Cosa V: An Intermittent Town, Excavations 1991-1997 (Supplements to the Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome)

Cosa V: An Intermittent Town

in Rome Memoirs oftheAmerican Academy

Supplementary VolumeII

CosaV: AnIntermittent Town, Excavations 1991-1997

ElizabethFentress with John Stefano Bodel,T.V.Buttrey, Fernanda Camaiani, LauraCerri, Cavari, EnricoCirelli, Sergio Fontana, Elisabetta Gliozzo,Katherine Gruspier, Elisa Gusberti, Michelle Hobart, Valentina Lolini, Francesca Lunghetti, Alex Moseley, SilviaNerucci, AdamRabinowitz, Alessia Rovelli, RabunTaylor, C. J. VeravonFalkenhausen Simpson,

PUBLISHED

FOR THE AMERICAN

ACADEMY

IN ROME

by TheUniversity ofMichigan Press AnnArbor, Michigan 2003

Copyright(C by the Universityof Michigan2004 All rightsreserved Published in the United Statesof Americaby The Universityof MichiganPress Manufacturedin the United Statesof America ePrinted on acid-freepaper 3 2 4 2007 2006 2005 2004

1

No part of thispublicationmaybe reproduced,stored in anyformor by in a retrievalsystem,or transmitted anymeans,electronic,mechanical,or otherwise,without the writtenpermissionof the publisher.

Library. A CIP catalogrecord forthisbookis availablefromtheBritish Data Cataloging-in-Publication Library ofCongress Fentress,Elizabeth Cosa V: an intermittent town,excavations1991-1997 / Elizabeth Fentress withJohn Bodel ... [et al.]. p. cm. - (Memoirsof the AmericanAcademyin Rome. Supplementaryvolume; 2) Includes bibliographicalreferencesand index. ISBN 0-472-11363-1(cloth: alk. paper) 1. Cosa (Extinctcity) 2. Excavations (Archaeology)-Italy.3. Italy-Antiquities,Roman. I. Title: Cosa 5. II. Bodel, JohnP., 1957- III. Title. IV. Series. DG70.C63F46 937_.5-dc2l

2004 2003055996

To thediggers

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

INTRODUCTION

ix

1

ElizabethFentress

PART I: THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

1 2 3 4 5 6

Cosa intheRepublicandEarlyEmpire withJohnBodel,AdamRabinowitz, andRabunTaylor ElizabethFentress betweentheThirdandtheFifthCenturies A.D. Settlement ElizabethFentress The Sixth-Century Settlement withKatherine and VeravonFalkenhausen ElizabethFentress Gruspier The EarlyMedievalSettlement withKatherine ElizabethFentress Gruspier oftheTwelfth Ansedonia:The Settlement theFourteenth Centuries through MichelleHobart AnIntermittent Conclusions: Settlement ElizabethFentress

13 63 72 92 120 138

PART II: THE STRATIGRAPHY

ElizabethFentress andAdamRabinowitz Thissectionappearson theWorldWideWebat http://wwx.press.umich.edu/webhome/cos PART III: THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

The WallPaintings andtheDecorativePavements StefanoCamaiani,FernandaCavari,ElisabettaGliozzo, Valentina andSilviaNerucci Lolini,Francesca Lunghettzi andFurniture Sculpture RabunTaylor Terracottas ElizabethFentress

145 191 214

viii

CONTENTS

PART IV: THE FINDS

Terracottas fromTempleE in TrenchForumVI RabunTaylor RomanMinorObjects,1990-1997

223

LateRomanandMedievalMinorObjects,1948-1997

242

The GreekandRomanCoins T V Buttrey The MedievalCoins AlessiaRovelli andGraffiti Inscriptions ElizabethFentress andAlexMoseley La CeramicadellaCasa di Diana e dellaForumCistern LauraCerri,SergioFontana,andElisa Gusberti The MedievalPottery EnricoCirelliandMichelleHobart The HumanSkeletalRemains Katherine Gruspier

250

C.J.Simpson C.J.Simpson

217

260 266 269 320 353

BIBLIOGRAPHY

363

INDEX TO PEOPLE AND DIVINITIES

393

INDEX TO PLACES AND THINGS

395

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures INTRODUCTION

1

Farms,cities,and sanctuariesin the thirdcentury: data fromthe AlbegnaValleySurvey.

2

Cosa: town plan.

3

Cosa: excavations1990-1997.

2 4

5

PART I

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

The House of Diana: excavatedstructures(foldout). The House of Diana in theRepublicanperiod. Perspectiveview fromthe fauces. Axonometricreconstruction of the garden. Reconstructionof the builders'layout. The forum:reconstruction ca. 180 B.C. Reconstructionof the plan of the colony. The plan of the northeastquarter.

12 PlanofTempleE on theEasternHeight. 13 Domuson theArx. in theAugustan 14 The insulaeresettled period.

The House of Diana in the Augustanperiod. Axonometricreconstruction of the tricliniumand gardenin the Augustanperiod. Axonometricreconstruction of roomC as an Augusteum. The House of Diana, A.D. 20-40. The House of Diana, A.D. 50-60. Axonometricreconstruction of the gardenwiththe shrineto Diana. Sectionof the house, A.D. 50-60. Axonometricreconstruction of the house, A.D. 50-60. Area occupied in the thirdcenturyA.D. The forumin the thirdcentury. AfricanRed Slip ware,percentageof totalsupplyper decade, comparedto thatrecoveredin the AlbegnaValleyand thewestern Mediterraneanmean. 26 Reconstructionof thebuildingson the Arx in the mid-sixthcentury. 27 The forumin the sixthcentury. 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

15 16 17 18 22 24 27 28

31 33

35 37 38

39

40 41 42 42 64 65

70 73 76

x

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

ILLUSTRATIONS

Reconstructionof the buildingson theforumbasilica in the sixthcentury. Cosa in the sixthcentury. Settlementin theAlbegnaValley,600-1000. The firstphase of the cemeterysoutheastof TempleB. showingburialcut by ditch. The second phase of the cemetery, The thirdphase of the cemetery. Grave orientations. The churchon the Arx. Reconstructionview of the hutin P5, withrelatedbuildingsand, to the rear,the EasternHeight. and timberbuildingson the EasternHeight. Sunken-floored Earthworksaroundthe EasternHeight. The towerand relatedstructures. Axonometricdrawingsof the cistern. of the towerand its precinct. Axonometricreconstruction Graffitiand paintingson the innerwalls of the cistern. Reconstructiondrawingof thetrebuchet. Settlementin the AlbegnaValleyca. 1300.

foundat http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/) PARTII (all PartII figures 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

Trencheson theArx. Arx I, tracesof theRepublicanhouse. ArxII, top plan. IV G, plan. Trencheson theEasternHeight. EH, the trebuchetplatform,plan and section. EH I, plan and elevation. EH I, cistern,sectionand plan. EH II, plans, beforeand afterthe constructionof the outerwall of the castle. EH II, sections,and the elevationof the outerwall of the castle. EH III, plan and section. EH IV, plan and section. EHV,plan. X C, plan and section. Trenchesin the forum. ForumII and III, the ditches,postern,and defensivewalls. ForumII and III, sections. ForumII, the timberstructureoverlyingthe ditches. ForumV, firstphase of the Republicangarden. ForumV, second phase of theRepublicangarden. ForumV, thegardenafterthe Augustanreconstruction. ForumV, thehorrea. buildings. ForumV, the gardenplots,ditch,and sunken-floored Forum VI, theRomanwalls. Forum VI, thehorrea. ForumVI, thelaterhorrea.

77 79 93 101 102 103 104 107 110 111 114 121 123 125 127 129 142

ILLUSTRATIONS

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93

xi

Buildings on thebasilica. The breadovens,plan,section,andelevation. The churchon thebasilica. ofthebasilica. IX D North,Republicanwallscutbytheconstruction IX D North,third-century walls. IX D North,theroadandthecemetery. IX D North,thecollapseofthebasilicaor churchwall. J4,planand section. K5,planandsection. L4, planand section. M3,planandsection. M6,planandsection. N4, planandsection. N5, planandsection. N7, planand section. 04, planand section. ofwall3, andsection. 04.5,plans,elevation P4.5,planand section. P5, plansandsection,withsectionsofpostholes. P8,plansandsection. Q5, planandsection. R6,planandsection. R7,planandsection.

PARTIII

94 RoomC, mosaicpavement. 95 RoomC, preparation, mosaicpavement. Room 96 C, detailand analysisofmosaicpavement. 97 RoomC, reconstructed wallplaster. 98 RoomC, thedesignoftherearwall,reconstructed. 99 RoomH, preserved ofthesocle,reconstructed fragments design. 100 RoomJ,mosaicpavement. 101 RoomJ,detailsand analysis ofmosaicpavement. 102 RoomK, mosaicpavement. 103 RoomK, detailsand analysis ofmosaicpavement. 104 RoomQ, reconstructed wallplaster. 105 RoomQ, suggested positionofthereconstructed fragments. 106 The garden,paintedplasteron thenortheast wall. 107 The garden,reconstruction ofthedecoration oftheaedicula. 108 The composition oftheplastersamples.

148 149 149 151 153 163 164 165 168 169 173 176 179 182 188

PARTIV

109 Objectsforpersonaladornment, loomweight, andspindlewhorl. 110 Articles associatedwithtextiles, clothing, fishing, andwriting.

111 Mattock.

225 229

233

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

112 Moldforrhomboidal tiles. 113 Furnishings, fastenings, andfixtures. 114 Furnishings and articlesassociatedwithleisure. 115 Moldedplaster, weaponry.

Late Roman articlesforpersonaladornment,ligulae,firedog,and handle. Medieval articlesforpersonaladornment. and fixtures. Medieval furnishings, fastenings, Graffitoin the cistern. ForumV, phase I-IIIA, black glaze potteryand coarsewares. ForumV, black glaze potteryfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). 127 ForumV, cookingwaresfromthe cess pit (380). 128 ForumV, black glaze fromtabernaC (271). 129 ForumV, finewaresfromtabernaC (271). 130 ForumV, finewaresfromtabernaC (271). 131 ForumV, cookingwaresfromtabernaC (271). 132 ForumV, amphoraefinewaresfromtabernaC (271). 133 ForumV, black glaze potteryand finewaresfromtabernaD (266/269). 134 ForumV, coarsewaresand amphoraefromtabernaD (266/269). 135 ForumV, phase IV,potterysmashedon floors: contextsrelatedto the collapse of the house: 80, 140. 136 ForumV, phase IV, potterysmashedon floors: contextsrelatedto the collapse of the house: 154, 352. 137 ForumV, phase V,potteryfrom349. 138 ForumV, phase V, smallamphoraefrom349. 139 ForumV, phase VII, coarsewaresfrom223. 140 Forum Cistern,AfricanRed Slip. 141 Forum Cistern,amphorae. 142 ForumCistern,coarsewares(afterDyson FC 1-23). 143 ForumCistern,coarsewares(afterDyson FC 24-38). 144 Forumware fromtheArx and elsewhere. 145 Glazed pottery:underpaintedlead glaze and jugs in archaicmaiolica. lusterware and archaicmaiolica. 146 Glazed pottery, 147 EH, coarsewares(acromadepurata)types1-3. 148 EH, cookingwarestype4.01-4.08. 149 EH, cookingwares type4.09-4.16. 150 EH, cookingwarestype5. 151 EH, cookingwarestype6. 152 EH, cookingwarestype7. 153 EH, cookingwarestype8. 154 EH, cookingwares,lids type9. 155 EH, coarsewares type10.

116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126

234 236 238

240

243 245 248 267 272 278

282 282 283 283 284 285 286 289 290 291

292 293 295 298 299 304 304 306 310 312 314 315 322 325 328 333 337 339 341 343 345 347 347 349

ILLUSTRATIONS

xiii

Plates PART I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

TrenchL4, earlywall visiblebeneathRepublicanwalls. The House of Diana fromthe forum. TempleE. Rear wall, TempleE. House of Diana, the mosaic of the tablinum. House of Diana, the mosaic of the triclinium. fromroomN. House of Diana, the buildingsof the sanctuary, House of Diana, Campana plaques and otherdecorativeelements fallenin frontof the fountain. The dedicatoryinscriptionof the aedicula. lyinginsidethe shrine,as excavated. The marblefragments House of Diana, table leg lyingamid the fallenplasterin the loggia. Tile stampof L. TitiniusGlaucus Lucretianus. Arx,BuildingI. Arx,thewall of the Capitolinetemple. rampart. Arx,constructiontrenchforsixth-century The churchon the basilica. The altarof the church. The bread oven on the basilica. The inscriptionC67283.

19 forchancelscreen(?). 20 The churchon TempleB, altarandfoundation 21 The churchon TempleB. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

ForumV, sunken-floored buildingoverthe destructionlevels of the garden. TrenchP5, post-trenchforthe timbersof a substantialhut. buildingpartiallyexcavatedon the EasternHeight. Oval sunken-floored TrenchesForumII and III, fromthe air. The outerditchin ForumII. A sectionof the Romanwalls cut awayin conjunction withthe ditcheddefensesof the EasternHeight. EH VI, parallelrowsof postholessuggesta timber"long house." The cisternon thewest side of the tower. The bermand the outerwall of the castle. EasternHeight,showingterracing.Balloon photograph.

PART II

(all PartII platesfoundat http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/)

Arx II, stakeholesin the floorof BuildingII. IV G, fromthe air. EH, photographedfromtheRoman citywall. EH I, the southernchamberof the cistern. 36 EH I, theinletbasin. 37 EH I, the interiorof the cistern,showinginletpipe. 38 EH II, the outerwall of the castle,showingblocked gate. 32 33 34 35

14 16 29 30 36 36 43 44 44 50 50 59 74 74 75 76 77 78 82

98 98

109 110 112 115 115 116 116 123 129 133

ILLUSTRATIONS

xiv

39 EH III, buttressing wallon northsideoftower.

40 EH VI, sunken-floored Building1, lookingsouthtowardthe Republicantemple. 41 EH VI, post-builtBuildings3 and 4.

42 EH VI, theloweredroominBuilding4.

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

X C, showing thescarpcutintoRoman levels. Forum I, showing diagonal pathacrosstheforum. II, ditch38. Forum Forum III, walls3 and5. Forum II, ditch50. Forum V,cesspit177. theatrium. Forum V,thecistern under inroomN. Forum successive floors V,thethree Forum V,tilepaving overthecesspitinroomC. Forum V,thefountain attherearofthegarden. Forum V,therectangular trench 375cutintogarden soil372. Forum V,garden soil372,showing path. R. Forum V,corridor Forum andwellhead. V,impluvium inalaI andtheservice Forum V,thecupboard rooms. Forum seenfrom thepodium V,thesanctuary oftheaedicula. Forum V,layer ofcollapsed plaster covering thefallen pottery 80. ofsculptural Forum elements V,collection found piledintheaedicula. Forum formed V,thehollow wallsintheareaofthegarden. bythecollapsed Forum the in sunken-floored V, building roomD. Forum earth V,burialcutintothedisturbed ofthedestruction deposit. Forum thesanctuary, V,thestructure covering designed byMarkWilson Jones. D IX,thecollapse ofthebasilica walls.

PARTIII

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

RoomC, themosaicpavement. RoomC,fragmentary anarmholding a lance. stucco, showing RoomC, themoldings ofthevault. from RoomC, stuccoes thevault. Cubiculum G, thesigninum pavement. Cubiculum G, detailofthesigninum pavement. AlaH, detailofthesigninum pavement. Tablinum J,emblema. Tablinum ofreedsonthebackoftheceiling J,traces plaster. Triclinium K,emblema. LoggiaQ, detailofthesigninum pavement. of detail the trellis Aedicula, pattern. StatueofDianaC9603. thestatue ofDianaC9604. Dog,from from a late orclassicizing Head classical Greekstatue ofa goddess C9674.

149 156 156 157 160 161 162

165

166 169 172 183 192 192 193

ILLUSTRATIONS

xv

81 Head C9674. 82 Head C9674, fromthe rear. 83 Columnarpedestal C9601. table supportC9605. 84 Goat-griffon 85 Basin supportsC9610 and C9611. 86 Brace C9664. 87 Base of hermmonopod table C9675. 88 Stretcherof tripodprotometable C9713. 89 Leg of a tripodprotometable C9715. 90 Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin C9708. 91 Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin C9676. 92 Headless draped hermC9617. 93 Headless draped hermC9618. 94 Fragmentof hermC9687. 95 Headless hermbust C9673. 96 Oscillum in the formof a silenushead C9613. 97 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9662 and C9663. 98 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9662 and C9663. 99 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9688. 100 Oscillum,pinax reliefC9688. 101 Suovetaurilia reliefC9615. 102 AltarvoluteC9623 and C9685. 103 ColumnaraltarC9689. 104 Small supportin the formof a felineleg C9670. 105 Fragmentof vegetalreliefC9718. 106 Decorative architectural frieze,C9671 and C9710. 107 Fragmentof maenad Campana plaque C97 11. 108 Fragmentof maenad Campana plaque C9717. 109 Fragmentof MinervaCampana plaque C9660.

193 194 194 195 196 197 198 199 199 200 200 202 202 203 204 205 206 206 207 207 208 210 210 211 212 212 215 215 215

PARTIV 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121

Open crestingC9504. Open crestingC9507, C9508, C9545, and C9580. Revetmentplaques C9577 and C9578. Amberringstone,engravedwitha ship. InscriptionC95103. Graffito. Lamps. Lamps. Maiolica dish fromEH. Maiolica jug fromEH VII. Maiolica jug fromTempleB. fromEH VII. Pignatta

218 218 220 226 266 268 280 288 326 326 329 329

xvi

ILLUSTRATIONS

ColorPlates Followingpage 158 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Cosa: false-colorair photograph. Frescoes fromroomC: exedra. Room C, panel decoration. Room C, detail: architraveand column. Room C, detail,exedra and griffon. Room C, detail,griffon. Room C, detail,diademedhead. Room C, detail,border. Room C, detail,framewithovoli. Frescoes on the portico,reconstruction drawing. Wall paintingat the gatehouseof the Abbeyof S. Salvatoread Aquas Salvias. The CarolingianLegend. 12 Wall paintingat the gatehouseof the Abbeyof S. Salvatoread Aquas Salvias. The castlesof the territory of Ansedonia.

INTRODUCTION ElizabethFentress

TheExcavation:EndsandMeans THE QUESTIONS

M\ /[y introductionto the Maremma,at Andrea Carandini's excavations of the villa of

in 1977, took place almostliterallyin Cosa's shadow.Both physicallyand Settefinestre metaphoricallyit was the one fixedpoint on a stillhazy ancientlandscape. Frank Brown's excavationshad givenus its plan, its history,and its pottery.In subsequentyears,Stephen Dyson's surveyof theCosan landscape, completedand expanded by our own AlbegnaValley Survey,'broughtinto sharperfocus the rural contextof the colony:the empty,"ethnically cleansed" landscape of the thirdcenturyin whichit was built (fig.1),2the dense networkof forwhichit servedas politicalcenterand market,and the smallfarmsof the second century, and exportedit through first-century villassuch as Settefinestre thatgrewwinein itsterritory Cosa's port. New publicationsand excavationsclarifiedimportantdetailsof the landscape: Maria Grazia Celuzza and Edina Regoli'sexcavationof a Republicanfarmat GiardinoVecchio, McCann's publicationof thePortusCosanus,and muchworkon the Cosan Anna-Marguerite amphoraeof Sestius.3 The medievalperiod, however,remainedarchaeologicallyobscure: apart fromDyson's workat thecastleof Capalbiaccio (Tricosto),summarily published.4No siteswereexcavated, and our limitedknowledgeof the potterymade themdifficultto discernin the field.The lacuna came to the foreduringthe finalwriting-upof the AlbegnaValleySurvey.As theRoman settlementpatternthathad been establishedin the firstcenturyB.C. graduallydisappeared,whatbecame of thepopulation?Was theMaremmasimplyabandoned? Werepeople stilltherebut archaeologically invisible?Or had they,as Giulio Ciampoltrini and Paola Rendini suggested,removedthemselvesto the hilltopsafterthe barbarianinvasionsin the middle of And whathappened then?Our surveyseemed to suggestthata new patthe fifthcentury?5 ternof small sites emergedin the course of the seventhcentury:were therecentralplaces associatedwiththesenew sites?And, ifso, where? All of a sudden Cosa became the obvious interlocutorforthe new questionsposed by the ruralcontext.The clarityof the pictureforthe Republicanperiod (fig.2) was on closer 1 Dyson 1978; Carandini, Cambi, Celuzza, and Fentress,eds. 2002; Cambi and Fentress1989; Attolini et al. 1991.

I

Celuzza 1985; McCann 1987; Manacorda 1978; 1980; Lyding-Will1979. 4

For the thirdcenturyin the territory of Cosa Celuzza in Carandiniet al. 2002, 103-113.

Dyson 1985.

2

5Ciampoltrini and Rendini 1988.

*

Fanmorsmallhouse(IV-11B.C.)

*

Farnorsmnal hoe. Vllbg (IV-111 B.C.);

o *

/

(newfoundion)

Vllage(newfoundaton) Destoyed enbtr Vill

(IV-lIlB.C.) withkiln

oIGln (new foundatfon)_.

5KIIn(newunston) A Cemetey(IV-lIl B.C.)

* AreaSurveyedIntensively

/

/

/

| |

\

?

Smallgroupoftofbs (IV-illB.C.)

?

Smallgroupoftombs(illB.C.)

.

lSemproSmno

o Sfteofuncerlaindate

.0-00-

Fig.~~~~~ 1.3rs

Faua

iis

n

acure

ntetidcnuy:dt

rmteAbgaVle

uvy(.G

uuz)

INTRODUCTION

3

foundtobe lackingforthelaterperiods.Thereareseveralreasonsforthis.When examination Cosa wasexcavated, lateRomanandmedieval wasverypoorlystudied.Thewatershed pottery marked byJohnHayes'spublication ofLateRomanPottery in 1972cametoolatefortheCosan and Dyson's 1976 publicationof the coarsewares,althoughvaluableforthe early stratigraphy,

periods,washandicapped basedexclusively on thecoins.In recentyearsour byassumptions oflateRomanandearlymedieval knowledge coarsewares hasincreased to a pointwheremuch finerdatingis possiblethanitwaseventenyearsago.6ThismakesCosa'stestimony farmore eloquentthanit was in thepast.Not onlynewexcavations, but also theexamination of its splendidly makeitpossibleto understand keptarchives, newphasesinitshistory. entirely THE STRATEGY (FIG.3)

The 1990 excavationwas originallyplanned fora singleseason, directedby the authorwith the assistanceof Michelle Hobart and Teresa Clay. We feltthatthe Arx,withits obviously laterwalls and medievalchurch,would provideall the stratigraphy necessaryto answerour questions.It was the obvious defensivepositionon the hilltop,and its medievalfortification was easy to identifyas the castle of Ansedonia referredto in medievaldocuments.7If there had been continuousoccupationon the site,it would be foundhere,if anywhere.A further smalltrenchwas used to investigatethe "structureon theEasternHeight."This was a crude, circularstructurereusingRomanblocks and abuttingtheperimeterwall. We had plannedto complementthese excavationswith a gridded collectionof potteryfromthe whole site to examinethe expansionand contractionof settlementduringtheRoman period. Our models were the gridded collectionsof the Etruscantown of Doganella and the Roman colonyof Heba, carriedout duringthe course of the Albegna ValleySurvey.8However,this proved impracticablein view of the dense vegetation. Althoughour expectationswere in part justifiedby the discoveryof a group of sixthcenturybuildingson the Arx,it soon became clear thatthe questionwas farmore complex than we had firstassumed. First,medieval stratigraphy was almost entirelyabsent on the Arx, even in those areas not touched by Brown. Examinationof the materialfromearlier excavationsalso showed thattherewere large depositsof sixth-century potteryin the forum area, and the find-spotsof medievalcoins fromthe same area showedthatnot all late settlementwas concentratedon theArx. This last pointwas confirmedby the datingof the structureon theEasternHeightto the late thirteenth or earlyfourteenth century, and itsinterpretationas the base fora catapultor trebuchet.9It was at thispoint thatthe projectwas expanded, and a moreintensiveapproachwas adopted. In orderto get a generalview of the historicaldevelopmentof the town as a whole,we decided to substituteforthe griddedcollectiona seriesof systematicsample trenches,measuring2 x 2 m, and to use theseto date the destructionlayersthroughoutthetown.Trenches were located on the basis of the knownplan of the town,the easterncornersof the insulae being preferred.The schemewas based on Brown'sobservationthatthe earliesthouses were built along the southeastsides of the insulae,and on the assumptionthatsitesat streetintersectionswould be favoredand would probablyhave been the last to be abandoned. A few 6 Mostrecently bytheconference on sixthandseventh- 8 Perkinsand Walker 1990; Celuzza and Fentress1990.

century pottery; Saguled. 1998.

7

Belowp. 135.

9 Clay,Hobart in Fentresset al. 1991; Hobart 1991,where

themedievalpotteryfrompreviousexcavationswas also examined.

