Controversies in Tourism Edited by Omar Moufakkir and Peter M. Burns
Controversies in Tourism
Paper Irons responsible sources
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Controversies in Tourism
Edited by
Omar Moufakkir International Centre for Peace through Tourism Research (ICPTR), School of Leisure and Tourism Management, Stenden University, the Netherlands
and
Peter M. Burns Centre for Tourism Policy Studies (CENTOPS),
Tourism and International Development, University of Brighton, United Kingdom
0 bi
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Controversies in tourism / edited by Omar Moufakkir and Peter Burns. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84593-813-0 (alk. paper) 1. Tourism. 2. Tourism--Social aspects. I. Moufakkir, Omar. II. Burns, Peter (Peter M.) III. Title.
G155.A10658 2012 338.4'791--dc23 2011026536 ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 813 0
Commissioning editor: Sarah Hulbert Editorial assistant: Alexandra Lainsbury Production editor: Holly Beaumont Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY.
Contents
Contributors Acknowledgements
vii
ix
Introduction 0. Moufakkir and P.M. Burns
1
1 Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism: The 'Serious Fun of Doing Tourism' 0. Moufakkir
7
2 A Common Tourism Policy for the European Union: A Historical Perspective
23
S. Mehter Aykin
3 Authenticity and Commodification: The Selling of Mayan Culture in Mexico's Mayan Riviera A.E. Papanicolaou
41
4 Authenticity Versus Development: Tourism to the Hill Tribes of Thailand M. Novelli and A. Tisch-Rottensteiner
54
5 Controversies in Medical Tourism
73
D.G. Vequist IV, M. Guiry and B. Ipock
6 Ethical Issues in Trophy Hunting
86
J. Dobson
7 Ecotourism: A Maturing Discourse with Some Established Controversy
99
S.W. Boyd
8 Ethnic Panopticon: A Controversy in Aboriginal Tourism
115
P.F. Xie
9 Gaming in the USA: Historical Development, Controversies and Current Status 0. Moufakkir and D.F. Holecek
125
v
Contents
vi
10 Golf Tourism: The Case of Cyprus N. Boukas, G. Boustras and A. Sinka 11
12
144
Residential Tourism or Lifestyle Migration: Social Problems Linked to the Non-Definition of the Situation R. Huete and A. Mantecon
160
Surrealist Pilgrims, Melting Clocks in Marble Halls: Dark Tourism for a Postmodern World D. Craig and C. Thompson
174
13 The Golden Jubilee of Independence and Panafest in Ghana: `All that Glitters is not Gold'
186
E. Addo
14 The Ideological Role of Intergovernmental Organizations in the Promotion of International Tourism J. Ferraz
201
15 The Paradoxes of Tourism Encounters in the Mass Tourism Spaces of the Gambia H. Pattison
216
16 Tourism or Conservation? A Controversy in Chitwan National Park, Nepal K. Bhandari
229
17 Volunteer Tourism: Commodified Trend or New Phenomenon? A.M. Benson and S. Wearing
242
Conclusion
255
Index
259
Contributors
Dr Edward Addo, Assistant Professor, Tourism Department, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Grenfell Campus, Corner Brook, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Angela M. Benson, Tourism and Travel, University of Brighton, School of Service Management, Eastbourne, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Kalyan Bhandari, Nepal Centre for Tourism Research, Biratnagar, Nepal and School of Interdisciplinary Studies, University of Glasgow, Dumfries Campus, Scotland, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Niko laos Boukas, The School of Business Administration, European University Cyprus, Cyprus. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr George Boustras, The School of Business Administration, European University Cyprus, Cyprus. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Stephen W. Boyd, Professor, Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Ulster, Northern Ireland, UK. E-mail: sw.boyd@ ulster.ac.uk Dr Peter M. Burns, Professor, Tourism and International Development, Centre for Tourism Policy Studies, University of Brighton, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Don Craig, Professor, International Hotel Management, Stenden University, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr John Dobson, Senior Lecturer, Department of Tourism, Hospitality and Events Management, Cardiff School of Management, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Jorge Ferraz, Professor, Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril (Estoril Higher Institute for Hotel and Tourism Studies), Estoril, Portugal. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Michael Guiry, Associate Professor, Coordinator of Marketing, International Business and Business Law, H-E-B School of Business & Administration, University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, USA. Dr Don E Holecek, Professor Emeritus, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Raquel Huete, Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology I, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain. E-mail:
[email protected] Brian Ipock, Center for Medical Tourism Research, University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, Texas, USA.
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Contributors
Dr Alejandro MantecOn, Department of Sociology I, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain. E-mail: alejandro.mantecon @ua.es Dr Sibel Mehter Aykin, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences (IIBF), Akdeniz University, Dumlupinar Bulvari, Campus, Antalya, Turkey. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Omar Moufakkir, Professor, School of Leisure and Tourism Management, Stenden University, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Marina Novelli, Centre for Tourism Policy Studies, School of Service Management, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Anna E. Papanicolaou, Faculty of Humanities, Centre for Transnational Studies, University of Southampton, UK. E-mail:
[email protected] Helen Pattison, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, UK. E-mail: h.patissonl @lancaster.ac.uk Alexandros Sinka, Cybarco Ltd, Nicosia, Cyprus. Dr Craig Thompson, Academic Dean, International Hotel Management, Stenden University, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands. E-mail:
[email protected] Anne Tisch-Rottensteiner, Beluga School for Life, Thailand. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr David G. Vequist IV, Center for Medical Tourism Research, University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, Texas, USA. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr Stephen Wearing, Associate Professor, School of Leisure, Sport and Tourism, Faculty of University of Technology, Sydney, Kuring-gai Campus, Australia. E-mail: Stephen. Wearing@uts. e du. au
Dr Philip E Xie, School of Human Movement, Sport and Leisure Studies, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA. E-mail:
[email protected] Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Stenden University for giving me the opportunity to work on this book. I would also like to thank colleagues at the International Centre for Peace through Tourism Research. A special thank you goes to Julija Prigunova for her assistance through the journey. Also, our thanks to the following people at CABI for their support: Rachel Cutts, Holly Beaumont and Alexandra Lainsbury.
