Contours in the Text: Textual Variation in the Writings of Paul Josephus and the Yahad (Library Of New Testament Studies)

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LIBRARY OF NEW TESTAMENT STUDIES

430 formerly the Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement series

Editor Mark Goodacre

Editorial Board John M.G. Barclay, Craig Blomberg, R. Alan Culpepper, James D.G. Dunn, Craig A. Evans, Stephen Fowl, Robert Fowler, Simon J. Gathercole, John S. Kloppenborg, Michael Labahn, Robert Wall, Steve Walton, Robert L. Webb, Catrin H. Williams

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CONTOURS IN THE TEXT Textual Variation in the Writings of Paul, Josephus and the Yah÷ad

J.D.H. NORTON

Copyright © Jonathan D.H. Norton, 2011 Published by T&T Clark International A Continuum imprint The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX 80 Maiden Lane, Suite 704, New York, NY 10038 www.continuumbooks.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Jonathan D.H. Norton has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Author of this work. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN HB: 978-0-567-22939-7 Typeset by Pindar NZ, Auckland, New Zealand Printed and bound in Great Britain

CONTENTS List of Tables Acknowledgements Abbreviations 1.

2.

PAUL AND JEWISH SCRIPTURE 1.1 The question 1.1.1 Some terms 1.1.2 Emil Kautzsch and Hans Vollmer 1.2 Dietrich-Alex Koch 1.2.1 Koch’s reconstruction of Paul’s written sources 1.2.2 Koch’s conclusions 1.2.2.1 (a) Paul generally cited directly from written sources 1.2.2.2 (b) Paul only ever cited from one copy of each work 1.2.2.3 (c) Paul cited without awareness of variant versions 1.2.3 Paul’s limited command of the literary content of scripture 1.3 Others of the stream represented by Koch 1.3.1 Adolf Deissmann and Otto Michel 1.3.2 Christopher Stanley 1.4 The stream represented by Koch and Paul’s awareness of textual plurality 1.5 E. Earle Ellis 1.6 The stream represented by Ellis 1.7 Citation from memory 1.7.1 Suppression of memory 1.7.2 Awareness of textual plurality 1.8 Approaches to evidence 1.8.1 Pharisees and Scribes 1.8.2 Access to copies 1.8.2.1 Excerpta 1.8.3 Linguistic milieu 1.8.4 Ambient literary modes 1.9 Conclusions PAUL AND TEXTUAL CRITICISM 2.1 Textual criticism and textual plurality in ancient Jewish scripture 2.1.1 A multivalent encounter

ix x xi 1

1 2 5 8 9 11 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 20 22 23 25 28 30 30 31 33 34 36 36 37 39

39 43

vi

Contents 2.2 Modern text-critical perspectives and Paul’s awareness of textual plurality 2.2.1 Copies and text-forms 2.2.2 Paul’s awareness of variant readings 2.2.3 Expertise and plausibility 2.3 Sense contours 2.4 Passages 2.5 Polyvalent texts 2.5.1 ‘Passages’ and ‘semantic units’ 2.6 Conclusions

3.

4.

JOSEPHUS AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY 3.1 Textual traditions 3.2 Assessing Josephus’ awareness of textual variation 3.3 Josephus’ project 3.4 Languages 3.4.1 Greek 3.4.2 Hebrew 3.4.3 Aramaic 3.5 Debates on the Textual Character of Josephus’ Sources 3.5.1 Greek Pentateuch sources 3.5.2 Hebrew Pentateuch sources 3.5.2.1 Manipulations of a Hebrew semantic unit 3.6 Josephus’ appeal to sense contours in Pentateuch passages 3.6.1 Weights and measures 3.6.2 Sacrifices 3.6.3 Josephus follows the OG for some priestly terms, translating others himself 3.7 Conclusions DEAD SEA S ECTARIANS AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY 4.1 Textual plurality in sectarian exegetical compositions 4.1.1 ‘Passages’ and ‘semantic units’ 4.2 Habakkuk 216 in 1QHabakkuk Pesher (1QpHab.) 119 4.2.1 Excursus: The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll (8ḤevXIIgr) 4.2.2 1QHabakkuk Pesher 4.3 Amos 526-27 in the Damascus Document: CDA 714-15 and 4QDA (4Q266) 4.3.1 Textual evidence 4.4 4QCommentary on Genesis A (4Q252) 4.4.1 Sense contours arising from hlyX 4.4.2 Sense contours arising from qqxm and ~ylgr 4.5 A continuum of awareness of textual plurality

45 45 47 48 52 53 54 55 56 57

57 57 58 63 63 63 66 67 67 69 70 71 71 73 74 80 82

82 82 82 84 86 88 89 92 94 99 103

Contents 5.

6.

7.

vii

SCRIBES AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY 5.1 Scribes and other text users 5.2 ‘Scribal exegesis’ 5.3 A common exegetical heritage 5.4 Scribal awareness of textual plurality 5.5 Oral performance of traditional literature 5.5.1 Chirographic practices in an oral world 5.5.2 Copying by dictation 5.6 Orality, chirography and authority 5.6.1 Orality, chirography and authority in the Yah9ad 5.7 Conclusions

104 104 108 110 112 112 113 115 115 119

APPROACHES TO PAUL’S RHETORIC 6.1 Text and interpretation 6.2 Orality, chirography and authority in Paul’s letters 6.3 Reader-centred and author-centred perspectives 6.4 Conclusions

121 121 124 131

PAUL AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY 7.1 Varieties of Citation 7.1.1 The role of citations 7.2 The rhetorical impact of citations 7.2.1 Distinction between supportive and logically structural roles 7.2.2 Verbal congruence 7.2.3 Changing wording 7.3 Structurally indispensable citations 7.3.1 The structural substance of Genesis 15.6 and 17.10-14 in Romans 7.3.2 The structural substance of Genesis 21.12; 18.10, 14; and 25.23 in Romans 9 7.3.2.1 Implications of structural citations 7.3.3 The structural substance of Isaiah 8.14pM in Romans 9.33 7.3.4 The structural substance of Isaiah 25.8pM in 1 Corinthians 15 7.3.4.1 Isaiah 25.8pM in 1 Corinthians 15.54 7.4 The suitability argument 7.4.1 Isaiah 25.8 (1 Corinthians 15.54) 7.4.2 Isaiah 28.11pM (1 Corinthians 14.21) 7.4.3 Isaiah 59.20-21 (Romans 11.26) 7.4.4 Job 5.13pM (1 Corinthians 3.19) 7.4.5 Hosea 2.1LXX (Romans 9.25) 7.4.6 Jeremiah 9.22-23LXX/1 Kingdoms 2.10 (1 Corinthians 1.31) 7.4.7 Concluding remarks 7.5 Two semantic forms of Isaiah 40.13 in 1 Corinthians 2.16

104

121

132

132 132 135 135 136 137 138 138 139 141 142 145 148 153 154 155 158 160 160 160 161 161

viii

Contents 7.5.1 Problems relating to 1 Corinthians 2.6-16 7.5.2 Opposition of ‘spirit’ and ‘conventional intellect’ (1 Corinthians 1–4) 7.5.3 The function of Isaiah 40 in 1 Corinthians 2 7.5.3.1 The unfathomability of creation and the divine intellect in Isaiah 40 7.5.3.2 Verbal replication Isaiah 40.13OG in 1 Corinthians 2.16 7.5.3.3 Ideological parallels of Isaiah 40 in 1 Corinthians 2 7.5.3.4 A shared exegetical tradition: Wisdom 9 and 1 Corinthians 7.5.3.5 Concluding remarks 7.6 Chapter conclusion

8.

CONCLUSIONS

Bibliography Index of Ancient Literature Index of Modern Authors Index of Subjects

162 164 166 166 169 171 174 176 177 178

182 196 204 207

LIST OF TABLES 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 6.1 6.2 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

A sense contour in Genesis 2.24 Two sense contours in Habakkuk 2.16 Words used by M, LXX and Josephus for priestly garments Order of appearance of priestly garments (AJ 3; Exodus 28; 39) Textual evidence for Habakkuk 2.16 Textual restoration of 8ḤevXIIgr column 18, lines 21-24 Amos 5.26 Damascus DocumentA 7 Genesis 49.10 Genesis 49.10 LXX and M 4Q252 fragment 6 Targums of Genesis 49.10 Embedded verbal replications listed as ‘quotations’ in Ellis 1957 ‘Völlig ungekennzeichnete Zitate’, included by Koch (1986) Genesis 18 and Romans 9 Isaiah 8.13-14 (Romans 9.33) Isaiah 25.8 Isaiah 25.8 a' q' s' Isaiah 40.12-14 Isaiah 40.13 and 1 Corinthians 2.16 Isaiah 40.13a Isaiah 40.28 Parallelism of 1 Corinthians 2.10-11 and 15-16

52 54 75 77 83 84 89 90 92 93 93 100 126 127 140 142 145 147 167 169 171 171 173

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS My gratitude goes to a number of people who have offered help and support. A Master’s thesis written in Oxford in 2002 gave rise to the questions broached in this book. Bob Morgan and Chris Roland guided my research during that year and showed kindness during difficult times. Chris Tuckett encouraged me to transform the reams of laborious text-critical analysis into a doctoral thesis, which he supervised from 2003 to 2006. Over the years this research has benefited from tuition, comments and insights of various kinds. I am grateful to Annette Steudel, Émile Puech and the late Hartmut Stegemann for their formative guidance in scrolls matters. Étienne Nodet has offered me many pleasurable hours discussing Josephus; Anders Klostergaard Petersen has shared many illuminating thoughts on Paul; and Magnar Kartviet has made valuable observations on a draft of Chapter 4. Torleif Elgvin and the late Graham Stanton recommended literature that proved indispensable. Two Oxford librarians, Libby Birchall and Louise Calder, have been enormously helpful. Regular conversations with Nick King, Hanne von Weissenberg, Kevin Sullivan, Mila Ginsburskaya and Travis Derico have provided help, support and friendship. The guidance of my examiners, John Barclay and Martin Goodman has been invaluable in the preparation of the thesis for publication. For their erudite support I am most indebted to Steve Mason, who commented on Chapters 1 and 3, and to Sean Ryan, Andrew Teeter and Reverend Pawel Rytel-Andrianik each of whom made comments on the entire manuscript. I thank the dialogue partners with whom I have engaged in this book, in particular Dietrich-Alex Koch and Christopher Stanley, whose work has been an ongoing inspiration to me over the past eight years and with whose ideas I have tussled with admiration. My thanks go to the AHRC for Master’s and D.Phil. funding from 2001–2006, to the DAAD for funding research in Jerusalem in 2004 and to Wolfson College, particularly Martin Francis, for funding regular conference attendance between 2002 and 2007. I thank Marianne Wade for providing weeks of sanctuary in 2005 and 2010, during which substantial writing was done. I thank Zoe McIntosh for the many crosswords and baths, and for enduring several impromptu lectures on the Pharisees. I thank Christopher Meade for supplying coffee, conversation and encouragement at times of need. I thank my brother Joe Norton for patient and expert technical aid and my father Harry for his unfailing support of my work. For her immense academic, editorial and moral guidance I thank Anastasia Norton-Piliavsky, without whom I would have produced some sort of a book much earlier, and probably would have been happy with it. Wolfson College, Oxford July 2010

ABBREVIATIONS

a a’ s’ q’ A AJ B BHS BJ Cont.Ap. D G

GHR kaige-Theodotion Lat Leg. LXX

M

M MMT Mos. MT OG

proto-q' proto-Theodotion

Codex Sinaiticus Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion (see: ‘The Three’) Codex Alexandrinus Antiquitates Judaicae, Flavius Josephus (The Jewish Antiquities) Codex Vaticanus Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Bellum Judaicum, Flavius Josephus (The Jewish War) Contra Apionem, Flavius Josephus (Against Apion) the Damascus Document texts from Qumran used by textual critics to indicate either the Greek text witnessed by LXX manuscripts, or the hypothetical Hebrew text that the Greek presupposes a ‘hebraising revision’ of the OG toward a Hebrew text akin to proto-M a first-century BCE–CE hebraising revision of the OG toward a Hebrew text akin to proto-M Latin versions Philo, Legatio ad Gaium (Embassy to Gaius) a Greek version of the Jewish scriptures, including translations from Hebrew biblical works and Jewish compositions in Greek, transmitted as part the early Christian canon the Masoretic Text exemplified in early medieval manuscripts (such as the Leningrad and Aleppo Codices), which contain the rabbinic canon of the Hebrew bible the Milh9amah text from Qumran the Miqsat Maàse ha-Torah (Halakhic Letter) texts from Qumran Philo, Vita Mosis (The Life of Moses) identical with ‘M‘ (used occasionally) Old Greek. Works of Jewish scripture in Greek dating from c. 3rd BCE–1st CE comprising translations of Hebrew biblical works and Jewish compositions in Greek see: ‘proto-Theodotion’ a revision of the OG – apparently a precursor of q' circulating

xii

Abbreviations in the early/mid-first century CE – related to the first century kaige project. a Hebrew text-form in which at least some biblical works existed from the Hellenistic period onward (known from Judaean manuscript discoveries) and which became standardised in early rabbinic circles from the second century CE. Proto- M was the precursor of the early Medieval Masoretic Text. The Revised Standard Version translation of the Canonical Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament the Serekh ha-Yah9ad text from Qumran Philo, De Somniis (On Dreams, That They are Sent by God) Samaritan Pentateuch Philo, De Specialibus Legibus (The Special Laws) Syriac versions Targum The Fragment Targum Targum Pseudo Jonathan Targum Neofiti Targum Onqelos the three revisions of the OG toward a proto- M dating from the late second to mid third centuries CE, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion. Jerome’s Latin Vulgate translation of the Bible BCE–CE

proto-M

RSV S Somn. SP Spec. Syr T TF TJ TN TO The Three

V 1QpHab 1QS 4QD 4QM 4QMMT

Conventions Isa 1:1LXX Isa 1:1OG Isa 1:1G Isa 1:1M Isa 1:1q Isa 1:1HR Isa 1:1(?)

the copy the Habakkuk Pesher found in Qumran Cave 1 the copy Serekh ha-Yah9ad found in Qumran Cave 1 the copies of Milh9amah found in Qumran Cave 4 the copies of Miqsat Maàse ha-Torah (Halakhic Letter) found in Qumran Cave 4

the LXX form of a biblical verse, e.g. Isa 1:1 the OG form of a biblical verse the G form of a biblical verse the M form of a biblical verse the q' form of a biblical verse a ‘GHeb’ form of a biblical verse a form of a biblical verse a cited in an ancient text, deriving from an unknown tradition (textual tradition or oral)

Abbreviations

xiii

Critical apparatus ] ‘divereges from’. For example: M SP q'] LXX a' – ‘M, SP and Theodotion agree against LXX and Aquila’ > ‘omission’. For example: LXX SP > M – ‘feature shared by LXX and SP is absent in M’ ; ‘related but distinctive forms’. For example, LXX] M; SP; q' – ‘LXX disagrees with the rest. The readings of M SP and Theodotion are related, but not identical’ In edited text kyj[…]gba zwh o gba rbdw {rbdw} rbd

square brackets indicate missing text small circle ‘o’ represents an uncertain letter trace superlinear insertion

For Gail and Harry Norton, whom I miss, with love evpi,treyo,n moi prw/ton avpelqei/n kai. qa,yai to.n pate,ra mou

1 PAUL AND JEWISH SCRIPTURE

1.1 The question Between 40 and 55 CE Paul, a missionary, cited passages from Jewish scripture in a number of letters he wrote in Greek. Some of these letters survive through Christian transmission. In 1957 E. Earle Ellis published an influential study in which he concludes that Paul made skilful and conscious use of various text-forms of Jewish scripture that were available in the first century. That is, Paul used Greek sources – the Septuagint (LXX) and Greek revisions of it – as well as Hebrew sources. In 1986 Dietrich-Alex Koch published a study of Paul’s use of scripture, which has been widely accepted as the definitive work on the subject. Koch concludes that Paul used only Greek scripture and was entirely unaware of his own use of different text-forms of biblical works. Ellis and Koch represent a polarization of perspectives. They disagree entirely on the question of Paul’s awareness of the textual plurality that characterized Jewish scripture during the first century CE. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century manuscript discoveries have led to a proliferation of text-critical studies of Jewish scripture of late antiquity, giving rise to an increasing appreciation of variety within it and the extent to which the text of any given copy differed from all the others. Within the context of these developments, commentators have sought to establish the character of Paul’s written sources. E. Kautzsch’s 1869 conclusion that Paul’s sources were largely identical with the Greek Septuagint has been widely confirmed by subsequent enquiries. This study questions Paul’s awareness and encounter with textual plurality in Jewish scripture, as well as ways in which these can be discussed. To ask ‘What text-forms did Paul use?’ is not the same as to ask ‘Of what textual traditions was he aware?’ The former is a text-critical question, which can be answered without considering the latter. Enquiries into Paul’s awareness, however, involve a recurrent set of attended issues. With what versions of biblical works was he familiar? How did he access these versions through written copies? Did he use Hebrew or Aramaic texts as well as Greek? And did he cite from memory? These are the questions of a social historian and thus cannot be fully addressed in text-critical terms. In Chapter 1 I examine a selection of important studies of Paul’s use of scripture, arguing that the application of particular text-critical expedients to questions of Paul’s perception and citation of his sources often leads commentators to subordinate

2

Contours in the Text

historical concerns. As a result, scholars have often allowed anachronistic categories to guide analysis of Paul’s perception of textual variation. In Chapter 2 I propose terms better suited to a socio-historical view of Paul’s literary encounter. On this basis, an exploration of selected writings from Flavius Josephus and Dead Sea sectarians demonstrates that exegetical use of textual variation was available to Paul’s contemporaries (Chapters 3 and 4). Such means were indeed used by Jews from different class, professional, ideological, and educational backgrounds. Moreover, such practices belonged to a more oral environment than usually acknowledged (Chapters 5 and 6). In Chapter 7 I show that when Paul has reason to make use of textual variation, he does.

1.1.1 Some terms I use and abbreviate significant text-critical terms in the following way: Jewish scripture: A body of traditional Jewish writings used by Jews in antiquity. The term does not describe a fixed body of literature because it is disputed which works exactly were considered authoritative in this period. ‘Jewish scripture’ implies no distinction based on language, recension or text-type. LXX: The ‘Septuagint’ as witnessed principally by Christian manuscripts from the third century onwards. OG: The presumed ‘Old Greek’ translation of individual Hebrew works, which occurred successively between the third century BCE and the first century CE. By using ‘OG’, I avoid the unreflected equation between the later Christian LXX texts and first-century texts, which are barely represented in extant copies. GEd: The oldest retrievable wording of the Septuagint as reconstructed by the editors of the Göttingen Septuaginta. G: Used by textual critics to indicate either the Greek text witnessed by LXX manuscripts, or the hypothetical Hebrew text that the Greek presupposes. The same author (e.g. Tov 1992) can use G in both senses. In this study I use G when discussing particular authors, explaining in which sense it is used in each case. Hebrew Bible: Traditional Hebrew literature deemed authoritative by first-century Jews. These include the collection of works from Genesis to 2 Chronicles fixed in the Rabbinic period (presented in Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia). In the first century these works were not equally popular. For example, Isaiah and Psalms are widely cited in Second Temple Jewish compositions and are well attested at Qumran, in contrast to Chronicles or Ezra-Nehemiah. Works, such as Jubilees, which entered neither the Rabbinic nor Christian canons, were regarded as authoritative by certain Jewish groups of the Second Temple period. Hebrew Text (HT): Any text of traditional Hebrew literature used in the first century CE. Masoretic Text (MT or M): The Hebrew text, exemplified by Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Proto-MT, proto-M: A consonantal Hebrew text, which corresponds closely to the MT, and which is witnessed in several late Second Temple manuscripts. Proto-M

1. Paul and Jewish scripture

3

became gradually standardized from the mid-second century BCE and was adopted in Rabbinic Judaism. My discussion applies between the second century BCE and the mid-first century CE. Thus, proto-M is distinguished from the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), from text-types known from Qumran, from the Hebrew text-form underlying the OG, and from non-aligned texts (see Chapters 2 and 4). kaige: A Hebraizing revision of the OG. That is, a revision of the OG (towards a Hebrew text akin to proto-M) represented by the first-century BCE–first-century CE Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nah[al H9ever (8H9evXIIgr). Scholars also talk of ‘kaige-Theodotion’, in order to indicate a supposed relationship between the earlier kaige revision of 8H9evXIIgr and the late second-century CE Hebraizing revision of Theodotion (q'). GHR: Adopted in this book to represent any Hebraizing revision of the OG of a given work towards a Hebrew version of that work. That is, the kaige revision represented by the first-century BCE–first-century CE Greek Minor Prophets Scroll, and the second–third-century CE versions Aquila (a'), Symmachus (s') and Theodotion (q'). pM: Adopted in this book to represent collectively those forms of traditional works – Hebrew versions and various types of GHR – that reflect proto-M, particularly where it differs from the OG. Work: A literary composition. This study focuses on traditional works of Jewish literature, such as Genesis, Exodus or Isaiah, as they were known and used in the first century CE.1 ‘Work’ here replaces the common terms ‘book’ (e.g. ‘Book of Isaiah’) and ‘text’ (e.g. ‘biblical texts’). I avoid ‘book’ because it can evoke discussions of the physical nature of written sources, discussions that play an important role in the studies considered below (for ‘text’, see below). Copy: A physical copy of a literary work that was seen, read and handled by an ancient individual. Traditional: Designates literature that was understood by ancient persons to have been both shared by a limited community and transmitted ancestrally (hence, it is endowed with a sense of historical continuity).2 I find that the commonly used term ‘biblical’, with its bookish and modern canonical connotations, forestalls some questions central to this study. Commentators use ‘text’ and ‘Vorlage’ inconsistently. This confuses discussions of ancient perceptions of textual plurality. The meaning of ‘Text/text’ varies in German and English. It can mean: 1 Of course, some traditional works were still circulating in multiple editions at the turn of the era, e.g. Daniel, Jeremiah, Samuel/Kings/Chronicles. Hence, I cannot assume that a given work was ‘known’ to all first-century Jews in the same form, or in a form recognizable to us today (Chapter Two). Bearing this in mind, I assume that first-century Jews perceived individual traditional works as recognizable objects of Jewish literary heritage. 2 Rather than ascribing empirical fixity and temporal continuity to a body of literature, my use of ‘traditional’ designates such an idea ascribed to it by ancient text users. A number of studies have already shown certain ‘traditions’ to be rhetorically rather than empirically significant (see particularly Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992).

4


1. A physical object. ‘Text’ can mean a physical manuscript copy of a literary work. I use ‘copy’ instead of ‘text’. 2. A visible literary object. ‘Text’ can indicate the words inscribed on a manuscript. 3. An abstract literary object. ‘Text’ can mean literary work. For example, commentators often designate Genesis, Exodus or Isaiah as ‘texts’ or ‘biblical texts’.3 Instead, I use ‘work’. 4. An abstract text-critical object. ‘Text’ can indicate a modern abstract, text-critical conceptualization of an ideal or original text-form, derived from a comparison of multiple ancient copies of a literary work and the application of text-critical criteria to distinguish secondary from the earliest retrievable readings. This taxonomical process aims to describe the perceived evolution of text-forms and it presupposes inherently modern concerns. No single copy is a true representative of any text-form. Stages and branches of this evolution are often expressed in terms of text-types, recensions, revisions and textual traditions (Chapter 2). I adopt two distinct usages of the term text. The first indicates a visible literary object (2, above). Any copy of a literary work presents a text. By text I mean the words inscribed on a manuscript, which the reader sees and the hearer hears read aloud. The second usage, which I designate as «text», conveys the abstract, text-critical sense of the word (4, above).4 The term Vorlage has been assimilated into English academic parlance. It is used in various ways that reflect distinct concerns: 1. The written text exhibited by a manuscript or manuscripts. ‘Vorlage’ is often associated with the text-critical question of the text-form available to an ancient individual. 2. Manuscripts themselves. In this sense, ‘Vorlage’ is often associated with sociohistorical questions, such as the expense, scarcity, unwieldiness of scrolls, their public value as holy objects, or their contribution to a literary individual’s authority in public perception. 3. Manifestation of a literary work to its user. Scholars debate whether Paul encountered Isaiah as a copy of Isaiah, several copies of it, a Christian florilegium, or a collection of his own excerpta. All of these could be described as manifestations of Isaiah. These three definitions represent three common (and often overlapping) uses that, however, reflect distinct areas of concern. My use of ‘Vorlage’ differs throughout, always reflecting the particular usage of a scholar in question. An ‘exegete’ is a person whose aspirations to interpret literature extend beyond

3 Ancient Jews also perceived such works as objects of their literary heritage (see Footnote 1, above). At present, however, I am concerned with modern uses of ‘text’. 4 My use of «text» is similar in some respects to Tov’s ‘texts’ (1992; his italics).


5

mute perception.5 I use ‘exegete’ to indicate a person of late antiquity who engages with the textual content (written or oral) of traditional literature and seeks to interpret its meaning. While I attribute a level of literary expertise to those designated ‘exegetes’ in this study, the term does not presuppose any ideas about sectarian affiliation, socio-linguistic background (such as ‘Palestinian’, ‘Diaspora’ or ‘Hellenized’), or any particular training (such as ‘scribal’, ‘Pharisaic’ or ‘priestly’).

1.1.2 Emil Kautzsch and Hans Vollmer In this chapter I examine a sample of studies that are representative of existing approaches to the subject. The studies by Kautzsch and Vollmer in the nineteenth century have been particularly influential.6 Scholars prior to Kautzsch proposed that certain Pauline citations diverge verbally from the LXX (uncials a, A or B) because Paul appealed to a Hebrew Vorlage.7 Roepe,8 on the other hand, concludes that Paul did not cite from the Hebrew, but almost exclusively from the LXX, and almost always from memory. He suggests that two divergent citations (Rom. 9.17 – Exod. 9.16; Rom. 12.19 – Deut. 32.35) stem from other Greek versions. Kautzsch, who focuses entirely on the text-critical problem of Paul’s Vorlagen, confirms Roepe’s findings.9 Counting eighty-four Pauline quotations, Kautzsch derives eighty-two from the OG (‘Alexandrian translation’) on account of their closer or remoter agreement with the Septuagint (witnessed principally by codex A, but also a, B).10 For Kautzsch, Paul’s generally loose citation from memory accounts for variable agreement with known LXX text-forms. A handful of Paul’s citations of Isaiah and the two citations of 3 Kingdoms agree with later Hebraizing revisions of OG towards proto-M (Theodotion, Aquila and Symmachus). Kautzsch concludes that Theodotion often depends on NT readings in his translation.11 For the two citations of Job, which are closer to the Hebrew and reveal no reminiscence of the OG, Kautzsch suggests that Paul had no access to a Greek form of Job. He concludes that Paul cited a Hebrew form of Job from memory, while in all other cases he had the

5 While a person who hears a recited text or reads a written text inevitably takes it to mean something, ‘mute perception’ attributes to a person no explicit aspiration to interpretive innovation, in contrast to an exegete. 6 Kautzsch 1869; Vollmer 1895. For a thorough survey of pre-twentieth-century scholarship on Paul’s use of scripture, see Stanley 1992, 4–30. 7 For example, Whiston 1722; Bleek 1828, 338–587. 8 Roepe 1827. 9 Kautzsch 1869; also Vollmer 1895, 7 and Stanley 1992, 7 [13]. 10 Thirty-four agree exactly with the LXX and thirty-six deviate slightly. A further twelve deviate more strongly. According to Kautzsch, all derive ultimately from the LXX. 11 Kautzsch 1869, 95–106, esp. 104 [1]; cf. Vollmer 1895, 25. Kautzsch also suggests that marginal notes to ‘avll.’ in Hexaplaric texts of Isa. 59.8 refer to Paul’s reading in Rom. 3.17 (Kautzsch 1869, 35f.) and argues for a number of other Pauline readings entering the LXX manuscript traditions (cf. Vollmer 1895, 14–17).

6


OG.12 Kautzsch also supposes that Paul could have known some ‘biblical’ passages from Rabbinic versions circulated in schools.13 Vollmer’s study follows the work of Kautzsch, forming the foundation for important twentieth-century studies of Paul’s use of scripture.14 A set of his ideas and preoccupations have influenced successive discussions. Noting the appearance of the Hatch-Redpath Septuagint concordance and Lagarde’s 1882 Septuagint study,15 Vollmer calls for a new investigation of how Paul’s citations would illuminate his attitude to Jewish scripture because, as Vollmer observes, the question of Paul’s attitude to scripture has ‘conspicuously receded behind the text-critical question in recent German monographs’.16 However, Vollmer stresses that such investigation cannot be separated from text-critical enquiry: Whether Paul cites according to the Masoretic Text or the Septuagint, whether he also makes use of other versions, whether he reproduces literally or allows himself freedom when citing, whether he always draws on his own memory or occasionally uses a Jewish compilation: these are questions which cannot be ignored when assessing the apostle’s view on the Old Testament.17

While Vollmer asserts that the text-critical problem is not identical with the question of Paul’s attitude to scripture, he considers the two issues inseparable. Thus, he commences with the ‘Text-Frage’.18 Vollmer’s language concerning Paul’s Vorlagen shows that his understanding of the state of the ‘biblical’ text in the first century is commensurate with the text-critical assumptions and concerns of Vollmer’s day. He sees the Hebrew as the ‘original’ text, a concrete entity accurately represented by the Masoretic Text.19 While he observes that it seems ‘alien [. . .] to our modern critical sense that one preferred uncritically to follow the version instead of keeping to the original . . .’,20 he remarks that this translation was so widely used, that Paul (like Philo) accepted its authority without question. While Whiston21 views the Greek as an indicator of a ‘purer’ Pharisaic Hebrew

12 Kautzsch (1869, 108–110); cf. Vollmer 1895, 7–8: ‘Sein Resultat is daher, dass Paulus nusquam consulto von der alexandrinischen Uebersetzung abweiche, ihm nur hie und da neben derselben auch der masoretische Text vorgeschwebt habe, und dass die Citate sämmtlich aus dem Gedächtnis gegeben seien.’ See also Koch 1986, 57 [1]. 13 Kautzsch thinks that the form of Deut. 32.35 in Rom. 12.19 partly agrees with SP and Targum Onqelos against the LXX. Kautzsch (1869, 77) suggests that Onqelos and Paul’s translations flowed from a ‘schulmaessig verbreite rabbinische Auffassung’(Vollmer 1895, 31–32). 14 Vollmer 1895. 15 Ibid., 28; Lagarde 1882. 16 Ibid., v; my translation. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid., 9. 19 Ibid., v, for instance. 20 Ibid., 9; my translation. 21 Whiston 1722.


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text (against a ‘corrupted’ Rabbinic M), for Vollmer, the Greek ‘version’ represents a ‘Diaspora Judaism’ in contrast to the Hebrew of a ‘Palestinian Judaism’. Accepting Acts’ presentation of Paul as a Greek-speaking Diaspora Jew with a Palestinian Semitic training in ‘Rabbinic’ Judaism, Vollmer deems Paul at home in both ‘forms’ of Judaism. Vollmer emphasizes the influence of Philo and the ‘Alexandrian school’ on Paul’s thought,22 but notes that this Alexandrian ethos did not fully subsume Paul’s Rabbinic education.23 Paul did not use the Septuagint for the sake of his audiences ‘while he privately made use of the Hebrew original: No, he lived himself entirely in and with the Greek text’.24 Vollmer illustrates ‘Eigentümlichkeiten der Septuaginta’ that pervade Paul’s language and thought, both in Paul’s explicit citations and ‘allusions’.25 None of the internal lexical data from Paul’s citations of scripture unambiguously indicates Paul’s use of Hebrew sources.26 Vollmer cites predecessors in support.27 Whereas Vollmer sees the HT as a fixed entity, he acknowledges that the Greek ‘version’ is represented by several ‘recensions’, represented by third- to fifth-century LXX witnesses (codices a, A or B, as well as a recension pre-dating, but related to ‘die jüngere Uebersetzung’28). Vollmer agrees that Paul makes extensive use of the ‘Septuaginta’, but asks which ‘Rezensionen’ were available to him and whether he used them exclusively.29 Examining Paul’s citations, Vollmer identifies a series of passages apparently available to Paul in a form divergent from the LXX.30 He writes that ‘Paul knew yet other Greek versions apart from the Septuagint’, such as one resembling Theodotion or a Job Targum.31 Vollmer can imagine that Paul, while reading the OG, had another Greek version ‘in mind’.32 However, he does not believe that Paul was able to compare multiple copies of the same work.33 To avoid practical difficulties arising from the idea of Paul’s free use of multiple

22 For Paul’s perceived dependence on Philo see Vollmer 1895, 61–73. 23 Ibid., 69. For Paul’s Pharisaic education in Jerusalem, after Acts 22.3, see Vollmer 1895, 43 [1]; for Paul’s ‘Palestinian rabbinic schooling’, see ibid., 68–69; cf. 32. 24 Ibid., 10; my translation. 25 Ibid., 12f. 26 Vollmer (1895, 41–42) suggests that Paul uses a ‘younger Jewish translation’ akin to a' s' q' (cf. ibid., 19–33 and 48). A combination of three passages in 2 Cor. 9.10 presupposes the association of Hebrew ‘rain’, but ‘Nach der Septuaginta könnte freilich diese Zummanenstellung nicht gemacht sein’. Vollmer argues that these passages were combined in a Hebrew florilegium prior to Paul. 27 Heinrici 1900, 598, cited in Vollmer 1895, 8; Steck, cited in Vollmer 1895, 8. 28 Vollmer postulates a recension related to a' s' q' circulating ‘neben der Septuaginta’ in the first century CE (1895, 25–26), now confirmed as kaige-Theodotion (Barthélemy 1963). 29 Vollmer 1895, 13. 30 Ibid.,13–21. 31 Ibid., 24–26; my translation. 32 Regarding verbal mingling of Septuagint, a', and q' in Gal. 3.13, Vollmer suggests: ‘Vielleicht schwebte dem Apostle der Wortlaut einer Uebersetzung vor’, which differed from the LXX (Vollmer 1895, 29). Kautzsch also envisaged Paul reading one version while recalling another; see Footnote 12, above. 33 Vollmer 1895, 33.

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copies, Vollmer argues that Paul used an available florilegium.34 While Vollmer implies that Paul could have different Greek versions ‘in mind’ when citing,35 he is unwilling to envisage Paul citing from memory at will. For Vollmer, Paul’s ability to reproduce the wording of the LXX indicates direct citation from written sources. Although he emphasizes Paul’s extensive awareness of the literary context of his citations, Vollmer proposes that Paul ‘looked up’ his citations.36 Vollmer’s description of the textual profile of Paul’s citations is confirmed by the studies of Koch and Stanley.37 Unlike some of his successors (such as Deissmann, Michel, Ellis, Hengel, and to some extent, Koch38), Vollmer’s study does not presuppose a fundamental relationship between the textual character of Paul’s Vorlagen and the ‘kind’ of Judaism that Paul allegedly represents. In order to establish the textual character of Paul’s sources, Vollmer prioritizes lexical evidence internal to Paul’s citations. Yet, he also places significant weight on circumstantial considerations, such as his exposure to ‘Rabbinic Pharisaic’ and ‘Philonic Alexandrian’ ethos (see Footnotes 22 and 23, above). Doubting that Paul selected particular text-forms by comparing copies, and remaining cautious about overstating Paul’s capacity to cite scripture from memory, Vollmer attributes a limited awareness of textual plurality to Paul.

1.2 Dietrich-Alex Koch I take the studies by Koch and Ellis39 – both highly influential – to be representative of an existing polarity in conceptualizing Paul’s awareness of textual plurality.40 Perhaps the most thorough attempt yet made to locate the Vorlagen of Paul’s citations of scripture within the Überlieferungsgeschichte of the LXX,41 Koch’s 1986 study is a direct descendant of Vollmer’s work. Koch does not clearly distinguish between the two projects he pursues: his textcritical analysis of Paul’s citations, and his reconstruction of Paul’s written sources (Vorlagen). On the one hand, he establishes the textual profile of Paul’s explicit citations of scripture, examining the lexical relationship between each Pauline cita-

34 Vollmer suggests pre-Pauline Jewish florilegia (ibid., 38). Following Wettstein 1751, Vollmer also points to the combination of Gen. 15.6 and Hab. 2.4 in Rabbinic tractate Shemoth Rabba and its similarity to Rom. 1.17. Hatch 1889 had already suggested the use of ‘biblical anthologies’ alongside other literature (cf. Vollmer 1895, 38). 35 See Footnote 32, above. 36 See Vollmer (1895, 11 [1]) for the reproduction of the LXX. Paul’s diverse use of scripture ‘setzt [. . .] einen solchen Reichtum an Stellen voraus, wie ihn auch der ehemalige Schriftgelehrten schwerlich im Kopfe tragen konnte’ (ibid., 38). 37 Koch 1986; Stanley 1992. 38 Deissmann 1925; Michel 1929; Ellis 1957; Hengel 1991a; and Koch 1986. 39 Ellis 1957 and Koch 1986. 40 This division of scholarship in terms of a limited issue is arbitrarily made for heuristic purposes. There are, naturally, divergences of opinion among scholars belonging to the same ‘stream’, which I will point out. 41 See the review, Hays 1988, 331.


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tion and available ancient manuscript witnesses to Greek Jewish scripture. On the other hand, Koch makes claims about the nature of Paul’s written sources – the text presented by Paul’s tangible copies. Koch’s analysis of the textual profile of Paul’s explicit citations (relative to known ancient Greek sources) and his reconstruction of Paul’s written sources flow seamlessly together, giving the impression that they are identical. Yet the two are analytically distinct.

1.2.1 Koch’s reconstruction of Paul’s written sources Koch limits his study to explicit citations and provides criteria for distinguishing them from allusions and verbal parallels,42 as he considers the latter two categories unsuitable for establishing the textual character of the sources to which they may allude. Koch establishes eighty-nine explicit citations in Paul’s undisputed letters, which appear in Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians and Galatians. Sixty-six citations are indicated with explicit introductory formulae (Einleitungsformulierungen) in Paul’s text and nineteen are marked as distinct from Paul’s own text by other syntactical means. Koch includes four citations lacking any such indication.43 He argues that of the ninety passages Paul cites in his letters, twenty-nine agree entirely with the ‘received Wortlaut of the LXX in its oldest retrievable form’.44 Koch believes that Paul consistently cites from one copy of each work, a scroll (see Section 1.2.2.2, below). He describes the textual character of Paul’s written source for each work on the basis of his analysis of the textual profile of Paul’s citations of that work. Honing Vollmer’s findings, Koch shows that the readings of Paul’s Pentateuch Vorlage are generally closer to those of F (and hence to A) and, remoter from the readings of B. The evidence from the minuscule groups y (closer to A and F) and f (closer to B) follows this pattern.45 Despite the high frequency of Pauline Psalm citations (comparable to his Isaiah citations), no precise agreement emerges between Pauline Psalm citations and the LXX text groups identified by Rahlfs.46 Paul’s citations reveal to Koch, however, that Paul’s Psalms Vorlage is generally in close verbal agreement with the OG. Paul’s citations of The Twelve are too few for Koch to establish the textual character of Paul’s Minor Prophets Vorlage.47 3 Kingdoms and Isaiah occupy a special place in the history of transmission of Greek Jewish scripture. In several instances Paul’s Greek citations approximate the wording and sense of the proto-Masoretic Hebrew at points where the latter diverges

42 Koch 1986, 9–23. 43 Joel 2.32 (Rom. 10.13), Ps. 23.1LXX (1 Cor. 10.26), Isa. 40.13 (1 Cor. 2.16), Hab. 2.4 (Gal. 3.11), (Koch 1986, 23). See Section 6.3, Table 6.1, below. 44 Ibid., 102; my translation. 45 Ibid., 53. 46 Ibid., 55; Rahlfs 1931. 47 Koch 1986, 54–55.

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markedly from the OG (Job 5.13; 41.3;48 3 Kgdms 19.10, 18;49 Isa. 8.14; 25.8; 28.11; 52.7). This proximity led Ellis to suggest that Paul made direct use of Hebrew versions of these works.50 Koch, affirming Vollmer’s suggestion, concludes that in these cases Paul’s Vorlagen had already undergone Hebraizing revisions, aimed at harmonizing OG with proto-M.51 The early first-century CE Greek Minor Prophets Scroll (8H9evXIIgr) represents a revision of the OG towards a first-century Hebrew source, apparently close to protoM. Indeed, this ‘kaige’ project may pre-date the turn of the era.52 According to Koch, both Paul’s Job and 3 Kingdoms Vorlagen had undergone similar comprehensive Hebraizing revisions, each displaying its own distinct revisionist tendencies.53 The textual character of Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage is more complex. Paul cites from Isaiah more than from any other work, so Koch’s results for Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage are the most comprehensive. Ziegler54 divided IsaiahLXX into two dominant text groups: the older Alexandrian text (represented by majuscules A and Q, generally supported by S) and the younger Hexaplaric text (represented by majuscules B and V). Koch concludes that Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage agrees chiefly with the Alexandrian.55 So the majority of Paul’s citations of Isaiah reveal a «text» corresponding to the oldest retrievable form of the OG in Isaiah. Koch reconciles this Alexandrian Isaiah «text» with Hebraizing Pauline Isaiah citations (Isa. 8.14; 25.8; 28.11; 52.7), suggesting that Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage had undergone a partial Hebraizing revision at precisely the points where the LXX ‘sich nicht nur in der Wiedergabe einzelner Wörter gegenüber dem HT frei verhält, sondern auch die zugrunde liegende syntaktische Struktur umgestaltet hat’.56 Koch argues, then, that discrete verses had undergone Hebraizing revision throughout this Alexandrian Vorlage at those points where OG and proto-M diverge most radically. Since the Hebraizing verses Paul cites span all of Isaiah (chs 8, 25, 28 and 52), Koch concludes that this revision was made at discrete points throughout Paul’s copy. This

48 Ibid., 71–73. 49 Ibid., 73–77. 50 See Section 1.5, below. Kautzsch also wondered whether Paul knew Job in Hebrew (see Footnote 12, above). 51 Koch 1986, 57, 59. 52 Barthélemy 1950 dated 8H9evXIIgr to the late first century CE, while Barthélemy 1963 dated 8H9evXIIgr to the mid-first century CE. Roberts (Roberts and Skeat 1983 [1954], 45–62) dates 8H9evXIIgr to 50 BCE–50 CE, while Skeat (ibid.) dates it to the second century CE (cf. Tov et al. 1990, 22–26; cf. Marcos 2000, 192). 53 Koch concludes (with Schaller 1980) that Paul’s Job Vorlage was a Hebraizing recension of LXXJob close to those known from the Berlin papyrus fragment P 11778 and from Testament of Job (Koch 1986, 71). He also concludes that Paul’s 3 Kingdoms Vorlage was a Hebraizing LXX recension with a distinct recensional tendency and method akin to that of Paul’s Job Vorlage (ibid., 79). 54 Ziegler 1939. 55 Koch 1986, 48. 56 Ibid., 78.


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reconstruction is reminiscent of Deissmann’s suggestion that Paul ‘einen Septuaginta Text benutzt hat, der an einzelnen Stellen bereits eine jüdische Revision erlebt hatte’.57 Koch argues that Paul never appealed to Hebrew copies.58 Paul’s Hebraizing citations (close to M against the LXX) indicate Hebraizing revisions in Paul’s Vorlage. He doubts that Paul used Aramaic Targums. In the few cases where Paul’s citation approximates a Targum against the LXX or M (e.g. Jer. 9.22-23LXX; Deut. 32.35; Isa. 64.3), Koch proposes that Paul relied on traditions that originated in the Diaspora synagogue and entered early Christian liturgy as oral traditions.59 It is noteworthy that, while Koch confirms the textual profile of Paul’s citations established by Vollmer, he differs with respect to his evaluation of Paul’s sources. That is, Koch believes that Paul cited from a scroll of each work, whereas Vollmer supposes that Paul used a florilegium. This telling divergence shows that a distinction must be made between the ‘textual profile’ of Paul’s citations and the nature of his ‘sources’. Textual profile is an expression of the lexical relation of any given text to taxonomically derived text-critical categories, in this case the relation of Paul’s citation to the LXX recensions and revisions distilled by textual critics from the sum of ancient manuscripts and their total lexical variation. This process is distinct from considering the kind of written source Paul used on any given occasion. This distinction, which I make throughout this study, bears directly on the question of how ancient exegetes encountered literature and textual variations within it.

1.2.2 Koch’s conclusions Koch makes three proposals that are significant for the present study: (a) Paul cited directly from written sources (‘Vorlagen’) rather than from memory. (b) Between circa 48 and circa 58 CE Paul cited exclusively from one copy of each work of scripture. (c) Paul cited from his sources uncritically with no awareness of the available variant text-forms. Paul was unaware of textual plurality. Koch provides material arguments to demonstrate that (a) Paul predominantly cited directly from Vorlagen rather than memory,60 arguments which I discuss below (Section 1.2.3). It is first important, however, to understand the role of (b) and (c) in Koch’s study. In his discussion of Isaiah, Job and 3 Kingdoms Vorlagen, Koch explicitly presents (b) and (c) as conclusions arising out of his analysis. However, (b) and (c) are in fact assumptions that predicate his method and form the basis for his analysis. Koch provides only incidental justification for (b) and (c) throughout

57 Deissmann 1925, 80–81 (cf. Deissmann 1926, 100). See also Deissmann 1905, 69f. and Rahlfs 1921, 182ff. 58 Koch (1986, 19 [30], 57 [3], 78, 80 [112]) rejects the claim of Ellis (1957, 139 and 153) that Paul used both Semitic and Greek sources. 59 Koch 1986, 36, 77–78, 41. 60 Koch 1986, esp. 92.

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his work, but offers no united argument. Here I highlight the analytical significance of Koch’s assumptions.

1.2.2.1 (a) Paul generally cited directly from written sources Aside from the ten instances in which Koch thinks that Paul cites from memory, he argues from lexical data within Paul’s letters that Paul cited directly from written sources. Apart from these arguments from evidence internal to Paul’s letters – which I survey and critique in Section 1.2.3, below – Koch appeals to general historical considerations. It would not have been prohibitively expensive for Paul to access the quantity of scrolls indicated by the number and range of citations in his letters.61 While the private possession of eight scrolls indicates a particularly pious household in 4 Macc. 18.10-19, Koch argues that financial support from Paul’s communities would have funded his own copy of each of the works that he frequently cites.62 Moreover, Koch argues that, prior to composition, Paul followed the ‘geläufige’ ancient ‘Arbeitstechnik’ of consulting sources and collecting literary notes or excerpts (‘selbst erstellte Exzerpte’).63 This included Paul’s preparation of ‘biblical’ proof texts, which he incorporated into his letters.64 2 Tim. 4.13 refers to ‘biblical scrolls’ (ta. bibli,a) and ‘parchment notebooks’ (ta.j membra,naj), suggesting to Koch that Paul used the latter for note taking and composition. Stanley develops this idea (see Section 1.3 and Section 1.8.2.1, below). Koch dismisses the view that Paul used a Jewish or a Christian florilegium.65

1.2.2.2 (b) Paul only ever cited from one copy of each work Koch provides material arguments to demonstrate that (a) Paul cited predominantly from written sources in a direct manner rather than from memory. However, Koch does not address the implicit step required to move from the evidence that Paul generally used written sources to his more specific contention that (b) between circa 48 and circa 58 CE Paul only cited from one copy of each work. Koch does make some passing statements on the matter. Having reconstructed Paul’s Isaiah, Job and 3 Kingdoms Vorlagen, he expresses doubt that Paul made critical use of multiple copies of Isaiah: ‘[D]aß er sich um mehrere Texte z. B. von Jes mit unterschiedlicher Textform bemühte, diese erwarb und kritisch-abwägend benutze, ist eine abwegige Vorstellung . . .’ He continues: Für Paulus ist es dagegen wesentlich wahrscheinlicher, 1. daß sein jeweiliger Jes-, Hi- und III Reg-Text alle feststellbaren vorpaulinischen Zitatkorrekturen enthielt, d.h. daß es sich

61 Ibid., 99–101. 62 Ibid., 101. 63 Ibid., 99. 64 Ibid., 99–100. Koch points to Pliny as exemplary of this ancient technique (see Section 1.8.2.1, below). 65 Ibid., 9, 247–256.


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jeweils um eine einzige, rezensierte Textfassung des betreffenden Buches handelte; 2. daß Paulus sich der Unterschiede zwischen seinem rezensierten Jes-, Hi- und III Reg-Text und der unrezensierten Fassung dieser Bücher gar nicht bewußt war.66

Koch presents this pair of propositions as conclusions drawn from his reconstruction. But these propositions must properly be seen as the key assumptions that form the basis for his method of reconstructing Paul’s Vorlagen. Koch’s reconstruction of the Pauline Vorlagen presupposes his proposition that (b) Paul only cited from a single copy of each work. The data assembled by Koch to show that Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage belonged to the ‘Alexandrian text-type’ (rather than the Hexaplaric) are taken from three letters: Galatians (× 1), 1 Corinthians (× 2) and Romans (× 12).67 Similarly, the Isaiah citations that reveal the partial Hebraizing revision of Paul’s Isaiah source derive from 1 Corinthians (Isa. 25.8; 28.11) and Romans (Isa. 8.14 and 52.7). Because Koch’s overall reconstruction of Paul’s Isaiah Vorlage depends on data drawn from three letters, Koch must assume that Paul only cited from one copy of Isaiah. The same is true of Koch’s reconstruction of Paul’s Job Vorlage, for which he derives data from 1 Corinthians and Romans,68 as well as his reconstruction of Paul’s Pentateuch Vorlage, data for which is drawn from Galatians, 2 Corinthians and Romans.69 When Koch states that it is ‘wesentlich wahrscheinlicher’ that Paul used a single copy of Isaiah, Job and 3 Kingdoms, his ‘wahrscheinlich’ is misplaced; far from being a probable conclusion derived from his analysis, the proposition is axiomatic to his method. Koch’s proposition that (b) Paul only ever cited from a single copy of each work of scripture is ultimately founded on the proposition that (c) Paul cited from his written sources uncritically, being unaware of various available text-forms. Were Koch to concede that Paul could critically select readings from various text-forms at different times, his reconstruction of a single Pauline Vorlage from letters written over a period of ten years would be unjustifiable. Hence, the proposition that (c) Paul cited from his written sources uncritically, being unaware of various available text-forms, is the linchpin of Koch’s argument. Koch founds his claim that Paul only referred to his own copy of each work on the assumption that Paul was unable to compare multiple copies of a given work. He rejects the possibility that Paul could have accessed synagogue scrolls on his missionary journeys because Acts reports that Paul was routinely ejected from the synagogues of Asia Minor.70

66 Ibid., 80–81. 67 Ibid., 49. 68 Ibid., 71–73. 69 Ibid., 52. 70 Ibid., 99 [42]. Although elsewhere Koch concedes that 2 Cor. 11.24 (thirty-nine strokes) shows that Paul must have performed in synagogues (ibid., 89 [7]).

