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Pt)' uti anti Eanhscan PubII�ll-d Jou1tl)' In ,',USUilU", In 2005 by The Images Pubhstllng Group The Imaces PubhshlngGroup PtyUd
DESIGNING WITH
ABN8ls C>:pt:C1 ulcrea� pnce pressure on petroleum as
0.8 . .,
pl1otOVOlt,liC (PV) power PV power is a truly elegant means of
energy Over the ncxt twO dec.ldes. the burnIng of 011 and gas 15
"7
..
58
Gormany Spain
lioll.' and intt!llec/llally comlXltlble desl!!" team.
r.,·lcmbers must have the right skills and understanding of the issues (or at least be ready and (Iulck to learnl and be able to work together harmoniously.
• Tlte provision to call on specIalists
when required and, at least in the early stages of the deployment of new lechnologies or concepts. 10 undenake research and df..'1Iclopment where appropriate «VIS)lmmf. Aurtr ....�NJl#WItm-.norr
the crystalline Silicon PV module manuFacturers now guarantee a lifetime of 20 years for their modules
rlble t �lSQ'\ oI . c.Uett�
� j[.C r.t ltMnt ""W�'"i
15·
Modules can be conneclt:d In series 10 smngs and then in pmallel /0 form
These c.ltt.,&ories have been claSSified according to th(; Incre.15lng
2 The PV system was added to the desIgn The building
extenl of architcctur.ll l1l1egration, I-IQwever. il prOject does TlOI
may be mlssmg a deSign function that PV can fill In the
nt.'Ct'ssei;ausc
1>Y
modules have been applied seamlessly !\ highly viSible I'V
form of. for example a practlt.ll I'\, shading device. as
Modules or arrays. b�' themselves, do nOi conSlilute a PV system Also needed :arc StruCIUres oriented towards the sun on which 10 fix
system Is nOl always approprIate, especially In renovation
occur if the Intended purpose of internal spaces within
them, and componems that transpon and convert the DC electriCity
projects with historic archltecluml styles The challenge for
the bUilding changes or the comfort levels required
architeCts Is to integrale PV modulf:s into bUildings properly.
need 10 be improved PV provides both an acdve and
produced Imo ahernilling current (I\Q, for use In bUilding
appUc.ltlOns These structures and components are referred to
I'V modules arc new building materials that olff:r new deSign
as the balance of system (605) and are Illustrated in figure
options Applying PV modules in architecture should therefore
I)
BOS components include support Structures, electrical Junclion boxes and inveners lalso rderred 10 as powerconditioners) for DC to I\C conversion, These elements account for approximately ,10 per cent of the total investment COSt for a PV Installation
The efcclrlCity meier, which Is already a component of all grid. connected buildings, is not considered part of the BOS Interconnection of solar energy to the electricity grid network varies by COUntry and by power distribution utility
II is now
commonplace that the solar power produced may be fed into the grid, either using a separate production meter or a bl-directlonal
When using a separate
PV production meter. the power utility Is
shown In a bUilding III Madrid III figure
16
ThiS C.1Tl
passive solar shading solullon and Inv.ulably. a well,
designed PV eave (figur� ( 7), awning or louvre retrofit
lead to new designs, !\ selection of projects described below
c.ln avoid the need for a mechanical cooling system
provides further explanation
upgrade Often. the PV additions do not necessarlly
1 The PV system Is applied seamlessly and Is therefore
not architCCturally 'disturbing' The PV system on a
mean thai architectural Integration IS lacking as the 'added' PV system is not always highly visible
dwelling In Tokyo trigure 151 harmOnlses wllh the lotal project by majnt.linlng roof tile dimensions and a complimentary colour sequence. ,'nother example Is in Maryland. USA (figure
I-IJ where the PV Is
laminated o n a Sp.lndek roof S}'Slem and IS barely viSible. This Solulion was chosen because the emire proJCCt is of historical significance !\ modern high·
lech matt:!Tlal would clearly not be appropriate for this archllectural styie,
able to buy the solar power at a different rate than conventional t.lriff eleclTlclty, This concept is currently not well.developed and v.lries depending on the power utility's policy. BI-dlrectional net metenng Is becoming more accepted, where the PV owner receives the same energy rale for solar power produced as Is charged for conventIonal utillty·sourced energy. DIFferential rates and the use of separate production meters may become more common In coming years. as more power utilities develop f.; 12 0..yIlm,lIuSllftbog tfHto:ell tD lI1OIhJIe llJarTilYlflatlDll5hip s...a. .w..r.. I'MQ.-IRtIMAlW
renewable energy labelling and pay a higher energy filte for renewable sources Bullding designers should check this Issue at the early stages of the BIP\' project. as It can SUbSt.lnti.ll1y Improve grid connection planning and heighten the incentive to invest In PV. More tcchnlcal details penaintng to metering Issues can be found In Chapler 6
Key design issues for architects and associated practitioners Building and PV design interaction A successful BIPV solullon requires imeraction between building design and PV system design The approach can be to fully integrate the rv system In the building, displacing a conventional
external bUilding material. such as tiles on a roof or cfaddlng against a facade, An alternative, but equally valid .1pproach Is to see the PV system nOt as an intrinsic building design Issue, and to place It OntO .1 building clement, such as a roof or other fixture The Integration of PV syslems In archllCCture can be diVided Imo nVe approaches I t can be' •
applied seamlessly:
• added to the design,
•
added to the architectural Image:
•
used to cJ(plore new architectural concepts
•
- 26
used to determine the architectural Image:
rtg I5 Dv.ejhn!l Ill T�. .IaP¥I
� ""'c....,._""""nI ;�a..� t)pft»!O'IIN[DOJ"'"
27 -
J TI1l' pV sy�rl'm adds to the architectural image by berng rnlegrilrl:d Intu [he [oral desrgn of rhe burldrng wuhou[ ciomlnaung [hI: project In oth�r words, the Contt:XlU,ll mtcgriltron Is excelll:nt. PV provrdes a vrsual sta[crnt:nt thmColn elther offer subtle or sulN,lnllal changes to rhearchltc.tSol¥�AG. "",,- s..,1oWlnf
The first Issue 10 clarify when designing wuh photOVOltllics Is Ihe primary reason for integrating PV in the bUilding, For elt.lmpll!!, IS II for general energy supply or Is It to make the building more Independent of conventional ulility power? For general energy
r.g 25 lru $UUCual 9lumg delad IS 1'oeI1�'ed ;ni1lQM1MI ... c.w .t..s..ar Dl'lil:.- 6 ..ww.m.-
consideratIons Will be the architectural treatmen\ of large areas
crystalline silicon cells diminishes when the temperature rises
of PV and selecting from different types of modules. different
Md hence the backs of the modules must be \'entllemecn southe3S1 and southwest with s}'siem till angles between
52"
30"
.lnu
50"
Orientations between east and southeast and
betll'el:n southwest and west are acceptable ror til! angles
hl'twe!.'n 10" and 30". sInce the irradlmion will only be reduced by approxlma!Cly 1 5 per ccru fronl oplimum. Figure 29 depICtS
annU,ll lrradlJtlon in relatIon to orientation Jnd nil for Freiburg. Germany Inonhern hemiSphere) and for Sydney, Australia
Shadowing between buildings should be avoided For low·rlse seulemems Ihe distance between the bUildings c.ln be eaSily
calculated and shadowing is il relatively easy problem to solve. For mllcriod, when trees lose their leaves. the branches c.ln also generate significant shade. The rate and extent of tree growlh is also typically underestimated
Smce every trcc will grow a Uule more each year, planning is very Important to avoid problems a few years aher the bulJdmg is
constructed or the PV system is installed PoSSible solutions
Impression Framed modules WII! emphasise the dimensions of
IllIcgranon of PI! The four mam options are - Sloped roof - F[al roof • FaJ;'ade special applicmlons • Shading system
Sloped roof applications have Ihe advantage of using Ihe Inclined roof a!. a platform, whereas nat roof appllcallons need a specl.ll
moummg stTliClure to prOVide the reqUired onent,lllon angle for the modules. Fal(ilde Installations have a high profile, due to the high VISibility of the installation. The technical requirements arc mosdy higher than for a nat or sloped roof Inst.1Uadon.
bec.1USC
of the wifing and the Juncllon boxes, which have to be hidden, and the Increased dlrflCUlty m (hung the array 10 the bulldmg
The founh category rel.lles to special applications. for e.'(ample, shadmg elemenLS. atriums. louvres. balconies and skylights ThIS sec.uon focuses on the four ca"�gOTies and presents different
t',lch module and 1'.'111 innu!!nce Ihe mountmg profile of the roof
typologies of Integration, A comprehensive list of product
The colour of the frames and of the encapsulant used as the rear
typologies can be found on an onhne Internallonal Energy
surface of the module c.ln also be different. thus providing more
Agency flEA) Internet database at wwwpvdatabase.com
opponunity for design interest
Sloped roof
Sloped roof construcuons are very common for reSidential buildtngs and are most sUlled for a PV installation Ir onentated
Include " Only pl.lnting trees on Ihe nonh side of buildings (nonhero hemisphere), or the south side for southern
- - " '10 " _15'_-'1
Ihe s,lmc colour as the cells are almost in\'lsible at the surface
Sometimes the frames can be used to make a specJfic
BiPV integration techniques The bUilding envelope prOVides a number of POSSibilities for the
hemisphere bUildings - Only planting small lrees that have a growth limil up
approximately IOwards the equator Different tYPologies of mountIng systems are readily .wallable on the market for sloped roof appllcallons. One of the cheapest typologies is Ihe mounttng of a profile system off the roof. above the tlles (figure
31 I
/0 roof heIght - Yearly pruning of Irees to avoid Shading of the PV collection surfaces
Zoning
PI! systems in urban areas may reqUire special solar zoning
Three-dImensional maps and computer models can be used to Identify rights 10 sunlight and to establish the borders of building
areas to prevem future shading problems.
