must be modified by a factor

150


where oi is the surface energy of the deposit crystal face i, which comes into contact with the substrate, s, and pj,#is the adhesion energy given by the Dupre relation Pi,8 =

6

+

us- ui,.s

where bi,.sis the interface energy between the deposit crystal face i and the substrate. On a clean, unreconstructed diamond substrate, for example, ifthe crystal plane of the diamond deposit is parallel and identical to that of the substrate, then oi = cr,and Q = 0, so that [ 1 - &l(2ui) = 0],, while that of graphite is non-zero. Thus, diamond is expected to nucleate faster than graphite. It should be noted, however, that most conditions of deposition from the vapor phase have been shown to be such that classical nucleation theory is not well-suited to describe the nucleation kinetics of diamond, since the critical nucleus size is on the order of a few atoms. 13”1The small size of the critical nucleus makes it quite inappropriate to use the classical thermodynamic variables to describe the nucleation processes. Under such conditions, the Gibbs free-energy of the formation of a critical nucleus cannot be expressed with the above formulation. The surface energy contribution may cause a reverse effect on the phase stabilityl**l and dG may be less than zero.[376l Hence, a nanometer-sized diamond nucleus may be more stable at subatmospheric or atmospheric pressures than agraphite nucleus containing the same number of atoms.12211377] A quantitative calculationl377]shows that surface energies are an important aspect in the stabilization of nanocrystalhne diamond, and for surface bonds terminated with hydrogen atoms, diamond crystals smaller than -3 nm in diameter are energetically favored over polycyclic aromatics (the precursors to graphite). The case of dG < 0 has been referred to as a nonclassical nucleation process. In such a case, the surface energy contribution to nucleation must be evaluated on the basis of a microscopic framework of a nucleus,l376]and atomistic theory[375]should be employed for studying the nucleation process.

3.0

THEORETICAL

MODELING OF NUCLEATION KINETICS

Based on the work of Avrami1378]and Frenke1,[37glTomellini et a1.12i71 developed a kinetic nucleation model to describe the time evolution of the


151

surface nucleation densities and rates of diamond in CVD. In this kinetic scheme (Fig. l), it is assumed that a surface nucleation process starts from nucleation sites on the substrate surface that are generated by a scratching pretreatment. A nucleation site is first transformed into a germ, and a nucleus then forms from the germ. Agerm is defined as an intermediate species during the formation of a nucleus. A germ may be desorbed from a nucleation site, whereas a nucleus can only grow. Nucleation sites and germs may be captured by the growing diamond phase. Nucleation sites may also destruct due to thermal and/or chemical attack during the nucleation process.

K

v

c

Nucleus

GWKI A ~ “d

7 ’ Capture

_

“f

1

Active site

-

__---

+

Center

1

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the kinetic nucleation model developed in Ref. 217. (Reproduced with permission.)

152


By assuming first-order kinetic processes, Tomellini et al. formulated the rates of each of the four steps in the kinetic scheme as a function of the surface densities of the transforming species, with nf, Q, K and Kc as rate constants for the corresponding steps. The equations for diamond nucleation density and rate were then derived by solving these coupled kinetic equations. For small values of surface coverage (S(t) c? a-B [

a_p

W-B*)

1

and

J% (2)

k(t),

= N, $+exp(+*)

-

exP(-a*)1

with Eq. (3)

N, = KnfN+(0)l(alS)

Es. (4)

a=

$(nf+nd+K+Kc)+,/(n~-n~-K+Kc)2+4npd]

and

Es. (5)

j3 = $(nf+nd+K+Kc)-,/(n~-n~-K+Kc)2+4np~]

where N(t), andk(t), are the surface nucleation density and rate, N, is the surface nucleation density when t ---, w, t is the time, N+ (0) is the surface density of the nucleation centers at t = 0, a and pare the parameters related to the rate constants. When the surface coverage is so large that the capture of the nucleation sites and germs by the growing diamond phase may not be neglected during the entire nucleation process, the nucleation rate must be modified by a factor [l - S(l)]:


Eq-(6)

153

$(t)s = H(t),[1 -s t ]

To predict the time evolution of the nucleation process using these equations, thevaluesofNm, aandpand S(t) must be known for a general range of time and deposition conditions. The parameters N,, a and /3 are constant with respect to time and depend primarily on the deposition conditions, such as gas composition CH,/Ha and substrate temperature T,, and substrate pretreatment. As a first approach, a linear growth law of the form,

Eq.(7)

R

= a(z-x)

was assumed, whereR is the grain radius,a is a constant,z is the deposition time, x is the time at which the grain starts nucleation, and it is the power index, 0 < ns 1. By analyzing the SEM data of the diamond particles grown in HFCVD on Si(ll1) and Si(100) scratched with 0.25,~m diamond paste, the diamond particle size distribution and surface density were obtained as a function of deposition time. Thevalues of theparametersN,, aand pwere then determined by fitting Eq. 1 to the experimental data for the nucleation of well-separated particles on the surfaces (i.e.,,S(t)

Cd-H+ H(g)

09

C, + CH,(,) -

(4

cd + H(s) -

kb

42

‘d

+ H2(,)