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Introduction Omar Moufakkir' and Peter M. Burns2 'Stenden University, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands; 2University of Brighton, Brighton, UK
Tourism is a dynamic global phenomenon:
contexts. As a caveat to the reader, no sin-
an agent of change, harbinger of controversy,
gle volume can hope to deal with all the issues, so the contents of this book repre-
and a significant factor in social, cultural and technical evolution. Such evolutions,
sent examples that set the stage for further
especially those driven by tourism, are cases to be identified and published. almost certainly followed by a variety of The 'classic' controversies derived induced controversies. In order to gain further insight into how societies and cultures
work and interact, critical analysis of the contexts, causes and consequences of the controversies is required. Failure to comprehend the basis of a tourism controversy may (more than not) produce myopic tourism development policies of the sort seen in countries ranging from Turkey to Kenya. At
worst, failure to recognize and deal with controversy can lead to the systemic failure of tourism to meet the expectations of investors, politicians and citizens. This book will make a substantial con-
tribution to the understanding of tourism controversies. Its purpose is to provide a platform for open debate and intellectual discourse with a variety of views on perceived controversies or manifest conflicts firstly within tourism (endogenous controversies), but also in the multidimensional contexts of environment and civil society
from, and rooted in, tourism such as dark/ thanatourism, inappropriate tourism development, poor tourism planning, exploitative employment, malpractice with tourism statistics, appropriation of heritage for tourism, unsustainable tourism, sport and mega events that overwhelm locales, sex tourism, gaming linked with organized crime, commodification of culture, are well established in the tourism literature, whereas contemporary or emerging examples (such as medical tourism, political tourism, tourism related to poverty, volunteer tourism, wildlife tourism) are less documented and somewhat under-researched in academia. Certainly, as there is a multitude of types
of tourism, tourists and stakeholders, the
is on established controversies in tourism and new and emerging conflicts, dilemmas,
controversies in tourism are both ample and widespread. For example, regarding development, Spretnak (1999) asks whether the discourse of development and action is simply a matter of economics rather than livelihood, positing that the real effect of modern development policies has been a substantive increase in the economic disparity between
paradoxes and disputes within tourism
the minority economically rich countries
(exogenous contexts). The focus of the book
©CAB International 2012. Controversies in Tourism (eds 0. Moufakkir and P. Burns)
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and the economically disadvantaged world majority. If development advances only the materialism conception of the world, the questions become: what are the objectives
Baum (2003, p. 118) asked whether sustainability as a concept has been 'hijacked by the tourism industry through eco-labeling and eco-selling', and by 'the prevailing model
and aims of development? Tourism's alleged contribution to devel-
of development and capitalism' (Mowforth
opment is widely accepted but a number of fundamental questions remain unanswered (Butler, 1996). Reid (2003) states that `Historically, however, tourism has not been a positive experience for all parties engaged in the development process, or treated all stakeholders in the enterprise equally. While trans-national corporations and entrepreneurs benefit greatly from tourism
tal and social impacts are not new to the
development, local people often bear the cost of that development without adequate
tension between the adventurous and the nature and culture of the local community
reward' (p. 1). More interestingly, according to Swarbrooke (1999), investment in tourism by foreign entrepreneurs is sometimes
(Ewert and Jamieson, 2003).
seen as undesirable by the international
community and may pose an ethical dilemma (although of course this flies in the face of the foreign direct investment argument put forward by development economists).
The controversies inherent in tourism development are also internal and external. External controversies are manifested in the development discourse that discusses the relational economic, cultural and environmental development interplay between the Majority World and Minority World (Burns and Novel li, 2008). Internal controversies are manifested inside the 'black box' of tourism policy and planning (Hall 1994; Veal,
2002). Policy and planning decisions in tourism are shaped by the complexity and diversity of the tourism environment (Holden, 2005), which encompasses interest groups beyond financial stakeholders, to also include residents, businesses, arts and humanities, cultural and natural resources, protection advocates, civil leaders, and professional designers and planners (Gunn and Var, 2002).
and Munt, 2003, p. 113). While environmen-
tourism industry, they can be exacerbated by
newly developed types of tourism supposedly developed as alternative to the most damaging mass tourism. One of these niches is adventure tourism. In the adventure tourism setting, due to the need for pristine environments, often intense connection with the local population and culture can stimulate
The purpose of this brief overview is to lift the lid on the rather disorganized box of tricks that frames tourism's obvious and not so obvious controversies. To reiterate, many volumes would be needed to include all the existing controversies in tourism. The
present volume then enables authors to present and discuss controversies with the idea of providing readers with a cohesive (if not fully comprehensive) perspective on tourism and its many controversies.
Content Overview
In the introductory chapter, Moufakkir sets the scene of the book by initiating a discussion about the nature of freedom in leisure and tourism. Discussing the moralization of
tourism, he proposes that while some authors are enthusiastic about this moraliz-
ing drive for a more ethically oriented tourism, others have criticized the oversimplification of this moralization, maintaining that there is too much criticism of mass tourism while too much credit is given
Looking at tourism through the sustain-
to alternative types of tourism, which are
ability prism, like many authors, Butler
perceived to be but micro solutions to macro
(1996),
for example, has noted that its major binary divide, concept and practice are mired
problems. The author stimulates a discussion about the controversies related to eth-
in contradictions and controversies, when discussing preservation and development issues. Among several others, Conlin and
ics in tourism in a style that will set the ground for the discussed controversies in this book.
Introduction
3
In the first case (Chapter 2), Aykin
institutions to recognize the substantial
examines controversies related to a com-
added value provided by the hill tribes to
mon tourism policy of the European Union. Most of the studies addressing the extent of the European Union's involvement in tour-
Thai tourism, tourists to be made more
ism and the depth of its tourism policy argue that the European Union must play a
proactive role in tourism, while the rest worry about centralization, claiming that the existing political framework is effectual
and sufficient. This chapter attempts to assess approaches of various groups to a common tourism policy of the European Union from a historical perspective, with a
special emphasis on the recent developments brought about by the Reform Treaty.
Moving from complex European politics to the equally complex controversy of tourism, social identity and culture, Papanicolau (Chapter 3) discusses the con-
troversies surrounding tourism and the commodification of culture. She uses the case of tourism to Mexico's Mayan Riviera the 130km stretch of land situated directly beneath Cancun, in Mexico's Yucatan peninsula - to illustrate her analysis.