Glare Although nOI Iyplcally a major problem. unwanted glare can occur under cen,lin circumstances There are typiC.ll1y few problems in
-
l2
Flill roof s}'Stems with very low angles (between sa and lOa) can be .1 Uood solullon should orientation prove difficult The loss of Irradl3110n for Iht' I'rciburg e.lt.1mple ts eSlim31ed 10 be between 5 per cent orlentaU.-d to the south and 10 per cent for a nonherly onentauon Dt'1311f'd diSCUSSion on oflent.1lion is provIded In Chapter S
low·rlse seltlemems, but In a mixed development of low. and high. rlse bUildings with increa.!oed faCl'Cond .1Pllroach Iflgure
J2J replaces some standard tiles with
�pet:lal l:lround pl,m:s. onto which the horizontal profiles are fixed dlrCCtly "g12 Kloberprolilll ryStem
..... l��
The main advantage or such mounting techniques IS Ihal an air gap eXI§IS between the rear of the module and the roor. pro\'ldmg a cooling effecaks Calculating the annual energy reduction because of a poorer cooling effect. a value of approximately
:!-5 per cem C;HI be nOliced for
InSl,ll1arions In mid· European locations This Will be even higher under very high ambient temperature conditions. II Is Iherefore
Imporlilnt 10 consider a ventilation Inlel at tlie bOIlOIl1 of tlie PV
a building substrate. and to the direct lamination of PV cells
presents some products and proVides more inFormation about the Integration typologies. All systems have one aspect in common. that of replaCing conventional Illes and being mounted directly on the roor structure (battens or .....ater barrier foil) Most products usc custom·made lanlinates. with the rv capacity varying from JUSt 7 Wp up to
100 Wp. either plaCL>(j on a building substrate and
1I\!illlllatlon and .1n outlet ill Ihe lOp. which would faCilitale a
then integraled. or rramed suitably for direct integral ion Tile
natum] ventilation effect and bring Ihe high temper-nure during
and are based either on a shingle system or have an overlapping
summer down to approxllnately 50 DC
products are usually easy to connect to the exfstlng or new tiles area thilt will be covered by prOfiles. Some systems provide a nearly watertight inst,lllation. whereas others have the s"lme properties as standard tiles and prOVide protection against rain and normal storm conditions
l4
35 '
Sloped-roof profiles Figure 40 shows the Sunny Tile. made In Switzerland by Slar Unity It IS a PV laminate (7 Wpl integrate(! in a plastic tile. with the same properllCS as a convenllonal ll!c The result IS a very aesthetic appearance, thanks to the small units These are relatively COSIly, In the range of approximately EURIO-1 J/Wp for the tile only. depending on the capacity Another example. which Is based on an e:dsling building element with the same dimensions, is shown in ftgure 4i . Sunslate IS a Swiss prOduct .1nd consists of.1n .1pprOXimately 14 Wp laminate, which Is glued to a reinforced fibre plate Figure 42 shows a product from Austria called SED D.1chzlegel One ,1dvantage of these products IS Ihat normal roofers (used to Illes and shmgles) can moum Ihe Illes and mterconnect them Without the need of specially tramed personnel Consequently. many SYSlcms are Similar In approach and design to e.'(IStlng bUilding products, to ensure Simple shingle or IIle mounting Some module products are screwed to the wooden banen (Terra Plana-. figure 45) and others are moumed on prefixed clamps on top of prefabricated plaslic moulds (Braas. figure 44) One of the oldesl known solar tile producls. seen 111 figures 46 and 4 i, IS
produced by Phomx and was im'emed and disuibuted by Ncwtec, Switzerland
All the systems above use cuslOm-made:: PV
laminates and are
therefore more expensive than profile-Integrated II1stallations In altempts 10 reduce mounting structure costs. new products were developed. based on standard lammates or modules where the mounting structure is adjusted to fit the dimensIons of Ihe PV element Figures 48 and 4q show a product from the Netherlands called lntersole. SOLRIF (Solar Roof Integration Frame) (figures 50 and Si l ls a mOunting system for inclined roofs and conSists of special profiles for the direct Integration of PV modules IntO the roof SOLRIF cremes a watenlght roof comparable to a clay tile. The profiles are cast from alummium by extrusion and are Independent
of
any PV laminate. An Innovative feature is the aspect of the lower edge where the frame is fixed on the back. thus allowmg free water drall1age. The problem of Salling along the lower edge of the module s i also avoided
Thin 111m roof systems New mountmg StruCtures can be explored If usmg thin OIm technOlogies. The
PV cells are deposited dIrectly onto a metal
substrate. Which can be produced 111 a roll·to-roll techmque of metal sheets up 10 5 8 metres In length If vertIcally mounted
or up to 2.5 metres \\hen horizontally mounted ...nother product based on thm film technology IS a ne:IJny 1,1�,ak h;wc 1l',1'>'> or Illes ii' .1 skin
P\' modulI's G.ln lepl,Ke
Ih,�" m,lu'rlals Oftl'n, raprle,> IHl'sem IJrg�' surface arc,:!.!; lor I'V
Sugho. Italy tflgure 801. ami .1n office in Austria tflgure 8 1 1 PV
t,l�adl' PTOJl'ClS arc bl.'commg an mCTcaslngly popular allemauve ({l com'/'llIlonal cladding matenals. forming a dtsunclive feature
liS,' bllr lL!ukr ,I ryplc,l l v"rllCill prof!!e are usually sub-optlmal In
and pracuc,ll pomt·ol·use power generatlon source
Ollt�nt.lllr>l1 The ,'X(!;11C of rhl'" very much depentl� on lalllUde,
Poly.crystalhne solar (ells C,ln also be integrated into reflective
lhough ltwr" .lrc.1 numbcr 01 bcnt,rus 10 be gil!l1Cd b).' uSing il PV
Fl'nss panels Ont' such fa�.lde system was designed ancl patented
1;I�al,k appruilth, p,miwlarly ftJr e,15t· or wesl·facmg \term:.,1
by FLABEG /formerly Fl.lbeglPllkmg!On Solar) for Schuler and
bUilding �urla(c5 Ih,1I rt.'fjUlrc prOlecllon from sonlenmes very
Jiltzlau i\rchlteCt� who hrst used it
harsh morning or ,lliernoon sun Faptle5 are, hOll'cver. mort'
III I C)Ql on thc colourful 'Oekotec
,hadt· mod"lhn� arc r,':ommended 10 dewrmint' solar ,1ccess
:-'IodlJics arc made ,1S resin·flllt'd
PfI>Il!' W !;Xll'lIl,ll sh,ldlng eHccls :;0 careful silC t.'Valu.ll1ons and 1',I
IntO consideration
the alternating pauern of dark. round cells \Jlt des'!)II � II(Nf�'80
Cefit'e II! r�5lnranoralrll.rn "*,, ofe.III'I!.Ind
s.vt. H.niS-- �c-"Vl�
Energy strategy
Lessons learnt from the design process
The tOial I!xpeClcd energy consumption of the Brundtland Cemre
Ihe maximum solar power, but was a geometrical solution raking
During rhe detailed design phase, the budget was not suffiCIent 10
15
imo accoum the maximum shadrng of the dayllght!ng windows,
Include all elementS. AddItional funding had (0 be raised, which
pltOlovOltait power) while an .werage slandard office building
archltectur.11 aspects of the far;ade and the need to avoid shading
was only possible through direct subsrdy from the Danish Energy
rn J)enmark uscs 1 70 kWh/ill' This reducllon In energy
bctween the solar panels
Agency, In the project. a number of completely lIew elements
approxrmately 50 kWhfm per year Inot including rhe
cunsumprlon hilS Ix't!n V arrays on
courtyards .lnd the Wing faf;'ades from the summer afternoon
The
sun An entrance block al the southern end of the access area
serve as cladding for the ventilation shafts behind them They
houst."S the administration and central services.. The technical
employ standard modules in a standard mOunting structure
the roofs of the southern and central wings
pmtotype laboratory. clean room and workshops adJorn the
These modules replace an Initially planned sheet metal wall
access area to the west
The cost for the suppan structure is completely recovered from
PJ glass
the saved sheet meral wall
Criteria
Block
Indoor climale Daylighting Energy consumption
Campus o o
Wings + o
dayJighling indoor temperature
no"h wing had been nearly completed II had not been included
+ ': favourable,
in rhe Original call for tender Therefore. only the later paris of the building, centr.ll and south Wing. benefited from this Idea
-....'" .,.
SUpport struClu re
Concrete elements above the slructural members of the buildIng On these
frames .1I1 'AluTec' mounting SlrUClUre is screwed on to hold the Type ASE-IOO-GT_FT modules in place This lTlodule Iype was chosen because It employs Ihe same cells CASE EFG 100
x 100) as used in the access area far;ade or
course, they also fit well Into the available geometric boundaries
76
- ': unravourable.
0 ,: neutral
F'II 9 Evaluillsm of dllferent geomeUK15 oi till! $I!ed root Slluctll"e
TIlble2 MJlIIlfOle>arU3IIM OfbluidrngeorceplS
bear galvanlsed steel (r.llneS These are Inclined .-u JO"
+
electric power
This idea was developed durmg the construction process ,1fler the
fIg 8 CrosssectrOflo1I 'ffllW nortlHoulhlh1oughIhll81l1lJfO
Sc:I.<m Dos.w . 11e.1r.-,
Optimising the electrical design
Module design
After opWnlsmg the geometry of the
\10cle lhetOpaf tne
m::duJes Thrr llDllllem gl31ll1!ltw bee!i /lWl'lledard 5«Ul!d(wrUc:alr;over proliJeJ Arthebotumo1lhe piellW. 1!Ie tDpafil'll!lll lbuon l�is�e.
4980
Modulschnltt B:8
-
n rill rlQ 20Viewlrom lllSlllll dllling mounl1ll9 0tthriglaling
- 18
----'-1H--
:=:
rtg12 Conslr\CIlllll a!IIlI� 'I'III SlllHnrxkJlesaremartell lr;dlfferenl colcu, IIyp.ID- 1�'rhmll,IIlCl' d,IIOi an' nrll YCI ,lV.lllable, An annual yield of
.Irollnrl I r. MWh
h cXPI:CIl'd for .111
PV sy.slP.ms, which �hou]d
miTt the l'nUrt" (It'mand lor oUlce lighting In Ihe new building
G E RM ANY: MO NT- CEN IS ACA DEM Y
Project cost breakdown Total btl!ldmg cOSt was about 26 million Euro including I.,boratory faCilities and equipment
the utllity grid Thl: utility did not require distributed meters and
req uesled a separale, additional grid connection for Ihe feed-In rm.:tcr IWgul,1r electricity supply is connected on the medium
vollage levcl of20 kV
D"""" "
PROJECT:
LOCATION{CITY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of PV BUILDING:
1,000 kWp Mom-Cellis Academy Heme-Sodillgell Germany SemHransparenl PV overhead glnillg alld PV glilss fa1;ade
BUiLOtNG TYPE:
Governmellt Irainrng academy; mull1purpose buildillg
Lessons learnt from the project
Tru rme'r.UIOIl 01 phOlU\'OIt.1IC IIltO bUildings demands a
NEWJRETROm:
New
hIlisil ,I! In .1ppro.lch PV offer.; nl'W opponunnl� for
, sthlIIc.llly utt.l(IIW solullons to dayhghltng. and overheallng l'ft'vC!nllon A good lII'slgn of thl' denrlc.l] s}�lems mlmml5es Ihe
t'ifcCl 31 UIl.1\Old,lble )hddlng
'I"?I.,.,,.,:I·';'·'+·.;'.,·'11 LAmuOE: 51" 32'N
F•.,-of
accesa area Rated power IkWpJ Modules Mounttng structure Mounting and array wiring labour DC main cable and
SaW·toothed 4.9
2.5 20.000
ill
Roo' wlngl
50,000
o PI
0 131
0'
2.9
10
35.000 tll
42,000 4,500 1'1
1 0,000
25,000
1 ,500
1 ,800
8,000
1 ,600
2,800
7,000
nfa nfa
Inverter wiring including labour Inverter
Spandrel
louth wing
roof
I�J
Table 4 Cml t.eal.dcrMJ 101 the N subsyS1ems' A!lr;on1I11 EUlO ·aJ$IS fOlIIle s.pandrel ol!he SollUIh WIng are natYIII \.noY.T1 i!.\IJllIille
100uaiaHel " "xludcd ln bwldlng 51f1.cturo �A!utct lllDUlll lng pmfile� "'long ca�lfl luns 10 allow for rlCA:ll�e ICSllITll conhgurallOll!J
LONGITUDE: AlmuDE: CUMATIC TYPE:
7" 15'E
153 metres above sea level Moderate humid climale (Tempenuure: winter average ::: 4.S"C; summer average ::: 14.35 "C [JO·year average, period 1961-1990])
SUNSHINE HOURS:
Yearly average ::: 3.93 hours per day
nfa r'll2VoewfrQlll lII$Ide lDd'I!(J'v$lleadgWrngoJ glass llf1Wklcle
s-uIWlog.Solor ....&rdI ..