C,CH,

Cd-H

154


which excluded details of the incorporation reactions, and any reactions leading to thedeposition of non-diamondcarbon. This simplification, which was made on the basis of the sensitivity analyses in Ref. 87 and the observations inRef. 381 significantly reduced the number of the reactions to be considered in the kinetic scheme. The modified expression for the grow rate couples the nucleation density with the crystal growth, and relates the growth rate to gas-phase composition, kinetic rate constants and surface reactions as well as gas dynamic conditions at the gas-substrate interface:

where c is a constant characteristic of the crystal shape (c = 3.42 for a cube or a sphere), [CH4]QH2] is the gas composition, [HlsWfand [H] are the atomic hydrogen concentration at the substrate surface and in the gas phase, 1 is the characteristic length of the system (boundary-layer thickness above the substrate surface), cH is the mean velocity of atomic hydrogen at gas temperature Tg, D is the diffusivity of H in H,, NU is the Nusselt number,f and g are the constants related to the recombination coefficient of atomic hydrogen on Si, yDis the recombination coefficient of atomic hydrogen on a diamond surface, k,, kb and kc are the kinetic rate constants for the reactions (a)-(c), K, is the equilibrium constant for the reaction:

(4

CH,+H*CH3+H2

and S(t) is the surface coverage fraction formulated as a function of the surface nucleation density and crystal growth rate. The recombination coefficient depends on the Debye temperature of a solid material. Since the Debye temperatures of diamond and silicon are 1860 + 10 and 650 K, respectively, it was assumed thatyr,= 3y,;. The modified formulation of the


155

growth rate, Eq. 8, introduces two additional parameters, i.e., the concentrationofHatoms inthegasphaseand therecombinationcoefficientofHatoms on Si substrates, which need to be determined by fitting the model to experimental data. The HFCVD experiments of diamond on Si(100) were run under the following conditions: substrate temperatures of 500-95O”C, gas compositions of OS-2 vol.% CH, in H,, and total gas pressures of 15-76 torr. The fitting of the model to the experimental data showed that lo-* 5 ysi s lo-‘, and [Hk&[H] = 0.16 and 0.84 for the gas pressures of 76 and 15 torr, respectively. The series of diamond growth experiments conducted by Molinari et al.t361]demonstrate that thesurfacenucleationdensity increased with increasor with decreasing particle size of the ing PWP21 Pm 0~{CCH,1/[H21~2~3>, diamond paste used for substrate scratching. At a substrate temperature of -8SO”C, diamond nucleation density experienced a maximum, and both a and j?, obtained from fitting the data, exhibited minima. The fitting of the model to the experimental data further demonstrates that, at this substrate temperature, the recombination coefficient also attains a maximum value, which partly explains the dependence of the nucleation density on the substrate temperature. The experiments also reveal that the observed number of surface nuclei was a fraction of the total nucleation sites available on the substrate surface, and this fraction varied with substrate temperature, gas composition and surface pretreatment. To elucidate thedependenceof the nucleation density on the deposition conditions, Molinari et a1.f3’j2]further modified the kinetic model, assuming the chemisorption of acetylene on the nucleation centers being the first step in a nucleation process, and the GH, and qH3CH3 species converted from the chemisorbed C$H2 being the active sites. A germ then forms from such an active site, followed by the irreversible formation of a nucleus from the germ. Two Si-Si dual sites suitable for the initial chemisorptionof two GH, molecules, separated by a distance smaller than a critical value, are defined as a nucleation center. The distance criterion apparently dictates that only a fraction of the nucleation centers which satisfy the corresponding energy criterion (H > Hcut_&) can eventually transform into nuclei, i.e., only nucleation centers with the desorption enthalpy (I$,) larger than the cut-off value (Ifcut&) can remain on the surface long enough for a germ of average size to be created. Since the value of HcUt-orris dependent on substrate temperature, gas composition and surface pretreatment, the surface nucleation density is then also governed by the deposition and surface conditions.

156


The theoretical modeling of the kineticaspects of diamond nucleation processes is indeed scarce in published literature. Although attempts have been made to model the nucleation kinetics,l217ll361ll362ll380las reviewed above, the approaches require an accurate estimation of the kinetic rate constants, necessitating fitting the kinetic model to experimental data, thereby making the model system- (or experiment-) dependent. In addition, the kinetics of surface diffusion of adatoms and the formation of intermediate carbonaceous phases were not considered in these studies. As indicated in Ref. 217, a kinetic model is expected to contribute to a better understanding of the role of Sic formation in the nucleation of diamond on a Si substrate. However, the kinetic scheme employed in these studies was, in fact, unable to distinguish between a Si and a SiCsurface. To capture the possibility that an intermediate carbonaceous phase (such as DLC, carbide or graphite) may form prior to diamond nucleation, the kinetic model should be modified to include a time dependence of the density of nucleation sites determined by the kinetics of the formation of the intermediate phase. Further studies are therefore needed to construct a clear picture of the kinetics of diamond nucleation processes in CVD.