Launched by state officials in the middle 1990s, the destination was designed to conjure up images of a 'Cote D'Azurian' sophistication blended with the 'culture' of one of
the most celebrated civilizations of the Americas: the Mayans. Although Mayan communities have resided in the interior of the peninsula for centuries, they had been largely excluded from the tourist gaze until the end of the 1990s, when the 'selling' of culture, particularly authentic Mayan culture, began to gain ground. Drawing from fieldwork data gathered in 2009, this chapter examines this phenomenon, looking at issues of commodification, marketization
and authenticity in the context of tourist attractions premised on the (re)presentation of culture, particularly Mayan culture. In Chapter 4, Novel li and Tisch-
Rottensteiner contribute a case study that focuses on the extent to which tourism leads
to local development or whether the tourists' quest for authenticity holds back development. By using the hill tribes of Northern
Thailand as a representative case, their study highlights the need for governmental
aware of what to expect, how to behave and how to interact when travelling to the locality, and finally, the need for tour operators to exercise their moral and ethical obliga-
tions to ensure that tourism truly benefits local communities. Another sort of moral or ethical dimen-
sion is dealt with by Vequist, Guiry and Ipock (Chapter 5) who focus on the medical tourism industry and some of the interesting controversies that underlie the growth of this industry. Defined as individuals travelling outside of their immediate geographical
area and even across international
borders to obtain healthcare, medical tourism is a growing type of tourism. Medical tourism is suggested to be a rapidly growing industry and is affecting traditional healthcare delivery in many ways that are not yet fully understood. The authors provide insights into the controversies in the field of medical tourism and also determine what categories of controversies are well covered and which areas still need more research. Discussing the controversies surround-
ing wildlife tourism and trophy hunting, Dobson (Chapter 6) offers an overview of the definitional dilemmas with which this `leisure activity' is faced. He then presents arguments in support of this activity and arguments against it, and looks at trophy hunting from an ethical lens to analyse the trophy-hunting debate. Definitional ambiguities also frame the ecotourism discourse even after 20 years of research. Issues related to definitions, the context and spaces in which ecotourism takes place frame Boyd's analysis of the controversies related to ecotourism in Chapter 7. Returning to the question of social iden-
tity and cultural ethics, Xie (Chapter 8) argues that the popularity of aboriginal tourism has created a series of tensions and conflicts when ethnic culture is commoditized as a tourism resource. This chapter proposes a term 'ethnic panopticon' by using Foucault's eye-of-power to describe a controversy when
aboriginal resources are used for tourism. Through the concept of ethnic panopticon,
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0. Moufakkir and P.M. Burns
the participant/observer becomes the object to view and be viewed. The argument is that aboriginal tourism involves technologies of gazes in order to create, reify and reinvent a fantasy world of cultural difference for tourists' consumption. It has investigated an aboriginal folk village on Hainan Island, China, where tourism has become the major source of income.
Casinos have always attracted controversy and Chapter 9 sees Moufakkir and Holeck attempting to delineate major controversies surrounding casino gaming devel-
opment, and discuss in-depth a set of important issues. The authors argue that despite the proliferation of casinos, especially in the USA, whenever and wherever casino gaming legislation has been introduced and discussed, heated debates arise between gaming's advocates and adversar-
ies. This is partly because of the activity itself, which still connotes moral, religious, economic, political and social issues, and partly because of how the benefits are dis-
tributed. The authors conclude that it is, however, difficult, if not misleading, to discuss the impacts of gaming in general terms because different casino development models generate different outcomes. While many of the chapters in this book
are concerned with issues of culture and nurture, Chapter 10 takes on a major environmental issue with Boukas, Boustras and Sinka discussing the case of Golf Tourism in Cyprus. The overdependence of Cyprus on
tourism, the decrease of tourist flows, and
the recent economic crisis harming the Cypriot tourism sector are some of the major issues that have emerged as being in need of
coping strategies. While Cyprus has been
facing a water shortage for a number of years, the official tourism policy response aims to reposition the country in the global tourism market with the development of a number of world-class golf courses. This is inherently controversial, leading to strong disagreement between various parties. Although the construction of golf courses could be a solution for the economic recovery, there is no denying the potential ecological disaster resulting from this government policy decision. The chapter
aims to discover different views for this issue based on recent data from different perspectives: tourism and environmental planning, marketing and policy, crisis management and sustainable development. Finally, it gives alternative solutions in order to harmonize any possible contradictions resulting from this strategy. The concept of residential tourism has
been used since the late 1970s to explain the transformations brought about by the construction of property and expatriate homes in tourist areas, and the configuration of two types of human mobility: tourism and lifestyle migration. In Chapter 11, Huete and Mantecon present their research, which has been carried out in the Alicante province (Spain). A total of 872 face-to-face interviews in the respondents' homes were
conducted. The operational classification presented here could become a useful tool in resource management and regional planning. It is worth noting that the towns where such process has been more intense experi-
ence great difficulties in explaining the complex system of residential mobility types with which they deal on a daily basis. The description of the mobility types here
identified can also help to justify the resources necessary for the local administration of these areas where the boundaries between tourism and migration are blurred. Addressing a major aspect of tourism controversies, Craig and Thompson (Chapter
12) examine the phenomenon of dark tourism, and, in doing so, distinguish different degrees of darkness and therewith seven destination categories: sites of mass murder and genocide, war museums and exhibitions, graveyards and cemeteries, simulated dungeons, battlefields, slavery tourism and re-enactments. To satisfy curiosity and its educational aspect are of utmost importance and to some degree Dark Tourism is finan-
cially beneficial to any destination. The chapter goes deeper into the contribution of
media and how the so-called 'CNN phenomenon', global communications, social media and technology encourage deathrelated events to be reported in real-time, thus creating a frisson of excitement that
has the potential to turn into tourism.