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1.2.2.3 (c) Paul cited without awareness of variant versions By doubting Paul’s awareness that some of his citations reflected Hebraizing revisions of the OG, Koch again agrees with Vollmer. To accept Paul’s familiarity with variant versions of particular works, argues Koch, would be ‘anachronistic’ and would credit Paul with ‘weit fortgeschrittener exegetischer Arbeit’ of the kind later undertaken by Origen or Eusebius.71 Koch never explicitly presents this as a united argument, but asserts throughout his study that Paul cited unwittingly from various text-forms. I refer to this as his ‘suitability argument’. Koch considers that in some cases the form of a passage cited by Paul is verbally less suitable for Paul’s argument than another. This applies to Paul’s citations of Job 5.13 (1 Cor. 3.19)72; Isa. 25.8 (1 Cor. 15.54)73; 28.11 (1 Cor. 14.21)74; 59.20 (Rom. 11.26)75; and Hos. 2.1LXX (Rom. 9.25).76 Had Paul been in a position to make a critical choice in these cases, reasons Koch, he would surely have chosen the more suitable form. These decisions, however, are based on Koch’s own judgement about the suitability of a particular reading for Paul’s argument. In Section 7.4 I argue that this argument is weak and that the examples do not contribute to a cumulative case.

1.2.3 Paul’s limited command of the literary content of scripture Koch credits Paul with a limited familiarity with the literary content of scripture that he learned ‘in der hellenistischen Synagogue’. Koch distinguishes zwischen einer allgemeinen Vertrautheit mit den wichtigsten Überlieferungsinhalten der Schrift und einer sicheren Kenntnis des Textes einer nicht unbeträchtlichen Anzahl von Schriftworten [. . .], die ja erst die Anführung eines bestimmten Wortlauts aus dem Gedächtnis ermöglichte.

He credits Paul with only a general familiarity with the most important traditional contents (‘die wichtigsten Überlieferungsinhalte’) of scripture, denying (conversely) that Paul had ‘die Fähigkeit, für einen bestimmten Zusammenhang eine geeignete Schriftaussage heranziehen und auch im Wortlaut wiedergeben zu können’.77 Koch does not accept that Paul could cite scripture from memory, noting that many (Ellis and Michel in particular) overestimate Paul’s mental ‘Schriftkenntnis’.78 He argues from lexical data internal to Paul’s letters that he cited directly from a written copy rather than from memory. However, these arguments (listed as i–v, immediately

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

Ibid., 80–81. Ibid., 80 [113], 72. Ibid., 80 [113]. Ibid., 80 [113], 65. Ibid., 177 [34]. Ibid., 55 [34]. Ibid., 92. Koch (1986, 92) cites Michel 1929 and Ellis 1957; cf. Koch 1986, 94 [15].


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below79) presuppose that citation from memory would inevitably result in deviation from the wording of GEd. (i) Paul can accurately reproduce the wording of his Vorlage in 40 per cent of the passages he cites (thirty-seven of ninety-three).80 Koch supposes that one can only do this when one cites directly from a written copy. (ii) Paul usually follows his Vorlage closely when using ku,rioj and qeo,j. Koch believes that confusion of divine titles would be inevitable if Paul cited from memory.81 This assumption is questionable because divine titles were clearly a matter of great importance in Greek and Hebrew texts of the period.82 (iii) In fifty-two of Paul’s citations Koch attributes distinctive wording of Paul’s citations to Paul’s intentional alteration of his source, not memory error.83 Koch hereby assumes that the alterations are only conceivable as a result of textual work from copies. (iv) Hence, longer strings of combined citations (such as Rom. 3.10-18) are placed strategically in the structure of the surrounding Pauline context, pointing to a planned composition, of which Koch can only conceive as the result of sustained textual work from manuscripts. It remains an assumption that citation from memory could not have been incorporated into planned composition. One does not need to assume that memory citations could only be inserted into the composition ‘erst im Augenblick des Briefdiktats’, as does Koch. (v) Finally, in two instances where Paul cites the same verse twice (Lev. 18.5 in Rom. 10.5 and Gal. 3.11; Isa. 28.16c in Rom. 9.33 and 10.11), he does so once according to his source and once in an altered form.84 Koch reasons that, because Paul is able to replicate the source-wording of each citation once, the change he makes to each cannot be a memory error. But this is only an argument against memory error, not against citation from memory as such, because there is no way to test whether each was cited and altered from memory. Koch identifies nine citations that he argues were made directly from a copy,85 and

79 The following arguments are presented in Koch 1986, 95–96, unless otherwise stated. 80 Koch identifies ninety-three individual passages reproduced by Paul (ibid., 33, 186, cf. 21–23) in one hundred and six separate citations (ibid., 33). Of the ninety-three, Paul modifies fifty-two (ibid., 186). In four cases Koch cannot identify the origin of the Pauline reading. Of the remaining thirty-seven: in twenty-nine Paul reproduces the earliest recoverable Wortlaut of the OG (GEd) (ibid., 102); in eight Paul’s wording diverges from the OG, but that divergence is not attributable to Paul (ibid., 186 cf. 57–76). 81 Ibid., 93; cf. 86f. 82 See Marcos 2000, 311–313 and Stegemann 1969. 83 Koch 1986, 102, 186. 84 Paul also cites Lev. 19.18 twice (Gal. 5.14 and Rom. 13.9) but each citation is identical with the LXX. 85 Direct citations (Koch 1986, 96, 188–189). Eight are citations of ‘Rezensionen’, which, he considers, can only have existed ‘in schriftlicher Gestalt’ (‘written form’) (ibid., 96, cf. 80). These are: 3 Kgdms 19.10, 18; Job 5.13; 41.3; Isa. 8.14; 25.8; 28.11; 52.7. He adds to this a ninth, Isa. 10.22, which (along with Isa. 52.7) exhibits haplography in Paul’s citation (ibid., 81–83, 96).

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ten which he believes to have been made from memory.86 He notes that seven of the nine ‘direct citations’ exhibit Pauline alteration, but only three of the ten ‘memory citations’ reveal Pauline alteration.87 He concludes that the ‘general phenomenon’ (‘Gesamtphänomen’) of modification of citations in Paul’s letters is a feature of direct citation, not an error of memory. However, given the sparseness of the evidence, his conclusion, that Paul almost always cited directly, is adventurous. Apart from the nine direct citations and the ten from memory, Koch counts a further seventy-four whose manner of citation cannot be established, conceding that in some cases errors of memory cannot be ruled out.88 Paul did not cite directly from written sources in the two ‘Gefangenschaftsbriefe’, Philippians and Philemon, and in the parts of 2 Corinthians apparently written in haste.89 Koch infers that Paul fails to cite scripture explicitly whenever no copies are to hand. However, Paul also fails to cite scripture under other circumstances; 1 Thessalonians was not apparently written from prison. And Romans 5–8, an integral part of that letter in which Paul cites most prolifically, contains only two citations: Exod. 20.17a = Deut. 5.21a (Rom. 7.7), one of the Decalogue, which Koch considers so common for Paul to have known from memory;90 the other is Ps. 43.23LXX (Rom. 8.36). Koch’s general claim that Paul primarily cited directly from written sources is a possible way of accounting for the evidence. However, problems with Koch’s approach – highlighted here and in Section 1.7, below – render his claim undemonstrated.

1.3 Others of the stream represented by Koch 1.3.1 Adolf Deissmann and Otto Michel Predecessors of Koch’s work, notably the studies of Deissmann and Michel,91 similarly belong to Vollmer’s text-critical lineage. Deissmann, like Vollmer, records the profound influence that the ‘Septuaginta’ has on Paul’s language and thought. On the basis of this influence, Deissmann doubts that Paul was educated in Judaea (Acts 22.3).92 He writes: ‘Urteilt man dann aber aus dem Gesamteindruck heraus, den der uns bekannte Paulus macht, so ist es doch wohl wahrscheinlich, dass der Sohn

86 Ibid., 95. Koch identifies ten cases of memory citation: (1) 1 Cor. 1.31 (= 2 Cor. 10.17); 2.9; 9.10b (passages derived from an oral text-transmission); (2) Isa. 11.10a-c; 28.16; and 59.20-21 (passages subject to pre-Pauline Christian alteration, known to Paul in oral form); (3) Lev. 19.18; Deut. 5.17-21; 19.15; 32.35 (presumed already current in early Christianity and familiar through oral tradition). 87 Ibid. 88 Ibid., 189. 89 Ibid., 96–97. 90 Koch thinks that Rom. 7.7 reproduces Exod. 20.17a (ouvk evpiqumh,seij). However, he takes Deut. 5.21 (ouvk evpiqumh,seij) to have been the common fare of memory, cf. Koch 1986, 95; see Footnote 86, above. 91 Deissmann 1925 and Michel 1929. 92 Whereas Vollmer accepts Acts 22.3. See Footnote 23, above.


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von Tarsus seine Knabenzeit in der hellenistischen Vaterstadt verlebt hat.’93 This ‘Gesamteindruck’ consists of Paul’s mastery of ‘hellenistische Umgangssprache’94 and the profound influence which the Septuagint has on Paul’s logic: ‘Will man den ganzen Paulus religionsgeschichtlich verstehen, so muss man den Geist der Septuginta kennen. Nicht das hebräische Alte Testament . . .’95 Michel builds on Vollmer’s text-critical study of Paul’s citations, affirming Vollmer’s observation that the language and thought of the LXX deeply pervade Paul’s writing.96 Michel further develops Vollmer’s observation that Paul’s sources at times reflect Theodotion against the LXX.97 In agreement with both Vollmer before him and Koch after him, he denies that Paul cited from Hebrew scripture. Like Vollmer,98 but in contrast to Koch,99 Michel accepts that Paul received a Pharisaic education in Jerusalem and spoke Hebrew (Acts 22.2-3): ‘Es ist selbstverständlich, dass er imstande war, den hebraeischen Urtext seiner Bibel zu lesen, aber er lebt und arbeitet nur mit seiner griechischen Bibel.’100 Two passages persuade Michel that Paul did not consult Hebrew copies when writing his letters. First, Michel observes that Paul’s allusion to Exod. 12.40 in Gal. 3.17 follows the ‘faulty’ chronology of the LXX rather than that of M. ‘Selbst dann hält [Paulus] an dieser [d.h. LXX] fest, wenn sie Fehler und Ungenauigkeiten aufweist.’101 (Michel questionably assumes that Paul would share Michel’s own standard of ‘faultiness’.) Second, in 1 Cor. 2.16 Paul cites Isa. 40.13, according to the LXX, where according to Michel, ‘der massoretiche Text seinen Worten veil günstiger wäre’.102 By prioritizing such internal lexical evidence of Paul’s letters over external evidence (in this case Acts’ claims about Paul’s socio-linguistic ethos), Michel’s method is akin to that of Vollmer, Koch and Stanley. While Michel allows allusions to inform his study, Koch and Stanley altogether exclude them for the sake of accuracy in establishing the textual profile of Paul’s citations with reference to the LXX transmission history. Michel shares Roepe’s and Kautzsch’s assumption that Paul’s deviations from the LXX result from erroneous citations from memory. He takes combined and mixed citations as the principal

93 Deissmann 1925, 71. 94 Ibid., 71. 95 Ibid., 79; cf. 80. 96 Michel 1929, 55–68. 97 Ibid., 63f. 98 See Footnote 23, above. 99 See Footnote 190, below. 100 For Michel (1929, 68), Paul was familiar with Palestinian synagogue practices, which Michel considers to be exemplified by later Tannaitic literature. He refers to synagogue practices mentioned in Megilla (4:2ff.): ‘Paulus war Diasporajude und als solche zunächst mit den Gewohnheiten der Diaspora vertraut, aber sein aufenthalt in Jerusalem wird ihn auch mit den Gepflogenheiten Palästinas bekannt gemacht haben’ (Michel 1929, 112–113). 101 Michel 1929, 68. 102 Ibid.

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evidence for his argument for Paul’s citation from memory,103 assuming that passages become mixed through memory error.104

1.3.2 Christopher Stanley Stanley’s work seeks to temper Koch’s approach with a scale of probability for Paul’s modification of the wording of his sources.105 Stanley examines Paul’s handling of the ‘wording of his biblical quotations’ and the ‘wording of his source text’.106 He praises Koch for his precision in setting ‘the criteria for determining what constitutes “citation”’.107 He further commends Koch’s limiting his evidence to explicit citations; that is, citations to which Paul alerts his audience, which Stanley calls a ‘readercentred’ approach to Paul’s citation.108 However, Stanley argues that Koch’s criteria attribute too high a literary competence to Paul’s original audience. Seeking to narrow the criteria for explicit citation in Paul’s letters,109 Stanley argues: The strength of the [reader-centred] approach lies in its conservatism: investigation is limited to a body of texts whose status as citations is reasonably assured, thus minimising the possibility that the results will be contaminated by the accidental inclusion of heterogeneous materials.110

In order to argue that Paul made conscious exegetical alterations to his written sources, Koch must first establish the wording of those sources prior to Paul’s alteration.111 Stanley criticizes the rigidity of Koch’s ‘all or nothing’ approach,112 finding Koch’s reconstructions of Paul’s sources and his judgements regarding Paul’s alterations of them overly confident.113 Stanley entirely accepts Koch’s arguments for direct citation from written sources114 (summarized in Section 1.2.3, above), taking Paul’s verbal reproduction of the OG (essentially GEd) to indicate direct citation from copies, not from memory.115 Stanley rules out Paul’s preference for a particular form of a given passage because he doubts that Paul simultaneously compared multiple copies of the same work.116

103 Ibid., 10, especially 80–82, 86–87, 217. See also ibid., 71, 73. 104 Ibid., 80. 105 Stanley 1992, 56–61. 106 Ibid., 4. 107 Ibid., 35. 108 Ibid., 33–35. 109 Ibid., 37. 110 Ibid., 34 (reiterated ibid., 56). 111 See Koch 1986, 186. 112 Stanley 1992, 56. 113 Ibid., 55–56. Lim (1991) also criticizes Koch’s confidence in his ability to recover the sources of Paul’s citations. 114 Stanley 1992, 70. 115 Ibid., 69, 71. 116 Ibid., 71; cf. Section 2.2.3, below.


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Stanley emphasizes the difficulty Paul would experience in looking up a verse in a long, unwieldy scroll.117 He does not accept Koch’s solution that Paul used a single ‘eclectic’ Isaiah Vorlage, finding such an eclectic copy unlikely.118 Instead, observing ancient authors’ use of wax tablets for drafting literary compositions and collecting literary extracts, Stanley develops Koch’s hypothesis that Paul compiled his ‘biblical’ excerpta in wax notebooks (see Section 1.8.2.1, below).119 Citing Luke-Acts’ narrative of Jewish hostility to Paul in Asia Minor, Stanley rules out Paul’s access to synagogue scrolls during his travels,120 proposing instead that Paul used scrolls housed in his own communities.121 When Paul came to cite scripture, he did not encounter the full text of each work, but rather his own excerpta. Such dislocation of passages from their traditional literary context explains to Stanley the semantic departure of many of Paul’s citations from their literary contexts.122 Like Koch, then, Stanley believes that Paul only used Jewish scripture in Greek123 and had a limited command of its literary contents. Unlike Koch, Stanley believes that Paul consulted different copies of a literary work at different times and places, which to him explains the textual diversity encountered in Paul’s citations. While he denies that Paul could compare copies simultaneously in order to select a preferable reading, he notes that some citations ‘reveal Paul’s familiarity with revised editions of the Old Greek text’.124 By accepting the possibility of Paul’s access to multiple copies, and so attributing to Paul some awareness of textual plurality, Stanley diverges from Koch. This divergence does not

117 Ibid., 17: ‘the difficulties associated with looking up specific verses in a bulky scroll while composing a letter are real’; cf. ibid., 69 ‘. . . the immense difficulties associated with looking up individual references in multiple unmarked scrolls in the process of composing a letter’. 118 He argues that, since the citations from one work (Isaiah) within the same letter (Romans) include agreements not only with ‘each of the major text-families of the Septuagint’, but also with a preChristian GHR, these citations cannot derive from a single eclectic copy (ibid., 69; cf. 73 [27], 254). In a number of comments Stanley expresses his view of the limits of the eclecticism possible in a given copy. ‘[T]he biblical text was by no means so fluid that one has to suspend all judgement concerning its specific content.’ The ‘diversity’ of biblical scrolls from the Judaean Desert ‘is not fluid or chaotic but conforms to a clear and simple pattern consisting of distinct families limited in number’ (ibid., 48, citing Cross 1966, 84). Stanley acknowledges that ‘all individual manuscripts are ultimately eclectic, so that no single manuscript reflects in full the characteristics of the textual family with which it is associated’ (1992, 69). However, this eclecticism is ultimately limited and thus ‘Paul’s biblical text can be defined more narrowly as belonging to [a] particular strand in the extant Septuagint manuscript tradition’ (ibid., 68). His frequent ‘standard text’ indicates his view of limits of eclecticism (e.g. 31, 57, 58, 60, 70 [21]). In fact, a highly eclectic first-century copy is conceivable (see Section 2.1.1, below). 119 Paul’s citations from Isa. 52.5 and 52.7 represent the OG and a GHR respectively, demonstrating that Paul referred to different copies at different times and noted down isolated citations (Stanley 1992, 73–78 cf. 255 [12], 256 [15]) in wax notebooks. 120 Ibid., 17 [50], 71. In this, Stanley agrees with Koch, against Michel and Ellis. 121 Ibid., 73 [27]. 122 Ibid., 74 and 78. 123 Ibid., 67, appealing to Michel’s argument against Paul’s use of Hebrew scripture; see Section 1.3.1, above. 124 Stanley 1992, 51 [59]; my italics.

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lead to any significant disagreement with Koch, however, as both scholars rule out Paul’s ability to select a preferred form of a particular passage.

1.4 The stream represented by Koch and Paul’s awareness of textual plurality I have called for a careful distinction between textual criticism of Paul’s citations and speculation about the manifestation of his actual written sources. Vollmer, Deissmann, Koch, and Stanley’s various propositions regarding Paul’s sources – florilegia, scrolls, excerpta – are all compatible with the established textual profile of Paul’s citations. While disagreeing about the nature of Paul’s sources, they all attribute the textual diversity of Paul’s citations to his sources rather than to Paul himself. Vollmer attributes this textual diversity to the early Christian compilers of the florilegia; Deissmann and Koch to Jewish scribes who produced Hebraizing revisions; and Stanley to the diversity of manuscripts in various early Christian communities. These conclusions hinge on the pragmatic question of Paul’s access to multiple copies of a given work. The scholars mentioned doubt that Paul could compare several copies of the same work (see Section 2.2.3). According to Koch, moreover, Paul could not know of the existence of various first-century text-forms of the OG (‘revisions’ and ‘recensions’) in circulation. An important distinction is to be made between an ancient exegete’s comparison of multiple copies of a work and his perception of different text-forms of that work (see Section 2.2.3). The former is a pragmatic-historical question while the latter is a modern text-critical idea attributed to Paul anachronistically. Regarding Paul’s awareness of textual plurality, three issues are perennially significant: 1. Paul’s use of Semitic sources 2. Paul’s access to multiple copies of the same work 3. Paul’s citation from memory The first issue is characterized by difficulties reconciling lexical evidence internal to Paul’s letters with circumstantial evidence, such as biographical details from Acts or Paul’s own claim to being a ‘Pharisee’ or a ‘Hebrew of Hebrews’. The second and third issues prove problematic within the lineage of enquiry discussed above because ‘access to multiple copies’ and ‘memory citation’ are seen to introduce ambiguity into the primary evidence – Paul’s citations – for particular text-critical approaches to Paul’s sources. The approach represented by Ellis throws these questions into relief.


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1.5 E. Earle Ellis Ellis affirms Kautzsch, Vollmer and Michel’s observations of the general ‘affinities’ of Paul’s ‘style and vocabulary’ with the LXX.125 However, he finds that Deissmann ‘perhaps overstates it’, when he claims that ‘to understand Paul . . . we must know the spirit of the LXX’.126 Ellis, unconvinced that Kautzsch and Vollmer resolved the question of Paul’s command of Hebrew,127 thinks that Paul demonstrates considerable knowledge of Hebrew (particularly in some Isaiah citations and in his two Job citations)128 and occasionally performs his own ‘ad hoc rendering’ of the Hebrew.129 Ellis believes that Paul perceived Greek and Hebrew versions of Jewish scripture as distinct identifiable quantities and was aware of textual differences between them. Hence, at times Paul preferred the LXX to the Hebrew130 and at times vice versa.131 While some appeals to the Hebrew may be attributable to pre-Pauline Christians,132 Ellis’ Paul emerges as a bilingual first-century Jew, whose writing and thought reflect a mingling of Semitic and Greek-speaking milieus. It was only natural that Paul, retaining in his mind Hebrew concepts and thought-forms, should frame his Greek on the analogy of the existing theological vocabulary of the LXX. Even where the apostle quite evidently sees in a citation the underlying connotations of the Hebrew, the Alexandrian version remains his mode of expression.133

Ellis observes that after the translation of the OG, Greek words acquire something of the value of the Hebrew words that they represent and vice versa.134 Ellis further envisages interaction between Paul’s direct citation from a Greek copy and from his memory of the Hebrew, arguing that Paul used the LXX, correcting it according to M.135 In this Ellis differs from Koch and Stanley, who draw a sharp distinction between direct citation from a copy and citation from memory.136 In Sections 2.3-2.6, below, I return to the notion of Paul reading one form of a passage while thinking of another form of it.

125 Ellis (1957, 12–14) also notes similar findings of Swete (1900), Nägeli (1905) and others. 126 Ellis 1957, 13 [1], citing Deissmann 1926. 127 Ellis 1957, 19 [6]. 128 For Ellis, the Isaiah citations in Rom. 10.15; 1 Cor. 14.21 and 15.54 show Paul’s knowledge of the Hebrew (ibid., 12 [3]); Paul knew Job most intimately in Hebrew (ibid., 144 [3]). For further examples see ibid., 14, 19 and 20. 129 Ibid., 139. 130 For example, ibid., 143. 131 For example, ibid., 144–145. 132 Ibid., 145. 133 Ibid., 13. 134 Ibid., 13, citing Dodd 1965. See further: Bratsiotis 1966; Isaacs 1976. 135 For example, Ellis 1957, 14. 136 Vollmer envisages Paul holding one version of a passage ‘in his mind’s eye’, while directly referring to another, the two versions consequently fusing in Paul’s text (see Footnote 32, above).

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According to Ellis, Paul not only distinguished between Greek and Hebrew versions, but also between various Greek versions; that is, the OG and its Hebraizing revision, ‘proto-Theodotion’. Envisioning Paul performing ‘an interpretative selection from various known texts’,137 Ellis implies that Paul could distinguish between distinct text-forms of given works and could privilege particular readings by comparing multiple copies of the same work. Like Koch, Ellis imagines Paul carrying scrolls around with him (on the basis of 2 Tim 4.13). Unlike Koch, he believes that Paul also read scrolls in the synagogues of Asia Minor, in which he preached, as Acts reports.138 Ellis accepts Paul’s Pharisaic education in Jerusalem (Acts 22.3, 26.4-5). ‘[A]part from Christianity,’ he writes, ‘it is probable that Palestinian Judaism was the only determinative influence in Paul’s life.’139 Ellis credits Paul with the expert ability to cite scripture from memory. Commenting on Paul’s citation of a diverse range of text-forms (i.e. ‘LXX . . . Hebrew . . . Aramaic targumim . . . other Greek translations’), he writes: [I]t might be expected that one who knew the Scripture in several languages and had a thorough knowledge of the sense of Scripture would be less tied to any text-form. ‘Memory quotation’ should be understood, however, as a free rendering in accordance with literary custom, or for an exegetical purpose, rather than as a result of ‘memory’ lapse. The importance of scriptural memorisation for the Jews, Paul’s Rabbinic training, and the verbal exactness of many of his quotations, militate against the latter explanation.140

Where for others exactness is a mark of ‘direct’ citation from a copy, for Ellis it is a sign of memorization. Ellis’ proposition that Paul combined direct citation from Greek copies with his memory of Semitic versions is attractive in that it neither rests too heavily on either model of ancient citation (citing directly from copies or from memory) nor polarizes the two approaches. Ellis’ view, that exegetes’ memory of variant forms supplemented their perception of written copies, is sensitive to the complexities of textual perception, memory and composition. Unfortunately, Ellis does not develop this critical point.

1.6 The stream represented by Ellis Hengel accepts Koch’s reconstruction of the Isaiah Vorlage: a copy representing OG Isaiah, which had undergone partial Hebraizing revision.141 However, Hengel

137 138 139 140 141

Ellis 1957, 139. Ibid., 19 [5]. Ibid., 38. Ellis appeals to van Unnik’s (1973) argument for the reliability of Acts 22.3. Ellis 1957, 14–15. Hengel 1991a.


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contends that Paul, as a ‘Schriftgelehrte’,142 produced his own Isaiah Vorlage for himself – not directly from the Hebrew, as Ellis proposed – but on the basis of Paul’s ‘knowledge of revised versions’ of the Greek.143 Hengel criticizes Koch for claiming that ‘Paul was not even aware of the differences between his revised text of Isaiah, Job and 3 Kingdoms and the unrevised versions of these books’.144 Appealing to van Unnik,145 Hengel defends Acts’ testimony to Paul’s childhood Pharisaic education in Jerusalem.146 Even without Acts, he argues, Paul’s own autobiographical statements prove him a Hebrew-speaking Judaean Jew: Gal. 1.22 does not show Paul’s meeting with Cephas to be his first visit to Jerusalem; Rom. 15.19 shows that Paul began to preach his own gospel in Judaea;147 and Paul’s claim to be ~Ebrai/oj in Phil. 3.5 proves him to be a Hebrew speaker with Judaean roots.148 Van Unnik, arguing that Paul was educated in Jerusalem from earliest childhood, gives priority to Aramaic as Paul’s mother tongue over his Diaspora Greek. Following Luke, Hengel sees Paul as truly bilingual – equally at home in Greek and Aramaic.149 Paul’s ‘idiosyncratic’ Greek style proves that Paul did not move to Jerusalem as early as van Unnik proposed, but learned Greek as a youth in Tarsus.150 Like Vollmer, Deissmann and Michel, Hengel acknowledges Paul’s ‘sovereign’ command of Greek scripture, both OG and Hebraizing revisions of Isaiah, Job and 3 Kingdoms. ‘Paul’s use of scripture developed out of oral teaching’ and extensive argumentation that typified the ‘institution of the Jewish Palestinian soferim’ and the ‘Jewish school which centred on learning Torah by heart’.151 Claims about Paul’s avkri,beia in the

142 Hengel (ibid.) refers to Paul either as ‘Gelehrte’ or ‘Schriftgelehrte’, both of which Bowden (Hengel 1991b) renders as ‘scribe’: ‘des damals relativ jungen jüdischen Gelehrten’ (ibid. 1991a, 213 – ‘of the Jewish scribe who at the time was relatively young’ – 1991b, 19); ‘Pharisäer und Gelehrtenschüler’ (1991a, 232 – ‘a Pharisee and pupil of the scribes’ – 1991b, 34); ‘seine eigene schriftgelehrte Arbeit’ (1991a, 235 – ‘his own work as a scribe’ – 1991b, 35). Hengel explains his term Schriftgelehrte thus: grammateu,j of the synoptic gospels is a term of ‘typically Palestinian coinage’, referring to the group known as soferim. Therefore, Paul omits to mention that he is grammateu,j (Phil, 3.5-6), because his Gentile audience would understand only its common Hellenistic meaning: ‘copyist, secretary, clerk’ (Hengel 1991b, 35–36). 143 ‘The revised texts could very well in part also derive from his own work as a scribe’ (Hengel 1991b, 35), which Paul produced ‘on the basis of his knowledge of revised versions’ (ibid., 35 [189]). Hengel, appealing to Stanley (1990), proposes Paul’s ‘own critical recension of the text’ (Hengel 1991b. 36 [194]). Cf. ibid., 35–36, 35 [191]. 144 Hengel 1991b, 35 citing Koch 1986, 81 (Bowden’s translation). 145 Van Unnik 1973. 146 Hengel 1991b, 22 and 34. 147 Because of the me in an accusative infinitive clause, Rom. 15.19 refers to Paul’s own mission (w[ste me avpo. VIerousalh.m kai. ku,klw| me,cri tou/ VIllurikou/ peplhrwke,nai to. euvagge,lion tou/ Cristou/) (Hengel 1991b, 24–25 [143–145]). 148 Hengel (1991b, 117 [146]) argues that ~Ebrai/oj means ‘Hebrew speaker’ (cf. Prologue to Sirach 22; 4 Macc. 12.7; 16.15, and Philo Vita Mosis 2.31). Grintz (1960) demonstrates that when Josephus mentions one who speaks e`brai?sti,, he means Hebrew, not Aramaic (see Section 3.4.2). 149 Hengel 1991b, 22, 34. 150 Ibid., 35. 151 Ibid., 35–36. Hengel refers to the Pharisaic schools of Hillel and Shammai and the houses of

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Torah (Acts 22.3; 26.4-5 cf. Phil. 3.5-6; Gal. 1.14) suggest to Hengel that Paul was intimately familiar with Greek and Hebrew scripture.152 Against Koch’s low estimation of Paul’s command of scripture, and its textual variations, Hengel says ‘we may not make the apostle a dilettante and ignoramus’.153 Hengel and Ellis both agree on Paul’s great competence in the literary aspects of Greek and Hebrew scripture (including memorization) and his expert awareness of its textual plurality. Both accept the testimony of Acts. However, Hengel goes beyond Ellis in his (mis)appropriation of Tannaitic material for his discussion of first-century Pharisees.154 Lim also adopts an inclusive view of the variety of Paul’s written sources.155 Following Acts, he accepts that Paul spoke Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic, and that (as a result of his Palestinian Pharisaic education) he used Hebrew copies.156 Lim argues that Paul was aware of a passage in its variant text-forms.157 Emphasizing the difficulties involved in handling multiple ‘rolls’ or ‘codices’ and in looking up passages in a long scroll, Lim suggests that Paul used ‘anthologies’ of ‘biblical’ passages.158 Marcos also estimates highly Paul’s command of Jewish scripture and awareness of textual plurality: I think that textual research alone does not resolve all the problems of Paul’s quotations, as the influence of exegesis also has to be looked at. In many cases, Paul’s text is closely connected with the application of that text to the present moment. Applications use common interpretations, oral or Targumic traditions and the Targum method of exegesis. Paul uses the technique of midraš pešer. In this method, the explanation of the text determines the text-form of the quotation. This occurs in several ways: 1. by mixing relevant verses within an express proof text; 2. by adapting the grammar to the context and application of the New Testament; 3. by choosing suitable translations of known texts or Targums; 4. by creating interpretations to fit the moment. All in all, Paul was capable of applying scripture to the demands of every particular situation of the Christian community like any rabbi or sage of his time.159

Paul could select ‘suitable translations’ and appeal to oral traditions. Marcos, like Ellis and Hengel, compares Paul to a Rabbi or ‘sage’, presumably after Acts 22.3, and equates first-century Pharisees with the Rabbis of Tannaitic literature.

learning in Jerusalem, one of which Paul allegedly attended under Gamaliel (ibid.; cf. 118 [157]). 152 Ibid., 37–38. 153 Ibid., 35, while citing Koch 1986, 81 (Bowden’s translation). 154 Hengel accepts the modern conflation of ‘scribes’ in the New Testament with Rabbis of the Tannaitic literature into the category of Schriftgelehrte (‘Torah scholar’), which Schams (1998) rightly criticizes. 155 Lim 1997. 156 Ibid., 161f. 157 Lim’s evidence are Paul’s two citations of Isa. 40.13 (Rom. 11.33; 1 Cor. 2.16), whose respective wording differs in each case (Lim 1997, 159). 158 Ibid., 154 (echoing Vollmer, Koch and Stanley on the difficulties of using an unwieldy scroll). 159 Marcos 2000, 329; my italics.


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Michel’s argument stands almost precisely between the positions of Koch and Ellis. Like Ellis, he credits Paul with sufficient command of scripture to cite routinely from memory. On the other hand (like Koch), Michel prioritizes the internal lexical evidence of Paul’s letters over Paul’s rhetorical statements. Arguing from this lexical evidence, he concludes that although (on the basis of Acts) Paul could have used Hebrew copies, he did not.

1.7 Citation from memory A great deal is claimed about Paul’s ability (or its lack) to cite from memory. This concern is based on a common assumption (particularly in the stream represented by Koch), expressed either in positive or negative terms. The negative expression supposes that citation from memory inevitably results in erroneous ‘deviations’ from the learned text.160 The positive expression supposes that accurate verbal reproduction of a source is only possible by citing directly from a copy. Following Kautzsch, Michel attributes many of Paul’s deviations from the wording of the LXX to faults of memory, explaining Paul’s mixed citations as ‘erroneous memory conflations’ (see Section 1.3.1, especially Footnote 103, above). Koch accounts for such deviations differently, arguing that Paul did not cite from memory. Rather, where Paul’s citations diverge from GEd, Paul often himself altered the wording of his source for his own exegetical purposes.161 For Koch they are intentional alterations rather than memory errors; the frequent agreement of Paul’s citations with the wording of GEd is ‘proof’ of Paul’s general direct citation from copies. The assertion that accurate verbal reproduction indicates direct citation from a written source inversely affirms Roepe, Kautzsch and Michel’s contention that errors result from memory recall. Koch’s material is compatible with this assumption, but does not constitute evidence for it. Of Koch’s types of evidence for Paul’s direct citation from written sources (summarized in Section 1.2.3, above) the first, third and fifth (that is, (i) Paul’s reproduction of source Wortlaut; (iii) Paul’s exegetical modifications; (v) two independent citations of the same verse) are positive iterations of this assumption; the second ((ii) divine names) amounts to its negative assertion.162 Koch presents this evidence as a cumulative case for Paul’s substantial use of written sources. However, each type could be explained equally well in terms of citation from memory. The same applies to Koch’s evidence against Paul’s general citation from memory (see Section 1.2.3, above). What Koch and Stanley present as evidence is an expression

160 The term text, rather than «text» (see Section 1.1.1 above) is applicable because an individual presumably learned the text from a particular copy, at least for extended periods of time. 161 The deviations are bewusst vorgenommene Texteingriffe (Koch 1986, 189). 162 The same is naturally true of Stanley’s summary of Koch’s evidence for direct citation (see Section 1.3.2, above).

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of their assumptions about the nature of direct citation from written sources. That is, their analysis follows their model rather than the contrary. The ability to reproduce accurately the wording of a known «text» does not constitute proof of direct citation from a written source rather than memory. Pointing to Marrou and Harris,163 Stanley acknowledges the extremely important role played by rote memorization and oral reproduction of written texts in Graeco-Roman education and the literary world in general.164 Gerhardsson and Lieberman present similar evidence in Rabbinic Judaism.165 Assuming that an ancient person memorized the text of a given manuscript copy verbatim, we must acknowledge that citation from memory would be indistinguishable from direct citation from the written source. I do not wish necessarily to attribute to Paul a remarkable capacity to cite from memory, but to point out the lack of reliable criteria for distinguishing between citation from memory and written text. Stanley notes two arguments typically presented in favour of Paul’s frequent citation from memory.166 One argument emphasizes the central role of rote memorization in ancient Graeco-Roman and Jewish education. The other explains ‘deviations from the precise wording of the biblical text’ in terms of memory errors.167 Stanley argues that these arguments ‘cancel’ each other out. However, his 1992 study goes on to demonstrate that deviations in wording are not the products of memory error, but largely a result of Paul’s own exegetical alteration. Thus, Stanley cannot justifiably maintain this argument against citation from memory because the idea of ‘cancellation’ (to which he appeals) is dispelled by his own results. Stanley also considers the notion that Paul routinely cited from memory to be inconsistent with the diverse textual profile exhibited by Paul’s citations. I divide his statement into two parts to ease the following discussion. He writes: [1] Had Paul relied upon a version of the Greek text that he had (presumably) memorised in childhood, one would expect to see at least a measure of consistency in the textual affinities of his various quotations, at least among those that come from the same book of scripture. The present study, in agreement with earlier investigations of Paul’s biblical Vorlage, has found no such pattern. . . . [2] . . . Especially troublesome for the “memory quotation” view are those places where Paul seems to have taken his quotations from an early Jewish revision of the Old Greek text. Only if one assumes that Paul has allowed these revised versions to displace the form of

163 Marrou 1956, Harris 1989. 164 Stanley 1992, 16 [47]. 165 Gerhardsson 1961 and Lieberman 1965. 166 Roepe 1827; Kautzsch 1869; Ellis 1957; Toy 1884; Johnson 1895; Michel 1929; Lindars 1961; and Hanson 1974. 167 Stanley 1992, 16–17.


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the text that he had known since childhood can it be maintained that these quotations, too, arose out of the apostle’s memory in the moment of composition.168

Stanley has a particular notion of rote memorization in mind: (1) an ancient Jew learned each work by rote from a particular copy available during childhood schooling; (2) this memorized text remained the one that a person accessed throughout his lifetime. It is this idea that Stanley finds inconsistent with the diversity of the textual profile of Paul’s citations. There are difficulties with this view. Assumption (1) is predicated on Stanley’s belief that there are limits to the eclecticism of copies of first-century texts.169 In Section 2.2.1, I argue against limiting such eclecticism because the same text-critical problems of textual diversity apply to memorized as well as written texts. If we suppose that Paul had memorized a particular work and that his textually eclectic citations of that work accurately represent this memorized text, it would be impossible for us to know whether he had memorized the text of an eclectic copy, or whether he had memorized the texts of several written copies. The two are indistinguishable. There are further problems with Stanley’s argument that a memorized text is incompatible with the textual diversity of Paul’s citations. According to (2), the memorized text is a rigid textual object that is practically identical with the text of the copy memorized in childhood.170 As a corollary, he assumes that memorization of a literary work is a process by which a text is transferred from manuscript to student’s mind and can be accurately recalled thereafter with no aspect of it altered through later encounters with variant forms of the text or through various uses of the text in exegetical contexts that require modifications in its wording. Stanley’s vision may be true of Graeco-Roman education or Rabbinic learning. However, this pattern characterizes learning within contexts of high textual standardization that did not apply to Jewish scripture in Paul’s times.171 The process of memorization, and the memorized text must be distinguished. While memorization of a literary work in the first century may have amounted to the rote recall of the text of a particular copy learned in childhood, the effect of subsequent encounters with variant text-forms of that literary work on an individual’s perception of the memorized text cannot be established. In Chapter 2 I argue that textual

168 Ibid., 255–256. 169 See Footnote 118, above. 170 Stanley’s ‘version of the Greek text’ means ‘text of a copy’ as defined in Section 1.1.1 (see also Footnote 118, above). 171 Despite revisionist projects like kaige-Theodotion or the claims made for the Septuagint in the Letter of Aristeas, the efforts of Alexandrian textual critics to standardize classical literature do not seem to be paralleled for Jewish scripture to the same degree in the first century. Rabbinic efforts to standardize the proto-Masoretic text-form (hence the Rabbis’ interest in the variant readings of Rabbi Mier’s Torah, which, according to Siegel (1975), was orthographically similar to 1QIsa.a (see Chapter 4)) seem to characterize the second and third centuries.

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plurality was an important part of many first-century Jewish exegetes’ encounters with traditional works. Stanley conceives either of an entirely literary or an entirely memory-based citation strategy. When writing about Paul, he largely proposes the presence of the former and a lack of the latter. Yet when an individual makes direct use of a copy of a literary work within a textually diverse environment, the text of a passage can evoke associations with its other text-forms and various exegetical ideas connected with it (see following chapters). These associations must not necessarily be perceived as rote recall, but as an individual’s cumulative knowledge of a given passage and his perception of its significance.172 Because the ancient individuals studied here are erudite exegetes operating within conventional literary contexts, awareness of textual plurality cannot be detached from the oral exegetical environment in which they must have operated. Notwithstanding its text-critical merits, Koch and Stanley’s approach to Paul’s sources exaggerates the literary aspects of Paul’s encounter with scripture to the detriment of social context. Their cumulative case, reliant as it is on the assumption of direct citation from written copies, does not rule out the presence of memory in Paul’s citation practice. Their appeal to this cumulative case, however, leads them to exclude the influence of memory on the practice of direct citation from written sources. While this exclusion is suited to their analysis of the textual character of Paul’s written sources (which is a prerequisite to discussing how he used them), it forestalls the historical question of his awareness of textual plurality.

1.7.1 Suppression of memory According to Koch, (1) Paul only refers to Greek texts when composing his letters; (2) he predominantly cites directly from copies and rarely from memory; and (3) he only cites from a single copy of each work (see Sections 1.2.2.2–1.2.2.3, above). I have argued that only point (1) actually emerges from Koch’s text-critical analysis, while points (2) and (3) are presuppositions of his reconstruction of Paul’s Vorlagen. Whenever Paul’s wording deviates from all known manuscripts of the LXX, Koch suggests whether and how Paul has modified his Vorlage. In order to do this, Koch must propose the original wording of the source. Therefore, Koch’s analysis relies heavily on his reconstruction of Paul’s written sources. Consequently, he must discard the possibilities of memory citation, multilingualism and Paul’s conscious preference for one text-form – factors that would introduce too many variables into his text-critical exercise. Stanley introduces a scale of probability for Paul’s verbal alterations of a source. Like Koch’s, however, Stanley’s task is text-critical, and accuracy relies on awareness

172 Stanley is aware that Paul inhabited an oral world (1992, 338f.). However, this awareness does not affect Stanley’s highly literary projection of Paul’s practice. This outlook pervades especially his chs 1–3, 6, and the summaries of chs 7 and 8 (Stanley 1992, 3f., 31f., 65f., 252f., 289f., 336f.).


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of the wording of Paul’s sources. Memory citation is one of the ‘heterogeneous materials’ that he must exclude to avoid ‘contamination’ of his study.173 He also excludes literary allusions and verbal parallels in Paul’s composition that lack explicit indications of their use by the author, even in cases where they reproduce verbatim the OG of the passage known from an LXX manuscript. Of course, Stanley does not casually dismiss memory citation simply because it does not suit his task; he is persuaded by Koch’s arguments that Paul’s direct citation from written sources is evidenced by lexical data in Paul’s letters (see Section 1.3.2, above), important arguments, which must be taken seriously but whose employment and implications I question. I argue that Stanley’s approach does not necessarily require the exclusion of citation from memory. And there is no reason to suppose that the citation of a diligently memorized text can be distinguished from a citation made directly from a copy. When Stanley writes that ‘the evidence runs wide and deep that Paul did indeed draw his quotations from some sort of written text’,174 he is referring to the cumulative observations of Kautzsch, Vollmer, Michel, and Koch (see Section 1.3, above). However, what ‘runs wide and deep’ is not evidence for this conclusion, but rather the shared assumptions that underpin it. As a result, such exclusion of memory from analyses of Paul’s citation techniques, which attributes to Paul an almost entirely literary modus operandi, really arises from the literary mode of modern analysts. Written sources provide our sole access to ancient citation techniques. And biblical scholars today must be wary of allowing the predominance of textual material available to us, and the contingent literary paradigms, to lead to the construction of an overly literary picture of antiquity. The role of memory in ancient citation practice can hardly be quantified through extant textual evidence and one must infer with historical sensitivity the dimensions of memory in first-century Jewish exegetical communities. The approach that I have outlined above limits the conception of memory to rote memorization. Because, as observed, a perfectly memorized text is indistinguishable from the written text, in current discussion textual memory becomes merely another means of access to a written copy. Textual memory is thereby subsumed within the question of access to copies, a question whose urgency itself derives from the predominantly written-textual view of Paul’s use of scripture. On this view, Paul’s encounter with scripture emerges as a solitary process of private study restricted by limited access to scrolls and the confines of a textual memory reduced to rote memorization eclipsed within a written-textual analytical model.175 The notion of Paul’s unfamiliarity with traditional literature and his lack of awareness of textual plurality are contingent upon this picture and its presuppositions. Subsequent chapters will emphasize the use of scripture within ancient Jewish oral discourse and argue that, far from representing the private literary exercise often envisaged, written texts and 173 See Section 1.3.2, above. 174 Stanley 1992, 69; reiterated ibid., 71. 175 See Carruthers’ (1992, 16–45, ch. 1 ‘Models for Memory’) excellent discussion of different means and aims of memorization in antiquity.

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their use belonged to fundamentally social interactions. I argue that an individual’s awareness of textual traditions was inseparable from the interactive process.

1.7.2 Awareness of textual plurality Envisaging Paul using different copies of the same work on different occasions and compiling excerpta, Stanley leaves open the possibility that at times Paul compared different forms of a given passage, although he does not entertain this possibility in his study. Ellis does not reduce Paul’s ability to prefer a form of a passage to Paul’s simultaneous comparison of written sources. The questions of memory and access to copies are not polarized in Ellis’ position. Ellis’ observation, that deviations from known text-forms in Paul’s citations reflect ‘literary custom’ and ‘exegetical purpose’ rather than slips of memory,176 is borne out by Koch and Stanley’s findings, who show that the distinctive readings of Paul’s citations often reflect Paul’s exegetical activity. However, Ellis diverges from Koch, Stanley and Vollmer in his confidence in Paul’s ability to cite accurately from memory, attributing Paul’s frequently precise replication of the OG wording to his ‘desire to reproduce a given text’. Paul satisfied this ‘desire’ by appealing to written sources in some cases and to memory in others. Nevertheless, Ellis’ confidence in Paul’s expert multilingual and pluri-textual citation from memory is subject to the same problems as the stance represented by Koch: (a) it lacks reliable criteria for distinguishing ‘direct’ citation from accurate memory citation; so that (b) the text-critical problem of identifying the memorized text – and the «text» it represents – remains. Ellis benefits from maintaining the more flexible approach to the textual problem of Paul’s citations. Although by taking a ‘maximal’ view Ellis risks overstating Paul’s literary expertise, he avoids forcing his socio-historical synthesis of Paul’s use of scripture into either affirming or denying possible aspects of Paul’s use of scripture, such as awareness of different oral sources or polyglossia.

1.8 Approaches to evidence In the preceding discussion I have observed that a particular lineage, represented by Vollmer, Deissmann, Michel, Koch and Stanley, subordinates circumstantial data – such as rhetorical claims by Paul or Luke-Acts about Paul’s Semitic ethos, or assumptions about the literary skills of Pharisees – to lexical data internal to Paul’s letters. So, for example, while Vollmer, Deissmann and Michel assume Paul’s Judaean Semitic ethos, they rule out his use of Hebrew scripture on the basis of the lexical evidence of his letters.177 Koch and Stanley seek further to secure the quality of the

176 177

See Footnote 140, above. See above, Footnotes 101 and 102 (Michel); 93 (Deissmann); and 36 (Vollmer).


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textual data, particularly through tightening the criteria by which material is admitted for analysis (see Sections 1.2 and 1.3.2, above). Text-critical enquiry is never independent of circumstantial historical considerations. Determining the nature of Paul’s sources is done through establishing the textual profile of his citations, which is integrally bound up with the question of how Paul modified the wording of his sources. This, in turn, involves numerous judgements about Paul’s own ideological and rhetorical motives for each citation and how these motives compare with agendas implied in Paul’s sources.178 Deciding on the manifestation of Paul’s sources – whether florilegia, scrolls or collections of excerpta – involves further historical judgements, such as the availability, manual convenience, weight and expense of different kinds of manuscript, under various conditions conceivable for Paul, such as visits to synagogues, sojourns in churches, long foot-journeys, or incarcerations. As we saw, Koch’s reconstruction of a single Vorlage for each work was predicated on a number of historical judgements. Historical considerations inevitably inform the premises of any study of Paul’s attitudes to scripture. However, it is important to establish which kinds of premise should be given prior weight in analysis. In the following I treat some recurrent issues.

1.8.1 Pharisees and Scribes It is often supposed that, having been a Pharisee (Phil. 3.5), Paul had an expert command of Jewish literature (for example, Ellis, Hengel and Lim). Josephus consistently presents the Pharisees’ reputation as the most precise interpreters of Jewish laws as the distinguishing characteristic of this group;179 the gospels broadly confirm this, presenting Pharisees as concerned with legal interpretation and violation.180 As a voluntary association, whose membership was characterized by legal expertise, it is fair to suppose that Pharisees shared this aspiration when joining the group.181

178 Noted by Koch 1986, 9–10. 179 For instance, in Vita 189–198 Josephus explains the impressive legal knowledge (avkri,beia) of the delegation sent to oust him from Galilee by noting that they were Pharisees. By this knowledge they claim to be Josephus’ equals (cf. Vita 9, Josephus’ own knowledge of the laws was avkribh,j from boyhood, prior to his contact with Pharisees). He elsewhere states that Pharisees are most pious and accurate in interpreting ‘the laws’ (tou.j no,mouj, BJ 1.110); accurate in the ‘legal customs’ (ta. no,mima, BJ 2.162); and in interpreting the ‘laws of the fathers’ (tou/ patri,ou no,mwn, AJ 17.41). Josephus presents the Pharisees as a filosofi,a, an elective group ideologically motivated to lead a certain kind of life (see Mason 1996; Saldarini 1988, 123f., 288f.). 180 e.g. Mt. 9.14; Mk 2.18; Lk. 5.33 (fasting). Mt. 12.2, 14; Mk 2.24; 3.5; Lk. 6.2, 7; 14.3f. (Sabbath). Mt. 15.2f.; Mk 7.1f.; Lk. 11.38 (hand-washing). Mt. 15.12 (food-purity). Mt. 19.3f.; Mk 10.2f.; 12.19f. (divorce). Mt. 22.15f.; Mk 12.13f. (taxes). Mt. 22.34 (greatest commandment). Mt. 23.5 (phylacteries and fringes). Mt. 23.16f. (oaths). Mt. 23.23; Lk. 11.42 (tithing). Mt. 23.24, 27 (corpse impurity). Mt. 23.25; Mk 7.4; Lk. 11.39 (purification of vessels). Lk. 5.21 (blasphemy). Lk. 11.41 (almsgiving). 181 For example, Saldarini (1988) describes the Pharisees as a ‘literate, corporate, voluntary association’ (ibid., 281) who ‘are best understood as retainers who were literate servants of the governing class and had a program for Jewish society and influence with the people and their patrons’ (ibid., 284). Saldarini thinks that the Pharisaic movement ‘must have educated its members to some degree’ but admits

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Nevertheless, here judgements about the level of expertise generally expected of Pharisees will be given no weight. First, I argue below that exegetical use of textual variation represents an ambient literary mode,182 which Paul shared with a number of his literate contemporaries, who were Jews of diverse social standing and ideological affiliation.183 Second, modern uncertainty regarding Pharisees remains. Available evidence explicitly refers only to first-century Judaean Pharisees.184 While Acts locates Paul’s Pharisaic training in Jerusalem, a widespread suspicion that this narrative is a Lukan fiction renders the testimony of Acts unsuitable as a basis for analysis.185 In line with a notion of ‘Diaspora Pharisees’ developed in modern times,186 some scholars believe that Paul, an entirely Hellenized Diaspora Jew, received Pharisaic training in Tarsus rather than Judaea.187 Suspect as we might that a variety of Pharisaism existed in the Diaspora, there is no direct evidence for its existence.188 Paul is the only example of a ‘Diaspora Pharisee’ and his apostolic writings provide unreliable insights into his Pharisaic life. Thus, I will not give analytical priority to Paul’s ‘Pharisaism’ with regard to presuppositions about his literary competence. In the canonical gospel narratives Pharisees are often closely associated with grammatei/j, commonly translated as Schriftgelehrten, ‘Torah scholars’ or ‘scribes’. Hengel, for instance, considers Paul both a Pharisee and a scribe.189 Because in Phil. 3.5-6 Paul fails to designate himself a grammateu,j, Koch counsels against overestimating Paul’s command of Jewish scripture. He presupposes that, having

that this remains hypothetical (ibid., 285), adding that Josephus ‘implies that all learned their own traditions and some were highly educated’ (ibid., 288). 182 See Section 1.8.4, below. 183 For Josephus and Dead Sea sectarians, see Chapters 3–5, below. For Paul himself, see Chapter 7, below. 184 e.g. Vermes 1973a, 56; Goodman 1983, 78 and 93; Sanders 1985, 198, 390 [90]; 1992, 535[45]. 185 For example, Deissmann 1925; Strecker 1976; Schoeps 1959; Haenchen 1968, 553; Koch 1986, 92–93 (see Footnotes 186 and 190, below); cf. Pervo 1987. Paul’s letters do not help to resolve the question of Paul’s Judaean schooling (pace Hengel 1991, 23–39). 186 The roots of this notion lie in earlier studies, for example, Whiston (1722), Vollmer (1895, 61–73). While Deissmann (1925) accepts Jerome’s report of Paul’s Gischalan ancestry, Deissmann (1925, 71f.) believes that Paul – a fully Hellenized Jew – received Pharisaic training in Tarsus. Hengel (1991, 29–34) argues that Strecker (1976) and Schoeps (1959) in particular developed the notion of ‘Diaspora Pharisaism’. For Schoeps, Diaspora Pharisaism, of which Paul’s thought is indicative, was a product of a highly Hellenized Diaspora Judaism and fundamentally non-Palestinian (1961, 22–47). Strecker (1976, 482) builds squarely on Deissmann and Schoeps. More cautious, Sanders still speaks of ‘Diaspora’ and ‘Palestinian Pharisaism’ as distinct (1991, 1; 1992, 536 [2], 538 [51]). Assuming that Phil. 3.5 must be intelligible to the Philippian audience, Saldarini posits Pharisees active in Macedonia, and speculates also Cilicia or Syria (1988, 292–293). 187 Koch (1986, 92 [4]) seems to accept this view, considering Gal. 1.15-24 to contradict Luke’s picture (in Acts) of Paul’s activities in Judaea prior to the visit reported in Gal. 1.18. 188 Hengel (1991, 29–34) reviews and rejects evidence commonly presented in favour of Diaspora Pharisaism. On Mt. 23.15, a locus classicus for arguments in favour of Diaspora Pharisees (converting Gentiles), see Goodman (1994a, 70–71), who interprets it differently. 189 See Footnotes 142 and 143, above. Hengel may be influenced by Jeremias’ claim that Paul was a Schriftgelehrte (Jeremias 1923–1937 II B, 101–103).