2,200 121
Other costs: Addlltonal grid connection for feed into grid Monltonng equipmenl including winng and sensors
General project background
3,500
;\1
12,000
Ihe end of the I Q80s Ihe �\lnisler of Ihe ImeTlor of Ihe SltlIe
of North Rhine Wl!5t phalta made Ihe deciSion 10 move Ihe COlllinulng Tralnmg Academy 10 Herne. II look len year.; 10
complele Ihis exciting architcctural concepl thai Included a I MW buildlng·imegrated PV sYSlem for the ecological and economiC renewal of the region The project began with a IWo
siage compelillon III IQql fo r the lnternationale B.luausstellung Emscher Park
(1M). won by French architects Jourda &.
Perraudln In the sccond stage of thiS compel1l10n, Ihe German architects Hegger. Hegger Schleif JOined the design learn and
a fruitful German/French collaboration began f'll I GerwralView tn:m 50Uthean
.sa.. 'w., .s.".w..,ylO1ll Gtrdi
The site Is Ihe former Mont·Cents black coal mine al the centre of the Ruhr area and .11 the heart of the region dedicated 10 the
Internalionale ijauaussteltung Emscher Park (International Archilectural Exhibulon). II is an importam pan of the 1M 'Emscher landscaped Park' project, a .serlCS of green spaces developed In Ihe last ten year.; to improve the quahty of life In
the Ruhr reglon
81 ·
Architectural concept SjlUa[� sllghely higher [han the surrounding area. the Mom· Cenls Academy bUilding consists of a huge mlcro-chm:uc glass envelope Iha! forms a shelter for several imerior buildings, 11 IS 170 metres in length. 72 mctres wide, and 15 metres high
Origmally plannetl as a training academy. the building today IIIcJudcs several other functions Including semmar r,lCllltics. mL'{!llng rooms. accommodation facilities. a restaurant. a
gymnasIum, a library. •1 Civic hall and leisure facilities. The buUdlng became one of Ihc Ruhr region's new landmarks and serves, like tlte mines before, as Ihc functional and urban centre of Hcrne·Sodlngen
Rainwaler svstem
Daylighting concept Different daylighting tcchnologles have been employed within
the bUilding In addltlon 10 the special design of Ihe
PV roof
(figure 21 light shelves were Incorporated Into certain facades of the bUildings Inside the glass envelope to reflect daylight deeper Into their rooms
The raInwater failing on the lilrge roof Is collected by a special rainwater system. which minimIses pIpe diameters It is collected In an underground storage tank. nitered and reused lor cleaning purposes. and for the watering and maintenance of plants within the micro-climate glass envelope
1997. IWO co-generation plant modules have supplied 253 kW elccmclty and 378 kW heat. One of the plants Is operated wnh
mine gas and the other opllonally with mine gas or nalural gas The heal is used for heating the Mont-Cents Academy as well as a
Iiologram films Integrated into the roof mIcro-climate envelope
nearby hosplt.11 and 250 nats The electricity generated Is fed Into
retUrcct the sunligtll down into the library and the entrance hall In the library the hologram films act as a heliostm. which
the grid The two co·generation plants worked so successfully that in (he year 2000 a third co·gencr
focust'(! on the questions of
• opllmal solar gam for Ihe PV lamella system;
• heat load of the building and paSSive solar gams In the • §hldmg olthe bulldlng.
• sl'U.sh.ldmR oflhe P\' lolmella nuxlules:
• out�lde Vle'.\ from the imenol, · optimlsedd.lyllghungcondillons
the workIng envilonmem
• effects of design and dimenSIon of the PV lamellas on
PV roof design
daylight Intensity .11 the work station compared 10 ol
The PV roofing system was origtnallr meant as a kind of parasol.
room Without sunshades.
a passive cooHng device for the roof The roof construction
• lestS of electrical and mechamcal componems:
underne.1th would proVIde Woller tightness.
• mimmlsation of damaging side effects such as noise
the Interior of the bUilding developed. It became clear Ihat the
produced by wmd on the metal Struclure;
• oplimismion of construcl1on and detail design of the
metal latnella structure; • beSt strategies for prodUCtiOn and mouming of the metal Siructure wllh
PV.
The parlic!pams In the projects concluded Ih,11 the mock.up was ver�' helpful In avoiding problems and especIally for gaining experiencc wllh
As the design of
space between Ihe parasol and Ihe eXlstmg roof could be
ust!d
for tC(:hnlcal devices such as ventilators and illr ducts Hence
It was decided 10 construct the parasol as a watertight p•.1fI of
the bUilding The roof is constructe
fig!HA'Il8Ila shadll',JlysUlIII Q'lBu,idirQ31 1OIl1ll 1�ehwa!,an Q 5eClQ'l .... ,.....-
The fa�ade syslem is made from .1 wooden construction. which
carry corrugated sheel The sheet is covered by a layer of rock·
holds the insulollion Ceramic fa�olde cI,1dding panels were
wool insulation. above which EPOM foil Is placed as a raln'Iighl
chosen as exterior weather protewon Melal clements
layer Above this. standard PV modules Me mounted with the BP
Interconnect Ihe faol«llI'I
� AlIIa!I "", ,(""""""
shading lamellas by ALeO. Pv-englneerlng. Inverters, electric ins[allallon and components):
• PV modules canopy roof EUR79,865 for 6.91 kWp glass-glass PV module canopy roof by Shell Solar (price only for PV modules. without mounting and elec[fic components);
38 76 kWp turnkey delivery of InStillied PV system by BP Solar (with Sunflower proOies including engineering, invencl'.i. mounting and all componcms)
The PV system is pennanent/y monitored by ECN
Calibrated solar cells are included in single PVmodules Other HiPV system elements
PV
system installation by Shell in pre·lnsJalied meta!
• PV roof integration curved roof EUR237.972 for
glass modules Invertel"l
local utility NUON/ENW supportS PV plants wllh EURI.36
per Wp for the 71 Q kWp Installed on ECN Building 31. this
A special metal substructure has been developed by AlCO and Oasolas for the shading lamella system The canopy roof profiles were manulaClured byAillcon
Post-installation feedback The project team Is convinced thilt
I
1 testing is always a good
idea. if innovative systems such as the PV shading system are to be realised on a large scale for the nrSt time
The curved rool-integration was made With Ihe BP Sunllowor systom Fig I2&nldingJl dlJ�
l�oon$tlI.o;11011
Scul;p B£AJ/AIl>'Nl«turI
RES EAR CH FO U N DATIO N THE NET HER LAN DS: ENE RGY (EC N) - BUI LD I N G 42 General praieet background PROJECT: LOCAflON/C1TY: COUNTRY: TYPE Of IPY) BUILDING:
Energy Research foundatIOn (feN) Building 42 PElnen Netherlands PV Integration in conservatory glazing
aUILDING TYPE;
Office bUilding and resII8rch laboratories
NEWIRETROm:
New
(see EeN BUilding 31 (,lSC As Building i t was bemg renovated adJacem to It 10 study). a new building complex was planned
feN Building 42 was St'rve the growing demand for space at the designed ,If> a modular extenSIon of the existing solar·renovated the two buildings connectlng BuUding 3 1 . with a conservalOry and Jctlng as J. common entrance ror both buildings Bullding -l2
conSIstS of three building blocks. whIch are grouped around a glazed conservatory space covenng the east-west circulatIon mus Jnd Will be bUIlt m thrl:e steps. BUilding -12 unll I was fimshed In �1arch 2001 Construction of umt 2 began In Sprmg 2002 and
unit J Is foreseen as a further extensIOn poSSibility to be bUilt
" "M·,II''':'''it''''J;'f1"11 LAmuOE:
LONGITUDE: alTITUDE: WMAnc TYPE:
m the future
S2" 4TN
."4O'E
5 metresabovesea fevel Moderate west-European mariume
fig � (!1hl1:8 l11lld 'OI'BlIlkfIl"942Il1!ftl llnd 8uo�Jl ltlljnJ s..... lttrltAAt»d �JrhllA'IouMnlbl
(Temperature:January average : -1.6 "C; Julyaverage =22 "C)
SUNSHINE HOURS:
Yearly average " 4.05 hours per day
f'9t AeoaI�U!wo'&,Id,ng 31 andB"11dmg42.'-'1lts l and2 httnlhenorthSide Sotmtl!fARtI�""""
An.n_brMln .... dlltJut
Ecological approach for Building 42
When the planning began. It was dC{:lded to bulld Buildmg
.12
benchmarked against an EPC (energy performance coeffiCIent
envlronmenc and for Jaw energy consumption standards.
measure). resuhmg from a calculation method I,lld OUI in the
contributing to the research and consulting work carried OUI by
bUilding codes. Energy consumption is reflected in the EPC
ECN In this field. EeN's aim is to promote Building 42 as the
The lower the coefficient, the better the building perfomts. The
'most energy effiCIent office building in the Netherlands' Energy consumption can be dlret:lly related to the bUIlding sheU
and instaUations. such as lighting needs and elevator p.lmorulesm;lalln!lCt!CWl ro8W;Lro;IJl ..... ...-
�.6htI-'At.-NII
· 112
fi!l 3 Cmsernlfll"!' rOO'IS�diMceforthaofflCl!bIixk!i !iA.oft Hllt�1tUt
�..,.. Jtm Je,onA�1h
In the Netherlands. the energy efficiency of bUIldings Is
as a demonstration project for renewable energies in the built
equipment used and the work carried au! in the space. Even In the same type of room in Building 42, one floor hIgher for
e)!ample. the energy consumption could vary by 100 per cent, depending on tile usc
use of rene\vables wlU further reduce the energy performance coefficient. The EPC value foreseen for office buildings is 1.6 Buildmg -12 reaches an EPC value of 0 86. If combined hem .lnd power generntion and the PV lnstallallon is laken into accoum.
A. small uuluy building with CHP plant. served BUlldmg 31 and several other buildings until
the EPe \'alue tS 0.-13. whIch
recently has been renewed 10 supply energy 10 bOlh Buildings 31
and 42 The aClual planning stage fores.wI combined heat and
powergeneration and heat and cold storage with a heat pump
Decision process and project organisation
d1 1I' . �....