Introduction
Furthermore, it clarifies why one experiences observing violence and death as 'enjoyment'
5
instead of the tourist gaze. Exploring the complexity of becoming a 'host' in The Gambia, she has been able to (re)inscribe meaning to the term gaze with its (largely) one-dimensional utilization within tour-
and how this experience differs from time to time and from tourist to tourist. Returning to the field of politics and tourism, Addo (Chapter 13) addresses the controversies surrounding the significance of events with a focus on Ghana's celebration of colonial independence. Celebrative events, like independence anniversaries and festivals, are ubiquitous in sub-Saharan Africa and often linked to European colonization and trade in commodities and slaves that characterized the sub-region over five centuries. Ghana, the first country to gain independence from colonial rule in the sub-
chapter, binaries of 'us' and 'them', 'subject' and 'object' are deconstructed as the host's paradoxical gaze upon the West is manifested in host-tourist encounters that
the event and some
interests at the heart of the matter. In Chapter
Diaspora-related festivals. The 50th independence anniversary and Panafest, a Diaspora-related event, are the focus of this chapter. The events are economically, cul-
16, Bhandari reflects on whether tourism
region, celebrates
turally and politically significant to Ghana's tourism industry. However, the experiential
ism studies, and (re)conceptualize the traditional host-guest paradigm. In this
are dynamic, ambivalent and complex. The end result is the creation of a confused heterogeneous place. Conservation has also been a significant
controversy in tourism with conflicting and conservation in Nepal's Chitwan National Park can exist in mutual harmony. His case study examines conflictual issues between tourism entrepreneurs and conservation activists. He looks into the case of the
economic, political and ethnocentric controversies surrounding the events tend to overshadow their cultural significance.
renewal of a 15-year contract to operate concessionaires within Chitwan National
The ideological role of intergovernmental organizations on the promotion of inter-
left more than half a dozen hotels (eco-
national tourism has caused controversies
as governments try to balance regional objectives with national self-interest. In Chapter 14, Ferraz uses content analysis to investigate one of the most significant declarations and propositions of the main intergovernmental organizations regarding
international tourism during the past 50 years: he assesses its ideological dimensions. His findings support the assumption
that the discourses of intergovernmental organizations sustain the ideological nature of international tourism whilst promoting topics, products, practices and tourism models that contributes to an unequal interdependence between the different societies at stake, benefiting the most developed ones.
The tourist gaze will be familiar to
Park that became a national controversy and
lodges) inside the park shut for 6 months. His chapter identifies four dimensions to understand this controversy and offers recommendations for policymakers and other stakeholders engaged in the tourism planning process.
In Chapter 17, Benson and Wearing argue that volunteer tourism has become a global phenomenon, with market predic-
tions indicating growth in both size and value and with this growth has come the inevitable controversies that surround new trends or phenomena. They explain that in examining this phenomenon there is a need to examine a wider agenda beyond that of its size and growth. This chapter attempts to
build around the ideas on the volunteer experiences from both their experiences and the experiences of the communities
tourism and cultural scholars in its original form set out by John Urry in his semi-
with which they interact. They also suggest
nal work. However, in Chapter 15, Pattison turns the concept upside down by visiting
aligned
the paradoxes of tourism encounters in The Gambia, with a focus on the host gaze
that volunteer tourists cannot solely be with neo-colonialism or neo-
liberalism. Volunteer tourism sits at the intersection of a great many areas such as mass tourism, international development
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and sustainability, and as such it is essential that we do not isolate our ideas to singular
theories, approaches or practices, as this would then limit our ability to research and
appreciate this phenomenon. This chapter
provides an overview of this area and attempts to provide the reader with an analysis of its function and characteristics.
References Burns, P. and Novel li, M. (2008) Tourism Development: Growth, Myths and Inequalities. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. Butler, R.W. (1996) Problems and possibilities of sustainable tourism: the case of the Shetland Islands. In: Briguglio, L., Butler, R., Harrison, D. and Filho, W.L. (eds) Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States: Case Studies. Pinter, London, pp.11-31. Conlin, M.V. and Baum, T. (2003) Comprehensive human resource planning: an essential key to sustainable tourism in small island settings. In: Cooper, C. (ed.) Aspects of Tourism. Classic Review in Tourism. Channel View Publications, Clevedon, UK, pp. 115-129. Ewert, A. and Jamieson, L. (2003) Current status and future directions in the adventure tourism industry. In: Wilks, J. and Page, S.J. (eds) Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium. Pergamon, Oxford, UK, pp. 67-84. Gunn, C.A. and Var, T. (2002) Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases. Rout ledge, London. Hall, C.M. (1994) Tourism and Politics: Policy, Power and Place. Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK. Holden, A. (2005) Tourism Studies and the Social Sciences. Routledge, London.
Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (2003) Tourism and Sustainability: New Tourism in the Third World, 2nd edn. Routledge, London. Reid, D.G. (2003) Tourism, Globalization and Development: Responsible Tourism Planning. Pluto Press, London. Spretnak, C. (1999) The Resurgence of the Real: Body, Nature and Place in a Hypermodern World. AddisonWesley, New York. Swarbrooke, J. (1999) Sustainable Tourism Management. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. Veal, A.J. (2002) Leisure and Tourism Policy and Planning, 2nd edn. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK.
1 Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism: The 'Serious Fun of Doing Tourism'
Omar Moufakkir' 'School of Leisure and Tourism Management, Stenden University, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
Introduction It is no longer good enough to travel footloose and fancy free. Tourism is accompanied by constant warnings to limit one's behaviour and to be ethical. From the environmental group Arc's pamphlet 'Sun, Sea, Sand and Saving the World' to Friends of the Earth's advice to question whether you 'need' to travel at all, tourism is now the terrain of moral codes and not a little guilt-tripping. The often impulsive and reckless desire to strike out across Europe or further afield is no longer a good enough reason. A love of music, dancing and drinking provides no defence against the charge of immoral tourism. Excess moral baggage has to be lugged around if tourism is to be acceptable to some. Butcher (2002, p. 71) Now the mass of mankind are evidently quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts. Aristotle (Book 1, Chapter 5) In the words of poet Alexander Pope: `Amusement is the happiness of those who cannot think.' Goodale and Witt (1991, p. 3) The only lesson of morality appropriate to childhood, and the most important for every age, is never to harm anyone.
The very precept of doing good, if it is not subordinated to this one, is dangerous, false, and contradictory. J.J. Rousseau (Book 1, p. 104).
Like the cover, quotations do not necessarily do justice to the content of a book; neither do
they justify the meaning of its thesis when taken out of their context. We use quotations, however, to give sense to our thinking, sup-
port our ideas and guide our reasoning. The
selected quotations are profound in their meaning. They are complementary, yet different and possibly contradictory. They are used here to epitomize the controversies
surrounding the theme of this chapter tourism ethics. They are all concerned with freedom - the freedom to have, to be and to become.