:

HX~~~~~~~~~~~~~OP

TM

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AL

CosaIII). Fig.2. Cosa:tOWnlplan(after

*

~~~~~~~~~*K5

g

08# ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N

*M6_

X

W

_

*N7

{~~~~~~~~~

#J*4.RH *04

\

*P4.5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

w

\

lV

*L4~~

~Fg

F3.CoaVxaatos19-19IA)

*Q5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ )~~~~~~~~~~~~~

6

INTRODUCTION

trenches wereplacedat themidpoints oflargerinsulaeto increasecoveragenearthetown center, whileoccasionally practical considerations (e.g.,vegetation, erosion)dictated thechoice ofwhichcornerofanintersection toexcavate. Thesampleis therefore probabilistic andaimed at maximizing thechancesoffinding settlement in an insulaat a givenperiod.Thisproject wascompleted between1991and 1992,underthedirection first ofNicholasChurchill, then witha singleadditionaltrench(P8) excavatedin 1993in orderto of MirandaRichardson, A side-benefit of thesesmalltrenches testa possibleroadintersection. was thattheyprovidedideal experience forfirstyearstudents, whowereresponsible forall aspectsoftheir andwriting-up. excavation, including recording Generally theytookaboutoneweekto dig and creating and anotherfewdaysfordrawing, thearchive. pottery washing, A secondseriesoftrenches was plannedfortheforumareain 1991.One, ForumI, in themiddleoftheforum wasexcavatedbyTeresa plaza,nexttoBrown's"ShortAxisTrench," likethatofLuna,thesixth-century settlement at Cosa occuClayin orderto testwhether, piedtheforum plaza.'0The other, ForumII, occupiedthewholeareabetweenTempleB and thelineoftheRomanpublicbuildingsalongthenortheast streetQ, continuing sideofthe Thiswasan areawithseveralextantwallsthatwererunning skewtothealignment of forum. which with it. This and therefore not theRomantown probably contemporary largetrench, tooktwoyearstoexcavateandgaveustheclearest coveredpartofan earlymedieval cemetery, ofthesite.Particularly wasthecemetery, viewoftheearlymedievaldevelopment important excavatedbyMatildaWebband studiedbyKatherine Gruspierand GrantMullen.On the otherhand,ForumI quicklyprovedbarrenof all but a sixth-century surface,and it was in orderto see whether withbrambles, itwas decidedto cleanthebasilica,nowovergrown there.We wereluckyenoughto findthemakeup possibleto dateanyofthelatestructures butthechurchhad beenexcavatedbelowitsfoundalayerforthebreadovenundisturbed, a trench(IX D) was openedup behindthebasilicato thenortheast, to tionlevels.Finally, ofthisprovedinteresting, latewalls.The stratigraphy check,again,on someapparently parin-viewof thefallenbasilicawall thatsealeda partof it,and its excavation was ticularly ofJoannaHambly.Theyear1992wasalso devotedto in 1992underthedirection continued Forum oftheexcavation tothenortheast, ofForumII, expandedbya trench thecompletion on themedievalearthworks thatringedtheEasternHeight concentrated III. Theexcavation ofan adequatesampleofthemedievalcemetery. andthecompletion a rampthatranup through In 1993,afterwehadidentified thecuriaandintotheforum road the forum to the we decided that ForumI, whichlaydias a Byzantine linking Arx, ofsixth-century in the in itspath,had beenan invalidtestoftheexistence settlement rectly ForumIV and V, wereopenedto makesure.In fact,they forum,and twonewtrenches, ofbuildings as ForumI, andourattention shifted to twooftheAtrium provedjustas empty foundaroundtheedgesoftheforum, Brown'sABV andABII (ForumV andVI). Buildings andWilliamBowden.The former ThesewereexcavatedbyAdamRabinowitz initially gave ofthisareaand forthesettlement us good evidencebothfortheprecociousabandonment intheMiddleAges,whilethelatterallowedus to redateandexaminea buildneartheforum barnforsheep. ingidentified byBrownas a fourth-century to studythelayoutofthecastleon the At thesametime,MichelleHobartundertook EasternHeight,whoseexistencewas bynowsuggested thatsurrounded bytheearthworks it.In viewofthedensemacchia thatcoversthehighest partofthecastle,foursmallslittrenches 10On thesixth-century settlement at Luna, WardPerkins1981.

INTRODUCTION

7

were excavatedin orderto delimitits plan (EH I, III, IV, V). A smallcisternwas also excavated (EH VII-cistern), as an initialattemptto date the castle'sabandonment.Subsequently, a testtrench,EH II, opened by a mechanicaldigger,was placed outsidetheouterwall of the castle and excavated by Miranda Richardson.A furtherarea was opened up on the large leveled area to the south of the EasternHeight,under the directionof Nicholas Churchill. This lattertrench(EH VI) was suggestedby Riccardo Francovich,who feltthat,if there were earlymedievalsettlementon the height,it would be best looked foroutsidethe castle. Indeed, an anomalous earlymedievalhut was foundtherein the last days of the 1993 campaign,and the trenchwas returnedto in May 1994 in orderto finishits excavation. By the summerof 1994 workwas completedon much of the publication,but the early medievalsequence was stillentirelyunclear.It was thus decided to devote a finalseason in 1995 to the two areas that had revealed apparentlyearlymedieval structures,EH VI and ForumV. EH VI was greatlyextendedunderthe directionofJoannaHamblyand Elisabetta Gliozzi. An extensionto the northeastwas made towardthe end of the season, under the supervisionof NancyProctorand Daniel Roschnotti.Tom Dawson opened EH VIII outside the citywall just east of the castlewiththe hope of findinga medievalrubbishtip,both for thepotterysequence and forthe environmental and faunalevidence.Excavationwas discontinued afterthreedays,however,as the trenchwas entirelyblocked by the fallenblocks of the citywall. Finally,Dawson laid out a long trench,X C, betweenthe castleand theRoman, or northeast,gate in the citywalls. This was designedto examinetheearlymedievalfortificationsin thatsectorof the site. Diggingwas resumedin trenchForumV in the rearhalfof AtriumBuildingV, an excavationthatproved so fruitful thatit was continuedduringSeptemberof the same yearand was onlycompletedwiththe excavationof the gardenin 1996 and 1997. These excavations were carriedout by a core team composed of Ali Ait Kaci, StefanoCamaiani,Laura Cerri, Silvia Nerucci,and Luca Passalacqua, underthe supervisionof Adam Rabinowitz. The spectacularfindsand the excellentstateof preservationof AtriumBuildingV, rechristenedthe House of Diana, led us to propose thatit be conservedand presentedto the public. To thisend Tom Robystartedworkingwiththe archaeologistsin 1995,leadinga team of studentsin subsequentseasons. He was joined in 1996 by FernandaCavari,of theUniversityof Siena, who took over the conservationof the wall plasterthat remainedin situ. At Siena,thewall plasterwas cleanedand studiedbyFernandaCavari,ValentinaLolini,Francesca Lunghetti,and Silvia Nerucci. The conservationcampaignscontinuedeach yearfrom1997 through1999, concentratingon the wall plasterand the threemosaics. In a finalseason in 1999 Fernanda Cavari, Cecilia Bernardini,and Roberto O'Caso supervisedalmost20 studentsfromtheUnited Statesand Siena, completingthe consolidationof thewall plasterand the reseatingof two of the threemosaics. These maynow be seen on the site in the summer months.The sanctuaryin the gardenwas coveredwitha structuredesignedby MarkWilson Jones,and the non-mosaicpavementswere sealed withwaterproofedearth. METHODS

The excavationfollowedthe techniquesof singlecontext,open area excavation.Aftertopsoil was removed,the underlyingcontextswere cleaned witha trowel,defined,and planned on polyesterdrawingfilmat 1:50 (1:20 in the case of the sampletrenches),withsufficient levels takento recordchangesin slope. The processwas repeatedwitheach subsequentstratigraphic

8

INTRODUCTION

unit,and all were numberedin a unique sequence foreach trench.The methodwithwhich unitwas removeddepended on itsnature.Topsoil,hillwash,rubblemakeeach stratigraphic ups, and pise destructionlayerswere removedwithpicks and shovelsand the potterycollected by hand. Midden deposits and those crucialfordatingwere sieved if theyappeared sufficiently rich,and a sample was floatedfor seeds and botanical material.Animalbones were kept onlyfromsieved contextsbut proved too few to provide significantresults.No pollen samples were taken because of the highlycalcareous natureof the soil. In general, however,our lack of environmental samplesis due to thelack of post-Romanmiddendeposits: findsfrommedievallayerswere generallypoor and even animalbones rare.This is perofmedievalsettlement neartheRomanwalls,overwhichhousehaps due to theconcentration hold rubbishcould be conveniently thrown. Fallen wall plasterin the House of Diana was excavated using the techniquesworked Individualspreadsof plaster,representing out duringtheexcavationof Settefinestre.1' single momentsof collapse, were carefullycleaned and planned. These were generallyface down, as theyfellfromthewall. Theywere thendividedintosmallgroupsthatcould be easilycontained in a singlelayerin a storagebox. The outlinesof the individualpieces were traced withmarkingpens onto plasticfilm,and thegroupwas lifted,withcare beingtakento mainThe positionof each "box" tain the positionsand relationshipsof the individualfragments. was markedon theplanofthewholespread.Backing,fixedwitha 3 percentsolutionofParaloid, was used in thecase of moldedstuccoesor wheretheplasterwas particularly fragile. under came the direction of Andrew Graphic recording general Wixom,who had the formidabletask of placing our far-flung trenchesonto the 1:500 plan, findingthe positions for the sample trenches,and recordingthe whole area of the Eastern Height with a total haveprovedinvaluableforour understanding station.His reconstructions ofindividualbuildings and theirillustration.Graphic recordingof individualtrencheswas generallythe reofthesupervisor.Sectionsand planswererealistic,withlayerdistinctions marked sponsibility by a firmline wherepossible. The initialfindsprocessingand findsillustration weretheresponsibility ofMatildaWebb and, in 1995-1997, of Silvia Nerucci.All finds,includingthe osteologicalmaterials,are now storedat Cosa, bagged by context,trench,and year,and smallfindshave been incorporated intotheCosa catalogue.The potterywas washedand thendividedroughlybyclass. All sherds were thencountedand recordedon DBase III by class, fabric,and knownformif available. AfricanRed Slip was generallyidentified;black glaze and otherRomanfinewareswere not, unless theirdatingwas crucial to a context.Coarsewarebody sherdswere thenjettisoned, usuallyat thetimethatthetrenchtheycame fromwas back-filled.Featuresherdsweresaved, and all werebagged by class. No medievalpotterywas (knowingly)jettisoned,and representativecoarsewareswere all drawnand, ifpossible,restored.In ForumV all stratified Roman findswere saved and studied:the sieved contextsare publishedherein full.

Documentation and Publication The documentation fortheexcavationis foundat threelevels.First,in thearchives.These consistofvolumes,storedat theAmericanAcademyinRome,intowhichall relevantinformation for "1Fentresset al. 1981.

INTRODUCTION

9

is bound:a summary a giventrench written a matrix, all plans(generally byitssupervisor, reducedto 1:100),a listofall thepottery foundin theseparatecontexts or stratigraphic units (referred to as US, aftertheItalianconvention), andthecontextsheetswritten at thetimeof theexcavation. Databasesforthecontexts in eachtrench, as wellas theirmaterials, existon DBase III andcouldbe suppliedon request.Thepottery is storedinthemuseum atCosa. The secondlevelis thedetailedstratigraphic ofeachexcavation. description Although itwasoriginally written as thesecondsectionofthevolume,a decisionwasmadelateinthe publication processthatitwouldbe farbetterservedwitha website,whichwouldallowthe interested readertocheckthestratigraphy anditsdocumentation-figures andphotographswithout downthevolumeas a whole.The website,createdbyAdamandNicholas weighing Rabinowitz (http://www.press.umich.edu/webhome/cosa/), containsa planofCosa withall trenches (as fig.3) fromwhichitis easyto passto thewriteup ofeach,withfullillustrations. In thissection,stratigraphic unitsarereferred to inboldtype.We haveavoideda mechanistic mentionof all contexts, but all contextsthatcontainpottery or otherwise providerelevantinformation havebeenmentioned. Alsoon thesitearedetailedlistsofthepottery from theHouse of Diana and theosteologicalcatalogue.The websiteshouldbe consideredan integral partofthepublication in partii ofthetableofcontents, (henceitslisting itsoriginal position), withitsmaintenance guaranteed bytheUniversity ofMichiganPress. The thirdlevelof documentation is thehistorical essaythatformspartI ofthiswork. Here six sectionscoverthesettlement oftheterritory in theRepublicanperiod,the history Republicanandearlyimperialperiods,theSeveransettlement, thesixth-century settlement, theearlymedievalsettlements and cemetery, and theCistercian and Aldobrandeschi castle. In thissectionwe attempt toplacetheinformation fromtheindividual trenches intoitswider bothwithinthecityandwithintheperiod.Important context, orfeatures, structures suchas thecastleon theEasternHeightor theearlymedievalcemetery, are describedin detail.In thesechapters onlythenamesofthetrench ortrenches from whicha particular context comes arementioned: further detailcan be foundbychecking thestratigraphic recordoftherelevanttrenchon thewebsite.Illustrations arelimitedto synthetic plansand reconstructions. Forthelazyor hurried, eachofthechapters beginswitha briefsummary ofthedatarecovered.Translation ofcontributions in Italian,hereas elsewhere, is myown. Partsiii andiv containanother typeofinformation, thecatalogues containing individual In partiII arefoundthedecorative classesofmaterial. elements totheHouseofDianarelating themosaics,frescoes, andterracottas. sculpture, Discussionofthedecoration proceedsroom thanseparating byroom,rather outcatalogues oftheindividual In partivarefound techniques. theotherfinds, bothfromthathouseandfromelsewhere on thesite.Ourpolicyon thepublicationofthematerials hasbeenfairly restrictive: Cosa hasprovidedtype-series formuchRomanpottery, and it seemsparticularly pointlessto publishRomansherds,whichare,in any residualin context. case,mostly WhereRomanpottery is important fordatinga context, the relevant formsare listedin a footnote. The House of Diana, however, providedsufficient stratified material to warrant a completepublication, coordinated byElisa Gusberti. Within thisseveralcontexts wereselectedforextensive illustration: thelatesecond-century B.C. fill ofthecesspitsoftheHouse ofDiana,thefirst-century filloftherearcistern, andthelayers associated withthecollapseofAtrium Building V inthe60sA.D. Becauseofitsimportance as a the"forum cistern" context, in 1973andpublished groupexcavated byDysonhasbeenreexaminedbySergioFontana,withtheadditionoftheamphorae foundwiththerestofthepot-

tery.All themedievalmaterialhas been studied,and thesummaryresultsare publishedhere.

10

INTRODUCTION

Othercatalogues include theterracottas from andmeTemple E, thecoins,bothRoman material from previous excavalateRomanandmedieval dieval,thesmallfinds(including andtheosteological material. tions), theminor inscriptions, thisoutinthe isunambiguous, andwehavetriedtobring Very little ofourinformation to completeness, wherenecessary, alternative hypotheses. Wecannotpretend text,giving, butsomeanswers tomany ofthequestions weposedcannowbe offered. A NOTE ON THEILLUSTRATIONS

thattheyillustrate. onsitebythesupervisors ofthetrenches Mostoftheplansweredrawn Theywereredrawn bytheauthorand,in manycases,werethenscannedontoAdobe Formoreelaborate drawings I turned toJeffrey BurPhotoshop fornumbering andlettering. theHouseofDiana,andto Andrew whose illustrate Wixom, den,whosereconstructions ofthetext. thosesections ofthelateRoman andmedieval buildings illustrate reconstructions inRomebetween 1998and2000, assistant attheAmerican Academy Shawna Leigh,research forseveral oftheAutoCADreconstructed plans.Objectsweredrawnby wasresponsible Enrico andMatilda Webb. Anne Cirelli, Sergio Fontana, J.Demers, pottery byElisaGusberti, butphotographs bySamFentress, takenbytheauthor, Thephotographs weremainly inthevolume, andTomShawarealsofound AdamRabinowitz, Michelle alongwith Hobart, oftheAcademy. offigures oldphotographs from thearchives Where authors orphotographs namesappearinthecaptions; otherwise eachillustrawerenotpartoftheCosateam,their tionisfollowed ofitsauthor. bytheinitials Acknowledgments ofvolunteer amount laborbythestaff is duetotheenormous Thatthisresult waspossible thatoftheassistant Michelle who director, Hobart, members particularly already mentioned, andherpersisherconsiderable skillstothedailylifeoftheproject contributed diplomatic All ofthecastleontheEastern inthemedieval tentinterest Height. periodtothediscovery atlength between us.Theexcavation wasphysically oftheexcavation werediscussed aspects whowillingly andrelations carried outbythemany putup students, archaeologists, friends, The Comuneof in thesun,getting turnscooking. withpicking up at dawn,andtaking uswithbeds,cookPresenti andGianpiero Roberto Sagin,provided Orbetello, particularly a permission that tosleepintheScuolaElementare andpermission Neghelli, ingequipment, The small "off-season" teams were torenew somehow very kindly every year. theymanaged housedbyMariadiMaria(May1994)andMr.andMrs.Mabo(September 1995).Theexcaandequipment, camefrom a numwhichtookcareoffood,gas,somefares, vation budget, a Thefirst was made from the British berofverygenerous sources. year possibleby grant from theresearch funds ofthedirector oftheAmerican AcadSchoolatRome, a contribution theloanofvansfrom bothinstitutions, andthewillingness ofthesmall emy, Joseph Connors, Connors's enthusiastic fortheproject teamtoeatshortrations. wasechoedbythe support nextdirector, Caroline andwearegrateful tobothofthem. Bruzelius, From1991to 1993,andin 1995,generous from theSamuelH. KressFoundation grants thosefrom theBritish of Oxford Committee andtheCraven School, University supplemented fromthe AmericanAcademy'sSummer while in 1992, 1993, and 1995 tuitioncontributions

INTRODUCTION

11

takingpartin theexcafromthatprogram thestudents supported in Archaeology Program theHouseofDiana, undertaken tocomplete in 1996and1997,essentially vation.Excavations season The conservation Academy. budgetoftheAmerican werepaid forbytheexcavation from JamesMarstonFitch,wholenthissupportinhonor of1998tookplacethanksto grants Thatof 1999 ofCleo RickmanFitch,and fromThe David and LucilePackardFoundation. ofSiena The University Institute. bybothFitchandthePackardHumanities wassupported providedvitalcollaborationduringthisphase,lendingus theirexpertin conservation, whotookpartintheconofSienesestudents a largenumber FernandaCavari,andsupporting fortheproject. support forhisunfailing toDanieleManacorda seasons:wearegrateful servation backedthispublication. hasmunificently W.MellonFoundation theAndrew Finally, Excavationsare notsimplya questionof moneyand logistics.Supportfromthelocal Here community. to oursuccess,as wasthatfromthescientific wasfundamental community we wouldliketo thanktheownersofthesite,Gianserioand GiorgioSan Felice,whoseunreas wellas thosedirectly tradition, continuesa family and generosity failinghospitality Francesco ofTuscany, forthearchaeology sponsiblefortheRomancity,theSoprintendente for inspectors GabriellaPoggesi,and PamelaGamboggi, Nicosia,and GiulioCiampoltrini, Gianni Benemei, Graziano Cosa Bannino, of the museum, The custodians thesiteofCosa. whileLuigi and StefanoSpagnoli,watchedoverus withconstantkindnessand attention, all theearthexcavatedby theexcavationteam(thoughhe Coccia replacedsingle-handed forthesitefortheAmeriofa bulldozer).RussellT. Scott,co-responsible hadtheadvantage jr,whoexcaandadvice.LawrenceRichardson withinformation wasgenerous canAcademy, wasan invaluablesourceofinformation. vatedtheforum, supportincludeMalcolmBell whogavebothmoraland scientific Otherarchaeologists III, GraziellaBerti,MariaGraziaCeluzza,VincenzoFiocchiNicolai,RiccardoFrancovich, QuiliciPieroGuzzo,OttoMazzucato,LidiaParoli,Stefanella RichardHodges,AnnKuttner, JamesFentress andCharlesK. Williams. AndrewWallace-Hadrill, Gigli,thelateTimPotter, this forall themonthsI was diggingand has readand improved tookcareof ourchildren thebiblioginJuneof2000,subediting text.ElienneLawsonactedas myresearchassistant themanuPressgreatly improved ofMichigan readersoftheUniversity Theanonymous raphy. of attention to detailtothesubediting donatedhisremarkable generously script.TedButtrey process. thepublication themanuscript through thevolume,whileElaineGazda shepherded Louriemeoncetheywerein press,andMargaret MelanieGrunowlookedafterthefigures to theAmericopy.To all ofthese,and,in particular, ticulously preparedthecamera-ready we areverygrateful. andstaff, in Rome,itstrustees, president, canAcademy

PART I

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

andEarlyEmpire 1 * Cosa in theRepublic ElizabethFentress

andRabunTaylor withJohn Bodel,AdamRabinowitz,

Summary (EF)

The

chapterbeginswitha summaryof the evidenceforthe pre-Romanperiod recovered fromvarioustrenches.It thenmovesto an importantRepublicanbuildingthatemerged in the course of the late Roman and medievalproject.This is the house and its gardenexcavated on the side of the forum,the House of Diana, so named afterthe dedicationof the is discussedin detailin partII,12 the nasmall shrinein its garden.Althoughits stratigraphy tureand phasingof the buildingwill be summarizedhere,as its historysheds some lighton thatof the town itselfduringthe Republic and throughthe Severanperiod. Afterthe summaryof each phase of the House of Diana followessayson relatedthemes:the planningand constructionof theRepublicanhouse, theplan of the colony,the decorationof theAugustan house, the changesmade in themiddleof thefirstcenturyA.D. and theircontext,and, finally, a possible ownerof the house.

Pre-Roman Evidence Evidencefortheoccupationofthesitepriorto theRomancolonyis slight,confirming Brown's There were severalscraps of impastopotteryin the red layeroverlyingbedobservations.13 rock on much of the hill (Forum II, M3, N4), while one fragmentof seventh/sixth-century B.C. "olla a rete"fromthe sample trenchK5 suggeststhe presenceof archaicburialsin that contexts.In the same partof the area, as it is a typeof potterycommonlyfoundin funerary underlying site,the sampletrenchL4 revealeda probable wall runningroughlynorth-south, the mortaredwall of theRepublicanperiod (pl. 1). The north-south wall was partiallybased on cut bedrock, and no contemporarysurfaceswere reached because of the limitedspace available forexcavation.Again, only a few sherdsof impastowere foundin the layersthat abuttedthiswall, and anyprecisedatingwould be entirelyfanciful.It is possible thatit representsa small farm,perhaps of the archaic period, but this hypothesiswould have to be testedby furtherexcavation.

12

ForumV. Thediscussion oftheHouseofDiana Trench

recontainssome materialand ideas froma preliminary port,Fentressand Rabinowitz 1996, and froma paper on FrankBrownand theIdea ofa RomanTown (Fentress

13

2000),wherethegenesisofBrown'sideasaboutCosa is discussed. 13

1980, 8.

14

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Plate1.Trench L4from thenorthwest, early wallvisible beneath walls(EF). Republican

-

The Colonyof273 B.C. No evidenceforthethird-century colonywas recovered.Althoughexcavationreportsin general commenton what theydid findinsteadof what theydid not, the factthatno domestic buildingof the thirdcenturyis knownfromCosa is indeed remarkable.So far,the onlycertain constructionsof the thirdcenturyare the walls, the curia, the small enclosureto the southeastof it, and the carcer.'14Now, bedrockwas reached onlyin a limitednumberof the trialtrenches,and the bedrock at the House of Diana was cut away forthe constructionof thesecond-century house. The factremains,however,thattheexistenceofa substantialsettleCosa is as yetunproven. ment,or cityplan, in third-century

The Colonyof197 B.C. THE HouSE OF DIANA, PHASE1.

The Plan of theHouse (AR). The house, knownin previouspublicationsas AtriumBuilding VI is located on the southwestside of theforum,adjoiningtheforumannex (figs.4 and 5, pl. 2).' On the faqade were found two tabernae,whose pavementswere level withthatof the forum.At least one of the tabernae (room C) seems to have been a wine shop, as a lateB.C. fillof its cess pit,containingmanyalmostintactcups and bottles,would second-century suggest.Amphoraein the fillsof the other,room D, indicatethatit mayhave sold wine as well, but the plates foundin its cess pit mightindicatethatcooked food was sold thereinstead (below p. 294). The house was enteredthrougha narrowvestibulebetweenthetwotabernae.Here traces on the signinumpavementsuggestbenches on eitherside. The vestibuleis separatedfrom 14

CosaIII, 11-56.

This space is interpretedas a fishmarket:Cosa III, 103.

15

cE

*1

B~23

2

'a

3.

0

U~rQcc

^

OI

%

,.-309{%

348~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Q

k 40~

7-

W8

~~~

A

~ ~

2

t~~~~~~

t

-

-

.

.

4

179~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

~~~~~~~* ,.................... l*I t *. **

I&A

~~

~~I

41

2

~~82

0

s

1

..

.....

.....

.

..

..

@''evvvv1.. @ ...

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. . .. .. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . ...d~~~~~~~~~~~~0 .

1::.

* .**+*+ ... *.....,l,* *

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

.

+ + ,1,*

S28

v

..

A

ve N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~VN

4

!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ A

l428g

.

L

aw~~~~~~

1'1H

.

.

~

.

.

.

.

~

...

~~~~ *s1

~

It*:+:*::::..t n

'

1

.'.. . . .3

M S1'.'. ' . '. Cz1...

.. i..

t1

111. ~~~~~~~~~~

~ 1

.

ME

:*

+

'4

141 I. 44

-89

833'"''s

15

a94-

,$1

S

C=S .*

~

Q

~~~~~~~~~~~~

Z

ffi 82(

, P

,

. I..

~~~~~~~~~~~~~

. .&. . .. *,,

51~~

S9

. ,

-

S

_ I.L.

IN

.

, . . o .. . s.. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .0 ..

IS

.''...' . e

~ XJJL~~~ AW A]

i/T

-T 'T

(EF.anA excavate structures

.

A196

132

I

X

t~~~I rmaxxTIi

OSigninum El Mortar [3 PiseqA rdete-rre peHueo

i.4

in:exaae

4

t

''t

.1

~~~~~~~~~. !A~~~ . . . . . . . . . . . ..................:'F

de terre:Fig.:4.:The:House:of:Diana:

Bedrock1

g

tutrs(FadA)

R

*

+*

*

e

*9*.

+ v

++t

'

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--

- -

-----

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

(

141

9

83''

45

a

1 3

182

8.::

*:::*

82

;.

IL

-II

~ ~

118~

1.

~

. {+.

.

*1+.

.

..

. , .. :*:*:

,..'

:

..I

~

~

:

:

.

:'..