4.0

CLUES OF STRUCTURE, DIAMOND NUCLEI

CHEMISTRY,

AND SIZE OF

As discussed in Ch. 6, diamond nucleation enhancement may be achieved by, for example, predeposition of a thin DLC layer in combustion flame or DC glow-discharge plasmas,l124ll282lor, by carburization/biasing to developacomplet&iClayeron thesubstratesurfaceinMWPACVD.1178111871 In spite of these advances in experiments, the structure, chemistry, size, molecular or structural arrangement of nucleation sites and diamond nuclei are still less clear. If the structure, chemistry, and size as well as the detailed formation mechanism of nucleation precursors can be identified, the nucleation of diamond in CVD may then be more easily controlled and better tailored toward specific applications. To this effect, Meilunas and Chang lr921developed a model to calculate the minimum energy geometry using a force-field method (SYBYL). Shen et a1.l382lmodeled diamond-based precursors employing a finite cluster approximation approach. This theoretical modeling investigated carbon cluster fragments of the diamond lattice which are saturated by hydrogen


157

atoms, i.e., so-called adamantane-based or polymantane-derived carbon clusters. Ab initio quantum mechanical computations were performed to study the convergence behavior of the properties of the clusters toward the properties of bulk diamond. Stable polymantane-based clusters, up to &Hj6, were considered in the calculations. However, little indication was given regarding the stability of such molecules in the diamond CVD environment. Computer simulation by Sunkara et a1.l53ll55lusing Monte Carlo method predicted the morphology evolution (twinning and faceting) of diamond crystals in the early stages of growth. In this simulation, only the addition and removal of single carbon species (CH,) on an unreconstructed diamond surface were considered, although the direct addition of two and/or three carbon atoms (qHX and/or C$HJ could also contribute to growth. The effect of surface diffusion of adatoms (or hydrocarbon fragments such as methyl groups) was not included in the modeling. For a given nucleation site, the relative probabilities of the removal of singly bonded, doubly bonded, and triply bonded surface atoms were assumed to be 1, 10e9and 0, respectively, and the probability of the addition relative to the removal of a singly bonded carbon atom was l/20. The simulation by Sunkara et a1.l53ll55lstarted from nuclei of an assumed structure, chemistry, and size, such as a twinned nucleus containing 18 carbon atoms with two stacking errors (boat-chair-chair-boat tetracyclo octadecane), or a nucleus containing 14 carbon atoms with a single stacking error (chair-boat-chair tricycle tetradecane), etc. These structures were chosen to examine the influence of specific defects on the final morphology. As indicated by the authors, although these molecules are not necessarily the true precursors, the true nuclei may likely contain some of these structures within highermolecularweightcompounds formed by the partial hydrogenation of graphitic or polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The simulation shows that a reentrant corner will form at the intersection of a pair of parallel { 111) stacking errors with the surface of a diamond-cubic crystal. The reentrant corner provides a self-regenerating site for the nucleation of new layers and leads to rapid growth of the crystal within the plane of the twin band. This occurs because only two atoms are required to form a surface nucleus at the reentrant corner, and once the second atom is added the probability of the removal of the doubly bonded atoms is greatly reduced. On the contrary, a single stacking error does not yield a self-regenerating site for atom addition to readily occur and therefore results in a much lower growth rate. The

158


simulation of the growth from the twinned nucleus led to a flat, hexagonally shaped platelet containing a microtwin. Such hexagonal platelets have been observed in the MW PACW experiments conducted by the same authors. Hirabayashi and Matsumoto 11441also reported the formation of flattened diamond crystals in MW PACW using oxygen-containing gas, and attributed the phenomenon to the reentrant corner effect and the resultant formation of the twin boundaries. These results suggested that diamond nuclei may contain multiple twinned structures.I53ll383l

5.0

SUMMARY

Frank-van der Merwe 2-D layer-by-layer growth or in some cases Stranski-Krastanov layer plus island growth is the growth mode of diamond homoepitaxy and heteroepitaxy. Volmer-Weber 3-D island growth is the mode of nucleation and growth of polycrystalline diamond films directly on non-diamond substrates due to the highest surface energies of diamond among any known materials. In theoretical studies on diamond nucleation, thermodynamic theory, homogeneous and heterogeneous chemical kinetics, classical nucleation theory, adsorption-desorption kinetics and equilibrium have been considered to predict preferential conditions for diamond nucleation and growth. A narrow range of conditions, such as pressure (supersaturation), temperature, and composition as well as substrate surface state (structure, roughness, etc.), have been derived, under which nucleation and growth of diamond are significant and graphite is etched. The theoretical studies uncovered the crucial role of hydrogen atoms in stabilizing the diamond structure on substrate surfaces relative to graphite. The role of substrate surfaces in stabilizing the diamond structure has also been recognized. Classical nucleation theory may be not well suited to describe the nucleation kinetics of diamond in CW, since the critical nucleus size under the typical CW conditions may be on the order of a few atoms. The surface energy contribution may cause a reverse effect on the phase stability and the Gibbs free-energy of the formation of a critical nucleus may be negative, a case referred to as nonclassical nucleation. In such a case, atomistic theory should be employed as the starting point of theoretical analyses.