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inevitably received ‘intensive rabbinische Schulung’, all grammatei/j had the capacity to reproduce scripture from memory; in contrast, Paul lacked this capacity because he was not a scribe.190 Koch implies that scribes alone were capable of memorizing the ancestral literature. However, in an oral world, it is dubious to assume that the rare skill of writing was the sole credential for reciting text from memory. Moreover, Schams (1998) argues that ancient references to ‘scribes’ represent different groups of professionals performing a wide variety of tasks (including civic or military clerks, copyist-technicians, scribal exegetes, and priests), and thus against the simple equation of ‘scribes’ with expert Torah scholarship (see Chapter 5, below). As with his Pharisaic identity, decisions about Paul’s ‘scribal’ or ‘non-scribal’ status cannot form the premises for this analysis.

1.8.2 Access to copies I have identified doubts concerning access to copies as an important factor in widespread reluctance to credit Paul with an awareness of textual plurality. This issue similarly arises out of prior decisions regarding circumstantial data. Ellis supposes that Paul routinely compared multiple scrolls of the same work in the synagogues, which he entered in order to debate with compatriots, before he was ejected (according to Acts Paul was often ejected from synagogues). Koch supposes the opposite, reasoning that, because Paul was routinely ejected, he was not able to study synagogue scrolls. Thus Ellis predicates his argument (that Paul compared copies in order to select preferred variant readings), and Koch predicates his argument (that Paul, consulting one copy of each work for ten years, was unable to make a preference) on divergent inferences from certain circumstantial evidence. Responses to the question of Paul’s awareness of textual plurality cannot rest upon speculation about Paul’s access to copies at various stages in his lifetime, which scholars divide into childhood, youth, Pharisaic and apostolic periods. The presentation of Paul’s debates in Diaspora synagogues in Acts may be a narrative fiction,191 and Paul’s ejection may be influenced by Luke’s polemic against ‘the Jews’ who reject the gospel. One cannot, however, be certain that Paul never debated with other Jews, nor compared different copies of the same work during his pre-apostolic or apostolic phases. The visits to Jerusalem, reported in Galatians 1–2, were opportunities for viewing scrolls and discussing readings. Stanley assumes that Paul uses different scrolls at different times. Analysing the textual profile of Paul’s explicit Isaiah citations and their distribution throughout the letters, Wilk concludes that Paul used various copies of Isaiah (‘verschiedene Jesajarollen’) over this period. Wilk argues

190 Koch (1986, 92–93), citing Haenchen (1968, 553) and Conzelmann (1972, 67), doubts Paul’s Rabbinic education, considering the report of Paul’s Pharisaic education (Acts 22.3) to be a fabrication fitting Luke’s desire to present Paul as an authentic Judaean. 191 Cf. Pervo (1987), who compares Acts with the historical fiction of some ancient novels.

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that Paul used various copies representing IsaiahOG, one partial Hebraizing revision of IsaiahOG, and one thorough Hebraizing revision of IsaiahOG.192 The question of access to scrolls is circumstantial and conclusions on the matter inevitably speculative. Throughout his lifetime it is conceivable that Paul saw different scrolls at different times. Perhaps he had occasional chances to compare multiple copies of the same work or to compare a passage recorded in a notebook with the same passage in another copy (see Section 1.8.2.1, below). Perhaps at times he carried his own scrolls and perhaps he referred to florilegia. He may have discussed the different readings of a verse with fellow worshippers, Pharisees, elders, rabbis, apostles of Christ, or his own Gentile believers, at times consulting one or multiple copies, at times working from memory. Because all of these possibilities are attested in antiquity, any combination of them is conceivable for Paul. Therefore, prior judgement regarding this issue cannot be allowed to determine conclusions.

1.8.2.1 Excerpta Both Koch and Stanley argue that Paul compiled his own excerpta in notebooks or wax tablets.193 Koch notes that the author of 2 Timothy considered the use of notebooks as ‘geläufig’ in a late-first-century Christian mission. Koch argues that ai` membra,nai – distinct from ta. bibli,a containing traditional works – are the notebooks in which Paul collected excerpta.194 Stanley develops this argument with a survey of ancient authors’ compilations of excerpta in Greek, Latin and Hebrew milieus. Xenophon, Aristotle and Athenaeus all use cognates of evkle,gein, in reference to extracting desired literary passages.195 Plutarch selected from his own written notes (u`pomnh,mata).196 Cicero prepared to write a book on rhetoric by excerpting (excerpsimus) ‘the most suitable precepts’ from various works.197 Pliny the Elder compiled numerous volumes of excerpts and notes. An author was read aloud while the Elder Pliny, or his secretary (notarius), made ‘extracts and observations’ (adnotabat excerpebatque) on wax tablets (pugillares).198 Pliny the Younger made extracts while a volume of Livy was read aloud (Epistles 6.20.5). Papyri show that selections from

192 Wilk (1998, 41–42) shows that: Paul used the IsaiahOG scrolls and the partial Hebraizing revision during composition of Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Romans; Paul used the thorough Hebraizing revision when specifically composing Romans 9–11. Hübner (1993, 317f.), cited by Wilk (ibid.), had already suggested that Paul studied a new Isaiah scroll when writing Romans 9–11. 193 Koch 1986, 99 [40]. Stanley 1992, 74–79. Stanley surveys a helpful range of literature. On Pliny the Younger, see Chadwick 1969. On Aristotle and Athenaeus, see Knox and Easterling 1985. On Plutarch, see Helmbold and O’Neill 1959. For Hellenistic and rhetorical schools, see Marrou 1956 (153–154); Turner 1968 (91–92); and Hani 1972 (30–50). 194 Koch 1986, 99 [40]. However, according to Stanley 2 Tim 4.13 is ‘questionable’ because ‘membra,na as a Latin loan word can only mean parchment’ (1992, 46). 195 Xenophon Memorabilia, 1.6.14; Aristotle Topics, 1.14; Athenaeus Deipnosophists, 8.336d. See Stanley 1992, 74. 196 Plutarch Peri Euthumias 464F. Helmbold and O’Neill (eds.) 1959, ix. 197 Cicero De Inventione, 2.4. 198 Pliny the Younger, Epistles 3.5. Hutchinson (trans.) 1923.


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classical authors and thematic collections of classical citations were used in school exercises in the Hellenistic period and in the rhetorical schools.199 Several Judaean Hebrew manuscripts present compilations of extracts, in some cases with interpretive comments appended to them.200 These include 4Q158 (Reworked Pentateuch), 4Q175 (Testimonia), 4Q176 (Tanh[umim), 4Q174 and 4Q177 (Florilegium; Midrasch zur Eschatologie).201 To these can be added 4Q339 (List of False Prophets, Aramaic), 4Q340 (List of Netinim) and 4Q559 (Biblical Chronology),202 all of which thematically gather excerpts from various traditional Jewish sources. 4Q175, 339, and 340 were written on single sheets,203 suggesting private use. Stanley takes Pliny the Elder in particular as a model for Paul’s collection of excerpta,204 referring to studies on the use of ‘parchment notebooks’ and ‘wax tablets’ in the ancient world.205 Having established the general currency of the practice, Stanley treats it as Paul’s primary mode of operation. Accordingly, Paul was more closely acquainted with his own ‘highly familiar anthology’206 than with the traditional literature from which it was drawn, which explains for Stanley why ‘a number of Paul’s citations are used in a sense quite foreign to their original context’.207 However, this is unconvincing. The dislocation of a passage from its traditional literary context is common among Paul’s exegetical contemporaries.208 In Sections 7.1–7.2.3 I discuss a number of Paul’s uses of scripture, to which the ‘dislocation’ of a passage from its traditional literary context is intrinsic. It remains unclear to what extent Paul’s situation was comparable to the scenarios represented in this survey. Pliny the Younger and his uncle received the attentive assistance of slaves both for recitation and inscription. Besides, the literary enterprises of Plutarch, Pliny or Cicero (and their level of education) are not immediately comparable with the circumstances of Paul’s itinerant mission.209 Nor is his situa-

199 See Stanley (1992, 75), citing Marrou 1956, 153–154; Turner 1968, 91–92. 200 Stanley 1992, 76–77. 201 4Q158 (Reworked Pentateuch) collects extracts from Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 and 18 (cf. Allegro 1968, 3–6; Fishbane 1988, 352–353). 4Q175 collects passages which the interpreter apparently took to refer to eschatological figures (Allegro 1968, 57–60). 4Q177 gathers and comments on extracts from various sources, including Deuteronomy, Exodus, Psalms, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Hosea, Joel, Nahum, and Ezekiel (Allegro 1968, 69–73). 4Q174 (Florilegium; cf. Allegro 1968, 53–57) and 4Q177 (Catena A; cf. Allegro 1968, 67–78) contain anthological collections of excerpts interspersed with comment (Steudel 1994). For 4Q176, see Allegro 1968, 60–66. 202 VanderKam and Flint, 2002, x. 203 Tov 2008, 431. 204 Stanley (1992, 75–76); cf. Koch (1986, 99 [40]). 205 Stanley 1992, 78 [46], citing Knox and Easterling 1985, 18; Kenyon 1932, 91–92; and Harris 1989, 194. 206 Stanley 1992, 74; ‘highly familiar collection’ (ibid., 79 [49]). 207 Ibid., 74 and 78. 208 The authors of continuous pesharim preserve the traditional literary context of contiguous passages and simultaneously interpret adjacent passages in radically different ways. 209 Although Paul at times worked with collaborators and co-authors, and was assisted by an amanuensis (cf. Randolph Richards 2004 and Murphy-O’Connor 2005).

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tion necessarily comparable to Hellenistic schools. Stanley’s treatment of excerpta compilation as Paul’s primary mode of operation is to allow a speculation about Paul to determine analysis. Rather, the ancient practice of compilation of excerpts should be included among the possibilities open to Paul, but not presented as Paul’s primary method.210

1.8.3 Linguistic milieu The lexical evidence of Paul’s Greek letters does not entail Paul speaking th/| ~Ebrai `dx'a, rf'b'l.

LXX 1 Cor. 6.16 oi` du,o > M

In Ellis’ view, Paul and LXX agree against M ([Paul = LXX] ≠ M) because Paul and the LXX share the phrase ‘the two will be’, whereas M simply has ‘they will be’. However, this divergence makes no semantic difference because Gen. 2.24 refers to two people (a man and a woman), in any case. That is, a single sense contour characterizes both forms of the passage despite lexical variations. Whereas Ellis classifies these lexically: [Paul = LXX] ≠ M, I view their relationship semantically: [Paul = LXX = M]. 84 Ellis 1957 ‘Appendix I’, 150–152.

2. Paul and textual criticism

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Paul often employs GHR at points where M and OG significantly diverge. While this cannot prove that Paul preferred the pM sense (it may have been the only form of the passage he knew), attention to sense contours shifts the discussion from the intractable problem of Paul’s awareness of distinct «texts» – through navigation of myriad variant readings – towards a historically conceived sense of his modus operandi. The issue of access to multiple copies reflects an unhelpful preoccupation with the technical means by which Paul could negotiate alternative semantic forms of a passage. An exegete could read a passage in a copy while knowing other exegetical ideas traditionally associated with that passage and being broadly aware that different sense contours can characterize the same passage (in other copies or at other performances). So when talking about sense contours, we need not envisage Paul sifting through multiple copies in search of a preferable reading. The concept of ‘sense contours’ removes anachronistic text-critical concerns from our conception of Paul’s encounter with textual plurality and thereby avoids the question: ‘Was Paul a textual critic?’(and the inevitable answer: ‘No’). Sense contours provide a means to discuss cases where Paul had an exegetical or rhetorical incentive to prefer one particular semantic form of a passage. In other words, I suggest that we can envisage ancient exegetes perceiving these sense contours without suggesting that they operated like textual critics.85

2.4 Passages Ancient exegetes encountered literature in discrete meaningful units – passages. Scribal conventions divide the text of ancient copies into such units, which are clearly marked for the reader’s or hearer’s aid. The ancient textual divisions in 1QIsaiaha and 8H9evXIIgr are broadly preserved in mediaeval manuscripts.86 The pesharim divide continuous text into units and interpret each one independently of the neighbouring ones. A similar practice existed several centuries later. In synagogues, according to m. Megilla 4:4, one verse from the Hebrew Pentateuch was read aloud, or three verses at a time from the prophets, after which a translator gave an oral version in Aramaic. I refer to such discrete textual units as passages. A ‘passage’ is that coherent piece of syntax interpreted by an exegete. 1. A literary passage can traditionally exist in various semantic forms, each form characterized by a distinct sense contour.

85 The idea of textual criticism did exist in antiquity. For example, the textual critics of Alexandria attempted to standardize the «text» of Homer. The Letter of Aristeas shows awareness that some Hebrew exemplars were ‘excellent’, implying that others were seen as corrupt. We may not assume, however, that ancient exegetes in general could be credited with Alexandrian standards of text-critical work (cf. Russell and Winterbottom 1998). The Rabbis were fascinated by variants in Rabbi Meir’s Torah scroll (Siegel 1975, 8–17). 86 Oesch 1979; Revell 1984; Tov et al. 1990; Tov 1992 and 2004.

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2. An individual exegete could know distinct semantic forms of a passage without (text-critically) perceiving variant ‘text-types’ of the literary work. 3. A given semantic form of a passage can give rise to a particular idea in ancient exegetical discourse. 4. In exegetical discourse, multiple exegetical ideas can be simultaneously and variously associated with the same passage. 5. An exegete may encounter (in a copy or a recital) a particular semantic form of a passage, associated with an exegetical idea, while remaining aware of other exegetical ideas commonly associated with that passage. 6. A passage in a given copy can thus function as a cue to the multiple exegetical ideas traditionally associated with that passage.

2.5 Polyvalent texts A set of exegetical techniques was integral to the ancient exegetes’ encounter with a traditional work. Several exegetical techniques capitalize on properties of consonantal Hebrew (for example: alternative vocalization, metathesis, splitting words, and substitution of similar letters of the root).87 In other words, exegetical techniques were not secondary to the reading of texts. They were not merely methods of text alteration, but provided a lens for the very reading of these texts. A given passage of a Hebrew text offers multiple exegetical possibilities. So an exegete encountering a passage within an exegetical discussion could be familiar with several exegetical ideas traditionally associated with that passage, regardless of the wording within the particular written source. In the Habakkuk Pesher 11.8-9, the pesherist cites Hab. 2.16, apparently according to the Hebrew reading presupposed by the OG and several cognate versions. However, his pesher in 11.12-16 presupposes the reading of proto-M. Table 2.2 Two sense contours in Habakkuk 2.16 1QpHab. 11.8-9

dwbm !wlq ht[bX hta ~g htX l[rhw Hab. 2.16M You will be sated with shame instead of glory. Drink, you yourself, and be uncircumcised!

87 See Section 5.3.

Hab. 2.16M

dAbK'mi !Alq' T'[.b;f' hT'a;-~g: htev. lre['hew> 1QpHab. 11.8-9 You will be sated with shame instead of glory. Drink, you yourself, and stagger!

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The Hebrew witnesses (M and the citation in 1QpHab. 11.8-9) show that one sense contour arises from the word lr[ (‘circumcise’), another arises from l[r (‘stagger’). These two words occupy the same syntactical position in the passage. Thus, the words lr[/l[r represent distinct configurations of the same syntactical unit, which characterizes distinct sense contours of the passage. These sense contours are reflected more widely in known textual traditions (M, LXX, a', T, V, Syr, cf. Section 4.2, below). Many believe that the pesherist was conversant with both textual traditions (cf. Section 4.2, below). Perhaps the pesherist compared two copies of Habakkuk. Yet, not only is it unwise to assume that the exegete had two copies,88 it is also unnecessary. He could have been equally aware of both exegetical ideas associated with Hab. 2.16; and his encounter with this passage within his exegetical environment accommodated both ideas. Perhaps the pesherist always associated both exegetical ideas with this passage, regardless of the wording of his copy. Certainly, the two exegetical ideas are enshrined as distinct readings in two textual traditions – proto-M and OG. Yet the exegete need not be aware of this. In a milieu of textual and exegetical flux, the pesherist’s apparently intentional appeal to two traditions does not entail his knowledge of two ‘text-types’ nor his comparison of two copies.

2.5.1 ‘Passages’ and ‘semantic units’ If an ancient exegete presupposes now one textual tradition (such as OG) and now another (such as M), no case can be made for his global knowledge of two textforms of the entire work, not only because his source could be eclectic according to text-critical categories, but also because we may not attribute to him text-critical logic. However, his awareness of two semantic forms of precisely the same syntactical unit can be seen as evidence for his awareness of textual plurality. As we have seen, in Hab. 2.16 two sense contours arise from distinct configurations of the same syntactical unit. Thus, while a ‘passage’ is that coherent piece of syntax interpreted by an exegete, a ‘semantic unit’ is the smallest syntactical element within which verbal differences engender distinct sense contours. A distinct sense contour characterizes a particular semantic form of the passage. For the ancient exegete, a sense contour is a property of the passage as a whole; and several possible sense contours associated with a passage can become traditional properties of that passage. I express this range of awareness of textual plurality as a continuum: §A A work can be perceived as a fixed literary object of interpretation. While the wording of a passage may be deemed fixed, exegetes assume that the passage can be interpreted in several ways. §B The text of a passage can be seen, not as a fixed, but as a multivalent object of 88 Aside from doubts about the ‘Qumran library’ and ‘scriptorium’ hypotheses (e.g. Eisenman 1983, 1986; Golb 1980, 1985, 1995; Crown and Cansdale 1994; Zangenberg 2000), we cannot be sure which Dead Sea sectarian documents were composed or copied at Qumran, if any (see Section 5.2, Footnote 21; cf. Norton 2009, 141–142). We should avoid, if we can, predicating our analysis on irresolvable questions.

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§C

Contours in the Text interpretation. Multiple sense contours can characterize the passage. An interpreter can derive distinct sense contours through manipulation of a semantic unit. The exegete can perceive several semantic forms of the passage as properties of that passage. In various copies, a passage can exhibit distinct sense contours. An exegete can be familiar with various sense contours characterizing the passage.

In the following chapters I explore a range of ancient awareness of textual plurality in traditional Jewish literature. Although the entire range does not apply to Paul, the discussion opens perspectives on the breadth of possibilities open to him. Although Koch and Stanley do not believe that §C is a modus operandi open to Paul, I will give evidence for §C as a practice among some of Paul’s contemporaries. Discussion of §B, begun in the preceding section, continues in the following chapters.

2.6 Conclusions Paul did not distinguish among ‘text-types’ in the modern sense through comparison of multiple copies of a given work. Terms like ‘textual variant’ or ‘variant reading’ frame our own interests, often obscuring ancient concerns (Section 2.2.3). I have argued that in order to engage with ancient exegetes’ perceptions, we need to establish the sense contours that they themselves identify (Section 2.3). Within an exegetical environment, the sense contour characterizing the form of a given passage prompts multiple exegetical ideas (Section 2.4).

3 JOSEPHUS AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY

3.1 Textual traditions Josephus was a priest of the Judaean ruling class. He was influential in Judaean politics in the years immediately preceding and during the Jewish Revolt of 66–70 CE. Josephus stresses the influence of Pharisees in Judaean civil and religious life and claims to have governed his public affairs according to their practices (Vita 1–12).1 In Rome, after the Revolt, he adopted the persona of a Hellenistic historian,2 writing in Greek a history of the Judaean people for his patrons, and an extensive work presenting the Judaean constitution, ancestral customs and literature for an interested Graeco-Roman audience. Having carefully studied Greek literature and historiography, which he emulates, he shows knowledge of critical and interpretive traditions associated with this literature. Giving his audience his own detailed account of Judaean customs in the AJ, he presents and explains considerable portions of Jewish scripture, particularly those portions dealing with legal constitution and monarchy. Despite the unfamiliarity of his Roman audience with things Judaean, Josephus’ presentation reveals his own intimate knowledge of Jewish literature in Hebrew and Greek, which is accompanied by a profound familiarity with common exegetical techniques and interpretive traditions associated with that literature.

3.2 Assessing Josephus’ awareness of textual variation The purpose of this chapter is to establish whether Josephus ever made conscious use of multiple forms of a passage from Jewish scripture. Indeed, many believe that Josephus referred simultaneously to Semitic and Greek sources of the same work, particularly in preparing his presentation of the Pentateuch. If this were true, it would be immediately evident that he was aware of variant forms of the same literary work, not only because his sources for a given work would vary in language, but also because his sources would inevitably exhibit the level of textual variation known from ancient Hebrew and Greek manuscripts. However, it is notoriously difficult to

1 It is questionable whether he was himself a Pharisee, cf. Mason 1991, 343–356. 2 Sterling 1992, 240–245; Feldman 1998a, 3–13.

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demonstrate that he did use multiple copies of any given work and to establish the text-forms that these might have represented. On the face of it, Josephus’ own statements seem to affirm that he knew and used multiple versions, at least of the Pentateuch: he speaks of the Alexandrian Greek Pentateuch translation and claims to be using Hebrew sources at the same time (see Section 3.3, below). But considerable disagreement persists regarding Josephus’ linguistic ability and the textual nature of his sources. Despite his writing in Greek, and his frequent elucidation of Hebrew and Aramaic words, his command of each language has been questioned in modern times. And although his Hebrew and Aramaic competence will be examined below, gaining insight into his linguistic abilities does not resolve the question of the textual character of his sources. As we shall see, because of the complexities inherent in the textual history of the so-called ‘Historical’ and ‘Prophetic Books’, this chapter focuses on Josephus’ use of the Pentateuch, which was textually more stable than other Jewish literature in the first century. Yet uncertainty still abounds. Some think that Josephus used both Greek and Hebrew Pentateuch sources side by side. Others think he used only Greek sources (explaining Hebrew and Aramaic vernacular usage); still others think that the AJ is his own translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch, which he produced without reference to the Old Greek; but he may, as some believe, have consulted the Old Greek as a lexical aid. Finally, the very nature of his ‘historical’ presentation of the Pentateuch makes it very difficult to establish the text-form of his sources in any given case. To a considerable degree, then, the task of this chapter involves considering how to approach the question.

3.3 Josephus’ project It makes sense to start with Josephus’ own stated aims in writing the AJ. While commentators have often treated his statements with scepticism, recent studies find that Josephus’ programmatic aims in the AJ correspond well with the work that follows, so his statements should be taken seriously.3 In AJ 1.5 Josephus writes that his project (pragmatei,a)4 will ‘encompass our entire ancient history and constitution of the state, interpreted from the Hebrew writings’ (me,llei ga.r perie,xein a[pasan th.n parV h`mi/n avrcaiologi,an kai. dia,taxin tou/ politeu, m atoj ev k tw/ n ~Ebrai? k w/ n meqhrmhneume, n hn gramma, t wn). While meqhrmhneume,nhn here is understood as ‘interpreted’, some read this as ‘translated’.5 And this is quite possible. In AJ 1.7 Josephus goes on to say that, in his previous documentation of Jewish origins in the BJ, he had hesitated in ‘transferring such a subject into a foreign and unfamiliar usage of language’ (metenegkei/n u`po,qesin eivj 3 See Mason’s discussion (2000, XIIIf., esp. XIX–XX). 4 Thackeray (1967, ad loc.), ‘work’; Feldman (2000, ad loc.), ‘task’. 5 So Thackeray 1961, ad loc.; Feldman 2000, ad loc. Nodet (1997), too, sees the AJ as a primary translation.

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avllodaph.n h`mi/n kai. xe,nhn diale,ktou sunh,qeian). ‘Usage’ here refers to his Greek. In AJ 10.218, referring back to AJ 1.5, he declares that ‘right from the beginning of my history . . . I committed only to express the Hebrew works into the Greek tongue and explain these things, without adding anything of my own, or taking anything away’ (evn avrch/| th/j i`stori,aj . . . hvsfalisa,mhn mo,non te metafra,zein ta.j ~Ebrai,wn bi,blouj eivpw.n eivj th.n ~Ella,da glw/ttan kai. tau/ta dhlw,sein mh,te prostiqei.j toi/j pra,gmasin auvto.j ivdi,a| mh,tV avfairw/n u`peischme,noj). These statements, particularly the latter (10.218), can be taken to indicate that Josephus undertook a ‘translation’ of the Pentateuch; Josephus uses metafe,rw and metafra,zw (AJ 1.7 and 10.218), at least in part, to indicate ‘transferring’ or ‘putting’ his account into Greek. However, his project seems to entail more than ‘translation’ in any formally limited sense. First, in the introduction to Book 1 Josephus explains his aims in writing ‘history’, which are not merely to translate. ‘This present project’ (tau,thn [. . .] th.n evnestw/san [. . .] pragmatei,an) (AJ 1.5) belongs to the ‘writing (of) histories’ (ta.j i`stori,aj suggra,fein), introduced in 1.1 and referred to throughout 1.1-8. This ‘project’ is Josephus’ own ‘writing of history’ which ‘will encompass our entire ancient history and constitution of the state’. That this ‘history’ is to be ‘interpreted from the Hebrew writings’ (evk tw/n ~Ebrai?kw/n meqhrmhneume,nhn gramma,twn) is a subsidiary thought reflecting his awareness that Judaean customs and literature represent an exotic and foreign subject for his audience. The AJ is a history, not simply a translation from Hebrew. Some write histories to show off their ‘skill in composition’ (lo,gwn deino,thta) or ‘to gratify those interested’ (1.2), but Josephus seeks to present and ‘clarify’ those ‘facts’, which lie in ‘obscurity’ for the ‘common benefit’ (eivj koinh.n wvfe,leian, 1.3). It is precisely because these facts need to be ‘interpreted out of the Hebrew scriptures’ that Josephus has the right credentials for this task. He is an interpreter, qualified by his Judaean aristocratic education and priestly status. Indeed, Josephus could not provide the ‘history’ he promises to Epaphroditus & Co. (1.8) merely by translating the Hebrew writings, because a history requires a worthy historian’s elucidation of ‘facts’ (1.3) and Mosaic philosophical principles (1.18-23), whereas the Hebrew Books of Moses contain principally ‘our laws and constitution’ (1.10), which Moses conveyed in part obscurely (aivnittome,nou, 1.24), and which Josephus intends to explain (1.18, 24) (although he excuses himself from expounding on the underlying philosophical theory, 1.25). Josephus even distinguishes his own contribution from that of Moses, the author of the Pentateuch (1.18), thus distinguishing himself from someone who merely translates Moses’ own words. In AJ 10.218 too Josephus promises something other than translation. He does not set out only to express (metafra,zw) the Hebrew in Greek; he will also explain (dhlo,w) the Hebrew literary traditions in Greek (hvsfalisa,mhn mo,non te metafra,zein ta.j ~Ebrai,wn bi,blouj eivpw.n eivj th.n ~Ella,da glw/ttan kai. tau/ta dhlw,sein mh,te prostiqei.j toi/j pra,gmasin auvto.j ivdi,a| mh,tV avfairw/n u`peischme,noj). His ‘only’

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(mo,noj) relates to expressing and explaining as a single task6 and excludes adding or subtracting anything. The latter claim is a common trope.7 That Josephus, in the estimation of commentators, does supplement and omit traditional material tells us more about how he views his project and his role as interpreter than about his honesty; his additions and omissions belong, presumably, to his explanation; this is a true explanation by a qualified Judaean priest which, therefore, does not misrepresent the essence of Moses’ writing. Josephus presents himself standing in the tradition of the Judaean ‘elders’ who translated the Hebrew Torah into Greek for Ptolemy, stating his intention to ‘imitate (mimh,sasqai) the magnanimity (megalo,yucon)’ of Eleazar (AJ 1.12), the high priest who presided over the translation of the Pentateuch into Greek (eivj th.n ~Ella,da fwnh.n metabalei/n AJ 1.10).8 Where Eleazar ‘did not manage to obtain all our records’ and ‘only transmitted’ the Pentateuch (AJ 1.12), Josephus’ pragmatei,a encompasses ‘all of scripture’ (pa/san . . . th.n avnagrafh,n), which may mean the twenty-two works that Josephus lists in Cont.Ap. 1.40.9 Again, this declaration could be taken to imply that he will complete the task begun by Eleazar’s seventy-two translators in Alexandria; that is, to supplement their Pentateuch translation with his own translation of further Hebrew works.10 However, the rhetorical function of Josephus’ appeal to Eleazar here is to exemplify that customary Judaean generosity with prized ancestral traditions that Josephus now exhibits in his own offering to his enthusiastic patrons.11 Finding that his forefathers had been generous in communicating ancestral traditions to others, he sets out to elucidate Jewish history for Epaphroditus and his friends, who love all kinds of learning and who have urged him to produce the AJ for their edification (AJ 1.8-10). His project, then, is one of explication and elucidation of Judaean traditions to outsiders, not merely the making of Hebrew works available in Greek.12

6 The te . . . kai, . . . construction intimately binds metafra,zein and dhlw,sein. 7 Sterling (1992, 255); cf. Feldman (2000, 7–8 [22]). Josephus elsewhere says that no one ever has changed scripture and that his copies are ‘perfect’ (Cont.Ap. 1.42). 8 Josephus praises this translation of the Pentateuch from Palestinian Hebrew copies in Alexandria (AJ 1.11-12, and his paraphrase of the Letter of Aristeas in AJ 12.11-118). 9 Josephus paraphrases the Pentateuch, Ruth, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Esther, 1 Esdras, Jeremiah and Daniel. He also seems to know Isaiah and the Minor Prophets (cf. Feldman 1997, 584). His naming twenty-two, rather than twenty-four works (as does the rabbinic literature; see Ta‘anith 5a, Baba Bathra 14b), may indicate that he attached Ruth to Judges and Lamentations to Jeremiah (Feldman 1984, 135). The Prologue to Greek Sirach mentions ‘the Law and Prophets’ in Greek; Lk. 24.44 lists ‘the law of Moses and the prophets and the psalms’ together. See also Mason 2002. 10 Feldman (2000, 3 [4]) suggests that Josephus ‘viewed himself as carrying on the tradition of the LXX in rendering the Bible for Gentiles’. 11 Cf. Mason 2001, xx. Josephus’ likening of himself to Eleazar appears within the larger context of Josephus’ various stated aims. He names the encouragement and support of influential associates, especially Epaphroditus, who were eager to learn more about Judaean history, politics and customs, as his primary motivation for writing the Antiquities. My thanks go to Professor Steve Mason for his helpful comments on an earlier version of this section, sent on 28 August 2009. 12 Since Josephus mentions that Eleazar’s elders only translated the Pentateuch, AJ 1.10-12 might be understood as Josephus’ claim to complete the task and that the AJ is his translation of the rest of Hebrew


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Josephus’ various terms encompass a range of ideas, from translation to rewriting, interpretation and elucidation.13 Josephus applies meqermhneu,w both to his own Antiquities (AJ 1.5, Cont.Ap. 1.54) and to the work of the translators of the Pentateuch into Greek (AJ 12.20, 48). For Greek authors meqermhneu,w often means the translation from one language to another.14 However, Josephus uses the verb to identify ‘interpretation’ as distinct from translation. Thus, in AJ 12.48 Ptolemy distinguishes between translating (metagra,fw) the law from Hebrew to Greek and interpreting (meqermhneu,w) it. In AJ 12.20 Aristeas makes the same distinction: ‘for we have decided not only to metagra,yai the laws but also (mo,non avlla.) to meqermhneu/sai them’. Using different terms, in AJ 1.10-13 Josephus describes how the translators are sent both to ‘translate’ (metaba,llw 1.10; also used at 12.15 of the LXX translation) and ‘interpret’ the Pentateuch (oi` pemfqe,ntej evpi. th.n evxh,ghsin 1.12). In Cont.Ap. 1.54-55 his credentials as a translator (meqermh,neuka) of the sacred writings are enhanced by his hereditary priestly status and lifelong engagement in ‘the philosophy in those writings’.15 Again, in AJ 10.218 Josephus expresses his intention to both express (metafra,zein) the Hebrew works in Greek and explain (dhlw,sein) them, as noted above.16 Josephus considers transfer from Semitic to Hellenistic idiom and explanation of the content to be part and parcel of the same exercise. Josephus’ attitude to transliterating Hebrew terms is illuminating. Sometimes he correctly glosses Hebrew names and terms. At other times he offers explanations for these, which commentators call ‘loose etymology’.17 In these latter cases, Josephus often incorporates the sen\se of a traditional literary context, in which the term appears, into his gloss. He is aware of the literary-contextual meanings of Hebrew words. Thus, while he knows that ‘Eve’ (hW"x;) means ‘life’, Josephus states that Eu;a means ‘mother of all living’ (shmai,nei) (AJ 1.36), reflecting Gen. 3.20.

scripture into Greek. Yet later in the AJ Josephus apparently uses existing Greek versions of other Hebrew works, such as 1 Esdras, Daniel and perhaps Jeremiah. His promise to metafra,zein Hebrew sources (AJ 10.218) occurs within his account of Daniel, which he uses in Greek (Begg and Spilsbury 2005, 266). He cannot, therefore, be claiming to produce his own independent translation from the Hebrew. 13 See the discussions of Feldman 1988, 468–470 and 2000, 3 [4]; Sterling 1992, 252 [113]; Begg and Spilsbury 2005, 288 [938] on AJ 10.218. 14 Sterling 1992, 252 [113]. 15 Cf. Feldman 1996. 16 In Greek authors metafra,zw can mean to ‘paraphrase’ or ‘restate’ within the same language (e.g., meta,frasij (2 Macc. 2.31), cf. Sterling 1992, 252 [113]). But metafra,zw can also mean ‘translate’. Josephus uses metafra,zw ten times to denote translation: of a word (BJ 4.11; 5.151; AJ 1.52; 8.142; Cont. Ap. 1.167); of the LXX (AJ 12.20, 48); Manethon’s translation (Cont.Ap. 1.228); Josephus’ own Antiquities (AJ 10.218) (ibid., 252 [113]). 17 A) AJ 1.36 ‘Eve’ (cf. Shutt 1971, 174); B) 2.278 rGE and vr;G" in Exod. 2.22 (cf. Feldman 2000, 212); C) 3.282 Jubilee (cf. Shutt 1971, 170, 197; Thackeray 1961, ad loc.; Feldman 2000, 318); D) AJ 1.343 (Gen. 35.18) Josephus states that Jacob gave the name ‘Benjamin’ to his son because of the ‘suffering’ Benjamin had caused his mother; but ‘suffering’ derives from the name his mother gave (MT: ynIAa-!B, – LXX: Uiò.j ovdu,nhj mou), and which his father rejected in favour of Benjamin; E) 6.22 ‘watch tower’ 1 Sam. 7.5b (cf. Begg and Spilsbury 2005, 103 [85]); F) 5.323 Ruth 1.20 Naamis (naa,mij) = good luck; Mara (mara,) = pain (cf. Begg and Spilsbury 2005, 81).

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He thereby applies the specific contextual meaning of the term to its general definition. Shmai,nei is Josephus’ usual word for ‘signify’ when explaining the meaning of names and terms. However, he twice uses meqermhneu,w to give descriptions of names (AJ 1.52, 8.142). In AJ 1.52 he writes of Cain: Ka,ij kti,sin de. shmai,nei tou/to meqermhneuo,menon18 tou;noma (‘and this name, being interpreted, signifies acquisition’). If Josephus can employ shmai,nw synonymously with meqermhneu,w here, but also use shmai,nw for definitions that substitute the general meaning of a term for its contextual meaning, both terms must include for him the notions of translation and elucidation. In AJ 12.109, while recounting the completion of the LXX translation, Josephus substantially changes his source. According to the Letter of Aristeas, ‘Demetrius ordered them to pronounce a curse, in accordance with their custom, on any who should alter, by adding or changing, any of the words which had been written, or by omitting anything’.19 Apparently, the ‘custom’ refers to the prohibition on alteration of the Torah (Deut. 4.2 and 12.32). Josephus says, however: Accordingly, when all had approved this idea, they ordered that, if anyone saw any further addition made to the text of the Law or anything omitted from it, he should examine it and make it known and correct it; in this they acted wisely, that what had once been judged good might remain forever.20

Despite Josephus’ pledge to recount the precise details of scripture, promising not to add or omit anything, he effects numerous additions, omissions and alterations to the literary content of the works he paraphrases. His lifting of Aristeas’ curse here seems to reflect Josephus’ attitude to his own interpretive alteration of traditional sources. Significant for the present study is Josephus’ acknowledgement that one copy (bibli,a, e.g. AJ 12.36) differs from another, emphasizing the accuracy of some copies (dihkribwme,na) in contrast to the carelessness with which others have been produced (avmele,steron) (AJ 12.37). Indeed, the precision of the Alexandrian Septuagint is guaranteed not only by the accuracy of the translators’ source copies, but also the translators’ experience of scripture (tou.j evmpeirota,touj tw/n no,mwn), which ensures an ‘accurate interpretation/translation’ (e.g. AJ 12.39, 49, 104). The passage cited above (AJ 12.108-109) reveals that Josephus’ usual insistence on the accuracy and unanimity of Jewish scripture (cf. Cont.Ap. 1.42) is a rhetorical claim to an ideal and pristine text, whose accuracy (as he very well knows) resides in processes of expert arbitration that entails textual variation, as the numerous embellishments and alterations to Jewish literature in his own AJ testify.

18 Used in the same way in AJ 8.142. 19 This curse may reflect Aristeas’ effort to establish the LXX as the ‘standard’ Greek version amid the numerous versions and revisions available in the first century. 20 AJ 12.108-109.


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3.4 Languages 3.4.1 Greek Josephus learned Greek as a second language. Despite bemoaning stylistic difficulties (AJ 20.263) and receiving help with Greek style,21 he diligently studied aspects of Greek rhetoric (AJ 20.263).22 Mason writes: ‘Josephus shows himself to possess a wide background in Greek literature and a keenly critical eye.’23 The extant Bellum Judaicum is apparently an original Greek composition, whatever version Josephus previously wrote in Aramaic.24 While complimenting Josephus’ Greek in the BJ, Thackeray finds the Greek of the AJ inconsistent, attributing Attic stylistic reminiscences to literary assistants.25 However, since the studies of Attridge and Rajak,26 most discern Josephus’ own hand throughout. Since he could thoroughly rework his sources to suit his own purposes, stylistic inconsistencies are best attributed to Josephus himself.27 Despite Josephus’ struggle with Greek pronunciation (AJ 20.263), he can skilfully emulate the style of Greek classics, which he had studied.28

3.4.2 Hebrew A Judaean priest educated in Judaea, Josephus claims to be learned in ancestral Jewish literature (Vita 11; AJ 20.262), and his presentation of the ancestral literature in the AJ bears this out. Jerusalem was a Hellenized city and Judaea a Roman province. As an aristocrat, Josephus will have learned some Greek. However, his difficulty with Greek pronunciation and need for literary help suggest that his education was primarily Semitic. Nevertheless, some question Josephus’ command of Hebrew because of ‘sloppy’ Hebrew ‘etymologies’ in AJ.29 Others accept Josephus’ Hebrew proficiency.30

21 Cont.Ap. 1.50. See Mason (1991, 48–49). 22 Ibid., 50. 23 Ibid., 78–79. Cf. Footnote 2, above. 24 The BJ is an ‘excellent specimen of the Attic Greek’ (Thackeray (1967, 102) and is an original Greek work filled with Greek motifs, concerns, themes and vocabulary (Mason 1991, 58–59). The verbs gra,fw, suggra,fw, with which Josephus refers to his Greek version of BJ, do not suggest ‘translation’ (Hata 1975). Hata takes metaba,llw to mean ‘rewrite’ since it means ‘change fundamentally’ elsewhere in BJ. 25 Thackeray (1967, 100–124, esp. 104). Finding no Semitisms in BJ (ibid., 102), Thackeray detects a ‘Sophoclean’ assistant in AJ Books 15–16 (ibid., 115f.) and a ‘Thucydidean hack’ in 17–19 (ibid, 109f.). AJ shows Semitic linguistic influence, most obviously in proper nouns, and perhaps in some constructions, as does possibly also Vita. Cf. Shutt 1961, 1971. 26 Attridge 1976 and Rajak 1983. 27 Where comparison is possible, Josephus proves capable of reworking his sources himself (Attridge 1976). Josephus’ hand is discernible throughout portions attributed by Thackeray to assistants (Mason 1991, 49). Rajak (1983) attributes the ‘Sophoclean’ and ‘Thucydidean’ reminiscences in AJ to Josephus himself (cited in Mason 1991, 50). Josephus consciously models himself as an Hellenistic historian (Sterling 1992, 240–245). 28 Josephus is influenced by Hellenistic historiographers, particularly Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Feldman 1998a, 3–13). 29 For example, Thackeray 1967, 77–78. 30 Particularly those proposing that Josephus used Hebrew sources of Jewish scripture, cf. Footnote 59, below.

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Nodet points out that each of the frequently cited examples of Josephus’ ‘poor’ command of Hebrew is either inconclusive or inappropriate.31 I note that Josephus’ explanations of Hebrew words are often inappropriately understood as ‘etymologies’, giving the impression that Josephus intended to perform philological exercises. Josephus often defines a word with reference to its immediate literary context, which he is paraphrasing (see Section 3.3, above). This reveals more about his approach to elucidation of literature than his philological aspirations. Moreover, Josephus often supplies correct derivations for words.32 Some suggest that Josephus only knew Aramaic33 and that by the ‘Hebrew language’, he means Aramaic.34 However, Grintz shows that Josephus means Hebrew on account of the glosses of sa,bbata, :Adamoj, e;ssa and avdwni,, which can only derive from the Hebrew, and the phrase ‘the opponent of the angel of God’, which is translated from the Hebrew of Gen. 32.29.35 Josephus twice distinguishes Hebrew from Aramaic, contrasting speaking e`brai?sti, with speaking suristi, (‘Syriac’, meaning Aramaic). ‘As Rampsakes spoke these words in Hebrew (e`brai?sti.), with which language he was familiar, Eliakias was afraid that the people might overhear them and be thrown into consternation, and so asked him to speak in Aramaic (suristi.)’ (AJ 10.8). Referring to Hebrew scripture, Josephus writes: ‘For, he said, though their [the Judaeans’, 12.14] script seemed to be similar to the peculiar Syrian writing (tw/n Suri,wn gramma,twn), and their language to sound like the other, it was, as it happened, of a distinct type’ (AJ 12.15).36 Marcus observes that ‘Josephus, like the LXX, uses suristi,, “Syria”, and “Syrian” – the Greek names for Aram, Aramaean or Aramaic’.37 Aramaic was also known as ‘Syriac’ in later Rabbinic literature.38 Speaking e`brai?sti, in Josephus corresponds with tydIWhy> (‘Judaean language’ [LXX, ivoudai?sti,] distinct from tymir'a,] ‘Aramaic’ [LXX, suristi,]) of 2 Kgs 18.26.39 The grandson of Ben Sirach also uses e`brai?sti, to mean

31 Nodet 1997, 156. See Section 3.5.1, below. 32 For example, AJ 5.121 (Judg. 1.5) Adoni (avdwni.) = ‘Lord’ (cf. Begg 2000, 30); 5.200-201 (Judg. 4.4-14; 5.1-15) Deborah (Dabw,ra) = ‘bee’ (cf. Begg 2000, 48); 5.336 (Ruth 4.14-15) Oded (VWbh,dhj) = ‘servant’ (cf. Begg 2000, 84–85). 33 For example, Thackeray 1967, 78. 34 For example, kata. [th.n] ~Ebrai,wn dia,lekton – AJ 1.33; 2.278; kata. glw/ttan th.n ~Ebrai,wn – 1.34; kaqV ~Ebrai,wn dia,lekton – 1.36 th/| ~Ebrai,wn diale,ktw| – 5.121. 35 Grintz (1960): both Josephus’ sa,bbata (AJ 1.33) and tB'v,; ‘Sabbath’, derive from the root tbX, for which Aramaic translators use xn; the root tbX does not exist in Aramaic. Josephus derives :Adamoj (~d'a)' from ~doa' ‘red’ (1.34). In Aramaic aqmws means ‘red’ and there is no root ~da. Josephus transliterates the Hebrew hV'ai with e;ssa (1.36), which in Aramaic is att[n]a. Josephus (5.121) transliterates the Hebrew word hwhy with avdwni, (usually written hwhy and pronounced adonai, but occurring once in the form ynAda] in a direct address to God in Judg. 13.8 and used of God twelve times in the form !Ada] throughout Joshua, Nehemiah, Psalms, Jeremiah and Zechariah) and explains that it means ‘Lord’. In Aramaic ‘Lord’ is arm. Grintz takes Josephus’ phrase ‘the opponent of the angel of God’ to be a translation of the Hebrew of Gen. 32.29. (~yhil{a/-~[i t'yrIf'-yKi ‘for you strove with God’) in 1.333. 36 Marcus 1952, ad loc. 37 Ibid., 161 [b]. 38 Grintz 1960, 43. 39 Ibid., 43.


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‘in Hebrew’.40 I add that Josephus distinguishes between Hebrew and Aramaic in AJ 3.156, where he writes: ‘Moses called it abaneth, but we call it hemian, having learned it from the Babylonians.’41 Although Josephus uses ‘Babylonian’ as an alternative to ‘Syrian’, he clearly distinguishes Hebrew from ‘Syrian’ (i.e. Aramaic).42 Segal and Ben-Yehuda argue from later Rabbinic literature that Hebrew was a widely spoken and written vernacular in Hellenistic and early Roman Palestine.43 Grintz confirms their conclusions with early Roman linguistic evidence; that is, from Matthew’s gospel and Josephus’ AJ and BJ. His claims are supported by the Hebrew of the Dead Sea corpus.44 I add examples indicating that Hebrew was integral to Josephus’ daily language. In AJ 3.156 Josephus transliterates massabazane for Hebrew tcnXm (‘chequered work’). However, tcnXm does not appear in Exod. 28.4 and Exodus 39, only its cognates #Bev.T; and tn). 93 Num. 28.5 hp'yaeh' tyrIyfi[]w: and LXX Num. 15.4 de,katon tou/ oifi (cf. Brown et al. 1979, 798). 94 Lev. 14.10, 12, 15, 21, 24. Ibid., 528. 95 Cf. Hatch et al. 1998, ad loc. 96 Often the MT term rKo is paralleled with ko,roj in the LXX: 1 Kgs 5.2 rKo x2 (LXX ko,roi x2); 5.25a rKo (ko,rouj); 2 Chron. 2.9 ~yrIKo x2 (ko,rwn x2); 27.5 ~yrIKo (ko,rwn); Ezra 7.22 !yrIKo Aramaic (Ezra 7.22 ko,rwn; 1 Esdras 8.20 ko,rwn). It is not found in ExodusMT. Or rm,xo is paralleled by ko,roj: Lev. 27.16 rm,xo (ko,rou); Num. 11.32 ~yrIm'x\ (ko,rouj); Ezek. 45.13b rm,xome (avpo. tou/ ko,rou). Brown et al. 1979, 499 states that the kor equals the homer on the basis of Ezek. 45.11MT, which states that the bat (tB;) and the ephah (hp'yae) are equal, that both are one tenth of a homer (rm,x)o , and that the homer is the standard measure. Ezek. 45.14MT states that the ‘oil statute’ will be the ‘tenth bath from each kor’, where ‘ten baths [are] a homer’. Ezek. 45.14LXX translates tB; (bath) as kotu,lh (‘cup’), stating that the statute is: ‘one cup of oil out of ten cups; for ten cups are a gomor’ (kotu,lhn evlai,ou avpo. de,ka kotulw/n o[ti ai` de,ka kotu,lai eivsi.n gomor). Ezek 45.13LXX confirms this: where Ezek. 45.13MT has homer twice, LXX transliterates rm,xo with gomor in the first instance and offers ko,roj in the second. kotu,lh otherwise parallels a log (gOl), a liquid measure of oil, occurring only in Lev. 14.10, 12, 15, 21, 24. 97 In AJ 3.234, 197 Josephus transliterates hin (e[in) and writes that it is equivalent to ‘two Attic co,aj. The Bible has !yhi (LXX in), which is always transliterated as in in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Ezekiel. Josephus may be either Hellenizing the LXX transliteration or translating himself. So, this example does not help here.