~~~~~~~*

w__

82t

118

1: It+'-*

..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..s.a.

mo=X4E.

A

17

!

8

JA X- T T]Avtpr

?|i

196

197

___ ?~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. I

2

inum tar

de terre

Irock

3

~~~~~~ ~

~

6

~~~~ 9

10

(EFandAR). structures Fig.4. TheHouseofDiana:excavated

..L..

:' '''''''

.

s

N

L

M

J

K

I

H

E

G B

C

0

D

A

5

1oM

Fig. 5. The House ofDiana in theRepublicanperiod(EF).

16

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Plate2. The House of Diana fromtheforum (EF).

viewfromthefauces(JB). Fig. 6. Perspective

thefaucesby a gap thatindicatestherobbingof thethresholdblock. The fauces,A, slope up steeplyand thenopen intoa rectangularimpluviateatrium(fig.6). Substantialfallsof ceiling plasterand the raindamagewithintheimpluviumleave no doubt thatthe atriumwas roofed 16 A large cisternlies in the tuscanic style,with the main beams runningacross the atrium. under the rearthirdof the atrium,fed fromthe impluvium.Waterwas drawnfromthe cisternthrougha puteal on the southwestend of the impluvium. 16 Carbonized traces of one of these were observed lying along the floorin the lowest destructionlayersnext

to the impluvium.

COSA IN THE REPUBLIC AND EARLY EMPIRE

17

Fig. 7. Axonometric ofthegarden(jB). reconstruction

0

To the rightof the atriumare two cubiculaof equal size, G and F. On the latersigninum pavementofroomG thepositionofthebed is clearlyindicatedin therearoftheroom,flanked by two cupboardsin the corners.To the leftthe single,largeroom,E, seemsto throwoffthe but its blocked doorwayindicatesthe earlierdivisionof thisspace into two corresymmetry, spondingcubicula.At theback of the atrium,to bothleftand right,extendalae, H and I. The latteris shortenedto inserta roomflooredin beatenearththatwas probablyintendedforstorage,perhapsthecupboardinwhichtheancestralmaskswerestored.'7The lineofsightcontinues K, whileto throughthe atriumto thetablinum, J. To therightof thetablinumlies a triclinium, theleftofthetablinumis theopeningofan andron,M, thecorridorthatconnectstheatriumand occuhouses.The space to theleftof the andronwas originally gardenin manysecond-century pied bya singleserviceroom,L. Thatthiswas probablya kitchenand washingroomis suggested bya depressionand a drainleadingintoa soak-awaypitat therearofthehouse. To therearofthehouse lay a garden(fig.7), cut down intobedrockto maintainthesame level as the restof the house. It was certainlysurroundedwitheven higherwalls,protecting its usersfrombeing seen by those on the streetbehindthe house, whichlies at 1.60 m above the level of the garden.Afterconstructionwas completed,thebedrocksurfaceto the rearof the house was filledto a depthof about 0.5 m withfineloam, broughtin fromelsewhereon thehillside.Into it were cut plantingpits along theback wall, apparentlyfortreesor bushes. Slightlylater,a large rectangularcut, filledwithrich,apparentlysiftedearth,suggeststhat 17

Flower 1996, 206f.

18

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY ofthebuilders' Fig.8. Reconstruction

Theletters indicate thepositions of layout. pegs;thegridisof5 Romanfeet(EF).

E

r-j

r -

F U

Y

cE

D

D

------J.

A

A~~~~~----'-

CSC~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_

D

5,

tj ,

RF

thegardenwas used as a kitchengarden,witha pathrunning and arounditssouthwestern in southeastern This to the of the that would have been edges. part garden pathcorresponds A manureheapfoundinthesouthconstant shadowfromthestreetwallandthebathhouse. erncornersuggests therusticnatureofthespace.Somewhat laterin thelifeofthegardena a mortared nichewas cutin therearwall,containing basin60 cm deep. How thiswas fed visiblein thewallaboveit connecting remainsa puzzle,as no inletis currently to a channel inthestreet.However,thestreetis certainly to fillthe highenoughto haveprovidedrun-off fromthecistern in roomS. basin.Alternatively, watermayhavebeenbrought

COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE

19

The smallbuildingoccupying sideofthegardenwas probablya baththesoutheastern house.It wasbuiltovera soak-away pit.RoomN waspavedwithsmallsquaretiles,laidflat in a bed ofmortar. A carefully builtdrainwasfoundin thisfloor, leadingto thepit.RoomS foundedon bedrockthatwasnotcutawayliketherest was almostcertainly a raisedcistern, ofthegardenareaand fedfromtheroofofthelittlestructure. Laterreworking has leftus unclearabouttheexactnatureof theinternal butwe mayperhapsimagine arrangements, or bronze,filledwithwaterheatedin the thatroomN containeda bathmadeofterracotta in thebuildingitself, kitchen. Although thesmall we cannotexcludeheatingarrangements areaexcavatedto thisphaseshowedno traceofthem. ofthe Theblackglazepottery foundintheearliestlevelsofthegardenincludesmaterial middleofthesecondcentury ofthegardensoilmay B.C.18However, thecontinuous churning haveintroduced latermaterial, andit seemspossibleto acceptBrown'sdatingofthewhole groupofhouses,whichhe placedintheyearsimmediately following theseconddeduction of colonists to Cosa. Otherwise we haveto imaginea forum that,evenafterthearrivalof1,000 newcolonistsandtheirfamilies, remained vacanton threesides. TheConstruction andLayoutoftheBuilding (EF) (fig.8). Thereseemsto be littledoubtthat at thesametimeas theotherhousesaroundthe thebuildingwas laid out and constructed forum. Each has an equal streetfrontage, Withthe measuring justlessthan60 Romanfeet.'9 inthesebuildings ofAtrium seemto correspond tothose exception Building I, wallsobserved ifnotidentical. in theHouse ofDiana. We mayguessthattheplansweresimilar Evenmore oftheplanoftheHouse ofDiana to Republican is thecloseresemblance striking housesat in theirplanssuggest thatsimilar Pompeii.The regularities wereusedto laythem techniques out.Working it seemspossibleto arriveat thetechniques backfromtheseregularities, the buildersofthehousesusedto laythemoutandbuildthemto a standard In thisreconplan.20 struction ofthebuilders'practice, whichis ofcoursecompletely I amgoingto hypothetical, maketwoassumptions. werelaid outwithchainsor cordsmarkedoffin First,thatdistances five-foot intervals. As I knowofno certainevidenceforsurveyors' I shall chainsin antiquity, I referto theseas measuring cords.2'Second, proposethatpegswereusedto markpointsas andthatthesewerejoinedbystring orthincordinordertoestablish theywereestablished the In mostcasesmeasurements basiclinesofthebuilding. seemto havedetermined theedgesof thewalls,rather thantheirmidline. Thiswouldhavesuitedthebuilders, whowerethusableto construct theirwallsalongthelinedetermined bythecords. The widthofapproximately 60 feetfoundin theHouse ofDiana seemsto occurfairly oftenin Romanhouses.22 The number60 is,ofcourse,idealto workwith.Halfan actusof See below p. 209.

The House of Sallust measures16.80 m, which,using theOscan footof28 cm,correspondsto thesamewidth. 19 The frontof the house measures17.25 m. Using a Ro- Similardimensionsare found in the paired Houses VI manfootof29.5 cm,whichseemsto be standardat Cosa, 13,1-3.21and VI 13,5.6.9,whose combineddimensions the measurementin Roman feetis 58.7. are justtwofeetless thanan actus.In theHouse ofPansa and theHouse oftheSilverWeddingthemoduleremains 20 The followingdiscussion is the resultof a conversa- 60 feet,but a Roman footseems to have been used. For tion withAndrewWallace Hadrill and Anne Laidlaw: I the plans of these houses I am relyingon those reproam gratefulto both fortheirobservationsand ideas. duced in Dickmann 1999, whichformsan excellentinfortheiranalysis.For theHouse ofSallustmost strument 21 The well-known tendencyofcordsto stretchovertime recentlyLaidlaw 1993, 217-233. may account for minor inconsistencies between one house and another. 18

22

20

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

120 feet,it is divisibleby 2, 3, and 5, as well as by theirmultiples4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 30. This means that any simple proportioncan be easily derived fromthe width of the building. Once the streetfrontagealong the forumwas divided up into actus,furtherdivided into individual house plots of half that length,the second step must have been to ensure that the side walls were perpendicularto the frontand rear of the building. The simplestway to set up a rightangle is, of course,to use Pythagoras'stheoremto createa 3If 60 feet representsthe longerside, 4-5 trianglebased on the baseline along the street.23 the hypotenusewould measure75 feetand the otherside 45. In order to findthe perpendiculars,it is fairlyeasy to imaginethatthe builders could have stretched45- and 75-foot cords fromthe frontcornersof the building.Pegs would have markedthe points at which the cords met. Now, 45 feetfromthe frontcornersare found the near cornersof the two alae (c and cl). Pegs at thispositionseem to have been used forestablishingthe plan of the restof the house.24 Like the hypotenuseof the originaltrianglea-al-cl,the depth of the whole house is 75 Romanfeet.The rearcornersof thehouse would have been establishedby layingout the75foot cord along the line betweenthe frontpegs and the 45-footpegs and markingthe back corners(d and d'). The next points to be establishedwere the rear walls of the tabernae, whichare quite distinctfromthemainblock of thehouse,beingcutintobedrockat thesame level as the forum.The corners(b and bl) fall 20 feetfromthe frontcorners.The space between the tabernae and the 45-footpegs c and cl was divided in half to formthe two cubicula, 12.5 feetwide. The cubicula themselvesare just over 15 feetdeep, includingboth walls. It seems fairlyclear thatmeasurementswere takenfromthe northwestwall, as they seem to assumethatthehouse is exactly60 feetwide, and thewidthof thesoutheastroomsis consistently slightlyshorter,allowingforthemissingfootin thewidthof thewhole. The tablinumitselfis a square measuringroughly20 feeton a side. Again it is placed slightlyoffthe centralaxis of thehouse, whichcan be explainedby a measurementof20 feet wall. The frontofthesuite,whichincludesthetablinum,triclinium, takenfromthenorthwest and servicerooms,lies 20 feetfromthe rear wall. The atriumoccupied the space that remained aftertheseoperationshad been carriedout. It was 27.7 feetwide and slightlyunder 33.8 feetlong. These anomalous dimensionscan be explained by the way in which it was made, by a process of subtractionafterthe walls of the otherrooms had been fixed.The impluviumlies in the centerof the space, slightlyoffthe centralaxis of the tablinum,while the faucesis centeredon the impluviumand the atrium.What we seem to see hereis a process by which the centralaxis, whichwas probablyassumed to be regularby the planners, was thrownout of line by the buildingprocess itself,more ad hoc and empiricalthan the planningprocess,whichprobablyassumeda perfect60-footwidth. Underneaththe atrium,the frontedge of the large cisterncorrespondsto the line between the 45-footpegs, c and cl, while its rear edge correspondsto the frontwall of the tablinum,10 feetfartherback. The excavationof this cisternwas probablythe firststep in the construction of thebuilding,servingthe dual purposeof creatingnecessarywaterstorage Fig. 10. This is the waymanyexcavationtrenchesare laid out to thisday.My own experienceof thispractice is, of course, what has stimulatedthis reconstruction. However,it is entirelypossible thatthe perpendiculars were establishedwitharcs laid out frompointsequidistantfromthe cornersof the building. 23

24 Although thePompeianevidenceconfirms theim-

portanceofa 5-footmodule,theuse of3-4-5triangles is lessinevidencethere.In manyinstancesatPompeii the baselineseemsto have been set back fromthe to compensatefortheirregularity streetfrontage of theblock.

COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE

21

for largeblocksofbedrocktoprovidefoundations sufficient andofcutting undertheatrium lie at thewalls.The tabernaewouldhavebeencutoutat thesametime,fortheirpavements some50 cmbelowthoseofthemainbodyofthehouse. thesameheightas thatoftheforum, pitcutintothe Like all thetabernaeexcavatedat Cosa, theyeachhad a squaresoak-away usedforwastedisposalbytheoccupierofthespace.The areatobackcorner, presumably wardthebackofthehousewherethefloorlevelbeganto cutintothehillwouldalso have downthebedrock in thebedrock,rather thancutting beencutout.Walllineswerereserved itwithnewfoundations. and replacing pit soak-away Tenfeetfromtherearofthehouse,intheareaofthegarden,a rectangular createdto disposeof wasexcavated.It layunderthelittlebathbuildingandwaspresumably fromthedrain,whichmusthaveservedas a latrine.Waterfromthesoutheast wastewater hollowbetween slopeoftheroofdrainedintoitas well,as canbe seenfroma largeirregular wallofthecess pit.Whatis curiousis the theback cornerofthehouseand thenortheast bya holewitha lodgingfora metaltopjustoutofaccessto thecesspit,formed provision thatmay sidethebathhouse.Thismayhavebeenused foroccasionalcleaningoperations25 forthegarden. haveprovidedfertilizer walling in Cosa oftheRepublicanperiod,thefirst-phase buildings Likeall thedomestic soclesor directly ontothecutbedrock. rammed earthsetontodry-stone wasinpisede terre, wallofthe includethenorthwest fora fewcentimeters Wallsin thistechniquestillsurviving as wellas thoseofthetablinum cubiculaandthetriclinium, thoseofthenorthwest building, instoneabovethislevel: ofthecubiculawereconstructed andandron.26 Onlythedoorframes its throwing we haveevidenceforthisfromoneofthesedoorsthatcollapsedintotheatrium, witha limeplaster,and the The wallsweremadewaterproof linteltowardtheimpluvium. on a gabledtruss.We haveno evidenceforan upperstoryin themain roofwas constructed butstairsin thetwotabernaesuggestthattheywereequippedwithlofts,forstorbuilding, age or sleeping. Atrium Houses.The housefitswellintothegenerally TheHouseofDiana andContemporary Similarplanscanbe foundin withhortus."27 classifies as "atrium which Pesando earlyplan, housesat contexts:besidesPompeiione thinksof thethird-century manysecond-century is unusual. thata privatehouseopeningontoa forum The centralpointremains Fregellae.28 as theCosanforumseemsto havebeenplannedwitha modularapproach,with Moreover, identicalbuildingson threeofitssides,thiswouldimplythattheHouse ofDiana is notthe onlyhouseon theforum.Indeed,whatwe knowoftheplansoftheotherhousesseemsto thisidea (fig.9). AB II corresponds closelywiththeplan of theHouse of Diana confirm We know (ForumVI), whileAB VII, excavatedin 1972,has clearevidenceforcubicula.29 we first Given theCosan reluctanceto wasterainwater, thoughtthatthispit would have been used forwaterfor the garden.However,observationdemonstratedthatno waterwas retainedby it, even afterthe heaviestrain.

25

of Romanbuildingin thatit is theobviousprecursor like opus incertum. The detechniques caementicium ofveryclean struction levelsleftbythepisewallsconsist lying belowandabove withwallplaster deposits ofearth, ofthisstratigraphy Fentress et them.Fortheformation al. 1981.

No tracewas foundofmud brickson thesite,eitherin destruction deposits or in situ. Other pise walls are 1997,167f. known fromthe territoryof Cosa, particularlyin the 27 Pesando This construcexcavationsof the villa at Settefinestre. tion technique, which employs wooden panels as 28 Ibid.,fig.59. formworkbetweenwhichthe earthis pounded, is fundamentalforthe understandingof the developmentof 29CosaIII, fig.30. 26

f

-1-~~~~|

0 ca. 180B.C. (SL). reconstruction Fig.9. The forum,

COSA IN THE REPUBLICAND EARLYEMPIRE

23

tobe certainoftheirplans,although thetemptoolittleabouttheotherfiveatrium buildings theinformation tationarisesto extrapolate fromtheHouse ofDiana to theotherstructures. The idea of a forumsurrounded by privatehousescertainly appearsbizarre,but thereis evidencefromtheRomanforumitselfforprivatehousingpredating thegreatbasilicas.Livy assertsthatTarquiniusPriscusdividedup the area aroundtheforumintoprivatelots,30 while

the BasilicaPorciawas constructed afterCato had acquiredthe "AtriaMaenianumand whichseemto havelainon thewestendoftheforum. Titium," Now,whileBrownandothershavearguedthatthesewerepublicbuildings, itseemsmoreplausibleto methattheterm "atrium"referred, to thehousesof Maenianusand Titius.Indeed,pseudoby metonomy, Asconius, ofthefirst apparently compiledfromcommentaries toMaenius's century A.D., refers " buildingas a domus."31 It maybe thattheplanofCosa'sforum thatof does,afterall,reflect theearlierphasesoftheForumRomanum. The dimensions of AB V fitverycloselyto thoseprescribedin the first-century Lex MunicipiiTarentini, whichstatesthatthetownhouses ofthedecurions had to be coveredby 1,500tegulae,apparently usedinthiscontextas a stand-in fora measurement ofarea.32 Ifwe use a Cosantegulaof1.5x 2 Romanfeet,thiswouldgiveexactly 4,500squareRomanfeet,or 60 x 75 Romanfeet.The similarity ofthesemeasurements to thoseofourhousecannotbe coincidental. Whatwe findat Cosa mustbe thestandardtypeofthehouseofthepotential member oftheordoofa colony, probably chosenfromamongtheequites.The consequences ofthishypothesis willbe examinedin thenextsection. THE PLAN OF THE COLONY

andtheCityPlan (fig.10). Thepresenceoftheselargehouseson threesidesofthe Hierarchy forumis in directcontrast to whatRussellScott'sexcavations haveshownaboutRepublican housingelsewherein Cosa.3 Near themuseum,thelonginsulaeweredividedintohouse plots8.5 m wide,or 29 Romanfeet.Thisis justunderhalfthewidthofthoseon theforum plaza.On thesoutheast sideofeachplotwerebuiltsimplehouses,witha courtyard oratrium atthecenter. A roomsimilar to a tablinum andatleastone cubiculum openedoffthisspace. Behindthehousestheplotswereterraced at a lowerlevel,withstepsleadingdownto a gardenandserviceareas.Thebasiclayouthereis similar towhatwe haveseenon theforum but on a smallerscale.The housesmeasurehalfthewidthofthoseon theforum. We aredealing, almostcertainly, withhousesfortwoclassesofcolonists, someofwhomreceivedplotstwice as largeas theothers.The smaller housesarethoseoftheordinary colonists, withclearparallelsatPompeiiandelsewhere.34 30LivyI, 35, 10.

34 For Pompeii, the work of Salvatore Nappo on insulae I, xiv and elsewhere seems to reveal two or three 31 For commentson these texts see Palombi 1993 and standardplans forhouses of thistype.He suggeststhat Coarelli 1993, who assumesthatthe structuresare atria the central court was not covered and that the roof publica but whose evidence relies on Brown'sinterpre- sloped away fromthe blocks at the frontand back totationof the forumof Cosa. I am gratefulto Shane But- ward the outside (Nappo 1994; 1997). This was also ler for his comments on the dating and accuracy of the opinion of F. E. Brown on the Cosan buildings, pseudo-Asconius. althoughRichardson and Scott consider that the central court constituteda testudinateatriumwith a sort 32 Crawford 1996, 310. I am grateful to Daniele of dormerarrangementin the roof (Richardson 1988, Manacorda forbringingthispassage to myattention. 382-383; Scott in Cosa IV, 28f. and figs. 11 and 12). The uncovered court would of course be a plausible 33 Scott in CosaIV, 13-63. reconstructionof the houses at Cosa and would solve

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

- \ / - - - - - -~~~~~~~~~~A -

-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

- \'s~~~~~~~~~~

KEY-i-

1.0

-q-

12 ____//\T .0-

3._

4.___2//

__/


_. . .e . -

....~~~~~~4

Plt 26Th ue ic nFrmHsoigte foerud

Th shUwdthi

onaino

ntemdl,ctiggae

h ibrtwri

nteohrsd

E)

h

116

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Plate27. A sectionof theRomanwais cut

Y

AQ

away in conjunction

withthe defensesoftheHeight. Eastern ditched4

j~~~~

~

'r'

Plate28. EH VI, parallelrowsof postholessuggesta timber"longhouse" (TS).

;1

.14a

7i

A thirdditchlay nearerto the top of the hill,just westof the twelfth-century castle (EH II). Here a ditchof verysimilarprofileto the outerpair was found,coveredby the construction of the outerwall of the castle.Justinside it,two postholesmayrepresenta palisade. Its course is farless clear thanthatof the lower line, but it seems to have run southwestalong the contourline,possiblyturningsoutheastto meetthewallsjustnorthof the "circularstructure" (EH). Both the innerand the outermostditcheswere recutat least once, althoughthe recutsare even smallerand shallowerthanthe originalditches. Althoughtheyrepresenta significantamountof labor,these defensesare singularlyunimpressive,even if we imaginethemreinforcedby stakes (one stakeholewas found in the outerditch)and a palisade.In comparisonwiththeRomancitywallstheyare almostludicrous.

THE EARLYMEDIEVALSETTLEMENT

117

havebeenexpected thatcreatedthemcouldhardly thepopulation ofthesettlement However, to defendtheRomancitywalls,and thebanksand ditcheswereprobablynotintendedfor haveoffered useagainst smallbands cavalry. Theywould,however, adequateprotection against andprobablyprotected thesettlement's cattleas well. We haveverylittleevidenceforthedatingofthesedefenses, although theyareprobably use andpriortotheconstruction withthemainperiodofthecemetery's ofthe contemporary castle.As we haveseen,a skeletoncutbytheditch,burial60, is datedby radiocarbon to around1090.A sherdofSparse-Glazed warewas foundin thefilloftheinnerditch,giving an eleventh-century terminus andthesherdofan Islamicfilpost quem to itsabandonment, terjar foundoverthelowerditchin ForumII suggests a similardate.311 A further sherdof SparseGlaze was associatedwiththelongwallinX C. TimberBuildings.Lyingjustto thesoutheast ofthesunken-floored buildingon theEastern Heightwerefoundtwoparallelrowsofpostholes,1.75 cmapart,whichseemto represent a building(pl. 28; EH VI). The lengthofthebuildingwas at least6.5 m,thelengthofthe shorterrow,butit is byno meanscertainthatwe haveitswholeextent.It seemsunlikely thatthetwowerecontemporary, as one ofthesepostholesappearsto cuttheexteriorofa postholeassociatedwiththesunken-floored ifwe are correctin interbuilding.Further, preting thepositionofthedoorofthesunken-floored building, thetimberstructure would have blockedit. It is possiblethata roughsurface,whichcoversthe destruction of the sunken-floored building,was associatedwiththetimberstructure, but thisis hardlycertain.Indeed,we can saylittleaboutthetimberstructure, exceptthatit is present.A second pairofparallelrowsofpostholeswas foundabout6 m to thesoutheastofthese.This grouphad the peculiarity of havinga relatively neatlysquaredsunkenfloorat one end, witha postholeat each corner.However,therestofthestructure was simplycutdownto thebedrock,ratherthanintoit. Thesetwo "buildings" wereroughly parallelto each otherand possiblyfacedontoan open space. On thenorthwest side of thetrenchsomefairly wellmade,but veryuneven, postholesmayrepresent another building. Cut intotheconstruction levelsof thetempleon theEasternHeightwerefoundtwo walls,one ofwhichtooktheplace oftheold frontwall,whiletheothercutroughly across themiddleofthestructure. A thirdwalloverlaidthesouthwest wallofthetemplepodium. Thesethreewallsappearto havebelongedto a roughly squarebuildingmeasuring 2.5 x 3 m, whichusedthetempleas a foundation. It mayjusthavebeenthebase ofa towerthatwould haveformedpartofthedefenses, butit is probablysaferto interpret it as a simplehouse foundation. Unfortunately, justas inthecase ofthetimber buildings, subsequent activity on theEasternHeighthaseliminated anyevidencefordatingthestructures. Discussion.The mainclueto thedateandtypeofthesettlement is thetripleringwork, join-

ingtheRomancitywalls.In Britainand Franceringworks suchas thatofAnsedoniaregularlycontaina farmor manor,or an earthenmotte,witha villageor farmbuildingsin the exterior bailey.312 Theydatefromtheendofthetenthcentury in France,andtheirarrivalin 311This sherdwas unfortunately lost duringprocess- product.

ing.However,itsidentification on sitewascertain:the fabricwas fine,white,and well levigated,the filter 312 Cathcart-Kingand Alcock 1966; see also Herrenbrodt holes irregular. It was likelyto havebeen a Tunisian 1966.