159

Theoretical modeling of diamond nucleation kinetics is scarce in published literature. Some existing approaches require an accurate estimation of kinetic rate constants, which has been made on the basis of empirical and experimental data, and hence is system- (or experiment-) dependent. Therefore, further studies are still needed to improve the fundamental understanding of diamond nucleation kinetics. The current information on size, structure and chemistry of diamond nuclei is primarily speculative, with a small number of conclusive results. It has been proposed that diamond nuclei may be multiple twinned particles, likely containing some of the structures related to the boat-boat conformer of bicyclodecane (10 carbon atoms) or boat-chair-chair-boat tetracyclo octadecane (18 carbon atoms) within higher molecular weight compounds formed by the partial hydrogenation of graphitic or polyaromatic hydrocarbons. The diameter of a critical nucleus of diamond is presumably around 3 nm. It is evident from published literature that the technological problems associated with the nucleation of polycrystalline diamond films have been adequately addressed, as demonstrated by the development of the numerous nucleation enhancement methods, the selective growth of diamond films of desired shape and thickness, and the textured, oriented growth. Particularly, the advances in thegrowth of highly oriented diamond films representa novel approach to obtaining diamond films of a near-single-crystal morphology over large areas and may allow diamond to realize its potential as an electronic material. However, the scientific issues integral to diamond nucleation processes remain less well understood. Further work is needed in the areas such as single crystal growth and heteroepitaxy. A comprehensive theoretical model is required to achieve a thorough understanding of diamond nucleation processes and to obtain more predictable results.

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H. 0. Pierson, Handbook of Carbon, Graphite, Diamond and Fullerenes, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey (1993)

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S. B. Qadri, C. Kim, E. F. Skelton, T. Hahn, and J. E. Butler, Thermal expansion of chemical vapor deposition grown diamond films, Thin Solid Films, 236(12):103-105 (1993)

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Index

A A-C 8 A-C:H 8 Abrading 96 Abrasion treatment 99 Abrasive. residual 98 Abrasive particle size 99, 101 Abrasive scratches 121 Abrasives 95, 98, 128 Abstraction hydrogen 62 of H atoms 17 rate coefficient 35 Acetylene 155 Activation energy 14.5 Activation of the gas phase 24 Activation step 117 Adamantane 47 Adamantane-based clusters 157 Adatoms 54 Adhesion 46, 94 Adhesionenergy 144, 145, 150 Adsorption state 133 AES 58

AFht 58 Allotrope ofcarbon 1 Amorphouscarbon 42, 59, 63 Amorphous tilm 38 Amorphous hard carbon 8 Amorphous layer 62 Amorphous-crystalline interface 60 Analytical techniques 69 Angus, J. C. 4, 5, 33, 48 Anisotropic growth 88 Anode materials 28 Applications abrasive 3 boring and drilling tools 5 electronic 46, 79 emerging 6 heat-sink 3 sound diaphragm 5 AP implantation 123 Arrheoius behavior 42 As+ implantation 121 Atomic carbon 24 Atomic diffusion 62 183

I84


Atomic force microscopy 58 Atomic hydrogen 5, 29, 59, 147, 148, 154 Atomic hydrogen concentration 24 Atomic structures 8 Auger electron spectroscopy 58

B Bachmann, F? K. 67, 116 Badzian, A. R. 64, 80 Ball-like diamond crystals 10 Ballas-type diamond 38 Barrier layer 119 Be0 145 Bias substrate 44 Bias voltage 23, 108 Bias-enhanced nucleation 83 Biasing 64, 95, 106, 128, 156 Si substrate 112 Biasing pre-treatment 107 duration 110 Bicyclodecane 48, 159 Blasting 122 BN 145 Boat conformation 10 Boltzmaun’s constant 147 Bond angle strain 148 Bond energy 9, 147 Bond length 9 Bonded carbon 59 Bonding covalent 9 orbitals for 8 Bonding state transition 59 Boron gaseous 29 Boron atoms 99 Buffer layer 123 carbide 93 Bundy, F. R 3

C 3C diamond 9 C diffusion rate 65 C concentration 71 C-H-O phase diagram 36 C-H-O systems 33 C/O atomic ratios 49 C35H36 157 C70 117 Cage compounds 47 Capture rate 133 Carbide as a buffer layer 93 Carbide interlayer 68, 71 Carbide islands 111 Carbide layer 64, 66, 68, 71 Carbide-forming substrate 57, 71, 93, 126 Carbides 94 Carbon atomic 24 Carbon atoms 55, 59 average residence time 103 rearrange 62 Carbon bonding 67 Carbon carriers 14 Carbon clusters 40, 69, 112, 114 Carbon concentrations 32 Carbon ion implantation 122 Carbon phase diagram 1, 3 Carbon radicals 119 Carbon saturation 68, 71, 77, 112, 128 Carbon sink 94 Carbon solubility 94 Carbon species 24 Carbon supersaturation 67 Carbon-containing gas 14,26 Carbon-rich particles 116 Carbon-substrate interactions 93 Carburization 64, 83, 94, 95, 123, 124, 156