Freedom and Tourism
Perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation are central to any definition of leisure (IsoAhola, 1999) and could also apply to definitions of tourism. Bregha (1991,47) asks since leisure and freedom are in a profound rela-
tionship, 'does freedom, in fact, mean the ability of doing what one wants to do when one wants to? Is professional intervention in leisure services enhanced or limited by the
©CAB International 2012. Controversies in Tourism (eds 0. Moufakkir and P. Burns)
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ethos of freedom?' Many questions arise in relation to the moralization of tourism. To what extent are tourists free? Are mass tourists freer than those engaged in alternative tourism? To what extent is the moralization of tourism antithetical to freedom? Should
tourists behave ethically in their tourism action? Leisure scholars have examined such
concepts as leisure in one's life and education for leisure. Is tourism any different from
leisure? What is freedom in this sense? Leisure scholars talk about deviant leisure or
purple recreation (see, for example, Rojek, 1999). Is there something which might be termed deviant or purple tourism? Leisure scholars talk about the leisure ideal (see, for example, Goodale, 1991; Dustin and Goodale, 1999; Sylvester, 1999). Is there something
like the tourism ideal? It is unfortunate that tourism academics have not yet taken full advantage of leisure studies, and that leisure academics themselves have not given the needed attention to tourism in their assemblage of importance. This chapter is about the role of ethics
in tourism. It is not about ethical tourism
business involves commercial enterprises organized and financed on a scale large
enough to influence social and political decision making. Putting aside the social and political implications, production and consumption, and what comes with them, including possibly profit, competition, labour, exploitation and corruption, we can simply focus on tourism as big business from a demand perspective with the number of international tourists forecast to reach 1.6 billion by 2020. Most tourism commentaries regard this as a great achievement for
tourism stakeholders. Others argue that `Wariness rather than celebration typically
accompanies accounts of the growth of travel for leisure' (Butcher, 2002, p. 7). To Butcher, it is 'this emphasis on tourism as a
cultural and environmental problem that informs the moralization of tourism' (2002, p. 7). Should it not?
The concern here is not about the number of tourists per se, and neither is it about their behaviour, more than it is about
the attitudes displayed in their tourism
wrong, then what is right and what is wrong
activities. Some would argue that tourists are human beings before they become tourists, and that human beings are guided by a set of moral principles that affect how they make decisions and lead their lives. These
about tourism, including mass/package
principles concern the past, present and
tourism and its alternative types? The central question of this chapter is whether or not there is a place for moral considerations
tourism education. I have also asked many (normative) questions, but could not answer
future of humanity, and they forge our attitudes and behaviours towards becoming, if not more human, then a little less animallike in our lives (Neulinger, 1990). The concern of those who support such thinking is about moulding the behaviour of the 1.6 billion tourists who will be travelling the earth to visit famous, familiar and less familiar places. Some of them will stay close to home while others will boldly go where few have gone before. Some will follow in the footsteps of the explorers, taming
them all. After all, ethics is about wrong
the continents - their people, flora and
and right; who are we to decide what is and what is not?
fauna - and be driven by a constant need to find and cross new frontiers.
(Weeden, 2002), which may be defined as a type of niche tourism that has some ethical
elements to it. If ethics is about right and
in tourism. I will argue that while some authors criticize the moralization of tourism (e.g. Butcher, 2002), paradoxically, tourism stakeholders do not seem to bother simply because this moralization is not suf-
ficiently visible. I will then argue for more
education about the ethics of tourism in
The Moralization of Tourism
Tourism has an effect on people and the environment. Tourism is big business. Big
The Moralisation of Tourism by Jim Butcher (2002) has set the ground for this
chapter, which is rooted in the ethical approach to leisure and leisure studies. Tourism is indeed an agent of change, for better or worse. 'Tourism produces change.
Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism
9
It changes the tourist, the tourist site, and the economy of the host community' (Godbey,
cheap and to hell with who or what is exploited to get the price down.' A few
p. 213). The nature of this change
authors have also indicated the irony that
should not go uncriticized. Some have shown frustration with what is seen as exaggerated
`despite the frequency of our everyday use of
criticism of mass tourism (Butcher, 2002),
affairs as right or wrong, good or evil, just or
others have sought to uncover the limitations
unjust, and so on, such evaluations often
of alternative types of tourism (e.g. Liu,
seem to carry little weight with key decision
while a few lament not only the ethical deficit in our tourism behaviour but in our lives (e.g. Smith and Duffy, 2003). This is what Dea Birkett has to say on the cover of The Moralisation of Tourism: `Don't go on your next holiday without it'. Certainly, others might say if you think about
makers' (Smith and Duffy,
1994,
2003),
the future, this book is a 'must read', not only because of what it says, but also because of the opposite of what it says. Could some-
thing like the serious fun of doing tourism save the world - if not the day? Indeed, 'a noble task, yet also one that is bound to lead to confusion if performed by those who are not free themselves' (Bregha, 1985, p. 48). The Paradox: The Ethical Deficit in Tourism
ethical terms to describe certain states of
2003, p. 8).
Moreover, forms of tourism that are alternatives to mass tourism and which claim to be more responsible have been criticized for an almost exclusive focus on localized, small-
scale development projects which rarely transcend local or regional boundaries, or on particular industry sectors (Sharpley, 2000).
As tourism is a global phenomenon, critics of alternative types of tourism have indicated a need to go beyond niche marketing, and to incorporate ethics into tourism in general (e.g. Butler, 1998; Sharpley, 2000; Tribe, 2002; Liu, 2003). On the other
hand, some commentators have argued that because of the problems associated with mass tourism, tourists are moving away from the 'traditional irresponsible'
The ethical deficit seems to be a feature of
towards more responsible, 'green' (Krippendorf, 1987), 'new' (Poon, 1993), `ethical', 'environmentally responsible',
many areas of modern society including
`good' (Swarbrooke and Homer, 1999),
public policy, scientific research and business practices. 'Some consumers even doubt the applicability of ethics to such areas at all' (Smith and Duffy, 2003, p. 8). Some authors lament the ethical deficit while others enthuse about the new ethical orientation of tourists. While some organizations have developed codes of ethics (e.g. WTO, WTTC, UNEP and the Tourism Industry Association of Canada), others have indicated their discontent with such endeavours, and oppose 'the vocabulary of the New
`enlightened' (Tearfund, 2002), and 'experiential' (King, 2002) types of tourism. This
shift has reflected and enhanced recent
respecting local customs or acting responsi-
interest in the ethical conduct of the tourism industry and tourists. For Krippendorf (1987) green tourism opposed development of an area without proper planning. Green tourism protects fine landscapes, reuses existing buildings and sets limits on the amount of development in an area. Where possible, only residents of the area operate as developers. The economic, ecological and social issues surrounding tourist development are all considered rather than just the economic ones. Traffic plans favour public transportation. Developers are required to bear the social costs of their development, and the architecture, historical sites and natural sites are retained even if they are an obstacle to tourism growth (Godbey, 1994, p. 213). Is there an element
ble while on holiday ... They also want it
of moralization in this vision?