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them to check on his metric accuracy. If Josephus were practically familiar with the equivalence of these Greek and Hebrew terms, he would presumably display more consistency and accuracy in his explanations, in which case, we would have to reckon with the possibility that he used the OG and invoked the Hebrew terms from vernacular experience, not literary endeavour.

3.6.2 Sacrifices Here Josephus seems to rely on the OG, but prefers his Hebrew source for some sacrificial terms. However, while he was apparently not perturbed by inaccuracies in his metric equivalents, correct usage regarding sacrifices moves him. His preference for certain Hebrew sacrificial terms arises from his expert judgement – born of his priestly experience – that some OG terms are inadequate.98 AJ 3.222 shows that Josephus knows both proto-M and OG forms of Lev. 7.12-13. Leviticus describes three types of offering: the individual burnt offering (Lev. 1.4); the related sin and guilt offerings (Leviticus 5); and the shelem offering, which can be translated ‘peace’ offering. The Greek translators commonly equate Hebrew shelem with Greek sōtērion, ‘welfare’.99 The peace-offering was further bifurcated into ‘thank-offering’ (Lev. 7.12f.) and ‘freewill-offering’ (7.16f.; 22.1-3); and the OG renders Hebrew tôdah (hd'AT), ‘thanks’,100 as ainesis (ai;nesij), ‘praise’.101 Josephus happily uses OG’s sōtērion (‘welfare’) to render shelem (‘peace’).102 But for the ‘thank-offering’ (tôdah), the first division of the peace-offering, Josephus rejects OG’s loose rendering of ainesis (‘praise’), supplying his own word, caristh,rioj (AJ 3.225; cf. caristhri,ouj qusi,aj AJ 3.228). Josephus, however, follows the OG in his use of o`lokautei/tai (AJ 3.225f.), which echoes OG’s to, o`lokau,twma (‘burnt offering’), not an obvious translation for hl'[o (‘that which ascends’). In AJ 3.217 he has evssh/na lo,gion; and essên is a transliteration of !v,xo (‘breastplate’). In Exod. 28.15, 29 and 30 it is called the ‘pouch of judgement’ (jP'v.mi !v,xo/to, logei/on th/j kri,sewj) because of the decision given by the Urim and Thummim.103 Josephus replaces the OG translation of jP'v.mi !v,x (that is, to, logei/on th/j kri,sewj) with his own evssh/na lo,gion, attaching a Hebrew term to the Greek one most familiar to him and combining OG and proto-M terms.104 Feldman notes that lo,gion, ‘would be readily intelligible to Greeks, for whom oracles were so vital a part of their religion’.105 Finally, Josephus’ interpretation of the Urim (dhlw,swn, AJ 3.205; dh/lon 214-217) has been influenced

98 Compare Sanders 1992, 112. 99 Only the translators of Samuel and Kings rendered shelem with eivrh,nh. 100 Lev. 7.12 WNb,yrIq.y: hd'AT-l[; ~ai (‘if one offers it for thanks’). 101 Lev. 7.12 eva.n me.n peri. aivne,sewj prosfe,rh| auvth,n (‘if one offers it for praise’). 102 AJ 3.222 qusi,aj swthri,ouj (compare ~ymil'V.h; ~D:/to. ai-ma tou/ swthri,ou qusi,a swthri,ou Num. 7.14; wym'l'v. xb;z< Lev. 17.18; wym'l'v. xb;z/< qusi,an swthri,ou Lev. 17.29). 103 Brown et al. 1979, 365. 104 Marcus 1952, ad loc; Feldman 2000, 289 [571]. 105 Feldman 2000, 289.

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by OG’s translation of ~yrIWa as dh,lwsij (Exod. 28.30) and ~yrIWah' jP;v.mi as th.n kri,sin tw/n dh,lwn (Num. 27.21).

3.6.3 Josephus follows the OG for some priestly terms, translating others himself Josephus’ description of the priests’ vestments in AJ 3.151-158 principally depends on two passages: Exod. 28.40-42 and 39.27-29. In several details in AJ 3.151f. Josephus prefers proto-M Exodus to OG. However, he also diverges from proto-M Exodus passages, adding some details of his own found neither in M or OG. These changes suggest that Josephus is describing what he did and wore as a priest.106 Proto-M and OG forms of these passages do not differ significantly, so the RSV translation of M suffices initially.107 Exod. 28.40-42RSV 40

And for Aaron’s sons you shall make coats and girdles and caps; you shall make them for

glory and beauty. 41 And you shall put them upon Aaron your brother, and upon his sons with him, and shall anoint them and ordain them and consecrate them, that they may serve me as priests. 42 And you shall make for them linen breeches to cover their naked flesh; from the loins to the thighs they shall reach. Exod. 39.27-29RSV (36.34-36LXX) 27

They also made the coats, woven of fine linen, for Aaron and his sons, 28 and the turban

of fine linen, and the caps of fine linen, and the linen breeches of fine twined linen,

29

and

the girdle of fine twined linen and of blue and purple and scarlet stuff, embroidered with needlework; as the Lord had commanded Moses. These passages list four (or five in Exodus 39) items: coats, girdles, (turban – Exodus 39 only), caps, and breeches.108

106 Sanders (1992, 92–102) notes that Josephus embellishes descriptions of the fabrics of priestly garments and assimilates the turban and the cap of Exod. 39.27 into unified headgear. Similarly: Thackeray (1961, 390–391 [b]) on ‘headgear’; Feldman (2000, 272 [387]) on ‘breeches’. Feldman (1998b, 545–546) discusses Josephus’ priestly concerns. 107 M and OG Exod. 39.27-29 exhibit two minor differences. First, there is the case of greao hfe[]m; (‘work of a weaver’), e;rgon u`fanto.n (‘a woven work’) in Exod. 39.27; the active participle of greao (‘weave’) is usually used as a substantive noun = ‘weaver’ (Brown et al. 1979, 70). Greek u`fanto,j is an adjective, ‘woven’ (Lust et al. 1992–1996, 640). Second, there is rz"v.m' vve jnEb.a;h'-ta,w> (‘and the girdle of twined fine-linen’), kai. ta.j zw,naj auvtw/n evk bu,ssou (‘and their girdles of fine-linen’) (Exod. 39.29). vve and bu,ssoj (‘fine linen’) are consistent parallels and OG does not render rz"vm. ' (twined) of the Hebrew hophal (rzv for ‘twist’). 108 Sanders (1992, 92–93) substitutes ‘tunic’ for RSV’s ‘coat’; and ‘sash’ for RSV’s ‘girdle’. He replaces the ‘turban’ and ‘cap’ of Exodus 39, which Josephus assimilates into one item (AJ 3.157), with ‘headgear’. Because I am concerned with the forms of these passages that Josephus presupposes, it is more useful here to maintain RSV’s terms. I adopt Sanders’ ‘headgear’ when there is no need to distinguish between the ‘turban’ and the ‘cap’ of Exodus 39.


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Table 3.1 Words used by M, LXX and Josephus for priestly garments coat

girdle

cap

turban

breeches

tnk.mi (‘breeches of fine twined linen’). 114 Josephus’ translation of sunakth,r (‘binder’) suggests that his ‘machanases’, manaca,sh (transliteration) of the dual form miknesayim (~yIs;n>k.m)i derives from snK (to ‘gather’ or ‘collect’) (Thackeray 1961, 387 [e]). 115 Josephus may use the phrase diazōma peri ta aidoia because of its parallels in descriptions of priestly garments in classical writers (Sanders 1992, 505 [4]).

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tion of ~yIs;n"k.mi (AJ 3.152).116 For ‘girdle’ he gives avbanh.q (abanêth), a transliteration of jnEb.a; (AJ 3.156).117 For ‘turban’ he offers masnaefqh/j, a transliteration of tp,nk.mi (‘breeches of white linen’) and Exod. 39.28 rz"v.m' vve dB'h; ysen>k.mi (‘breeches of white linen, fine-linen twined’). dB' is used of the white linen of priestly vestments, of angelic attire (Ezekiel, Daniel), and once of David (Brown et al. 1979, 94 I.). vve denotes ‘fine linen’, material woven from thread (Brown et al. 1979, 1058). 117 He also provides the Aramaic word for the same item (see below). 118 bu,ssinoj (‘[made] of fine linen’) in Exod.LXX 28.39, 36.34; bu,ssoj (‘fine linen’) in Exod.LXX 28.40f. and 36.34-36 (cf. Lust et al. 1992–1996, 114); bussi,noj (AJ 3.153). However, Josephus does not provide the Exodus term vve (‘fine linen’ in M Exod. 28.40f. and 39.27f., cf. Brown et al. 1979, 1058) for this, but offers the transliteration ce,qon in relation to the word tnMi as they appear in proto-M. However, the plural ki,dareij corresponds with the plural tA[B'g>mi, and the singular mi,tran corresponds with the singular tp,n

3

pi,e kai. su. kai. diasaleu,qhti kai. sei,sqhti evku,klwsen evpi. se. poth,rion dexia/j kuri,ou kai. sunh,cqh avtimi,a evpi. th.n do,xan sou Sense contour I

Sense contour II

1QpHab

l[rhw (niphal l[r ‘stagger, totter’)

M

lre['hew> (niphal ‘be

LXXi

diasaleu,qhti (diasaleu,w ‘shake violently’)

T

ljr[tyaw ‘bare thyself’5

LXXii

sei,sqhti (sei,w ‘shake, tremble (with fear)’)

a'

kai, karw,qhti (karo,w ‘be stupefied’6)

V

et consopire (consõpiõ, ‘lull into sleep’, ‘stupefy’)

Syr

@rjtaw (@rj ‘snatch, seize’)

Hab. 2.16LXX Also you! drink (your) fill of shame instead of glory! And shake and tremble! The cup of the Lord’s right hand has come round upon you and shame has gathered upon your glory

uncircumcised’)

Hab. 2.16M

1QpHab. 11.8-9

You will be sated with shame instead of glory. Drink, you yourself, and be uncircumcised! The cup in the Lord’s right hand will come around upon you and shame (will be)

You will be sated with shame instead of glory. Drink, you yourself, and stagger!

upon your glory

Sense contour I derives from the reading l[r (see below). Some witnesses display discomfort with this verb. V and a' interpretively convey a sense of drunkenness, expressed in the previous verse, Hab. 2.15, and by the phrase hwhy !ymy swk.

3 dwb(k)m, García Martínez and Tigchelaar 1998, ad loc. 4 The tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew script. 5 Rabin 1955, 158. 6 Brownlee (1959, 77) misspells carw,qhti, intending karo,w; Liddell-Scott (1992, 879) karo,w – ‘plunge into deep sleep or torpor; of stupor, drunken sleep; be stupefied’.

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Contours in the Text Woe to him who makes his neighbour drink of the cup of his wrath, and makes them drunk, in order to gaze on his nakedness (~h,yrEA[m.-l[;

jyBih; ![;m;l.)!

The LXX suppresses the notion of nakedness in v. 15: Woe to him that gives his neighbour to drink the thick lees of wine, and intoxicates him, that he may look upon their secret lairs (ta. sph,laia).7

To, sph,laion means ‘a robber’s cave’ or ‘hideout’. An entirely different sense contour, deriving from lr[, characterizes M and T. ‘Uncircumcision’ or ‘displaying the foreskin’ relates to the ‘nakedness’ of Hab. 2.15.

4.2.1 Excursus: The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll (8ḤevXIIgr) According to Ulrich’s Index of Passages in the Biblical Scrolls,8 8H9evXIIgr is the only ancient manuscript from the Judaean Desert to preserve Hab. 2.16.9 Table 4.2 Textual restoration of 8H9evXIIgr column 18, lines 21-24 21 [THNASCHMOS]UNHNAU[TW]N_ENEPLHS

27 characters

22 [QHSATIMIASE]KDOXHS[P]IEKAIGESUKAI

30 characters

23 [

[c.12] + 15 characters

]KUKLWSEIEPISEPO

24 [THRIONDEXIAS] xxxx _KAIEMETOS 10

26 characters

Unfortunately, the text of line 23, corresponding to kai. diasaleu,qhti kai. sei,sqhti/ lr[hw, is not preserved. Tov et al. note: ‘In the lacuna at the beginning of l.23 of col. 18 there is probably room for only one of the two verbs of the LXX (kai. diasaleu,qhti kai. sei,sqhti) representing one word in M, lr[hw.’11 This estimation is fair, but can be further refined. There is an average of twentyseven characters per line (including spaces) in 8H9evXIIgr column 18 (a maximum of thirty characters, i.e. line 22).12 If line 23 contained thirty characters (as does line 22, the longest preserved line in the column), there would be room for only the fifteen characters of KAIDIASALEUQHTI (kai. diasaleu,qhti). However, the photograph (edition princeps, plate XII, cf. Footnote 9, above) shows that line 23 is about two

7 LXX w= o` poti,zwn to.n plhsi,on auvtou/ avnatroph/| qolera/| kai. mequ,skwn o[pwj evpible,ph| evpi. ta. sph,laia auvtw/n. 8 Ulrich 1999a; reissued in Tov et al. 2002. 9 See 8H9evXIIgr column 18: the fragments, Tov et al. 1990, plate XII; transcription, ibid., 54; textual restoration, ibid., 55. 10 The tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew script. 11 Tov et al. 1990, 93. 12 I base this average on the number of characters in lines 21-22, 24-40 of the reconstructed text of col. 18 in Tov et al. 1990, 55. The total five hundred and fifteen characters are divided by the nineteen lines to give an average of 27.1 characters per line.

4. Dead Sea Sectarians and textual plurality

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and a half letter spaces shorter than line 30. Thus, fifteen very cramped characters would fit only awkwardly in the non-extant portion of line 23. However, there is comfortable space for the eleven characters of KAISEISQHTI (kai. sei,sqhti). There would alternatively be comfortable room for the eleven characters of Aquila’s kai, karw,qhti (‘be stupefied’). All this assumes that kaige’s Habakkuk source reads l[r. Elliger and Brownlee are persuaded of this in light of 1QpHab.’s citation and of the argument (based on the readings of LXX, a' V and Syr) that M’s reading lr[ is a late error, whereas l[r is original.13 Stylistically, there is barely any precedent for kaige revisionists. The verb l[r appears only once in M in the Hophal (Nah. 2.4), where the LXX offers the passive of qorube,w (‘throw into confusion, worry’).14 The LXX renders the cognates of l[r variously: hl'[er>T; (feminine noun, ‘a staggering’) is ptw/sij (feminine noun, ‘a stumbling’);15 hl'[er>T; !yIy: (‘wine of reeling’) is oi=non katanu,xewj (‘wine of stupor, numbness’);16 l[;r;-@s; (‘a cup of reeling’) is pro,qura saleuo,mena (‘trembling door-posts’)17. The nouns ptw/sij and kata,nuxij, as well as the participle saleu,w (‘shake’) give the same range of meaning – from ‘staggering’ to ‘stupefaction’ – as the nuances of l[r in Hab. 2.16. The verb diasaleu,w is a hapax legomenon in the LXX at Hab. 2.16 and, as already noted, is too long for the space in line 23, column 18 of 8H9evXIIgr. The above survey shows that either sei,w, saleu,w or karo,w are more plausible in this context and follow the LXX precedents. If, on the other hand, kaige’s source read lr[ with M, it is difficult to imagine what kaige might have offered at this point. The LXX always circumlocutes the verb lr[, which the translators apparently did not find easy to translate.18 a', s' and q' render the verb lr[ with avkrobusti,zein in Lev. 19.23.19 However, kai. avkrobusti,sqhti is far too long for the available space of seventeen letters. While we may never be certain, it is probable that kaige’s source read l[r (following Brownlee and Elliger)20 and that kaige rendered kai. sei,sqhti.

13 Brownlee 1959 and Elliger 1953. 14 Nah. 2.4 is in the context of the tumult of warfare. M’s Wl['r>h' ~yviroB.h;w> is obscure, but seems to refer to the trembling of war horses (LXX kai. oi` i`ppei/j qorubhqh,sonta). 15 Isa. 51.17 ‘the cup of [the Lord’s] wrath and cup of reeling’ (hl'[er>T;h; sAK t[;B;qu-ta, are ‘the cup of stumbling, the bowl of wrath’ (to. poth,rion th/j ptw,sewj to. ko,ndu tou/ qumou/). Note that verb rW[ means: I. ‘rouse oneself’ in Isa. 51.17 (yrIr>A[t.hi yrIr>A[t.h)i , but can also mean II. ‘be laid bare, expose oneself’, whence comes the cognate rwO[m' (‘nakedness’). Note the presence of rwO[m', apparently along with l[r in Hab. 2.15-16. The context of rwO[m' in Hab. 2.15 may have led to the M reading lr[ from l[r in Hab. 2.16. 16 Ps. 60.3 (LXX Ps. 59.5). Note the similarity of LXX Ps. 59.5 kata,nuxij to Aquila’s koro,w in Hab. 2.16. 17 Zech. 12.2. The noun l[;r; is suitably expressed by the participle of saleu,w (‘shake’). The noun @s; has two meanings: I. bowl basin, II. threshold, sill > @p;s' (‘stand on a threshold’). The LXX has understood the second meaning of @s;. 18 LXX offers a range of loosely contextual renderings (cf. Hatch et al. 1998), often avkrobusti,a ei=nai. 19 Wevers 1986, 216. 20 Brownlee 1959 and Elliger 1953.

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4.2.2 1QHabakkuk Pesher The Hebrew verb presupposed by the LXX is apparently l[r (to ‘stagger, stumble, totter’). Prior to the discovery of 1QpHab., scholars had already suggested that M should be amended to l[r on the basis of the retroverted LXX reading.21 Rabin renders: LXX and Peshitta ‘be agitated’; Aquila ‘be plunged into torpor’ (i.e. l[rh).22 Brownlee proposes that the senses of ‘reeling, stupefaction, or swooning of a drunkard’ are suggested by LXX, a' and V.23 Contextually, the sense of drunkenness is sensible in proximity with ‘the Lord’s cup’ (see Footnote 15, above, for the phrase hl[rth swk in Isa. 51.17, 22). Only M and T give the sense of revealing one’s uncircumcision; and both of these are late in their available forms. Elliger notes that M’s ‘Falschlesung lr[h’ relates contextually to ~h,yreA[m. (‘nakedness’) in Hab. 2.15b, which appears in the context of inebriation in Hab. 2.15a.24 He claims that Hab. 2.15b is a gloss relating to Hab. 2.15a, but argues that 1QpHab. and LXX show Hab. 2.15b to be older than the Masoretic misreading. Targum’s ‘bare thyself’ (ljr[tyaw for M’s lr[) also relates to ~h,yreA[m. (‘nakedness’) in Hab. 2.15b. Brownlee and Elliger, among others, are primarily interested in establishing the more original reading for the Hebrew «text» of Habakkuk. Brownlee also asks whether the pesherist knew two ‘readings’. Some suppose that the pesherist’s source copy of Hab. 2.16 agreed with M and that the pesherist introduced the reading himself (whether intentionally or not).25 Brownlee writes that ‘other scholars . . . accept the variant as correct and suppose that the interpretation attests merely to the commentator’s acquaintance with another reading’.26 He further notes that the interpretation in the pesher is ‘based upon the reading of the MT’, but also suggests that the phrase wbl tlrw[ of the pesher (1QpHab. 11.13) may derive from a Targum,27 or from ‘simple verbal play’, citing Ginsberg.28 Apart from Ginsberg’s proposition, discussions generally seek to establish which textual versions the pesherist knew. For Vermes, the pesherist has ‘knowledge of both textual traditions’, ‘acquaintance with the variants’ and ‘shows his unwillingness to choose between them’ because he ‘held

21 According to Brownlee (1959, 77): Ehrlich 1912; König 1881–85; Marti 1904; Horst and Robinson 1938; Duhm 1906; Nowack 1897; Procksch 1937; Driver and Neubauer 1876–1877; Smit 1900; Stonehouse 1911; Wellhausen 1892. 22 Rabin (1955, 158) admits: ‘I cannot account for Vulgate’s conspire [sic].’ His confusion appears to reside in the misspelling of consopire that he cites as ‘conspire’. 23 Brownlee 1959, 76. 24 Elliger 1953, 56. 25 Van der Ploeg (1951) thinks that l[rh is a scribal error in 1QpHab. 11.9; van’t Land and van der Woude (1954) hold that the pesherist intentionally substituted l[r for lr[ of his source, finding the latter offensive (following Molin 1952). However, Brownlee (1959, 78) notes that the pesherist did not avoid the supposedly offensive word in the following commentary. 26 Brownlee 1959, 77. 27 Brownlee (1948, 18 [76]; 1959, 77) believes that ‘the Targum’ had a ‘strong influence [. . .] on the interpretations of the scroll’. But this is unlikely, cf. Chapter Three, Footnote 56, above. 28 Brownlee 1948, 18 [76]; 1959, 77 and Ginsberg 1975.


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in profound esteem every witness of what in his view was the sacred record of the word of God’.29 (See further Section 5.2, below, where the context of this exegetical process is discussed in more detail.) To say that the pesherist knew two ‘traditions’ of this passage begs the question because ‘tradition’ must still be defined. It could mean ‘textual tradition’, implying that the scribe had access to two copies of Habakkuk, presenting two «texts» at this point. However, it is neither possible nor necessary to prove that the pesherist consulted two copies. In displaying awareness of two distinct sense contours, the pesherist displays a multivalent awareness of the semantic range of the passage (Hab. 2.16b). The pesherist cited l[rh as he found it in his Habakkuk source-copy; his manipulation of l[r (in order to derive wbl tlrw[ in the pesher) shows that he is capable of manipulating the semantic unit to yield a new sense contour. That M and T adopt this latter sense contour according to the same configuration of this semantic unit does not mean that the pesherist knew M or T, or that the later tradents of M and T knew 1QpHab. The same is true of other examples of awareness of textual plurality in the Habakkuk Pesher.30 A more sensitive vision suggests that the various ancient versions collectively testify to (at least) two exegetical approaches to Hab. 2.16, and that 1QpHab. itself witnesses a traditionally multivalent perception of this passage. This ‘tradition’ may be described as ‘textual’ in that it has to do with a traditional literary work, but it need not be an exclusively or an essentially literary one. The multiple sense contours characterizing this passage give rise to multiple exegetical ideas – ideas which perhaps existed in the dialogical environment of the exegetical community that produced 1QpHab.31 Manipulation of this semantic unit may have been part and parcel of habitual rehearsal and oral performance of Habakkuk within the group that produced the pesher.32 In fact, the pesher not only cites l[rh, which relates to the ‘staggering’ of the intoxication described in Hab. 2.15-16 as a whole, but also explicitly associates the ‘cup of the Lord’s right hand’ of the passage with the wicked priest’s ‘excessiveness to slake his thirst’ (hamch twps ![ml hywrh, 1QpHab. 11.14). The sense of ‘staggering’

29 Vermes 1976, 441a. 30 I give two further examples from 1QpHab. A) The citation of Hab. 1.8 in 1QpHab. 3.6-7 agrees with LXX in its failure to represent of Waboy;" however, the pesher reads wawby (1QpHab. 3.11) (Brownlee 1959, 11–17 esp. 15, Horgan 1979, 29–30). B) The citation of Hab. 1.11 in 1QpHab. 4.9-10 reads hz ~Xyw (‘and this one made’) against M Wz ~veaw' > (‘guilty men’); however, the occurrence of [~y]mXa tyb (‘house of guilty men’) in 1QpHab. 4.11 reflects the M reading; see: Rabin 1955, 158; Brownlee 1948, 17 (but see Brownlee 1959, 22); Horgan 1979, 31; Brooke 1985 (esp. 39 [181], 286 [33] and 288 [46]). Finkel (1963–1964) collects examples of the use of ‘textual variants’, although he argues that the Habakkuk pesherist’s exegesis in these cases exceeds the mere recognition of variants. For further examples: Elliger 1953; Brownlee 1948, 1949, 1951, esp. 1959 and 1979; Horgan 1979; Lim 1997 and 2002. 31 By ‘exegetical community’ I do not invoke particular historical notions of ‘the Qumran community’ nor imply a ‘group’ necessarily related by locality and socio-economic structure, but persons inhabiting a distinct sphere of exegetical discourse, united by a common exegetical interest in a literature. 32 By ‘pesher’ I mean both this particular exegesis of Hab. 2.16 and the Habakkuk Pesher as a composition.

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approximates the sense of the V and a' readings, which suggest stupefaction from drinking. Moreover, the following clause (ll. 14-15) reads: wn[lbt l[a] tmx swkw (‘the cup of the Lord’s anger will consume him’). This ‘consumption’ in the Lord’s anger may also have been interpreted as a figurative description of stupefaction. Similarly, 1QpHab. 11.13 incorporates the ‘uncircumcision’ sense contour characterizing M and T. Thus, we find several interpretive traditions in this pesher. Yet it is unnecessary to suggest that the pesherist had as many as four copies of Hab. 2.16 before him, each representing a different «text», perhaps in several languages. Rather, the pesherist was aware of different ways of reading this passage – resulting in two distinct sense contours – and these various readings survive in a number of copying traditions represented in copies. I do not argue that the pesherist was not aware of multiple copies, but that such knowledge was not the sole condition for awareness of textual plurality.

4.3 Amos 526-27 in the Damascus Document: CDA 714-15 and 4QDA (4Q266) Both Rabin and Vermes assume that the mediaeval CDA accurately represents the text of an ancient copy of D. While the remains of the first-century BCE manuscript, 4Q266, are incomplete, the physical dimensions of these remains and the correspondence of the preserved text (two and a half fragmentary columns) with that of CDA, suggest that the mediaeval copy indeed preserves an early Roman exegetical composition.33 While there is no guarantee that the lost portions of 4Q266 3iii corresponded with the text of CDA 6.20–8.3, all the indications suggest that the two texts correspond with each other.34 The orthographical variant tkwX (3iii17) for tkws (CDA 7.16), which this correspondence would entail, finds an orthographical parallel rX for rws of Isa. 7.17 CDA 7.13. The exegetical and textual similarities between the respective reproductions of Amos 9.11 in 4Q174 and in CDA 7.16 (tlpnh dwd tkws ta ytwmyqhw; compare avnoikodomh,sw of Acts 15.16; contrast ~yqia' of M, avnasth,sw of OG) support the antiquity of the text of CDA.35

33 Baumgarten et al. 1997, 26: ‘The script of 4Q266 is a semi-cursive hand from about the first half or the middle of the first century BCE.’ 34 Except for 3iii17-18. The divergence is apparently an aporia in CDA 7.17, where a scribe omitted a full fifty-character line. 35 For 4Q174, CDA 7.16 and Acts 15.16 representing ‘a common textual tradition’ (cf. Rabin 1958, 29; Brooke 1985, 114).

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4.3.1 Textual evidence Table 4.3 Amos 5.26-27 LXX

q'

26 kai. avnela,bete

kai hrate

CDA 714-15

M

ytylghw thn orasin twks ta tou basilewj umwn ~kklm amaurwsin ~kymlc !wyk taw

th.n skhnh.n tou/ Moloc

~t,af'n>W 26 tWKsi tae ~k,K.l.m; ~k,ymel.c; !WYKi taew>*

eidwlwn kai. to. a;stron

aston

tou/ qeou/ u`mw/n

tou qeou umwn

bk;AK ~k,yhel{a/

*Raifan tou.j tu,pouj auvtw/n ou]j evpoih,sate eàutoi/j 27 kai. metoikiw/ u`ma/j evpe,keina Damaskou/

qXmdl ylham

le,gei ku,rioj o` qeo.j o` pantokra,twr o;noma auvtw/|

`~k,l' ~t,yfi[] rv,a] ~k,t.a, ytiyleg>hiw> 27 qf,M'd;l. ha'l.h'me hw"hy> rm;a' tAab'c.-yhel{a/ Amv.

LXX

CDA (trans. Rabin 1958)

M

And you took up the tent of Moloch, and the Kiyyun of your images and the star of your god, Raephan,

And I will exile the Sikkuth of your king, *and Kaiwan, your images* 36

You shall take up Sikkuth, your king,

*their images* which you made for yourselves. And I will carry you away beyond Damascus, says the Lord, the Almighty God is his name.

star of your god(s), which you made for yourselves;

from my tent (to) Damascus

And I will exile you beyond Damascus says the LORD, the God of hosts is his name.

36 Rabin notes that the phrase , which is missing from the citation in CDA 7.15, ‘[m]ust be supplied, as it is interpreted’ (1958, 29). However, Vermes writes that the exegete obtained the new meaning from Amos 5, not only by interpreting the god ‘Sakkuth’ and ‘tabernacle’ (sukkath) and the star god ‘Kaiwan’ as ‘bases’ (kene), but also ‘by omitting all mention of the star god, which would have made it impossible for him to apply the interpretation he intended. He introduces it later, however, when it serves his purpose . . .’ (1975a, 45).

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Table 4.4 Damascus DocumentA 7

~kklm twks ta ytylghw rma rXak . . . tkws ~h hrwth yrps qXmd ylham ~kymlc !wyk taw $lmh tlpnh dwd tkws ta ytwmyqhw rma rXak $lmh ~yaybnh yrps ~h ~ymlch !wykw ~ymlch yynykw lhqh awh hrwth Xrwd awh bkwkhw ~hyrbd ta larXy hzb rXa . . . qXmd abh

14 15 16 17 18 19

4Q226 3iii [

awh $lmh tlpnh dywd tkw]X [~yaybnh y]rps hmh ~[ymlch yynykw] lh[qh ]c hrwt[h X]rwd awh [bkwkhw ~hyrb]d t[a larXy hzb rXa] qXmd [la abh]

17 18 19 20

Composite translation . . . as He said: (Amos 5.26-27) I shall exile Sakkuth/Sikkuth, your king, and Kaiwan, your images, from my tent (to) Damascus. The books of Torah: these are the sukkath of the king, about whom He said: (Amos 9.11) I will establish that tottering sukkath of David. The king: he is the assembly. And the bases of the images: these are the books of the prophets whose words Israel despised. . . .

The consonantal text cited in CDA 7.14, twks, matches M’s tWKsi. The citation in CDA modifies the traditional ha'l.h'm,e ‘from beyond’,37 to lha (‘tent’), matching OG’s skhnh, for tWKsi. The interpretation that follows in D refers to the ‘tabernacle of the king’ ($lmh tkws). This citation and interpretation exhibit an exegetical use of textual plurality. In Amos 5.26M twks (tWKsi) and !wyk (!WYKi) are proper names for foreign Gods. This is clear from the context of the passage: Sikkuth and Kaiwan are synonymous with ‘your images’; the final clause of v. 26 reads ~k,l' ~t,yfi[] rv,a] (‘that you made for yourselves’). Although both the OG and CD 7 interpret the proper name Sikkuth in terms of the construct form hK'su (that is, tK;s)u , neither identifies the proper name as the noun ‘tabernacle’. First of all, the respective plene forms of the proper name and construct noun (twks and tkws) are morphologically distinct and cannot be confused. This is evident in CDA 7.14-15 and will have been the case in the Hebrew source presupposed by OG. Similarly, CDA 7.15 cites !wyk and then interprets it as the plural of !Ke (masculine noun, ‘base’ or ‘pedestal’)38 in CDA 7.17 (= 4Q266 3iii 18). While

37 ha'l.h' ‘further, onwards’. 38 Root !nk (Brown et al. 1979, 487).


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the OG exegetically renders the proper name twks with skhnh,, by rendering ~kklm (‘of your king’) with Moloc, the translator shows that the verse is referring to the proper name of a God.39 Amos 5.26-27 contains a polemic against Babylonian deities.40 In M the names tWKsi and !WYKi are both pointed as in #WQvi (‘abomination’).41 Such a polemical vocalization was apparently current in the late Hellenistic period – Daniel similarly uses #WQvi polemically against Zeus Olympus.42 OG and CD are both aware that foreign gods are the prophet’s subject in these verses. CD and OG contain a common interpretation of twks as tkws. OG achieves a double reading of the semantic unit twks by rendering skhnh, directly, while maintaining a proper name for a foreign deity. This double reading configures two sense contours from the single semantic unit. CD configures the same two sense contours, but manipulates the passage differently. CD maintains twks in the citation (introducing the term tkws, ‘tabernacle of’, in the following interpretation as a means of linking Amos 5.26 with Amos 9.11), but simultaneously introduces lha (‘tent’) by rearranging the letters of halh (‘beyond’) of Amos 5.27. The exegete can thereby interpret twks as ‘my (God’s) tent’ in line with the positive interpretation of other parts of the prophecy (the Torah, the Royal Messiah, the Doresh ha-Torah and the Books of the Prophets) while opening the way to introduce Amos 9.11 shortly afterwards. The CD exegete is aware that Amos 5.26-27 refers to foreign Gods. His decision to identify his own group with these abominable deities, and to interpret them as Torah and Prophets, is explicable in the context of a common Sectarian polemic vis-à-vis ‘Israel’. CDA 7.17-18 identifies the ‘pedestals of the images’ as ‘the books of the prophets whose words Israel despised’. The exegete expresses his feeling of marginalization from Israel (perhaps marking an ascendant Judaean priesthood) as a whole, together with his confidence in vindication for his group. He thus reverses the traditional understanding of a passage that mounts an Israelite polemic against pagan neighbours. The rB'd.mi language refers to Israel’s wandering. The exegete sees his group as suffering an enforced marginalization from ‘Israel’, which he expresses in terms of exile, but an exile that actually vindicates his group and indicates its salvation. Israel is perceived from within the group as despising the group’s teachings and readings of the Torah. That is, the polemic conveys the following sentiment: ‘That

39 Even if the second plural masculine suffix was missing from the Hebrew source of the OG, he nevertheless did not render it with basileu,j. 40 tWKsi is a divine proper name, probably to be read tWKs; as the Assyrian god Sakkut (the ‘epithet of Adar-Ninip = Saturn’; Brown et al. 1979, 696). The proper name of the Babylonian deity twOnB. twOKsu (2 Kgs 17.30) is an ‘Assyrian-Babylonian deity worshipped by Babylonians in Samaria’ (ibid.). !WYKi is a proper name probably for the Assyrian deity Keivânu = planet Saturn. Brown et al. 1979 (475b-476a) suggest that !WYKi has been pointed so as to suggest the root !wk (‘something established, firm’). 41 My thanks go to Professor Magnar Kartveit for drawing my attention to this point. 42 ~mevo #Wqvi (> ~m;X' be desolated, horrified) in Dan. 12.11 (cf. 11.31) is a polemical pun on the title for Zeus Olympios – ~mXl[b (~ymX l[b), ‘lord of heaven’, to whom Antiochus Epiphanes erected an altar in the Jerusalem Temple (Brown et al. 1979, 1055).

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which you find abominable about our teachings is actually the true interpretation of scripture. We have understood the prophets while ironically you, Israel, still wander in the desert.’ The standard judgement oracle formula yk or !kl, which is consistently present in the oracles of Amos 4–5, is absent from Amos 5.25-27. Perhaps the Sectarian exegete therefore viewed this oracle as ambiguous, leading to his inventive interpretation of it.

4.4 4QCommentary on Genesis A (4Q252) Table 4.5 Genesis 49.10 Gen. 49.10LXX a ouvk evklei,yei a;rcwn evx Iouda b kai. h`gou,menoj evk tw/n mhrw/n auvtou/ c e[wj a'n e;lqh| ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/| d kai. auvto.j prosdoki,a evqnw/n

Retroverted G

Gen. 49.10SP 4Q252 frg. 6, col. 5 Gen. 49.10M

rwsy awl rwsy al hdwhym jbX hdwhym jbX qqwxmw qqxmw wylgr !ybm wylgd !ybm awby yk d[ wlX

aby yk d[ hlX

awhw ~ym[ thqy

wlw ~ym[ thqy (Tal 1994, 51)

jylX rwsy [awl] rWsy"-al{ [. . .] hdwhy jbXm hd'Whymi jb,ve [. . .] qqxmh qqexom.W [. . .] ~ylgdh wyl'g>r; !yBemi [. . .]

awb d[ aboy"-yK d[; (wlX/hlyX) [Alyvi] hl{yvi

wlw) (~ym[ thqy

Alw> ~yMi[; th;Q.yI

Square italicized brackets, [. . .], indicate my own omission of 4Q252-text for clarity. Text in parentheses represents canonical readings apparently presupposed by the 4Q252 exegesis.

Notes on the readings of LXX wyl'g>r; !yBemi M] evk tw/n mhrw/n auvtou/ LXX. Mhro,j can parallel lg,r,, ‘foot’ (cf. Deut. 28.57 – to. evxelqo.n dia. tw/n mhrw/n auvth/j – h'yl,g>r; !yBemi tceAYh;). Mhro,j can also parallel ‘loins/reproductive organs’ (cf. Gen. 46.26 %rey)' ; ‘knee’ (cf. Gen. 50.23 %r,B), ; ‘thigh’ (cf. Exod. 28.42 ‘they shall reach from the loins to the thighs’, avpo. ovsfu,oj e[wj mhrw/n


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e;stai – Wyh.yI ~yIk;rey>-d[;w> ~yIn:t.M'mi), as distinct from ‘loins’.43 It is unnecessary to propose any reading but wylgr for the Hebrew of Gen. 49.10 presupposed by the LXX. hl{yvi M; cf. hlX SPmss]44 ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/| LXX – the Greek translator may have read wOLv, (i.e. a contraction of wl rXa).45 Either his copy had wlX, or he inferred it from hlyX, hlX, hwlX or similar. Syriac and Targum imply the same reading. Alw> M] kai. auvto.j (representing awhw?) LXX. If the Hebrew source presupposed by LXX read thqy awl hwlX awby yk d[ (‘until Shiloh comes, to him is the obedience of . . .’), the awl being spelled plene, the Greek translator or a previous scribe may have attached the he (h) of Shiloh to the following word, dropping the lamed (l), producing: thqy awh wlX awby yk d[. Table 4.6 Genesis 49.10 LXX and M LXX

M

a

A ruler shall not fail

The sceptre shall not depart

from Judah,

from Judah,

b

nor a leader

nor a ruler’s staff

from his (Judah’s) loins,

from between his feet,

c

until the things stored up for him

until Shiloh

come;

comes;

d

and he is the expectation

and to him (shall be) the obedience

of nations.

of peoples.

Table 4.7 4Q252 fragment 6 (column 5)

lXmm larXyl twyhb hdwhy jbXm jylX rwsy a[wl ] twklmh tyrb ayh qqxmh yk dywdl ask bXwy trk[y awl ] xmc qdch xyXm awb d[ vacat ~ylgdh hmh larXy yp[law] rXa ~lw[ twrwd d[ wm[ twklm tyrb hntn w[rzlw wl yk dywd yk dxyh yXna ~[ hrwth[ ]o rmX yXna tsnk ayh o[ ]

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. A leader ‘shall [n]ot depart from the tribe/sceptre of Judah’ (Gen. 49.10a). When Israel rules

43 ovsfo,uj is the usual word for ~yIn:t.m' (‘loins’), cf. Isa. 11.5. 44 Shiloh is variously spelled Alvi (Judges, 1 Samuel, Jeremiah, Psalm 78), Alyvi (Judges, Jeremiah) or hOlvi (Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel, 1 Kings, Jeremiah). Note: 1 Sam. 3.21 gives two spellings (Alvi, hOlvi) in the same sentence. LXX always offers Shlwm, or Shlw(n), cf. Brown et al. 1979, 1017–1018. 45 Hence ‘Until comes what is his’, ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/|. Cf. BHS, ad loc.; Zimmerman (1998, 118), citing Pérez-Fernández (1981, 130–133).

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2. [there will not] be cut off an occupant of the throne for David (Jer. 33.17). For ‘the staff ’ (Gen. 49.10b) is the covenant of the kingship; 3. the [thousa]nds of Israel are the ‘standards’ (Gen. 49.10a) vacat ‘until the coming’ (Gen. 49.10c) of the messiah of righteousness, the shoot of 4. David. For to him and to his seed has been given the covenant of the kingship of his people for everlasting generations, which 5. he kept . . . [ ] the Law with the men of the community, for 6. [ ] . . . it is the congregation of the men of The text of Gen. 49.10 is implied in the commentary, although it is not quoted continuously as it would be in a continuous pesher. The following presents in square brackets the continuous traditional text of Genesis, which is missing from 4Q252. [10a The sceptre (reign) shall not depart from Judah] A leader ‘shall [n]ot depart from the tribe/sceptre of Judah’. When Israel rules ‘There will not be cut off an occupant of the throne for David’ (Jer. 33.17) [10b nor the staff from between his (Judah’s) feet/standards] For ‘the staff ’ is the Covenant of Dominion; the [thousa]nds of Israel are the ‘standards’ [10c until he comes to whom it belongs/ until that which belongs to him comes] ‘until the coming’ of the messiah of righteousness, the shoot of David. [10d and to him shall be the obedience of the peoples] For to him and to his seed has been given the Covenant of Dominion of his people for everlasting generations This exegesis configures distinct sense contours through manipulation of individual semantic units: ~ylgr and hlyX. These sense contours characterize two distinct traditional text-forms of this passage.

4.4.1 Sense contours arising from hlyX In M the jbX is the ‘reign’ that will not depart from Judah. It is most natural to understand the ‘feet’ as Judah’s, who appears as a masculine person throughout Gen. 49.8-12.46 Thus, ‘between Judah’s feet’ seems to indicate a reign ‘in Judah’. Modern translations translate qqxm with ‘ruler’s staff’, which seems to represent a synonym for jbX, ‘reign’.47 The subject of awb – in the phrase hlX awby yk d[ – is hlX (‘until 46 While the jbX is masculine, it can hardly have ‘feet’. If the qqxm is taken to be a person (see following footnote) then the feet could belong to him. 47 Older translations, such as the Geneva Bible (1599), the Webster Bible (1833), the King James version (1611-1769), the Darby Bible (1884-1890), translate qqxm with ‘lawgiver’. That is, the qqxm is


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Shiloh comes’).48 In M Shiloh is a person, introduced in v. 10c, whose arrival is awaited.49 Later, Shiloh is interpreted as the messiah in the Targums. Isa. 11.10LXX seems to relate Gen. 49.10d to the ‘root of Jesse’ (cf. Isa. 11.1), who was abundantly interpreted messianically in late Second Temple Jewish literature, stating that ‘he will rise up to rule the nations; in him the nations will hope’ (o` avnista,menoj a;rcein evqnw/n evpV auvtw/| e;qnh evlpiou/sin).50 Gen. 49.10dLXX says of the (messianic) person ‘to come’ that auvto.j prosdoki,a evqnw/n (‘he is the expectation of the nations’).51 The LXX translates jbX (‘reign’, ‘royal sceptre’, ‘a mark of rule’) loosely as a;rcwn (‘ruler’) in 10a. By presenting jbX as a person, the translator introduces a distinct sense contour into the Greek not present in M. The a;rcwn of 10a can be identified as the h`gou,menoj (= qqxm) ‘leader’ of 10b. ‘That which is stored up for him’ (10c) is to come. ‘He’ may be either Judah or the a;rcwn/h`gou,menoj (‘ruler/leader’) of 10a-b, because no new person (i.e., Shiloh) is introduced in v. 10c in the LXX form of this passage. This is in contrast to M, where Shiloh appears in v. 10 as a new person in the narrative. The LXX phrase ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/| (‘the things stored up for him’) derives from hlX, which the translator apparently vocalized as hOLv, in order to read wOLv,. The term wOLv, can appear as a contraction of wl rXa (‘that which is/belongs to him’).52 The LXX translator of Gen. 49.10c apparently understood hlX to represent wl rXa and then rendered the resultant phrase wl rXa awby yk d[ with e[wj a'n e;lqh| ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/|. The Hebrew can be understood in one of two ways: (1) ‘until the-stored-up-things, which belong to him, come’ i.e. until

| it comes | which

yk d[

|

awby

|

rXa

| (it is) to him | wl

a person (qqxm can mean ‘commander’, ‘governor’, ‘lawgiver in other contexts, cf. Footnote 67, below). These translations may have been influenced by the LXX, whose translator understood the qqxm as a person; that is, the h`gou,menoj – one who leads or guides (from h`ge,omai). If the qqxm is thus understood to be a person, the LXX suggests that the h`gou,menoj (qqxm) rules in the interim; that is, he is taken to wield the jbX in Judah until Shiloh comes. In fact, the idea that a ‘leader’ shall not be lacking ‘between his thighs’ may suggest a hereditary succession of leaders because the ‘thighs’ can represent the sexually reproductive loins (cf. Footnotes 53 and 68, below). Note also that some Targums and Aquila understand the qqxm to be a person; that is, one who interprets the law, cf. Section 4.4.2 and particularly Footnote 69, below). 48 Aberbach and Grossfeld (1982, 286) suggest the following possibilities: ‘until [or: so that] tribute shall come to him’; ‘until Shiloh comes’; or ‘until he comes to Shiloh’; cf. McNamara 1992, 220 [24]. 49 Even if the qqxm were taken to be a person (with the LXX see Footnote 47, above), Shiloh would still not be identical with this person (qqxm, ‘lawgiver’), because according to this understanding of the verse the qqxm would rule in the interim; that is, until Shiloh comes. 50 Compare Isa. 11.10M, Wvrod>yI ~yIAG wyl'ae ~yMi[; snEl. dme[o (‘he will stand as an ensign of peoples, and the nations will seek him’). 51 Compare Gen. 49.10dM, ~yMi[; th;Q.yI Alw> (‘to him is the obedience of the peoples’). 52 In his copy he may have found hlyX, hlX, or hwlX. Cf. M hl{yvi.

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Contours in the Text (2) ‘until he comes, for whom the (things) have been stored up’ i.e. until

| he comes | who

yk d[

|

awby

|

rXa

| (it is) to him |

wl

According to reading (1),53 the Greek translator took the relative pronoun, rXa, to refer to ‘that which (belongs to him)’ rather than ‘him (to whom it belongs)’. While it is syntactically possible in the Greek that ‘he’ (‘to whom it belongs’) of v. 10c is the a;rcwn/h`gou,menoj (the ‘ruler/leader’ of vv. 10a-b), the ‘he’ of 10c most naturally refers to Judah. The Greek is sensible only if all of the masculine pronouns refer to Judah: Iouda (10a); auvtou/ (10b); auvtw/| (10c); auvto.j (10d).54 Some witnesses express the phrase with the optative e;lqoi ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/| (mss. 54-551 56’). Another manuscript resolves the syntax differently: to. avpokei,menon auvtou/ o[ avpo,keita (ms. 72). Unlike M, no new person (namely, ‘Shiloh’) is introduced into 10c in these Greek forms. Some Greek witnesses of Gen. 49.10c offer (2): e[wj a'n e;lqh| w-| avpo,keitai,55 ‘until he comes to whom it has been stored up’. This may not represent an independent translation of a Hebrew text, but rather an inner Greek improvement of the OG. However, it may also reveal the influence of the proto-M sense contour on Greek revisionists, namely, that a new person (other than Judah) comes in 10c (who in M is ‘Shiloh’). M and the OG offer distinct sense contours. In the former, a new person (Shiloh) appears in 49.10c. In the latter, no new person appears in addition to the a;rcwn/ h`gou,menoj of 10a-b. Aquila’s rendering of Gen. 49.10 reveals conscious exegetical use of the two sense contours arising from h(w)lX (49.10c), which characterize OG and M. Gen. 40.10a': ouvk avnasth,setai skh/ptron avpo. VIou,da kai. avkribazo,menoj avpo. metaxu. podw/n auvtou/ e[wj a'n e;lqh| kai. auvtw/| su,sthma law/n.

Aquila’s future middle of avni,sthmi (‘he shall not arise’) need not presuppose ~wq in his Hebrew Genesis source, but rather reflects his messianic association of Gen. 49.10 with the Num. 24.17LXX: dei,xw auvtw/| kai. ouvci. nu/n makari,zw kai. ouvk evggi,zei avnatelei/ a;stron evx vIakw,b kai.

53 Cf. Brenton 1844, ad loc., ‘A ruler shall not fail from Juda, nor a prince from his loins, until there come the things stored up for him; and he is the expectation of nations’; Hiebert (2007, 41), ‘A ruler shall not be wanting from Ioudas and a leader from his thighs /until the things stored up for him come, and he is the expectation of nations’. 54 The translator clearly did not take rXa to indicate ‘him who will come’ (awby). Otherwise, he would have rendered the clause like the translator of Ezek. 21.32: jP'v.Mih; Al-rv,a] aBo-d[; (‘until he comes whose right it is’); LXX e[wj ou- e;lqh| w-| kaqh,kei. The clause of Ezek. 21.32b is often pointed to as a parallel construction to that of Gen. 49.10c (cf. Zimmermann 1998, 118). 55 Wevers 1974, 460.

4. Dead Sea Sectarians and textual plurality αvναστη,σεται a;nqrwpoj (M jb,ve

97

~q'w>) evx vIsrah,l kai. qrau,sei tou.j avrchgou.j Mwa,b kai.

pronomeu,sei pa,ntaj uiòu.j Sh,q

Num. 24.17 is frequently interpreted messianically in Second Temple Jewish exegetical compositions.56 The ‘sceptre’57 of Num. 24.17M becomes the messianic ‘man’ of Num. 24.17LXX.58 Symmachus has skh/ptron for jb,ve in Num. 24.17, where Aquila has a;nqrwpoj. Aquila reframes Gen. 49.10 thus: no sceptre will arise from Judah, nor an accurate one from between his feet, until He comes; and his shall be the government59 of peoples.