Index

Carbynes 810 Catalysts 124 Catalytic processes 15 Cathode materials 28 Cations carbon-containing 112 Cauliflower morphology 67 CBN 50, 90, 93 CBN powder 80 single-crystal substrates 79 substrate 3 1 Ceramic particles 99 Ceramics 80 Cl$ 18, 32, 35, 106 Cl& concentration 83, 85, 86, 135 CH,/H, 83 Chair conformation 9 Chair coordination 47 Chair planes 10 Characterization of diamond films 57 Chemical kinetics model 48 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) 4 Close-packed layers 9 Cluster approximation 156 Cluster formation 112 Clusters 32, 45, 50, 59, 114, 117, 128 grow or decay 71 stable 55 Co-deposition of diamond and graphite 4 Co-Fe 124 Coated area 28, 43 Coaxial feed electrode 28 Cobalt 126 Cohesion energy 144 Columnar gram growth 83 Combustion CVD 15 Combustion mechanisms 17 Combustion synthesis 30, 87, 88, 99, 118

18.5

Competition growth of crystals 52 Compressive stresses 108 Contact angle 144 Contamination from plasma nozzle 29 of the growing film 23 Continuous film 57 Conversion graphite to diamond 1 Conversion rate 1, 2 Copper anode 28 Copper surface 12 1 Corrosion of the hot filament 18 Covalent carbides 94 Covalent crystalline structure 9 Craters 121 Critical nuclei 103 Critical size 71 Crystal growth evolution computer simulation 82 Crystal habit of diamond 81, 82 Crystal morphology 82 Crystal quality 38 Crystal shapes 10, 12 Crystal size 38 critical 62 distribution 87 Crystal structures 8 Crystallite morphology 3 1 Crystallite size 31, 43 Crystallites 53, 59 small 89 Crystallization in the amorphous layer 62 Crystallographic planes 8 1 Crystallographic registry 83 crystals ball-like 67 cube-octahedral 116 faceted 52 graphite-free 27

186


large 4 octahedral 32 single 4 CU nucleation density on 110 Cu substrates 75, 123 Cubic diamond 9 Cubic faces 10 Cubic structure 10 Cubo-octahedral crystals lo,82 CVD advantages and disadvantages CVD diamond 10 CVD methods high rate 33 CVD techniques 18 Cyclohexane 47 Cyclotron resonance 27

15

D Dangling bonds 75, 148 DC glow discharge PACVD 28 DCPACVD 27, 28, 37, 44 Debye temperature 154 Decahedrons 32 Defects 44, 62 structural 85 void-type 82 Deformation depth 102 Dehydrogenation 62 Delocalized electron 8 Dendrites 12 Dendritic growth 119 Deposition large-area 30 low-temperature 46 Deposition area 5, 28, 31 Deposition conditions 10, 52, 68, 131, 135, 141, 153, 155 optimum 135 Deposition efficiency 3 1

Deposition rate 18, 38, 147 function of temperature 147 Deposition rates 18, 26, 28, 29, 36 Dejaguin, B. V. 4, 5, 47, 146 Desorption enthalpy 155 Diadamantane 47 2H diamond 10 Diamond lattice constant 119 properties 1 unit structure 47 { lOO}Diamond 85 Diamond CVD 5, 6 Diamond films characterization of 57 Diamond grains 43 Diamond lattice structure 9 Diamond nucleation 13 1 Diamond polytypes 8 Diamond powder 132 Diamond seed crystals 4 Diamond wheels 122 Diamond-like carbon 8, 28 Diamond-like hydrocarbon 8 Diborane 49 Diffusion solid-state 62 DiEusion barrier 120, 124 Direct conversion 2 Direct-current plasma-assisted CVD 27 Disordered surface 72 Dissociation of gas species 24 DLC 8, 35, 94, 119 DLC interlayer 62 DLC layer 68, 156 Domain disordered 59, 62 Doped semiconductor diamond 29 Dupre relation 150 Dyer, H. B. 3

Index

E ECR MW PACVD 37 ECR plasma 44 ECR plasma CVD 27 EELS 58 Electric discharge method 5 Electric fields 44 Electrical biasing 44 Electron density 114 Electron energy loss spectroscopy 58 Electron-cyclotron-resonance (ECR) 27 Electronic material 83 Electrons in plasmas 25 Electrophoretic seeding 104, 128 Energies misfit and strain 80 Energy sources 23 Enthalpies of formation 47 Enthalpy graphite 1 Entropy 148 Epitaxial growth onNi 80 Epitaxially textured films 85 Epitaxy 79 Etch pits 116 Etching 95 atomic-hydrogen 134 of graphite 75 nonuniform 69 preferential 111 of unstable phases 59 Eversole, W. G. 4 Evolutionary selection 52, 82, 90

F F atoms 35 Faceted crystallographic shape Faceted crystals 52 Faceted diamond films 38

62

I87

Faceting 157 Facets 32 Fe films on the Sic 125 Fe substrate TiN coated 120 Fe-coated Si 125 Fe-Ni 124 Feed-gas mixtures 27 Fiber textures 90 Fiber-textured films 85 Filament 18, 23 Filament temperature 38, 134 Film morphology 85 Film texture 85 Fivefold symmetry 10 Fivefold twinned decahedra1 crystals 12 Flame CVD 14, 37 Flame synthesis 12 Flow rate 141 Force-field method 156 Fracture strength 108 Frank-van der Merwe 158 Frank-van der Merwe layer growth 144 Free-standing shapes 5 Frenklach, M. 17, 48, 49, 50, 153 Fullerenes 8