Moral Tourist' (e.g. Butcher, 2002, p. 71). In response to an early Tearfund (2002)
report which indicated that tourists have become more interested in alternative types of tourism, Josephides (2002), the managing
director of Sunvil Holidays, argued that `British tourists have absolutely no interest
in supporting a host country's economy,
0. Moufakkir
10
The argument that any form of responsible travel, if not tourism ethics in general, remains a myth (Josephides, 2002) is coun-
tered to some extent by those who claim that ethical principles create for tour operators who embrace them an opportunity for competitive advantage (Tearfund, 2001; Weeden, 2002; Goodwin and Francis, 2003). Tearfund's (2000) UK Market Research
Report indicates that many consumers would opt for a tour company that offered positive guarantees, and would be willing to pay more for their holiday if necessary, and that tourists want more information
about their destination so that they can behave responsibly and support the local economy. Similar research conducted by Tearfund in 2001 and more recently TUI (2010) shows a rising demand for ethical holidays.
The Irony of the Moralization
crowded, frivolous' (Butcher, 2002, p. 21). Mass tourists are criticized and caricatured as 'unthinking and blind to both the damage they do and the better time they could be having if only they would adopt more ethical practices' (p. 19). While mass tourism is one of the outcomes of technological ingenuity, prosperity and democratization, it now carries more negative connotations than positive ones. However, if the negative impacts of tourism are generally attributed to visits to developing and economically poor countries, the outcry against mass tourism is ironic, considering
the comparatively small number of tourists who visit Africa, South East Asia or Latin America, or even underdeveloped regions in Europe. In 2009, international tourist arrivals reached 880 million (Europe: 459.7; Asia and the Pacific: 181.2; the Americas: 140.7 with North America topping 92.1; Africa: 45.6; and the Middle East: 52.9). International tourism generated US$ 852 billion (611 billion)
Butcher is, rightly, infuriated by critics
in export earnings (Europe: 413; Asia and the Pacific: 203.7; Americas: 165.2, of which 118.9 goes to the USA; Africa: 28.9; and the Middle East: 41.2) (UNWTO, 2010). In 2020
dehumanizing mass tourism while exaggerating the value of alternative types of tour-
the regions that will be receiving the lowest number of tourists are in developing coun-
ism. The irony is that it is the democratization of leisure and tourism that has brought them
tries. Why then should we warn people
to the masses, and that this so much desired achievement has become part of the problem rather than the solution. Paradoxically if we do not moralize tourism what can we
perate need of tourist flows, new dollars,
do to minimize the problems emanating
impact on the culture and environment of
from its impacts? (see also Brian Wheeler, 1991, when he argued that responsible tourism is not the answer to tourism problems). Many countries have adopted tourism as a strategy for economic development and increasingly have chosen to develop their tourism product and aggressively promote tourism resources to attract more tourists. However, tourism has also been recognized as having negative impacts on host communities, their cultures and natural environ-
the host peoples both by virtue of their
of Tourism: Mass Tourism
against visiting these places that are in desinvestment and development? Graburn (1989, p. 35) believes that mass
tourists 'are likely to have the greatest greater numbers and by their demands for extensions of their home environments for which they are willing to pay handsomely'. Macleod (2004), however, argues that these tourists 'do not mix with local people and, therefore, are less likely to have deep cultural influence on them than the 'alternatives' who, although smaller in number, do actually interact with the host community at a more personal level' (p. 221). Tourism is not only about business and development. It is also about discovery.
ments (UNEP; UNWTO). Most of the negative impacts are attributed to mass package tourism. It is the most common Tourism can bring cultures together to benefit type of tourism, perceived and criticized as `crude, homogenous, insensitive to hosts, involving resorts that alter the landscape,
from each other. There are many studies of tourism encounters, cross-cultural behaviour and understanding in the tourism literature.
Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism
11
More recently, a revival of the tourism and peace proposition has been making progress in academia, politics and policy. Yet tourists
It may be argued that the role of tourism in shaping, re-shaping and negotiating between cultures is negligible, considering that even
are advised not to get too close to endogenous
remote parts of the world have access to television, the Internet or mobile phones.
populations to safeguard local cultures and environments against culture contamination. However, can the tourist ignore cultural diversity? How can we suppress the desire to
visit other cultures and mingle with the locals, a motivation that is so much appreciated by the proponents of alternative tour-
ism, and yet remain distant? How can we live in a rolling transparent bubble without
Where communication has no borders, one must seriously question the role of tourism in both mass and alternative forms - and its
impacts on shaping cultures for better or worse. There is one thing to acknowledge here: tourism does at least have the potential to bring people closer to the authentic, when the authentic is desired.
Is tourism to blame for culture fluidity,
Butcher asks: 'But what is deemed to be so wrong with package [mass] tourism?'
a process which is praised by a lot of people?
The development of the mass tourism
guilt feelings, even when contact is minimal?