118

THE SITE BETWEEN ITS FOUNDATION AND THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY

Englandis generally supposedto coincidewiththeNormanConquest.In Italyearthworks of orhavegonelargely anysortarefarmorerarearchaeologically unrecognized.3"3 However, they intentharewidelyattested andeleventh-century to suggest that sources,andthereis nothing moatedsitesdo notcomefroman indigenous tradition.3"4 Documents ofthefirstdecadesof thetenth century speakofpalisadesorsimply withthedefenses ditches, completed byhedges.315 namedthanwalls,suggesting Ditchesaremorefrequently thatmanycastleswerenotinitially walled.316 Woodentowers(britisca) arealsomentioned, as arepostern gateswithtowers.317 We remainignorant aboutthesettlement withintheearthworks. Theremay,ofcourse, havebeena timbertowerwithintheinnerringwhosetracewas abolishedbytheconstructionofthestonecastle.318 Theremightalso havebeena farmor village.The latteris more inviewoftheamountoflaborthatwouldhavegoneintothedefenses likely, andwouldhave beennecessary to manthem.The size ofthesettlement, around5,000m2,fallsintoSettia's "medium"range:the tenth-century castle at Nogara, of the same size, had 70 families,319 al-

thecommunity thoughgiventhesize of thecemetery, at Ansedoniawas certainly smaller, numbering perhapsnotmorethan50 peoplein all. In anycase thesettlement is an early in thearea,evenifitprobably exampleofincastellamento lookedlikean insubstantially fortifiedvillage.Elsewherein Tuscanycastleswithwoodenbuildingsbeganto emergein the tenthcentury: thebest-known (orbest-excavated) examplesbeingMontarrenti, whichbegan as earlyas theninthcentury, Scarlino,andRoccaSan Silvestro (whichbeganinthetenth).320 In theAlbegnaValleyonlythreecastlesarecertainly documented beforeA.D. 1100,and both documentsdate towardthe end of theeleventhcentury(see table3 p. 135). Like Elsa (Stachilagi, Ansedonia, nearMarsiliana)andOrbetelloarefoundon a property listofS. Paolofuorile muraof1081,thelattertworecordedas castra.321 S. Paolo probably succeeded to thelandsof S. Anastasiowhenthelatterwas abandonedin thetenthcentury. Magliano, on therightbankoftheAlbegna,is knownfrom1097onward.322 The threecastlesareall on Ditched settlements have been found at Filattierein Liguria(Cabona et al. 1984) and at S. Agata,nearModena (pers. comm. S. Gelichi). At S. Cassiano, in Emilia Romagna,a late tenth-century ditchis associatedwitha churchand castrum(Gelichi 1989). Observedditchesare usuallyassumedto go withthewallsof a settlement: thus at MonterealeValcellina,whereten-eleventh-century occupationis attested,a double ditchwas foundoutsidethe walls but not investigated(Andrewset al. 1987). 313

3"9Settia1984, 201. Francovichet al. 1989. In Lazio, thecastrumat Ponte Nepesino has wooden buildings, with potterydating fromtheninthcentury(Cameronet al. 1984). On medieval village houses see Chapelot and Fossier 1980; Bazzana and Hubert eds. 2000.

320

S. Paolo I. The sources forthisperiod are discussed by Luttrell 2002; Fentress and Wickham 2002 (from 314 For a ditched settlement dating to the sixth-eighth whichmostof thisdiscussionis drawn); and Cardarelli centuriesMoreland et al. 1993. 1924-1925. 321

Settia1984, 157f.,197f.Tracesof a palisade are found 322 CDA 323 m cfr,329-330. Small castles,all undocuat the earlymedieval site of Treonzi di Roccagrimaldi: mented,are foundon therightbank of theAlbegna,but Giannichedda 1990a. most are built of stone and probablydate to a laterperiod. The onlysettlementvaguelycomparableto thatat 316 Giannichedda 1990a,200. Ansedonia is found on an isolated hill northwestof Magliano. Here a circularringof stone almost100 m in 317AtAsti and Domodossola: Giannichedda 1990a, 199. diametershows that the site was walled, but thereare no tracesof a toweror of stone-builtinteriorstructures, 318 Far less likelyis a motte,or artificial mound,which and no datablematerialwas recoveredexceptfora single occurs in Italy onlyin specificallyNorman contexts.It sherdof archaicmaiolica. This siteprobablyrepresents seemsclearthatthelatercastlewas builtdirectlyon bed- a perched, walled village and may,like Ansedonia, be rock and thatthe mound whichnow occupies the East- earlier than the more elaboratelyfortifiedsites of the ern Height is createdentirelyby the fallof the tower. twelfthcenturyand later. 315

THE EARLYMEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT

119

thecoast,andtheAlbegnaRiver.The positionofStachilagi-Elsa is theedgesoftheterritory, it overlooks theAlbegna,whichprobablyformed thefrontier ofthe particularly significant; Papal Statesat thistime. thenew"castle"atAnsedonia formed part It would,ofcourse,be usefultoknowwhether whether itwasan effectively structure andthusrelated, howsignorial ofsomewidernetwork: to theworldoutsideitsborders.Our onlyclueis thateachofthechurches everschematically, has a "foundation" burial;thaton theArxat thecenterofthechurchandthaton TempleB attheend.Thisis notmuch,as faras tracesofhierarchy go.It seems undertheraisedplatform as weremostof thecastlesin was based on an existing thatthesettlement curtis, unlikely or documentary evidenceforsuchan estate.FurTuscany.323 First,thereis no archaeological evidenceforlocallords,andwhatwe do havepointsto a conther,we haveno documentary inRome.Theseremain themostlikelyinitiators landlords tinuing ownership byecclesiastical theindividuals we cannotbe sureoftheexactconnection: possibly ofthesettlement, although forseeingto burialsin thechurches heldthelandunderS. Paolo,in return given"prestige" as a military, thedefenseofthearea.The roleforthesettlement maythushavebeenpartially and as one of thenorthernfrontier castlesof the guardagainstSaracen raiderson the coast324

see Ansedonia foronce,in cooperation withOrbetello. working, Papal States.Herewe might ofthesettlement itself. thiswillremainspeculation untilwe havemoreknowledge However, ofOrbetello, thetrading linksofthesettlement were In spiteofitsport,andthevicinity fromnearbycenters, limited.Pottery was probablyimported especiallytheveryhard-fired ofan Islamicfilter jug,mostprobably strap-handled pitchers(belowp. 331). The fragment fromTunisia,givesa hintof extraterritorial contact.Jarssuchas thisone are veryrarein evicentralItaly,butitis notenoughto suggestmorethanchancecontact.Moresubstantial contactcomesfromthepossiblepresenceofpeopleofsubdencefortrans-Mediterranean Saharanoriginin thecemetery as a group,theypresumably (abovep. 107).Buriedtogether a family, and it is hardto imaginethattheywerenotslaves.Now,we knowfrom represent documents oftheCairoGenizathatintheeleventh coast, century jerba,on theNorthAfrican in slaveswithSicily, andGenoa,anditmaybe thatthepossessorsofthe wastrading Amalfi, is entirely Ansedoniacastlehad acquiredslavesinthisway.Theirpresenceinthecommunity in ruralTuscany, elsewhere butveryfewmedievalcemeteries havebeenstudied unparalleled inthisdetail,anditmaybe thatAfricans, eitherfreeorslave,werea lessuncommon element inthepopulationthanwe mightnowimagine. One peculiarity oftheAnsedonia castleis thepositionofbothitschurches andtheircematthepostern eteriesoutsidetheringoffortifications, gateandon theArx.As we haveseen, bothchurches wereprobably ontheEastern Height.Howearlier thanthenucleated settlement wouldhavecarrieda pathdownfromthesettlement, ever,thepostern gateintheearthworks and up theold decumanus maximus to the pastthechurchon TempleB, acrosstheforum, therewasnofeltneed lay.Probably Arx,wherethemoredistant-andperhapsearlier-church to protect thechurches, whosesanctity enough.325 (andpoverty?) wouldhavebeenprotection theprecisesequenceofeventsremains hazy,we seemto see at Ansedoniathe Although thetopofthehillintoa defarming gradualtransformation ofa thin,dispersedcommunity on thesamehill.The construction ofa stonetowerthatcomfended,nucleatedsettlement willbe discussedinthenextchapter. pletedthetransformation 323

Wickham1989a.

324Settia

1984, 158f.

A churchwellseparatedfromthetowercomplexis foundat Radicofani, butitsdateis notclear:Perogalli et al. 1976,pl. 141,142.

325

5 * Ansedonia: The Settlement oftheTwelfth theFourteenth Centuries through Michelle Hobart

Summary

The

and documentary archaeological sourcesbothsuggestthatthetwelfth was century a turning ofAnsedonia.326 Stonestructures pointin thehistory ofthesettlement seem to havereplacedearthand woodenonesand,fromthethirteenth century onward,trading contactsweregreatly increasedwiththeoutsideworld.Evidenceof thesechangescan be on theEasternHeight,theArx,theforum, seenin particular andthemarket buildingatthe northwest structures on theEasternHeightand gate.We willbeginwiththemostimportant thendiscussthoseintherestoftheareaoftheRomancity.Consideration ofthecastleandits roleinthehistory oftheareaconcludesthechapter. TheEastern Height THE TOWERANDITS DEFENSES

Phase1. The smallmoundon thetopoftheEasternHeightis entirely artificial andwas createdbythecollapseoflargestructures. the of the Despite inclusion manyof exposedwallsin Brown'splanof thesite(fig.2), no interpretation ofthesewas everproposed.Amongthe wallsobservedduringthe1950swerea small,squarecistern, a longwallrunning downthe hillto thewestof themound(X C), and a thickwallencircling thetop ofthehill,which showsup clearlyon theair photograph (colorpl. 1).327Although somepointsstillremain between1993 and 1995 (EH I-VIII) allowus to forma fairlyclear obscure,excavations pictureofthestructures (fig.39). Excavationsin EH I, III, and IV revealedfoursidesofa structure thatmustbe interbuiltnorthofthesanctuary pretedas a tower, andtheearlymedieval villageexcavatedinEH VI. The siteofthetowerseemsto havebeenchosenlessforitssuperior height(itscontemporarygroundlevel,102.5m abovesea level,is slightly lowerthanthatofthetemple)than foritscommanding positionovertheVia Aurelia.328 Atno pointwerethefoundations ofthe towerexposed,butitsoriginal wallswereconstructed ofwell-coursed limestone blocks,slightly lessthan1 m thick.Although theoriginal wallstands3.46 m abovethelowestvisiblepoint, For thesourcessee now Luttrell2002; Collavini 1998; Cammarosanoand Passeri 1984, 124; Ciacci 1934, 229, 246; Cardarelli 1924-1925; Bruscalupi 1906, 607-610; Lambardi 1866; Repetti1833, I, 9, 827. 326

327

Furtherannotationsofnon-Romanstructures or walls

are occasionallyfoundin Brown'sor Richardson'sfield notebookscollectedat theAmericanAcademyin Rome. Bedrockwas not reachedin trenchesEH I-V but was clearlyvisiblein EH VI, whereit lay slightlyabove the lowestlevel of the towercistern.

328

120

Aa;R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

.. ...........s.! t ;r'''

'N -t;

t.;,....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ....

pavement mosaic~ ~~ "(SN).

o'

0

10

O

lOOcm

Fig.95.RoomC, preparation, mosaicpavement(SN).

Fig. 96. RoomC, detailandanalysisof mosaicpavement(SC).

J

fieldis decoratedwitha networkof black hexagons 11 cm on a side, outlinedwithtwo rows of black tesserae. Hexagonal, or "beehive," designs,whose originappears to be eastern,are verycomThe motifappears firstin textiles,thenin mosaics. In Pompeii it is associated with mon.383 paintingsof the second styleand laterin houses datingto the firstcenturyB.C. and the first For the originof the motifRepertoire1973, 75 note 395. Bastet and De Vos suggestthat the motifderives

383

from the hexagonal marble elements of opus sectile (1979, 109 note 13).

150

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

centuryA.D.,384as well as in urban settingsAlba Fucens385and Ostia386and in a numberof villas.387 THE WALLPLASTER

Excavationand Conservation.The excavationof the collapsed plasterin roomC was carried out in two different campaigns.In 1995 thebulk ofthefallenplasterand stuccoeswereexcavated. The collapse was badly damaged by latercuts,but severalsubstantialgroupsof plasterwere recovered.In 1999 we excavatedthe plasterin an earthbalk thathad been leftto protectthe plaster still in situ. Here several spreads had fallen almostverticallyfromthe upper portionof the wall. Finally,what remainedof the painted socles was covered with muslinfixedwithParaloid B72 and removed.Of 160 boxes of plaster,120 containedwall plasterand 40 stuccoesfromthevault.388 In most cases the plasterfragmentsconservedonlythe top layer,onto whichthe color was applied. This seems to be due to the consistencyof the preparation layers,which were highlyfriable and tended to come apart in the humid earth of the archaeological deposit. The lowest is 5-7 mmthick,composed of graysand, lime, small grainsof calcite, and straw.The second was similarin composition,10-12 mmthick,withveryrare traces of pounded tile. The highest layer,to which the point was applied, was only 2-3 mm thick,white in color, with veryrare traces of pale graysand, small inclusions of quartz, and powdered marble. The miniaturistic treatment of thepaintingas a whole is striking, as is theexcelIconography. lent stateof conservationof the painted surface.In the vivid colors red cinnabarpredomielements. nates,togetherwiththe pastel tonesof the architectural The studyof the frescoeshas allowed us to reassemblethreelarge sections,derivingin all probabilityfromthe southwestwall of theroom,whichwould have facedanyoneentering the space. The firstgroup (color pl. 2, fig.97) measuresaround 1 x .90 m and belonged to the upper right-handpart of the wall. This is shownby tracesof an angledjoin on both the top and therightside of thegroup.It shows,in the center,a columnedbuildingwitha circular exedra renderedin perspective(color pl. 5). The columnsof the exedra, to judge from thatin the frontof the picture,are Corinthian(color pl. 4). A griffon(color pls. 5 and 6) is found as one of the acroteriain the frontof the building.To the leftis visible part of the trabeationof anotherbuildingwitha columnwithan ionic capital,while,on the right,part of a panel is preserved.This was probablyrectangularand is borderedwith a band of red cinnabar.To theleftof themaingroupwe have placed a smallergroupshowingan architrave cornerof anothercinnabar-framed endingwitha pilasterwith,above it,thelowerright-hand panel (colorpl. 9). The zone underneaththetwobuildingsconsistsof twohorizontalbands of The House of the Iliadic Shrine (I 6, 4), dated to around 40 B.C., The House of the Centenary(IX 8, 6), theHouse of theWild Boar (VII 3, 8), and theHouse of Meleager (VI 9, 2): Blake 1930, 108-109, pl. 32 pl. 1; pl. 26 pl. 24; pl. 27 fig2 and pl. 37 pl. 7. 384

387 The Villa of Ariadneat Stabiae (Pisapia 1989, 46-47, note 89, pl. XXII), the Villa at Via S. Isaia at Bologna (Ortalli 1996, 287-297, 4, 6, and 9), and the Villa of Cottanelloin the Sabina (Sternini2000, 87).

The excavation technique was that described in Fentresset al. 1981. In severalinstancesboth the plasterand thestuccoeswerecoveredwithmuslinreinforced withParaloid B72 beforeremoval. 388

385

De Visscherand Mertens1957, 169 pl. 5.

In the Insula of the Muses, firstcenturyA.D.: Becatti ed. 1961, 132 pl. 262. 386

Xb F4 1II .... .Y6W*_ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~g ILIL

2m

0 wallplaster(SN). Fig. 97. RoomC, reconstructed

152

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

on a yellowground;the The first, 6 cmhigh,consistsofvioletfloraldecoration decoration. (colorpl. 8). second,5 cmhigh,has a skybluegroundwithdarkbluefloraldecoration The secondgroup(colorpl. 3) measuresroughly1.30 m x 60 cm and belongsto the exactlytwoRomanfeetwidesepamiddlezoneofthesamewall.It showspanelsin cinnabar thesamedarkblue ofskyblue5 cmwidecontaining ratedbyverticalbordersandpilasters is floralmotifofthelowerborderoftheupperpanel.It is thusclearthatthismiddleregister butwithout joinsin theplasterwe cannot composedofpanelsthatjointo theupperregister, the Theloweredgeofthisgrouphasa slightlip,whichmayrepresent be sureoftheirheight. as theplasterin thisregister end ofa day'swork.For thesoclewe havea smallerfragment, on It seemsto havebeena "classic"repetitive pattern, lostitspaintedsurface. had generally some floralor vegetalornaments: a verypale pinkground,withregularpanelscontaining as itsschematic qualityis arevisible.The socleis verylikelyto havebeenrepainted, tendrils schemesofthethirdstyle.Betweenthesocleandthemedianzone verysimilarto decorative on a skybluegound. thereseemsto havebeena predella,withdarkbluevegetalornaments is certainly the imagefromthepointof viewof theiconography The mostsignificant is a mythical on theupperregister beast, acroterial (colorpls.5 and 6). The griffon griffon andharpies.It to thesamefamily as sphinxes, chimeras, parteagleand partlion,belonging withthehead and wingsof a birdand thebodyofa feline, represented is mostcommonly ithas a lion'sheadandfront lessfrequently legs,withthewingsandthebodyofa although in literature had acquiredsolarassociations: its bird.Alreadyin ArchaicGreecethegriffon It wasthusnatural theimmateriality oflight.389 as it represents whitecoloris oftenstressed, oflight:Serviustellsus thatthey thatgriffons cameto be associatedwithApollo,divinity thegriffon wasalso sacredto Dionysus, substituted for wereApolliniconsecrati.390However, theanimals hissacredpanthers of theGriffons at Baltimore: on theso-calledSarcophagus Although theiconography ofthebeastis vastly havethebodyand theheadsofpanthers.391 of us here,in thatthedecoration complex,itssolarand Dionysianvalenceis whatinterests theroom,andparticularly thatofthevault,containsotherreferences to thesedivinities. In Romanpaintingacroterialgriffons are verycommon,particularly in the fourth ofthemesfromthesecondstyle,exPompeianstyle,whichtendstowardthereelaboration andtheatrical ofthelatter. examplesofthis connotations Well-known cludingtheillusionism use includetheHouse oftheGriffons on thePalatine,thepairedgriffons in thetablinum of theHouse ofLivia,andtheseatedacroterial griffons on theupperpartofthesouthwallof intheHouseofLucretius thetablinum FrontoatPompeii.392 Theclosestparallelstoourown arethosefromthepaintedsoclefromroomI oftheFarnesina.393 griffon The semicircular The restoftheiconography ofthepainting ofroomC is architectural. exedraon theupperleft(colorpls. 2 and 5 and figs.97 and 98) is also closelyrelatedto similarconstructionsin the Farnesina,particularlythe end wall of the alcove, E.394Another closelyrelatedpaintingis foundin House I, 7, 19 at Pompeii,wherethe cinnabarand deep Cf. Bisi 1965, with referenceto Egypt,Assyria,and Babylon.The relationshipbetweenwhite color and the sun is evident.In imperialRome the triumphalcar was drawn by whitehorses,sacred to the sun (Suet., Nero, 389

thegriffon, and thearrow.SidoniusApollinarisalso lists the griffonamongthe attributesof Apollo (Ep. IX, 6f.). 391

25).

Ad Bucolica VIII, 27. In V, 66 he saysthataccording to Porphyrius,Apollo has threedomains:Sol in the sky, Liber on earth,and Apollo in the Inferi.His attributes varyaccordingto the zone and are respectivelythelyre,

Cf. EAA,s.v. "grifo,"p. 1061.

392V4, 11.

390

393

Dolciotti in Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, fig.29.

394

Ibid.,fig.114.

I~~~~

_

Fig.

98.

Room

C, the design

of the rear wall,

reconstructed

(SN).

(SN). Fig. 98. RoomC, thedesignoftherearwall,reconstructed

154

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

blue are verysimilarto ours,as well as to thecubiculumB of theFarnesina.3A second a colbuildingis visibleto theleftofthissection,ofwhichonlya partofthetrabeation, umnseen fromthe front,and anotherseen fromthe side,is preserved.This mustbe a withan L-shapedplan,well suitedforits roleas a frameforcentralized strucstructure tures.396 It appearsto be supportedby a cornicein pale greenand cinnabar.As thiscan as an architectural elementsuchas a hardlybe anotherbuilding,it can bestbe interpreted to thosefoundin thecubiculaB and D ofthe modillion,similarin itsformand function otherstructures and of Thesebracketshavethefunction bothofsupporting Farnesina.397 fields.In ourcase,it separatesa zonewitha blackbackthevariousdecorative separating groundfromone witha whiteone. is closelyparalleledin the friezea fasciawithfloraldecoration Belowthearchitectural The borderwitha palebluegroundis foundbothin roomI andinthebordersto Farnesina. theimagesofJupiter Hammonand Isis on therightwallsofcubiculum B, whiletheyellow is foundin thesameroom.398 groundwithfloraldecoration The decorationof themedianzone consistsof monochrome panelsin cinnabarsepain thesecondandthirdstyles. Thisis a verycommonspatialorganization ratedbypilasters. roomsI andE.399 The arparticularly Again,theclearestparallelcomesfromtheFarnesina, withitssequenceofa lesbiankymation and a cornicewith oftheleft-hand element, chitrave Even theuse of a reversedLovoli,is also abundantly paralleledin thesamebuilding.400 is foundinthese effect, shapedstrokeinsideeachovolo,perhapsto enhancetheperspective use in theepistyleoflittlediademedheads,with examples.Equallycloseis thedecorative andfeathers orpalmbranchesemerging fromthediadem(colorpl. 7). Alpendantearrings ourminiaturistic forms areknownfromelsewhere,401 imageis closesttoa much thoughsimilar Theseheads,withtheirpalmette largerexamplefoundin cubiculumB at theFarnesina.402 we haveat Cosa to theexoticdecorthatis so obvicrowns,aretheonlyvagueresemblance ouslypresentin thecubiculaoftheFarnesina. thetechnito theFarnesinathusgo beyondthepurelyiconographic: The resemblances cal detailsofourpaintings, bothin thecolorsand theminiaturistic aretoo close detailing, fortheresemblances to be based on merefashion.Thereseemslittledoubtthattheroom ofthesameworkshop. waspaintedbymembers enoftheCosanpainting is itsadditionto a smallgroupofdecorative The importance oftransition besembles-theFarnesinaandtheAulaIsiaca-thatshowclearlythemoment tweenthesecondand thirdPompeiianstyles.The painters oftheseensembles use all ofthe ofarchitectural and figurative motifs to createa worldthatis at onceunrealand repertory rigidly organized. 395

Cf.BastetandDe Vos 1979,28-29.

400 Ibid.: see the architrave of thecentralaediculain

Ibid.,pls.29,128.

402

cubiculaB andD, thearchitrave ofthesoclein theamStructures ofthistypearefoundintheupperzoneof bulacrum F-G (pls. 136-137),andthearchitraves supthesidewallsofcubiculaD andE oftheFarnesina; Sanzi portedby caryatids in theupperlevelof the cryptodiMinoed. 1998,pl. 40. In theeastwalloftheHouseof porticus(pl.31). theOrchard(I 9, 5) thebuildingseemsto be preceded 401 Diademedheads fromthe epistyleof the central bya semicircular exedra,as in ourcase. aediculainthetablinum oftheHouseofLivia(Bragan397Ibid., pl.81. tiniandDe Voseds. 1982,36 fig.15) andintheHouse of ObelliusFirmusat Pompeii(IX 14: ibid.,51 fig. 398 Ibid.,pls.29, 74, 81, 82. 280). 396

399

Sanzidi Minoed. 1998,pl. 73.

THE WALLPAINTINGSAND THE DECORATIVEPAVEMENTS

155

The StuccoedVault.Stucco,composedoflimeand powderedmarbleand perhapsa littlesand, The pieces recoveredfromroomC wereveryfragile,which is extremely sensitiveto humidity. slowed workbothin thefieldand in thelaboratory(pl. 68). Further,theyseem to have fallen afterthe wall plaster.Their higherposition in the deposit leftthemmore exposed to the damage caused by medieval agriculturein the room. Our knowledgeof the ceilingis thus thanthatof thewall. considerablymorefragmentary The stuccoes were created over a preparationlayerbetween 3 and 5 mm thick,composed of lime and graysand withsmall grainsof calcite. Over thiswas laid the truestucco, white in color,whose depth varies between 1 and 12 mm, dependingon the subject. The reliefwas createdwithmolds and finishedoffby hand. Tracesof thewooden molds are clear around the geometricborders,while the faces of the figuresshow signsof the littlewooden sticksused in the hand finishing.The figures,in highrelief,seem to have been fixedto the backgroundwithoutthe use of nails. It is not possibleto reconstruct the decorativeschemeof thevault,althoughit was in all probability geometric, comparableto thoseofthecubiculaB and E oftheVillaoftheFarnesina. There are bordersdecoratedwithovoli and otherswithfloraland vegetalborders;some of theseappearas circularframes(pl. 68). We do nothave enoughevidenceofthecurvatureto be certainof theformof thevault,but it was in all probabilitya fullbarrelvaultrunninglengthwise along the room.Small stuccobracketswerefoundtogetherwiththeplasterfall,overthe levelof thefallofthevault.These probably"supported"thevaultalongthejoin withthewall. A veryfewfiguralelementshave been foundso far.There are threeheads, two arms,and the lowerpart of a body.The firsthead (pl. 69.4) is turnedslightlyto the rightand is velato capite.It is probablyto be associatedwitha fragment of an armholdinga patera,whichwas foundveryclose to it. This figurewas probablya genius,a tutelaryRoman deitythatpresides at a birthand accompaniesan individualthroughouthis life.However,our imagecould also representa priestof the cult engagedin sacrificeor a memberof a religiousprocession.403 The second head belongsto a bearded figure,probablya divinitysuch as Jove.It maybe combinedwiththelowerpartof a draped seated figure(pl. 69.2). WhenJoveis represented seated, he appears withhis torsobare, a mantelaround his shouldersand wrapped around his lowerbody.He is usuallybearded, as here,witha matureface. His militaryassociations lead to a frequentcombinationwithfiguresof Victory.Such is our thirdfigure,a Nike whose wings,head, and upper body are preserved,shownin profilewithan outstretchedleftarm (pl. 69.3). The head is thatof a youngman. The wingsare ample and the feathersrendered withcare. The figurebends forwardand is mostlikelykneeling,engagedin the act of sacrificinga bull. Victoriesare oftenassociatedwithcandelabra:theassociationis foundon Campana plaques and on thestuccoesofthevaultoftheFarnesina.404 Numerousfragments ofthymiateria of a floraltypeare foundamongthe stuccoesof room C, similarin all waysto those of the Farnesina.Insofaras theybringlight,candelabraare one of the attributes of Apollo,but later theyassumea genericsignificance ofpietas. A fragment of a fourthhead, in profile,maybe identifiedas Minerva:partof a helmetis visibleon thetop ofthehead (pl. 69.5). Minervais ofcoursea secondmemberoftheCapitoline For parallels to the iconographicrepresentationof Augustalessee the friezeof the vicomagristri and of the Pompeian altarof Augustandate, whichshows the emperor sacrificing(the Augustan dating is plausibly argued by Dobbins 1992).

403

404 Cf. Sanzi di Mino ed. 1998, 91 fig. 110 (detail of the vaultof cubiculumB). Compare the two Victoriesfrom a Campana plaque, Seltis Frugoni 1973, 80 fig.25.