G Gas composition 36, 86 Gas dynamic conditions 154 Gas flow rate 36, 135 Gas pressure 14 1 effect on nucleation 134 Gas pressures 37 Gas species 35 Gas-jet nozzles 28 Gas-phase activation 33 Gas-phase non-equilibrium 14 Gas-phase nucleation 50

188


Gas-phase temperature 15, 33 Gem stones 1 Germ 151, 155 Gibbs free-energy 149, 150, 158 Glass beads 122 Glass, J. T. 163, 164, 169, 170-172, 175-177, 179 Glow discharge 23 Glow discharge PACVD 28 Glow discharge plasma 24, 28, 37 Gram boundaries 52 low-angle 83 Grain boundary 105 Grain size 105 Graphite 59, 129 anisotropic characteristic 9 etch rate 138 stable 1 Graphite carbon onPt 68 Graphite clusters 116 Graphite deposits 94 Graphite disk substrate 67 Graphite fibers 95 Graphite flakes 40 Graphite impurities 44 Graphite interlayer 104 Graphite lattice structure 8 Graphite layer 75 Graphite nucleation 146 Graphite particles 72 Graphite precursors 48, 75 Graphite to diamond conversion 1 Graphite-diamond equilibrium 3 Graphitic carbon 42, 138 Graphitic deposits 72 Graphitic intermediate layers 68 Gratings sawtooth-profile 104 Grinding 122 Grit 95, 101, 118 Grit-size 102 Grooves reentry 52

Growth bombardment-controlled 44 chemistry-controlled 44 early stages 46 homoepitaxial 79 interruption 89 single-crystal 46 Growth conditions 85, 86 Growth modes 144 Growth parameter 85, 90 Growth rate 23, 28, 49, 52, 82 ofMo 66 of SC 66 Growth rates 4, 5, 10, 15, 29, 30, 33, 42, 87, 89 Growth species oxygen-containing 18

H H atom gas-phase 17 H atoms 35 H ion species 110 H termination reaction 18 HZ-hydrocarbon gas mixtures 35 H,/Ar plasma 28 Habits 10 Halogen/hydrogen mixtures 49 Halogens 35 Haubner, R. 64, 65, 69, 93 Heteroepitaxial diamond on transition metals 80 Heteroepitaxial diamond films 79 Heteroepitaxial growth 144 Heteroepitaxy 90 Hexacyclopentadecane 47 Hexagonal graphite 9 HPCVD 15, 18, 23, 26, 37, 38, 44, 56, 59, 63, 65, 68, 72, 99, 121, 134 reactor model 48 High energy sites 96

Index 189 High resolution transmission electron microscopy 58 High-energy sites 68, 71, 77 High-pressure high temperature @PI-IV 1 Hirose, Y. 27, 30 Homoepitaxially grown crystals 10 Homoepitaxy 90 Homogeneity 46 Homogeneous nucleation 47 Hot-filament CVD 14, 18 Hot-filament method 5 HPHT 1, 124 solvent-catalyst 3 HPHT-synthesized cBN 80 HRTEM 58 Hybrid carbon orbitals 8 Hydrocarbon cage molecules 47 Hydrocarbon concentration 82 Hydrocarbon deposit 72 Hydrocarbon fragments 157 Hydrocarbon gas 4 Hydrocarbon oil 116, 118 Hydrocarbon species 18 Hydrocarbons 113, 157, 159 aliphatic and aromatic 14, 35 Hydrogen abstraction 47 Hydrogen atoms needed to convert 59 recombination of 62 Hydrogen concentration 14, 44 Hydrogen dilution 146 Hydrogen gas 147 Hydrogen impurities 44 Hydrogen recombination reactions 29 Hydrogen-treatment 136 Hydrogenated amorphous carbon 63

I Icosahedral crystals Icosahedrons 32

12

Idiomorphic crystal shapes 12 Incorporation reactions 154 Incubation 39, 40,50,58,65,67, 72,77,83,93,131, 137, 142 Induction nucleation 50 Instability phenomenon 88 Interfacial layer 69 Intermediate amorphous layer 64 Intermediate layer 58, 68, 77 Interruption ofgrowth 89, 91 Ion bombardment 12 1 Ion implantation 95, 129 Ionic carbides 94 Irradiation 95 pulsed laser 123 Island growth 68, 144, 158 Isostructural materials 80 Isothermal plasma 24, 29

K Kinetic barrier 2 Kinetic equations 152 Kinetic processes 152 Koidl, P 163, 171, 172, 174, 177, 178

L Lamellae 82 Lander, J. J. 4 Large-area single crystals 79 Laser interferometry 58 Laser irradiation 123 Laser-driven reactions 49 Laser-enhanced CVD 15 Lattice bonds 18 Lattice constant 50, 80 Lattice damage 12 1 Lattice discontinuity 82 Lattice mismatch 89, 144 Lattice registry 75 Layer growth 144, 158

190


LEED 58 Liander, H. 3 Linear growth law 153 Lonsdaleite 9, 10 Low energy electron diffraction 58 Low temperature synthesis 43 Lux, B. 64, 65, 69, 93