This reading of Gen. 49.10 agrees semantically with M in that v. 10c depicts a person expected to come in the future. In M this is Shiloh. This is unlike the OG, where the a;rcwn/h`gou,menoj of 10a-b rules in the interim until ‘the-stored-up-things come to him (Judah)’. While Aquila maintains OG’s e[wj a;n e;lqh|, he modifies the second part of the OG clause ‘. . . ta. avpokei,mena auvtw/|’ with ‘kai. auvtw/| su,sthma law/n’. In M a ‘sceptre’ and a ‘ruler’ will ‘not fail’ in Judah until Shiloh comes. Aquila’s ouvk avnasth,setai departs from M here. Yet, Aquila thereby intensifies M’s sense that someone is to come, and in doing so he intensifies the tradition (not evident in Gen. 49.10) that this someone is the messiah. Aquila persuades that ‘he-who-is-tocome’ is the messiah by substituting avnasth,setai (from Num. 24.17) for the OG reading evklei,yei (= rWsy", ‘fail’, ‘depart’, of M). Aquila preserves jbX of M with skh/ ptron, and represents a tradition close to the Targums by supplying avkribazo,mevnoj for the qqxm of M (see Section 4.4.2, below).60 Aquila imports a common messianic interpretation of Gen. 49.10 into his revised form of the passage itself. This move 56 For example: 1QSb V (with further messianic allusions to Gen. 49.10, Isa. 11.1-5, Ps. 2.7-9, Mic. 4.13-5.2; cf. Barthélemy and Milik (eds.) 1955, 126–127); Testament of Judah 24.1-6 (allusions to Gen. 49.10 and Isa. 11.1-5); Testament of Levi 18; Psalm of Solomon 17; Rev. 2.28 (kai. dw,sw auvtw/| to.n avste,ra to.n prwi?no,n, cf. the a;stron cf. Num. 24.17 and the e`wsfo,roj, ‘morning star’, of the messianically interpreted Ps. 110.3, cf. Isa. 14.13-14); Rev. 11.1 ka,lamoj o[moioj rà,bdw| (‘a measuring rod like staff’, possibly an allusion to the jbX and qqxm of Gen. 49.10). 57 Examples of the messianic interpretation of: a. jbX cf. 1QSb V 25-26 (Gen. 49.10, Isa. 11.1-5, Ps. 2.7-9, Mic. 4.13), 4Q252 frg. 6 (Gen. 49.10), CDA 7.19-21 = 4Q266 frg. 3iii 23-24 (Num. 24.17); b. rà,bdoj (= jbX), cf. Psalm Solomon 17.23-24 (Ps. 2.7-9 with Isa. 11.1-5); Rev. 2.27, 12.5 (Ps. 2.9); Testament of Judah 24.1-6. c. skh,ptron (= jbX), cf. Testament of Judah 24.1-6 (Num. 24.17) and rà,bdoj, cf. Testament of Judah 24.1-6 (= jbX of Isa. 11.4M, or possibly rj,x,o ‘shoot’ of Isa. 11.1). 58 The messianic a;nqrwpoj was associated with the phrase w`j uiòj. avnqrw,pou of Daniel 7. See Horbury 1985 and 1998, esp. 33–34; and Collins 1995, esp. 34–38, 175–187. 59 su,sthma, ‘government’ – 2 Sam. 23.15 (2 Kgdms 23.15); 3 Macc. 7.3. 60 This ‘accurate one’ indicates an interpreter of ~yqwx (‘statutes’, a common Pentateuchal term for Mosaic laws), thus a ‘scribe’ or ‘a teacher of Torah’ (so the Targums, see below). Note that CDA 6.3-7 interprets the qqxm of Num. 21.18 as hrwth Xrwd.

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gains exegetical warrant when it is observed that the identification of Judah as the ‘lion’ in Gen. 49.9 finds an echo in Num. 23.23-24, where Israel is identified as a ‘lioness’, the only other verse in NumbersLXX where the form avnasth,setai occurs. The 4Q commentator combines the two sense contours that characterize M and OG, derived from the semantic unit (h)wlX. He implies the sense of M, that a new person, Shiloh, comes in Gen. 49.10c. The commentator takes h(w)lX to designate the messiah.61 This sense cannot be taken from the LXX as it stands, nor (apparently) from its supposed Hebrew source, in which hlyX/wlX denotes ‘that which is to him’, where ‘he’ could designate either Judah himself or the ‘ruler/leader’. On the other hand, the 4Q commentator understood h(w)lX to mean ‘which to him’ in the same way that the LXX translator understood his Hebrew source, because the twklmh tyrb (4Q252 frg. 6 line 4) is ‘that which will be given’ to the messiah. The commentator makes exegetical use of the multiple sense contours derivable from the semantic unit h(w)lX. Whether Aquila’s version is considered an inner-Greek revision of an earlier kaige source, an independent revision of OG towards proto-M, or a new Hebraizing translation,62 textual critics consider his revision to present a form of the traditional work of Genesis. The above example shows that a revisionist reading of a traditional work can apply the same exegetical techniques as an author of exegetical compositions.

61 Cf. Collins (1995, 61–63). While Gen. 49.10 was often interpreted ‘messianically’ in antiquity, says Collins, usually ‘the messianic reference hangs on the phrase hlyv aby yk d[, “until Shiloh comes”, taking Shiloh as a name for the messiah. An allusion to the “assembly of the peoples”, without reference to Shiloh, has no obviously messianic implications . . .’ (ibid., 1995, 87). I argue that 4Q Commentary interprets the semantic unit h(w)l(y)X in two distinct ways (enshrined, respectively, in M and OG and mirrored in Targums and LXX cognate versions). This unit is subjected to distinct interpretations in the 4Q Commentary, despite the absence of the word h(w)l(y)X in the 4Q text; Shiloh lurks in 4Q252. While a discussion of ‘messianism’ is beyond the scope of this study, I use the term ‘messianic’ in a narrow sense. I speak of the 4Q252 interpretation as ‘messianic’, not only because the ‘righteous messiah’ occurs in fragment 6, line 3, but also in light of other ancient messianic interpretations of Gen. 49.10 that expect a person, usually of Davidic Royal lineage, with divine sanction to carry out God’s divine eschatological (usually military) work. The distinct sense contours, enshrined in M, OG, T, and other versions are present in the 4Q Commentary. 62 Kaige (see Section 1.1.1, above), the Hebraizing revision of the OG towards the proto-M (Barthélemy 1963 and Tov 1990), apparently formed the basis of Theodotion, Aquila and Symmachus, thought to be progressive revisions of each other (Salvesen 1991). Lindars (1992, 3) designates kaige a revision proper, and Symmachus a stylistic revision of kaige (that is, an inner-Greek undertaking), and Aquila a ‘fresh translation’. Grabbe (1992) deems a' and s' to be independent translations located within the harmonizing LXX tradition (not revisions, as Barthélemy (1963) proposed), and a' s' q' nevertheless to belong to a later stage in the harmonizing movement. Lindars’ (1992) and Grabbe’s (1992) suggestions find little support among contemporary commentators.


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4.4.2 Sense contours arising from qqxm and ~ylgr Targums take various approaches to Gen. 49.10. Table 4.8 displays synoptic parallels.63 The Fragment Targum64 (TF) interprets the singular noun jbX as !ynjlXw !yklm (‘kings and rulers’) and the singular noun qqxm, as ayyrwa yplmw !yrps (‘scribes and teachers of the Torah’).65 Both singular nouns are pluralized in the translation. The Aramaic preserves double meanings inherent in each Hebrew noun. While TF maintains the royal sense of the Hebrew jbX with the Aramaic ‘kings and rulers’, TF also conveys the other Hebrew sense, ‘tribe’, with the Aramaic hdwhy tybdm (‘from the tribe/house of Judah’). While TF interprets qqxm as ‘scribes and teachers of the Torah’, the Aramaic phrase ywnb ynbm (‘from among his children’s children’) preserves the sexual-reproductive imagery of the traditional Hebrew phrase wylgr !ybm qqwxmw (‘nor a staff from between his feet’), acknowledged in LXX by ‘loins’ (evk tw/n mhrw/n auvtou/).66 TF presupposes a «text» akin to M, hl{yvi aboy"-yKi d[;. The targumist takes ‘Shiloh’ to be an individual who is the King-Messiah. Unlike some Targums, 4Q252 and OG of Genesis 49, TF does not interpret hl{yvi as wl rXa because TF makes no reference to anything that ‘belongs to him-who-will-come’. A double interpretation of qqxm occurs in all of the Targums. Firstly, the word can mean ‘teacher’ or ‘law-giver’; Deuteronomy constantly associates the related term qx with mitzva’oth, indicating Israel’s covenantal agreement to keep the Torah.67 Onqelos (TO) simply has ‘scribe’, reflecting the same interpretive tradition. Secondly, all Targums introduce ‘his descendants’, thereby pursuing the sexual-reproductive imagery of wylgr !yb(m) qqxm.68 In Gen. 49.10 ‘his feet’ are most expediently understood as Judah’s feet (see Section 4.4.1, above). This pertains to TN, TJ and TF because the ‘kings’ or ‘kings and rulers’ are in the plural, and the singular masculine suffix of the implied traditional Hebrew wylgr must refer to ‘[the house of] Judah’ in the

63 While I make no anachronistic claim to literary dependence between 4Q252 and the much younger Targums, exegetical parallels regarding Gen. 49.10 point to the continuity of this interpretive tradition. Targums sometimes preserve ancient exegetical traditions also found in Second Temple literature. Cf. McNamara 1966, Flesher 1992. 64 Klein 1980 vol. 1, 31; vol. 2, 67. 65 Note that the qqxm of Num. 21.18 is interpreted as the hrwth Xrwd in CDA 6.3-7. 66 The morphological proximity of the Hebrew words !yb and !b (Gen. 49.10) may have aided this association. For ‘feet’ as a euphemism for genitals, see Footnote 68, below. 67 qqxm means either ‘commander/governor’ (Gen. 49.10; Num. 21.18), or ‘law-giver’ (Deut. 33.21; Isa. 33.22), cf. Zimmermann 1998, 116 [221]. Note that the ancient CDA 6.3-7 interprets qqxm of Num. 21.18 as the hrwt Xrwd. Neofiti (TN), Jonathan (TJ) and TF of Gen. 49.10 introduce, variously, ‘scribes teaching the Law’ or ‘scribes and teachers of the Law’ (TF). 68 Cathcart et al. (1992, 159 [30]) suggest that TJ derives the phrase ‘the youngest of his sons’ from Deut. 28.57, where a similar wording to that of Gen. 49.10 occurs: dleTe rv,a] h'yn ; !yBemi tceAYh; Ht'yl" v. bi W. (‘and her afterbirth that comes out from between her feet and her children whom she bears’). ‘Feet’ can be a Hebrew euphemism for genitals (of the seraphim in Isa. 6.2, for example), cf. Veenker 1999–2000, Pope 1992, 721.

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Table 4.8 Targums of Genesis 49.10 Neofiti*

Onqelos†

Jonathan Targum‡

Fragment§

4Q252

Kings and rulers

ll. 1-2 The jylX

10 “It shall not depart”: 10 Kings

10 The ruler

10 Kings and rulers

shall never depart

will not cease

shall not cease

shall [n]ot depart

from

from those of

from

from

the house of Judah

the house of Judah,

the house of Judah,

the house of Judah,

the tribe of Judah (+Jer. 33:17)

nor scribes

nor the scribe

nor scribes

nor scribes

l. 2 For ‘the staff’ is the covenant of the kingship

teaching the Law

(or: teachers)

teaching the Law

and teachers of the Law

from his sons’ sons

from his sons’ sons

from his descendents,

from among his sons’ sons,

until the time the

until the

until the time the

until the time that

l. 3 until the coming

King Messiah comes,

Messiah comes,

King Messiah comes,

the King Messiah comes,

of the Messiah of Righteousness

to whom

whose is

For to him and to his seed has been given

the kingship belongs,

the kingdom,

the covenant of the kingship of his people

to him shall all

and him shall

for evermore –

(l. 4 his seed . . . . . . for everlasting generations)


shall not cease from among those of

Neofiti*

Onqelos†

the nations be subject.

the nations obey.

Jonathan Targum‡

Fragment§

4Q252

the youngest of his sons, because of whom the people will pine away. 11 How beautiful is the King Messiah

who will arise

who will arise

who is destined to arise

from among those

from among those

from

of the House of Judah.

of the House of Judah.

the house of Judah

* Translation: McNamara 1992. † Aberbach-Grossfeld 1982; Berliner 1884. ‡ Text: Clarke 1984; Rieder 1980; cf. Ginsburger 1899. Translation: Maher 1992. § Klein 1980 vols 1 and 2.


11 How beautiful is the King Messiah

101

102


Targum texts. In TO it is possible to take ‘him’, whose feet/descendants they are, to be either Judah or the ‘ruler’. The 4Q Commentary already exhibits a double interpretation of qqxm. First, the qqxm is identified as the twklmh tyrb, described as a ‘covenant of the kingship of his [God’s or the messiah’s] people’. In this, the Commentary diverges from the interpretations of the Targums, CD and Aquila, which all pursue a sense of an individual person, the ‘law-giver/teacher’. Nevertheless, Torah observance and dominion over nations are traditionally closely related.69 Secondly, the Commentary pursues the sexual-reproductive imagery of the traditional phrase wylgr !yb(m) qqxm in line 4, where the progeny of the messiah is introduced: w[rzlw wl yk.70 The later Targums share this interpretation of Gen. 49.10c with the early Commentary, which represents its earliest known occurrence. The commentator knows two possible readings of the traditional text that produce two sense contours. And he makes use of both contours. By deriving the notion of the messiah’s progeny in line 4 from the sexual-reproductive interpretation of the phrase wylgr !yb(m) qqxm, the commentator presupposes wylgr (‘his feet’) (cf. LXX tw/n mhrw/n auvtou/, ‘his thighs/loins’). Lines 2-3 of the commentary read:

~ylgdh hmh larXy yp[law] twklmh tyrb ayh qqxmh His use of ~ylgd (‘standards’) corresponds to the reading of the Samaritan Pentateuch.71 The readings wylgr and wylgd arise from the visual similarity of resh and dalet. Either the commentator knows two copies witnessing these divergent readings or he substitutes dalet for resh himself as an exegetical tool. But he associates both ‘feet’ and ‘standards’ with Gen. 49.10c and, reading both, adduces traditional literary support for his commentary. In 1QM 3.15-18 and 4.15-17, the @lah twa (‘banner of the thousand’) occurs fifth in the list of banners (twtwa)72 and the ‘fifth banner’ in 1QM

69 The 4Q Commentary, identifying the qqxm as the royal covenant related to the rule of the royal messiah, differs from CD and the Targums, which identify the qqxm with a ‘teacher/expounder of Torah’ (cf. avkribazo,menoj, a' Gen. 49.10). The Commentary’s royal tyrb is nevertheless closely related to the keeping of the Torah. Dominion over other nations, implicit in the royal covenant (see also the Covenant of David renewed for the Nasi ha-Edah in 1QSb V and the Nasi’s dominion over the nations) is hinted at in Gen. 49.10d, which envisages the ‘obedience’ (LXX ‘hope’) of the peoples. It is also in line with covenantal passages from Deuteronomy, such as Deuteronomy 28, where covenantal keeping of twcm and ~yqx of the Torah results in Israel’s dominion over other nations (for example, Deut. 28.1, 10, 12). 70 See Footnote 68, above. 71 For the reading ~ylgd on 4Q252, fragment 6, see Brooke et al. 1996, 205. 72 ‘If 1QM III 15-18 and IV 15-17 are suitably restored’ (ibid.). I note that, while the lines of 3.15-18 and 4.15-17 are partly broken, the sequence in both cases proceeds in an order that endorses Yadin’s reconstruction (Yadin 1962, ad loc.). 1QM 3.15-18 proceeds: ‘All the nation, the chiefs of the three tribes, the tribe, the princes of the ten thousand, [the thousand], [the hundred . . .].’ 1QM 4.15-17 proceeds: ‘The whole congregation, the th[ree tribes], [the tribe], the ten thousand, [the thousand], [the hund]red.’ The sequence, ‘ten thousands, thousands, hundreds, tens’ is replicated throughout 1QM, according to the pattern of Pentateuch war rules.


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4.10 is inscribed: la ylgd (‘God’s standards’).73 It is not at all clear that 1QM should be deemed a Dead Sea sectarian or a Yah9ad composition. However, it was prolifically copied and preserved by scribes of E. Tov’s Qumran ‘scribal practice’ (see Section 5.2, Footnote 21, below) and, therefore, may have belonged to the 4Q commentator’s literary repertoire. He certainly identifies the larXy yp[law] (‘[thous]ands of Israel’) as ~ylgdh, like the author of Milh9amah.

4.5 A continuum of awareness of textual plurality In Section 2.5.1 I have identified three kinds of awareness of textual plurality. Yah9ad exegetical compositions contain evidence for at least types §A and §B. Type §A represents a common understanding of interpretation whereby the fixed text is understood within a context determined by the reader. Thus, for example, applying Habakkuk’s prophecies to his own context, the pesherist understands certain elements of the text as references to a ‘Wicked Priest’ and others as references to a ‘Teacher of Righteousness’ (Section 4.2.2).74 Similarly, the CD exegete can understand elements of Amos 5 and 9 to refer to subjects of his own contemporary interest, such as the Royal Messiah, the Doresh ha-Torah or the moral relation of his audience to the rest of Israel (Section 4.3.1). Some Jewish exegetes in Hellenistic and early Roman Palestine, working in a Hebrew linguistic milieu, negotiated multiple semantic forms of a traditional passage (Type §B). They achieved distinct sense contours in each case by manipulating different forms of a single semantic unit: (1) lr[/l[r (1QpHab); (2) twks/tkws (CDA); (3) hlX/wlX (4Q252 #1); (4) ~ylgr/~ylgd (4Q252 #2).75 It is not necessary to decide whether exegetes consulted multiple copies of a passage. The distinct sense contours they produce echo known textual traditions, showing that they are working with known alternatives.

73 Brooke et al. 1996, 205. Note also that in 1QM 4.9-11 jbX, in third place, precedes ~ylgd, in fifth place, in the serekh of the eight banners. 74 ‘Wicked Priest’: 1QpHab. 8.8; 9.9; 11.4; 12.2, 8. ‘Teacher of Righteousness’: 1.12; 2.2; 5.10; 7.4; 8.3; 9.9; 11.5. 75 For semantic units, see Sections 2.5–2.5.1, above.

5 SCRIBES AND TEXTUAL PLURALITY

5.1 Scribes and other text users To what extent can Dead Sea sectarian exegetical practice illuminate that of Paul? In a broad sense evidence that the Sectarians made use of textual variation, as did Josephus, shows that this practice belongs to Paul’s world. However, the Sectarians are often viewed as an exclusive and marginal group of expert scribes, whose literary (and devotional) pursuits were extraordinary. Can Paul be helpfully compared with the Sectarian exegetes? While distinctions between expert scribes and non-scribal text-users are essential in historical enquiry, the literary encounter of these two groups was comparable in important respects. Like ordinary illiterate folk and literate non-scribal text-users, those Sectarian exegetes who were professional scribes nevertheless encountered Jewish scripture to a large degree through oral performance, either through dictation or a scribe reading aloud to himself. I argue that despite their literary and chirographic practice, scribes’ encounters with scripture, like that of ordinary people, were orally patterned. Moreover, Paul and the Sectarian exegetes participated in a common exegetical heritage.

5.2 ‘Scribal exegesis’ Many scholars accept that Dead Sea sectarians use multiple text-forms, as I have already noted (Section 4.2.2, cf. 2.2.3, above) and discuss in more detail elsewhere.1 Here two examples will suffice. Vermes writes that the pesherist’s treatment of Hab. 2.16 not only implies an acquaintance with the variants; it also shows an inability to or unwillingness to choose between them. Both readings are cleverly mingled, revealing that, far from being free with the biblical text, the interpreter held in profound esteem every witness of what in his view was the sacred record of the word of God.2

1 See Norton (2009, 138) and the references there (ibid., 138 [10]) to: Rabin 1955, 158–159; Brownlee 1959, 7, 45–49, 76–78; Bruce 1959, 12–13; 1961, 61–69; 1983, 81f.; Horgan 1979, 245; Dimant 1984, 505 [103]; Brooke 1985, 288; 1987, 86; 2000, 112–113; Lim 1997 50, 191–192. 2 Vermes 1976, 441a; my italics. Cf. Section 4.2.2, above.

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Counting the ‘use of textual variants’ among the ‘hermeneutical principles’ used by the Habakkuk pesherist,3 Brownlee envisages the pesherist comparing copies, including ‘the scroll of the teacher of righteousness’, referring to later Rabbis who ‘compared’ readings in several ‘Torah scrolls’.4 There is a pervasive notion that the Sectarian exegetical compositions in the Qumran corpus are inherently ‘scribal’.5 In a single article Brownlee applies the following terms to Dead Sea sectarians, referring to their exegetical activity: ‘the study groups of Qumran’; ‘[t]he scribes of Qumrân [sic]’; ‘[t]he people of Qumran’; ‘Qumran’s folk’.6 G. Vermes describes the ‘scribal creative freedom’ at Qumran in biblical and non-biblical manuscripts: ‘the redactor-copyists felt free to improve the composition which they were reproducing’.7 Brooke speaks of the ‘Qumran scribes’ performing exegesis,8 which in the case of 1QpHab. ‘may appear “difficult” to obtain’, and ‘was only done by experts’.9 The pesharim are often considered ‘autographs’, suggesting that scribes who produced the extant copies were responsible for the exegeses therein.10 Even when their status as autographs is doubted,11 it is often assumed that the exegesis they present is inherently scribal; that is, integral to and inseparable from the act of writing. For example, describing how the ‘Qumran expositor . . . separated his interpretation from the scriptural text with a word or phrase such as “its interpretation concerns”’, VanderKam portrays the pesherist’s exegetical work as an intrinsically written act, taking place at the moment of inscription.12 I have already noted that Paul’s use of textual variation is often framed in terms

3 Brownlee (1951, 60–62) identified thirteen hermeneutical principles by which the pesherist interpreted scripture. Some involve direct lexical manipulation of the source text (e.g. ‘rearrangement of the letters in a word’ (#9), ‘substitution of similar letters’ in a word (#10), ‘the division of one word into two or more parts’ (#11), ‘interpretation of words, or parts of words, as abbreviations’ (#12). Others involve interpreting the text as it stands, e.g. ‘[a]llegorical propriety’ (#6), ‘equation of synonyms, attaching to the original word a secondary meaning’ (#8), reading the passage in light of ‘[o]ther passages of scripture’ (#13) (his italics). Brownlee (1964, 66 [7]) later withdrew the thirteenth principle. Elliger (1953, 157ff.) and Horgan (1979, 250) deem Brownlee’s list of thirteen artificial. Brooke (1985, 283ff.) notes Brownlee’s failure to distinguish hermeneutic from exegetical techniques. 4 Brownlee 1951, 73–76. Rabbis compared their own Torah scrolls with that of Rabbi Meir. Siegel (1975, esp. 8–17) concludes that Rabbi Meir’s was a late Hellenistic copy since its orthography is like that of 1QIsa.a. 5 See Norton 2009. 6 Brownlee 1987, 188, 188, 191–193, respectively. A similar range of terms can be found in Brownlee 1964: ‘scribes gathered about a table [. . .] in the Qumrân scriptorium’ (158); ‘the Qumrân community’ (188); ‘some scribe of the Qumrân community’ (198); ‘the Essenes’ (199); ‘the society at Qumrân’ (203). 7 Vermes 1997, 24–25; my italics. 8 Brooke 1985, 5. 9 Ibid., 284. 10 Milik 1957, 37; Cross 1958, 84f; VanderKam 1994, 96; Tov 2004, 28. 11 Hammershaimb (1959, 417) doubts that our copies of the pesharim are autographs on account of ‘such errors as point to a written original’; also Elliger 1953, 70; so Brooke 2000, 115; and Lim 2002, 27. 12 VanderKam 1994, 44.

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of his access to scrolls, or lack of access. It will be recalled, for example, that Hengel and Koch’s disagreement on this point revolves precisely around whether Paul was a scribe.13 Yet where the question of access to multiple copies of a work is acute in Pauline studies, it raises no eyebrows in the context of the ‘scribal community at Qumran’. The assumption is that trained scribes – who had access to a library, engaged in the expert copying of literary works in their scriptorium,14 and were professionally involved in the collection and preservation of the scrolls on which these works were copied – would be in a position to consult multiple copies of a given work. Stendahl’s proposal that the gospels of Matthew and John arose in scribal ‘schools’ also implies this idea.15 Scribes had considerably better access to multiple copies of a work than nonspecialists. However, one cannot assume that access to multiple copies is the absolute prerequisite for making exegetical use of multiple semantic forms of a traditional passage. In no instance examined in Chapter 4, above, does the exegete need to consult two copies in order to identify two forms of a passage. The exegete’s use of distinct sense contours may equally well result from his use of a single copy. The knowledge of the sense contours, which informs his interpretation of the text, arises in an oral environment of exposition of the passage. This knowledge lies on a spectrum of awareness, which includes both the recognition that a semantic unit in a passage can yield distinct sense contours, and that distinct sense contours are enshrined in particular copies. Exegetes who made use of multiple semantic forms of a passage – Sectarians, Paul, Josephus – operated to significant degree in a like manner, which did not necessarily involve comparison of manuscripts at the moment of exegesis. At stake is the extent to which the exegesis of scribes is an essentially chirographic phenomenon, inseparable from the act of writing and particularly the production of manuscript copies. Elsewhere I have identified two broad modern modes of constructing ancient Jewish scribes.16 One is a socio-historical model focusing on scribes as social groups, their relations to other ancient persons and institutions, their status, and how they are presented in various kinds of historical sources.17 The other is a ‘realia’ model, which seeks to construct the work of scribes and their literary and communicative habits in terms of data observable from manuscripts and scribal equipment, both

13 Access to copies, cf. Sections 1.8.2 and 2.2–2.2.3; Paul as scribe? (Hengel), cf. Section 1.6, above. 14 For example, Brownlee 1950; 1951; 1987, 188; Bruce 1961, 47–48 (referring to Metzger 1958– 1959, 509ff.); Vermes 1975b, 16–17; 1997, 11, 20 (referring to Reich 1995 and Tov 1988); Dimant 1995, 35 [31], 36; Lim 2002, 9; Brooke (1985, 5) (‘the Qumran scribes’); Stanley (1992, 39) (the scriptorium); ibid., 51 (the ‘scribal ethos’ of Qumran manuscripts). De Vaux 1961 classically depicts the scriptorium. 15 Stendahl 1954. 16 Norton 2009, 140–143. 17 Exemplified, for example, by the studies of: Schürer 1886–1911 vol. II; Jeremias 1923–1937 vol. IIB; Hengel 1969; Schürer et al. 1973–1987; Orton 1989; Davies 1995; Schams 1998. Unlike many of her predecessors, Schams helpfully restricts her discussion to sources where a term for ‘scribe’ (rpws, rps, rlbl, grammateu,j and libla,rioj) occurs, or where the person(s) is identified as scribe through the act of writing.


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lexical data (such as, textual characteristics of the inscribed text, palaeographical or orthographical conventions, scribal markings and marginalia) and material data (such as, preparation of leather, ruling of lines, stitching, ink, calligraphic conventions). This latter approach to constructing scribes, exemplified by M. Martin, E. Tov, and to some extent E. Kutscher,18 has, since the 1950s, been foundational to the notion of the scribal community at Qumran. It is a notion of scribes deriving from products of writing.19 Martin, Tov and others have observed the close collaboration of a small group of scribes in copying scrolls and correcting each other’s work.20 Tov has identified a ‘Qumran Scribal Practice’, which he associates with this scribal group, which has adopted particular orthographical conventions and special scribal markings in the paleo-Hebrew and a cryptic script.21 In fact, not all Jewish ‘scribes’ (according to the socio-historical model) were necessarily exegetes; some were technicians who did not engage in exegesis.22 Scribes, according to the realia model, are people who write in the professional pursuit of transmitting literature. Exegesis performed by a ‘scribe’ is not necessarily intrinsically ‘scribal’.23 Conversely, certainly not all exegetes were ‘scribes’. Although they could write, neither Josephus nor Paul is generally considered to have been a professional scribe.24 I argue that literate non-scribal exegetes participated in the same exegetical

18 Norton 2009, 141–142. 19 The classical ‘Schürer-Jeremias’ notion of late Second Temple Schriftgelehrten (or: ‘Torah scholars’ – Schürer, Vermes et al. 1973–1987) seems to play no significant role in the studies by Martin (1958), Kutscher (1974) and Tov (2004). This may be because the Sectarians appear to have auto-marginalized from the Temple cult. Their practices should, therefore, be incorporated into models of Second Temple Jewish scribal practices only with caution. Equally, Schams’ survey covers almost none of the material studied by Tov and their data hardly intersect. Tov (2004) does note a few of the historical references examined by Schams (1998). However, these are relatively few and only supplement observations made from physical manuscript evidence. 20 See, for example, Martin 1958, 65f., 72–73, 81–96, 495–585, 687; Tov 1997, 150–151; 2004, 21–23. For further discussion and references to further studies, see Norton 2009, 141–142. 21 Tov has developed the idea of the Qumran Scribal Practice in a number of studies (for example, Tov 1986; 1988, 7; 1997; 2004, 5, 203–209, 261–273, 277–289; see Norton 2009, 141 for further references). Although some of the Qumran scribal practitioners collaborated directly, emphasizing that the term ‘Qumran Scribal Practice’ does not exclusively locate the practice at Khirbet Qumran (Tov 1992, 108), Tov argues for a wider Palestinian provenance for most Qumran scrolls (e.g. Tov 1986; 1988, 7; 2004, 5; on the Qumran scriptorium, Tov 1988, 9–10). He associates this distinct scribal practice with a palaeographical period, 150 BCE–68 CE, rather than a geographical location (ibid., 15 [39]). He argues that the Greek, Aramaic, and paleo-Hebrew scrolls were probably imported to Qumran (ibid., 19; on the importation of Aramaic scrolls, ibid., 11). Brooke (2000, 109) has questioned Tov’s designation Qumran Scribal Practice on the grounds that no biblical manuscript from Qumran is narrowly Sectarian. See further Norton 2009, 142 [17]. 22 Norton 2009, 143–145. 23 While a kind of ‘scribal’ exegesis can be identified – that is, exegesis conducted at the moment of inscription (Norton 2009, 146–148 and see Section 5.4, below), this does not particularly advance the present discussion. 24 Schürer coined the common term Schriftgelehrten, or ‘Torah scholars’ (cf. Schürer et al. 1973–1987; Schams 1998, 18) and Jeremias (1923–1937 IIB, 101–103) included Paul and Josephus in his list of

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heritage as Sectarian exegetes. Awareness and use of multiple semantic forms of a given passage belongs to this heritage. Exegetical use of multiple semantic forms of a passage does not necessarily entail an exegete’s special access to multiple copies. Much ancient Jewish exegetical work arose within a context of exegetical oral practice, rather than the solitary pursuits of copying and altering texts in accord with scribal syntactical conventions. Many manipulations of semantic forms of traditional scripture passages arose within common discursive structures and practices. The exegetes may have been priestly, Levitical25 or lay. However, an exegesis (or a pesher) is often a communal product, generated within an oral-performative environment, rather than an intrinsically chirographic one. This is as much the case for Yah9ad exegetes as for Josephus and Paul, who are not commonly considered to be professional scribes.26

5.3 A common exegetical heritage A range of exegetical methods abroad in antiquity was employed by Jewish textusers and interpreters across cultural, linguistic and geographical milieus of Jewish antiquity. Much of the exegetical work seen in the Sectarian scrolls engages in a common exegetical heritage, open to a number of ancient Jews who, while writers of one kind or another, were not scribes. The exegetical techniques in Sectarian compositions, including exegetical use of textual plurality, belong to this common exegetical heritage. According to Fishbane, intertextual exegetical methods represented in the Rabbinic middôt, attributed in the Mishnah to Hillel’s first-century school, and seen in Second Temple exegetical literature (such as that of the Dead Sea sectarians, Jubilees, or the Temple Scroll) are already present in the traditional Jewish literature that became the Hebrew canon.27 This ‘inner-biblical aggadic exegesis’ pervades the redactional stages of early traditional Hebrew works, such as the Pentateuch, as well as the composition of later works, such as Samuel, Kings, Chronicles or Daniel.28 Although Fishbane assumes that ‘traditions and teachings were transmitted orally throughout the biblical period’ as well as ‘long afterwards’ as ‘non-Scriptural oral traditions’, he believes that ‘scribal practice provides the most concrete context for the transmission of a traditum’ and the proper basis for studying ‘the diverse exegetical dynamics of traditium and

Schriftgelehrten, along with many Rabbis and priests. I suspect that this approach accounts for Hengel’s (1991a) affirmation that Paul was a grammateu,j. See also Section 1.8.1, above. 25 Levites and Temple scribes are connected in ancient literature (Sanders 1992). Vermes (1975b, 22–24) explains the possible Levitical status of the Yah9ad Maskil (cf. Levitical associations of the verbform haskil in Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Psalms). 26 See Footnote 24, above. 27 Fishbane 1985. 28 Ibid., 408f.


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traditio in the Hebrew Bible’.29 Notably, Fishbane does not equate exegetical tradition exclusively with its chirographic manifestation. Second Temple exegetical works in Greek, such as Josephus, Philo, Matthew’s gospel, or pseudepigrapha, display the same array of exegetical techniques as the Hebrew exegetical literature discussed above.30 D. Daube finds techniques akin to Hillel’s middôt in late antique Jewish Greek exegetical literature, which are associated with Alexandrian textual criticism. He also notes that Hillel’s techniques resemble those of Aristotle, Cicero and others.31 Comparing exegetical textual variations among M, the OG, cognate versions, and Targums, A. Salvesen identifies ‘midrash in Greek’ in Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion.32 Brooke argues ‘that exegetical techniques akin to the middôt were used widely, if not universally, in Jewish exegesis of the late Second Temple period’.33 He indicates the dependence of the middôt on Alexandrian philology in the first centuries BCE and CE, giving examples of individual middôt used by Philo and Targums that he dates to before 70 CE.34 Philo reproduces traditional Hebrew phrases in his exegesis and applies methods closely akin to techniques discussed and applied in Rabbinic literature. It is impossible ‘to confine Philo solely to the role of an exponent of Greek philosophy in the Alexandrian Jewish community’, says Brooke, and Philo’s methods ‘included but also went beyond those attributed in formulation to his near contemporary [Hillel]’.35 Brooke’s conclusion, that the exegetical techniques employed by Philo belong as much to first-century Palestine as to Alexandria, is supported by Kister, who speaks of a ‘common heritage’ of Jewish exegetical techniques in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.36 There are cases in Philo’s discussion of Greek Jewish scripture where (as in the Sectarian examples reviewed above), his citation of a traditional lemma witnesses one reading (usually agreeing with the Christian LXX), while his exposition presupposes another. Whether Philo knew two forms of these passages has been subject to an ongoing debate. Katz doubts this, proposing that later Christian copyists verbally harmonized Philo’s citations with the standardizing LXX, while leaving his expositions unaltered, which originally applied to first-century Greek texts available to

29 Ibid., 23. 30 Chapters 3 and 4, above, have presented Josephus’ and Yah9ad exegetes’ manipulation of semantic units and appeal to distinct forms of the same passage. For Josephus see Nodet 1996, 1997, 2000–2001, 2006. For Matthew see Stendahl 1954; Gundry 1967; Marcos 2000, 325f. For Philo see Footnotes 37–38, below. 31 Daube 1973. On Alexandrian textual criticism and exegesis see Russell and Winterbottom 1972 and 1998. 32 Salvesen 2004. 33 Brooke 1985, 2. 34 Ibid., 17–36. 35 Ibid., 25. 36 Kister 1998.

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Philo.37 Others propose that Philo himself made exegetical use of variant text-forms in the first century.38 Exegetical methods employed in Sectarian compositions belong to a wider exegetical environment spanning a range of ancient Jewish contexts. That is, these methods are neither intrinsically nor exclusively scribal. While Brooke’s language occasionally ascribes an expertly scribal character to Sectarian exegesis, his study shows that these techniques were widely current in ancient Judaism. ‘[T]he Qumran scribes’, he writes, ‘were not acting independently of contemporary Judaism.’ Sectarian exegetical practice should therefore not be considered to be an exclusive domain of professionally scribal communities.39

5.4 Scribal awareness of textual plurality Scribes arbitrated the range, availability and form of Jewish ancestral literature.40 As principal transmitters of this literature – the producers and keepers of copies – scribes were in a better position than non-scribal text-users to compare multiple copies of a work.41 The alteration of the text of one copy on the basis of another by means of marginal and interlinear insertions indicates such awareness, at least at the moment of comparison between copies.42 Tov and others designate these alterations as ‘corrections’, attributing to scribes a notion of a pristine, ‘correct’ text-form. This conception restricts textual variation to ‘standard’ and ‘aberrant’ text-forms, ascribing a false sense of uniformity to the literature. The term ‘alteration’ better acknowledges that some readings are scribal or exegetical, rather than corrective. Some scribal markings

37 Katz 1964. 38 Colson 1940; Knox 1940; Howard 1973. 39 Brooke 1985, 5. 40 While scribes copied diverse kinds of literature (bills, accounts, deeds, and contracts; political or military orders; court records; private letters; public addresses; liturgical texts; traditional narratives, poems or songs; and private devotional documents (cf. Bowman and Woolf 1994; Davies 1995; Schams 1998)), I focus exclusively on Jewish exegetical work in this study. 41 Literate text-users encountered traditional works as inscribed copies much less frequently than scribes. Male Jews heard the Pentateuch read out weekly (Philo, Leg. 156; Josephus, Cont.Ap. 2.175; Acts 15.21; cf. Juvenal, Satires 14, 100f.; cf. Goodman 1994b. Further: Hengel 1991a, 236 [197]; Levine 2000; Mann 1940). But this equates neither to regular private reading nor copying by hand. Most ‘text-users’ were illiterate hearers (Bar-Ilan 1988, 164 [8]: 3 per cent literacy in rural Palestine; up to 20 per cent for urban adult Jewish males; cf. Harris 1989; Gamble 1995, 165 [13]; Jaffee 2001, 164 [7]). However, because this discussion focuses on Paul, I restrict my present definition of ‘text-user’ to literate Jewish text-users, who could both read and hear traditional Jewish works. 42 Tov (2004, 223) thinks that scribes made some ‘corrections’ to the base text (i.e. copy) on the basis of external written sources, ‘possibly because those sources were considered to be superior or more authoritative that the base text’.


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in 1QIsa.a43 and cancellation dots found in a number of the Qumran scrolls44 indicate the scribes’ awareness of variant readings in other manuscripts.45 If it can be shown that a scribe has made an exegetical change to the text of a biblical work he is copying, one might designate this act as ‘scribal’ in the limited sense that it is intimately connected with the practice of writing. Some scholars, such as J.V. Chamberlain, W.H. Brownlee, A. van der Kooij and P. Pulikkotil, have argued that scribes made exegetical changes to the text of Isaiah.46 Stegemann and S. Talmon observe ‘dual readings’ in some biblical copies, which display an exegetical approach to variant readings in different copies of the same work.47 I have argued that the only workable definition of ‘scribal’ exegesis is exegetical work carried out at the moment of inscription, and in cases where a literary product is most easily explained as the work of a scribe.48 4QTestimonia, 4QTanh[umim, and 4QList of False Prophets, and Blessing of Nasi ha-Edah (1QSb V) might provide such examples, if they are autographs.49 However, ‘autograph’ only indicates the first or only copy of a written text; it cannot indicate that the scribe is responsible for the intellectual work within it. Thinking in terms of ‘scribal’ exegesis does not seem useful for the present study. In none of the cases of exegetical use of textual variation presented in Chapter 4, above, must the intellectual exegetical work be that of the scribe who wrote down our copies. In the next section I will show that, despite their chirographic training, scribes’ encounters with literature were to a large degree still oral and therefore closer to that of ordinary non-literate Jews than is often supposed.

43 For example, the circular sign (Cryptic A kaph (Tov 2004, 205 and fig. 10.4, 363)) in 1QIsa.a XVII1 (cf. Trever 1950, xvi; Martin 1958, 180f.; Tov 2004, 205) is written above XwlX of Isa. 21.16 in the upper margin. M reads hn"v' dA[B., whereas 1QIsa.a reads ~ynX XwlX dw[b.. Tov (2004, 205) states that ‘[t]his sign possibly indicates the lack of XwlX in M’. The inscriber of the kaph was apparently aware that another copy (which reflected M) lacked XwlX here. This awareness can be seen as ‘scribal’ because it predicates the comparison of multiple copies. 44 Correction of the base text by scribes A and B, done on the basis of other copies, is witnessed by cancellation dots (dots flanking a word or phrase marked for omission) in 1QIsa.a: 1QIsa.a XIII14 (Isa. 15.7) hyOtwOdqpw corrected text = M; XXVIII28 (Isa. 35:10) hObOwgyXy corrected text = M wgyXy: XXIX3 (Isa. 36:4) hOdOwOdOyO $OlOmO lacking in M Isaiah and 2 Kgs 18.19; XXIX10 (Isa. 36.7) ~OyOlOXOwOrOyObO wwxyXthzh xbzmh ynpl the longer text is identical with 2 Kings and versions, the shorter text agrees with the M of Isaiah. See, Tov 2004, 189, table 10. 45 See Footnote 47, below. 46 Pulikottil: exegetical alterations to 1QIsa.a (2001, 205–215); criteria for distinguishing errors from innovations (2001, 22–23). ‘Messianically’ motivated alterations: at 1QIsa.a 1.24 (Chamberlain 1955, 367); in Isaiah 52 (Brownlee 1964, 155–215). Van der Kooij (1981, 90–97) argues that the 1QIsa.a scribe was the Teacher of Righteousness who made autobiographical alterations to 1QIsa.a 1.24-25. 47 Stegemann (1969, 94 [512]) believes that cancellation dots to the right and left of the superlinear word in 1QIsa.a 49.14 mark this word as a variant. Talmon (1964, 107) finds ‘parallel readings by conscious conflation’ from two Vorlagen. However, Tov is doubtful (2004, 234). 48 Norton 2009, 146–147. 49 Ibid. The 1QS scribe, who made corrective interventions into the text of 1QIsa. a, copied 4QTestimonia. Stegemann suggests that this scribe also added the Blessing of Nasi ha-Edah in 1QSb V.

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5.5 Oral performance of traditional literature In previous chapters I have proposed that the copy of a traditional work functions as a cue for the multiple exegetical ideas associated with given passages, rather than a rigid verbal record of, or monolithic monument to, a single semantic form (Sections 2.4–2.5.1). I find some support for this idea in the writing of M. Jaffee, according to whom Second Temple scribes, priests and laity alike encountered traditional works more commonly through oral performance than private reading or study.50 Jews also encountered a complex of orally mediated interpretive traditions that ‘were internalised in the context of public instruction’.51 Literacy exists within encompassing oral structures. ‘The orally mediated interpretive traditions associated with written texts became perceptible as cultural realities “outside of” the texts themselves and thus required some sort of ideological legitimation in relation to the written texts.’52 Ginsberg (1975), Vermes (1973b), Daube (1973), Davies (1970, 1983) and Brooke (1998) also deal with such orally mediated interpretive traditions that span diverse Jewish literature. Jaffee argues that the image of Jewish scribes routinely copying sacred literature by dictation is a ‘ubiquitous’ trope in Second Temple Jewish literature.53 The ‘scribes’ Ezra and Baruch anticipate divine revelations by preparing to write.54 Philo presents Moses as a scribe, receiving and writing down revelation, and the LXX translators of the Pentateuch.55 Prophets are depicted as scribes and ‘the scribes who transmitted [a prophet’s] work continued the chain of representing his persona as their texts were passed on’.56 Of course, Jaffee’s pseudepigraphical evidence may only reveal an idealized notion of scribes arising simply because oral performance was an important part of most ancient Jews’ encounters with literature. Yet if Jaffee is correct that scribes routinely copied by dictation, it would show that scribes’ encounters with traditional literature were more like those of ordinary text-users than often acknowledged. And indeed lexical manuscript evidence corroborates Jaffee’s contention that Jewish scribal copying was frequently an oral mode.

5.5.1 Chirographic practices in an oral world Judaean manuscript evidence shows that scribes copied both aurally (by reader’s dictation) and visually (from a physical copy). Yet even while copying visually,

50 Jaffee 2001. 51 Ibid., 10. 52 Ibid., 7. 53 Jaffee 2001, 23–28, particularly 24. 54 Ibid., 24, 26. One also thinks of Hab. 2.2 and Rev. 1.11 – John’s revelations are sent as written letters, even within the text. 55 Philo Vita Mosis 2.37 (Jaffee 2001, 24, 26). 56 Ibid., 25–26.


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scribes seem to have uttered aloud the words they read in a copy. That is, despite their chirographic praxis, scribes inhabited a pervasively oral and aural structure.

5.5.2 Copying by dictation Achtemeier has influentially argued that in late antiquity, literature in general, and traditional Jewish literature in particular, was generally recited or dictated.57 Even when a person read to himself, he almost always read aloud. Similarly, Martin, Bruce, Burrows, Orlinsky, Siegel and Louw argue that ancient scribes copied visually,58 aurally59 and by citation from memory, variously combining these techniques.60 Burrows demonstrates the omission of h through weak pronunciation by the reader, aural confusion of b-m and k-x, confusion of d and t, and substitution of a for h. In 1QIsa.a Kutscher finds aural errors occurring through the scribe’s uttering what he read in his own dialect.61 While dictation from one scroll to a group of copyists is known from ancient depictions, Hammershaimb does not believe that groups of Qumran scribes copied en masse by dictation in the scriptorium because he finds no Qumran copies sharing a common prototype.62 Tov cites Hammershaimb with approval.63 However, Tov’s observation that most of the ‘biblical’ scrolls did not originate at Qumran, but exhibit diverse provenance, invalidates Hammershaimb’s argument, which predicates the copying of all Qumran scrolls at Qumran. Tov argues against copying by dictation in this period, appealing to a Talmudic insistence that scribes copy directly from a written source rather than from memory (b. Meg. 18b).64 However, this evidence reflects much later Rabbinic efforts to standardize the proto-Masoretic Text and to develop textual guidelines for arbitrating between variant readings,65 a context implied by the Rabbinic fascination with the special readings of the Severus scroll (Rabbi Meir’s Torah).66 This ethos, however,

57 Achtemeier 1990, 15–19. However, silent reading is attested, cf. Slusser 1992; Gilliard 1993. 58 Burrows 1948, 18; 1949a, 25–26; Orlinsky 1950. See Delitzsch 1920, 123–126 for the same phenomena in Masoretic manuscripts. 59 For 1QIsa.a, see Burrows 1948, 20, 22; 1949a, 25–26; 1949b, 203. For 1QIsa.a, see Bruce 1961, 63. For 1QIsa.a and the Severus scroll of Rabbi Meir, see Siegel 1975, 36–37. Louw (2008) has most recently argued that the translators of the OG translated an orally dictated Hebrew text, recited by a reader. 60 Martin 1958 I, 6–7, 688. 61 Phonological explanations for the scribe’s idiosyncratic orthography: noun patterns (Kutscher 1974, 375, 474–476); verb patterns (ibid., 477). For other errors resulting from the scribe’s pronunciation (ibid., 498–499). The scribe’s dialect was influenced by Western Aramaic (ibid., 23ff., 54–55, 61–62, 68f., 483). 62 Hammershaimb 1959, 415–418. 63 Tov 1997, 137; reproduced in Tov 2004. 64 Tov 2004, 11. 65 See Siegel 1975; Tov 1992; and Orlinsky 1960 on the development of Kethib-Qere arbitration on the basis of the three ‘Azarah’ scrolls. 66 Siegel 1975. Manuscripts from the Bar Kokhba period witness the stabilization of proto-M. Fragments of Exod. 13.11-16 and Pss. 25–26 are identical with M (Aharoni 1961, 23, 40). See further Marcos 2000, chs 5, 7–9.

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was distinct from the acceptance of textual plurality witnessed in the Judaean manuscripts. The Rabbinic ruling, which should not be projected back to the early Roman period, itself implies that some scribes did copy from memory in the Rabbinic period. Hammershaimb believes that a Qumran scribe would follow his source with his eyes, while reciting it aloud,67 and the scribe’s own pronunciation influenced his orthography,68 which suggests that scribes’ chirographic work belongs in a fundamentally orally patterned world. The scribal ‘sloppiness’ and ‘freedom’ observed in the Judaean manuscripts69 indicates that these documents were not set text-critical objects, but mnemonic prompts that aided the performance of literature within primarily oral practices.70 Tov acknowledges the role of the manuscript copy as a tool for a variety of oral performances. He writes that ‘the Qumranites used the scrolls in different circumstances. In that case, they would have chosen a certain type of text during the official reading of the Bible, and another one for study purposes, both communal and individual’.71 And special conventions for writing the tetragrammaton show that written manuscripts played a role within wider oral contexts. Writing The Name in paleo-Hebrew characters was a convention limited to Tov’s Qumran scribal practice.72 The practice was surely followed, not because it was considered wrong to write The Name, but because it was wrong to utter it (see my discussion of 1QS 7.1, Section 5.6.1, below). As Goodman notes, although some Judaean manuscripts (such as contracts and deeds) reveal the secular use of Hebrew, ‘[t]he sound of spoken Hebrew became itself sacred, and therefore worrying (and indeed dangerous), only when the Divine Name was pronounced’.73 This concern makes sense only if the literary copies were primarily meant to be read aloud. Beyond Qumran the oral nature of literary pursuit is also evident. For instance, Pliny had his sources read aloud to him, and dictated his own compositions to secretaries (see Section 1.8.2.1, above). Josephus may well have employed his literary assistants in like manner and it is hard to imagine that the privileged Philo did not work in this way. Even the ‘vagrant’ Paul dictated letters.74

67 Here Hammershaimb points to Acts 8.30. 68 Hammershaimb 1959, 418. The same is observed by Kutscher (1974) in 1QIsa.a (see Footnote 61, above) and by Delitzsch (1920, 123 [1]) in Masoretic manuscripts. 69 Tov 1988, 15; cf. Brownlee 1964, 216; Trever 1950, xv; Orlinsky 1950, 165, 338. 70 Compare Jaffee (2001, 16–17), who sees the scroll in the Second Temple period as a ‘mnemonic safety device – a storage system for texts already held substantially in the memory’. 71 Ibid., 33. 72 See Footnote 21, above. 73 Goodman 1994b, 101. 74 Rom. 16.22 and 1 Cor. 16.21; but did he write Galatians himself? (cf. Norton 2009, 153).


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5.6 Orality, chirography and authority The writings of Josephus, the Yah9ad and Paul (see Chapter 7) display exegetical uses of textual plurality. While a literary pursuit, this practice exists within structures that are essentially oral. To frame in purely literary terms the question of these exegetes’ work is to ignore pervasive oral thought structures. While oral creations are often regarded as variants of written productions, Ong has argued that language is ultimately an oral phenomenon: writing can never dispense with orality.75 Chirographic forms were not ends in themselves, but modes of storage and means for delineating the common content of traditional literary property. A shared heritage of exegetical techniques comprised the instruments of engagement with traditional literature. A given hermeneutic was the expression of a community’s subjective perception of its relation to traditional literature, where, as Ong suggests, ‘[o]riginality consists not in the introduction of new materials but in fitting the traditional materials effectively into each individual, unique situation or audience’.76 Ong further points out the special weight of individual authority and charisma in oral societies. A fundamentally oral culture situates knowledge within a context of discussion among authoritative, charismatic speakers.77 Oral patterning of authority is intrinsically situational, arising in an environment where the personal authority of individual protagonists plays a substantial role in their performative strategies and their persuasive success.78 These insights are important to understand the work of Jewish exegetes considered here.

5.6.1 Orality, chirography and authority in the Yahñad 1QS rhetorically defines social boundaries through legislation of ritual purity, internal hierarchy, as well as eschatological and cultic ideologies supported by peculiar hermeneutical approaches to traditional literature. This and other Yah9ad literature, such as the pesharim, distinguishes the Yah9ad from other groups (both Jewish and not), as well as maintaining communal boundaries between various branches of the wider ideological movement to which the Yah9ad belonged. Studies reveal the ideological and geographical proximity of some chirograph-members of the Yah9ad.79 This need not imply, however, that Dead Sea sectarians were isolated from contemporary Jewish life. Their unusual practices were their own solutions to questions of calendar, purity and worship, issues common to many of their Jewish contemporaries. The Yah9ad did not inhabit the social vacuum of a Dead Sea ‘scroll-jar’, but was part of broader intellectual, social and literary discussions.