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

156

\,

si

',

..

*'

j

;

N

p

ja

tS

k

G -

~~~~~~~~~~A * Y..'.1..

I~~~~~~~~~ 41

sJ_>'q

r

''

v

t

E

Ei

'J Plate~ stucco shwn 67i.Roo ~ C frgmntr

anamhodn alne duinexaato EF!

Plate68 RoomC, themoldingsofthevault duringexcavation(EF).

triad.However,the armholdinga lance (pl. 67) maybelong to a figureof Mars, who would add anotherelementof the Roman pantheonto the decoration.The polyvalentsymbolism here,and the minimalamountof it we have managedto recover,leaves roomforall manner It is perhapssafestto see heretheAugustanabilityto mixvarioussymbols of interpretations. and signs. The Functionof the Room. The positionof room C suggestsits identificationas a taberna, accordingto the canonic schemeforRepublican houses in which two shops are positioned which include a on eitherside of the fauces. However,the Augustanperiod modifications, mosaic floor,a vaulted ceilingdecoratedwithstuccoes,and an exceptionalpictorialdecoration,seem to indicatethatit was no longera shop. It thus seems naturalto suggestthatthe use of the roomhad changed,althoughits positionon theforumimpliesthatit continuedto play a public role. Our initialhypothesiswas thatthe roomwas in some wayto be identifiedwiththe imperial cult. Analysisof the iconographyof the vault seems to supportthis hypothesis,as elementssuch as theveiled head of thegeniusfitwell intothegenreof Augustanpropaganda.405 The argumentis discussed at lengthin Zanker 1989 and 1998.

405

. ..

. . .. . .. . .

. I .

.. . .. ...'. ..'i. .. :' . " . -. . .. . . !:- - . . ... . . :... . . :.. . .. . . . . . .. .... . . ..

..:

.,

.:

.:

. .. -; ,. ' ""

...... .

.

..

. . . . . ...i .. . . ... : !. .. ' '. : , :':" . :." .-': . 'i,--;i,.. 1.: %'.;iim " .... :: .;: .:'fI . 1.11. f: i;.-R ",

..

.- ..

.i

.

.

. . ".; .,

..

.

. '.

., . : ' :: .., ...... .;' .. :::. ::'!: , .:! .... . .... . :,'1- ....... ... i. .' ::,: .i.............. : .:: : : : , . : : -. . : f' .:,:; '. .". 1., ::'-' . ,.,:. , '.:% ::' ... 3: :, :_ :I!s' ....:... . . ::,!;""Iii'.f ....

.

.:..

.

..

.

':..:' .

.1.

-z'... ! , 'is

, . . . . . ,. ii 1. !'f '. I

,,,

. '.. .. ..... ' ........ :z.."

.:sl:: . ': .' .. .I .. '. : .'.: : : :t;! ... !; '; ; : . .;: . .: :.: :I: . : -:.

`'

: .

:

. i. ;

. .

..

...'

. .

':.;: : .. .:" . .. . s: 'i .i "I : - '-'.I -

. I f.

:' f

...':'='.'.". :.:.:.1i.

:.

..

. -.....II:,

t.

.....:

.

. ..'' . '.. 1%,:7,..:.. . ::

..,;-.

.. I-Ii;ii I.- II.ii . '-= .. :U. % 1., -..

.. .. .. :!% . . .1.. ;.".. '. . . . . .. : . .

...It:=. . ;i.: -... ' :5 t :; -.i ....':', '::f:'. ': . -: n % '. .' ';-' .I '1; . - 1-j'I . . s,...:'... .. . ....I .. . ..'.i. .. .. ... :.'

.

,f'.. '.. -i.::i ::''. .f .,

.

.

.. .

. .

.

1. : " :.. . . . . .

.

11

'I .., .

. .. ..

. , , .. .: , .,.,! ... ?.:,., ......f.z : - ." - -..' . ....I.

;'

s:

. .

-

.

:.

s-I fi.: f'. :". :'. . . . . : '

.:

-,.

...... :..:i:.. :.: .:. , ..f.,.:..:. u.. .'.' ..' . . ... . .

.

. .

:

.

%.-;,i:" '. :' ' . 1. '.

.

.

.

. .

.

. ..

..

.

...

.

.

. .:

. .

. .

. .

.

..

. ......

.

.

..:..

..i!

..,

.. .

..1': ."':-:

. ...

.

.. . .: ..' .,4:::: ..,,I.,: .... ...... .....: .:..-: ..11....=.:,.. ........1.. ..::1 ..... ... . : %. . . . : .. . . .. . . .. ... . ... . ..:: . : ... . .. ' .. .:,.": -.-:.-:..:.. .': ..':" . ... .... . -.. '..'......... ... ...... :f'i.':::!.:: :!.:!.:: .. : . .. ': .:. .: ':'..' .. .: . .. . ." .: N N .. :' ': N .. :' : .. 1. . .:!.:.:. . . . . ,:. 'i. .i. I.::..:i" 1: ! . .. ..... .............. ......... . .: ':. ':::.'.:::'!:':Z'.;.;..'. :' . .. .' % .: '% ':f!%::'.:'::1.;'.':'.. . .:....,:..;:I:f::.!::,Ifst:st:;:;,:t.:, ".:,. '::!.-!.: ' .'. '. .. % : : .:%::f:.:f'::'%!: :. ' .' . . :-;: .. :::-,:fl;;f':':s.:!.:!:".' .. ....... 1.I., I.,." . ..I., . .- - ....... '.. 'I.' :" " :f'. .%.:,:: .:':::!::.'!:!::;!'!.;'!:'..' .'i" ." .:i ;:':::::;:':f'::'::':.!.. ..'.N:M . ..'.."I"I'll" .. f. 1 I. ..,.'i.i'ii,.;i;:::;:,':':f .. . . . ....., '.''. :i.".:i::11:.:i:::I.;,:,:I.% :I Z- = f;u-X';:I;:I'... .. . .!:::::f::! .. . '...:,f::t.';::::,::.,.:I:::: -. -""" , :1.. .". : . ....:........ .x ..:, :-;:;,f:f: :f:sztf;;:;, . . . ':: . ... 1. ..". . :...:.,.: :!:'::':f:!.:f':f'!.'.' !:;!.;!:, :::'. .:-f.!. '.s,:;,7::i:,:u:;;:;:,.f;,::: .. ... ... I.... .. ....I.1....:" :;%:f !:- . ..' - : ' .:' ,::::'% ;:::';;:::;:f::! .. :::f::" ,:: .' '.f:f: :'! '-.'.. ... '. . . I .'.: .. :.... .. ::' : ::f'f:::':':f= ...... 1:1;1,.,;I::::x .. . .::I::f:i.,';':::::.: ::.;:. .: .:...: . . ::Im ;:tsA' .. . 'i;f::,:::,,':f;.,f".f,I , :I;:' f!:M 11.11 ...... 11...........I- ." . .".. .. .. .. . . ': .'. ..'i 'i.'. :";:,I;': :":-:: ,.,: , . . . . . .................. .-:" . . f: :..f :';::f:!;:. ..'I". -::,. :. ..- ` ,:: .. .. :':: .:,. 'I.:!. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' . . ':;:. :.: :f':';:::!f' . :flf;:f' . . ..:. . :'':':'.'%;' .:.... - . : 111.... ::.:.: -' : .. , ::;::::t ............. .... '' ...",-.::.. :". .'.... . . % ..:!.: . ... -:.': .::. N:: :: .:: .f' ::. ... .f.,...1.1 . : .. :. :.;..:: .'% ; .... .. % - . . : . . .. .. %'.. -'." ., ;:% . . ..': : .: 'i.' .'.. .: ': ... ....... -::P T ........::..... ':' .:",. ;,..:. ..f-.: .. -.-- .'. .. :' . : % ;. '. , ,." '. : -:: ":':f:!f: : .. . . % .. : ' .. . . ., ... .. . .. .. ..1 I . i -$ Iii! ...; . ..1 . '.. . .. . .. . . i '". .. i'. :",... :" :' . . . . .. .. ', .1 . : :4, " I... . .. . . .1 : . I ;. . .. .. . I ' . .": i ;: ' . .. . ... .: .........'.: .. . .......... .....:, ....' i :. ......1 ...i. '..i.'...I:.-.:. I ......'. .'. . ':..; i,.. i'... ..... ..f...I. .....:: .. N N ::. ., .... :........ . - :.:-... . 1 -:. . .:.....':%; .''f".:%'.;: .%:.:::- . ..:.:' '.:'f': :-.... :. ....: ;.- .. . ..:. .'.'i. 't: ,::- . :' ..,., -::';:::-: ::: .'.!ss,'';:"!:-.%. . . .. 4:'U :s." ::. :- . ..' .. .': , - ': .." . ;I '.'.;%' ::,tt.ss:;;,:,,:;.,:.... .. :' ......... :fn::,:.:;l;:il:,;:,:: , ,. , '.'..::.::: .. ....... .;:. :,,,.:, ...........:.... ... :.!: %. :..... .I. :. . .,:,-:"'..I'.:.I.II ..:, .. . .... .. ....... a ,f7f7;:f':::;:,4:,; ;:!= :f -;;= 'S= - ..... ,:1.', ..I... . .,,,.. .. , .,:: ::,:i:. ........ 1.11, :::;:':B. . : ': ', , : : , . 1u '-'t.... ........ 's. ........... -'_: .. '::i! t'a;sus' ..". ..f'::.:', :f::':' '- '!:...' .f;f:;f':4:.ff;' . ":. . . . ....... ................. .. ,!:::,4st?t?;?t,,;:;!:fl.:Itf;ts:t. . I:.'.f..:..':* ::-':zM = - 1-1-1111:11 .............. ............;.' ,' .:.;::If:::n,;:zn,:,f;xf:::f.,:I ....... :;-.f.::: ':':!:.,...:,f::t.-tl,,., ......I.. 41P , :.................::, ::: ;:':U',, .;!.:,;.i:.x;f.1;:;.: ;-, ....... 4:' I I;t s . -,, t...U1:11I1-11.1'.=--s t .l.',:;:ni...ii ....... I------ , . , .. :' i -",i7;f 1 : -':.17-111-...'-'.. "I `Yi'-i_ "Pil Iiiii -'; "J-t"2. ii:s. J".;.'I; ...... _:4 ............. ."'.1 ...... ,.:,.,. ...' ... . ................ ' '',.,,,,Il. : f:::.: .......: ':st , 11.1 . ;:. . ui.;.x::f;::;nf;tf: '; . .-'%u;;= I ........ I.,".111 1.11.11.....-- :%'-i ... :,;,I "I .... 11.1-11=- -"..%;':: . .;f ; ;.:. :I-.'. 11 I . ii . ;.- .: : : f .: . Ii".1 ='X = n = f f. ; s', :;f;:-!: ', .: 1f ..".== x - "' i i' ':W 'I" .I i .... I..11 .; t ..: :t ; ':st";t ' I ..:.tI I. . t. z; IS . :- I; I:;f ." f:,:":. ."' a,f-s;8 ; z .' ............%I: '.. .............. ;,::=:W': .. . = U:MX . ::'%-;: t?-;:'.. ..""I"'.." : -' .: . ".I -1. -11- ; ....... . -:. :.. I..... ."':-. : f11" t: : ..' 'V:.' ';!;.' " . ...... ,":!';:'ZI.1 : -' :::I ':= ':% ;:f' ':7, , . f.. :: .i:'!.: .. 'i ..."fM s.;:!:: . : .. ,, : : : 1 : ;; : , , ,. : i..:I:z?,:::::!,:'::.::.... ': ....... ! :n'.' . . , . . 1: : . ,1. : , : 1,n . . : .. ' f- : z:'"'-.'::: :'!:'%'. .:. .: . : . :' .. . '.:':-:. ,,V; . - .:.: . .:- .. f, , - ,, , -, ,.:,. . . .:I::: ,,,, -, .. :..I.- - . ....:' .. . . 1..",:', , , :' 1::1; .. . : ' 'f, ... .... . ....... .....,., ....I-. . . . .!.. ...;'I.:.. . . ' . . . . .: : ' :: . ...'. . " '. . ...:... . . . . .;.,-..... .1;1 s. . : :.; . . ..1" . .. .:. I.. . . ' : I .1.11.1'. 11. - .. . 1. . I . . . .. .'":;":!:!'.: .. ' ,;! .. %, .. !." :!.:,.. :' 'I ' ' ........ .. ': ,.. :-".'4.:':.! ':: . .'.' . -, ': . . 1':- .s; .. u ;: :1:':' .. ... t ..::;' ';.:! ;:- %. : ...'. ;f .: . .. 'i. if ;:::f:l., ... - :. ;f:, ;:7!I.':If': . :.::! ..: . ' ...-_::!:':.:;fz7zt7z;;Zsz.' . . .". ... ..". :'If:'%:f' 1. - 111'.:;f: :';:': ;-! .1.1 .:;. : ';= 11 "=::':-.: %':,. ; -::',;:I:'t:,;s.iftfisi:i:;.:..,I, . .. I .'i,.;f:::;;;:x:.n::: : .. ..tl.'m ;'- z;;:;:' 4"lf: .' .., ' 11 1. ..;M fs. " : ' , ': .z:,..,..".,..","4.1.."."."".,. . I :':. s.'": f; ......... " ' ' 1. 11 I I.. I ...".1"'.."I.-I.-I I .:I:'i..s:.:;.. I I I "'.:".1 .I.. .. . 1.1. '.: : - %;:. : ..I. .11.1111-11-41,":x;:f;:::ff:;7'.',! .". '-::= f'::-: ... ;tss;-;;:il-:xl:.;':.;l.,. f W %':';:'%-: : . " .'..."..' . .. ......I ':!':%i:. .. .1 ............................ .". ' s; f:s;I:s!f:I, '.:";.;.st : :t;-;nt"an.,;7s;x4i:,; ;::%i; ;:, '.. .1 szts.n:t.;:., z z: ;!: :: :: :f; : :f!' .:::I'.M I '- '. ... .. '. ,' 1-111- ........I...... ;.= = fllf- !:'.: ...... : = ... :':= '= ::.:f- I.." f..' .." :t st"; '.==;"='!:f::: -'--,:,! 1-. I.... :... 1-:!':? . - t............... . .". ' 1'M:I-';I';'.; ;--"-- I -1 1-1 = ..... ...... ..... -:'- : ,. .."I--, - 111.t; M-3Mx-,= ................. -= .1..'- ; fl, :":.,.. : : :..: .. ... "..... ;= :rx :,'3: ; :: . mt:lVI%f!-:!z .'..-1-11'X7 t ....... :;,f,Im..". ;......: ........ .;, n;u f;!!zf,:,z:-'.:'U - ,!I. 4; s n n .'..' ... ..... .. . 11 .I '. .'.." M==:= ;f"M .p...... : ...l.".1.1".1 i s:,-:-1 I .';:; :t .."': ............ "'..."'I":1"I"..' .1:` z'11.11.1'.. .1-11 :::E "111-1" '! ': "",t7:;.;f,.t,.;ss;s;:st,s;: .-'. ., :._"'.' '.:'%'. ..".: :'; == !;;?;t::.,.:', . ?. - ' ,: s::; I;f''.. -.Z'-' --'4tst :; f-s"m 4 . I . t'-. u. : ::::: :'! . ....... . : 4 :t::!:;VM I " : ,::;:: . .T. '.= ....... i;: .. s t"';: .".; . ': : . : ::!!;:-':.:. ... "...-l-,.: f':: . " t:. .'f: : I -. . t: . . .: :f": ...... .... -111111;; ;_:89?-f :":t ::: s f; ' ;' :-f.': :: 4 ..: % tf: .:, , . -:: ... . 11 "..;.s snm m ;17:' :t ::... I .1 . . :'..::,.,I;n:,.fn.:,,-sts-::;;,,, . .. ..'. : '.; ...: :;f :. . .:. ;:.::f;4:;::ts:;;:f,.:.. . .......... . f.is;:l,;4:f.:::';'I.: .....:. : ::: .:-.. --:!?;... ,. '': ",. .'::!:'' .. :;, % .. . ;:.::;.::: ,', :;. .'%::vlrl;!;!: .. . ' ': : . 4f':. . ,i';':. %.!:: :!':':;s!:'.'.:'f!! ' .' .. . 1-, 'I .2 .... ':. .1j:t- : .. . .. .. .. '.- .. .i 'i-'.ii-Ii'.':., : .'''.: ... ". .. '.. . " .. .. : :V .. ..:.. ., 'a.. U" 1, " .' .. .. ". '. :..; :V :,." .:, .:,..: '. ..I:...i ... -.:: .' ..4 ..... 4 . . ..",.... .. ' .... :':'.. ": . 4:

. :.

:'::I! 1:1;:1W., .:.!::;.f : :: ;: If .. :-' ; .. ."

....

..;:

.-I

. ,

..: i. . .. .:'... . , ; : , : .: ,. :: : ,. ff : :,.:: :f':' ;:' : . .f:.:: :.. 114.:-

.'.

.

Mn-;=

.. "."

..

.

.

..:'

I

.. .-1... .. .....-. , ., ..Ill:', ,, .. ... _"'!-'z =1 .1.11 ;1111 ___.'....

. .. f,....: . :

-

. .. .

.

': :": . i-...: ". , . . lf:..' .. :f:.M. . .t7" ..; :.;:' . ..":;tf. .. ...", . '- . ':-f . : 1: . . . %. -":.:: ,:: . ': .. I -. :! :::7 .. . ..: . . . .'..'. .. ... . ::. . : t : . . . :..I : f : . . . .: . . : . . . . . . .. . . .. . .. ..

';.::

'.

. : -

.. , ".

.

.:I ,;

:'-' ,.:'-:::;::' : 11:;;s : .. . I---I-

..:..

..

. ...:

.

; :;.:

..-=...I ..;,=' .... ... .1 ... .1 .. ...

.. .

.

----...........

.:I: :::-'::::f-t

:

.

..................... ........-.....

.:%-=:;

.

. . -.

.

...

'. "....

,:, fu;:::'=-z

. :1 a :: t-: g-f 1.: f '.: : N ::! :f , .

..

.

1.11

:

. . -' 'fs :: ";.-. --'M. . .f': . ... if -i; - 11 :f; . - .. :s. . . i . .: : . ., .1 . .. , .' . .:I-' . " . '. ; ; . . ..7 M s ' . ::- :n . .. :f..' .... 11: : t ...I. . -!: . .. ..:"! .

.?;f:::i!i'1:::.f::7.l'

.

.. 'I , ...

.

: .' z'. . . . . ", . .

.

. . . .:.:._'-;.:-.

:' !:

.:

. , '; .'.:" -,. -. t: . . .u: - 'Z': f. .i : . . .. -.. ::: I --,' I:

-.-:: . -,:. . . .

.

. .

ii-.

I"...""

: :: : '

.

: .

: -

.

.

,

'%::

. . .

.

158

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

ofthemonarchintothedivinerealmtendedto manifest itselfwithhybrid The assimilation theidentification withthesacredofRomeandtheimperial famdivineancestry,406 solutions: ily,and finally apotheosis.FromAugustusonward,all of theemperors weresituatedon a higherplane,and devotionto cultof thedead emperors-with obviousconsequencesfor a wayto showfidelity, and submission to theemperor reigning monarchs-became loyalty, tothisnewcult, wereerectedconnected andthestate.In all oftheRomanworldmonuments theappearanceoftheancientcity. modifying In 29 B.C. wasbuiltthefirst theDivusJulius. The templededicatedto a divinized mortal, ofthetemplecoincided withthecelebration inauguration ofOctavian's triumph overIllyricum, overMarkAnthony at Actium.The apotheosisofCaesarrepresented Egypt,and,especially, divifilius, a cardinalpointin Octavian'spropaganda.He couldby thismeanscall himself couldbe seentospringfromtheassumption ofhisfather toa seatamong whilehislegitimacy thegods.The titleaugustus, takenin 27 B.C., puthimintoan intermediate positionbetween menandgods,an ambiguous situation richin opportunities forpropaganda. as a god withvariousexpedients. In the However,Octavianavoidedpublicveneration oftheviciofRome,whichtendedtobe foundat crossroads, theimperial and compita family numesthatoffered as tutelary The cultoftheGenius itsgeniuswereworshiped protection. in Romein 12 B.C.,407whilein thesameyearwe find and oftheLaresAugustiwasinstituted evidence oftheimperial cultinEtruria, aninscription witha dedication toAugustus theearliest ofa priestly inthemunicipium ofNepet,members byfourmagistriAugustales collegefounded in thesameyear.408 Cosa and itsterritory havealso producedinscriptions ofAugustandate connectedto the imperialcult.409

ofthecult,410 thesanctuaries weregenerally builtneartheforum ofthecity.The Augustea, intheterritory first ofthesethatwe knowofwaserectedinthepagusstellatinus ofFerentium in4 or3 B.C. andwasreferred toas an [a]edes.411 Theidentification ofroomC as anAugusteum, The earliestpossibledateforsucha transformation however, posesa chronological problem. was wouldbe 12 B.C., theyearinwhichthecultoftheGeniusAugustiandtheLaresAugusti thepictorial instituted. tothenumerous between decoNow,wehavedrawnattention parallels rationandthatoftheVillaoftheFarnesina, a complexthatis generally datedto 25 B.C. This hiatusof thirteen givesa minimum chronological years,whichseemsa fairly longtimefora toretainanidentical A possiblesolution seriesofmotifs. be thededication workshop might of of theroomtooneofthenumerous virtues dear to such personifications Augustan ideology, as Pietasor Fortuna we knowthatthefirst Augusta; Pompeianbuilding withthisdedication was builtaround20 B.C.412Perhapstheclosestofthesecultsin timeto theFarnesinacomplexis thatofFortuna Redux:an altarwasdedicatedto thisvirtuebyvoteofthesenateon theoccafromSyriain 19 B.C.413It was erectedjustoutsidethePorta sionofthereturn ofAugustus Caesar had alreadystressedhis divineancestryin the goddess Venus. 406

407

Fraschetti 1990,260f.

408

Papi 1994, 139f.

Augustea,buildingsdedicated to the cult of the emperors,are also knownby othernames: aedes, aedicula, caesareum,sacrarium,templum.See Jouffroy 1986, 75f. 410

411

CIL XI, 3040= ILS 106.

This is the buildingdedicated to FortunaAugustaby M. Tullius, whose career dates to the early Augustan period (Zanker 1993, 97f.)

412

Manacorda 1979 foran analysis.CIL XI, 2631, now lost,refersto a magisterAugustaliswho erecteda statue or altarto Augustus. 409

413

Res Gestae Divi Augusti,11.

..

-~~~~~~~~

#

:~~~~~~~~~;

Colorplate1.Cosa:false-color airphotograph (Marcello Cosci).

...

4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .

Color plate2. Frescoesfromroom C: exedra(SN).

-

--

i

b

l

-

-

1

s

-

-s

s

-

H

_

w

-z

l

F

(SN). Colorplate3. RoomC, paneldecoration

(SN). andcolumn Colorplate4. RoomC, detail:architrave

.. _L. tE;

I

.

.

au;.-

l

.

K

I

.

.

.

i

!

-.

,.:

j .

r .

i.

*

.

.

L

i

! i

_

I

K

_

,

*.1

W

-

_.

__.

;S

M

qa_..

I

r

....

.

:.:._ ....

_

.

.

I____

(SN). exedraandgriffon Colorplate5. RoomC, detail,

Colorplate6. RoomC, detail, griffon (SN).

-

.

,1

.

.

I

.

fl_

i ;_!

i

j _

..

|

2

i j

1 _2_

l___

_

2

B |

1

Colorplate7. RoomC, detail, diademed head(SN).

border. Colorplate8. RoomC, detail,

frame withovoli. Colorplate9. RoomC, detail,

.......

... . ......

*

S -r

.: :::

~

----s::: -.-----.-.-. .-~wrrrlUlrr!"||llUllAl -. ........... ......... .:: x. s:, ..

, - ................................................ .... . ... ..

Plate91. Fragment ofdecorativewaterbasinC9676 (SF).

Plate90.Fragment ofdecorative water basinC9708(SF). The upper part of the haunch once carryinga head is broken away; the lower leg, which had brokenoffand been rejoinedwithan irondowel pin in antiquity, is also lost. Tracesof an acanthus ruffare visiblejust below the top break; towardthe top back, part of the joint face is preserved withremainsof the ironpins. Discussion: The leg and the stretcher(C9715) were both parts of a single table.503There are many survivingexamplesof such tripodprotometablesin Italy,mostdated to thefirstcenturyA.D.504All had round tabletopsmeasuringfrom73 cm to 125 cm in diameter;manyhad rectangularblocks underthe feet.The leg originallycarrieda protomehead as well. Tripod table stretchersare relativelyrarefindseven in Pompeii and Herculaneum,and onlya fewof thistype,withrectangular joins, are knownto exist.Pentagonaljoins are more commonin theJulio-Claudianperiod.505 Each join worked as follows:matchingholes were drilled into the joining faces at a right angle,and a shortirondowel pin was insertedto join thefaces.Below and parallelto theshortpin, a groovewas cut into the marbleacross the join, and an iron rod in the formof a shallow U was insertedintothisto forma clamp.The same double fasteningmethodwas used to repaira breakin one of the armsof the stretcher. 12. C9708 (pl. 90) Type of object: Fragmentof decorativewaterbasin. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 17 cm; W: 17 cm; Th: 2.5-3 cm. A well-knownexample withan intactstretcheris at the Museo Nazionale in Naples; see Richter1926, 139140; see also Deonna 1938, 45-48.

503

markin the formof a K.

For examples withrectangularjoins, see Moss 1988, cat. C30 (Lucus Feroniae, Villa of the Volusii) and C66 504 Moss 1988, type 9. See Moss 1988, 37-43; cat. Cl(Pompeii 1.6.11); on the occurrenceof various typesof C1 18. Especiallynotableis C22, foundat Cosa in Atrium joins, see Moss 1988, 40-41. BuildingIV (cat. C69285). In the centerwas scratcheda 505

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

201

Material:Graymarble. context: Stratigraphic 331. thesmoothly rimmoldingof a waterbasin.It shows Description: Thisfragment preserves finished invertical continuous thusthebasinencloseda void curvature sectionbutdoesnotcurvelaterally; The rim consisting of a cylindrical is smoothly segment. roundedin section,forming an ovolo moldingon theupperedgesurmounting twoshallowcymata. About4 cmbelowthemoldinga fragmentary bossprojectsfromtheoutersurface. Discussion:Thislabrumortub-shaped basinmaybe thecompanion ofthetwowhitemarblesupports foundintheshrine(C9676,C9708).Themarblehasanicy,bluishcastatthebreakssimilar tothat of somegradesof Luna bardiglio butmaybe the"marbrebleuatre"of somesimilarbasinfragin fact,appearson a Delianbasin.It reveals mentsin Delos. A virtually identicalmolding profile, thatthebosson theCosa fragment is thetopcornerofthehorizontal fortheseatingofa molding transverse support, as maybe seenin an illustration inW.Deonna,Le mobilier ddlien.506 13. C9676(pl. 91) ofdecorative waterbasin. Typeofobject:Fragment offragment: H: 13 cm;W:14cm;Th: 3-3.5 cm. Dimensions Material:Graymarble. context: 282. Stratigraphic The moldings on thisfragment aresimilar, Description:. butnotidentical, to thepreviouspiece.The rimis thesamesize,butthereis onlyone cymabelowit. Discussion:Themarbleofthetwopiecesisverysimilar, anditmaybe thatthefragment comesfrom the backofthesamebasin,wherethemolding waslesselaborate. HERMS

14. C9617 (p1.92) Typeofobject:Headlessdrapedherm. Dimensions offragment: H: 62 cm;W: 15-18cm;D: 13-14cm. Material:Fine-grained whitemarble. context: 227. Stratigraphic Description:The surfaceof frontand sides is verywornand was foundcoveredwitha layerof calciumcarbonate.The hermtapersslightly towardthebottom.The losthead was joinedto thehermwithan irondowel,partof whichis stillembeddedin the smooth,flatjoin of the neck.The sides are smoothand preservesmalldowelholes at shoulderheightforattaching armstumps.Theyare slightly a thinprojecting recessed,forming edge aroundtheperiphery. The hermwearsa chlamyspinnedto theleftshoulderwitha roundbrooch.On thefrontthe foldsfallin elongatedparabolaswitha flatzig-zaggededge alongtheproperleftside below thebrooch.The majorfoldsare schematically renderedas long channelscutwitha running drill. Discussion:Thisfineexampleofthe"Mantelherm" typefindsa reasonably closeparallelat Delos, butwithouttheextensive modelingand drilling ofthedrapery.507 Use ofrunning drillchannels as an expressive elementin sculpture is usuallyassociatedwiththelatefirstand secondcenturiesA.D.Here thetechniqueis mutedbya fairbit of modeling;certainly it is notintendedto drawattention to itselfas laterstyledictated.Hermbustsin PompeiiandHerculaneum dating 506

Deonna 1938, 78-80 pl. 113 right.

On Mantelhermtypein general,see Wrede 1985, 4. On the example at Delos, see Marcade 1969, A 6888, pl. XI. Its threeparabolicfoldsare renderedin an extremely

507

simplefashion,perhapsbecause thehermis unfinished. The sides are recessed in the same way as on the Cosa herm;however,the head, onlyroughlycarvedbut identifiablymale, is of a piece withthe shaft.

202

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

jAx :I,.. *1|\'

3ix!

Plate92. Headless drapedhermC9617 (SF).

Plate 93. Headless drapedhermC9618 (SF).

fromthemid-first to A.D. 79 oftenrevealthistechnique, century butforthemostparttheyareof importedcoloredmarbles.508 15 and 16.C9618 (pl. 93), C9687(pl. 94) Typeofobject:Fragments oftwomatching drapedherms. Dimensions offragments: C9618 (twojoinedfragments): H: 90.2 cm;W: 14-15cm;D: 12 cm.C9687: H: 21 cm;W: 13 cm;D: 12 cm. Material:Fine-grained whitemarble. context: Stratigraphic 240 (C9618);227 (C9687). Description: Bothwerecompletely straight, untapered pillarherms.C9618is preserved almostcompleteintwopieces,buttheheadis missing. C9687is thebottomfragment ofa matching herm.On is rendered inlowreliefonthreesidesandis pinnedwitha circular each,drapery broochattheleft shoulder. The drapery is represented in threeoverlapping tiers.On thefrontthetopand middle tierhangin acuteparabolasdownthecenter, whiletheirbottomhemsrevealsinglesymmetrical dovetailfoldsat eachside.The tiersarecontinued aroundthesides;on theproperlefttheycontinuethepatternofthefront, buton therighttheygivewaytowardtherearto verticalrowsof mirror-image dovetails formed bythejuncture ofthetwolateralhems.Thesecascadetwo-thirds of thewaydownbeforetapering out. The back is plain.C9618 has a largesocketbetweentheshouldersfortheinsertion of the head,whichwas notfound.It is shallowand rounded,finished smooth,withshallowconcave leftand right.On eachsideat shoulderlevelaredowelholesfortheattachment cuttings ofarm in a different stumps, possibly material. Theundersides ofbothareworkedflatwitha clawchisel; eachpreserves a longholeforattachment to a separatebase. 508

Moss 1988,159-162.

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

203

Plate94.Fragment ofhermC9687(SF).

17~. C9612; C960 (ot t

d

;C

e

Dimnionsoffamns seen

as

the

ws-eatofdemon;ic

llutraed i

commonly

9

:H

powersX

seen

7c;

and

in

early

W:..19c;D the

evil

Stian

eye,

h

ts

14 cm; dors.alpllr

were

often

removed

h

W: 8rcm; D 4scm. C

from

thepremisesor

thehed whc iscomlee exep fo of a pic was< wihtesatadhsXenboewyh middl Delos adcipdifrn. o6'f longtresss hanidentical, inwv comparandum: dule stad aon the shuler.: Discussion: but similar, againprovidesaTrcs byno means straight, draped Theshaf iswith undrnd a pilla run upteraie herm a fewparabolic foldsaxiall of drapery down the front.509 pillar Dsusson Th trae of ubudsole-eghairvalteem's liel idntt as Dionsus 17. C9612; C9680 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Fragmentsof two matchingherms. Dimensionsof fragments:C9612: H: 87 cm; W: 19 cm; D: 14 cm; dorsal pillar: W: 8 cm; D: 4 cm. C H:came 9680: 86 cm; 14 cm. Dina froW:a 19 sigl citen wher theywer evdetl throw in laeatqit.Sc:e cm; D: Material:Fine-grainedgraymarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227. farther down. C9612 Description:C9680 is an exactmatchforC9612, althoughthebreakoccursslightly is completeexceptforthehead, whichwas of a piece withtheshaftand has been brokenaway.The shaft,smoothand unadornedon the frontand sides, is brokeninto two joiningpieces above the middleand chipped in front.Traces of long tresseshangin wavydouble strandson the shoulders. The shaftis unadorned;a pillarrunsaxiallyup the rearside. Discussion: The tracesof unbound shoulder-length hair revealthe herm'slikelyidentityas Dionysus. The double strandsof hair on eithershoulder are a commonfeatureof Roman herms;a similar headless example with a plain shaft(except for a small hole for a phallus) is at the Maison du Foulon at Delos.510 The consistentabsence of all the herms' heads may be significant.Several herm heads on displayin the Cosa museum (none of them correspondingto the hermsfound in the House of Diana) came froma single cistern,where theywere evidentlythrownin late antiquity.Such methodical defacementis commonlyseen in earlyChristiancontexts."'lThe heads of pagan statues, seen as the seat of demonic powers and the evil eye, were oftenremovedfromthe premisesor 509Marcade 1969,pl. XIX, bottomright.The head,which

510

Marcade1969,pl. XVI.

5"

Taylorforthcoming, withbibliography.

is missing,was of a piece withthe shaft.

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

204

Plate95.Headlessherm bustC9673(SF).

defaced in order to deprive the demons of theirmalicious gaze. Even the human heads on the suovetauriliareliefmayhave been intentionally damagedor removed(see below,C96 15). The head of Diana, thoughseparatedfromthe body,seemsto have escaped thisfate. 18. C9673 (pl. 95)

Type of object: Headless hermbust. H: 12 cm; W:-18 cm; D: 9 cm. Dimensions of fragment: Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:275. Description:The conditionis intactexcept forthe missinghead. The bust is cut flaton the bottom, sides, and back. The verticalplane in back probablyextendeddown fromthe crownof the head. Part of the neck emergesfromthe shouldersand ends in a roughbreak. On eithershoulder,ends of a filletor vittafallonto the chest,doublingovernear thetipS.512There is no evidenceof fasteners or adhesives. Discussion: The bust is of a fairlycommontype.Small flat-backedhermbusts began to be produced in the mid-firstcenturyAD. and appear sporadicallyaround central and northernItaly.They typicallyfeatureheads of Dionysus, maenads, sileni,Hercules, Isis, and otherpopular types."53 Flat-backed hermbusts are oftensmall because theywere meant to be mountedon table supports or balusters of a contrastingmaterial.Completelyplanar on both back and bottom,and oftenthe sides too, theywere eitherfittedinto a deep rabbet cut into the upper frontedge of a singlepillar shaftor affixedto the top of a hermshaftand addorsed to a separatepillar supporting a table (see C9675). Excellent examples fromPompeii, still attached to theirtable herms, have similarfillets."4 Some flat-backedhermbusts remained freestanding,however.The busts at the House of Euxinus in Pompeii, forexample,were found displayedin a wall niche. The completelack of Fillets arrangedin thismannerare foundon numer- 514 Mus. Naz. Nap. inv. 12652: See Ward Perkins and ous hermbusts,not all of themof theflat-backedkind. Claridge eds. 1978, 139 no. 63. Pompeii Antiquarium: A good example, a freestandingHercules herm from Gnoli 1971, pl. 45. the Villa of Oplontis, appears in Jashemski1993, 300515Jashemski1993, 52-53 pls. 61, 62. 301 pls. 336, 341.

512

513

Zanda 1983, 59-71 pl. XIX 1-4.

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

205

intheform Plate96.Oscillum headC9613(SF). ofa silenus

evidence of fastenersor adhesives on the Cosa bust suggeststhat this too was displayed on its own. OSCILLA 19. C9613 (p1 96) Type of object: Oscillum: silenushead. Dimensions:H: 22 cm; W: 14 cm; Th: 7 cm. Material: White marble.

Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:The frontof the mask is carved fullyin the round; the back is roughlyhollowed out. It portraysa silenuswearinga vaguelydefinedgarlandor circlet.Facial featuresare typicallyexagcurls gerated,withprominentbrow ridgeand short,broad nose. The fullbeard has symmetrical and a veryprominentmoustache.The piece is completebut brokeninto threefragments. One of the breaksoriginatedat the smallhole drilledinto the top of the head, in whichpartsof the iron hangingeyeletare stillembedded. Discussion: Dramatic masks used as oscilla were finishedon one side only and hollowed out from behind."16Oftenthe pupils and mouthwere drilledthroughbut not in thisinstance.Oscilla hung fromchainsor cords in theintercolumniations of porticoes.Presumablythefinishedside ofmasktypeoscilla was meantto face the garden. 20 and 21. C9662, C9663(pls. 97 and 98). The fourfragments have been integratedby Erik Risserwith a reconstruction of the hindlegs of the feline. of an oscillum:pinax withreliefon both sides. Type of object: Four joiningfragments "6 Dwyer 1981, 129-130. For a thoroughdiscussionand

see Cain 1988. catalogue of Dionysiac Maskenreliefs,

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

206

pinaxrelief Plate97.Oscillum, C9662andC9663(SF).

Plate98. Oscillum,pinaxrelief

C9662andC9663(SF).

Dimensions (assembled): H: 17 cm; W. 22 cm; Th: 2.5 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:242 (C9662); 227 (C9663). Description: The rectangularslab, slightlyrounded at the corners,is carved in crude low reliefon both sides. Each reliefhas a somewhatirregularborder about 2 cm in width. On one side is depicted a felinepouncingto the righton a prostrateanimalof uncertainidentity.The otherside depicts a silenus mask in profilefacingright.The facial featuresare typicallyexaggerated,with a protrudingbrow and snub nose. The bald head wears a simple fillet,and the hair falls in a taperinglock behind the pointed ear. A thyrsosin the backgroundprojects illogicallyfromthe mask's forehead;a tympanum,onlypartlyintact,would have filledout the bottomrightcorner. The break at the top correspondsto a small hole drilled into the top centerfor an iron hook. There are no traces of paint.

Discussion: Relief pinakes come in two forms:those displayed in gardens upon columnar stands, such as the well-knownexamples at the House of the Gilded Cupids in Pompeii; and those that hung as oscilla in intercolumniations.The formerhave high reliefon one side and low on the

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

207 Plate99.Oscillum, pinax relief C9688(SF).

.9

9

_

Plate100.Oscillum, pinax relief C9688(SF).

A~~~~~~~~~~~~~

other,while the hangingtype has low, usually crudelycarved, reliefon both sides.51 Like this exampleand C9688, pinakestypicallyfeaturestockthemesrelatedto thetheaterand theDionysus cult-in thiscase, the silenusmaskwiththyrsosand tympanum.Whetherthe springingfelineon the otherside is meantto remindus of the panthersof Dionysus or is just a typicalferalscene is uncertain.In theirmodestway,the two tableaus on opposite sides of the slab evoke the tensions between wild and tame, sacred and human, terrifying and ridiculous,which so delighted the Romans in theirart. 22. C9688 (pls. 99 and 100)

Type of object: Fragmentof an oscillum:pinax withreliefon both sides. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 1r1cm; W: 10.5 cm;pTh: 2.5 cm. Material:Whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:285. 517

Ibid.;Pailler1982;Corswandt 1982.

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

208

Plate101.Suovetaurilia relief C9615(SF).

Description: Of the same originaldimensionsas C9662-63, this pinax survivesonly in a small fragment.The borders and carving.styleon both sides are indistinguishablefromthose of the other recoveredpinax. On one side, it depictsthe hind legs of an animalleaping right;on the other,the gapingmouthand corkscrewlocks of a tragicmaskin profilefacingright. Discussion: See the discussionforC9662-63. ALTARs 23. C9615 (pl. 101)

reliefof sacrificialprocession. Type of object: Fragmentary L: 46 cm; H: 38cm; Th: 11 cm; W. of fascia at bottom:5 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphic context: 251. Description: The slab represents a processional frieze fragmentin low relief on the front; it is crudely

picked flaton the back. It is brokenroughlyinto the shape of a batteredrectangle,witha large section additionally broken away diagonally from the top right corner. Enough is preserved to