M Magnetic fields 44 Many-body potential 75 Matsumoto, S. 18, 28, 29, 47, 158 Messier, R. 67 Metal carbides 45, 59 Metal evaporation from the filament 23 Metal films 125, 129 Metastable growth 4 Metastable phase 145, 148 Methane 14, 35, 137 chlorine-permuted 35 decomposition of 49 Methane-hydrogen environment 104 Methane/hydrogen mixtures 49 Methyl groups 157 Micro-JR absorption measurement 58 Micro-Raman spectroscopy 58 Microcrystalline graphite 42 Microcrystallites 59 Microflaws 106 Microstructure 90 Microtwin lamellae 82 Microwave 24 Microwave frequency 27 Microwave plasma assisted CVD 26 Microwave plasma method 5 Microwave power 132 Microwave radiation 26 Mirror-polished Si 106, 107 Misfit dislocations 83

MO DLCon 35 nucleation on 65 MO substrates 66, 93, 104, 118, 124, 135 MO& 124 Molybdenum carbides 67 Monocrystalline diamond 79 Monte Carlo method 157 Morphological instabilities 88, 90 model 87 Morphology 87 Morrison, J. 4 Mosaic large-area 104 Multiply twinned decahedrons 32 MWPACVD 26, 37, 44, 66, 68, 69, 75, 83, 118, 131 biased 62 oxygen 137

N Native oxides 95 Natural diamond 1 Ni substrate 72, 80, 104 Nickel 126 NJRlM5 Nitrogen addition of 86 Nitrogen impurities 44 Non-crystalline phases 52, 87, 89 Non-diamond substrates 57, 118 Non-isothermal 24 Nozzles 28 Nucleation 8, 39, 46, 68, 72, 92, 153 effect of gas composition 135 effect of gas pressure 134 gas-phase 50 homogeneous 49, 77 on MO substrates 62 modeling 143 on non-diamond 50

Index non-epitaxial 7 1 on Si(100) 131 on Si substrates 62 temperature dependence 133 thermodynamic factors 146 Nucleation center 155 Nucleation density 23, 32, 37, 40, 46, 49, 52, 55, 57, 65, 89, 95, 96, 99, 102, 103, 106, 108, 132, 155 on graphite 67 Nucleation enhancement 114, 116, 121, 128, 156 by scratching 96 on Y-ZrO, coated Si 120 Nucleation enhancement by biasing 112 Nucleation enhancement methods 92 Nucleation kinetics 159 model 156 Nucleation mechanism 61, 64, 75 Nucleation model 116, 150 Nucleation modes 144 Nucleation process 54, 55, 57, 63 two-step 83 Nucleation rate 31, 38, 44, 45, 55, 57, 132, 147, 149 Nucleation sites 72 secondary 52 Nucleation theory 47, 146, 149, 150, 158 Nuclei non-faceted 80 Nusselt number 154 Nutrient starvation 89 0 Octahedral faces 10 OM 58 Optical microscopy 58

191

Optical transparency 43 Orbitals 8 Orbitals for bonding 8 Orientation effect 88 Overlayers 114 Oxidation reactions 17 Oxide formation 113 Oxyacetylene combustion synthesis 99 Oxyacetylene torch 30 Oxygen 137 in the gas phase 142 Oxygen addition 137, 138 Oxygen impurities 44 Oxygen in a plasma 49 Oxygen-containing compounds 27 Oxygen-containing gas atmosphere 18 Oxygen-containing species 86

P K bond

8 n: electrons 23 PACVD 15, 25, 26 Partial pressures 33 of gas species 34 Particle diameter 49 Particles 77 ball-like 38 Pd catalytic effect 126 Phase purity 38 Phosphorous compounds 29 Plasma arc-jet 24 Plasma arc-jet CVD 28 Plasma-assisted CVD 14, 23 Plasma characteristics 23 Plasma potential 25 Plasma sheath 25 Platelets 158 triangular 12 Poisoning 87

192


Polishing 98, 122 Polyaromatic hydrocarbons 157 Polycrystalline Cu 110 Polycrystalline diamond films 50 Polycrystalline films 42 morphology 82 Polycrystalline morphology 3 1, 32 Polycrystalline structure 52 Polycrystalline substrates 57 Polycyclic aromatics 47 Polymantane-derived clusters 157 Polytypes 10, 49 Precursor layer 64 Precursors 24, 33, 47 graphite 47, 48 Predeposition 156 Pressure dependence 37 Pretreatment 39, 57, 63, 64, 72, 94, 135, 151 biasing 106 seeding 104 wiping 126 Pretreatment methods 127 smooth surfaces 106 Pretreatments 96, 118 of Si 122 Prism planes of graphite 75 Process parameters 86 Properties of CVD diamond 2 Properties of diamond 3 Properties of single-crystal diamond 2 Protrusions 63 Pt substrates 72 Puckered planes 9 Pulsed laser irradiation 123 Pyramidal pits 104 Pyramids 63 Pyrolysis 17, 18 hydrocarbon 24

R Radio-frequency plasma-assisted CVD 28 Radio-frequency thermal plasma CVD 29 Ravi, K. ‘I! 87, 89 RBS 58 Reentrant comer 157 Re-evaporation 103 Reactions entropy 47 Reactive precursors 24 Reactivity of graphite 23 Reactor operating conditions 15 Reactor pressure 49 Recombination coefftcient 154 Reducing environment 119 Reflection high energy diffraction 58 Refractory carbides 64 Refractory materials 42 Refractory metal carbides 94 Refractory metals carbide-forming 64 Renulceation 9 1 RPPACVD 28 RF thermal plasma CVD 37, 43 RHEED 58 Ring compounds 48 Rings six-member 75 Roughness 46, 83 Rutherford backscattering spectrometry 58