75 Ong 1982, 7–9. See also Lord 1960 and Parry 1971, who have established what has come to be known as the ‘oral formulaic hypothesis’. 76 Ong 1982, 59. 77 Ibid., 43. 78 Ibid., 56. 79 See Footnote 20, above.

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The language of Serekh ha-Yah9ad reveals a pervasion of oral structures. In Wernberg- Møller’s terms, 1QS presents the Yah9a d as a ‘community of Torah study’. He may overstate this in translating hrwtb (5.2) as ‘with Torah study’ and hrwtl (5.3; 6.22) as ‘concerning Torah study’.80 Nevertheless, Torah study was clearly important to community life. Lay members of The Many (~ybrh ) gathered nightly to ‘read the book aloud, explain the regulation81, and bless together’82 (dxyb $rblw jpXm Xwrdlw rpsb awrql). The verbs arq, Xrd and $rb indicate oral practice. While Xrd could point to a private and silent pursuit, here it indicates publicly ‘explaining’ or ‘expounding’. Lay members darashed (Xrd) the ‘regulation’ or ‘Law’ (jpXm) by reading aloud (arq) from the sefer. Of the three occurrences of arq in 1QS, two indicate reciting Torah in communal study (in 6.7, ‘read the book aloud; 7.1, $rbm wa rpsb [arwq] hrwq, ‘reciting the Torah or saying benedictions’) and one refers to calling on God in the hope of a response (2.8 in the curse on the ‘lot of Belial’).83 Jaffee suggests that the ‘man expounding the Torah’ (hrwtb Xrwd Xya) of 1QS 6.6 is the priest of 6.3-4, which accounts for the reformulation in CD 13.2-4 of ‘priestly man’ (!hwk Xya).84 This priest presides over study sessions where at least ten members gather to constitute a ‘community in miniature’.85 In 1QS 6, not only does the ‘man’ expound the Torah, but The Many also spend a third of nights ‘reading the book’ (rpsb awrql) and ‘expounding the ruling’ (jpXm Xwrdl). Jaffee concludes that in this group ‘[t]he interpretive study of texts was not confined to priestly leaders or scribal professionals. Rather, it extended beyond them to become part of the ethos of the collective’.86

80 Wernberg-Møller 1975. Compare Vermes (1997): ‘they shall unite with respect to law . . .’; García Martínez and Tigchelaar (1997): ‘in order to constitute a Community in law . . .’. 81 Vermes (1997) and Wernberg-Møller (1957) agree that jpXm here refers to the Mosaic law (they translate, respectively: ‘Law’ and ‘commandment(s)’. García Martínez and Tigchelaar (1997) translate it as ‘regulation’. The close connection between jpXm and hrwt is clear at 5.16, where it is said that no member of the Yah9ad should acquiesce to the authority (yp l[) of the lw[h yXna (5.10) in any hrwt or jpXm. Conversely, the members should acquiesce to the authority (yp l[) of the Zadokites ‘in Torah’ (hrwtb) in 5.2. The phrase jpXm Xwrdl of 6.6 is paralleled by the phrase hrwth Xrdm in 8.15. 82 1QS 6.7-8 García Martínez and Tigchelaar (1997); compare Vermes (1997), ‘to read the Book, to study the Law and to bless together’; Wernberg-Møller (1957), ‘reciting from the Book and studying the commandment(s) and saying benedictions together’. 83 In the Hebrew Bible ar'q' generally indicates public speech – often with ynEz>a'B. or ynEp.li – and when it pertains to reading it usually means ‘read aloud’. Only rarely might it indicate private reading. See Brown et al. 1979, 895b, ‘read to oneself’. Some cases suggest private use. Deut. 17.19 decrees that the king will ‘write for himself a copy’ of the book of Torah, held by the priests, and will ‘read in it’ (Ab ar'q'/ avnagnw,setai evn auvtw/|) all his life. Here the emphasis on private use highlights the normality of public recital. In 2 Kgs 19.14 = Isa. 37.14 Hezekiah receives and reads a letter. In 2 Kgs 22.8 Shaphan the scribe reads a book that Hilkiah the high priest hands to him. In other cases, although ynEz>a'B,. ynEp.l,i or similar is lacking, private reading is possible but not self-evident (Neh. 8.18; Hab. 2.2; Isa. 34.16). However, silent reading is attested, cf. Slusser 1992; Gilliard 1993. 84 Jaffee 2001, 32–38. 85 Ibid., 34. 86 Ibid., 36.

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It is uttering The Divine Name while ‘reciting from the scroll or saying blessings’ (1QS 7.1) that is punishable; this is no chirographic concern. The inscription of the tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew script in Tov’s ‘Qumran Scribal Practice’87 is a device for reminding a reader not to utter The Name. The written copy works as a tool for oral performance, the chirographic operating within a wider encompassing oral structure. Chirographic practice was located within oral structures of thought. Whoever enters the council of the Community enters the covenant of God (la

tyrb) in the

presence of all who freely volunteer. He shall swear a binding oath to revert to the Law of Moses (hXwm

trwt) according to all that he commanded, with whole heart and whole soul,

in compliance with all that has been revealed (hlgnh) to the sons of Zadok, the priests who keep the covenant and interpret his will (wnwcr

yXrwdw) . . . (5.7-10)

The Torah of Moses is stored in written copies. Yet the entire passage presupposes oral authoritative structures. By ‘speaking’ an oath (rsa t[wbX), the volunteer reverts to Torah, according to all that God ‘commanded’ (that is, ‘dictated’) to Moses (hwc rXa lwk). His return to Torah complies with all (lwkl) that has been ‘revealed’ to the priests by virtue of their darashing God’s will. While Xrd indicates various kinds of examination,88 the priests’ darashing of God’s will is done through an examination of the Torah, which is the immediate context here (hwc rXa lwkk hXwm trwt). The authority of the Zadokites’ public pronouncement upon the meaning of the Torah is paramount throughout 1QSerekh ha-Yah9ad.89 The ancestral literature has authority because God uttered the Torah to Moses and because God revealed the meaning of the Torah to the prophets. Within the community, the ancestral literature has authority principally because God continues to reveal its meaning (primarily) to the priests. Emphasized throughout is the duty of the priests and the Maskil to teach the revelation of the meaning of literature to the laity. The priests’ authority resides in their status as purveyors of traditional literature. They receive divine insight into the meaning of this literature. A member should follow the commandments in the Torah of Moses ‘in compliance with that which has been revealed in the Torah to the sons of Zadok’ (5.9). The three priests required in the council of the community are ‘perfect in all that is revealed from the whole Torah’ (IQS 8.1-2) (hrwth lwkm hlgnh lwkb ~ymymt).90 This revelation is primarily the priests’ domain. 1QS 8.14-16a reads:

87 See Footnote 21, above. 88 One can darash: a person’s spirit (e.g. 5.20-21); a misdemeanour (8.26); Torah (e.g. 8.15). Usually, one darashes God (e.g. 1.1, 5.11). 89 So, for example, in 1QS 5.2: ‘to be a community in Law and possessions according to (yp l[) the authority (literally: ‘mouth’) of the sons of Zadok’. In 5.20ff. a man’s deeds in the Torah will be examined according to the priests’ authority (‘mouth’) (!wha ynb yp l[). 90 ‘Perfect in the Law’ (García Martínez and Tigchelaar 1997). Vermes’ (1997) ‘perfectly versed’

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Contours in the Text ‘Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make straight the paths of our God’ (Isa. 40.3). This is the study of the Torah (hrwt

Xrdm hayh) which He commanded by the hand of Moses, that lwkk) from age to age, and as the prophets have revealed (wlg) by His holy spirit.

they may do according to all that has been revealed (hlgnh

1QS is concerned with priestly matters, presenting the Council of the Community in Aaronic terms. These lines show that the revelation received by Sectarian priests, which is mentioned throughout 1QS and which leads to proper Torah observance, is related to the prophetic revelations recorded in Jewish scripture. Right Torah observance is not only discerned by studying the prophetic revelations concerning the Mosaic codes – the prophetic literature appears here as a set of commentaries on Mosaic Law – but also directly through the revelations received by Sectarian priests. These priests engage in the same prophetic project as the ancestral prophets of Hebrew literature. The Maskil is to ‘teach’ the members of the community to darash God and to ‘do well’ as He commanded in the Torah ‘by the hand of Moses and all His servants the prophets’ (1.1-3). This involves ‘living perfectly before Him according with all that has been revealed (twlgnh) [. . .]’ (1.8-9). The Maskil is privy to ‘that which has been revealed from age to age’ (9.13). He should conceal the ‘counsel of Torah’ from men of injustice, but shall instruct those who have chosen the ‘way’ ($rd as Isa. 40.3) in the ‘mysteries’ (~yzr) so that the ‘men of the Community’ will walk perfectly in ‘all that has been revealed to them’ (9.16-19). ‘The interpreter’ (Xrwdh) should likewise not withhold any ‘hidden thing’ from the Community. If Xrwdh is a specific person, he may be priestly, since the hrwth Xrwd of CDA 7.18 is a priestly figure who searches the ~yaybnh yrps (CDA 7.17). Or this might designate a role that can be assumed by any member of the Yah9ad.91 In any case, within the Yah9ad, while it can be said that the Torah has authority in and of itself, the authority of the Torah cannot be imagined separately from the priests who are perpetually privy to its hidden, divine meaning, and who convey this to other members. Within the framework of oral culture, the very notion of the authority of written Torah is only sensible as an element of the immediate personal authority of the tradents who act as conduits of the divine will. Other rulings involve chirographic elements where an official inscribes certain details. Tov notes that these rules show the presence of chirographs in the ‘scribal community’ at Qumran.92 While these passages assume the chirographic skills of

suggests that they are experts by virtue of reading written texts. However, the ‘revelation’ so often emphasized in 1QS suggests an extra-literary experience that objectifies and illuminates the literary content of Torah. 91 Xrwdh may mean ‘someone who darashes’, possibly including a lay member on the model of 1QS 6.6f. 92 Tov (2004, 10) mentions administrative recording in 1QS 5.23; 6.22; 4QSd 3 ii 3; CD 13.12; and CD 11.18 (the mebaqqer records sins). He also notes the inscription of military slogans on the banners in 1QM.


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individual members of the Yah9ad (namely, priests, the Maskil and the Mebaqqer), the practices depicted are limited to the documentary recording (btk) of: names (1QS 5.23), property (6.20), rank (6.22), insight and deeds (6.14), as well as other biographical details. Such activities indicate only that these chirographs engaged in clerical administrative tasks, tasks subsumed in oral relationships. The duty of laymen is to submit to the oral authority (yp l[) of the priestly sons of Zadok ‘in Torah’ (hrwtb) (1QS 5.2). The laity is to ‘respond’ with regard to the Torah (as is seen in the parallel use of Hiphil of bwX in 6.9).93 The laity is consulted for its insights on Torah, insights over which the priests have the power of veto (5.3; 9.7). The ‘counsel’ (hc[) of non-priestly members is consulted in order of members’ rank (6.4). In 5.21 the ‘man and his neighbour’ (that is, their names) will be ‘recorded by rank’ on the basis of enquiries into their ‘understanding’ and ‘deeds’ in Mosaic law (hrwtb wyX[mw wlkX). The results of these enquiries that will be written down is the ‘rank’ of the man and his neighbour, which is determined by oral examination and discourse. When a man is inscribed in his rank relative to his brothers’ (6.22), his position is determined on the basis of his understanding of Torah and judgement. Once he has a rank, his ‘counsel’ (hc[) can be sought on these matters. This ‘counsel’ appears to include his exposition of the Torah (6.6f.) because elsewhere members should withhold the ‘counsel of Torah’ (hrwth tc[) from the ‘men of The Pit’ (9.17). Moreover, whoever commits a misdemeanour cannot know his fellows’ ‘counsels’.94 In the Yah9ad, then, writing is subordinate to an individual’s perception and exposition of Torah, a perception tested by direct questioning. And the person’s rank inscribed in the mebaqqer’s ledger determines that individual’s authority to express his opinions on Torah and his right to know that of his fellows. In these examples, written word in the Yah9ad always presupposes word that is spoken and heard. Nothing indicates that any exegesis proposed by members of The Many (1QS 6.6f.) was written down in the first instance, but rather that such exegeses were to be sought within the Council according to a person’s rank, and that the Zadokite priests wielded the authority to approve or reject these exegeses. Nothing indicates, either, that members of The Many involved in the nightly Torah darashing sessions were scribes. Many exegetical comments on traditional ‘biblical’ verses in the pesharim may be the result of such nightly exegesis.

5.7 Conclusions Exegetical use of textual plurality is often conceived in terms of an individual’s appeal to distinct text-forms, which are treated as fixed literary objects. On these grounds, Paul’s negotiation of textual plurality is often doubted. However, the various authors, copyists, revisionists and transmitters of Jewish literature – who have determined the

93 Cf. Wernberg-Møller 1957, 27 [11]. 94 1QS 8.17, 25.

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form of these literary objects – engaged with the same semantic exercises as ‘common’ exegetes like Paul. Hence, analysis of ancient exegetes’ use of textual plurality cannot be predicated upon a distinction between a transmitter and a user of traditional literature. In important respects, a variety of expert, literate and lay persons partook in a common repertoire of exegetical practice. Much of this shared experience was discursive and oral. Just as we have seen the Dead Sea sectarians draw on a range of traditional text-forms, we can conceive of Paul, their contemporary, as working in similar ways.

6 APPROACHES TO PAUL’S RHETORIC

6.1 Text and interpretation The previous three chapters have shown that exegetes operated within a discursive environment, in which they participated in diverse traditions, not as mute receivers of available textual material, but often as creative arbiters. Ancient Jewish textual traditions have, to a great extent, been defined by ancient interpreters’ exegesis. That is, text does not necessarily precede exegesis either historically or logically. Instead, text and exegesis stand in a mutually generative relationship. Therefore, exegesis cannot be viewed as a process peripheral to fixed text, and no traditional work can be considered an autonomous standard that sets the range of interpretive possibilities. Examples of exegetical use of textual plurality, surveyed in previous chapters, show that, despite levels of ancient consensus regarding the literary form of traditional works, these forms remained porous and fluid, and the semantic form of traditional Jewish passages was fixed differently on different occasions. In the last chapter I have shown that even some of Paul’s most expert literary contemporaries were immersed in oral discussion that was deeply constitutive of their exegetical work. This is true both of their engagement with traditional Jewish literature and of their own literary composition. In this chapter I locate Paul’s writing and use of traditional works within this oral environment, showing the ways in which his engagement with literature shares a common ethos with the Yah9ad.

6.2 Orality, chirography and authority in Paul’s letters Like Serekh ha-Yah9ad, Paul’s thought and communication were orally structured. Paul’s letters were surrogate oral performances. His use of traditional scripture within these letters suggests that Israel’s scripture was primarily orally performed and publicly elucidated in his ministry. See, for instance, 1 Cor. 15.1-3. But I make known to you (gnwri,zw), brethren, the good news that I proclaimed to you ( o] euvhggelisa,mhn u`mi/n), which you received (parela,bete), in which also you stand, 2 through which also you are being saved, if you hold to the sort of word that I proclaimed to you (ti,ni lo,gw| euvhggelisa,mhn u`mi/n) – unless you believed in vain. 3 For I transmitted (pare,dwka) to

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Contours in the Text you first of all what I also received (pare,labon): that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the scriptures (kata. ta.j grafa,j).

Paul relates his euangelion to Jewish scriptures here (kata. ta.j grafa,j 15.3, 4) and elsewhere (e.g. Rom. 1.2; 3.21). This passage consistently elevates the teaching and reception of the euangelion above the written copy itself (gnwri,zw, euvaggeli,zw, paralamba,nw, paradi,dwmi). The Corinthians do not ‘stand in’ scripture nor are they ‘saved’ because of the words of scripture. They stand in Paul’s euvagge,lion, which he taught them, and they are saved because they received and respond to it. Paul ‘portrayed’ or ‘depicted’ (progra,fw) Christ crucified in Galatia (Gal. 3.1), yet it is the avkoh, that brings faith (Gal. 3.2), not the grafh,. His objection to teachings circulating in Galatia presupposes the same. The Galatian teachers’ ‘other gospel’ is received or taught (ouvde. ga.r evgw. para. avnqrw,pou pare,labon auvto. ou;te evdida,cqhn, Gal. 1.12). Traditional literature, such as Genesis 17–21, forms part of that teaching1 – it is not distinct. Paul further contrasts the revelation of Christ (Gal. 1.12, 16), which he received and preached in Galatia, with his former expertise in the ‘handed-down traditions of my ancestors’ (h` patrikh, para,dosij, 1.14). His bid to assert his authority here places his own oral teaching, and its reception, in competition with the oral teaching of others, not with written word.2 In Romans, the voice of scripture, mute on the page, lives through the performer. Scripture ‘says’ (h` grafh. le,gei, e.g. Rom. 4.3; 10.11; 11.2) and ‘speaks’ to Pharaoh (Rom. 9.17). Scripture ‘speaks’ as the evk pi,stewj dikaiosu,nh. Isaiah ‘says’ (e.g. Rom. 10.16, 20, 21). Moses and David ‘say’ (Rom. 10.19; 11.9). Isaiah ‘cries out’ (Rom. 9.27). It ‘says in Hosea’ (Rom 9.25). The manuscript preserves the voice. Paul’s frequent expression kaqw.j ge,graptai pays homage to the written word – but only as a record of, and a cue to oral performance, an inscribed memory of the voice, and a prompt to its reiteration. The written word of scripture is not subordinate to Paul’s spoken preaching. For Paul the written and the spoken are inseparable. Indeed, the written implies the spoken and stands in antecedent continuation with it. 2 Cor. 3.14-15 highlights the oral role of the written word: 14

To this very day, at the reading-aloud of the old covenant (evpi. th/| avnagnw,sei th/j palaia/j

diaqh,khj), that same veil is still there, since it is only set aside in Christ.

15

Indeed, to this

very day whenever Moses is read aloud (a'n avnaginw,skhtai), a veil lies over their hearts.

1 Cf. Martyn 1997, 7–25 (esp. 20–25), 191–208 (esp. 201–203). 2 Of course, Paul’s gospel trumps their teaching because, while theirs is ‘transmitted’ through a human lineage, his is ‘revealed’ to him directly by the Lord (Gal. 1.1, 8, 10-12). Indeed, he previously ran disastrously astray because he engaged in humanly transmitted tradition (kaqV u`perbolh.n evdi,wkon th.n evkklhsi,an tou/ qeou/ kai. evpo,rqoun auvth,n( [. . .] perissote,rwj zhlwth.j u`pa,rcwn tw/n patrikw/n mou parado,sewn, Gal. 1.13-14). But now moved by revelation (1.15; 2.2) none can fault his teaching (2.6-10). But whether divine or human, the two missions (Paul’s and that of the ‘others’ in Galatia, cf. Martyn 1997, 191ff.) are essentially oral and orthoprax, not literary and orthodox.

6. Approaches to Paul’s rhetoric

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LXX uses avnaginw,skw chiefly for arq, which indicates speaking, reading or reciting aloud.3 Only in very few cases is ‘private reading’ intended.4 The ‘veil’ does not obscure a visual act of private reading. Moses is ‘read out loud’, himself invoked through the recitation of his words. The hearers enact the moment of covenantal oath; the reader or tradent invokes and represents Moses. Paul claims that the ‘veil’ prevents hearers in his own day from properly perceiving Moses, now invoked through the recitation of Torah, just as it prevented the Israelites at Sinai from discerning his face. The ‘veil’ does not hinder a hundred acts of private reading. Rather, it obscures their communal perception of Moses and the covenant. The immediacy of the oral encounter is evident in 1 Cor. 4.14-19. 14

I do not write this to shame you, but to admonish you as my beloved children . . . 18 Some

are arrogant, as though I were not coming to you. 19 But I will come to you soon, if the Lord wills, and I will discern not the talk of the arrogant but their power. 20 For the kingdom of God does not consist in talk but in power.

Paul writes to his audience, but he really speaks, bending his rhetorical skill to make his presence felt. He restricts his written threat to declaring his imminent approach and invokes the subordination of children to father. He distinguishes between ‘talk’ and ‘power’, shifting the locus of the engagement away from the page to the immediacy of their anticipated meeting.5 The presence of oral patterning within Paul’s letters has two important implications. First, it highlights his writings as rhetorical acts of persuasion, whose immediate context is oral. As I argue below, his invocation of Jewish scripture belongs to the exercise of divinely endorsed personal authority, authority sealed by written traditions left by Israel’s ancestors, in whose succession Paul stands.6 Secondly, while Paul’s explicit citations are often treated as formal indicators of his authorial appeal to ‘foreign literary material’, Paul’s agenda seems quite different. Explicit citations are rhetorical signifiers of his claim to a succession of personal authority, rather than indicators of the written nature of his sources, and thus not formal cues to text-critical analysis. As Paul does not dichotomize writing and speaking, neither should we.

3 Brown et al. 1979, 894f. ‘arq’, ad loc. Cf. Achtemeier 1990, 15–19 on private and public dictation in the ancient world. See Slusser 1992; Gilliard 1993 for references to private, silent reading in antiquity. 4 See Chapter Five, Footnote 83, above. 5 Compare 1 Cor. 5.3-4, where he proclaims himself threateningly ‘present in spirit’ (although ‘absent in body’), and thus able to judge an offending believer. 6 By this, of course, I do not mean to suggest that Paul thinks that he is in some sense ‘writing the Bible’. Rather, he presents himself rhetorically in an authoritative lineage for the sake of his efforts to persuade audiences.

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6.3 Reader-centred and author-centred perspectives According to Stanley, a ‘reader-centred’ approach aids the text-critical study of Paul’s written sources by limiting contamination by ‘heterogeneous’ material.7 Yet from a text-critical perspective, Stanley’s reader-centred approach yields remarkably varied material for study. Paul explicitly introduces: A. citations that verbally correspond exactly or closely with known LXX textual traditions B. citations deriving from known textual traditions, which Paul has modified for his own purposes C. loose paraphrases of recognizable textual traditions D. textual units whose linguistic relation to any known Jewish literary tradition remains a matter of perennial uncertainty. From the text-critical perspective, Paul’s explicit citations, in which he alerts the audience to his use of traditional material, form a heterogeneous group. Cases ‘A’ to ‘D’ reveal that Paul meant various things by kaqw.j ge,graptai and similar explicit citation formulae.8 ‘B’ shows that Paul is often less interested in what was inscribed on copies than with what he considers the gegramme,non to mean within the context of his own rhetoric. Indeed, the only case where Paul shows explicit concern with the ‘exact’ wording of a tradition is Gen. 22.18 cited in Gal. 3.16. His insistence that the tradition ‘does not say toi/j spe,rmasin but tw/| spe,rmati’ throws into relief his frequent verbal alteration of his sources (‘B’ cases). He never explicitly draws attention to such alteration. It follows, then, that in ‘A’ cases he generally replicates the wording as he finds it because it is easily integrated into his prose. Hence, in ‘A’ cases he sees no rhetorical need to alter the passage. The loose verbal relation of ‘C’ and ‘D’ cases to the traditional material cited shows that formulations like kaqw.j ge,graptai indicate that Paul is not interested in alerting his audience to his use of foreign literary material – to its written-ness as such, but rather to the ancestral authority of the traditions to which he appeals. On the text-critical level, it is instructive to compare reader-centred studies and author-centred studies. Paul often replicates the wording of traditional Jewish scripture with no indication to his audience that he is doing so. These verbal replications are embedded in Paul’s text. Ellis and Koch include fourteen of these as ‘quotations’/‘Zitate’ (see Table 6.1, below). They deem these to be subtly marked as citations, either by words such as ga,r, avlla,, de,, o[ti, or through stylistic variance with the Pauline context.9 Stanley, adopting a reader-centred approach, counts as

7 Stanley 1992, cf. Chapter 1, above. Elsewhere (1997a, 1997b, 1999) he justly emphasizes sociohistorical advantages of reader-centred approaches (see Section 7.1.1, below). 8 See Koch 1986, 11–24 on the various introductory formulae. Further, Fitzmyer 1961. 9 Examples which Ellis, Koch and Stanley count as ‘citations’ lacking introductory formulae include Rom. 9.7 (Gen. 21.12) and Rom. 9.9 (Gen. 18.10). The personal pronouns in the cited material render


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‘quotations’ only three of the fourteen (see Table 6.1, below). The rest lack explicit indication that Paul is citing foreign literary material. In the following discussion, ‘verbal replication’ indicates that an author replicates the wording of a literary passage without alerting the audience. ‘Verbal replication’ refers to passages that the modern analyst recognizes as reproducing the wording of a known textual tradition. Lacking explicit indication, these replications are embedded in the author’s text and should be distinguished from ‘explicit citations’ and ‘allusions’. The latter are by definition intended by an author to be recognized by the audience. By contrast, we may not assume that an author intended his audience to perceive a ‘verbal replication’. ‘Verbal parallel’10 is a similar term that indicates that a modern interpreter perceives an ancient author’s use of the language of a literary passage, but without close verbal replication. Again, unmarked in the text by an author, it cannot be called ‘citation’ or ‘allusion’, both of which are intentional references, flagged to be recognized by the audience.11 Table 6.1 displays the material in question (columns 1–2). Column 3 displays the audience-alerts, by which Ellis deems Paul to announce the material as ‘quotations’ (although two of these lack demarcation). Column 4 displays Koch’s inclusion of the same material under the rubric of ‘Zitate’ (the footnotes give his categorization; he deems the citation of Deut. 19.15 in 2 Cor. 13.1 to be completely unmarked). Column 5 shows the few that Stanley considers ‘quotations’. Column 6 indicates when the passage appears in another Pauline letter. The citations are divided into the categories: ‘verbatim’, ‘near verbatim’, ‘loose’, and ‘Hebraizing revision’.

it incongruous with Paul’s context. Rom. 9.7: ‘. . . not all are children of Abraham because they are his descendants, but “Through Isaac shall your descendants be named”.’ Rom. 9.9: ‘For this is what the promise said, “About this time I will return and Sarah shall have a son”.’ 10 Aland et al. use the term verbal parallel. See their ‘Index of Allusions and Verbal Parallels’ (Aland et al. 1993, 891–901) following their ‘Index of Quotations’ (ibid., 887–890). 11 Such definitions were not necessary in the discussion of Josephus or the Yah9ad (Chapters 3 and 4). Josephus explicitly states at the outset that he is relaying Judaean history as presented in the ancestral literature (see Section 3.3, above). The Habakkuk Pesher and Genesis Commentary distinguish explicitly between the traditional literary material and the exegetical comment (see Sections 4.2 and 4.4, above). Although CDA 7.14 gives the impression that the citation from Amos 5.26-27 comes from ‘Isaiah the son of Amos’ (CD 7.10) and not Amos himself, the traditional material is nevertheless explicitly marked (see Section 4.3, above). In the case of Paul’s letters I examine both explicit citations and embedded verbal replications (see Chapter 7).

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Table 6.1 Embedded replications listed as ‘quotations’ in Ellis 195712 Pauline letter

Scripture passage

Explicit ‘Zitat’ ‘Quotation’13 indication (Koch 1986) (Stanley1992) (Ellis 1957)

Other Pauline letter?

Rom. 10.13

Joel 2.32

ga.r

yes14

–

Rom. 10.18

Ps. 18.5

menou/nge

yes

15

yes

Rom. 12.20

Prov. 25.21-2

avlla.

yes

16

–

1 Cor. 10.26

Ps. 23.1

ga.r

yes

16

–

1 Cor. 15.32

Isa. 22.13

–

yes16

–

Rom. 11.34

Isa. 40.13

ga.r

yes16

–

1 Cor. 2.16 (not explicit)

1 Cor. 2.16

Isa. 40.13

ga.r

yes14

–

Rom. 11.34 (not explicit)

1 Cor. 15.27

Ps. 8.7

ga.r

yes17

yes

2 Cor. 13.1

Deut. 19.15

–

yes

18

–

Gal. 3.6

Gen. 15.6

kaqw.j

yes

15

–

Rom. 4.3 (explicit)

Gal. 3.11

Hab. 2.419

o[ti

yes14

–

Rom. 1.17 (explicit)

Gal. 3.12

Lev. 18.5

avlla.

yes15

yes

Rom. 10.5 (explicit)

yes14

–

1 Cor. 1.31 (explicit)

yes16

–

–

Verbatim

LXX

Near verbatim

Loose 2 Cor. 10.17

Jer. 9.22-23LXX/ de. 1 Kgdms 2.10?

Hebraizing revision Rom. 11.35

Job 41.3

ga.r

12 Ellis 1957, appendix II, 155–182. 13 Stanley 1992 limits his study to explicit citations (see Section 1.3.2, above). 14 ‘Lediglich indireckt markierte Zitate’, Koch 1986, 23. 15 ‘Mit dem Kontext incongruente Zitate’, ibid. 16 ‘Zitate mit stilistischer Differenz zum Kontext’, ibid. 17 ‘Durch nachträglicher Interpretation hervorgehobene Zitate’, ibid., 22. 18 ‘Völlig ungekennzeichnete Zitate’, ibid., 23. 19 Koch 1985 argues that Paul’s citation of Hab. 2.4 derives from the LXX form of this passage and omits the word mou (rather than deriving from a GHR and omitting the word auvtou/).

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Notes to Table 6.1 1. 2 Cor. 10.17 is exceptional. It is reminiscent of either Jer. 9.22-23LXX or 1 Kgdms 2.10. Paul cited the same syntax to the Corinthians in a previous letter with the formula kaqw.j ge,graptai (1 Cor. 1.31), so he may assume that they will recognize the material as authoritative gegramme,non in the later letter.20 2. The replication of Job 41.3 seems to derive from a non-extant Hebraizing revision, so one cannot say how closely it replicates its source. Of the fourteen, five are verbatim, and seven near-verbatim replications of the wording of known textual traditions. From a reader-centred or ‘rhetorical’ perspective, I follow Stanley in suspecting that Paul did not expect his illiterate audiences to perceive the traditional literary contexts of these replications without being alerted to them. That is, Paul did not mean these twelve unmarked, embedded verbal replications to be recognized as literary material distinct from his own text. Koch includes a further four ‘Zitate’, which neither Ellis nor Stanley counts as ‘citations’, three of which are verbatim or near-verbatim replications of textual traditions. Two of these Ellis designates as ‘OT allusions’.21 Table 6.2 ‘Völlig ungekennzeichnete Zitate’, included by Koch (1986) Pauline letter

Scripture passage

Ellis 1967

Stanley 1992

Rom. 2.6

Ps. 61.13b

‘allusion’

–

1 Cor. 5.13

Deut. 17.7c

–

–

2 Cor. 13.1

Deut. 19.15c

–

–

Isa. 29.16

‘allusion’

–

Near verbatim

Loose Rom. 9.20

Together, Table 6.1 and 6.2 present eighteen embedded verbal replications counted by Koch as ‘citations’ (twelve of which Ellis also counts as citations, two more as ‘allusions’). Fifteen of these are (near-)verbatim.22 By contrast, 40 per cent of the Pauline ‘citations’, which Koch designates as explicit, are verbatim.23 Stanley’s considerably more conservative list of explicit citations displays a very similar ratio of verbatim to non-verbatim citations.

20 Note that Gen. 15.6 is similarly first explicit in Rom. 4.3 and then embedded in Rom. 4.9, 22. Isa. 28.16 is explicit in Rom. 9.33 and then embedded in Rom. 10.11. 21 Ellis 1957, 153–154: ‘Appendix I (B) OT Allusions and parallels in Pauline Epistles’. 22 The accuracy of the replication of the Hebraizing revision is unverifiable. 23 Thirty-seven of ninety-three ‘explicit’ citations are verbatim, according to Koch’s reckoning of a) explicit citations and b) the wording of Paul’s LXX source in each case (1986, 33 and 186). Of these, twenty-nine of Paul’s citations of traditional Jewish scripture (‘Schrifttexten’) agree entirely with the received wording of the LXX (GEd) (ibid., 101).

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While this comparison of reader-centred and author-centred approaches is not objective because scholars disagree on what constitutes explicit and embedded citation, in Ellis’ and Koch’s very similar lists of embedded citations there is a high proportion of verbatim replication of traditional literary material. On the other hand, in Koch’s and Stanley’s conservative lists of explicit citations there is a very high level of verbal deviation from known textual traditions. Therefore, the reader-centred restriction of material to explicit citation does not seem to assure that citations represent traditional literary material rather than ‘heterogeneous materials’.24 Because Paul could not expect the majority of his audiences to detect them, embedded verbal replications of traditional passages must often have a private authorial purpose, not a rhetorical one.25 But from an author-centred perspective, the wording of Jewish scripture often plays an important role in Paul’s authorial process, even though he does not alert his audience to this process. For example, Paul identifies the only three passages in Jewish scripture where cognates of dikaio,w and pisteu,w occur together: Gen. 15.6, Ps. 143.2 (142.2LXX) and Hab. 2.4.26 He explicitly cites Gen. 15.6 and Hab. 2.4 in Rom. 4.3 and Rom. 1.17, respectively. He replicates the same two passages in Gal. 3.6 and 3.11, respectively, but fails to mark the material clearly.27 Paul never explicitly cites Ps. 143.2 (142.2LXX), but replicates its literary content in exegetically modified forms in Rom. 3.20 and Gal. 2.16.28 While Ellis lists Paul’s two appeals to Ps. 143.2 as ‘allusions’, neither Koch nor Stanley treats them. However, it is almost universally accepted that all three passages play important roles in Paul’s private exegetical process.29 Paul often explicitly cites a passage in one place, embedding it elsewhere. This indicates that he does not necessarily choose to invoke the exegetical function of a passage in his public rhetoric. On the other hand, when Paul alerts his audience to his invocation of traditional material, he often does so in order to invoke its traditional authority rather than literary character. For example, in 1 Cor. 1.31 Paul introduces a passage: kaqw.j ge,graptai( ~O kaucw,menoj evn kuri,w| kauca,sqw. In 2 Cor. 10.17 he embeds the same passage, using no explicit introduction. While this text bears a resemblance to Jer. 9.22-23LXX or 1 Kgdms 2.10, its relationship to known textual traditions is unclear. As far as anyone can discover, Paul (or his secretary) was the first to write the phrase designated with ge,graptai here.30 On the other hand, Paul reproduces the text of Isa. 40.13a,c

24 Pace Stanley 1992, 34, 56; cf. Section 1.3.2, above. 25 Not all would agree; for example Hays (1989). Below, I discuss the problems with Hays’ approach. 26 Gen. 15.6 (cited in Rom. 4.3, 9, 22; verbally replicated in Gal. 3.6); Hab. 2.4 (cited in Rom. 1.17; verbally replicated in Gal. 3.11); Ps. 143.2 (142.2LXX) (loose verbal parallels in Rom. 3.20 and Gal. 2.16). 27 Paul only offers kaqw.j; o[ti. Therefore, Stanley will not treat them as citations. 28 The combination of Gen. 15.6 and Hab. 2.4 appears in Shemoth Rabba (Vollmer 1895, 38). It cannot be known whether Paul and Shemoth Rabba share an interpretive tradition, or whether it is Paul’s innovation. Romans is the earliest witness to this combination and Paul’s letters stand alone among extant ancient literature in combining all three: Gen. 15.6; Hab. 2.4; and Ps. 143.2. 29 e.g. Dunn 1988; Fitzmyer 1993; Hays 1989; Moo 1996; Morgan 1997. 30 Koch (1986, 36) thinks Paul knew the passage in 1 Cor. 1.31/2 Cor. 10.17 through pre-Pauline


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in 1 Cor. 2.16 and Isa. 40.13a,b in Rom. 11.34 without any explicit indication. From an author-centred perspective these are ‘verbal parallels’. We may not assume that Paul expected or intended his audiences to recognize this Isaian material. The literary material explicitly cited in 1 Cor. 1.31 is a loose approximation to one of two possible traditional passages (Jeremiah or 2 Kingdoms). Text-critically speaking it is ‘heterogeneous material’.31 Conversely, Paul’s embedded replications of Isa. 40.13a,b,c seem to be the earliest witnesses to the wording of Isa. 40.13LXX – more or less endorsed by GEd – but which cannot be treated as citations.32 Using the reader-centred approach as a formal text-critical strategy, whose goal is to limit ‘textual contamination’, is to attribute modern textual concerns to the ancient author. Paul’s copious alteration of the wording of scripture reveals a divergence between the interests of Paul and his modern critics. This speaks against taking Paul’s citation formulae as formal cues for text-critical analysis. While ge,graptai might be seen as a signifier of text-critical data, within the logic of the argument Paul’s use of the gegramme,non serves his rhetorical claim to stand in an authoritative lineage. Paul is rarely interested in the ‘exact’ received wording, but an idea expressed by authoritative ancestors that supports his own. Of course, this idea is transmitted to each generation in written form; and this written form becomes a ‘seal’ of the authority of the divinely commissioned ancestors who uttered these ideas. But in these instances the cited material is not textually, but rhetorically important for Paul. Paul’s language supports this argument. In Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Galatians, Paul explicitly introduces thirty-one citations with phrases incorporating perfect forms of gra,fw.33 On the other hand, Paul also explicitly introduces thirtythree citations, by attributing the cited material to authoritative persons. Eleven times the persons are Israelite ancestors (Moses, Isaiah, Hosea, Elijah and David).34 Nearly all of these thirty-three formulations use le,gw, three use a synonym for speaking35 and

Jewish or early Christian oral tradition. Stanley (1992, 187) suggests, on the basis of ‘striking echoes of Jer 9:22’ in 1 Cor. 1.27-28, that the formulation is Paul’s own coinage. Tuckett (2000, 416–423) believes that it derives from 1 Kgdms 2.10, rather than Jer. 9.22-23LXX. 31 For Koch, it is a pre-Pauline oral tradition – see previous footnote. 32 The lack of formula here (1 Cor. 2.16; Rom. 11.34) militates against the influence of the idiosyncratic Pauline wording influencing later LXX manuscript traditions. An example of the latter is the explicit citation of Hos. 2.25LXX in Rom. 9.25 (introduced: w`j kai. evn tw/| ~Wshe. le,gei). Rom. 9.27 led some Christian LXX copyists to inscribe avgapa,w in place of the more common evlee,w (cf. Ziegler 1959). 33 He uses kaqw.j ge,graptai/kaqa,per ge,graptai sixteen times (1 Cor. 1.31; 2.9; Rom. 1.17, 2.24; 3.4, 10; 4.17; 8.36; 9.13, 33; 10.15; 11.8, 26; 15.3, 9, 21); ge,graptai ga,r six times (Rom. 12.19; 14.11; 1 Cor. 1.19; 3.19; Gal. 3.10; 4.27); o[ti ge,graptai three times (2 Cor. 8.15; 9.9; Gal. 3.13); other perfect forms of gra,fw six times (evn ga.r tw/| Mwu?se,wj no,mw| ge,graptai, 1 Cor. 9.9; w[sper ge,graptai, 1 Cor. 10.7; evn tw/| no,mw| ge,graptai o[ti, 1 Cor. 14.21; ou[twj kai. ge,graptai, 1 Cor. 15.45; to,te genh,setai o` lo,goj o` gegramme,noj, 1 Cor. 15.54); kata. to. gegramme,non, 2 Cor. 4.13). 34 Moses, Rom. 10.5, 19. Isaiah, Rom. 9.29; 10.16, 20, 21; 15.12. Hosea, Rom. 9.27. Elijah, Rom. 11.3. David, Rom. 4.6; 11.9. 35 Rom. 9.27 VHsai ~k,a] r;wOm

awhw ~karwm

kai. auvto.j e;stai

. . . . . . . . . .]

sou fo,boj kai. eva.n evpV auvtw/| pepoiqw.j h=|j e;stai soi eivj a`gi,asma

fo,boj u`mw/n

aWhw> ~k,c. rI[]m;

awhw ~kcr[m

hy'h'w

awhw

vD'q.mil.

Xdqml

kai. kratai,wma kai. auvto.j u`mw/n qro,shsij u`mw/n kai. e;stai

kai. e;stai

eivj a`gi,asma

eivj a`gi,asma

kai. ouvc w`j li,qou prosko,mmati

!b,a,l.W @g,n,

!balw li,qon

eivj de. li,qon

pgn prosko,mmatoj prosko,mmatoj

kai. eivj li,qon 38

prosko,mmatoj

sunanth,sesqe auvtw/| ouvde. w`j pe,traj ptw,mati

rWcl.W

rclw kai. pe,tran

lwOvk.mi

lwXkm skanda,lou

kai. eivj pe,tran kai. eivj stereo.n ptw,matoj

skanda,lou

35 Deriving from a Hebraizing revision of OG Isaiah (Koch 1986, 78–81; Wilk 1998, 41–42). 36 Cf. Koch 1986, 58.

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7. Paul and textual plurality Isa. 813-14 LXX o` de. oi=koj

Isa. 813-14 MT 1QIsa.a

Rom. 933 = 1 Pet. 28

s' (= q' when extant)

a'

toi/j dusi.n oi;koij

toi/j dusi.n oi;koij

vIsrah,l

vIsrah,l

yTIb' ynEv.lI

ytb ynXl

laEr'f.yI

larXy

xp;l.

xpl

eivj pagi,da

[. . . . . . . . . .

kai. evn koila,smati

vqEwOml.W

Xqwmlw

kai. eivj ska,ndalon

. . .] eivj skw/lon

evgkaqh,menoi

bvewOyl.

bXwyl

tw/| oivkou/nti

[. . . . . . . . . .]

~l'v'Wry.

~lXwry

vIakw.b evn pagi,di

evn vIepousalh,m

evn vIerousalh,m

3738

Isa. 8.14pM expresses a striking idea: God can be both a sanctuary and a stumbling stone to Israel. But the LORD of hosts, him you shall regard as holy; let him be your fear, and let him be your dread. 14 And he will become a sanctuary, and a stone of offence, and a rock of stumbling to both houses of Israel, a trap and a snare to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. 15 And many shall stumble thereon; they shall fall and be broken; they shall be snared and taken.

The idea is abrupt and perplexing. Perhaps vD'q.mi (‘sanctuary’) may be a ‘dogmatic corrective’39 for a difficult original reading. Some suggest an original Xqwm (‘lure, snare’), and others rvqm (‘conspiracy’). Despite the corrective Xdqm, the pM-stream (1QIsa.a a' q' s' M) maintains the harsh tone against Israel by maintaining the idea of stumbling. The OG entirely suppresses this harshness by adding an if-clause and ‘not’: ‘Sanctify the Lord; and he shall be your fear. And if you trust in him, he shall be to you as a sanctuary; and you shall not come against him as against a stumbling stone, neither as against a rock of falling.’40 The Targum of Isaiah maintains the sense of proto-M, but also resolves the abruptness by the addition of an if-clause, which explains that the addressees’ disobedience will render God’s word a stumbling stone: 813 The Lord of Hosts, him shall you call holy; and let him be your fear and let him be your strength.14 And if you will not hearken, his Memra shall be amongst you for vengeance and for a stone of smiting, and for a rock of offence to the two houses of the princes of Israel, for a breaking, and for a stumbling, because the house of Israel has been separated.

37 q' reads: to.n [ku,rion] tw/n duna,mewn (with s'), cf. Koch 1986, 58. 38 q' reads: kai. eivj li,qon prosko,mmatoj (with s'), cf. Koch 1986, 58. 39 Wildberger 1991, 356. 40 The Hebrew reads, !bal, ‘as a stone’. The OG reads ouvc w`j li,qo[j] (‘not as a stone’). The scribe of the Hebrew text presupposed by the OG, or the Greek translator of OG, duplicated the letters al, producing !bal al (‘not as a stone’). This was either an intentional exegetical change or a scribal error.

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Wildberger 41 notes how Isa. 8.14 contrasts starkly with a common traditional theme, where ‘rock’ designates God as protector of Israel: the pious are protected from striking their foot on the stone (!b,a,, Ps. 91.12) and Yahweh is praised as a rock (rWc, 1 Sam. 2.2; Pss. 18.3, 32, 47; 19.15; 62.8; 89.27; Isa. 30.29).42 From the ‘snare’, too, God rescues the pious (Pss. 91.3; 124.7; 141.9; 69.23). Proto-M of Isa. 8.14, then, presents a puzzle: God as both holy and a stumbling stone to Israel. This ‘unprecedented tension within Isaiah’s thinking about God’43 resonates curiously closely with Paul’s anxieties about the fate of Israel in Romans (cf. Rom. 3.5; 9.6; 10.1; 11.1, 15). Paul approaches the passage with a similar puzzle; many of his kin had not accepted God’s Christ. In Isa. 8.14 Paul finds this stated in suitably stark terms: God represents both sanctuary and stumbling stone. But Isaiah also provides a solution. Together Isa. 28.16 and 8.14 present two alternatives – a ‘precious cornerstone’ or a ‘stumbling stone’. This encapsulates Paul’s conundrum. The encounter with Christ leaves only two options for Israel: to believe, or to stumble over that in which Israel fails to believe; to step or to stumble; to recognize or to mistake.44 Together, Isa. 8.14 and 28.16 offer an answer: God himself provides the means by which some attain righteousness and others not, depending on their pi,stij or avpisti,a.45 When a passage which structures Paul’s logic is characterized by distinct traditional sense contours, the question of his preference arises. As we have seen in Sections 7.3.1–7.3.2, Paul can construct substantial arguments from combinations of logically structural passages. For instance, Gen. 15.6 plus Gen. 17.10-14; Gen. 18.10, 14 plus Gen. 21.12 plus Gen. 25.23. By means of this Mischzitat, Isa. 8.14 and 28.16, he associates verbal features common to both passages. ‘Stone’ occurs in both passages (li,qoj, pe,traj, Isa. 8.14; li,qoj, Isa. 28.16). Both concern the Temple sanctuary (a`gi,asma/vD'q.mi Isa. 8.14; Siwn/!Ayci Isa. 28.16) and both relate to Jerusalemites’ transgressions: Isa. 8.14 refers to the stumbling of ‘both houses of Israel’ and ‘the inhabitants of Jerusalem’, while Isa. 28.14-16 addresses the ‘scoffers who rule this people in Jerusalem’ (Isa. 28.14); that is, the ‘drunkards of Ephraim’ (vv. 1-2). However, both offer hope: Isa. 8.14 concerns God’s redemption and Isa. 28.16

41 Wildberger 1991, 356. 42 Note, however, how the LXX Psalms persistently suppresses the rock image for God, simply using qeo,j (so Olofsson 1990, 35–45). The OG of Deuteronomy 32 does likewise: M of Deuteronomy 32 refers to Israel’s God as a rWc six times (Deut. 32.4, 13, 15, 18, 30, 31). OG Deut. 32 renders all six occurrences with qeo,j. Even in 32.37 where M designates the foreign gods to which Israel turned (v. 16 f.) as rWc, the OG renders oi` qeoi,. Only in Deut. 32.13 does OG offer pe,traj, that is: evqh,lasan me,li evk pe,traj kai. e;laion evk sterea/j pe,traj. Here pe,traj respectively parallels [l;S, and rWc of M, but in neither case is a metaphor for God intended in Hebrew or Greek. 43 Wildberger 1991, 361. 44 So also 1 Cor. 1.22-23: ‘to the Jews a ska,ndalon, and to the Greeks foolishness’, but to believers ‘Christ the power of God, and the wisdom of God’, suggesting Paul’s reflection on Isa. 8.14pM (ska,ndalon) prior to the writing of Romans. 45 Paul considers that some, while presently excluded, will be included in the end, cf. Rom. 11.25-32.

145

7. Paul and textual plurality

promises God’s vindication of the faithful one (‘he will not be ashamed’). Paul combines Isaiah’s uniquely harsh statement of Isa. 8.14 with the positive declaration that ‘the one who believes’ in the stone of Isa. 28.16 ‘will not be ashamed’. He mitigates the severity of Isa. 8.14 in light of the more usual image of God as a ‘protective rock’. Isa. 8.14OG, which offers none of these interpretive possibilities, simply does not resonate with Paul’s concerns in Romans 9–11. Isa. 8.14 speaks to Paul’s concerns for Israel regarding many of his kinfolk’s rejection of his gospel. While we cannot assume that Paul expected the audience (except, perhaps, the most erudite) to detect the exegetical process outlined above, Paul does explicitly express his concerns about his kin throughout the letter (Rom. 3.1-4; 9.1-6; 10.1-5; 11.1-36) in a manner easily followed by an audience of literary non-experts. To the uninitiated the citation provides a rhetorically cogent endorsement of his argument from ancestral scripture. While the majority of Paul’s Isaiah citations broadly reflecting the OG-form are supportive, the form of Isa. 8.14pM Paul cites semantically structures his thought, and only this form is useful. Therefore, were Paul aware of the OG-form, he would prefer Isa. 8.14pM here. However, it is impossible to prove that he preferred one of these known alternatives because we should expect to find no trace of the semantically unserviceable OG-form in his text, as is indeed the case. Nevertheless, as a contemporary exegetical practice, the possibility of Paul’s preference here is less remarkable than commonly claimed. This would not amount to attributing to him anachronistically a text-critical interest in lexical variation. Rather, the examples of ‘supportive’ citations (see Sections 7.2.1–7.2.3, above) show that lexical fidelity to sources is rarely his primary concern. Indeed, in his citation Paul makes lexical changes to Isa. 8.14pM: he integrates a single phrase from Isa. 8.14pM – li,qon prosko,mmatoj kai. pe,tran skanda,lou – into the syntax of Isa. 28.16 in order to increase rhetorical congruence between his source and his argument. Notably, the sense contour that structures Pauline logic, which appears to be of primary concern to him, remains unaffected by his lexical intervention.