CHP plant was earned out to determine whether the i used as luel. the EPC could run on blo·luel II blo-gas or blc>-oll s lun will building the and zero be will '12 ng i d l lIalue (II BUI of SUStilln.1bllity complelely on Irnewable energy Another aspect fnl BUlldlnf,l 42 IS the lIexlblhty of use; to avoid cost and energy been Int!'l151W rUlurt bulldlng processes. the building h.1S de51gncd 10 serve .1S an office as well as Jabor;lIoncs I�ugc Installat!on and IICl1IIlillion chilnnel5. adaptable 1r1Slallations ch.lnncls. non·load·b/:arlng walls and good dayllghting. suited In the dcslgn /0 different !unClions. are requIred As a First step
taken by the building All decISions In the buildIng project were dircctorate of ECN The ECN umt for RenC\\'able Energy In the planning process overall me In involved Built EnVIronment was from begmning to end as an energy consultant The ulliny NUON is Ihe inveslOr and owner of the PV system. ECN and NUON have a contract Ihat ensures the ECN will buy back the green solar electrIcity over a contractual period of 15 years from NUON The payment for the green eleclficity
process, flvl·televilnl bulldings lhroughout Europe were VISIlt.'tI 10 study the technologies. bUlldmg slrateglesilnd practlcallUcs (or Building the modules arc Inclined by 5° and
h
the ot er blocks and installed by the S
10 20
cunllll
r.w.m..m "-
I.U.unlm � YOIIage
PV System I In\-ener
The mv(mer IS used for connecllng the pV generator 10 the grid
photovoltalc solar energy applicm/ons
�
PERGOl..A SUoaEUEAATOft ISOFOTOfI t· 106 Ir�r.m
"' �IurnberDl� CIII II_ Dl� .. paraiel
F.g SPatbIlgClODJ/"f flJI,I;\ur&tftfl
romovmgihtmn.enrionatrocl .s:o..r. �,O'l.dIrt•..-
..• •.• U .
.
�E*_
@Jj .. ... ... ... :... ,Sf}l}l}l ••• ••• • U U. U.j Sf }l Jl }l }l
... ... ... . .. .. . , " .. I I I ; I I : I : I ... iU . . . . . . . .
.
III
Description of the monitoring system The monlrorlng parameters of the overall system are
Py System .. module
TIlt' P\' g�nt'rator consbts of '105 Sh!!l! RSM
1005 modules. \Yuh
iI tOl,ll p<mN of 40,'105 Wp In standard condulons, wnh a 5:!"
SClLltl1!',l�1 orll:m,l[ion and
1I11t.'d 1l0" thIS generaror is divided
Inlt) I 5 �ub-H�'rlt'r,1[Ors of 27 modules each. which Jrc grouped In
J par,liJel Mr">,,,. with caeh army compflslng 9 modules
Tilbl� 1 �how� tht! values of Iht! most Interesting p
...... �_ /olaxIftur! ��
PV System 1
PV Systems " 2
The measurement of Ihese parameters Is performed by the
....... ... � � l ,OOO W'm2. Te.2$'C
��
• gcneralorvohage: VA /V)
• power obtained from the grid PFU (kW)
SHEU.RSM100s
M'lCl fnOlloeI pyr..m..r ol ....... 01111 ....... oIC1111 .. .....
• ambient temperature- Thm (0C)
• grid-Injected power PTU (kW)
FA,C:AOe Sl.&OeNEAo\TOR (Xlil
1211.
226 V
2,mWp
sensors) connected to different dataloggers_ Cataloggers rake dara
PV System 3
every 10 minutes and generate daily files. A diagram of the
SwllCh Unlt. with a multlplexmg card of 20 channels and two
global purpose cards The datalogger is connected to a computer which Is Jlso an internet service provider. allOWing the remOie
I
. r",9PJs,.", . .. 4 11Q1C111 [I
_110"""
II
I
I' 111 1IIIlt Irll l) TT"""7 �
�
--:
-
-
-:
Safety system perfonnance The safety and protection aspect is one of the most oUtStandIng outcomes of the project. Jnd has also been the most studied. due 10 Ihe high number of students at this campus. nle studies on s.lfety and protection have been developed from IWO polms
All systems
Range
A
HP
0 - 200
HP
0 - 70
HP
0 - 700
HP
0 - 200
HP
0 - 70
HP
I"
Voltage de
p.,
kW
Current de
I�
Power ae
A
Po.
kW
Radiation
G"
T. cell
W/m2
0- 2,000
Voltage de
Too V�
'C V
-15 - 100
Current de
I�
A
Power ae
P""
kW
Radiation
G.
W/m2
V�
V
0 - 350
A
0 - 15
V�
0 - 350 0 - 15 0-3 0 - 2,000
'C
Ta I�
Datalogge
T. cell
monitoring system is presented in figure 10 The dala acquisition is based on an HP 34Q70 Cala Acquisition
PVSystem 4 Inverter The Inverter used for conn�'Cting the PV generator to Ihe grId is tht' s,lme ,1S used In Systcm 3. a smng·onented Invener from
Parameter
Voltage de
• global radiation In the PV generator GI (W/m)
• generator current I,' (A)
tilth sub·gCnCr,ltor ofSystem Installers had [0 be senSIll\·e 10 the dally needs
of Iht' rCSldems and respt.'C1 therr wIshes thai no conslruction
�
work be c.ltrrt'd OUI on weekends Construction work began WI[h Iht' removal of [he ull's: the ules were drrectly lransponed [0 the
box by bo."( Iflgure 5)
\
Nerd, new wood bauens were mounted and lead sheeung WilS plan.-d on [he lower roof edge (figure 6)
were screwed omo the wooden battens. The Solrif modules were rht.'n rnserred into the brackets (figure iJ and were placed on the
reflul.-d battens iUgure 8J
Bl".lu5e of Ihe unlver.;al prOfiles
moduli'S can
(no edges jut Out) the Solrif
Ile.> pillced very e,lSlIy omo the roof s[ruclurc. The
IIletal brackets and the overlapping area of [he 50lflf modules
I
�curl' he rnl!(hanlCal COl1net"tlOns and fulfil the wind crileria
against uplift. The sltl! work complies With slandard Clay tJJe roofmg procl.'tJurcs
January
' " -;,,ill ,- 0 :; !\,� =1'
ground by a crane which also lifted me modules up 10 the rooL
Aher fiXing new wood banens. S[ilinless steel metal brackets
Actual performance data
--
"' .
Year 2000
Me e
t r
readIng
996
1,974
FebruCI!Y
1,191
1,786
Difference
("I
-1 6.4 to.5
3,335
26.3
6,153
3,'
4.212
M.,
6,804
7,265
-£.3
6,622
5.796
-5.0
5,500
6,386
Ju""
5.318
Ju,
August
'.7
2000
(kWh)
March April
, �,�=-
Predicted
4,560
September
1 ,970
N
4.367
1.826
'7'
832
(kWhlkWp)
-£.7
Predicted 1997
(kWh)
1,032
lL747
84
3.295
155
5,875
120 183
4,525 6,153
. ........nn aa.ls97
lkWhlm')
26 44
83
714 148
155
'41
6,788
'7'
710
3,970
'00 58 27
7,9
4.6
Annual energy yIeld
45
46
4.4
44,143
953
30
146
46,182
889
LkWhlm')
14.3
-14.4
951
ovember
December
5.597
lS.5
1,112
()ctobe,
Annual energy production
4,764
Actual
"t> 2000
2B
24
1,112
5,716
2,302
1,072
794
43,270
'44
20
1,090
816
rog9PredICtodvruuJactual pcltormarr;e daia
145-
Post-installation feedback
Project cost breakdown
residents 10 relation to electro-magnelic resonance. Several Open
229,000
In"",o,.
47.880 27,300 17.400
Installation IS nOl comparable to a mob1le phone tranSmitting
EleCtro installalion
42.800
Stillion m relation to eleCiro-magnelic poliUlion Due 10 Some
SoIrif lrame RooI _
Mi ce
us
EngIneering s
llaneo
re�ldcnts and the building societ}· I[ was clearly shown Ihat ,1 PV
remaining fears. JI was decided to modify the AC Inst,ll1allon 10111
14.800 407,530
Ongoing maintenance
',000
er repiacement
2.700
MonitOtlng Totlll annual cost ($)
3,900
rl
.lnd seriously deb,lH:d diSCUSSions took place between the
28,350
Totlll lMtallaUon coat ($)
Savings lor inve
SWITZERLAND: STUDENT HOUSING
In Ihe planmng stage. many concems were rlllsed by the
US$
Solar modules
(7.68IWp)
200
cable grounded and earthed) and thc invertt=rs were placed on a copper 111et.11 sheel. winch is also grounded. I I is imponanl Ihm deSign [0 Ihe building owner and the reSidents so Ihat quesTions
TYPE OF PV BUILDING: BUILDING TYPE:
Further problems were more from lhe technical sIde BC1:ause the houses W1!re bUilt In the la[e 1070s. usmg a now-obsolete
15 per cent was polld by Ihe owner and the remalmng 25 per
construcllon technique. addillonal unforseen work was requIred
cem was �bsldlsed by the SWISS federal office for energy
Relrofll on a roof Structure older than 30 :.'Cars requires technlcJI nexlblh[)' and a nOHoa-ught nmelable.