S CT bonds

8 Saturation of carbon 69 Scale-up 3 1 Scanning electron microscopy 58 Scanning tunneling microscopy 58

Index

Schmellemneier, H. 4 Scratched substrate 72 Scratches size of 103 Scratching 40, 95, 96, 102, 118, 128, 151 SE 58 Secondary ion mass spectrometry 58 Secondary nucleation 62, 75 Seed ceramics 99 Seeding 40, 95, 103, 114, 128 Seeding effect 96, 98, 128 Seeding techniques 104 Self-bias 25 Self-regenerating site 157 SEM 58 Semiconductor devices 79 Sheath region 25 Shock-wave synthesis, 3 Si 154 nucleation mechanism 111 SiO, on 35 a-Sic interlayers 83 P-Sic buffer layer 64 P-Sic films 68 P-Sic formation 134 P-Sic layer 68, 83 Si diffusion 137 Si mirror surface 106 Si substrates 66, 69, 75, 104, 108, 121, 122, 125 abraded 63 Si wafer 39, 108 Si(100) substrate 134 single crystal 83 Si+ ion implantation 121 SiAlON substrates 38, 63 Sic 64 on Si substrates 65 SIC formation 156 Sic impurities 44 Sic interfacial layer 57 Sic interlayer 67

193

Sic layer 124, 125 amorphous 69 Sic powder 132 Sic-coated substrate 125 Silane 49 Silicon impurities 44 SIMS 58 Single-crystal diamond 3 1, 79 Single-crystal substrates 57 SiOa 113 SiO, layer 111 SiO, on Si 35 SiO, 137 Slabs 87 Smooth surfaces pre-treatment methods 106 Solvent-catalyst reaction 3 Solvent-catalysts 124 Soot 120, 126 Sp2 atomic orbitals 8 Sp3 atomic orbitals 9 Space charge buildup 44 Spectroscopic ellipsometry 58 Spirals 52 Spitzyn, B. V 57, 82 Spontaneousnucleation 75, 77, 116 Stability of the filament 23 Stabilization of diamond 148 Stacking errors 157 Stacking fault 10, 12, 32, 45, 62 Staggered conformation 10 Stainless steel substrates 123 Steps 52 Sticking probability 133, 145 STM 58 Strain 122 Strain centers 98 Strain energy 144 Strain field effects 128 Stranski-Krastanov 158 Stress 89 in homoepitaxial films 82 Structures of diamond 8

194 Diamond Chemical Vapor Deposition Substrate bias 27 is mounted 28 Substrate bias 44, 114 Substrate cooling 29 Substrate materials 6, 26, 39, 92, 148 physical properties 40 Substrate position 43 Substrate size 43 Substrate temperature 26, 42, 43, 83, 86, 132, 141 influence on growth rates optimum 133 Substrates complex 106 mounting 27 non-diamond 32, 39 Superconductors 6 Supersaturated 94 Supersaturation 32,82 of carbon 65 Surface conditions effects on nucleation 92 Surface energy 62, 149 high 80 Surface reaction mechanisms 17 Surface treatment methods 95 Surgical ahoy 122 Suzuki, K. 27, 106 SYBYL 156 Synthesis low temperature 43 Synthesis of diamond 1 byCW 4

T TEM 58 Temperature 147 gas-phase 33 influence of 33 optimum 133, 141 substrate 26, 32, 42

Temperature control 29 Temperature dependence 37 of nucleation 133 Tersoff many-body potential 75 Tetracyclododecane 47 Tetmhedra 9 Thermal expansion coefficients 89 Thermal plasma CW 29, 37 Thermal plasmas RF 29 Thermodynamic equilibrium calculations 47 Thermodynamic stabilization 148 Thermodynamics of nucleation 146 Thick deposits 29 Ti nucleation on 65 Ti-6Al-4V substrates 122 TiN on Fe substrate 120 Tools diamond-coated 5 Topographical features promote nucleation 98 Transforming species 152 Transition metals 3, 80, 124 Transmission electron microscopy 58 Tungsten carbides 67 Tungsten cathode 28 Twin formation 85 Twinned clusters 45 Twinned crystals 10 Twinned embryos 47 Twinned nucleus 157 Twinning 12, 32, 82, 157 Twins 52, 62

U Ultrasonic pre-treatment 101, 102 Ultrasonically damaged surface 96

Index V Valences unsatisfied 7 1 Van der Drift 52, 82 Van der Waals bond 8 Vickery, E. C. 4 Voids 89 Volmer-Weber 145, 158 Volmer-Weber island growth

144

W W substrates 124 WC substrate 105 Wulff criterion 8 1

X X-ray X-ray XPS XRD

diffraction 58 photoelectron spectroscopy 58 58

Y Y-ZrOz 119 Yarbrough, W. A. 67, 80 Yoshikawa, M. 29, 122, 138 Young’s equation 143 Young’s modulus 108

Z Zirconia 122 yttrium-stabilized

119

58

195

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