Box 1.1. Famous quotes depicting controversies in tourism (different sources). 'Traveling makes a man wiser, but less happy.' Thomas Jefferson
The fool wanders, a wise man travels.' Thomas Fuller
Your true traveler finds boredom rather agreeable than painful. It is the symbol of his liberty - his exces-
sive freedom. He accepts his boredom, when it comes, not merely philosophically, but almost with pleasure.' Aldous Huxley 'Though there are some disagreeable things in Venice there is nothing so disagreeable as the visitors.' Henry James
'A man who leaves home to mend himself and others is a philosopher; but he who goes from country to country, guided by the blind impulse of curiosity, is a vagabond.' Oliver Goldsmith
'I am not much an advocate for traveling, and I observe that men run away to other countries because they are not good in their own, and run back to their own because they pass for nothing in the new places. For the most part, only the light characters travel. Who are you that have no task to keep you at home?' Ralph Waldo Emerson The traveler sees what he sees, the tourist sees what he has come to see.' Gilbert Keith Chesterton
in travelling a man must carry knowledge with him, if he would bring home knowledge.' Samuel Johnson
'Life on board a pleasure steamer violates every moral and physical condition of healthy life except fresh air. It is a guzzling, lounging, gambling, dog's life. The only alternative to excitement is irritability.' George Bernard Shaw
'Tourism is like fire. You can cook your dinner on it; or it can burn your house down.' Anonymous 'Tourism is like being a little bit pregnant. It's fun getting there - but it poses increasing problems as the child grows and threatens to take over the parent.' Richard Butler 'Tourism is like a secularised or unconscious form of pilgrimage, and the attitude of the pilgrim, the 'intention to learn', should be consciously reinscribed into tourism.' Rupert Sheldrake
'Tourism is like seasoning on food. Some can make an improvement; a little more can make it perfect. A lot ruins it and makes a good thing disgusting.' Anonymous
if you are motivated by a relief that tourism is prone to damage cultures and environments, wouldn't you be better off at home?' Jim Butcher
'Those who do travel are advised to 'travel well' -to seek out and revere the culture of your hosts ... but not to get too close, for fear of offending cultural sensibilities.' Jim Butcher 'Tourism is like a bridge. It connects our countries and it can connect people to each other.' Karen Chen
0. Moufakkir
12
industry has brought needed development to many poor regions and poor countries. However, this positive aspect of mass tourism has been overshadowed by the negative aspects, which are too often exaggerated. In his book, he identifies many interesting facets of the exaggeration and the ironies that follow it. Alternative Tourism
One response to these ethical tensions has been the recognition of the need for sustainable tourism, generally defined as manage-
Mcleod (2004) argues that, despite their smaller numbers, alternative tourists such as backpackers can have a greater influence
on a local community than mass package tourism, because of 'the propensity for alternative tourists to mix more with the locals,
communicate with them, meet them on an equal level (not customer servant), spend money on services provided by local people (not owned by big business) and enter into emotional relationships with them' (Macleod, 2004, p. 221). This contrasts directly with the views of Smith (1989) and Graburn (1989) who attribute the greatest
impact to mass tourists because of their
ment to ensure that its benefits can be numbers, economic clout and tendency to enjoyed by consumers without adverse expect Western amenities. effects on the environment that maintains and nurtures the industry, and also that it
can be enjoyed by future generations
The Irony of the Ironies
(Hawkes and Williams, 1993; Frank and Bowerman, 1994; WTO, 2001). Under the Criticizing the moralization of tourism and umbrella of sustainability, several forms of discussing the ironies surrounding this tourism have emerged as alternatives with moralization is one thing; but the irony of
the objective to minimize the negative impacts of tourism and optimize the posi-
tive ones. Liu (2003), however, suggests that
so-called sustainable forms of tourism are not fulfilling their promise to transform the way in which modern conventional tourism is conducted, that they are mainly promoted for marketing rather than conservation purposes, and are 'at best a micro solution to what is essentially a macro problem' (Liu, 2003, p. 471). It is noted that even relatively small-scale niche types of tourism can have serious negative impacts (Smith and Duffy, 2003, p. 135). Ecotourism, sustainable tourism, green tourism, alternative tourism and most recently community tourism [and ethical tourism] have been presented as morally superior alternatives to package holidays. The package holiday revolution, celebrated by some, is increasingly condemned as destructive by a host of campaigns, academics and commentators. Butcher (2002, p.1)
Refuting the claim that mass tourism (e.g. Graburn, 1989; Smith, 1989) has a greater impact on the local community,
these ironies is that this moralization dwells
in books and journals and hardly ever reaches the target. So, the moralization of tourism and its critique is thus much ado about nothing. The majority of consumers have absolutely no knowledge about this moralization, ethical tourism or ethics in tourism. This tendency is also apparent in tourism education programmes. Some may
even argue that this deficit is in itself
immoral, knowing the effects that the negative impacts communities.
of tourism have on
Consumers' knowledge about ethics in tourism
Most of the time, when we talk about the negative impacts of tourism, the term 'sustainability' emerges. According to a survey by TUI (2010) of 3887 respondents from eight countries, over one-half indicated their familiarity with the term sustainability. However, only a small number (20%) were familiar with the concept of sustainable holidays. Of these only a small portion
Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism
13
(26%) had actually taken such a holiday
service - ranked greater in importance
trip in the past four years. The strongest barriers to booking such holidays are perceived price and perceived lack of availability. The most important sustainability issues for hol-
than the criteria directly related to ethical
iday consumers were pollution, biodiversity and nature protection, climate change and carbon emissions. Of the total sample
issues, such as a trip that presents less damage to the environment, booking with
a company that has ethical policies, or holidays that provide opportunities to interact with local consumers.
about one-half (45%) were interested in sustainability. Since sustainability is a concept hard to define, even among academics and
practitioners, the statistics presented here, although somewhat revealing, remain inconclusive. Ethics is as old as the history of human-
kind and it is certain that a concern with ethics in tourism is older than the concept of tourism sustainability, so one might expect the term tourism ethics to be more familiar to consumers. We randomly asked a sample of 200 people from four countries whether they were familiar with ethics in tourism, and the result was not surprising;
only a small percentage answered in the affirmative (Table 1.1).
The question which arises is: is it pos-
sible for people to support, adopt and embrace sustainable tourism practices if they are not ethically aware? To be ethical in their tourism action, people need to be reminded again and again about the moral
principles by which our lives should be guided.
Academic coverage of ethics in tourism
Lynn (2009) performed a content analysis
on the tourism and hospitality literature for the period 1990-2008, and found that the
results, for academic tourism journals in particular, are meagre compared to the attention that tourism ethics is given among
academics (Table 1.2). For example, the Journal of Vacation Marketing features only
two articles about tourism ethics, one in 2002
and the other in
2003. Tourism 2008.
Geographies contains only one in
Tourism Management includes only one in 1995. The Journal of Travel Research contains only three articles (1993, 1995, 1998).