show the fullheightof the frieze.A horizontalfasciamoldingalong the top is freshlychipped on its leftside. A second fascia near the bottomservesas the groundlineforthe relief,which is in good conditionexcept forsome abrasion and batteringon the most exposed surfaces.At some point afterthe friezewas broken,a rectangularhorizontalgroovewas cut crudelyintothe surface of the reliefjust above the lowerfasciaon the farright. The reliefis carved to an intermediatedepth; it representstwo victimariileading a thick-set bull fromleftto right.The bull is almostcomplete,onlythe veryend of its hindquartersand left hindleg brokenoffto theleft.Its two frontlegs are set squarelyon thegroundlineand farapartin profile,as much in resistanceas in progression.Its head is held high,again presentinga slightly reluctantdemeanor.It wears the dorsualeand sacrificialheadgear (perhaps); prominentdewlaps walks in tandemwiththe bull, his torso and upper legs obhang fromthe neck. One victimarius scured by the animal'smassivebody.His lowerlegs,in mid-stridetowardthe right,appear below the bull's belly;his batteredhead and shouldersemergein profilejust above the bull's back. Another victimarius, bare-chestedwith his tunic rolled down around his hips, stands to the bull's in frontal contrapposto.His rightarmextendstowardthebull's snoutto gripthe harness, right a his leftbalances a platterof sacrificialcakes. The head is lost,brokenaway at the top of the neck awayfrom along the diagonalfractureof theupper rightcorner.He leans intohis taskjust slightly,

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

209

a pendanttensionagainstthebull'sanchoredmass.The background thebull,generating is completelyplain. fora medievalgrave,carvedsidedownward. It Discussion:Thefragment wasreusedas theheadstone formpartof thedecoration of thehouse,althoughone mustaskwhenit thusdoes notstrictly in a medieval,and therefore contextmayacmovedthere.The fragment's discovery Christian, countforthedamagedoneto theheadsofthetwovictimarii.The entireupperrightcornermay to eliminate thattheevileyeofthispaganartifact havebeenbrokenoffpurposely anypossibility had at one time (in theformofa semifrontal gaze?)woulddisturbthedeceased.If thefragment in shape,itwouldbe easiertojustify in a metalsetting beenmoreregular itsapparent remounting forthegroovecut roughly intothefaceat thelowerright).We might (theeasiestexplanation horizontal therefore another conjecture groovein thelostupperrightcorner. Thefragment wouldappeartobelongtothedecorative ofanearlyjulio-Claudian superstructure altarassociatedwithone ofthetempleson theArx.51"Therearetwocompanion from fragments theArxnowin thesitemuseum, whichshowpartsofa bull,a sheep,and a victimarius moving fromrightto left.519 The presentfragment representsa sacrificialprocessionmovingin theopposite directionbut by no means in precise mirrorimage. In the museumfragments, a victimarius he is in thebackground,and thebull's leg positions overlapsthe bull in front;in thenew fragment are different. are thickerthanthenewlydiscoveredone, indicatingthat Moreover,thosefragments theywerenot all partsof a singlecontinuousfrieze.As in the opposingplaques of themuchlarger Louvre suovetaurilia,the two processionsmayhave servedas pendantson eitherside of a central element.The registeroftheCosa friezeis only23 cm highfromgroundlineto top moldingand was clearlydesignedfora smallmonument,probablya U-shaped altarsimilarto theAra Pacis in Rome. Althoughonlytheleft,or north,friezeis preservedon thealtarproperoftheAra Pacis, representing a processionfromleftto right,the south friezeprobablycarrieda similarprocessionin the opposite direction.This famousaltarcertainlyoffersa plausible precedentforthe physicalplacementof two pendantfriezes,one on the outerleftface and one on the outerright. The figuralgroupingis familiarin generaloutline,ifnot in detail,on manyImperialprocessional reliefs.The man leading the bull, thoughrenderedin a squat, short-waistedform,is of a clearlyrecognizabletypein Roman public reliefs.The earliestand perhapsthe best parallelis the victimariusof the terracottapedimentgroupingfoundnear the Via S. Gregorioin Rome, usually dated to the second centuryB.C.,520 but the typehas manycognatesand variantsin the Imperial period,even on the Ara Pacis itself. Althoughthe small Ara Pacis reliefis more sophisticatedin conceptionand execution,and depictsnot a suovetauriliabut rathera ritualfeaturingtwoheifersand a sheep,it revealsa kinship in conception,style,scale, and choice ofmolding.52' Unlikeso manyother"historical"reliefs,both the Rome and the Cosa friezesuse humanfiguressparinglyagainsta blank background.On the Ara Pacis reliefthe two aproned figuresbalancingtraysof sacrificialofferings in theirlefthands inviteimmediatecomparisonwiththe leading figureon the Cosa relief.There can be littledoubt thatthe Ara Pacis served,at least indirectly, as a model forCosa's altar. No fragmentsof the altar were found in situ on the platformof the Capitolium,only the settingscut into the pavement.However, twelvefragmentsof a Republican-eratufa altar with heavyquarter-ellipsemoldingswere recoveredfroma medievalwall on the Arx, and thesewere assignedto the Capitoliumaltar.Brownconjecturedthatthe altarremainedotherwiseunchanged when it was repositionedin the late firstcenturyB.C. to correspondto the temple'sorientation.522 Cosa II, 127. The Augustanaltarwas set square with the temple,unlike its predecessor,which had been off alignmentby about 45 degrees.

518

Ryberg1955, 106 pl. 35, who dates the fragments to the Augustanor earlyImperialperiod.

520

Kleiner 1992, 52-54, fig.36, and bibliography.

For good reproductionsof the Ara Pacis altarfrieze, see Conlin 1997, figs.240-246.

521

519

522

CosaII, 127.

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

210

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Plate 102. AltarvoluteC9623 and C9685 (SF).

A_

g

Plate 103.ColumnaraltarC9689 (SF).

But it is also possible thatan altarin the new style,clad in marbleand equipped withraised decorated panels on the wings,was installed at this time. About 3.1 m square, it could easily have accommodateda figuralfrieze38 cm highabove its crownmolding. The suovetauriliarelieffragmentgives us a sense of the hopeful and solemn nature of the Augustan refoundationof the town. It has been proposed that depictions of the suovetaurilia sometimescommemoratethe lustralritesinvolvingthe foundingor refoundingof a sanctuary.523 A rededicationof the town'ssanctuariesfollowingthe sack and abandonmentin the late Republic mayexplain the constructionof an Augustanwall around the forecourtof the Capitolium.524 If this wall was in fact a physicalmanifestationof the restoredtemplum,then its creationmay well be associated with the verysame suovetauriliaceremonythat is representedon the relief plaques. 24 and 25. C9623, C9685 (pl. 102), C9709 (not illustrated) Type of object: Matchingaltarvolutes. Dimensions of fragments:Diam. of volute: 7cm. Reconstructed,the cylindricalbolstersjoiningthese voluteshave a completelengthof about 32.5 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:227 (C9623, C9685); 340 (C9709). Description:A four-petaledrosetteconstitutesthe eye,a crisplycarved calyxthe pulvinus.The leaves are pinched in slightlyat the centerof the pulvinusto forma balteus. C9685 includes partof the fascia and cymamoldingthatran across the frontof the altar.A deep horizontalrabbethas been cut across the top of the voluteof C9709. Discussion: These are typicalvegetalvolutesfromthe side edges of a smallaltarof Imperialdate. Their reconstructedlength,32.5 cm,would constitutethe approximatetotalwidthof the altar. 523

Vermaseren1957, 1-12.

524

CosaII, 129-140.

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

211 Plate104.Smallsupport inthe form ofa feline legC9670(EF).

_

i

|

|

|

6

g':s

$~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......: .

.

.

26. C9689(p1. 103)

Type of object: Small columnaraltaror pedestal. Dimensions: H 27 cm W at top: 22 cm.

Material:Fine-texturedlimestone. Stratigraphiccontext:227. Description:Slightlylargerand betterpreservedthanC963 1, it has thesame generalfeatures.Base and echinusare partlypreservedbut are brokenawayin large sections. Discussion: Numerous examples of such pedestals, rangingfrom20 to 30 cm in height,have been recoveredin Pompeian houses. Typicallytheyare made of travertine, less commonly,of tufaor marble. Pernice refersto themas altars,and the lack of any evidence of fastenerson the upper surfaceof our own exampleswould seem to supportthisidentification.'2' Their small size makes themeasilyportable. 27. C9631 (not illustrated) Type of object: Small columnaraltaror pedestal. Dimensionsof fragment: H: 25 cm; W at top: 19 cm. Material:Porous limestone. Stratigraphiccontext:275. Description:Though badly broken,thispiece revealsa verysimplecolumnardesign,consistingof no morethana smoothcylindricalshaftwithsimplebell-shapedbase and echinus.The latterfeatures are mostlybrokenaway.Surfaceis somewhatpitted. Discussion: See discussionof C9689. MISCELLANEOUS MARBLEOBJECTS 28. C9670 (pl. 104) Typeof object: Small supportin the formof a felineleg. Dimensions:H: 10 cm. Material:Fine- to medium-grained whitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:75. Description: A veryfine,muscularfelineleg, low and squat in proportionsto support a horizontal 525

Pernice 1932, 70, pl. 42.1.

THE DECORATION OF THE HOUSE OF DIANA

212

.

~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~

...............

Plate 106. Decorativearchitectural frieze,C9671 and C9710 (SF).

relief C9718(EF). Plate105.Fragment ofvegetal

__...... ...... .....

element.Cut smoothon top and bottom,it bears no traceof adhesivesor fasteners.The condition is intact. Discussion: The purpose is unknown.Althoughprobablydesignedas a supportfora marblecandelabrumor similarfurnishing,'2the footwas neverattachedto a largerobject and musthave stood alone, perhaps as a small lampstand. 29. C9718 (p1. 105)

Type of object: Fragmentof vegetalrelief. Dimensions of fragment: H: 5.7 cm; W- 4.2 cm. Material:Fine-grainedwhitemarble. Stratigraphiccontext:333. Description: This small, irregular fragment appears to represent two heart-shaped (ivy?) leaves on a

singlestem. a mass of leaves,perhapsin a is doubtlesspartof a largerreliefrepresenting Discussion: The fragment in theshrineof Liber Pater festoon.Leaves carvedin a similarstylewerefoundon an altarfragment in Cosa.'2 The Rouse of Diana fragment maytoo have been partof an altar,perhapseven Diana's. 30. C9671a,b,c, C9710 (p1. 106) Type of object: Decorative architectural frieze. Dimensions of fragments: L: 15.5 cm; H: 19 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 23 cm; W: 18 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 19 cm; H:

15 cm; Th: 3 cm. L: 12 cm; H: 19.5 cm; Th: 3 cm.

Material: White marble.

Comparethe rathermoreelaboratefeetof two thebodiesoftheircandelabra. marblecandelabrain Cain 1985,cat.nos. 36, 49, pls. 1977,56 pl. 29. from 527 Collins-Clinton 52, 3-4. Theywereclearlyproducedseparately

526

SCULPTUREAND FURNITURE

213

Stratigraphic context:(C 9671a, b, c, ) 227; (C 9710)340. Description: Fourjoiningfragments ofa lotusandpalmette frieze.The stemofthepalmette is carved leaveson eithersideofthecentralstemoftheplant,whichrisesoutof withthreegently curving vineatthebottomoftheplant.The stemhasa centralridgelinethat thespiralsoftheconnecting diesoutattheroundedtopofthestem,atthetopofthepanel.Thelotushasa two-tiered blossom, outto jointhetopofthestemoftheadjacentpalmette. Molded withtheupperblossomcurving witha flatchiselwithwhatappearstobe finepolishing onboththeleafforms surfaces arefinished andthebackground is 3 cmhigh.Theback,bottom, andtop planesofthepanel.Thebasemargin arefinished witha flatchisel.528 ofthefragment

528

Jamgrateful toJeffrey Burdenforthisinformation.

Terracottas

ElizabethFentress

C9666 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Architectural fragment. Dimensionsof fragment: L: 6.5 cm; H: 19 cm; Th: 2 cm. Stratigraphiccontext:240. Description:Portionof whatappears to be a palmette. C9672 (not illustrated) Type of object: Terracottaentablaturefragment. L: 18 cm; H: 13.5 cm; Th: 6 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:292. Description: Upper portionof entablaturerevetmentwithovolo, dental mold, and small portionof rinceaufriezeintact.Clearlya miniatureof an architecturalentablature. C9711 (pl. 107) Typeof object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 15.5 cm; H: 13 cm; Th: 3cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:Maenad Campana plaque of typedescribedin Cosa II, 297 as "type2," withfemalehead, The edges appear to have been delibbust,drapery,arms,and tambourinepreservedon fragment. eratelycut to preservethe upper body of the maenad. C9717 (pl. 108) Type of object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 7 cm; H: 6 cm; Th: 3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:The same typeof plaque, witha clear attemptto preservethe head as the centerof the fragment. C9660 (pl. 109) Type of object: TerracottaCampana plaque. W: 5 cm; H: 12 cm; Th: 3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Stratigraphiccontext:340. Description:Head and bust of Minerva,preservinghelmet,upper shoulder,and fragmentof breastplate,derivedfromtheCampana plaque describedin Cosa II, 298 and pl. LV as "type5," Compare the stuccoed head of Minervafromthe Augusteum,pl. 69.5. DISCUSSION

The fragmentsof Campana plaques found in the destructionlayers of the garden certainlycame from the Arx, where they formed part of the decoration of the Capitoline temple. However, 214

TERRACOTTAS

215

thefactthatall threefragments are of heads suggeststhattheyare not chance findsbut were deliberatelycut out to decorate the fountainniche,beneathwhich theywere found,or for some otherapposite use in the area. The firsttwo would have fitnicelyinto the Dionysian of the templewould have provided themesof the gardendecoration.A majorrefurbishment the occasion fortheirreuse in the gardenof the House of Diana. The functionof the small terracottaentablatureremainsobscure: perhapsit belonged to a small structureor the little in the destructionlayermakesthisunlikely. shrineitself,but the absence of otherfragments Plate107.Fragment ofmaenad Campana plaqueC9711(EF). .As. .1sr~~~~~~~~~J

/-^F @g

$;-

**j

Plate 08.Fameto

,

;

mana Camn

t 1 r

plaqu C1

(E)

Plate109.Fragment ofMinervaCampanaplaqueC9660(EF).

PART IV

THE FINDS

ForumVI fromTempleE in Trench Terracottas RabunTaylor

C9542 (not illustrated) motif. Typeof object: Shell antefix,satyr/maenad Richardsonsubtype:Temple D phase I (Cosa II, 187-188, fig.12). Dimensionsof completeunit:Diam: 23 cm; H: 23.5 cm. H: 6.5 cm; W: 4.6 cm; Th: 0.9-1.8 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Fabric: Pinkishbuffexterior,deep orangecore; heavygrogof coarse red pozzolana. Similarto fabricB of TempleD (Cosa II, 184). Stratigraphiccontext:106. Description: Small fragmentof the leftedge of the antefixshield. Several strandsof the ivyrinceau reliefare visibleon the concave,frontalside. The edge has a simplebeveled finish. antefixtypeB known Discussion: The decorationand edge correspondperfectlyto the satyr-maenad fromTemple D. C9546, C9569 (not illustrated) Typeof object: Strigilatedsima. Richardsonsubtype:Temple D phase II (Cosa II, 199-200, pl. 28.2). Dimensionsof completeunit:H: about 30 cm; W: unknown. Dimensionsof fragments: C9546: H: 8.0 cm; W: 9.6 cm; Th: 2.2-3.5 cm. C9569: H: 8.4 cm;W: 15.3 cm; Th: 1.9-3.5 cm. Fabric: Buffwitha finepepperygrogof red pozzolana, clear and black quartz.Appears to be identical to the fabricof C9507, C9508, C9545, and C9580. Stratigraphiccontext:C9546: 106. C9569: 104. Description: The strigilsare narrow,closelyspaced, and slightlyconcave. Scoringmarksare visible along the top, definingthe mortiseforthe open cresting.The widthof themortiseis 2.2. cm. The back is verysmooth,withno tracesof mortaror strutsto attachit to the roof.The face of C9546 shows tracesof mortar. Discussion: The mortiseis wide enoughto accommodateeitherkind of crestingfoundin the vicinity. The mortaron the face of C9546 suggeststhatthefragment was reused as buildingmaterialin the vicinityof the temple. C9504 (pl. 110) motif. Typeof object: Open cresting,triskelion/figure-eight Richardsonsubtype:Capitoliumphase III (Cosa II, 240-242, pl. 38.1). Dimensionsof completeunit:H: 53.1 cm; W: 52.5 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: H: 10.8 cm; W: 12.4 cm; Th: 1.8-2.3 cm. Fabric: Pinkishbuffwitha verycoarse grogof red pozzolana, clear and black quartz. Stratigraphiccontext:101. patternflankedon eitherside by portionsof triskelia. Description:Part of a ribbonin a figure-eight

217

!

{

.

s

|

|

;e

vW.M>-fl.S-5R.X25

l

ws~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

--i

.

.............

l

|

l l l |l ..........!

|

l

.. PR9$SE92RL#R#$t-8$XMg.f..,..,l,,,..,-.-

!

......

. .... ... ................

............

.. .. . ..k., t,, ,;,...

~ ~ ~ ~~~ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...,

;

r

;S

....e....g'...>2

,

,

.

,

;

.....

} : . * -- .....

..~~~2:

i . . ...... ...

Plate111.Opencresting C9507,C9508,C9545,andC9580(RT).

TERRACOTTASFROM TEMPLE E IN TRENCH FORUMVI

219

withthetwosubtypes knownfrom Richardson's Discussion: Wewereunabletomakea directcomparison phasesI andIII oftheCapitolium (CosaII, 210-211,pl. 31; 240-242,pl. 38), butthefragment is associatedwiththe to thesubtype plainlysimilar to bothandcanbe ascribedwithsomecertainty armsandvoidsin relation to the earlierphaseoftheCapitolium bythepositionofthetriskelion arecutaway;buton thisfragfigure eight.Typically, thevoidsaroundthearmsofeachtriskelion armis cutawayonlyon one side,whilethevoidnearestto thewaistofthe ment,thepreserved Thedecisionnotto cutallthevoidswasprobably figure eightis simply represented bydeeprelief. does notfitRichardson's madeafterthemoldingprocesswas complete.Thisfragment template buta closeexamination ofthebadlydegradedfragments on thetemplate in CosaII, pl. perfectly, less 38.1 showsthattheyarean equallypoorfit.It seemsthatthefigure eightshouldbe somewhat on thedrawing. elongated thanitis represented C9507,C9508,C9545,C9580 (pl. 111) motif. Typeofobject:Open cresting, loopedpalmette Richardson subtype: TempleofJupiter phaseI (CosaII, 159-160,pl. 18.1). Dimensions ofcomplete unit:H: 31.2 cm;W:54.4 cm. Dimensions offragments: C9507:H: 7.2 cm;W: 8.0 cm;Th:2.8-3.2cm.C9508:H: 6.2 cm;W: 8.9 cm; Th: 3.0-3.4 cm.C9545:H: 8.2 cm;W: 7.6 cm;Th: 2.7-3.7cm.C9580:H: 6.0 cm;W: 4.7 cm;Th: 2.9-3.4cm. Fabric:Buffwitha finepeppery grogofredpozzolana,clearandblackquartz.Appearstobe identical tothefabricofC9546andC9569.Thepieceswereslipped,andtracesofsiennapaintorprimer are visibleon C9507. context:C9507,C9508:101.C9545:106.C9580: 151. Stratigraphic Description: C9507is a roughY forming thespandrelbetweentwoogivalpiercings on leftand right and a rimmed circularpiercingabove.The raisedrimis partofa continuous ribbonthatforms rowsofstaggered circles.A smallfragment, serpentine loops aroundtwohorizontal C9580,preservespartsoftherimsoftwoadjacentcircles.Thebestpreserved ofallthefragments, C9545is an almostcompletepalmette ofthesameplaquesubtype. fromthetop register It has no holefora meniscus. ofthiskind,has lostmostofitsreliefbutretainstheflareof C9508,anotherpalmette twopalmette leavesandthedistinctive Atitspeakis a hole dogtooth profileat theirculmination. The backsofall fragments fora meniscus. aresmoothandeven. Discussion:Thesefourfragments, all ofthesamefabric, associbelongto thepiercedcresting subtype ofthe"TempleofJupiter" atedwiththeoriginaldecoration (CosaII, 159-160,pl. 18). C9577,C9578 (pl. 112) Typeofobject:Revetment plaque,crossed-ribbon motif. Richardson subtype: TempleB (CosaIII, 162-163,pl. 116). Dimensions ofcompleteunit:H: 45 cm;W:51.7 cm. Dimensions offragments: C9577:H: 9.0 cm;W: 12.4cm;Th: 1.8-3.0cm.C9578:H: 9.0 cm;W: 10.9 cm;Th: 1.7-2.0cm. Fabric:C9577:Buff-colored witha grogmostly ofredpozzolanaofmediumcoarseness. C9578:Buff fadingto a greenish grayin thecorewitha medium-coarse grogofgraysand. context:151. Stratigraphic Bothfragments arefromtheanthemion Description: witha distancebetweenlotusblossoms register, ofabout5.65 cm.C9578 revealsa badlywornfasciaabovetheanthemion andtheendloop ofa ribbonbelonging to themainregister. The onefragmentary dentilon C9577is 3 cmwidelikethe finished dentilsofTempleB. Thebacksofbothareroughly scraped,thatofC9577showing traces ofmortar. Discussion: C9578, whichpreservespartof the plaque's leftedge, terminatesthe anthemionpatternin

THE FINDS

220

~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

... ...

.~~

..... ..;..,*

iS l,|, *,

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ................ ...............

_

. .._

Dimensions .........t: H .: o frag a

...... ........ ..... . ....

.......... . ..

: . ... .... .. ................ ..

;8.1.cm;.Th.2.0.25.cm :

......

.. .... .. . . i .A.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ S

...

Fabic Bufcooe

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

,',, ': ... ..... ... ', ........................................................... ". m U ,., ,,.'S,,,'^,

Plate112.Revetment plaquesC9577andC9578(RT). cla wSit coaL;rse' re-I'-';-''S-h0d pozln gro

preciselythesame place as thepreservedplaques fromTempleB. The mortaron theback ofC9577 indicatesthatit was reused in laterconstruction. C9584 (not illustrated) Type of object: Revetmentplaque (?), motifand subtypeunknown. Dimensionsof fragment:H: 4.4 cm; W: 8.1 cm; Th: 2.0-2.5 cm. Fabric: Buff-coloredclaywithcoarse red pozzolana grog. Stratigraphiccontext:172. i radiatefroma small round element.Brokenon all sides. leaves sarrow Description:Eight or n Traces of mortaron the back and one edge. Discussion: Possiblypartof a palmette.The presenceofmortaron one edge indicatesthatthefragment was brokenbeforereuse. C9509 (not illustrated) motifand subtypeunknown. Typeof object: Plaque sttu H: 5.7 cm; W: 6.0 cm; Th: 1.9-2.3 cm. Dimensionsof fragment: Fabric: Veryorangeclaywitha mediumgrogof red pozzolana and clear quartz; the presenceof black

quartziS minimal.

Stratigraphiccontext:101. Brokenon all sides. Description:Severalnarrowstriationsin a slightlyfannedarrangement. modeled by hand; it is motif a to be Discussion: This veryfragmentary loosely palmette piece appears series. of an architectural not part probably C9516 (not illustrated)

Typeofobject:Ex-votostatueorferculum(Richardson:Cosa II, 336-340;Cosa III, 197-199,pls.200201).

TERRACOTTASFROM TEMPLE E IN TRENCH FORUMVI

221

offragment: H: 3.6 cm;W: 6.8 cm;Th: 3.6 cm. Dimensions Fabric:Pinkishbufffabricwithinclusions; tracesoflightredpaint. Stratigraphic context:101. ofa corbelleddoubleortripletorus. Description: Crudelymodeledfragment totwofragments oflife-size Discussion:Thisisverysimilar ex-votos womeninHellenistic representing dressfoundnearTempleB (CosaIII, 197-199,pls.200-201).Thosepiecesevidently belongto a broadarmband.However, itis alsopossiblethatthismolding is partofa smallferculum, orstatuettebase,as describedin CosaII, 336-340.In eithercase it is not,properly speaking, partofan architectural terracotta scheme. DISCUSSION

While it would be presumptuousto argue that such a small samplingof architecturaland in all-provides a completeor balanced pictureof sculpturalterracottafragments-thirteen the decorationof Temple E, it is neverthelessremarkablethateverytypeof terracottaelementone would expect on a smallEtrusco-Romantempleis representedamongthefindings: antefix,rakingsima,open cresting,and revetment. Only the acroteriaare missing,but thisis hardlysurprising, giventhe extentto whichthe area has been disturbedand despoiled. The presenceof mortaron threeof the fragments mightsuggestthattheyhave strayedfromtheir source,but the templesof the Arx and the forum,which are some distanceaway,probably were not the source forthesematerials.A moresatisfactory conclusionis thatthe fragments were takenfromTempleE or its vicinity, were mortaredinto a medievalwall on the Eastern Height just to the east of the ancienttemenosenclosureof the temple,and foundtheirway back down to the templesanctuaryafterearthquakesdestroyedthe medievalstructures. If we followedthe old typology,529 we would say that the oldest architecturalelement associated withTemple E was the serpentine-ribbon cresting(pl. 110). Because fourof the eighteenfragmentsof this subtypefound on the Capitoliumwere in constructioncontexts forthe Capitoliumand therefore predatethatbuilding,Cosa II assignsit to the earliestphase ofthe "TempleofJupiter," 240-220 B.C. However,some fragments ofthissubtypewerefound in thefirelayerblackenedwithsoot and musttherefore havebeen on a templewhenitburned in 70 B.C. This broad chronologyis remarkableevidenceforthe physicaland aestheticdurabilityof some terracottasubtypes.It also shows thatwe cannotnecessarilydate a building accordingto the earliestknowndate of its decoration.Clearlythissubtype,even ifit was on the Capitolium,was in use beforethe Capitoliumwas built. Less controversialelementsare associatedwithtemplesB and D. First,the crossed-ribbon plaque formof Temple E (pl. 112) is the same as that of Temple B and can be dated accordingly.Second, the antefixfragmentfound in 1995 at Temple E is a subtypethat Richardsonassociateswiththe firstphase of TempleD. Third,the two strigilatedsima fragmentsare of the subtypeattachedto the second phase of the same temple.It can be suggestedthattherewas no second phase of pedimentaldecorationon TempleD. Indeed, all of it maybe original.But even if we must suppose thatone sima is older than the other,our subtypewould seem to have the betterclaim to antiquity:it is the smallerof the othertwo, and the refurbishment of TempleD, ifit took place, was presumablyintendedto amplifyits visual presenceon the Arx. Thus we have threeelementson TempleE thatcan be associated withthe beginningsof templesB and D. For criticismof the datingof this typologysee now Taylor2002.

529

222

THE FINDS

datesoftemplesB and D to theyears RussellT. Scotthas movedup theconstruction therecolonization TempleE shareddecorative immediately following ofCosa in 197B.C.530 withbothandhad a piercedcresting type(serpentine ribbon),whoseintroduction elements of theCapitoliumca. 160 B.C. We maytherefore demonstrably precededtheconstruction withtemplesB andD; thatis,itwas a concludethatTempleE is roughly contemporaneous the following productofthecolony'ssecondcreative phaseduringtheperiodofprosperity SecondPunicWar. offourdecorative one simasubtype, twocrestings, registers: TempleE had a minimum revetment evenby comparison to and a rectangular subtype.Beinga verysmallstructure on therakingcornicesofthepediTempleB, itprobably didnothavethreestackedregisters type,whichwouldnormally conments.The templeseemsto havelackeda looped-palmette The twofaqaderegisters, a simaabout30 cm stitutethelowestrakingregister. comprising highand cresting roughly 50 cmhigh,werealreadymorethanenough.A thirddecorative outofproportion to thedimensions register wouldhaveproduceda broadbandcompletely ofthepediment. sima-whichnormally wouldhavestoodfreeabove Instead,thestrigilated sufficed to revetthecornice.Thissimasubtype, witha flatback therevetment-probably well. The simaplaquesprobablywere and no struts,wouldhave suitedsuch a function and fastened likeordinary revetments directly to the punchedwithnailholesbeforefiring revetment plaquesservedto cover faceof thebeam.As on TempleB, thecrossed-ribbon mostofthehorizontal beams.

530

Scott 1992, 91-98.

Roman Minor Objects, 1990-1997

C. J.Simpson

T he itemscataloguedand illustratedhererepresentmostof theRomaninstrumenta

discoveredduringthelatestcampaignsof excavationat Cosa (Ansedonia, domestica infunction, theobjectsdisplaya greatvariety ranging Tuscany)from1990to 1997.Although to knifebladesandlead slingshots, theydo notexhibit fromarticlesofpersonaladornment anygreatwealthor sophistication. Perhapsthemostobviousconclusionto be drawnfrom ofCosa in theareasexcavatedwerefairly theobjects,in fact,is thattheresidents poor. A slightmilitary record.In additionto thelead slingpresenceis visiblein theartifact in theArx(73,74, 75,76, 77,78),therearethepeltiform buckle shotsfromtheexcavations in theseseemto reflect somewaythe loop (14) and theunusualpilumhead (72). Together, ofthecity.Slingshots oftheinhabitants occasionalwarfooting (glandes)arequiteapproprias a defensive ate in siegewarfare, whiletheshortpilummayalso havebeen appropriate is Themaininterest ofthisobject,however, weapon,as werespears,butthisis lesscertain.531 tosimilar the itsclose-thoughperhapsfortuitous-resemblance objectsfromTalamonaccio, nearbysiteoftheBattleofTelamonin255 B.C. inthefollowing sample. Also,therearecategories ofequipment thatareunderrepresented maleaspectto theinhabitants oftheareasinvestigated, As ifto emphasizea predominantly all thesecategories somehowrelateto women.For example,therewereno clearlyidentifiable hairpinsor earrings viewedamongtheartifacts fromtheexcavations underdiscussion. ifone acceptsthatthespinning ofyarnwasa woman'staskinRomanantiquity Furthermore, lackofloomweights and spindlewhorls(onlyone of (cf.Suetonius, Aug.64.2),therelative one category andtwooftheotherarerepresented here:20,21,22) suggests thatwomendid nothavea primary excavated.Inpresenceamongtheoccupantsoftheareasmostrecently wererecovered However,at leastone deed,no quernsor millstones duringtheexcavations. ofthefinger below(13) wasprobably wornbya smallerperringsdiscussedandillustrated catason,i.e., a womanor child,whilethereare also sevensewingneedlesin thefollowing whiletheseitemsandevidencemayattestthe logue(23,24,25,26,27,28,29). Nevertheless, recorddoessuggestthatthatpresencewasminimal. presenceofwomen,theartifact in thecatalogue(32,33, 34, 35, 36). Thisis to be exTherearefivefishhooks contained on-the sea. The artofwriting, perhapsevenlitpectedat a siteso closeto-and dependent ofmen,is represented inthefourstyli(38,39,40,41). eracy, thoughnottheuniqueprovince Mostoftheminorobjectsrecordedhereyieldlittleevidenceas to thedateofthelayers in whichtheywerefound.Thus,a commonrefrain formanyof the entriesis: "Date of uncertain." This is to be expected;in theMediterranean world,formostof comparanda: therewaslittleinnovation ofequipment here. represented antiquity, amongthecategories 531

Bishop and Coulston 1993, 52.

223

224

THE FINDS

Whenattention is turnedfromdatingtotheuseofa particular areaandlayer, therecord of theminorobjectsis forthemostpartequallyambiguous. One area and layer,however,

standsout: IX D, 17. There can be littledoubt thatthislayer,withits varied contents,was composed of domesticrefuse.The contextdates to the earlysecond centuryA.D. and contained articlesof dressor personaladornment(a brooch,2; a glass bead, 4; fingerrings,10), textileequipment(a loom weight,20; a spindlewhorl,21; a sewingneedle,27), a blade (43), and leisureobjects (a flutefragment, 66; a gamingpiece, 65). All the dimensionsare givenin centimeters: D. = diameter;H. = height;L. = length;T. = thickness;W. = width.Only those dimensionsare giventhatare appropriateto each object. An attempthas been made to illustrateas manyof the artifactsas possible by line drawings and the occasional halftone.While,fora varietyof reasons,not everypiece has been so illustrated(usuallyto avoid duplication),all categoriesof equipmentare representedin the accompanyingfigures. In all, the minorobjects recordedand illustratedhere are an impoverishedcollection. Indeed, it is noteworthy that,in relativeterms,not muchhas come out of the ground.Also, smalland poor as thiscollectionis, it mustbe noted thatthe presentationof smallfindshas not been a major concernin manyearlierexcavationreportspublished in Italy.Thus, it is hoped thatwhat followswill promotea more frequentpublicationof these objects,which give tantalizingglimpsesinto dailylifein the ancientworld.

Catalogue ARTICLESOF PERSONALADORNMENTOR TOILET (FIG. 109)

Brooches 1. Brooch(CG223) Excavations 1954:BldgC (curia),Forecourt SE (2),LevelI black.Copperalloy.L.: 3.1,Max.D. of chord:1.1.Onlypartoftheflatbowandthechordofthreewindssurvive. Onerowofbeadingflanks eitherside of thecentralspineof thebow.Cf.,fora closeparallelfromSan Giovannidi Ruoti (Basilicata), Simpson1997,no.64.Dateofcomparanda: beginning tolastquarter offirst century A.D. 2. Brooch(C9219) IX D, 17.Copperalloy.L.: 6.9; Max.T.: 0.8. Simplewirebroochwithpin(missing) issuingfroma three-chord spring.D-shapedloop to flattened catchplate.Fora virtually identicalchordat San Giovannidi Ruoti(Basilicata), Simpson1997,no.63. Cf.an exampleofthetypeatSettefinestre in theAgerCosanus,Fama 1985,233,tav.60,5. Not illustrated. Date of comparanda: end offirst firstquarterofsecondcentury through A.D. 3. Brooch(C9582) EH VI, 151.Copperalloy.L.: 6.5; Max.W.ofbow:0.9. Thebowandhingesurvive butthepinis Similarto Guzzo 1972,92, tav.III, A3. Butwithout missing. smallterminal disc.The Guzzo exseemto be tooearly.Date ofcomparanda: amples,however, uncertain. Beads 4. Glassbead (C9241) IX D, 17.L.: 1.4;Max.D.: 1.6;D. ofcanal:0.6. "Melon-shaped" withlongitudinal striations. Pale blue opacifiedpaste.Thisis a widespread typeofbead,whichis manufactured individually and

\jy

i/

1

5