and ft'
156
Potential conflicts In som... lnslances the opumis.ltion of the photo�"Oltalc power generauon runs coumer to low·energy design Where possible. these apparent connictl. were reconciled to be mutually rdnforclng. and where nOI possible. a balance was struck bCIWL-t:n rC�flI!CIIVe requirements Accordmgly • Dangerous he.lt gaIns from the ra�ade (only a ponion of Ihe energy in Incoming light is converted to cleclrlcilY· the rcsl Is nansmiued as heatl can be used In WInter to aSSIst In healing the building and. In summt.'f. to �'enillate the office space lack of thermal mass In the fa�ade is coul1lerec! to some extem bv specifYing a concrete loof slab rn place of the nor�al HUSSl'tl and p!tchC(! roofs usC(! elsewhere in the park The rnsulalmg properties of the solar fa«lde are good In the conte\t of glaZing (U value. 1.2 Wfm·/"C for the PV moduIL>5). but relatively poor compared 10 solid wall construqlon IU valu!:' 0 4 \vlm·/oC), Heat loss. however. was mmlmlsed by ensuring that leakage of air through the building em'elope as iI \\hole IS Co'l:ccpllonaJJy low • The fa(ade Incorporates over 400.000 opaque phOlo\"olt.llc cclls. The concemration of cell coverage was necessary to achieve the power OUlpUl target 8ands of clear glJZlng ha\'e been mtroduced into the ',wadt· to allow vIews Out and ensure good Imerna! lIght levels, The b.llance between maxlmlsailon of rv power and maxlmisallon of daylight la requirt:menl of at least 2 OF over 80 per cem of the office noors) was ilrri\'ed al by modelling glaZing permutallons using a I 40 sCille model under an anlflela! sky TIle risk of glarll ls mlnllnlscd bYlhe lntroduclion of seml· "an�rarcnt modull·s Imodules that have transparem
hont and rear surfaces and a lower cell coum and arc therefore ,lblc to let more dJylight through) IInmedlatcly .lbove the dear glazed panels. and by pro\"I�lon for the Introduction of rocall}' comrolled roller blinds c.lpab!e of covering bolh Ihe clear and �eml·transparent modules Destgn for photovoltaics and for low-energ}' use. therefore aelv,lnced hand·ln·hand. one augmenllng the other
Natural ventilation and cooling The office depth was limited 10 IS melres 10 allow for cross· \'enulation Openable Windows With automated vents are proVided In the north·faCing far;ades ConSideration was given to mtroducmg openable Windows In Ihe PV fa�ade. but the dlfficulues of achIeVing weather·ughtness on a 60" inchned far;ade and the COSt and complexilY of pro\'lding mechanrsed wlndow·openlng ruled It out The two options for natural dnvmg forces are the wlIld and stack efft:(;l. (Stack cffect ls lhe rising of currerus of air that are warm!:r. thus less dense and more buoyanr than surrounding air) 80th stack cfft:(;t and wind·dnven air movement arc available here. Wind effc(ts are typically seVeral times more powerful than stack enects. especially for a relatively windy site such .15 thiS. With a mcan wInd speed of 5-6 metres per second The stack effect Is promoted by the PV far;ade IIself As the lI:mperalure rises at the back of Ihe far;ade. due 10 solar gain . 1• current of warm air rises to roof level. helping 10 draw aIr OUI of the adjacent office spaces Mechanical vents have been Installed al the bOllom .lnd tOp of the fa(ade 10 help encourage Ihl5 arrflow and to keep the PV arrays cool
Wind pas�rng (Ner a roof can create negatl\'e pressurt'5 (SUCtion). l'Ielplng 10 draw air V C,ln be part of a purely commercial development It shows th,lI the PV Industry
g,231
3,793
4,712 7,889
1 1,679
102,320
f'll 9 South fll(ilde of IIlo Solar Dffa. shoYm;r !lll! anay. /1\1111 emrara in! WIllI ball!l!s
'-' o.-&lwt�
\63·
USA: 4 TIMES SQUAR E The trJdltlonal view Is [hill photo\lOitaic systems are economical only for remote cabins and [elecommunicatlons, blU this IS chanRing
PROJECT:
1 4 kWp PV system, integrated i n skyscraper curtainwallla�adli
lOCAnONJCITY: COUNTRY!
As the firsl major commercial ilppUCatlon of bUIlding.
InlegrglJPV'!XM'£IedwtJeel l*ltl_tleta,l iII1CI gerer;al w,,''''_ tounuyol man,olilClUlO Jap;Jn 1IM!_gr_i!MIIV��
_'IhfDOl..-. 0IpIn.
PV pedestrian salcty handrail ThiS handrail is powcred by 1 0 Wp PV amorphous slhcon la-51} modules Integrated III the shape of the steel profile. With an
mterestmg aesthellc appearance, the product 15 designed for use III pedestrian streets .111d bridges. and to protect people from
road traffiC haz.ards. Agam. by usmg IIghlS operaled wilh LED the energy requlremenlS are 5lgnlfic.lntly reduced
PV streel inlormatJon Tht! swndilfd Inform-llion screen is eqUIPped \vith ,1 P\' cell
s.-:.roro:a: S"",wIInd
�pl-clally placed to prQtt-ct the post boxes against ram The
PV road noise barrte rs The world's first PV noise barner over 100 kWp was bUIll In 1989
iwstllt'tical Imcgr.:lIIon has also �11 considered In the
near Chur. the second was bUIlt In 10QS at Glebenach (near
'Infoconeep," SttuCIUle, combmed with dlUcrent standard
BasIc) In Switzerland A slmil.)f Installallon was built In 1902
deSigns
along a railway Ime In tlte southern pan of Switzerland. but without a noise prOlccuve runcllon Other smaller installations were piloted in Austria and Germany durmg 1992 As a rcsult of an international ideas competition In 1 t)QS and the Introduction of Integrated PV sound barner concepts. a further
5i)! installations of 10 kWp each were built commencing in 1 097 through to I MO in Germany and Switzerland, UtiliSing different technologies to show typical advantages In different SUU,luons The Netherlands boasts one of the longest and largest PV·NBS inslallatlons al 220 kINp. StretChing
I 0 kilometres along
a 1l1000rw,ly near Amsterdam. and generating around
Solar eJectric sunllowers
N",stlt-d alop iI hillside III nonhem California. 30 solar elecmc
sunOowers represent an elegant combination of an and
tedmologr The client requested an unconventional and anisllc msta[!allon They got JUSt that The solar elC(Erlc sunflowers look and act like nature's \'I!ry own sunflowers, usmg a two-axis
tra(klng system, the sunflowers wake up to follow the SUIl'S path
throughout the day. enabling the sYSlem to produce enough energy for 8-10 horne:.
r>gl.p/- unirli:sd � ClXIIV,oIlIWIlI«!lIr& .bpar\ ..... """ -
ng l 1 11tfocorcent 1'V-powered street �1CJ1bo1td
fio 1 2 PV "SUIlfIov.l!I'·1f11egrl\ed llllglhll I.lrotl:supe,delati andgenetal 'illlY/1 s.v.:r.Stbt�A1Jocqr.. US4
1 i6.000 kWh of electricity per year (table 1 and figure
Ou(AIJ)
,•• m",
.......
.,....'" "., ""
(kWJ ".
.... -
""�
- """ -"" ......- ""
........,
s_
,..
L/UM;III IA27)
......., "" ....... ,
"
-"'"
.......,
Seewato:nen CAI)
ZUndl IAI) 0ude�lA91 �(A2J Sal..-....I fAl) '_1A921
SWlL!Orbnd """"'"
111.500
"... "... N,
..... N,
'"s.
""
Eurol'perkW.
"..
'"
'"'' "'"
.,
"'" ., ""
-..usun. I US dOIitr a t Euro
"""
s..m 5llA'O( �rJlNSt\'�
171
103 kWp Chur. Switzerland case study
The [OJ kWp Installation from Chur in the Swiss Alps (figures 15 and 16) is the oldest operable PV·NB installation. The slle produces on average dL'duCting
1 .863
108.000 kWh net energy ptr o1nnum
after
kWIt C 1 7 per cent) for powenng the 1l10nitonng
sYSlem and inverter
For the
[OJ kWp system thiS pro\'ldes an
annual yield of 1 .0J5 kWh/kWp The site Is onenled 25 degrees east of south at an oprimal tilt angle of -15 degrees to the lalllude of the region II covers BOO linear metres of road. top mounted flush on a 2-metre vertical Slructure, and add:,. DbB s(luare metres to the noise barrier area, 11 comprises 2,208 Kyocera poly' tryst.lllinc PY modules .lm[ one 100 kilovol1 amps IkV.l} Siemens Inverter With a power condlt[onlng effiCiency of q.[ per cent Ahcr eIght monlhs planning and an eight-week Insl.lllatloll timeframe, the site commenced generation in December 1 'lSQ [n Its first 10 years and three months. the sile co\'cred 38,157 hoots of generation lime resllhmg In an ovcrall OUtpUt producllon of I . I0S,il:! kWh
111
FtglSA1JTruI!tl3(l1er_ SWl�1m;J
��I_m:: �""'t'O_""" 113
Retrofit designs are cUrremly Ihe mosl common PV·NBS approac h and provide additional area to o1n
existing noise barner StruCture InStances whereexisting noise
overhang design lfigure 16) olfers greater PV A lop-moumed surf.1Cl' area per linear meue of bamer wall While not condusl\Ic. Ihe overhang could prOVide a beneflc/al nOise
In
contain noise pollution levels through mcreased traffic volumes a well·deslgned
rv
�
retrofit SOlutio
could assist in achieving
deflection componenl away from urban zones The diagrammatic ?V·NBS design representations do nOt assume the PV modules facc lhe road There may be advantages In orienting Ihe rv tiway from Ihe roadside bUI Ihat will depend on road orlent.1llon and
preventative measures no longer
compliance Icvels and generate electrical power slmultaneously_
The top-mounted flush PV-N8S design shown in figure I 7 uses
the eXisting nOise barrier as a suppan struCture The height o1nd
surrounding natural and miln-made objects lhat could augment unwantcd shading innuences, Shingle retroru deSigns utilise a I,uger surface area for solar po.....er generalIon as shown in figure 1 9 InnOVo1tive lilt
flg t 8 tOp l!llUlll!d loverl'lan!ll
s-.. Mn$/r;w�dNS'.V.�
ilnd orientation is required 10 reduce shading effC1:ts SUch a structure would demand careful conSideration of public safety. and strategies such as siling the Insmllauon close 10 24-hour
toU gates or surveillance areas 10 minimise the threat of theft
and vandalism
orientation of mOUnting
r
mlmmlses any mddence of
headlight or sun glare and reduces Ihe threat of Iheft Of damage of the PV modules
flgtS9wt,)ltdi!:s9'.-dA6.Geo:m.Iy
... V. AoosIT o..- u.1S- l.DotRIfr dN51
� rJ:ooo."'-'S_
fig20 I'Y lllli$ll barnerw,thsemi-tr.In$palool billIt131 llOlulc5. oolalisard getll!l'ill VIIIW S!Ii.fI:t' .lSfGllIiJII M1 K�G4tbH
Bifacial PVnoise barrier This innOV3ti\'e system allows the application of blfaclal PV modules along mOlorways wuh north-soUth oriemmlons_ One Side generates power 10 the morning and the other In the afternoon as the sun tracks a palh across Ihe sky_ A 10 kWp
system has been installed 10 WalUsellen, Switzerland mgure 20), where the PV biracial modules replace the existing concrete wall
This application shows the high level of integration possible as
the PV module funcuons as the noise protection structure with
the IOcorporauon of dummy elements. where nC1:cssary, for a belief \'tSUal appearance. The wall. Wllh a tOlal length of 120 metres, has a power density of 80 \VIm. For a standard 3-melfe wall it could
r'!l 2 1 PVlIDI$eballltl lIllD!P1
fa... MIrr.r �tJw'-IM AR1J
be raISed to about 200 Wlm. even allOWing fOf a
cenain leo,'el of transparency. Given the vertical nature of the modules, careful headlight glare studies may be required to avoid unwanted renccllons
1\\'0 other integrated design approaches are presented In the
·zig.zag- design of ngures 22 and 23 and the 'casscne' design of 60lh offer a more effective melhod of renecllng noise
ngure 24
but encourage structural shading There are trade-orrs between
material and PV coment and an errC1:live noise abatement struClUre_ The casselle design, while demanding higher millerial fig 21 'lig'laI;f design aloog a Iilllway 1100 III Sv.1trellard lIwva'll .u.t� I.tne
The final figures in this chapter present innOvatwe designs either as concepts_ or In the case of [he PV cube In 5.1nla Ana !figure 54).
Multi-aerial structures
as a completed project The scope of using pV-NBS is unconnned
Multhlerial structures are Increasmg in popularity as distinct
as long '
H<Wiron
fIll J A\11faQ11 IyQIobIIIflIdQI"lI'1 m�Whper JqIW. metn!'Df root lltUill !rlled bI4�', d llO" � d I IDf'�!bIhilIhl\'WII'I'ha:lrtlaJIareaof lrnll s"" tlwIlIrd. W 2 N I" 3 1. ' I J m.aa.do_02
trl'JI�
harvesl calculation USing the clear·sky model For global Irradiation. the pOtential dally solar input and Intensity can be calculated and compared between days throughout the year
\.