Tourism and Hospitality Research published only one in 2005. Tourism Analysis includes only one (2003). Annals of Tourism Research contained six articles, one appearing in each of these years: 1993, 1995, 1999, 2003, 2005 and 2008. Tourism Recreation
Research published seven tourism ethics
The general criteria for selecting a holiday
articles (2003, 2004, 2005, 2005, 2008, 2008 and 2008). Furthermore, even with regards to research aspects, Tribe (2008), for example, found that critical tourism is still marginal in terms of the whole effort of tourism research. Key distinguishing feature of critical theory
seem to count for more than the ethics-
are its interest in: critical enlightenment;
oriented criteria (TUI, 2010). Our survey also supports the literature. The traditional
criteria for selecting a holiday - price,
rejection of economic determinism; critical emancipation; critique of technical rationality; desire; ideology; hegemony; discursive
weather, quality of accommodation and
power; culture, power and domination;
Consumers' predispositions on ethical tourism
Table 1.1. Familiarity with ethics in tourism. Are you familiar with ethics in tourism? Per cent `1\lo'
Swiss (N =200)
Dutch (N =200)
Lithuanian (N =200)
German (N =200)
81.0
95.0
95.0
86.0
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14
Table 1.2. A content analysis of tourism ethics articles in academic journals. (From Lynn, 2009).
Year
1990 1991
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Total number of Total number of articles in the 12 articles categorized ethics-related topics as 'tourism ethics' 13 14
22
32 38 53 46 32 55 83
most sensitive issues for the present and the future in various sectors'
(p.110).
Investigating what components of tourism programmes are most favoured by industry players and academics, the authors found ethics was given a very low priority. In support of the literature (e.g. Tribe, 2001, 2002; Inui et al., 2006; Lynn, 2007) the authors
conclude: 'tourism curricula should also offer students the chance to emerge as "future-shapers" equipped for the present but also able and willing to make a differ-
11
13 5 8 7 8 13 8 10
popular topic and is regarded as one of the
0 0 5 8 9 8 4 4 10
'For the period 1990-1999 only six articles focused on tourism ethics. No detailed data available.
cultural pedagogy; and general domain of critical theory. These features of critical theory help us to be more critical in tourism, in
ence in the future' (p. 118). Perhaps it is no wonder that a gap exists between what the students think is ethical and what is really ethical (Lynn et al., 2007). Lynn and colleagues bluntly put it: The literature states again and again that ethics must be taught in university hospitality programs. The inconsistent ethics instruction currently found in most hospitality programs does not adequately prepare students for the ethical demands of today's business environment. This study suggests that maturation alone will not make students ethically aware. They must be taught, and the literature supports an integrated case study approach. (p. 10).
engage with normative questions of values and desired ends' (p. 247); ends towards the moralization of tourism.
Tribe (2001) explains that for worthwhile education, reflective philosophical method in hospitality and tourism curriculum design becomes necessary. In his vision for a worthwhile education he supports that a `curriculum for tourism needs to develop a tourism society not just as society for busi-
Ethics in tourism programmes
ness but one of society for all its Stakeholders' (p. 447).
that 'critical theory deliberately seeks to
Ring, Dickinger and Wober (2009) performed a content analysis of 64 bachelor degree pro-
grammes taught in English, and their results show that there are discrepancies between existing programmes and what academics and industry professionals perceive as being important. Whereas 72% of the programmes focus predominantly on management, only 9% focus on environmental or nature tourism, ecotourism, or a related area. 'In addition, no tourism marketing program refers
to sustainability. This is surprising since sustainability has become an increasingly
Codes of conduct and consumers
Concerns about the negative impacts of tourism have led to the development of codes of ethics or conduct, aimed at enhancing the behaviour of consumers and providers of tourism experiences. It is suggested that they have become necessary in
view of the extent and influence of tourism, the need to sustain the resources on which it depends, the sociocultural costs
Of Ethics, Leisure and Tourism
15
Box 1.2. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism.
The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism was adopted on 1 October 1999 at the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization (WTO). The Code of Ethics is a set of basic principles whose purpose is to guide tourism development and to serve as a frame of reference for the different stakeholders in the tourism sector, with the objective of minimizing the negative impact of tourism on the environment and on cultural heritage while maximizing the benefits of tourism in promoting sustainable development. The Code of Ethics is not a legally binding instrument and therefore its acceptance is voluntary (WTO July 25, 2005).
involved and the service orientation of the industry. It is also submitted that, despite the disparate nature of tourism, a code of
ethics may contribute to overall professionalism among those employed in the
statements, and to ensure coordination among stakeholders in each destination. The Morality of Tourism
industry.
Malloy and Fennell (1998), in their analysis of tourism codes of ethics, distinguish between those that are deontological (i.e. prescribing behaviour according to a set of rules or procedures) and those that
are teleological (i.e. aiming for the best outcomes and incorporating a rationale for
particular actions). Codes of ethics have been criticized as platitudinous and devel-
oped for public relations purposes, too general to be applied in specific situations, and impossible to enforce. Despite WTO's call for the implementation of the princi-
ples of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism by public and private stakeholders in tourism development and the monitoring of these principles and their effective application (WTO, 2001; see Box 1.2.), the
dissemination of the code appeared to be minimal. For example, only 30% (29 coun-
tries) of the 94 countries who answered the WTO questionnaire about the implementation of the code to stakeholders indi-
cated that they had disseminated the codes' material to tourists, a low figure compared to that of other stakeholders (WTO, 2005). The pattern distribution is shown in Fig. 1.1). It seems rather doubtful that the moralization of tourism has had an impact on con-
While The Moralisation of Tourism is an expansive criticism of alternative tourism
in all its forms and contradictions, the author of the book asserts that it 'is not a critique of morality of tourism, but of the moralisation of tourism' (Butcher, 2002, p. 3). The moralization of tourism as elaborated by Butcher concerns the act of moralizing about tourism, the act of dehumanizing mass tourism, and the act of exaggerating the moral values of alternative types of tourism. But what is morality of tourism? What is morality without moralization -a religion without scriptures?
Morality, originating from the Latin moralitas (manner, character, proper behaviour) is concerned with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong; in tourism it concerns the distinction
between right and wrong tourism actions. The morality of tourism may be said to be ingrained in the ten articles of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (see Box 1.3.). Many of the problems faced by the tour-
ism industry, including destruction of the environment, pollution, depletion of natural resources, economic imperialism, sexual exploitation (Payne and Dimanche, 1996;
Holden, 2003) and working conditions of employees (Tearfund, 2002) have an ethical
sumer behaviour. There is a need for
element and pose challenges to tourism
research into the level of abidance and the
stakeholders (WTO, 1999; Contour Sunday, 2003). The articles of the Code summarize ethics in tourism and these are reflected in what is now known as Responsible Travel.
effectiveness of code implementation. There is also a need for more explanatory informa-
tion on the reasons for inclusion of code
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16
Dissemination to stakeholders 71
57 48
42
29 20 3
6-
,