~~~~~~~~~4

3

13

11

10

14

15

/

18

17

16

0

20

21c 19

21b

21a 0

5cm

loomweight,and spindlewhorl(AJD). Fig. 109. Objectsforpersonaladornment,

226

THE FINDS Plate113.Amber ringstone, engraved witha ship (Soprintendenze Archeologica dellaToscana).

'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

* ;fi 11_, ......................... .. . .

not by segmentation. Cf. (Verulamium, Britain) Charlesworth 1984, fig. 69-150, 172; (Coichester)

Crummy1983,fig.32-520/521,30;(Oberstimm,Germany)Bdhme1978,Taf.113-F28/f55;Berthelot 1995,5f. (Basse-Normandie,France); Simpson1997,no. 96 (San Giovannidi Ruoti,Italy).Date of centuriesA.D. comparanda:first-third 5. Glass bead (C9714) Forum V, 223. L.: 0.9; D. of canal: 0.7. "Melon-shaped" with longitudinalstriations.Pale blue centuriesA.D. opacifiedpaste. Cf. above, C924 1. Date of comparanda:first-third FingerRings 6. Fingerring(C9101) P5, 12. Copper alloy,withglass ringstone.D.: 1.6; T.: 0.7. Dark blue paste. Flat bottom;slightly curvedtop. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertainbut of long duration. 7. Intaglio (C9107) (pl. 113) Forum II, 1. Amber.Dimensions: ? Oval, withincised designof an oared ship or boat. The boat has a highsternand appears to be sailingto the right.The prowis less high.There is neithermast nor sail, but theboat seemsto be propelledby fiveoars (or has holes/shields)thatare represented the boat appears to be by incised lines like parentheses.If the ringstone is placed horizontally, sailingupwardat an angle of30 degrees.(The descriptionoftheobject,now missing,was supplied of shipswas a fairlycommonmotifon bezels and intagliosof by B. Fentress.)The representation the Greco-Roman world. Cf. Marshall 1907, 1200, PI. XXIX; Walters 1926, passim. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 8. Fingerring(C9137) N5, 5. Copper alloy. Ext. D.: 2.0; T.: 0.3. No distinguishing features. Cf. below, C9724; Feug:re

1994, 357f., fig. 150-2,5. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda: uncertainbut of long duration.

9. Finger ring (C91.39)

features.Cf. below,C9212; C9724. Not N5, 3. Copper alloy.Ext. D.: 2.1; T.: 0.2. No distinguishing illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertainbut of long duration.

ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997

227

10. Fingerring(C9212) IX D, 17. Copperalloy.Ext. D.: 2.3; T.: 0.2. No distinguishing features.Cf. cat. 9. Date of comparanda: uncertain butoflongduration. 11. Fingerring(C9231) termini IX D, 17. Copperalloy.Thin,penannular finger ring.Max. D.: 2.1; T.: 0.1. The spatulate as anearring. Thetermini are0.3 apart.Dateofcomparanda: tellagainstthisobject'sidentification uncertain. 12.Fingerringstone(C9350) curvedtop.NotillusEH VI, 7. Glass.D.: 1.3;T.: 0.6.Iridescent bluepaste.Flatbottom;slightly uncertain. trated.Date ofcomparanda: 13. Fingerring(C9724) The smalldiameter use ForumV, 0. Copperalloy.Ext.D.: 2.1; T.: 0.2. Roundedprofile. suggests features. Date ofcomparanda: bya smallperson,womanor child.No otherdistinguishing uncertainbutoflongduration. BeltEquipment 14.Buckle(C9589) ForumV, 75. Copperalloy.Max. W.: 5.6; H.: 0.7. Peltiform buckleloop withinturned, spiral The articleis roughly in generalappearance.Its outerfaceis decoratedwith termini. "hooflike" incisedpendanttriangle, puncheddot,andlinearornament. Theinterior edgeoftheloopis raised andmarkedwithlateralhatching. The article'sdecoration seemsto be veryslightly wornat that partoftheloop againstwhicha buckletonguewouldhaverested.Attachedto one oftheloop's termini is a smallcylindrical tubethatwouldoncehaveaccommodated thebuckleaxle.(A similar tubefortheotherterminus is missing.) The spiraledtermini oftheloop arecommonto military bucklesofthefirstcentury A.D.; fora goodparallelfrom Ocafia(Spain),Aurrecoecha Fernandez 1996,50 and54,figs.1-5,pl.2. Cf.,inaddition tothecomparanda citedat54,BishopandCoulston 1993,fig.59-15(Hod Hill),fig.40-2c,d (suspension loopsfromKempten, Velsen);Kiinzl1977, 180,fig.3 (Naples);Rajtar1994,93,Abb.6,7(undecorated, withextended rectangular axlesforthe buckletongues, butseealsofig.113-7,wheresimilar objectsareclassified as third-century A.D. equine Whiletheidentification equipment). oftheobjectas a first-century peltiform buckleofmilitary type is certain, theincisedandpunchedornament seemstometo be muchlater.Indeed,thedecoration inconception. seems"Germanic" Date ofcomparanda: lasthalfofthefirst century A.D. 15. Stud(C9539) X C, 6. Copperalloy.D.: 1.9.Appliqueforleatherbelt(?). Withincisedlinesandalternate circular arounda centralrivet/boss. protrusions Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. PendantandMetalChains 16.Pendant(?) (C9645) ForumV,223. Copperalloy.L. ofchain:ca. 6.3;L. ofpendant:4.0;Max.W.ofpendant: 2.0; Max. T. of chain:0.5. The pendant,withcentralcloison/boss, is fashioned with"heart-shaped" and thatarenotuncommon peltatecut-outs artistic in thethirdandfourth motifs centuries A.D. (For theuse ofthesemotifs on certaingroupsofbeltendsofthefourth century with A.D., sometimes centrally placed"ringanddot"ornament, cf.Simpson1976,198ff.) Thependantis suspendedby a chainoffinely crafted"loopin loop" copperalloywire.Cf.Higgins1961,15,fig.4b; Santrot 1996, 302ff.,fig.36 (Dax, Landes). Such chainsare comfortablein thefirsthalfofthefirstcentury

228

THE FINDS

"maisperdurent" (306). The Cosa ensemble's use is notsecure.Date ofcomparanda: uncertainbutperhapsthird/fourth A.D. (alsothedateoftheDax deposit). century A.D.

17. Chain(C9726) ForumV, 351. Copperalloy.L.: 5.1; W.ofchain:0.5; Ext.D. ofloop: 1.3.A "loopinloop" chain ofcopperalloywireverysimilar in execution to cat.16 above,whichsee forcomparanda. Thisis hungfroma penannular copperalloyloop. The termini oftheloop aresmoothandpointed.The object,therefore, maybe whatremainsof an earring-although suchan identification is quite uncertain. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain butperhapsthird/fourth A.D. century Cosmetic orSurgical Instruments 18. Scoop/Probe-Cyathiscomele (C9754) ForumV, 271. Copperalloy.L.: 5.7; W.:0.7; T.: 0.3. Drawnandchiseled.The centralpartofthe elongated scoop(probably forcosmetics as wellas forotherpurposes)is "olive-shaped" andconcave,withthetipbrokenoff.Atthejoinofthescoopandthequadratespiraledshaft, thereis bead andreelornament. Cf.Jackson1986,128f.,fig.4-30;id. 1994,202f.,ill.211-A4,A5,A6; Bliquez andJackson1994,144ff., cat. 145-184.Forthefunctions ofa cyathiscomele, Milne1907,61-63. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 19.Probe(C9636) ForumV, 19. Copperalloy,slightly corroded.L.: 14.9;Max. D.: 0.7. Like manysuchsurgical instruments 1986,132),thisobjectis double-ended (Jackson andtapersto a pointat eitherend. The centralportionis decoratedwithlaterally incisedornament ca. 1.0 apart.Cf. Bliquezand Jackson1994,215,ill.227-A56.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. ARTICLES WITHTEXTILESANDCLOTHING(FIG. 110) ASSOCIATED

LoomWeights 20. Loomweight(C9246) IX D, 17.Terracotta. D.: 6.2; Max.T.: 2.2. Disk-shaped weight witheitherfaceconvex.Thecanal fortheyarnis placedoff-center. Beigefabric.Theobjectwasfoundinthesamelayeras thespindle whorlandsewingneedle,C9245andC9252,below.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. SpindleWhorls 21. Spindlewhorl(C9245) IX D, 17.Terracotta. Ext.D.: 7.4; Int.D. ofcanal:2.1; T.: 2.3.Thisobjectis identified as a spindle whorl,eventhoughit is relatively large.The size oftheobjectand theinternal ofthe diameter canal,whichaccommodated thespindle,suggest thattheyarnspunwasrather heavyand,perhaps, coarse.Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. 22. Spindlewhorl(C9153) ForumII, 4. Terracotta. D.: 2.6; D. ofcanal:0.9. Biconical,flattened top andbottom.Diagonal combeddecoration on upperzone.Notillustrated. Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. SewingNeedles 23. Sewingneedle(C9012) ArxI, 18. Castcopperalloy.L.: 10.8;W. ofhead:0.5; T.: 0.3. Simple,thoughlong,copperalloy needle,presumably forrelatively thickmaterial. Tapering to a pointandwitha subrectangular eye at one end (0.7 x 0.2). Date ofcomparanda: uncertain.

~

Z

.~-

28

30

0

i:

'

34 1 ~~~3

32

23

35

3637

38

42I

43

39 40 44 0

5cm

andwriting withtextiles, associated Fig.110.Articles clothing, fishing, (AJD).

THE FINDS

230

24. Sewingneedle (C9102) withpointmissing.Eye formedby two P5,16. Bone. L.: 5.1; Max. W.: 0.4. Tapering.Fragmentary, overlappingdrilledholes immediatelybelow pointed conical head. Cf. Mercando et al. 1983, fig. 93, 222f. (Urbino [Pesaro], Bivio della Croce dei Missionaritomb 11); Fama 1985, 70, Tav. 18, 5 (Settefinestre);Carbonara and Messineo 1994-1995, 257, Tav. 89 (Via Nomentana,Rome). Cf. below, cat. 25. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:second centuryA.D. but of long duration. 25. Sewingneedle (C9147) withdistortedeye halfbrokenoff. Forum I, 3. Copper alloy.L.: 7.6; Max. T.: 0.3. Fragmentary, The lower threadguide is stillvisible.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 26. Sewingneedle (C9167) withpointmissing.Eye formedbelow 07, 4. Bone. L.: 4.1; Max. W.: 0.4. Tapering.Fragmentary, pointed conical head by two overlappingdrilledholes. Cf. above, cat. 24. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:second centuryA.D. 27. Sewingneedle (C9252) Eye (0.8 x 0.2) IX D, 17. Bone. L.: 8.5; Max. W: 0.6. Taperingslightly fromflathead. Fragmentary. Date ofcomparanda:uncertain. drilledholes1.4fromhead.Notillustrated. formedbythreeoverlapping 28. Sewingneedle (C9276) withpoint missing. Forum II, 12, Burial 60. Bone. L.: 3.4; Max. W.: 0.5. Tapering.Fragmentary, Eye formedbeneathslightlyconical head by two overlappingdrilledholes. Cf. below,cat. 29. Date of comparanda:thirdcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 29. Sewingneedle (C9279) IX D, 22, Burial31. Bone. L.: 3.2; Max. W.: 0.5. Tapering.Fragmentary, withpointmissing.Slightly conical head. Eye formedby two contiguousdrilledholes. Flanked verticallyby drilledholes of less than0.1 in diameter.For verysimilarexamplesat Urbino (Pesaro), Mercando et al. 1983, fig. (Period IV: "tardo-antico 93, 222F. (Bivio della Croce dei Missionaritomb8). Also at Settefinestre e medievale"), Fama 1985, 70, Tav. 13-6. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:of relativelylong duration;thirdcenturyA.D. and later.

OtherObjects 30. Pin (C9655)

to a point.Fragmentary, withhead ForumV, 242. Bone. L.: 5.6; Max. D.: 0.4. Taperinguniformly features.Date of comparanda:uncertain. brokenoff.No distinguishing

31. Hook (C9003) Arx 1, 18. Copper alloy.L.: 5.3; Max. D. of socket 0.7; T. of hook 0.1; D. of hook point: 0.6. Socketed. Of unidentifiedfunctionbut possibly used in the manufactureof textiles.Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH FOODSTUFFS

Fishhooks 32. Fishhook (C9180) ForumII, 13. Copper alloy.L.: 4.4; W.: 0.6; T.: 0.2. Elongatedstripofmetal,turnedat one end and sharpenedto forma hook. A tab at the otherend is perforatedforattachmentto theline. Use as a fishhookprobablyis a secondaryfunction.Date of comparanda:uncertain.

ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997

231

33. Fishhook (C9351) Forum V, 8. Copper alloy.L.: 3.9; W.: 2.2; T.: 0.2. Head slightlyflattenedforattachmentto the line. Singleinteriorbarb. Cf. Fama 1985, 65, Tav. 15-2 (Settefinestre); Jolyet al. 1992,316, fig.240 (Leptis Magna); Simpson 1997, cat. 289 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Also below, C9725. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 34. Fishhook (C9669) ForumV, 265. Copper alloy.L.: 2.9; W.: 2.0. Head slightlyflattenedto facilitateattachmentto the line. Fluke brokenoff.Cf. above, C9351; below,cat. 35. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:first centuryA.D. but of long duration. 35. Fishhook (C9725) Forum V, 370. Copper alloy.L.: 2.9; W.: 1.7. Spatulate terminusto assist in attachmentto the line. Single interiorfluke.Cf. above, cat. 33. Date of comparanda: firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. 36. Fishhook (C9730) Forum V, 381. Copper alloy.L.: 2.5; W.: 1.5. Intact. Similarto cat. 36 and the otherexamples above. Date of comparanda:firstcenturyA.D. but of long duration. Strainer

37. Strainer(C9595) Forum V, 125. Copper alloy.D.: 5.5; H.: ca. 1.0. Small concave disk,withtriangularsets of three holes placed at rightangles to each otherand separatedby a singleperforation.In the middle of the interior,there is a knob. Quite probably,this object served as a wine strainer.Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCLATEDWITH WRITING

Styli 38. Stylus(C9131) N5, 3. Cast copper alloy.L.: 9.3; W. of head: 0.5. With characteristicspatulatehead forerasure. Quadrate cross section taperingto a point. Cf. the authoritiesin Simpson 1997, cat. 216 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Date of comparanda:uncertain. 39. Stylus(C9648) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. Intact.L.: 11.1; Max. D.: 0.9; Max. D. of head: 1.0. Althoughthis object lacks the essentialdesideratafora stylus(a point togetherwitha spatulate head for erasure), the identificationis secure. Like one example fromCorinththe shafttapers to an oval head. Cf. Davidson 1952, 187,pl. 83-1362.The pointis 1.9 longto theabruptly uniformly widershaft(cf. Corinth,1364). The contextis thefillof cess pit of a tabernainterpretedas a wine shop, filledin the second centuryB.C. 40. Stylus(C9649) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. L.: 14.4; Max. D.: 0.8. Similarto C9648 above, but withhead brokenoff.The pointis 1.7 to the brink.Contextas above. 41. Stylus(C9650) Forum V, 271. Ivoryor highlypolished bone. L.: 9.3; Max. D.: 0.6. The pointis 1.4 to the brink. Head missing.Cf. above, C9648; C9649. Not illustrated.Contextas above.

232

THE FINDS

ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Weight 42. Weight(C9599) Massoftheobjectis undeForumV, 160.Copperalloy.H.: 2.5; D.: 2.0. Smalland "bell-shaped." Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. termined. BLADES, OTHER IMPLEMENTS,AND UTILITARIANOBJECTS(FIGS. 111-112)

Blades 43. Knifeblade (C9251) bladeforslicing.L.: 9.4;L. oftang:2.2; Max.W.:2.4; Max.T. ofblade: IX D, 17.Iron."Kitchen" totheblade,continues thelineofthe Thetang,thininrelation 0.3; T. oftang:0.6. Verycorroded. had beenexertedwhile as thoughsomeheavypressure upturned, noncutting edgeandis slightly uncertain butthroughout the slicing.Cf.Manning1985,114,pl. 54-Q42.Date of comparanda: RomanImperialperiod. 44. Knifeblade(C9704) ForumV, 329. Iron.L.: 18.8;L. oftang:2.7; Max. W.:3.1; Max. T.: 1.1;T. at point:0.5. Robust For slicingand chopping.The tangis shortin relationto bladewitha fairdegreeofcorrosion. uncertain thebodyoftheblade.Cf.Manning1985,115,pl. 55-Q49,Q56. Date ofcomparanda: butoflongduration. Mattock 45. Mattockblade(C9661)(fig.111) ForumV, 255. Iron.H.: 19.7; Max. H. of blade: 11.0; Max. W. of blade: 19.9; D. of hole for A mattock is defined, as is woodenshaft:0.4. Verycorrodedandfragmenting (sarculum) readily. an adze,byhavingtheshaftsetat rightanglestotheblade.In thisexample,thebladeis rectanguthanas a groundrather larandis widerthanitis high.One suspectsthatitwasusedforbreaking hoe fortillingalreadyworkedsoil.Cf.White1967,36ff.,fig.14;Manning1985,42, F8. The contextis a Republican layer. periodconstruction Awl 46. Awl(C9135) to a leather. rapidly Tapering ForumII, 4. Bone.L.: 7.5; Max.T.: 1.1.Probablyusedto puncture decoration tosuggest useoftheobjectas a drill.Cf.C9535,"Catapointatoneend.No "clinging" Date ofcomparanda: uncertain. Notillustrated. logueofMedievalArtifacts." Chisel 47. Chisel(?) (C9703) corrodedbuthasa spatuForumV, 186.Iron.L.: 12.1;Max.W.:2.7; T.: 1.7.Theobjectis heavily uncertain. lateendthatmakestheidentification probable.Date ofcomparanda: Mold 48. Mold (C9667) (fig.112) stone.L.: 23.1;Ext.H.: 7.1;Ext.W.:13.9;Int.H. 3.9;Int.W.:8.4.Heavy ForumV, 80.Unidentified In thattheobjectshowslittlediscoloration mold.Probably usedintileproduction. due trapezoidal in themoldandletdryto a "biscuithardness" to intenseheat,a singletilewasmostlikelyformed rectangle beforebeingturned outandfiredina kiln.Atthecenterofthemold,thereis aninscribed (2.9x 1.1)dividedintotwoequalparts.Interestingly, kilndebriswasusedtodecorate thefountain of theHouse ofDiana, wherethiswas found,althoughthe contextis Augustanperiodat thelatest.

45a

0>2,

/

45b (outside)

47

0

5cm

Fig.111.Mattock (AJD).

45c (inside)

48a

48b

0

5cm

Fig. 112. Mold forrhomboidaltiles(AJD).

ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997

235

ANDFiXTUms(FIG. 113) FURNISHINGS, FASTENINGS, Appliques 49. Applique (C9238) ForumII, 54. Copper alloy.Hollow castin theformof a dolphin.L.: 7.2; Max. W.: 3.3. For furniture (?). The object'sdeep greenpatinamaysuggesta highcoppercontent.Date ofcomparanda:uncertain. 50. Applique (C9550) EH VI, 151. Copper alloy.L.: 5.5; W.: 2.2. Pelta-shapedwithprojectionson the terminiand the center.For furnitureor a wooden chest. For a verysimilarobject fromCorinthdescribed as a possible "vase foot,"see Davidson 1952, 71, pl. 50-538. There,it is said to have been foundin a "Byzantinecontextbut perhaps [is] of the Roman period." There can be littledoubt thatboth objects servedthe same function.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 51. Applique (C9551) ForumV, 8. Copper alloy.H.: 2.4; Max. W.: 2.2. Hollow cast in theformof a front-facing feminine head. The hairis raisedon a highcentralbrow.A rivet(missing)puncturedthetop leftpartofthe applique while the metal was stillwarm or malleable-thus causing a dissectionon the interior surface.For furniture(?). Date of comparanda:uncertain. Keys 52. Tumblerlock/slidekey (C9653) ForumV, 242. Iron. L.: 5.9; T. ofbit: 0.9; L. ofbit: 2.1. At one end, thereis a simplering(D.: 1.7). At the otherend is a bit of threeteethset at rightanglesto the shaft.Given its smalldimensions, theobjectwas probablyfora wooden chest.Cf.Manning1985,92f.,fig.25-7 (pl. 41-054); Simpson 1997, cat. 315 (San Giovanni di Ruoti). Cf. also below, C9722. Date of comparanda:mid-fourth centuryA.D. but of long duration. 53. Tumblerlock/slidekey (C9722) Forum V, 349. Iron. L.: 6.7; T. of bit: 1.7; L. of bit: 2.9. Similarto C9653 above (see which for comparanda).Date of comparanda:mid-fourth centuryA.D. but of long duration. Handles 54. Buckethandle (C9525) Forum V, 92 (cistern).Iron, L.: ca. 24.9; H.: 1.3; Max. T.: ca. 1.0. Corroded bucket handle with upturnedtermini.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 55. Door handle (?) (C9592) Forum V, 78. Iron. L.: 14.5; Max. H.: 2.1; Max. W.: 3.4. Roughlytriangularobject withone end circularand pierced by a bolt. The identification is uncertain.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 56. Handle fragment(?) (C9642) Forum V, 222. L.: 3.0; T.: 0.5. Curved object withlongitudinalgrooves.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. MiscellaneousFixturesand Fittings 57. Binding(?) (C9333) Forum VI, 2. Copper alloy.H.: 3.1; W.: 3.1; T: 0.1; D.: 1.7. Fragmentary cast facetedcopper alloy cylindricalobject. Possiblyforstrengthening a wooden rod or actingas a piece of furniture itself. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain.

ls'.

4-.

'

.

:....

49b

50

49a

Y"

51 5cm

0

52 53

0

5cm

andfixtures fastenings, (AJD). Fig.113.Furnishings,

ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997

237

58. Cotterpin (?) (C9348) withone tapering Forum VI, 11. Hammered copper alloy.L.: 4.4; W.: 0.5; T.: 0.1. Fragmentary, armbrokenoff.L. of arm:3.1; Ext. D. of ring:1.0. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 59. Clasp (?) (C9705) Forum V, 330. Copper alloy.L.: 3.0; Max. W. 1.3; T.: 0.1. Thin metaltonguewithone end broken off;in two contiguousparts: a trapezoidalelementand a roughlycircularattachmentplate. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 60. Door catch (C9706) Forum V, 327. Copper alloy.L.: 3.2; Max. W. of head: 0.9; Max. W. of tongue: 0.6; Max. T. of tongue:0.3. A small object thatwas perhapsused forensuringthe closure of a verticallyhanging bivalve door. The attachmentring,whichwas attachedto the piece of furnitureby a wide rivet (Int. D.: 0.6), is set at rightanglesto the tongue.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 61. Nail (C9729) ForumV, 395. Copper alloy.L.: 7.6; T.: 0.3; D. of head: 1.2. This well-preservedand intactobject exhibitsno curvaturethatwould resultfromits being drawnfroma relativelyhard object-an itemofwooden furniture perhaps.Moreover,itslengthand thickness,indeed thematerialofmanufacture,suggesta functionotherthanbeingnecessarilyan elementin construction.Perhaps,therefore,thisis a "magical" nail withan apotropaicfunction.As such, it would have been set into a lintelor doorpostto ward offthe "evil eye." The identification, however,is quite uncertain,and is thus in the object included thismuch less speculativecategory.For a copper alloy nail witha similarfunction(thoughwitheach facetdecoratedwithincisedlinearornament),Simpson 1997, cat. 366 (San Giovanni di Ruoti,Italy). Date of comparanda:uncertain. 62. Seal (?) (C9668) ForumV, 222. Lead. D.: 1.8. Round object lookingmuchlike a coin and approximatelythe same size as a denarius.On the obverse,set slightlyapart,are thelettersS P. On the convexreverseare the contiguouslettersVVA. Cf. Tomlin 1991, 302 and 311, fig.8 (Piercebridge,England), fig.13 (KirbyThore,England). There is no traceof the tie. Date of comparanda:uncertain. ARTICLESASSOCIATEDWITH LEISURE (FIG. 114)

GamingPieces and Token 63. Gamingpiece (C9020) ArxI, 18. Unidentifiedstone.D.: 1.7. Flat on both surfaces.Not illustrated.Date of comparanda: uncertain.

64. Gamingpiece (C9104) P5, 16. Bone. D.: 2.0; T.: 0.1. Three concentricringswithina border.Compass hole in the center. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 65. Gamingpiece (C9250) IX D, 17. Stone. D.: 1.8; T.: 0.6. Flat bottom; slightlycurved top. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. Flutes 66. Flute fragment(C9244) IX D, 17. Bone. L.: 9.7; Ext. D.: 2.5; Int.D.: 1.9. Workedfemur(?). Three parallel grooves0.8

-

=~~~~~-

I

I 60

-

55

61

64 0

62 0

5cm

5cm

67c

67b

67a

70a

68

0

70b(top)

5cm

andarticles associated with leisure Fig.114.Furnishings (AJD).

70c (inside)

ROMANMINOR OBJECTS,1990-1997

239

fromend. To theside (0.9) oftheseis a blowhole,Max. D.: 0.9. As a hollowed-outbone objectwith incisedlaterallines,thisitemis similarin conceptionto Bassi 1995,47, fig.1-18.It is impossibleto reconstructthe sound produced when the instrumentwas intact.Nevertheless,given the large dimensions,one suspects thatthe pitch was low and the timbrewas somewhat"rounded." Not illustrated.Similarto directlybelow,cat. 67. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 67. Flute fragment(C9639) ForumV, 19. Bone. L.: 7.1; Ext. D.: 2.8. Workedfemur(?). Threeparallelgrooves1.2 fromend. Two fingerholes oppositeto one thumb(?) hole. Cf. above, cat. 66. Date of comparanda:uncertain. Tintinnabula 68. Tintinnabulum (C9179) IX D, 1. Copper alloy.RestoredD.: 2.3; H.: 1.6. Fragmentary conical bell, clapper missing.Two scored lines aroundbase. Cf. below,cat. 69. Date of comparanda:uncertain. 69. Tintinnabulum (C9206) Forum II Ext. NE, 0. Copper alloy.D.: 2.2; H.: 1.8. Round conical bell. Hole in the top forthe clapper (missing).Cf. also below, cat. 70. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:uncertain. 70. Tintinnabulum (C9656) ForumV, 242. Copper alloy.D.: 2.0; H.: 1.9. Fragmentary conicalbell. Iron attachment forclapper intact,but the clapper is missing.Similarto cats. 68, 69 above. Date of comparanda:uncertain. Molded plaster 71. Elephant trunk(C9658) Forum V, 271. Plaster (?). L.: 7.8; Max. W.: 3.4. Fragmentary; onlythe middlepartsurvives.It is formedand carvedrealistically.532 WEAPONRY (FIG. 115) Spearhead 72. Pilum (C9594) ForumV, 78. Iron. L.: 22.4; Max. W. ofpointbetweenbarbs:2.0; L.: ofshaft:19.0; W. ofshaft:1.2. Corroded but intactspearhead (pilum)withriveted,rectangulartang.Pila of thistype,withrectangulartangforattachmentto a wooden shaftby means of rivets,are usuallysomewhatlargeand weighty.The lighterpila are moreoftensocketed.Cf. Bishop and Coulston 1993, 48-5 1, fig.2 1-1, 3 (Numantia,Kranj). Slightlycloser parallels,but withwiderand flangedrectangulartangs,exist in thevotivedepositsfromnearbyTalamonaccio.Von Vacano 1988,46-56, fig.50, taf.XI. Date of comparanda:uncertain,thirdto earlyfirstcenturyB.C. Slingshot 73. Slingshot(C9001) ArxII, 4. Lead. L.: 4.1; Max. W.: 2.1. Biconical. Cast withone flatfacet.Not illustrated.Cf. below, cat. 74. For lead slingshotbulletsgenerally, see Greep 1987, 189-192 ("Lead Sling-Shotsin Classical Literatureand Archaeology"),fig.7-1. Not illustrated.Date of comparanda:firstcenturyB.C./ first-secondcenturyA.D.

This piece probablyderivesfromthe stuccoes on the ceilings.Its excavationpredatedthatoftheceiling,which

532

is how it came to be classed as a small findand drawn up in the same figures.

71

72

*-