" " " "
'0
F.o
A clear-sky model can be applied for a more precise energy
Ibl
"
hili
" 30 " " "
Har\mn
" " 00
are.1S of moderate lallludes
'.0
Oec Vear
Mar
"'"
May
.!un
Jul
Aug Set! 0;, Nov o.c; v.ar
Sou\rl .SWISE .WIHlI lEasI .NWf NE .Nor1I'I
Horil:on
" I "
:.. (til
i!
J$Outh .SWI Se .WeSl/ EaII .NW/ NE .Nortn
1,
,e
i 1a.
Horb:on
"
kWh!
21 Jun
m'lday
21 Mayl 21 Jul
21 Aprl 21 Aug
21 Marl 21 Sep
21 Feb! 21 Oct
21 Jan! 21 Nov 1 .93
21 Dec
Average Year
3.28
1 .46
5.04
O·
8.47
8.07
6.84
5.07
8.14
7.81
6.91
5.48
3.95
3.28
6.37
45'
8.21 7.50
7.54
7.60
7.22
6.10
4.63
3.91
6.50
60'
6.36
6.54
6.93
7.09
6.34
5.01
4.29
6.24
90'
3.36
3.66
4.58
5.56
5.65
4.81
4.24
4.70
30'
r"ll 5 Valwso'dai!y slllar VJeJd lclearsl;y globill lrrad�loQ1)oIsoutil-racIfl9 I11Ulll\ Zurich. Sw1llerlandOl!rdilV
.,. Nff....,.."..� a Ta:tmlcgy{Dt S'lo��1'V$l'STJIs-r.uorrod
':'- "'�)Slll"'"
II!
181 -
HDriZtKttM .,.. - "., toO'
The sum of the IIOIar Irradiation per day and the length 01 sunshine follow the sun'S heighl over the year. and in summer. produces almost 16 hours of sunshine and 8.5 kWh per square meier at lnadlalion. Minimum is 8 hours
PI.... 0... s� GI"b.I 1....I.nu 11 Zulltlo. (leL �1.2"", Ion!. I.)'f, .... �Il .., - .- 11104_ >� l'IOcI.I'. l'I_JlIn
01 sunshine and only 1.5 kWh per square melre of Jrradlabon. Values for spring/autumn are exactly In between: 1 2 hours 01 sunShine resulting in 5 kWh per
MlXlfnUm values for Ihe solar IrradiatlDll per day are not In
IUft'III18r but in spnng and aulumn. The areas then yield .round 7 kWh per square melre. The lenglh at sunshine is fairly siable dunng more !han halt al tho year. The sun
"*'" IOf aboul I I
hours per day. Compared wllh
- . >�-.
__ _._ t.r
- �g§ -- 11 1'«
diftentnlly orienled areas, the areas have boSI values in wtnter wtlh up to 5 kWh
at Irradiation. Again,
Ihe length of
sunshine Is a minimum of 8 hours.
square me1re of Irradiation.
Inclined area - sloped roof 1111 al 30-
v.uc.I.,.. - fllt;sds
The sum 01 the solar irradiation per day and the length of
The sum Of the solar irradiation per day is almost a reversal of the values found with horizontal areas. Maximum vatues of 5.5 kWh per square metre ate in (early) spring and in (late) autumn. In summer, the values are only 3.5 kWh per square melre. The length of (direct) sunshine is around 10 hours. The values in winter are around 4.5 kWh per square metre 01 Irradiation and. 01 course, e hours of sunshine.
sunshine have high values during a longer period in
summer. Due to the till 01 30-. the values are muttlplied by 2 in winter The maximum In length is around 14 hours 01 (direct) sunshine and around 8 kWh per square me1re 01 Irradiation during a lalrly long period in summer. Minimum
Is also 8 hours 01 sunshine bUl the sum 01 irradiation Is over 3 kWh per square melre.
- .- .-
= �= l'I _.u...
-- l'I e:.
ng 6 Soi.-y.elaltleaf u., gIobal rndJabOn per dayl oISOUJtt.I�a'lllI$ ," lundl. Swl\leflard Inclinedares - SlOped roof tilt lit 45-
The sum of the solar Irradiation per day and the fength at sunshine have fairty high and stable values during hall of
the year. The maximum In length Is around 12 hours at (direcl) sunShine and around 7.5 kWh per square metre 01 Irradiation during a fairly long period in summer. The values in wlnler are 8 hours at sunshine and the sum 01 irradiation yields around or over 4 kWh per square melre.
188
PIIIII 0... Sty Glabll t".dllllf:1l Il brldl. (lIt.H.1'N. lang.8.J'E. lll 41] ml
- ]1 u. - l'I Ur-'
s-. NCT ...... f......,. .. r""""*'tlr tJd. � "",,, l"VS'rSrJl �lI>III
- �=
IS9
Oaily"'.u"y ••10' yield I., the building envel.pe TIw �un's height also depends on the rolallon 01 Ihe earth. hence
The dall�'Ihl1Url�' sobr Yield - both absolute and relat1V� - 15
IntenSU}'ll·...elsat ullFeTCnt llmcs lhrough the day \',lluesof glob.1!
strongly correl,lted With the orientation of the surface BeslIgOOd d'llly!hourly solar Yields can paflly differ from beslfgood annual
o;olaf Irradl;ulon on a clear :! I 51 June (see
and/or sl'a�onnl solar yields, If solar electricity prodUCtion Is
dtJrrm:nII}" oriented surfaces oblilm solar Irradlanon .11 dlnercnl
00)(1
In waIlS per
StI UJff' mcrn: arc gl�'en for fa{ades and for surfaces faCing SQUlh.
supposed 10 match �peclnc dailynlOurly 10..1d5, for example.
southwest and southeas!. west and cas!. northwest and northeast
before or aft�r noon, then roof surraces of higher 1(its and
and north SOme baSIC principles and trends for BiPV and sol;u
fa�ades f,lClllg cast or west may have beller solar yields TIlis
yIeld C"8a'cal{J1z...otI1,S"";UI!fbod
So
I\mrJI Sur>.!.r,-
nit angle
.!!
o·
i s"
E �
0.67
25°
0�
10"
20"
3�''
0.21
0.15
0 0.50
g' 10· li 20" i
5"
0.34 0.51
45"
I
buildings
1
unit)
60·
0.11
0.10
90,758 952,464
36
1 ,747,631
8,016
38
374,694
14
758,050
16
buildings eommercial buildings In(:IuatrlaI buildings
� bulldings
1,013
197,067
7
236,845
41 6,707
16
595,995
486
37,904
1 ,952
272,730
10
376,673
453
26.615
33,046
1 15
19,083
29,564
671
82. 1 1 2
82.112
� buildings
722
90,780
140,395
"" bufldings
230
10,979
99.090
Church buildings
234
24,591
47,007 All buildings ftg IJIW'V(tDOfareal poten�aI InIMctty of looch lll1"l. butkhng CMegOllft
2,668,093
can be seen that "
Wide
the BII'V roof area potenllal for Ihe eXlstmg building slock is
annuill solar inpul achieves very favourable
make a valuable contribmion to the optimis,ltiOn of solar
Is sunable and
elecuicny production and
supply,
The assessment of the BiPV potenllal in several countries show� that per 100 square metres of ground noor area. an average of
0.21
0.18
0.38
0.35
far;ade area are avai!
a shadIng
orientalion mlO and half due to the shading angle Furthemlorc.
Annual irradiaHon in kWhi'rIl' of active area tor Zurich, Switzerland, 471 2'N, S9 3'E, 4 1 3 m
nit angle
5° with
Irradlallon per square metre of actl\'C area TIle solar Yield Is
In order to optImiSt' roof .lrea utilIsation and yIeld. Ihe peld per
A Simple
takes
aClIVe area. the loss of some ten per cem IS half due to sub-opllmal
'modul!: area/roof are." results In the annwl IrradIatiOn
0'
losses duc to shad mg. a fairly good v,llue
around qO per cen! of the maximum annual
�hadlng ,lngle �hourd nOI exceed 100 (figure 1 1 )
In kWh
flows away and
angle nf 20° h,15 a \'cry high ratio of 0.81 and Ion kWh of
Improved (vertical a:\ls) To limit Ihe solar Yield IOS!it's. the
Irradlllnguish betwet'n frt!eStandlng PV. Jnd
PV th.lt Is Int('grJIL-d IntO Ihe bUIlding Obtaining the full benefits
from /'V In bulldmgs of/cn requires gOIng bt.>yond maximising ani}' tlw elt'ClrtcltY ploduclton. whICh may be the C,lSC for free·
�t.1ndl/1g PV sYSI(·ms. II can Involve stronger intt:gration of the /,V IntI) the bulldlng envdope. or handling PV as a bUilding compom:nt or t'Vcn as a bUilding m:nerlal.
TIlcsc needs pl.lel:
IIl'lIi rCllulrcmenl:; on Ihe BIPV deSign lools compared to PV tools
nl�' a\',li1abthIY of solar radlalion on the PV
module depends
on the locallon and array onent,:ulon In high latitudes. the tOtal Insol,ll1on on the collector plane can range belween I .000-
1 .-100 kWh per square mctre !lalllude 60-450); 1 .400- 1 .700
pt!r squ.ue metre (latitude < 45°1: and up to 2.000 kWh per
kWh
square metre at the equator Accurale solar radiation values moly be found from handbooks and meteorologic,11 services and d,l\ilsets The PV surface area comes from the BiPV deSign and from the archhl., -
connected 10 an lnvenl."r or power condmonmg unit which com"f'n� Ihe DC power 1n10 AC power This AC power
Is then
"" '"
,." '"
7111.
".
t� �
lZID
,�
"7$
'''' lUI
y", ,W
M� '"
,�
1714 ",
,",
"'" ,�
fed InIO the building's mlernal drSlflbulion system or mlo the public grid Ihgu!'t'81
..u-.-g,.f1Id_It./ICj . 30 IV
Inverter or power conditioner TIle Invcncr, otlcn called a power condmoncr. IS the component
.. , ,
-__ 1Wl "'"""
1/1,11 changes Ihe powcr oulpu[ from the pholovoll.llc ,uray Into convcnrlonal electrlcal power as supplied by lhe local uuUIY 11 15 the link 10 the outSide world and performs three f\JnC!lons
.." , ..
,;/ ,
I The InVCrt!:f controls the operauon ol lhe pholovohalc
13."16
".
.
� .. '"
":� '��
'
array As Iht" sun rises m Ihe morning. It connects Ihe phOiovoltaic array 10 Ihe utilny system.
As light and
.,__,..poow (__ �IrIJ�) , --
temper,uure change throughout Ihe day. the Invener
....... ..... (W} "'"""
,ldJU5IS lhe array current and voltage fc-.'efs 10 maxlmlst: Ihe eHlclency of Ihe phOiOVOltalC array. ; !rJcklng Ihe ma'amum power poinl Finally. as he sun sees In !he e...enlng.