7.3.4 The structural substance of Isaiah 25.8pM in 1 Corinthians 15 Table 7.3 Isaiah 25.8 Isa. 25.8LXX

1 Cor. 15.54

kate,pien o` qa,natoj

katepo,qh o` qa,natoj

ivscu,saj

eivj ni/kojÅ

kai. pa,lin avfei/len o` qeo.j pa/n da,kruon avpo. panto.j prosw,pou

Isa. 25.8M

tw<M'h; [L;Bi xc;nx,w> wm[ tprxw wm[ tprxw rysiy" rysy rysy #r,a'h'-lK' l[;me #rah lk l[m yKi yk `rBeDI hw"hy> rbd hwhy

Isa. 258 LXX

Isa. 258 MT

Death has prevailed46

He will47 swallow up death

and swallowed up;

in victory;

but again

and

the Lord God has taken away every tear

the Lord God will wipe away tears

from every face.

from off all faces;

He has taken away

and the rebuke of his people

the reproach of the people

shall he take away

from all the earth:

from off all the earth:

for the mouth

for

of the Lord has spoken

the Lord hath spoken

The Hebrew verb xcn means ‘be pre-eminent, enduring’. The noun xc;n< signifies ‘eminence, enduring, prevalence’.48 The OG generally translates ‘forever’ (eivj te,loj, eivj to.n aivw/na).49 In Aramaic, xcn assumes the meaning ‘exceed’, ‘succeed’ or ‘be victorious’.50 The Hebrew meaning of xcn was influenced by the Aramaic ‘victory’, as the use of (kat)ivscu,w for xcn (OG Jer. 15.18 and Isa. 25.8) shows. In the LXX, the nouns ni,kh and ni/koj always parallel xc'nE and xc'n< of proto-M.51 Isa. 25.8aOG and proto-M represent distinct sense contours. From v. 5, proto-M predicts that death ‘will be swallowed’ (Pu’al imperfect, [lb) by God, who will comfort his people. By contrast, the OG reads [lb as Pi’el perfect, whereby death, as usual, has ‘swallowed up’ (kate,pien) ‘mightily’ (ivscu,saj). In the OG, death’s initial virulent gulping, followed by God’s comforting His people (v. 8), corresponds with

46 ivscu,saj, aorist adverbial participle (from ivscu,w) relating to kate,pien. Koch (1986, 61 [16]): ‘Mächtig geworden, verschlang der Tod’. 47 Pi’el perfect [lb appears within a chain of waw-consecutive perfects. The passage narrates the future. 48 Brown et al. 1979, 663. Hence, in Pi’el ‘lead’; ‘oversee’; ‘supervise’. 49 So too OG Isa. 13.20; 28.28; 33.20. 50 Levy 1924 vol. II ‘xcn’; ‘hervorragen, übertreffen’, ‘(be)siegen’. 51 Hatch et al. 1998, 945. In the LXX, nika, w corresponds with hk" z " (Ps. 50.6LXX [51.4]), dm; x ' (Prov. 6.25), and x;Ceni (Hab. 3.19).


147

the violence and injustice of ‘wicked men’ (avnqrw,pwn ponhrw/n, v. 4) and ‘ungodly men’ (avnqrw,pwn avsebw/n, v. 5), from whom God then delivers His people.52 Paul’s citation is close to known GHR forms of the verse, especially q'. Table 7.4 Isaiah 25.8 a' q' s' LXX

a'

q'

s'

kate,pien

kataponti,sei

katepo,qh

katapoqh/nai poih,sei

o` qa,natoj

to,n qa,naton

o` qa,natoj

to,n qa,naton

ivscu,saj

eivj ni/koj

eivj ni/koj

eivj te,loj

He will sink

Death has been

[‘God’s anointing’, v. 7]

death

swallowed up

will cause death to be

in victory

in victory

swallowed up at the end53

M

[L;Bi tw<M'h; xc;namoB. tA[b'g>W hw"hy> x;Wr-ta, !Keti-ymi 13 Atc'[] vyaiw> `WN[,ydIAy #['An ymi-ta, 14 WhnEybiy>w: jP'v.mi xr;aoB. WhdeM.l;y>w: t[;d; WhdeM.l;y>w: `WN[,ydIAy tAnWbT. %r,d,w>

12a. Who has measured in a hand the water

Who has measured in his palm the mayim

b.

and the heaven in a span,

and shamayim marked-off in the span,

c.

and all the [. . .] earth in a handful?

and all the dust of the earth in a measure

d.

Who has weighed the mountains in scales, and weighed the mountains in scales

e.

and the (wooded) vales in a balance?

and the hills (hollows, vales) in a balance?

13a. Who has known the mind of the Lord,

Who has measured the spirit of the Lord,

b.

or as His counsellor has made Him to know?

and who has been His counsellor, to instruct Him?

14a. Or whom did He consult,

Whom did He consult

b.

one who instructed Him?

that he enlightened Him,

c.

or who has shown Him [. . .] judgement,

that he tutored Him in the path of judgement,

d.

[. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .]

and tutored Him knowledge,

e.

or who has shown Him

and made Him to know

f.

the way of understanding?

the way of understanding?

168


Nou/j (‘mind’) standing for x;Wr (‘spirit’) in Isa. 40.13 is remarkable. Nou/j is a unique translation for x;Wr in the entire LXX.134 It is, moreover, highly unusual for the LXX to offer anything other than pneu/ma when x;Wr applies to God, as it does in this verse.135 IsaiahOG renders the creative term x;Wr with the intellectual term nou/j in accordance with its choice of ginw,skw to express the intellectual sense of !KeTi (‘assess’) in v. 13 (whereas metre,w expressed the metric sense of !KeTi in v. 12). Moreover, pneu/ma and nou/j convey distinct meanings in Jewish scripture. In the Hebrew Bible, when x;Wr means ‘wind’ or ‘breath’, the LXX renders x;Wr predominantly with pneu/ma. When x;Wr indicates human intellect or emotion, the LXX tends to avoid rendering it with pneu/ma, often supplying yuch, or qumo,j, or some other intellectual term. By contrast, aside from Isa. 40.13, the LXX translators always attribute pneu/ma to God, rendering ~yhila{ / x;Wr, hw"hy> x;Wr (or any other nomenclature for divine x;Wr) with pneu/ma.136 Offering nou/j (‘mind’) for x;Wr (‘spirit’) as divine attribute in Isa. 40.13, then, contravenes a consistent LXX translation practice. Paul’s appeal to both the nou/j- and pneu/ma-forms of Isa. 40.13 in 1 Corinthians 2 reflects this unique usage in the OG. In M, Isa. 40.12 refers to material creation. Since ‘spirit of God’ is associated with the Creation in Gen. 1.2, the reference to creation in Isa. 40.12 emphasizes the creative connotation of ‘spirit of the Lord’ in 40.13aM. The rhetorical question – ‘Who has been His counselor, to instruct Him? Whom did He consult for his enlightenment, and who taught Him the path of justice, and taught Him knowledge, and showed Him the way of understanding?’ (40.13b-14), then, expresses God’s intellectual unfathomability. In the context of the creation references in 40.12, Isaiah 40M refers to the humans’ futile search for knowledge in Genesis 2–3. Isaiah 40 generally identifies this vain human search for knowledge with pagan idolatry, which it presents as a perverse failure to acknowledge the creator. The title ‘spirit of the Lord’ (hw"hy> x;Wr [pneu,ma kuri,ou]) of Isa. 40.13aM recalls both ‘spirit of God’ (~yhil{a/ x;Wr [pneu/ma tou/ qeou/]), the aloof creative agent (Gen. 1.2), and ‘Lord God’ (~yhil{a/ hw"hy>/qeo,j ku,rioj), the personal ‘Lord’ of the human creature (Gen. 2.4ff.). ‘Spirit of the Lord’ (Isa. 40.13M) thus integrates two distinct narratives: the austere creation narrative in Genesis 1 and the story of the humans’ futile search for knowledge in Genesis 2–3. In the OG, the term ‘mind of the Lord’ (nou/j kuri,ou) obscures the combination of these distinct narratives because creative ‘spirit’ (pneu/ma)

134 Hatch-Redpath 1998, ad loc. 135 See Footnote 136, below. 136 Isaacs 1976, 10–13. Of 378 occurrences of x;Wr in the Hebrew Bible, 277 appear in the LXX as pneu/ma. When x;Wr means ‘wind’ the LXX primarily offers pneu/ma, less frequently a;nemoj. When x;Wr means ‘breath’ LXX predominantly offers pneu/ma, occasionally a;nemoj, rarely pnoh,. LXX also offers pneu/ma for hm'v'n,> ‘breath’. When Hebrew scripture uses x;Wr to indicate human ‘intellect’, ‘thought’, ‘inclination’ or ‘emotion’, LXX generally avoids pneu/ma, using an alternative Greek term for intellect or emotion: yuch, or compounds of yuch,; qumo,j or compounds of qumo,j; once ovrgh, (Prov. 16.32). Josh. 5.1 has fro,nhsij. Ezek. 13.3 has kardi,a.

169


is absent. OG’s nou/j kuri,ou does, however, invoke a notion of God’s great intellect that is common throughout Jewish scripture.137 Isa. 40.12-14 and 40.28 expresses the same idea of ‘God’s unfathomable creation and intellect’ in equivalent terms. Have you not known, except that you heard? (T'[.m;v'

al{-~ai T'[.d;y" aAlh]/kai. nu/n ouvk e;gnwj

eiv mh. h;kousaj) The Lord is the everlasting God, the Creator of the ends of the earth. He does not faint or grow weary, his understanding is unsearchable (Isa. 40.28).138

Where Isa. 40.12-14 insisted that no one has assessed God, His creation, His creative spirit (M) or His intellect, Isa. 40.28 asserts that no one has known anything except that God has made it known to him. That is, God and his creative intellect are ‘unsearchable’, but he imparts knowledge to those who heed him. In the context of Isaiah 40, pagans who do not heed Him are in mind. As in 40.12-14, His omnipotent role as creator of the unfathomable universe is invoked as proof of His intellectual unfathomability. Both passages, Isa. 40.12-14M and 40.28, then, express the equal unfathomability of God’s creation and His creative intellect. While the OG broadly expresses the same notion, the association of creation and God’s creative ‘spirit’ is lost by the suppression of ‘spirit’ (x;Wr/pneu,ma) with ‘mind’ (nou/j).

7.5.3.2 Verbal replication Isaiah 40.13OG in 1 Corinthians 2.16 Table 7.6 Isaiah 40.13 and 1 Corinthians 2.16139 GEd Isa. 40.13

1 Cor. 2.16

ti,j e;gnw

ti,j ga.r e;gnw

nou/n kuri,ou kai. ti,j

nou/n kuri,ou

Isa. 40.13MT

!Keti-ymi

1QIsa.a

a' q'

!kt aym a' ti,j

quis paravit

estaqmh,sato kuri,ou

spiritum domini

q' kai. avnh.r

et virum

hw"hy> x;Wr-ta, hwhy xwr ta pneu/ma vyaiw>

s'

(continued)

137 As far as I can tell from Hatch-Redpath 1998, ad loc., LXX otherwise twice refers to God’s nou/j: Jdt. 8.14; Job 7.17 (^B,li ‘Your [i.e. God’s] mind’). Other terms for God’s intellect include, for example: Job 11.6M (‘for He is manifold in understanding’, hY"viWtl. ~yIl;p.ki-yKi); Job 12.13 (sofi,a, boulh., su,nesij/ hn"WbT., hc'[e, hm'k.x'); Prov. 3.19 (sofi,a/hm'k.x'); Jer. 10.12 (fro,nhsij/hn"WbT.); 1 Kgs 3.28 (fro,nhsij qeou//~yhil{a/ tm;k.x'); Isa. 40.28 (fro,nhsij auvtou/ (wOtn"Wbt.)); Isa. 55.7-9 (ta.j boula.j auvtou//wyt'bov.x.m;; dianoi,a mou/yt;bov.x.m;); Ps. 146.5 [145.5LXX] (su,nesij auvtou//Atn"WbT.); Amos 4.13 ‘His thought’ (AxFe); Jdt. 8.14 ‘His thought’ (logismo.j); ‘words of His thought’ (lo,gouj th/j dianoi,aj auvtou/). 138 Within a polemic against idolatry, God’s ‘neither hungering nor tiring’ apparently refers to pagan stories of God’s tiring and needing sustenance. There may be a hint of sensitivity at the implication in Gen. 2.3 that God rested on the Sabbath because he tired. 139 For Paul’s minor changes, see Koch 1986, 49; Wilk 1998, 288.

170 GEd Isa. 40.13

Contours in the Text 1 Cor. 2.16

Isa. 40.13MT

1QIsa.a

a' q'

Atc'[] wtc[w <Xya> boulh.n

su,mbouloj auvtou/ evge,neto

auvtou/

s' consilii eius quis ostendit

o]j sumbiba/| auvto,n

o]j sumbiba,sei auvto,n

who has known

who has known

who has measured

who has measured

a' who has estimated140

who has prepared141

the mind of the Lord

the mind of the Lord

the Spirit of the Lord




and who has become

and as

[and will make known

q' and a man

and a man of

his counsellor

His advisor

His counsel?]

of his counsel

his council143

will instruct Him?

[or: who instructs her]

has made him known

who has made known

who will instruct Him?

who will instruct Him?

WN[,ydIAy

hn[ydwy kai.

evgnw,risen auvto.n

140 141 142

Aquila and Theodotion witness a second-century CE Hebraizing revision of Isa. 40.13OG that read pneu/ma kuri,ou.143 While 1QIsa.a witnesses to the Hebrew reading ‘spirit of the Lord’ prior to Paul, direct first-century manuscript evidence for the Greek reading pneu/ma kuri,ou is lacking. The Nah[al H9ever Minor Prophets Scroll (cf. Chapter 2, above) nevertheless testifies to such revisions in Paul’s time. Some of Paul’s own citations of a GHR of Isaiah support this assumption (1 Cor. 15.54 is the earliest witness to Theodotion’s form of Isa. 25.8; Rom. 9.33 is the earliest witness to Aquila and Symmachus’ forms of Isa. 8.14).144 While no first-century Greek form of Isa. 40.13 (pneu/ma kuri,ou) is extant, appeal to Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion for supposedly first-century forms of a passage is analogous to our common appeal to Christian LXX manuscripts, which generally date several centuries after Paul, as witnesses of the OG supposed to have circulated in the first century.

140 staqmo,w – estimate, assess – reflecting !kt. 141 Parare, ‘prepare’, ‘make ready’. Often for e`toima,zw, cf. Isa. 40.3LXX. 142 The phrase ‘man of his council’ (virum consilii eius) is apparently the direct object of the verb ostendere – ‘virum’ is in the accusative. Ostendere agrees in sense with gnwri,zw and Hiphil [dy meaning ‘to make known (rather than Hiphil [dy here meaning ‘teach [someone]’). 143 The S’ form is known only in a Latin citation (cf. Ziegler 1939, ad loc.). 144 Although Paul’s citation partially parallels aspects of a' and s', where they mutually diverge (Table 7.2, Section 7.3.3). Paul’s citations of Isa. 8.14 and 25.8 are not thought themselves to have influenced the later Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion forms. Although Kautzsch 1869 suspected that some Pauline citations influenced later Hexaplaric readings (cf. Chapter One, Footnote 11, above), Paul’s Hebraizing Isaiah citations are thought to reflect his sources, cf. Ziegler 1939, ‘Einleitung’; Koch 1986, 58–59.

171


7.5.3.3 Ideological parallels of Isaiah 40 in 1 Corinthians 2 The verbal replication of the nou/j-form of Isa. 40.13OG in 1 Cor. 2.16 is anticipated by several verbal parallels of Isaiah 40 a few lines earlier (1 Cor. 2.10-12), which include the pneu/ma-form of Isa. 40.13pM. In 1 Cor. 2.11 Paul mingles both forms of Isa. 40.13. Isaiah’s ‘rhetorical’ question, ‘Who has known?’ (ti,j e;gnwÈ) expects the answer ‘No one has known!’ (ouvdei.j e;gnwken). Paul provides precisely this answer in 1 Cor. 2.11a, ouvdei.j e;gnwken. His use of ginw,skw reflects OG (ti,j e;gnwÈ), while his use of pneu/ma reflects the pM-form. Table 7.7 Isaiah 40.13a OG

pM-stream

1 Cor. 2.11

ti,j e;gnw

ti,j evstaqmh,sato [a']

ta. tou/ qeou/ ouvdei.j e;gnwken

nou/n kuri,ouÈ

pneu/ma kuri,ouÈ [a' (s')]

eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ qeou/

Paul’s mingled form makes two changes. Firstly, the object of the verb (‘to know’/‘measure’/‘assess’)145 becomes ta. (tou/ qeou/), rather than pneu/ma (kuri,ou), because Paul’s discussion with his audience concerns ta. pneumatika. and the implications of receiving them. Throughout 1 Corinthians Paul consistently emphasizes pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ as the sole source of pneumatika. and believers’ united participation in to. pneu/ma as the sole means of being pneumatiko,j. Secondly, Isaiah’s ‘Lord’146 becomes qeo,j in 1 Cor. 2.11b, apparently influenced by Isa. 40.28. 1 Cor. 2.10 reflects ideas reminiscent of Isa. 40.28. Humans cannot ‘search out’ God’s intellect, but can only ‘know’ what God makes known to them. Table 7.8 Isaiah 40.28 Isa. 40.28

1 Corinthians 2

kai. nu/n a. ouvk e;gnwj eiv mh.

[11b ouvdei.j e;gnwken eiv mh. . . .]

b. h;kousaj

10a h`mi/n de. avpeka,luyen o` qeo.j

c. qeo.j aivw,nioj o` qeo.j o` kataskeua,saj d. ta. a;kra th/j gh/j e. ouv peina,sei ouvde. kopia,sei f. ouvde. e;stin evxeu,resij th/j fronh,sewj auvtou/

10b to. ga.r pneu/ma pa,nta evrauna/|( kai. ta. ba,qh tou/ qeou/ 11b ta. tou/ qeou/ ouvdei.j e;gnwken eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ (continued)

145 OG, ginw,skw; pM, staqmo,w; !Keti. 146 All available versions of Isa. 40.13 read ‘Lord’. The pM stream: hwhy spiritum domini. The OG: nou/n kuri,ou.

xwr; pneuma

kuriou;

172


Isa. 40.28

1 Corinthians 2

And now, a. you have not known (anything), except

[11b . . . no one has known except . . .]

b. that you heard.

10a . . . God has revealed to us

c. God is everlasting; God, who formed d. the ends of the earth. e. He shall not hunger, nor be weary, f. and there is no searching of his understanding.

10b for the spirit searches everything (pa,nta), even the depths of God. . . . 11b No one has known the things of God except the spirit of God

Paul’s ouvdei.j e;gnwken eiv mh. . . . (1 Cor. 2.11b) resembles Isaiah’s ouvk e;gnwj eiv mh. . . . (Isa. 40.28a.). The claim of Isa. 40.28f. that there is no (human) ‘searching’ (evxeu,resij) of God’s fro,nhsij, is echoed in Paul’s statement that only the pneu/ma can ‘search’ (evrauna/|) the ‘deep things/innermost thoughts of God’. The terms fro,nhsij qeou/ and ba,qh tou/ qeou/ can both indicate God’s intellect.147 Isa. 40.12-14 and 40.28 correspond particularly closely with a' s' q': fronh,sewj auvtou/ (v. 28) picks up o`do,n fronh,sewj (v. 14 a' s' q'). This verbal correspondence is absent in OG, where 40.14 reads o`do.n sune,sewj. Isa. 40.12-14 and 40.28 both equate the unfathomable extent of material creation, with the unsearchability of the divine intellect that conceived and ordered creation: no one can ‘estimate’ either God’s creation (v. 12) or his intellect (vv. 13-14); no one can ‘search out’ the ‘understanding’ of him who ‘formed the ends of the earth’ (v. 28). Both passages logically structure important aspects of Paul’s argument. Paul’s claim that the pneu/ma ‘searches out’ both pa,nta and God’s ‘depths/innermost thoughts’ (1 Cor. 2.10), presupposes the same analogy.148 God’s fro,nhsij is manifest in creation.149 Isaiah 40 asserts that (a) any human effort to comprehend God’s intellect

147 Ta. ba,qh tou/ qeou/ can mean ‘innermost thoughts’. In Jdt. 8.13-14 the ‘depth’ of the human heart (ba,qoj kardi,aj avnqrw,pou) is synonymous with ‘a human thought’ (lo,goj th/j dianoi,aj [avnqrw,pou]). Like 1 Cor. 2.10-11, Judith compares the impossibility of ‘finding out’ (eu`ri,skw) or ‘grasping’ (dialamba,nw) another person’s thoughts with the greater impossibility of ‘searching out’ (evreuna,w; compare Prov. 20.27), ‘perceiving’ (evpiginw,skw) or ‘comprehending’ (katanoe,w) God (the Creator of pa,nta), His mind (nou/j), or His thought (logismo,j). Jdt. 8.14 has affinities with Isa 40.12-14; Job 28.20-28; Wisdom 9; and particularly 1 Cor. 2.10-11 (see below). 148 The same is true of Paul’s comment on Isa. 40.13 in Romans 11, where ta. pa,nta indicates ‘the created universe’ more clearly than in 1 Cor. 2.10. However, the continuation of Paul’s argument in 1 Cor. 3.21b-23 emphasizes pa,nta as ‘all creation’. 149 Similar sentiments appear in Wisdom 9–15 and Rom. 1.18-32, both of which, like Isaiah 40, depict idolatry as an ironically ignorant mockery of God’s creative act.


173

is futile, but (b) God chooses to make Himself known to those who are receptive. 1 Cor. 2.10-12 asserts the same. A.

10a h`mi/n de. avpeka,luyen o` qeo.j (dia. tou/ pneu,matoj)

B.

10b to. ga.r pneu/ma pa,nta evrauna/|( kai. ta. ba,qh tou/ qeou/

B.

11b ta. tou/ qeou/ ouvdei.j e;gnwken (eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ qeou/)

A.

12 h`mei/j [. . .] evla,bomen [. . .] to. pneu/ma to. evk tou/ qeou/( i[na eivdw/men ta. u`po. tou/ qeou/

While Isa. 40.28 acknowledges that God makes Himself known (ouvk e;gnwj eiv mh h;kousaj), 1 Corinthians 2 exceeds Isaiah in identifying the ‘spirit’ as the medium by which humans perceive God. Paul replaces pM Isaiah’s pneu/ma kuri,ou – the object of the verb in Isa. 40.13a (variously ‘know’, ‘estimate’, ‘measure’), the thing unknowable to humans – with ta. tou/ qeou/, assigning pneu/ma as the agent by which believers can ‘know’ ta. tou/ qeou/. Paul designates ‘receiving’ the pneu/ma as the sole means of perceiving divine intellect (1 Cor. 2.12). No one except the spirit has known God’s ‘thoughts’ (1 Cor. 2.10); God reveals them to believers through the spirit. The pneumatiko,j does not preside over ‘the things of God’ (ta. tou/ qeou/) nor over pneu/ma tou/ qeou/, which ‘knows’ them. The pneumatiko,j merely perceives ta. u`po. tou/ qeou/ carisqe,nta h`mi/n (1 Cor. 2.12). This emphasis on a passive receipt of what is freely dispensed explains the phrase to. pneu/ma to. evk tou/ qeou/ in 2.12. Some have taken this locution, unique in Paul’s extant writings, to indicate interpolation.150 But to. evk here emphasizes that pneumatikoi, passively receive the spirit, just as the phrases ta. u`po. tou/ qeou/ (v. 12) and ta. tou/ pneu,matoj tou/ qeou/ (v. 14) indicate that pneumatikoi, receive insight into God’s intellect but do not preside over it. The parallelism between 1 Cor. 2.10-12 and 15-16 reveals the distinction between God’s intellect and pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ as mediator of that intellect to humans. Table 7.9 Parallelism of 1 Corinthians 2.10-11 and 15-16 10

to. pneu/ma pa,nta evrauna/|

15a o` de. pneumatiko.j avnakri,nei pa,nta

kai. ta. ba,qh tou/ qeou/ 11a ti,j ga.r oi=den avnqrw,pwn

15b auvto.j de. u`pV ouvdeno.j avnakri,netai

ta. tou/ avnqrw,pou eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ avnqrw,pou to. evn auvtw/|È 11b ou[twj kai. ta. tou/ qeou/ ouvdei.j

16a ti,j ga.r e;gnw nou/n kuri,ouÈ

e;gnwken eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ 12

evla,bomen [. . .] to. pneu/ma

16b h`mei/j de. nou/n Cristou/ e;comen

to. evk tou/ qeou/

150

Ellis 1957; Widmann 1979; Walker 1992; cf. Section 7.5.1, above.

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In vv. 10 and 15a the pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ and pneumatiko,j are said respectively to ‘search’ or ‘judge’ pa,nta. But the pneu/ma and the pneumatiko,j are not equally able to ‘search’/‘know’. The intervening argument (2.13-14) shows that the pneumatiko,j judges pa,nta only because the spirit searches pa,nta and mediates knowledge to him. The principal ‘like is only known by like’, stated in 2.11a,151 is applied in 2.15b to show that the yuciko.j a;nqrwpoj (of v. 14) cannot ‘judge’ the pneumatiko,j. Isaiah’s rhetorical question, ‘Who has known the mind of the Lord?’, which Paul poses in 2.16a, has already been answered in 2.11b, ‘No one, except the spirit of God’. The answer has not changed by the time Paul writes 2.16a. Rather, in light of the argument in 2.10-16, the participation of pneumatikoi, in ‘the mind of Christ’ (2.16b) is a result of their having received the spirit, which searches all things, including God’s intellect. ‘Everything’ (pa,nta), ‘the depths of God’ (ta. ba,qh tou/ qeou/), ‘the things of God’ (ta. tou/ qeou/) and the ‘mind of the Lord’ (nou/n kuri,ou) are all equally unfathomable to any human. Pneumatikoi, are never said to preside over these aspects of the divine creative intellect. Rather, they participate in a medium by which they perceive God’s thought as He bestows it. This medium is represented by to. pneu/ma (vv. 10, 11, 12) and nou/n Cristou/ (v. 15). According to the structure of the argument, then, nou/n kuri,ou and nou/n Cristou/ (v. 16) are not identical. The answer to Isaiah’s rhetorical question continues to be, ‘No one’ has known God’s thought. The de. of v. 16 has an adversative force: ‘no one knows God’s intellect, but we participate in a medium by which God dispenses insight into his thought.’ Pneu/ma and nou/j are therefore not synonyms in this argument.152 This section has shown that Paul draws on both the pneu/ma- and nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13 in 1 Cor. 2.10-16. This reference to the two forms of Isa. 40.13 forms part of his wider argument in 1 Corinthians 1–2, that participation in the spirit is the sole means by which the Corinthian audience can be united in the mind of Christ.

7.5.3.4 A shared exegetical tradition: Wisdom 9 and 1 Corinthians Paul’s appeal to Isaiah 40 in 1 Corinthians 2 is distinctively his own. However, his appeal participates in a traditional interpretation of Isaiah 40. Like 1 Corinthians 2.6-16, Wisdom of Solomon 9, appealing to Isa. 40.12-14, presents pneu/ma tou/ qeou/ as mediator of God’s intellect to (certain) humans. Wisdom 9 also makes use of the OG- and pM-forms of Isa. 40.13. Paul’s interpretation of Isa. 40.13 participates in a traditional understanding of this verse, an understanding that accepts both pneu/maand nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13. Yet, while Paul is probably aware of Wisdom 9,153 his

151 Gärtner 1967–1968, 210f. 152 Pace Fee (1987, 112 [60]), for whom pneu/ma (1 Cor. 2.10-12) ‘is another expression for nou/j’ (2.16). Pace also Scroggs (1967–1968, 54) who, mistakenly deeming pneu/ma and nou/j to be synonymous here, still correctly observes that they are otherwise never synonymous in Paul. 153 For example, Wis. 9.8 in 2 Cor. 5.1-5. Rom 1.18ff. is generally reminiscent of Wisdom 12–16; cf. Dunn 1988, 53–70 on Rom 1.18-32.


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construction of 1 Corinthians 2 does not depend upon it. His appeal to both sense contours is his own, carefully tailored to his rhetorical context. Solomon’s praise of Wisdom (Wisdom 7–9) emphasizes the unfathomability of God’s creative spirit or intellect. Equally, God’s creation cannot be estimated by humans, who cannot ‘guess (eivka,zw) at what is in the earth’ nor ‘search out (evxicnia,zw) what is in the heavens’ (9.16; for ‘searching out’, cf. Isa. 40.28OG ouvde. e;stin evxeu,resij th/j fronh,sewj auvtou/a’ ouvk e;stin evxicniasmo,j). Like ‘the spirit of God’ (Gen. 1.2), Wisdom was active in creation (Wis. 9.9). God is addressed as: o` poih,saj ta. pa,nta evn lo,gw| sou kai. th/| sofi,a| sou kataskeua,saj a;nqrwpon (9.1-2). Humans know nothing without the wisdom that comes from God (9.6). Solomon’s epigrapher asks: ‘For what man can know the counsel of God (ti,j ga.r a;nqrwpoj gnw,setai boulh.n qeou/)? Or who can discern what the Lord wills?’ (9.13); ‘Who has known Your counsel?’ (boulh.n de, sou ti,j e;gnwÈ), except that You have given wisdom (sofi,an) and sent Your holy Spirit (to. a[gio,n sou pneu/ma) from on high? (9.17a).154 Responding to Isaiah’s ‘Who has known . . .?’, the epigrapher answers ‘no one, except that God gave wisdom and sent the spirit’ (boulh.n de, sou ti,j e;gnw eiv mh. su. e;dwkaj sofi,an kai. e;pemyaj to. a[gio,n sou pneu/ma avpo. u`yi,stwnÈ, 9.17). 1 Cor. 2.11 is close in sense: ta. tou/ qeou/ ouvdei.j e;gnwken eiv mh. to. pneu/ma tou/ qeou/, which searches all (v. 10), which ‘we’ have received (v. 12), and through which God has revealed ‘to us’ (v. 10). Wisdom 11 again paraphrases Isa. 40.12-14, replicating the metric language of 40.12.155 Like Paul, the epigrapher reiterates the claim of Isaiah 40 that neither creation, nor the creative intellect is fathomable to humans. Both exceed Isaiah in presenting the ‘spirit’ as the mediator of God’s intellect to humans. Yet their respective treatments of Isaiah 40 are quite independent. Not only is there no verbal correspondence between 1 Corinthians 2 and Wisdom 9, each independently replicates different clauses of Isa. 40.13, Paul presenting Isa. 40.13a,c (see Table 7.6, above), the epigrapher Isa. 40.13a-b.156 Wisdom 9 highlights that Paul’s appeal to the pneu/ma- and nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13 belongs to a wider exegetical tradition of interpretation of Isaiah 40. However, Paul’s particular treatment of Isaiah 40 in 1 Corinthians 2 is independent of Wisdom 9.

154 For boulh.n compare the variant of 1QIsa.a 40.13, which omits vya and can be read, ‘and (who will) make His counsel known?’ (hn[ydwy wtc[w). Wilkens (1959, 160–174) argues that Wisdom of God and spirit of God are identical, here as well as in 1 Enoch 42 and Sirach 24. 155 Wis. 11.20 ‘you have arranged all things by measure and number and weight (pa,nta me,trw| kai. avriqmw/| kai. staqmw/|, cf. Isa. 40.12-14 staqmw/|; evme,trhsen; Isa. 40.26 ~a'b'c. rP's.mib/. kata. avriqmo.n to.n ko,smon auvtou/)’. Wis. 11.22, ‘Because like a tipping of the scales (w`j ròph. evk plasti,ggwn, cf. Isa. 40.12 staqmw/| . . . zugw/| – ~yIn"z>amoB. . . . sl,P,B;) the whole world before you, and like a drop of morning dew that falls upon the ground’, cf. Isa. 40.15, ‘Behold, the nations are like a drop from a bucket (stagw.n avpo. ka,dou), and are accounted as the dust on the scales . . . (w`j ròph. zugou/)’. The nations represent a ‘droplet in the scales’, in contrast with the vast ‘waters’ of creation which God ‘weighed in the scales’ in 40.12. 156 Compare ti,j a;nqrwpoj gnw,setai boulh.n qeou/ (Wis. 9.13) and boulh.n sou ti,j e;gnw (9.17a) with Isa. 40.13 ti,j e;gnw nou/n kuri,ou kai. ti,j auvtou/ su,mbouloj evge,neto.

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7.5.3.5 Concluding remarks Those proposing that the pneu/ma-form of Isa. 40.13 is – or would have been – suitable for 1 Cor. 2.6-16 offer no argument (Section 7.4, above). Some consider pneu/ma and nou/j to be synonymous in 1 Cor. 2.6-16.157 I have shown that pneu/ma and nou/j generally have distinct meanings in Greek Jewish scripture and also that the use of nou/j (‘mind’) for xWr (‘spirit’) in Isa. 40.13 is exceptional. Moreover, Paul has distinct rhetorical and exegetical reasons to distinguish these terms and to make use of the pneu/ma- and nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13 in 1 Corinthians 2. I argue, therefore, that Paul’s writing in 1 Corinthians 2 reveals his awareness and use of two forms of Isa. 40.13. That Paul and Wisdom 9 share an exegetical tradition (that appeals to the pM- and OG-forms of Isa. 40.13) shows that Paul’s interest in the pneu/ma- and nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13 does not witness to his interest in the lexical variation between ‘text-types’, but rather forms part of a wider exegetical conversation. Significantly, however, while Paul partakes in a traditional perception of the pneu/ma- and nou/j-forms of Isa. 40.13, he is directly aware of these two semantic forms, rather than merely replicating language of Wisdom 9. Paul’s appeal to two forms of Isa. 40.13 belongs to his reading of this passage in conversation with the Genesis creation narratives, again reflecting his appeal to two semantic forms of Isa. 40.13 as part of a wider exegetical conversation between two traditional works – Isaiah and Genesis. As we saw above, Paul’s appeals to Isa. 8.14pM and 25.8pM similarly reveal his engagement in an exegetical conversation among his sources; in Rom. 9.33 he reads a common traditional ‘rock’ motif, particularly characteristic of Deuteronomy 32 and the Psalms, in light of Isa. 8.14pM together with Isa. 28.16. Likewise, in 1 Cor. 15.56 he reads Genesis 2–3 in light of Isa. 25.8pM. In the three examples discussed in this chapter – Paul’s appeals to Isa. 8.14 (Rom. 9.33), 25.8 (1 Cor. 15.54), and 40.13 (1 Cor. 2.16) – two important conditions converge. In each case, the passage significantly structures his logic (a type B case, cf. Section 2.2.2, above) and his appeal to the passage forms part of a broader exegetical conversation. This last point underscores the presence of the discursive exegetical contextualization in Paul’s practice, which I have argued to be so basic to the ancient exegetes’ use of scripture. In Paul’s appeal both to Isa. 8.14pM and to 25.8pM, only the cited pM-form is semantically integral to his argument, and the alternative OG-form was semantically irrelevant (indeed, counter-productive), so we could not expect to see any trace of those OG-forms in his writing. By contrast, in the case of Isa. 40.13 in 1 Cor. 2.16, both of the available sense contours were useful for his rhetorical project in 1 Corinthians 1–2. Both forms structure his thought. However, the rhetorical impact of 1 Corinthians 1–2 does not depend on an audience perceiving his private exegesis of two sense contours here.

157

See Footnote 152, above.


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7.6 Chapter conclusion The ‘suitability argument’ is frequently invoked against the possibility of Paul’s preference for a given form of a passage. Taking each of Paul’s citations to structure his thought to the same degree, commentators often assume that, were Paul aware of alternatives, he would invariably prefer the one most suitable to his logic. I have highlighted two problems with this reasoning. First, a particular form of a passage structures the logic of Paul’s argument only on some occasions. In other cases, other factors, such as the rhetorical or aesthetic qualities of a passage, make it appropriate for citation. Therefore, with respect to his logic, the need for a particular form of a passage often does not arise. Second, preoccupations with lexical suitability obscure the issue. Lexical fidelity to sources is rarely his concern. Paul makes copious lexical changes to his cited material. Such changes, however, often do not affect the sense contour in which he is interested. Sometimes a particular semantic form of a source-passage is integral to his logic. That is to say, Paul’s reasoning relies on the semantic shape of the passage (its sense contour) rather than on its lexical shape. While Paul might make lexical changes to such a passage in order to increase rhetorical congruence, the sense contour that structures his thought remains unchanged (e.g. Isa. 8.14pM). In these cases a convergence of conditions makes his preference for a particular form of a passage possible. Such a convergence in some cases pertained to Paul’s use of IsaiahpM discussed in this chapter. Moreover, Paul’s use of Isa. 8.14pM and 28.5pM belongs, in each case, to a more inclusive exegetical process, in which Paul reads the Isaiah passage in conversation with other passages from Jewish scripture. It cannot be proved that he actually chose the pM-form in these cases, as his text does not explicitly indicate his simultaneous use of alternative forms. However, because his appeals to logically structural passages appear within inclusive exegetical processes, these appeals reflect Paul’s interest in their location within the semantic context of a given conversation, rather than a detached interest in lexical variations as such. This inclusive exegetical process is also evident in the final example (Isa. 40.13), in which Paul’s writing supplies direct ideological and lexical evidence that Paul knew and used different forms of the same passage (pM, pneu/ma; OG nou/j).

8 CONCLUSIONS At the outset (Chapter 1) I presented two distinct positions, broadly represented by two scholars, Ellis and Koch. Despite differences in their conclusions, both broach the question at hand in the same terms. This shared framework is indicative of a general tendency to conceive of ancient Jews’ awareness of first-century textual variation in terms of modern text-critical categories. As a result, the text-critical method has become a heuristic device, which solves the problem in the very terms in which the problem is posed, resulting in a tautology. I have argued that historical discussion of ancient awareness and exegetical use of textual variation must not be framed in terms of these categories, but rather in terms that are commensurate with exegetical patterns recognizable in the ancient literature in question. Our question of attitudes to ancient Jewish scripture is a historical one. A historical study cannot be guided by the analytical priorities of the text-critical programme. When Paul’s practice is judged according to text-critical standards, discussion of lexical material divorced from its semantic context becomes the ground for assessing his awareness and use of textual plurality. However, here I have shown that lexical fidelity to sources is often not Paul’s concern. Rather, his lexical manipulations are frequently incidental to his engagement with the semantic currency of a given exegetical conversation. The predominance of textual material available to us, and the contingent literary paradigms, should not lead to the construction of an overly literary picture of antiquity. While one can only guess at the role of memory in ancient citation practice, the extant textual evidence reveals the signs of the ongoing oral conversation in firstcentury Jewish exegetical communities. Awareness of text-forms and use of citation must therefore be understood as belonging to this conversation. When viewed as part of an ancient exegetical repertoire, awareness and use of textual plurality can be appreciated as a practice current among ancient Jewish exegetes. Paul’s practice reflects an erudite exegetical familiarity with Israel’s scriptures. Notwithstanding uncertainties about his education, the use of textual plurality among Paul’s exegetical contemporaries shows that the practice must be seen as part of the environment within which Paul learned his exegetical skills. Therefore, special appeal to the circumstances of individuals cannot bear load here. Only if we assume that Paul engaged with his ancestral scripture in isolation, can we consider his awareness and use of textual plurality impossible. However, I have shown that, despite the privileged literary situation of specialist Yah9ad writers, the work of Yah9ad literati exhibits the

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same oral exegetical patterning as Paul’s own writings. That is, we can locate Paul’s writing within this broader oral discourse. I have argued that the modern text-critical typology is a misplaced framework for analyses of ancient exegetical practice and attitude. This typology reflects the material availability and classification of texts that belong to the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but not to antiquity. It is also a product of the atomistic attention to lexical variation, integral to the text-critical approach. In Chapter 2 I have shown that ancient exegetes did not speculate on ‘text-types’ (or «texts», as I designate them). Therefore, inquiry into their perception of texts in their own context, cannot be framed in terms alien to it. I have argued that historically more sensible analysis begins with establishing categories meaningful for ancient exegetes themselves. In order to do so, our method needs to shift from the lexical anatomy of textual criticism to the study of the semantic relationship between a literary passage and a given exegetical project. That is, rather than speaking of an exegete’s awareness of a particular «text» (such as a particular version of Isaiah), we can only discuss the exegete’s use of passages as units meaningful within the context of his writing. I have suggested that the exegetical use of alternative forms of the same passage can be discussed in terms of ‘sense contours’, which are distinct semantic properties of alternative forms of the same passage. This approach frees the discussion from questions regarding ancient exegetes’ awareness of our textual categories. Moreover, exegetical appeals to and use of meaningful units are part of an exegetical conversation (the focus of Chapters 5 and 6). I have placed ancient awareness of textual plurality on an analytical continuum which, in expressing the mutual penetration of text and exegesis, shows that the limits of exegesis are not exclusively dictated by available copies. Chapter 3 has looked at Josephus’ use of scripture. I have shown that he is aware of varied forms of the same passage. Not only is he aware of a given passage in different languages, he can make exegetical use of semantic differences between alternative forms of the passage, and even generate his own varied forms of passages. His discussion of weights and measures, sacrifices, and priestly garments reflects this awareness and use of such different forms. His appeal to two forms of a passage relating to these matters is a choice that reveals the social motivations dictated by his daily life rather than his desire to undertake a text-critical exercise. That is, the lexical manipulation is subsumed by semantic concerns. In Chapter 4 Yah9ad exegetical compositions show that some Jewish exegetes, working in a Hebrew linguistic milieu, negotiated multiple semantic forms of a traditional passage. The distinct sense contours apparent in their compositions reflect known ancient textual traditions. That is, the exegetes are working with known alternatives. Just as Josephus’ appeals to textual variation reflect his daily concerns, the work of Yah9ad exegetes echoes their social concerns. In Chapter 5 I have argued that their work – both their ‘scribal’ copying of traditional works and exegetical composition – reveals an oral patterning indicative of live exegetical conversation. Therefore, their exegetical practice is comparable to that of their non-specialist contemporaries.

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That is, their use of textual plurality should not be viewed as a ‘scribal’ anomaly, but rather as indicative of practice current within their wider environment. The common assumption that the Yah9ad could engage in textual variation presupposes that, as scribes who could compare multiple copies, their mode of operation is broadly equivalent to that of the modern analyst. However, as part of a conversation, their exegetical use of textual plurality should not be viewed as a process contingent exclusively on comparison of individual variant copies, but rather as a discursive exchange of ideas associated with a given literary passage. The various kinds of exegetical use of textual plurality observed in Josephus’ writing and Yah9ad literature provides a framework within which to assess Paul’s participation in this practice. Just as we have seen the Dead Sea sectarians draw on their repertoire of traditional text-forms, we can conceive of Paul, their contemporary, as working in similar ways. Chapter 6 has shown that Paul’s thought and communication are orally structured. Paul’s use of scripture, therefore, emerges from the same kind of discursive environment presupposed in Yah9ad writings, whose authors make use of textual plurality. This observation calls into question discussions that frame Paul’s use of scripture in purely written-textual terms. In this chapter I have argued that Paul’s citation of scripture often amounts to a rhetorical demonstration of personal authority. Paul’s alerting his audience to his citations reveals more about the rhetorical role played by these citations than about his interest in the literary origins of his citations. Hence, Paul’s documents need to be viewed as part of a discussion – within their social and rhetorical context. In Chapter 7 I have examined Paul’s use of scripture, and in particular his exegetical use of textual plurality, within this discursive authorial context. I argue that citation plays a wide variety of roles in Paul’s writing. Lexical fidelity to his source is rarely Paul’s concern; the urgency for Paul’s preference of a ‘most suitable’ form is absent in many cases. This observation dispels the commonly made argument that, because he sometimes fails to select the most suitable form, he was never in a position to do so. I make a broad distinction between those of Paul’s invocations of scripture that are integral to his logic and those that are rhetorical. Many of Paul’s rhetorically used citations are not integral to the logic of his argument. In both uses he may make lexical changes, but these are peripheral to his semantic agenda. In examples where appeal to scripture is logically integral to Paul’s argument I have argued that choice would be imperative, were Paul aware of alternatives. In light of case studies; that is, his citation of Isa. 8.14pM and 25.8pM, such preference would reflect current practice. Where Paul cites Isa. 40.13 in 1 Corinthians 2, I show that the text clearly indicates his awareness and use of alternatives. I have proposed a shift in our approach to the question of Paul’s awareness of textual plurality. This entails a broader methodological adjustment. Expedients of text-critical enquiry must not be allowed arbitrarily to constrict historical efforts to understand Paul’s attitudes, and the awareness and uses of texts by ancient people at large. Historically, a purely literary vision of exegetical practice has proven untenable. And my study shows that this practice was located within the environment of

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an ongoing oral discussion. To understand this discussion, we need to invoke terms that are commensurate with the approaches reflected in the literature that grew out of this discussion. I have therefore argued that understanding Paul’s awareness and use of textual plurality entails location of his references to scripture within the semantic framework of ancient exegeses. Within this framework I have found that exegetical use of textual plurality is entirely possible.