0
Central invenerdesign
,
The tradJUonal array SlnJClure consists of modules conm.'u·ms., �r'veral protection devices arc rn�tall(.-d 10 '>,jh·�u.J/(1 (ht· tn�I,ll1allon agarnsl abnormal (In:umStanc�s
Wuh!ll lh,· UYM,lllrrw srllcon modu],'. bypass dIodes alc usually M't JlJr,lUd [0 eI.'l·f)' ijl!;lUp of 1 2 - 1 8 ceJls to avoid so-called hOI
po" Thl� 'PO[� C;1n OC(ln as J result of shading or din when a p,m of [h" cdl.,> dOt's not gener-tee power but dissipates power
trom tlw ottwr rdb imd consequently hears up TIle bypass dlnd,.., rhvell Iht" mooult' currenT and prt'vent hal spots
II I� cu�trJm'Hy 10 mst,lll blocktng diodes and surge prolecTOrs to
"vI:ry �trlng. ,'lthou,�h Ihelr usefulness and desimoUlty are subject •5 to dl'b;lw The diodes pft'Vem revers.11 of the strrng current . 1
The preferred locations for Ihe Installatron of PV arrays ale unused bUlldrng surfaces, such as roofs or far;:ades. This means Ihey arc oflen exposed to direct srrlkes of lightning or Ihe IndUCtion of overvoltage after nearby slllkes. The IIghll1ing prolecrron concept should have neither a negative Innuence on Ihe demands made on the availabllilY of the sysrems, nor on the protection of Ihe syslem and the operalOrs or other persons
n'e
in5tallmlon depends on the existing lightning pro!Cction srruClure (lPS) on Ihe building Figures 18 and 19 show a recommcndarlon tllilt 15 pfilcllsed in mOSt European applicatiOns
-
rations .... erectrical configu
appliances. such as televiSIons. radios, and computers
=
runalon rmernally using DC supply by transforming the 2-10 ... /C. grid vollage to. Iyplcally, a low·level 12 or 24 DC volrage.
....... pV energy In
:=en
thiS way Involves two sleps of encrgy
rslOn from DC 10 AC and back from AC to DC again, With t energy losses The power demand of some appliances is
cannol be supplied by 10W,volt,lge DC ..." and therefore (due to losses In DC cables) Also. DC dfIU'IbUIlon system
swftCheS are more expensive
than AC switChes and DC appliances
III flOC wldely availabfe. Only al the 12 V level Is there a broad
..... of devices avaJlable based on the leisure and c.lmplllg
market, These consumer arricles ;:are not produced (Q the highest
Ol.l)' br' (,lused b}' c,urh faults somewhere In the siring I n C.1St! 01 11!'.HUy IllIhtnlnll, slIIge protectors will Uml\ the VOltage to r",liOn,lule vJ.hJt'� Some ulllilles WIll reqUire an J.ddllIonal
1here are however. a number of PV applications using DC. An
Isol.luon �wlI(h Ihar IS lockable ,lnd ,lcccssible to UTIlity personnel
emesgIng market for
only Th., "�a(t rl'qU1f(�mt'nr� vary from counllY 10 country .lnd
(UPS) systems UPS sYSlems traditionally comprise Inverters. JWitI;hes. control circuitry and a means of energy storage (such as
quaHcy and energy erriciency slandards
...·r:n ,Imon!l ulllllit'S of the s,lme country l
ot mOfl' IlIIpon,mct! ,ue Ihe saft'ly olSpt.'CtS of a pV mstallallon Ir IS uUll.tl 10 renwmbcr that while a generaTOr can easily be • PV array cannot be SWitched orr As long as rhe �WII(h('
Polished stone (marble. granite)
The architectural world has created award.winnlng.
PV
iileeanl solar buildings. Utility companies and munlCipaU[les have ldopIed thIS technology to augment their Infrastructure and Cllectittc cy services network It is widely recognised that the poh!nllal for BIPV IS significant. however. institutional barrIers can slow Its deployment
1t\II chap,,:!r provides inSights into
the economic and other
nonuchnical aspet:ts of BiPV. it presents an overview of the
commercialrsation of photovoltalc IPVI power systems In[o the
are well cs[abllshC(l In Europe. the JOInt Research Center (lRC) of
Curtain walling
_ hundreds of thOUs.lnds of inSlalled systems around [he
C&InaIl lnstltutional Issues related to the Introduction and
Moniloring svslem perfotmance
Faced brick caVity wall
requires the necessary fnstrtullonal support t o fulfil Its pomise of being a viable [cchnology and a sustainable SOlution 1M-r Industry has demonstrated that the technology works.
bulk env,ronment This overview includes an economic analYSIs.
clIcussIon of values. an assessment of the e.'I(IS[ing barriers In the �place and an overview of how to remove [hese barners byldopling proper deployment Strategies
(mono- or poIy-crystalline Silicon) PV (thIn film)
Co.! USStn'
15-25 30 100 150
400+
5DO-8OO
2.400-2.800 650-1450 400-450
fi;r l N ",,"� CIIINeI1UDIIiII dadthr.gl1'."l!eflal
.... ..""
The COSt of a BiP\' system can also be compared to using a standoff P\'system added to an !.'Xlsung building When evaluating the expense of BiPV technology. the follOWing must be
considered in addition [0 the cost of the materials_ marginal added COSt. labour costs. maimenance COSts. utility Interconnection COSts. and COSIS associated with building permIts Until BiPV becomes a mainsu-eam technology. there are added labour COStS associated With specialLSed architectural desIgn. engrneenng deSign. and installation_ However. wilh technical supervision. traditional butldrng tradesmen such as glaziers. roofers. sheet metal workers.
lilt economic performance of BiPV
IIPY $}'Stems generally have low operating e.xpenses because
01 avoided fuel COStS; however. Ihe
initial system purchase and
lnaanallon COSts make them capltal.intensive and economically
PftIhIblli\IC when using first·cost analysis Hence. economiC IncenUvtos llllterest rate buy-downs. utility rebilles. metering P!'aIrammes. tax advantages. depredation allowlnces and .. ptOgtammes for financing new BIPV construction alld renOVations) may be needed to encourage their usc Cotwemlonal energy systems may initially be less expenSive. but may have
hJaheor long-term COSts.
and eleo.ncians can Install BIPV systems .. Regular malmenance COStS are t}'plc..llly low Manuf1Cturers recommend periodic system checks and cleaning as part of a pre\'cntive maintenance routine. This includes regularly clearIng away any debrrs and deaning the PV surfaces exposed to the environmem. Rain or water from a simple goltden hose Is often
sufficlem [0 keep the system clean. As a rule of thumb. visual inspectiOn of essential components. based on an inspeCtion checklist proVided by Ihe manufacturer and/or Ihe Installer. should be made every six months. The utility meter and bill
can be reviewed monthly to dc[ermlne whether output from the
because of higher recurring fuel costs When PV technology Is adapted and used as a building
syStem Is dropping (adjusting for seasonal or mher mitigating
COmponem. as exemplified In BIPV. Its economic costs and benefus may be shared between [he occupant and the utility
screening Indicates poor system performance
f ctorsr Funher inveStigatiOn is warranted if this simple
;
117
1990 total costs: 15 EurolWp PV
2003 lolal cosls: 5,7 EurolWp
Iptefn COlli (3 kWp 1,lllm)
Modules
50%
[ _DE
(Eunl/Wp)
_JP
(lOll YlI'\IWp)
- -US (USSlWp) __CH (ELII1YWp)
JAPAN 2003 lotal costs: 679 Yen/Wp
1990 lolal costs: 2500 Yen/Wp
____NL tEUf'ClIWp)
rlQ lbolu100n ofPV''fIlffll ar ml9!n--1IXl3 m �, .lap;wJ. USA.S''''UerlnandIhe Nsllleflards, eltl\ll,""v;Jlue lKlded tu !VAnorllQlX!s;Jlld 5l!mees l4>.(Gsn
.... __
Modules '2%
Ul llny Inlcf'(onnl'Clfon COStS are assOCiined with the specific rl'(llUrl'merm tit-terminer.! by each Ioc.,) aUlhorny Public utility comp,lnle$ h.we wIdely varying altitudes towards additional rt'"ulrel11enlS CO�IS C.1n Include InWTConneafon fees. net mt'!t'rlllg
I.I"H\, metering c,lUbratlon charges.
engmeermg study
(('I'S, .1m.l M,lndb}' charges Addillanal requIrements for lIolblHlY m�lIr,lIlCl·, propt'ny easement. legal mdemnny. fecord.keeplllg 01 aU Opt'fallon ,lnU m,llmenance
10 & M) COSIS. and addItional
l"ot�lIon clluipmem WIU (onlttbute to even gre..uct UlllilY rnlt'rconnetllon CO�IS The relative COSI of meeting Ihese It'qUlrt'ments (,In
N' much greater for sma!) systems than It Is for
Price trends The COSt trends for small grld-cannecled PV systems In the built
environment. III countries where comprehensive promotion actlvlIIes have taken place. are depicted in ngure
2,
Il ls of
IfItereSt thill system prices dropped substantially between (1)1)0 and 11)06 Yt!1 since 1996. with the exceplion of Japan, no remarkable price reductions h,we been achieved Germany has recognised this and through government programmes and market uptake. system C051S are beginning 10 rail
)'I�l'r Sr�tt'ms Furtht'rmolC, bUilding permils may be required
planning, .1Sscmbling, construction work and inslallation, have been reduced to a larger exlent than module COStS, as lIIuslrated
btJlldm!l I,lk�� pl,l'", EI«rrical permIts arc required for new,
in figure 3 This shows the Importance of pursuing further
Some of the costs InClude
USA
Modules 43%
reductions bOlh in module prices and in design and installation
It'b lor 1,1Ild dlslurb,1rlCe. resldcnual or commercial building
Jll'nllll (t't·s, ,lnd rt'·lnspt'Ctlofl rees Building permit fees vary,
,mil .1rl' uflt'n
2003 total costs: USSB/Wp
1990 lolal costs: USS121Wp
In recent years, non'module COSts such as Inverters. design and
!>t·fOle ,m�' conslructlon, addnion. moving. or altenng of a
n·moddlt·d. or upgraded �Iructures
[
Ilr Iht' ,lthlUlon
Modules
,.%
based on the ('sllm,lled COSt of constrUCtion or
blilldll1Jl 1100r Ml',l Therc(ort', permit fees may
be Increased
of .J BII'V system Installers must COlll.1Ct local
1,lIId U�t' ,lIld bUilding lIt'slgn officials 10 identify spe
1§
> �
FI, UK AT, CH, DE, NL
0.80
/.
0.60
/.
,/
,/
/.
,/
�--
0.05
0.10
is recommended ittIrepon by wall t:!OOI)
Ftom . pv customer'S
,/
,/
,/
,/
,/
/
/.
/.
,/
,/
/.