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INDEX OF ANCIENT LITERATURE Hebrew and Greek Jewish Scripture Pentateuch 3, 9, 13, 39–42, 53, 57–61, 67–72, 77, 79, 81, 102, 108, 110, 112 Genesis (Gen.) 2, 3, 4, 40, 68–9, 71, 94, 96, 98, 138–41, 150, 176 1 168 1.2 168, 175 2.4f. 168 2–3 150, 152–3, 168, 176 2.3 169 2.14 66 2.17 150 2.24 52 3.3 150 3.17 150 3.20 61 3.22 150 4.4 70 15 139 15.6 8, 126–8, 130, 137, 138–9, 144 17 139 17.10-14 138–40, 144 17–21 122 17.24 135, 138–9 18 139–40 18.18 135 18.10 124, 139–41, 144 18.14 139–41, 144 18.18 135 21.12 124, 139–40, 144 22.18 124 25 139 25.23 139–40, 144 32.29 64 35.18 61 37.3 65 37.23 65 37.31 65 37.32 65 37.33 65

46.26 92 49 99 49.8-12 94 49.9 98 49.10 92–102 50.23 92 Exodus (Exod.) 3, 4, 35, 40, 44, 65, 68–9, 71–2, 74, 76–80 2.22 61, 70 9.16 5 12.40 17, 153 13.11-16 40, 113 16.4 77 16.16 72 16.18 72 16.22 72 16.32-3 72 16.36 72 20 35 20.4 136 20.17 16 24.10 80 25.6 78 25.7 78 25.10 69 25.31 69 25.39 71 26.28 69 28 75, 77 28.4 65, 69, 76, 77, 78 28.6 69 28.8 69–70 28.15 73 28.18 80 28.27-8 69 28.29 73 28.30 73, 74 28.31 69, 78, 79, 80 28.32 78 28.34 78 28.37 65, 78 28.39 65, 66, 69, 75, 76, 77 28.40 65, 76–7 28.40-42 74–7 28.42 69, 92

29.5 65, 69, 78 29.6 65, 78 29.8 65 29.9 69 29.20 69 30.3 69 32.6 136 35.9 78 36.28 70 36.34-36LXX 74–7 39 65, 74–7 39.11 80 39.20-21 69 39.22 78 39.24-6 78 39.27 65 39.28 65, 76 39.27 74, 77 39.27-29 (36.3436LXX) 74–8 39.28 76, 78 39.29 66, 74, 78, 79, 80 39.31 65, 77, 78 40.14 65 Leviticus (Lev.) 40, 69, 72–3, 76 1.4 73 5 73 7.12 73 7.13 73 7.16f. 73 8.7 65 8.9 65, 78 8.13 65 14.10 72 14.12 72 14.15 72 14.21 72 14.24 72 16.4 65, 77 17.18 73 17.29 73 18 135 18.5 15, 126 18.8 135 19.18 15, 16 19.23 85 22.1-3 73

24.5 69, 71 27.16 72 Numbers (Num.) 40, 69, 72, 98 7.14 73 10.2 69 11.32 72 15.4 72 21.18 97, 99 23.23-24 98 24.17 96–7 25.1-5 136 27.21 74 28.5 72 Deuteronomy (Deut.) 35, 40, 99, 102, 130 4.2 62 5 18 5.17-21 16 5.21 16 12.32 62 17.7 127, 135–6 17.19 116 18 35 19.15 16, 125, 126–7 25.3 49 28 102 28.1 102 28.10 102 28.12 102 28.57 92, 99 30 137–8 30.10-14 137–8 32 144, 176 32 176 32.4 144 32.13 144 32.15 135, 144 32.16 144 32.18 144 32.21 135 32.30 144 31.31 144 32.35 5, 6, 11, 16 32.37 144 32.43 130, 134 33.21 99

Index of Ancient Literature Joshua (Josh.) 40, 64, 67, 93 5.1 168 Judges (Judg.) 60, 67, 93 1.5 64 4.4-14 64 5.1-15 64 13.8 64 Ruth 60, 67 1.20 61 4.14-15 64 Books of Samuel 3, 40, 44, 60, 67, 71, 73, 108 1 Samuel (1 Sam.) 40, 93 2.2 144 3.21 93 7.5 61 16.20 72 25.18 72 1 Kingdoms (1 Kgdms.) (LXX) 2.10 126–9, 160–1 2 Samuel (2 Sam.) 70 13.18 65 23.15 97 2 Kingdoms (2 Kgdms.) (LXX) 129 23.15 97 Books of Kings 3, 44, 60, 67, 71, 73, 108 1 Kings 70, 72, 73, 93 3.28 169 5.2 72 5.25 72 19.10 135 19.14 135 3 Kingdoms (3 Kgdms.) (LXX) 5, 9, 10, 11, 12–13, 23 19.10 10, 15, 135 19.14 135 19.18 10, 15 2 Kings 111 4.32-35 149 17.30 91 18.19 111 19.14 116 22.8 116 18.26 64

Books of Chronicles 3, 108 2 Chronicles (Chron.) 2, 72 2.9 72 27.5 72 Ezra 2, 72, 108, 112 2.69 65 7.22 72 Nehemiah (Neh.) 2, 64, 108 7.71 65 8.18 116 Esther 60, 67 Job 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, 23, 42, 160 7.15 148 7.17 169 5.13 10, 14, 15, 47, 50, 153, 160 11.5-9 137 11.6 169 12.13 169 28.20-28 172 33.18 148 41.3 10, 15, 126–7 Psalms (Pss.) 2, 9, 35, 39, 60, 64, 108, 134–5, 144, 147, 176 1–89 134 2.7-9 97 2.9 97 8.2 151 8.6 151, 155 8.7 126 9.14LXX 148 9.13 148 12.4LXX 148 13.3 148 17.50LXX 130,134 18.3 144 18.5 126 18.32 144 18.43-48 134 18.47 144 19.15 144 22.27-31 134 23.1LXX 9, 126 24.1 135 25–26 40, 113 31.1-2LXX 137, 139 32.1-2 137, 139 32.19LXX 148 33.19 148

43.23LXX 16 44.22 135 45.9-17 134 47.1 134 49.1 134 50.6LXX 136, 146 50.16LXX 135 51 136 51.4 136, 146 51.14 135 57.9 134 59.5LXX 85 60.3 85 61.13 127 62.8 144 67.1-5 134 68.23LXX 159 69. 23 144 72.8-11 134 72.17 134 78 93 86.9 134 88.49LXX 148 89.27 144 89.48 148 90–150 134 91.3 144 91.12 144 96–98 135 96.2LXX 135 96.3 134 96.10 134 96.13 134 97.2 135 97.2LXX 135 97.6 134 98.2 134, 135 98.9 134 110.1 151 110.3 97 113.1 156 115.6LXX 148 116.1LXX 130, 134 116.15 148 117.18LXX 148 118.18 148 124.7 144 141.9 144 142LXX 137 142.2LXX 128, 137 143 137 143.2 128, 137 145.5LXX 169 146.5 169 Proverbs (Prov.) 3.19 169 6.25 146 10.2 148

197 16.32 168 20.27 172 24.11 148 25.21-2 126, 135 Isaiah (Isa.) 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12–13, 19, 21, 22–3, 33–4, 35, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 60, 111, 122, 125, 129, 130, 134–5, 142, 144–5, 157, 161, 165–6, 168, 170–2, 176–7, 179 1–12 40 1.9 135, 158 1.24 111 1.24-25 111 2.2-4 134 6.2 99 7.17 88 8 10 8.13-14 142–3 8.14 10, 13, 15, 137, 141–5, 159, 161, 170, 176–7, 180 10.20-23 134 10.22 15 10.22-23 135, 158 10.26-28 134 11.1 95, 97 11.1-5 97 11.4 97 11.10 16, 95, 130, 134 13.20 146 14.1-3 134 14.13-14 97 15.7 111 21.16 111 22.13 126 25 10, 147 25.3-4 147 25.4 147 25.5 146–7 25.7 147 25.6-9 134 25.8 10, 13, 14, 15, 47, 50–2, 141–2, 145–8, 150–5, 161, 170, 176–7, 180 26.7-27.13 158 26.18 134 27.2-6 134 27.9 158–9 28 10, 157 28.1 157

198 28.1-2 144 28.3 157 28.5 157 28.7 157 28.7-8 157 28.7-11 157 28.11 10, 13, 14, 15, 47, 50, 135, 142, 153, 155–8 28.12 157 28.13 157 28.13-14 157 28.14 144, 157 28.14-16 144 28.15-18 157 28.16 15, 16, 127, 137, 144–5, 157, 176 28.28 146 29.16 127 30.29 144 33.20 146 33.22 99 34.16 116 35.10 111 36.4 111 36.7 111 37.14 116 40 161–2, 166, 168–9, 171–2, 174–5 40.3 118, 170 40.12 166–8, 172, 175 40.12-14 166–9, 172, 174–5 40.13 9, 17, 24, 126, 128–9, 153, 159, 161–4, 166–77, 180 40.13-14 167–8, 172 40.14 167, 172 40.15 175 46.13 135 40.26 175 40.28 169, 171–3,175 40.28f. 172 49.1-13 134 49.14 111 51.4-11 134 51.17 85–6 51.22 86 52 10, 111 52.5 19, 135 52.7 10, 13, 15, 19, 142 52.15 135

Index of Ancient Literature 53.11 42, 152 54.1-55.5 134 55.7-9 169 56.1 135 56.3-8 134 59.8 5 59.12–63.7 158 59.20 14, 47, 153 59.20-21 16, 158–9 60.21 135 61.8 135 62.2 135 64.3 11 Jeremiah (Jer.) 3, 35, 40, 44, 60, 61, 64, 67, 71, 93, 129 9.22 129, 160 9.22-3LXX 11, 126–9, 160–1 10.12 169 15.18 146 33.17 94, 100 Lamentations 60 Ezekiel (Ezek.) 35, 72, 76 13.3 168 18.32 148 21.31 65 21.32 96 33.11 148 45.11 72 45.13 72 45.14 72 Daniel (Dan.) 3, 40, 44, 60, 61, 67, 71, 76, 91, 108 7 97 11.31 91 12.11 91 Twelve Prophets (The Twelve; XII; Minor Prophets) 3, 39, 60, 134 Hosea (Hos.) 35, 122, 129, 130 1.6 160 1.8 160 2.1LXX [1.10] 14, 47, 153, 160 2.3 160 2.25LXX [2.23] 129, 158, 160 3.2 72

13.14 148, 151, 155

1 Maccabees (1 Macc.) 67

Joel 35 2.32 9, 126

2 Maccabees (2 Macc.) 2.31 61

Amos 4.13 169 4–5 92 5 89, 103 5.25-27 92 5.26 90–1 5.27 91 5.26-27 88–91, 125 9 103 9.11 88, 90–1

3 Maccabees (3 Macc.) 7.3 97

Micah (Mic.) 4.13 97 4.13-5.2 97 Nahum (Nah.) 35 2.4 85 Habakkuk (Hab.) 55, 85–7, 103 1.8 87 1.11 87 2.2 112, 116 2.4 8, 9, 126, 128, 137 2.15 83–6 2.15-16 85, 87 2.16 54–5, 82–8, 104 3.19 146 Zephaniah 35 Zechariah (Zech.) 64 12.2 85 Malachi (Mal.) 139 1.2 139–40 1.1-2 140 1.2-3 160 1 Esdras 60–1, 67 8.20 72 Judith (Jdt.) 172 8.13-14 165, 172 8.14 169, 172 Tobit (Tob.) 4.10 148 12.9 148

4 Maccabees (4 Macc.) 12.7 23 16.15 23 18.10-19 12 Prologue to Greek Sirach 39, 60, 64–5, 67 22 23 Sirach (Sir.) 134 24 175 48.5 148 Wisdom (Wis.) 1.12 148 2.24 148 7–9 175 9 172, 174–6 9.1-2 175 9.6 175 9.8 174 9.9 175 9.9-18 162 9.13 175 9.16 175 9.17 175 9–15 172 11 175 11.20 175 11.22 175 12–16 174 16.13 148 Psalms of Solomon 134 17 97 17.23-24 97 Baruch (Bar.) 112, 134 3.29-31 137 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs 134 Testament of Judah 24.1-6 97

199

Index of Ancient Literature Testament of Levi 18 97 Testament of Job 10, 42 1 Enoch 134, 175 42 175 Jubilees 2, 108 Papyri Pap 967 42 Pap Antinopolitanus 42 Rylands Papyrus gr. 458 42 Judaean Manuscripts 1QIsaa 27, 40, 53 105, 111, 113–14, 142–3, 145–7, 156, 169–70, 175 Isa 1.24 111 Isa 1.24-25 111 Isa 8.13-14 142–3 Isa 21.16 111 Isa 15.7 111 Isa 25.8 145–7 Isa 28.11 156 Isa 35.10 111 Isa 36.4 111 Isa 36.7 111 Isa 40.13 169–70, 175 Isa 49.14 111 Isa 52 111 1QIsab 145–6 Isa 25.8 145–6 4QGenj 40 4QNumb 40 4QLXXNum 42 4QSama 40 5QDeut 40 7QLXXEx 42 Nahal Hever Minor Prophets Scroll (8HevXIIgr) 3, 9, 10, 42, 53, 84–5, 155, 170 D (Damascus Document) 44 4QDa (4Q266) 88 3iii 17 88 3iii 17-18 88 3iii 17-20 90

3iii 18 90 3iii 23-24 97 CDA (Cairo Damascus Document A) 88–9, 91, 102–3 4.3-4 40 6 97, 99 6.3-7 97, 99, 102 6.20-8.3 88 7 90 7.10 125 7.13 88 7.14 90, 125 7.14-15 88–90 7.14-19 90 7.15 89–90 7.16 88 7.17 88, 90, 118 7.17-18 91 7.18 118 7.19-21 97 11.18 118 13.2-4 116 13.12 118 M (Milh9amah) 44, 103 1QM 102–3, 118, 134 3.15-18 102 4.9-11 103 4.10 102–3 4.15-17 102 MMT (Miqs9at Ma‘aśe ha-Torah) (4Q398 C 10–11) 44, 139 4QOrda (4QOrdinancesa) 40 1QpHab (1QHabakkuk Pesher) 54–5, 82–3, 85–8, 103, 105, 125 1.12 103 2.2 103 3.6-7 87 3.11 87 4.9-10 87 4.11 87 4.14 157 5.10 103 7.1-16 44 7.4 103 8.3 103 8.8 103 9.9 103 11.4 103 11.5 103 11.8-9 54–5, 83, 86

11.9 82, 86, 87 11.12-16 54 11.13 86, 88 11.14 87 11.14-15 88 12.2 103 12.8 103 S (Serekh ha-Yah9ad) 1QS (1QSerekh ha-Yah9ad) 44, 111, 115–8, 121 1.1 117 1.1-3 118 1.8-9 118 2.8 116 5.2 116, 117, 119 5.3 116, 119 5.7-10 117 5.9 117 5.10 116 5.11 117 5.16 116 5.20f. 117 5.20-21 117 5.21 119 5.23 118, 119 6 116 6–3.4 116 6.6 116 6.6f. 118, 119 6.7 116 6.7-8 116 6.9 119 6.14 119 6.20 119 6.22 116, 118, 119 7.1 114, 116, 117 8.14-16 117–18 8.15 116, 117 8.17 119 8.25 119 8.26 117 9.7 119 9.13 118 9.16-19 118 9.17 119 4QSd (4Q Serekh ha-Yah9ad) 3 ii 3 118 1QSb (1Q Serekh ha-Yah9ad B) column V 97, 102, 111 V 25-26 97 Temple Scroll 108 4Q158 (Reworked Pentateuch) 35, 134

4Q174 (Florilegium; Midrasch zur Eschatologie) 35, 88 4Q175 (Testimonia) 35, 40, 111, 134 4Q176 (Tanh9umim) 35, 111, 134 4Q177 (Catena A; Midrasch zur Eschatologie) 35 4Q252 (4QCommentary on Genesis A) 40, 92, 98–99 column 5 (fragment 6) lines 1–6 92–4, 97–103, 125 4Q339 (List of False Prophets, Aramaic) 35, 111, 134 4Q340 (List of Netinim) 35, 134 4Q559 (Biblical Chronology) 35, 134 11QpPs 139 New Testament Matthew (Mt.) 49, 65, 106, 109 9.14 31 12.2 31 12.14 31 15.2f. 31 15.12 31 19.3f. 31 22.15f. 31 22.34 31 23.5 31 23.15 32 23.16f. 31 23.23 31 23.24 31 23.25 31 23.27 31 Mark (Mk) 2.18 31 2.24 31 3.5 31 7.1f. 31

200 7.4 31 10.2f. 31 12.13f. 31 12.19f. 31 Luke (Lk.) 23, 33 5.21 31 5.33 31 6.2 31 6.7 31 11.38 31 11.39 31 11.41 31 11.42 31 14.3f. 31 24.44 60, 139 John 106 Acts 7, 13, 17, 19, 20, 22–5, 30, 32–3, 49 2.17 158 7.49 158 8.30 114 15.16 88 15.21 110 22.2 36 22.2-3 17 22.3 7, 16, 22, 24, 33 26.4-5 22, 24 Romans (Rom.) 9, 13, 19, 34, 122, 128, 129, 133, 135, 137, 138, 144, 153, 160–1 1.2 122 1.4 137 1.5 130 1.13 130 1.16-17 135 1.17 8, 126, 128, 129, 137 1.18-32 172, 174 2.6 127 2.24 129, 135 3 135 3.1-4 145 3.1-8 133 3.3 158 3.3-4 158 3.4 129 3.4-8 136 3.5 144 3.10 129 3.10-18 15, 135 3.17 5 3.20 128, 137 3.21 122

Index of Ancient Literature 3.31 133 4 138, 140, 159 4.6-8 138 4.3 122, 126–8, 130, 137, 138–9 4.6 129 4.7 137, 139 4.9 127–8, 130, 137, 139 4.10 135 4.10-11 138 4.17 129, 151 4.18 130 4.22 127–8, 137 5 150, 152–3 5–8 16, 138, 151–2 5.12 153 5.12-21 151 5.19 152 6.1 133 6.4-5 151 6.9 151 6.15-17 133 6.19 130 7.1 138 7.4 151 7.7 16, 130 8 155, 160 8.4 152 8.11 151 8.18-39 151 8.23 151 8.35 160 8.36 16, 129, 135 8.37 160 8.39 160 9 139–40, 158, 160 9–11 34, 130, 145, 160 9.1-3 159 9.1-6 145 9.6 144 9.7 124–5, 139 9.9 124–5, 139–40 9.12 130, 139 9.13 129, 139, 160 9.14 138 9.15 130, 160 6.15-17 133 9.16 138 9.17 5, 122, 130 9.18 160 9.20 127 9.23 160 9.25 14, 47, 122, 129, 130, 153, 160 9.25–11.19 130 9.27 122, 129, 130

9.27-29 135, 158 9.29 129, 130 9.30 137 9.31 137–8 9.31-32 159 9.32-33 159 9.33 15, 127, 129, 137, 141–3, 159, 170, 176 10.1 144, 159 10.1-5 145 10.4 137 10.5 15, 126, 129–30 10.6 130 10.6-8 130, 137 10.8 130 10.11 15, 122, 127, 130 10.13 9, 126 10.15 21, 129 10.16 122, 129, 130 10.18 126, 130 10.19 122, 129, 130, 135 10.20 135 10.20-21 122, 129, 130 11 158–60, 172 11.1 144 11.1-36 145 11.2 122, 130 11.2-4 138 11.3 129, 130, 135, 158 11.4 130 11.6-7 159 11.7 159 11.8 129 11.9 122, 129, 130, 159 11.11 130, 159 11.13 130, 159 11.13-24 158 11.14 159 11.15 144, 151, 159 11.19 130 11.25 151, 158, 160 11.25-32 144 11.26 14, 47, 129, 152–3, 158–60 11.28 159–60 11.28-9 159 11.29 159 11.32 152, 160 11.33 24

11.33-4 159 11.34 126, 129 11.35 126 11.36 151 12.3 133 12.19 5, 6, 129, 130 12.20 126, 135 13.9 15 14.9 151 14.11 129, 130 14.14 133 15.3 129 15.8 159 15.8-9 159 15.9 129, 130 15.10 130 15.10-12 159 15.11 130 15.12 129, 130 15.9-12 130, 134 15.15-19 130 15.15-20 133 15.19 23, 159 15.21 129, 135 15.25-32 159 15.27-28 130 15.30-32 133 16.22 114 16.25-27 163 1 Corinthians (1 Cor.) 9, 13, 34, 129, 133, 136, 156, 161, 163, 164, 171, 174 1 164 1.1-8 165 1.1-12 164 1.2-3 164 1.10 156, 164, 166 1.10-2.16 164 1.11-12 165 1.12 136, 164 1.13 164 1.17 165 1.17-30 160 1.17-2.4 165 1.18 165–6 1.18-2.5 162 1.18-2.16 166 1.19 129 1.21 165 1.22-23 144 1.23 165 1.23-24 165 1.24 165 1.26 165 1.27-28 129, 160–1

Index of Ancient Literature 1.31 16, 126–9, 160–1 1–2 162, 164, 174, 176 1–3 162 1–4 162, 164 2 162–3, 165–6, 168, 171–6, 180 2.1 165 2.1-5 165 2.4 165 2.5 165 2.6 136, 156, 165 2.6-7 165 2.6-16 162–4, 166, 174, 176 2.9 16, 129 2.10 165–6, 171–5 2.10-11 172–3 2.10-12 163, 171, 173–4 2.10-13 156 2.10-15 162 2.10-16 174 2.11 165, 171–2, 174–5 2.12 165, 173–5 2.12-14 166 2.13-14 174 2.14 173–4 2.15 166, 174 2.15-16 173 2.16 9, 17, 24, 126, 129, 153, 156, 161–2, 165–6, 169–71, 174, 176 3 164 3.1 136, 156, 166 3.1f. 165 3.6 164 3.12-15 164 3.19 14, 47, 50, 129, 153, 160 3.21-23 164, 172 3.22 164 4.14-19 123 4.15f. 136, 156 5.1 135 5.2 135–6 5.3-4 123 5.13 127, 135-6 6.9-11 155 6.11 136 6.12-20 164 6.16 52, 129, 130 6.18 150 6.19-20 165 7.36 150 8.12 150

8–10 136 8.7 130, 136 9 164 9.5 164 9.8 130 9.9 129 9.10 16 9.12 164 10 136 10.4 137 10.7 129, 136 10.14 130 10.14-22 164 10.26 9, 126, 135 11.17f. 164 12 164 12.2 136 12.3 130 12.4 164 12.4-6 156 12.8 164 12.9 164 12.8-11 156 12.11 164 12.12-27 156 12.13 156, 164 12.27-30 156 12.31–14.1 156 13 164 13.8-13 156 13.10 136, 156 13.11 156 13.11-12 136 14 156–7, 164 14.1 156 14.3-4 156 14.5 156 14.9-10 156 14.10-19 156 14.11 156 14.12 156 14.13-14 156 14.16 156 14.16-17 156 14.17 156 14.18 156 14.19 156 14.20 136, 156–7 14.21 14, 21, 47, 50, 129, 135, 153, 155–7 14.22-24 156 14.23 156 14.24-25 156 14.26 156 14.29 156 14.30 156 15 51, 136, 145,

147, 150–3, 155, 164 15.1-3 121, 148–9, 153 15.1-11 148, 164 15.2 148–9, 165 15.2-3 148 15.3 150 15.3-4 122 15.4f. 137 15.5 164 15.5-7 164 15.12 148, 150 15.12-19 148, 151 15.13 150, 154 15.12-19 148 15.14 148–9 15.15 154 15.17 148–50, 165 15.18 150 15.20 149–50, 155 15.20-28 149–51 15.21 149–50 15.21-22 150–2 15.22 149–50, 154 15.23 149 15.23-28 149–51, 155 15.24 150, 154 15.25 154–5 15.26 149–51, 154 15.27 126, 151, 155 15.27-28 150 15.28 150, 154–5 15.29 149, 154 15.29-34 149 15.32 126, 154 15.34 148, 150 15.35 149, 154 15.35-54 149 15.42 154 15.43 154 15.44 154 15.44-48 163 15.44-49 150 15.45 129 15.45-49 151–2 15.45-55 155 15.49 154 15.50 154 15.50f. 155 15.50-54 154 15.51 154 15.52 154 15.53 154 15.54 14, 21, 47, 50–2, 129, 141, 145–9, 151,

201 153–5, 170, 176 15.54-56 151 15.54-57 149, 150–1 15.54-58 149 15.55 151 15.55-56 151 15.56 148–50, 152, 176 15.57 149, 151 15.58 148–9 16.12 164 16.21 114 2 Corinthians (2 Cor.) 9, 13, 16, 34, 129, 133, 161 3.14-15 122 4.13 129 5.1-5 174 6.2 130 6.16-18 130 8.15 129 9.9 129 9.10 7, 36 10.17 16, 126–8 11.23-28 49 11.24 13 13.1 125, 126–7 Galatians (Gal.) 9, 13, 34, 114, 129, 133, 138, 161 1–2 33 1.1 122 1.8 122 1.10-12 122 1.12 122 1.13-14 122 1.14 24, 122 1.15 122 1.15-24 32 1.16 122 1.18 32 1.22 23 2.2 122, 130 2.6-10 122 2.7-9 130 2.16 128, 137 3.1 122 3.2 122 3.6 126, 128, 137 3.8 129, 130, 135 3.10 129 3.11 9, 15, 126, 128, 137 3.12 126 3.13 7, 129 3.16 124, 130

202 3.17 17, 153 4.8-10 130 4.27 129 5.14 15 Philippians (Phil.) 16 1 49 3.5 23, 31, 32, 36 3.5-6 23, 24, 32 3.9-11 152 3.20-21 152 1 Thessalonians (1 Thess.) 16 1.9 130 4.14f. 137 2 Timothy (2 Tim.) 34 4.13 12, 22, 34 Philemon 16, 49 1 Peter 2.8 142 Revelation (Rev.) 1.11 112 2.27 97 2.28 97 11.1 97 12.5 97 Rabbinic works Baba Bathra 14b 60 Ta‘anith 5 60 m. Kilaim 9.1 77 m. Megilla 4.2f. 17 4.4 53 b. Megilla (b. Meg.) 18b 113 Shemoth Rabbah 8, 128 Targum(s) 11, 22, 24, 66, 84, 86–7, 93, 95, 98–103, 109 Genesis 49.10 93, 95, 97–103 Judges 67 Isaiah 8.13-14 143 Isaiah 11.10 95 Job 7

Index of Ancient Literature Habakkuk 2.16 55, 83–4, 86–8 Fragment Targum Genesis 49.10 99–102 Pseudo-Jonathan 66 Genesis 49.10 99–102 Exodus 28.39 66 Exodus 39.29 66 Deuteronomy 30 137 Onqelos 6, 66, 70 Genesis 49.10 93, 99–102 Exodus 28.4 66 Exodus 28.8 70 Exodus 28.39 66 Exodus 39.20 70 Exodus 39.29 66 Neofiti 66, 70 Genesis 49.10 99–102 Exodus 28.8 70 Exodus 28.39 66 Exodus 39.20 70 Exodus 39.29 66 Other Ancient Jewish Literature Letter of Aristeas 27, 39, 41, 53, 60, 62, 77 96 78 Josephus Antiquitates Judaicae (AJ) 57–63, 65, 67–9, 71 1 67 1.1–2.200 67 1–3 71 1–4 67 1.1 59 1.1-8 59 1.2 59 1.3 59 1.5 58–9, 61 1.7 58–9 1.8 59 1.8-10 60 1.10 59, 60, 61 1.10-12 60

1.10-13 61 1.11-12 60 1.12 60 1.18 59 1.18-23 59 1.24 59 1.25 59 1.33 64, 69 1.34 64, 69, 70 1.36 61, 64, 69 1.38-9 66 1.39 66 1.52 61–2 1.54 70 1.333 64, 69 1.343 61 2.277 70 2.278 61, 64, 69, 70 3.29 71, 72 3.121 69 3.134 69 3.142 69, 71, 72 3.144 71 3.148 69 3.151 66 3.151-158 74, 77, 78 3.152 69, 75–7 3.153 65, 75–8 3.154 75, 77 3.156 65–6, 69, 75–6 3.157 69, 74–7 3.158 77 3.159 69, 77, 78, 79, 80 3.162 69 3.171 69 3.172 66, 75 3.179-187 79 3.183 79 3.183-4 79 3.184 79 3.186 75, 79 3.197 72 3.204 72 3.205 73 3.214-17 73 3.217 73 3.234 72 3.222 73 3.222f. 76 3.225 73 3.225f. 73 3.228 73 3.252 65–6 3.282 61, 65 3.291 69

3.320 71–2 3.321 71–2 3.322 72 5.121 64, 69 5.200-1 64, 69 5.323 61, 69 5.336 64, 69 6–8 67 6.22 61, 69 6.302 69 7.67 69 8.142 61–2 9.290 69 10.8 64 10.218 59, 61 12.11-118 60 12.14 64 12.15 64 12.15 61 12.20 61 12.36 62 12.37 62 12.39 62 12.48 61 12.49 62 12.104 62 12.108-9 62 12.109 62 15–16 63 15.314 71 17–19 63 17.41 31 20.262 63 20.263 63 Bellum Judaicum (BJ) 58, 63, 65 1.110 31 2.162 31 4.11 61 5.151 61 5.212-14 79 5.213 79 5.231 80 5.232 79 Contra Apionem (Cont.Ap.) 1.40 60 1.42 60, 62 1.50 63 1.54 61 1.54-5 61 1.167 61 1.228 61 2.175 110 Vita 63 1–12 57

203

Index of Ancient Literature 9 31 11 63 189–198 31 Philo Legatio ad Gaium (Leg.) 156 110 De Opificio Mundi 80 De Somniis (Somn.) 1.214-15 79 1.218 80 De Specialibus Legibus (Spec.) 1.84 79 1.85 79 1.94 79 Vita Mosis (Mos.) 2.31 23 2.37 112 2.100-33 79 2.109 79 2.118 79 2.120 80 2.120-1 79 2.122 79 2.133 79 2.143 79

Other Ancient Greek and Latin Literature Aeschylus Agamemnon 985 79 1590 79 Athenaeus 34 Deipnosophists 8.336 34 Aristotle De Anima 418b4-420 80 De Sensu et Sensibilibus 349a 17f. 80 Topics 1.14 34 Callimachus Iambi 117 79 193 78 Cicero 34 De Inventione 2.4 34 Dio Chrysostom 77th/78th Discourse 32–33 78

Dionysus of Halicarnassus Roman Antiquities 7.8.4–10.2 79

Plato Timaeus 68c 80

Euripides Bacchae 810–840 78

Pliny the Younger 34 Epistles 3.5 34

Juvenal Satires 14, 100f. 110

Plutarch 34 Peri Euthumias 464 34

Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus) Pharsalia VI 624–830 149 Philopseudes 26f. 149 Livy 34 Epistles 6.20.5 34 Origen Philocalia 9.2 156 Papyri Graecae Magicae XIII 277f. 149 XIX b 149

Pseudo-Aristotle De Coloribus 793b34-794a15 80 Strabo Geography 3.5.10-11 78 15.1-57 79 16.1-20 78 Xenophon 34 Anabasis 1.8.6-11 79 Cyropaedia 2.2.9-11 79 Memorabilia 1.6.14 34

I NDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS Aberbach, M. 95, 101 Achtemeier, P. 113, 123 Adams, E. 148, 162–4 Aharoni, Y. 40, 113 Aland, K. 125, 155 Allegro, J.M. 35 Anderson, B. 44 Asher, J.R. 136, 148–9 Attridge, H.W. 63, 67, 69 Baillet, M. 40 Barclay, J.M.G. 148, 162–4 Bar-Ilan, M. 110, 133 Barr, J. 68 Barrett, C.K. 164 Barthélemy, D. 7, 10, 42, 97–8 Baumgarten, J.M. 88 Baur, F.C. 137 Begg, C.T. 61, 64 Ben-Yehuda, E. 65 Berliner, A. 101 Bleek, F. 5 Bloch, H. 67–8 Bonner, S.F. 49 Bowman, A.K. 110 Branick, V.P. 162 Bratsiotis, N.P. 21 Brenton, L.C.L. 96 Broich, U. 132 Brooke, G.J. 40–1, 43–4, 87–8, 102–7, 109–10, 112 Brown, F. 65–6, 69–70, 72–6, 78, 80, 90–1, 93, 116, 123, 146 Brownlee, W.H. 82–3, 85–7, 104–6, 111, 114 Bruce, F.F. 104, 106, 113 Bultmann, R. 162 Burrows, M. 113 Buth, R. 66 Cansdale, L. 55 Campbell, J.G. 44, 134 Carruthers, M.J. 29 Cathcart, K. 99 Chadwick, H. 34 Chamberlain, J.V. 111 Chow, J.K. 164 Chyutin, M. 79 Clark, D.L. 49 Clarke, A.D. 163

Clarke, E.G. 101 Cohen, S.J.D. 67 Collins, J.J. 97–8, 134 Collins, R.F. 165 Colson, F.H. 110 Conzelmann, H. 33, 162–3 Cross, F.M. 19, 105 Crown, A. D. 55 Dahl, N.A. 162–3, 165 Das, A.A. 137 Daube, D. 109, 112, 137 Davies, P.R. 106, 110 Davies, W.D. 112 Davila, J. 40–1 Deissmann, A. 8, 11, 16–17, 20–1, 23, 30, 32, 49 Delitzsch, F. 113–14 Dimant, D. 104, 106 Dodd, C.H. 21, 132 Dorival, G. 39 Driver, G.R. 86 Duhm, B. 86 Dunn, J.D.G. 128, 137, 174 Easterling, P.E. 34–5 Ehrlich, C.S. 86 Eisenman, R. 55 Elliger, K. 82, 85–7, 105 Ellis, E. E. 1, 8, 10–11, 14, 19–20, 21–2, 23–6, 30–1, 33, 45, 49–50, 52, 124–8, 153, 157–8, 162–3, 173, 178 Ernesti, I.A. 67 Fee, G. 136, 148, 162–6, 174 Feldman, L.H. 43, 57–8, 60–1, 63, 65–71, 73–4, 76–8 Finkel, A. 87 Fishbane, M. 35, 108–9, 137 Fitzmyer, J. 65, 124, 128 Flesher, P.V.M. 99 Flint, P. 35 Francis, J. 162 Funk, R.W. 162–3, 166

Gerhardsson, B. 26 Gillespie, T.W. 162–3 Gilliard, F.D. 113, 116, 123 Ginsberg, H.L. 86, 112 Ginsburger, M. 101 Golb, N. 55 Gooding, D.W. 39, 41–2 Goodman, M. 32, 110, 114 Goudge, H.L. 162 Grintz, J.M. 23, 64–5 Grossfeld, B. 95, 101 Gundry, R.H. 109 Haenchen, E. 32–3 Hammershaimb, E. 105, 113–14 Hani, J. 34 Hanson, A.T. 26, 162 Hanson, P.D. 134 Harl, M. 39 Harris, W.V. 26, 35, 110, 133 Hata, G. 63 Hatch, E. 6, 8, 72, 85, 146, 148, 168, 169 Hays, R. 8, 128, 133, 135, 137 Heinrici, C.F.G. 7 Helmbold, W.C. 34 Hengel, M. 8, 22–4, 31–2, 48, 106, 108, 110 Hiebert, R.J.V. 96 Hobsbawm, E. 3 Hock, R.F. 49, 163 Hölscher, G. 67 Hooker, M.D. 161 Horbury, W.A. 97 Horgan, M.P. 82, 87, 104–5 Horowitz, W. 80 Horrell, D.G. 163 Horsley, R.A. 162, 164 Horst, F. 86 Howard, G.E. 110 Hübner, H. 34 Hull, M.F. 149 Hurvitz, A. 65 Isaacs, M.E. 21, 168

Gager, J. 137 Gamble, H.Y. 49, 110, 133 García Martínez, F. 83, 116, 117 Gärtner, B.E. 162–3, 174

Jaffee, M.S. 110, 112, 114, 116, 133–4 Jastrow, M. 66 Jeremias, J. 32, 106–7

205

Index of Modern Authors Johnson, F. 26 Joosten, J. 65 Kahle, P.E. 41–2 Kaiser, O. 40 Kasher, R. 137 Katz, P. 109–10 Kautzsch, E. 1, 5–6, 7, 10, 17, 21, 25, 26, 29, 170 Kenyon, F. 35 Kister, M.K. 109 Kittel, R. 45 Klein, M.L. 99, 101 Knox, B.M.W. 34–5 Knox, W.L. 110 Koch, D.-A. 1, 6, 8–16, 17–25, 28–35, 37, 42–3, 45–8, 50–1, 56, 106, 124–9, 132, 141–3, 146–7, 151, 153–8, 160–2, 169–70, 178 König, E. 86 Kooij, A. van der 39, 44, 111, 147 Kraft, R.A. 42 Kümmel, W.G. 137 Kutscher, E.Y. 40, 65, 107, 113–14, 147 Lagarde, P. A. de 6, 41 Lange, A. 40, 41 Lapide, P. 66 Levine, L.I. 110 Levy, J.146 Liddell, G. 75, 78, 83 Lieberman, S. 26 Lim, T.H. 18, 24, 31, 41, 48–9, 82, 87, 104, 105–6 Lindars, B. 26, 98 Lord, A.B. 115 Louw, T.A.W. van der 113 Lührmann, D. 162 Lust, J. 74–6 Maher, M. 101 Mann, J. 110 Marcos, N.F. 10, 15, 24, 39–42, 68, 109, 113, 134 Marcus, R. 64–5, 71, 73 Marrou, H.I. 26, 34–5, 49 Marshall, P. 163–4 Marti, K. 86 Martin, D.B. 164 Martin, M. 107, 111, 113 Martyn, J.L. 122 Mason, S. 31, 57–8, 60, 63, 79, 137 McNamara, M. 95, 99, 101 Meeks, W.A. 136 Metzger, B.M. 106

Mez, A. 67 Michel, O. 8, 14, 16–17, 19, 21, 23, 25–6, 29–30, 45, 47, 49, 136, 153, 161–2 Milik, J.T. 40, 97, 105 Mitchell, M.M. 136, 156, 162–4 Molin, G. 86 Moo, D.M. 128 Morgan, R. 128, 135–7 Morgan, T. 49 Munck, J. 163–4 Munnich, O. 39 Murphy-O’Connor, J. 35, 162–3 Nägeli, T. 21 Nanos, M.D. 137 Nestle, E. 155 Neubauer, A. 86 Nodet, É. 58, 64, 67–70, 109 Norton , J. 55, 104–7, 111, 114 Nowack, D.W. 86 Oesch, J.M. 53 Olofsson, S. 144 O’Neill, E. 34 Ong, W.J. 44, 115 Orlinsky, H.M. 113–14 Orton, D.E. 106 Parry, M. 115 Parsons, P.J. 42 Pearson, B.A. 162 Pérez-Fernández, M. 93 Perrin, N. 134 Pervo, R.I. 32–3 Pfister. M. 132 Ploeg, J.P.M. van der. 86 Pogoloff, S.M. 163 Pope, M.H. 99 Porter, S.E. 49 Procksch, O. 86 Pulikottil, P. 111

Runia, D. 80 Russell, D.A. 53, 109 Safrai, S. 66 Saldarini, A.J. 31–2 Salvesen, A. 98, 109 Sanders, E.P. 32, 73–5, 77, 80, 108, 137 Schalit, A., 67–9 Schaller, B. 10, 42, 158 Schams, C. 24, 33, 106–7, 110 Scharfenberg, J.G. 67 Schlier, H. 165 Schmithals, W. 137 Schoeps, H.-J. 32 Schürer, E. 67, 106–7 Scott, R. 75, 78, 83 Scroggs, R. 162–3, 165, 174 Seeligmann, I.L. 39, 134 Segal, M.H. 65 Shutt, R.J.H. 61, 63, 68, 70 Sider, R.J. 148 Siegel, J.P. 27, 53, 105, 113 Skeat, T.C. 10, 42 Slusser, M. 113, 116, 123 Smit, G.A. 86 Smith, M. 149 Spilsbury, P. 61 Splitter, L. 67 Stanley, C.D. 5, 8, 12, 17, 18–20, 21, 23–30, 33–7, 41, 46–8, 56, 106, 124–9, 132–4, 153, 156–62 Stegemann, H. 15, 111 Stendahl, K. 49, 106, 109 Sterling, G.E. 57, 60–1, 63, 67, 69 Steudel, A. 35 Stonehouse, G.G.V. 86 Stowers, S.K. 137 Strecker, G. 32 Struycken, P. 80 Swete, H.B. 21

Qimron, E. 65, 147 Rabin, C. 83, 86–9, 104 Rahlfs, A. 9, 11 Rajak, T. 63, 68 Randolph Richards, E. 35 Ranger, T. 3 Rappaport, S. 67 Redpath, H.A. 6, 168–9 Reich, R. 106 Rese, M. 132 Revell, E.J. 53 Rieder, D. 101 Roberts, C.H. 10, 42 Robinson, T.H. 86 Roepe, G. 5, 17, 25–6

Tachauer, G. 67 Tal, A. 92 Talmon, S. 40, 111 Thackeray, H. St. J. 58, 61, 63–4, 66–7, 72, 74–7 Theissen, G. 162–4 Thiselton, A.C. 162–3 Tigchelaar, E.J. 83, 116–17 Tov, E. 2, 4, 10, 35, 39–43, 53, 84, 98, 103, 105–7, 110–11, 113–14, 117–18 Toy, C.H. 26 Trever, J.C. 111, 114 Tuckett, C.M. 129, 133–4, 148, 161

206

Index of Modern Authors

Turner, E.G. 34–5

Walker, W.O., Jr. 162–3, 173 Watson, F. 137 Wedderburn, A.J.M. Wiefel, W. 137, 148 Wellhausen, J. 86, Wettstein, J.J. 8 Wernberg- Møller, P. 116, 119 Wevers, J.W. 42, 85, 96 Whiston, W. 5–6, 32 White, J.R. 149 Widmann, M. 163, 173 Wikgren, A. 71 Wildberger, H. 143–4 Wilk, F. 33–4, 46, 142, 161–2, 165, 169 Wilkens, U. 162–3, 175

Ulrich, E. 39–44, 84 Unnik, W.C. van 22–3 VanderKam, J.C. 35, 41, 43, 105 Van’t Land, F.A.W. 86 Vaux, R. de. 106 Veenker, R.A. 99 Vermes, G. 32, 67, 86–9, 104–8, 112, 116–17 Vollmer, H. 5–11, 14, 16–17, 20–1, 23, 24, 29–30, 32, 36, 48, 128, 136, 161

Williams, T.F. 39, 147 Wilson, G.H. 134 Winterbottom, M. 53, 109 Witherington III, B. 163, Woolf, G. 110 Woude, A.S. van der 86 Wright, J.E. 80 Wuellner, W. 162 Yadin, Y. 102 Zangenberg, J. 55, Ziegler, J. 10, 39, 129, 156, 160, 170 Zimmermann, J. 96, 99

I NDEX OF SUBJECTS Italics indicate the principal or most important references to a subject. Acts as evidence for Paul’s education and linguistic ethos 7, 13, 16–17, 20, 22–5, 30, 32, 33, 36 access to scrolls 13, 19, 22, 24–5, 33, 49 Alexandrian text 5, 10, 13, 21, 39, 58, 62 Alexandrian textual critics 53, 109 allusion see also verbal parallel; verbal replication 7, 9, 17, 29, 36, 97–8, 125, 127–8, 132–3 exclusion of from analysis 9, 29, 127–8 in Paul’s letters 7, 9, 17, 29, 36, 125–8, 132–3 in Yah9ad literature 97, 98 anthologies see florilegia Aquila (a') 3, 5, 7, 39–40, 42, 51, 55, 83, 85–6, 88, 95–8, 102, 109, 142–3, 147, 154–6, 169–72 Aramaic 53, 66, 72, 99, 107, 113, 134, 146 Josephus’ knowledge of 58, 63–6, 66, 76 see also Josephus Paul’s knowledge of see under Paul chirography characteristic of scribal practice 106–7 oral contexts of 104, 108–9, 111, 112–23 citation hermeneutical position 132–3 rhetorical position 133–4 citations, Paul’s see also verbal parallels; verbal replication altered to suit Paul’s purposes 15–16, 18, 25–6, 28, 31, 36–7, 45, 47, 51, 124, 128–9, 139–41, 145, 151, 157

author- / reader-centred approaches to 18, 124, 127–9, 131 claims to authority through 121–4, 127–31, 134, 139, 180 cues to text-critical analysis 51, 123–4, 127–9, 131, 180 embedded 124–9, 134, 151 explicit 7–9, 18, 29, 123–9, 131–4 introductory formulae for 9, 124, 127, 129–31 invoking Israelite ancestors 123, 129–30, 139 literary context of 8, 15, 19, 24, 27, 35, 124–7, 132–6, 141, 147, 153, 154, 157, 160, 163, 175 logical function of 47–8, 132, 135–6, 138–42, 142–60, 161, 172, 176, 177, 180 made directly from copies 8–9, 11–12, 14–16, 18–19, 21–2, 25–6, 28–30, 48 made from memory 5–6, 8, 12, 14–17, 20–1, 24–5, 25–30, 34, 37, 178 preference for a form of a passage see under passage rhetorical impact of 47–8, 53, 129, 132–4, 135–8, 139, 141, 145, 153, 159–60, 162, 164, 166, 175–7, 180 structural indispensability of 47–8, 135–6, 138–53, 158–61, 172, 174, 176–7 supportive function of 47–8, 132, 135–8, 139, 141, 145, 161 textual profile of 8–9, 11, 17, 19–20, 26–7, 31, 33, 37, 51 thematic force of 134–5

verbal accuracy of see also verbal replication 5, 7–9, 22, 25, 124–8, 155 compilations see florilegia copies comparison of by Paul 7–8, 12–13, 18–20, 22, 24, 30, 33–4, 45–6, 48–50, 53, 56, 103, 106 by other ancients 39, 42–3, 46, 48–50, 55–8, 88, 103, 105–6, 110–11, 180 eclecticism of see textual eclecticism Paul’s access to see under Paul’s copy, definition of 3 copying by dictation 112–14 by sight 113–14 from memory 113–14 errors 113 David 76, 90, 94, 98, 102, 122, 129–30, 134, 138–9 Deissman on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 20 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 20 on Septuagintal quality of Paul’s language see also under Septuagint 16–17, 21, 23 dictation, copying by see copying Elijah 129–30, 138, 148, 158 Ellis, E.E. on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 1, 8, 21–2, 24, 30, 33, 45, 50 on Paul’s citation from memory 14, 21–2, 25–6, 30–4 on Paul’s direct citation from copies 21–2, 30

208 Ellis, E.E. (continued) on Paul’s use of Hebrew copies 10–11, 21–3, 45, 49 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 19, 22, 30, 33 Eusebius 14 excerpta 4, 12, 19–20, 30–1, 34–7 exegete, definition of 4–5 exegetical techniques (including Rabbinic middôt) 24, 54, 57, 98, 105, 108–10, 115, 137 florilegia 4, 6–9, 11–12, 20, 24, 31, 34–6, 39, 48, 134 Ged see Göttingen Septuagint GHR see Hebraizing revision Göttingen Septuagint 2, 15, 18, 41–2, 127, 129, 169–70 Hebraizing revision (GHR) 3, 5, 10–11, 13–14, 20, 22–3, 34, 36, 42, 45–7, 49–51, 53, 76, 98, 125–7, 142, 147, 157–61, 170 Hebrew Josephus’ knowledge of 63–6 Paul’s knowledge of 5, 7 Hengel on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 23–4, 48 on Paul’s citation from memory 23–4 on Paul’s direct citation from copies 22–3 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 23, 48 Hexapla 40, 43 Hexaplaric recension 5, 10, 13, 39, 50, 170 Hillel 23, 108–9 intertextual 108, 132–3, 136 Jerome 32, 41 Josephus attitudes to the Septuagint 58–62 awareness of textual plurality/variation 57–8, 62, 69–70, 71–81, 104, 115 knowledge of Aramaic 58, 63–6, 76 knowledge of Greek 58, 63

Index of Subjects knowledge of Hebrew 58, 63–6 understanding of translation see under translation use of multiple copies 57–8, 62, 67, 69, 81 Justin 43 kaige 3, 7, 10, 27, 42–3, 48, 85, 98, 147, 155 Koch, D.-A. on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 1, 8, 11, 12–14, 19–20, 23–4, 28, 30, 33–4, 43, 45–8, 50–2, 153, 155 on Paul’s citation from memory 12, 14–16, 18–19, 25–6, 28, 30, 32–3 on Paul’s direct citation from copies 11–12, 14–16, 25–6, 28–9 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 12–13, 20, 30, 33–4, 45–8 lexical evidence in analyses of Paul’s literary work 7–9 11–12, 14, 17, 20, 25, 29–30, 36, 50–1, 161, 177–80 Paul’s interest in 138–41, 145, 153–4, 161, 176–80 Lim, T.H. on D.-A. Koch’s reconstruction of Paul’s sources 18 on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 24, 48–9 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 24, 48 literary paradigm distinction between ancient and modern 20, 28–30, 36–7, 43, 48–53, 56, 129, 145, 178–81 Lucianic recension 39, 42, 67 memorization in antiquity 23, 26–9, 33, 37, 113–14, 178 memory error 15–16, 18, 25–6 role in analysis 37 Paul’s see under Paul Michel, O. on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 17, 45, 47, 49, 153, 161–2

on Paul’s citation from memory 14, 17–18, 25–6 on Paul’s use of Hebrew copies 17, 30, 49, 153, 161–2 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 19, 45 on Septuagintal quality of Paul’s language see also under Septuagint 17, 21, 136 Moses 59–60, 65–6, 70, 74, 112, 117–18, 122–3, 129–30, 134, 138–9 oral performance of literature 26, 53, 87, 104, 112, 114, 117, 121–2, 137 of Torah in synagogues see under reading oral traditions 11, 16, 23–4, 30, 108, 129, 131, 162 orality 28–30, 49, 104, 106, 108, 111–23, 158, 160, 162, 178–81 personal authority and charisma in Paul’s writing 121–4, 127–31, 134, 139, 180 in Yah9ad writing 115–19 Origen 14, 39–43, 50, 156 passage definition of 53–6 preference for a form of 8, 9, 13–14 18–22, 24, 28, 30, 33, 47–8, 50–3, 132, 141–2, 144–5, 153–5, 158–60, 161, 177, 180 semantic form of see under semantic Paul’s access to multiple copies 7–8, 12–13, 18–20, 22, 24, 29–30, 33–4, 36, 45–6, 48–50, 53, 105–6, 108, 161 access to synagogue scrolls 13, 19, 22, 31, 33, 48–9 awareness of textual plurality/variation 8, 11, 13–14, 19–21, 23–4, 28–30, 32–3, 36–8, 45–56, 105–6, 115, 119–20, 131, 132, 142, 145, 153–4, 161, 162, 176–7, 178–81 citations see citations, Paul’s command of scripture see also memory, below

Index of Subjects 14–16, 19, 22–5, 29–33, 36–7, 48–9, 178 dictation of letters 158 education 6–7, 16–17, 22–4, 26–7, 31–3, 49 introductory citation formulae see under citation knowledge of Aramaic 11, 22–4 knowledge of Greek 7, 16–17, 21–4, 36, 49 knowledge of Hebrew / use of Hebrew sources 1, 5, 7, 10–11, 17, 19–25, 30, 36, 45, 49, 50, 161–2 memory 5–8, 11–12, 14–18, 20–2, 24–30, 33–4, 37, 153 preference for a form of a passage see under passage private exegetical process 128, 141, 150, 162, 176 Rabbinic characteristics 6–8, 22, 24, 33, 128, 137 status as scribe see under scribe textual character of his sources see sources, Paul’s use of wax tablets see wax tablets verbal alteration of his written source 28, 37, 124, 137 pesharim 35, 44, 53–5, 82–8, 94–105, 108, 115, 119, 125 Pharisees 20, 23–4, 30–2, 34, 36, 57 pM-stream 3, 42, 51–3, 140–8, 150–7, 160–3, 166, 171–4, 176–7, 180 private exegetical process see under Paul’s Qumran scribal practice (Tov) 103, 107, 114, 117 scriptorium 55, 105–7, 113 rabbinic awareness of textual plurality/variation 27, 40, 43, 53, 105, 113–14 canon 2–3, 39, 43–4, 46, 60, 67, 92, 108, 130 injunctions on copying 113–14

standardization of Masoretic Text 2–3, 27, 40, 43, 113–14 reader-centred approaches to citation see also author-centred reading aloud 34, 53, 104, 110, 112–14, 116–17, 122–3 privately 29, 49, 110, 112–13, 116, 123 of Torah in synagogues 53, 110, 158 rhetorical impact of citations see citations scribal awareness of textual plurality 49, 105–6, 108, 110–11, 179–80 collaboration 107, 111 error 68, 86, 88, 105, 111, 113, 143 exegesis 104–8, 110–11, 116, 119 realia 106–7 sloppiness 114 scribe 1QIsaa scribe A 111, 113 scribe B 111 1QS scribe 111 Baruch 112 Ezra 112 Josephus 107 Moses 112 Paul 23, 32–3, 36, 48, 105–7 Shaphan 116 Teacher of Righteousness 111 scribes ability to memorize scripture 33, 113–14 access to copies 48–9, 87, 105–8, 110–11, 180 collaborating see scribal, cooperation connected with Levites 108 exegetes/Torah experts 33, 49, 104–8, 110–11, 116 historical perspectives on 106 soferim 23, 43 technicians 33, 107 scriptorium see Qumran scroll of Rabbi Meir (Severus scroll) 53, 105 113

209 of the Teacher of Righteousness 105 scrolls expense of 4, 12, 31 mnemonic devices 114 Paul’s portable collection of 12, 22 tools for oral performance 29–30, 49, 53, 104, 108, 111–17, 122, 179 unwieldiness of 4, 19, 24, 31, 48 ‘Sectarian’, definition of see under Dead Sea Sectarian semantic definition of 47, 51–2 distinct from lexical 52–2, 138–41, 145, 147, 153–4, 161, 176–80 form of a passage see passage 47, 50, 52–4, 82, 103, 106–8, 112, 121, 142, 161–2, 166–77, 179 units 55–6, 70, 81–2, 87, 91, 94, 98, 103, 106, 109 sense contours 52–6, 67, 70–1. 81–4, 88, 91, 94–6, 98–9, 102, 106, 141, 144–8, 151–6, 161, 166, 175–7, 179 analytically distinct from textual variants 49–56, 82, 147, 154–5 Josephus’ use of 67, 70–1, 81 Paul’s use of 141, 144–8, 151–6, 166, 175–7 Yahad use of 82–4, 87–8, 91, 94–6, 98–9, 102–3 Septuagint influence on Paul’s language and thought 7, 16–17, 21–2 revisions of 1, 3, 5, 10–11, 13, 22–3, 26, 27, 34, 36, 39–42, 45–6, 49–50, 62, 76, 85, 96, 98, 125–7, 142, 147, 155, 161, 170 translation of 2, 39, 41–2, 44, 46, 58, 60, 62, 68, 134 Severus scroll (Rabbis Meir’s Torah) 53, 105, 113 sources, Paul’s Isaiah source(s) 5, 9–13, 19, 21–3, 33–4, 45–6, 48, 50, 147 textual character of 1, 8–10, 28

210 Stanley, C.D. on D.-A. Koch’s approach 18–19 on D.-A. Koch’s reconstruction of Paul’s sources 18–19 on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 18–21, 46, 153 on Paul’s citation from memory 18, 26–9, 29–30 on Paul’s direct citation from copies 18–19, 25–6, 28, 30, 48 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 18–20, 30, 33–4, 46–8 suitability argument 14, 17, 47–8, 132, 141, 153–61, 162, 176–7, 180 Koch 14, 47–8, 132, 153–8 Michel 17, 47, 153, 161–2 Stanley 19, 47, 132, 153 type A cases 47–8, 50 type B cases 48, 52, 153, 176 synagogue 11, 13, 14, 17, 19, 22, 31, 33, 36, 48, 49, 53, 136, 158–9 synagogue scrolls, Paul’s access to see under Paul’s Symmachus (s') 3, 5, 7, 40, 42, 51, 85, 97–8, 109, 142–3, 147, 154–5, 169–72 Targums see Index of ancient literature for passages

Index of Subjects first-century availability 66 Teacher of Righteousness (Moreh Tzedek) 44, 103, 105, 111 text definition of 4 «text» 4 standard/aberrant text forms 110–11 text-type 2–4, 13, 39–43, 45, 49–50, 54–6, 67, 176, 179 textual eclecticism 19, 27, 39–40, 45–6, 50, 58 textual plurality/variation use of, an ambient literary mode 28, 32, 36–7, 108–10 general awareness of 28, 36–8, 42–6, 48–9, 52–6, 82, 108–9, 111, 119–20, 131, 161, 178–81 textual variants 27, 33, 42, 47, 49–53, 56, 82–8, 90–1, 92–3, 95–6, 102, 104–6, 109–11, 113, 135–6, 142–3, 146–7, 152, 156, 158, 160, 169–72, 175 Theodotion (q') 3, 5, 7, 17, 22, 27, 39–40, 42, 45, 48, 51, 85, 89, 98, 109, 142–3, 147–8, 154–5, 169–70, 172 translation Josephus’ understanding of 58–63, 69 of the Septuagint see Septuagint Trypho 43

variant readings see textual variants verbal parallel 9, 29, 67–8, 125, 128–9, 137, 166, 171 verbal replication 18, 124–8 (125), 135, 137, 161–3, 166, 169, 171 Vollmer, H. on Paul’s awareness of textual plurality/variation 7–8 on Paul’s citation from memory 6–8, 30 on Paul’s direct citation from copies 8 on Paul’s use of multiple copies 7–8, 20, 33–4, 48 on Septuagintal quality of Paul’s language see also under Septuagint 7, 21, 23, 136 Vorlage 3 wax tablets 19, 34–5 work, literary Yaḥad/Dead Sea Sectarian access to multiple copies 47–8, 87–8, 102–3, 105–7, 179–80 awareness of textual plurality 82, 87–8, 88–92, 92–103, 103, 104, 106–8 110–11, 115, 119–20, 121, 131

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