,/
�
,/
,/
,/
R=2 �
0.15
E
0.20
Electricity price (EuroIkWh, USS/kWh)
��=
Fast and easy to Install Increases independence (with storage)
Rlmar/(s PV systems can be constructed in any SWI and can be expanded over Ilme ThIs value is subfect 10 further improvements!
Wllght
+ + (+)
Storage adds system compleXIty and COSI
SOCIETY:
Environmentally benign
No emiSSions or pollutiOn in operation
No aceeptance problems
Tlus maYOCClltWlth large-scaJe
Decentrallsed generation laci lity
Adds to regional energy sefl-sufflClency
Enhances general and local
A range 01 skills roquired
Indirect effect: triggers energy
Enhances awareness of energy issues
conservalion
In some counlnes WIth a low developed grid or high summer peak demands, PV may contnbule to increased supply security
deployment andlor unsympathetic uman
design
�
--
,/
�
,/
/.
employment
anct strengthens locaJ gnds
Increase Supplyseeunty
�
Local and community choice and control EdlJCalional device
--
JP
0.25
lallO alP'lgenerallOfltosll/leta,lelectIlClI';jri;:e/
PV Is probably the best example lor
teaching energy supply and electnclty generation
,/ ,/ � ,/ ,/ "/ S, IT ,/ /. -� /. ,/ / � -/ ,/ _ USA � _ ,/ ,/ � /. ,/ ....... � R=1 -� '/ " ....... /. / � Cost-effectiveness! "/ � AU,NZ
0.40 0.20
R=4
SE,
0.00 0.00 210
retan price
clrcumSlances. where tht: PV IS exponed 10 Ihe grid, purchase
from COUillry 10 caunlry While pflCe pel k owatt hour is a key
j
points of view. •1S discussed by Ilaas I I (95) and Wall For funher in.depth reading.
and summarised In lable I
ulanty
is smaller. If a building uses BiPV.generated electrlcJty directly.
With COSts varying a great deal
1.00
varioUS other addL'd v,llues have been IdenciFIed from
Mod
Inso!auon may vary tremendously bel eE'n dlfferenl countfles
1.20
owner!> and occupants. the d"slgn, engmeerlng
PV CUSTOMERS:
.lnd locMions making them Imponant variables
,I elucldales IhlS point,
I
"".."",, ,,on industrics and SOCiety as a whole (Wall, 200t)
&n.nWIIIHI
Current!}', Iht' PV module effiCiency is by·and-large Ihe Solme all owr Ihe world. wh�reas Ihe Investment COSts and Ihe solar
F,guTI:
;;,;..
IrIhetenI modulanlY· and [hal they arc fast and relatively easy 10
Fig 4 fangtllfam.:pel f;I.\'11 otPJ*Ilitlt'tlndltferemOfCOI;ounl1lasin 2OOV2OOJ IreI.JTlld tDlmo1t1��loms olJW'tll
C CKF(r,Ln p, .
s}'Stems can directly affect the deCision
These bene fits can be Idf:ntlfled and evalualed
.1IE/IOUgh Ihe high (monl'!ary) tnvc�[m
II,eMlc,ll rclt,lbllllY,
Municipal Utility District) In CalifornIa _ the 'PV Pioneer
programme', Under this programme the system was purchased, early I Q80s, especially I n the US, the 'net metering'
Only
green pricing programmes \\-'Ork only if they are
Incentives In most programmes up to now have not
launched by a utility with high Credibility. are
been optimally designed Consumers' WTP for
marketed. and have an attraalve label which. of
pV is
course. has to Include PV
higher than expected by programme designers. With
of
• simple purchase conduions; • sfmple technical installation; • Inlfoduction of education programmes for architects
To be successful. II is necessary to design strategies in a way thaI
Which activities are required now with respect to different target groups?
ensures the cooper.1l1on of governments, ulliities. customers and
The actions required now with respect to different larget groups
potential inveslOrs
In tile four relevant areas of activity are:
the grid and II1troduce environmental pricing
• Minimise Ihe COSIS for the publiC. Suive for low monetary financial suppon to reach a certain amount
• arrordable systems at reason.lble prices;
the sallle amount of 101..11 subSidies It would have been possible to promote more I'V systems
5QCleIY's point of view Remove barriers for access to
administration and transaction costs and minimise
• Green priCing/solar stock exchanges/green shareholder'
between the s�tem COStS and the WTP for PV The
• MInimise admlnlstrallve and transaction costS
• Stnve fot selling the correct regulatory conditions from
performance .lnd have lower transaction COStS and bureaucracy; vinual1y all programmes where Ihe
dynamically, and have justifiable benefitS to SOCiety
P,ly' (\VTPI It IS very Imponant that finanCial
Ihe public as well as the mass media
rebale5. since they are based on PV s�tem
• With ft'spcct to fmandal Incentives, II IS imponant thai
asof lhe market foreleclrlCity iegby means o f a conunulty of the strategy over tlnle. .lilt! sustainable
'100.000 roofs' programme are nevenheless
very encouraging
Industry Is likely and that the market does nOi collapse
and the transparency of the PV system market. as well
growth of the Industry.
being the case. the lessons learnt so far from the German
14 and can be enlarged upon as
power content label) is enhanced. Moreover. ensure
cxpenence a\'ail.lble has been ralher limited This
• It has to be ensured that after the programme is
follows
exhaustion of customers' \VTP.
and local governments must be convinced thilt thc
• Flnancmg/soft loans: this Iype of instrument works in
dlssemlnallon strategies of small grld·connected PV systems These are Illustrated In figure
• Improve the market ensure that the competitiveness
c.1pacity. or even beller. of kWh generated. ilnd nOI
COSIS have to come down subsmnttally, to a level close
Conclusion This chapter has Identified eight key factors for successful
• Provide a mimmum financial Incenllvc Ihat allows
it Is
Import" nt that rebates arc .:t fixed amount per kWp
UClng lhl' key Howcver. over the next five ycars the
lerminated. a SUS13mable deve[opmell1 of the
no competilive Md trilnsparent
a PV system leads to changes in consumer behaviour
• Pure' cosH:ffl"C!lvcness is nOI crucial, with aITordahllily
to resldcntJ:lt rc.all clcclriclty prices
and Japan
to solar Ihermal collectors In addilion. the purchase of
gO' SH31l'West
• High envlronmemal credibility of the inslUutionl
USA with I'eSI>CCt
work. and 10 reduce the SUbsldle5 any programme or the patd. II is Important 10 have a good Infrastructure i1nd milrkCl Yet . currently in mOSI counlfles - except
and hOUSing companies;
• provision of financing programmes for commercial companies
pV capacity
• Provide comprehenSIve. detailed and targeted
information for the potential programme partlcipanls
• Conduct nlarketlng. Who are the potcntia[ customers
and what are their needs? It musl be recognised that lhere is a tremendous variety In strategies. programmes and disseminiltion ideas If the 1110st valuable lessons learnt from these widespread activities are summarised and extracted, the groundwork Will he set for cominuously increasIng Ihe dissemination of SIPV SYSlems [t is al50 Imponant. howe\·er. that the market continues to
Under which conditions are different types of strategies successful? TIle conditIons required for the success of different types of stralegies are • National targets national target programmes work if
defined and achievable targers per year exlsL MorCQver. It Is of high relevance thai a carefully conducced progress rcport IS provided
• Rebates in principle, rebates work as a dissemination
stratlogy. Ihey arc more effective if they Me
arrordable systems.
Te I 2 1)385 4868
BCIT TL'Chnoic).\{y Centrc
Tt-I + 4.':> 33 2u i3 00
CHAPTER 3: CASE STUDIES
SOLARCH Group, UntV"l'5llY of
CANADA W1WAM FARRELl BUILDING LJUbiS,1V St.ltllcnl( (WWWOCll rill
L3Y 1 R.i. Canada
DOqS
Fax
+I
905 808 1 6bS
auf \lont·CentS', Pressemappe. Herne, Germany
wwwak.adcmle·mom·cenis·herne.nrwde wwwsma de/de/phOiovoilalklveroITcmllchung/elekmnikl l 01 qqfUlnhalt html 'Sol.1rkraftwerk mil modularem Aufbau',
Ekk.tronik, SOnderdmck ilUS Heft
1 9 f t Qoo. FranzJs Verlag. Germany
141
LE DONJDN
ITALY, tHE CHILDRElfS MUSEUM Of ROME
THE NETHERLANDS,
(lnll,l Abb.lll: (W"waevarchllctu.it)
1)erk ReIJt'ng.l Iwwwbearnll
Abb,l1l' 6.V.gevano ArChLlCUI
f'[.lU.l
kl
5
t 3'J Ot> 61"U.jQ8 Fax
BEAR Archltccten bv Postbus :H9. NLr2800 AI-! Gouda. The Netherlands
+ J9 06 bQ78JO:;8
Ttl + J 1 182 529 89q Fax. + 3 1 182 582 599
Additional rererences: Wt'tzl'l.
Co-author Astrid Schneider
,'nJS[J�liI J. 00186 Romt'. [lOlly
r. 8aakc. E O. \1uclbauer. A. l.il Stumpo.
,., rtbruary .2001
JAPAN� NTT DoCoMo BUILDING
THE NETHERLANDS: NIEUWLAND Tony IN Schoen (wwwecofys.nll Ecofys
Thd,lSh, 1I0 1rcomlectlon ofPi' Systems. Zunch.
SWitzerland
IEA-PVPS V· I ·03 t998. Grid-Connec/I!(/ PIIOfOVOIl,[1(' Power Systems: Status Of EXIStlllg Gllldc/mes And RcgulatuJlls In
Sekc/e(/ IErI
Member Coulilfles (Revised Version). Thsk V Inlcrnat Report
IEA··PVPS TS·O I
) nqa. U/lli()' Aspct·ts of Gm! IlIIl·rr.·0I1n1·cteti PI' ,',)'s/ems. IEA-PVPS Report
International Electrochemical CommiSSion 2001 . Sl.!fcfy gllicfelUlo!sjor grid connected pho/avolwic systems mounted on
Snow.
bUl/dlll!}s. lEe 62;!3·1. from www.lec.ch
TNC Energy ConSulting. GmbH Frciburg DL. ENEA IT. ISf Frelburg DL. Utrecht UnlversllY NL. N PAC UK. PHEBUS France. TNC Consullillg IIG SWilzerland. I Q99. EU PFNB POT - E�-alliat/Oll of the Pmennal Of PI' NOIse Barrier TI.'chnalogyfor f.lt'CInClly Protfuc(ion find .\1arlwt Shan:. EU ThermiC B PrOject, j()fh IEE£ PV sp Met ('dS Olrfirulnes. and Rt-SUIts·, Procudin9
�
Qal for it Dlr""ti�·c (,I thl' European Pathamcm otnd the councIl. Brussels. BelgIUm !COFYS. 2000. Fmtllldn!1 1'\.' /II /hI! .\'Cllrl·rlanlwgr 1I0u�. ECN Report ECN·C·Oj·58
I\cqllr;1 for Propo�1. llt!lUY Scale PholOvollatc Power Systems IU5-2). Kerman, 'PhOIO\'oILlics for Utility Scale ApplKilllon'f PVUSA ProJI·ct. Jan 1
