Computer Games as Educational and Management Tools: Uses and Approaches Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Paula Cristina Almeida Tavares Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Computer games as educational and management tools: uses and approaches / Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha, Vitor Hugo Carvalho, and Paula Tavares, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: “This book considers the many uses of games and simulations, focusing specifically on their use in organizational and educational settings and providing perspectives on gaming for distance learning, gaming for rehabilitation, business simulators, and motivational games, this publication explores new and emerging trends in this ever-evolving area of research”-Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-60960-569-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60960-570-4 (ebook) 1. Management games. 2. Management--Simulation methods. 3. Organization-Simulation methods. 4. Computer simulation. I. Cruz-Cunha, Maria Manuela, 1964- II. Carvalho, Vitor Hugo, 1979- III. Tavares, Paula, 1973HD30.26.C66 2011 658.3’124--dc22 2011012251
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Editorial Advisory Board Nelson Zagalo, Universidade do Minho, Portugal Rui Prada, Instituto Superior Técnico, Portugal Adamantios Koumpis, ALTEC Software S.A., Greece Pedro Mota Teixeira, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal António José Videira Tavares, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal
List of Reviewers Adamantios Koumpis, ALTEC Software S.A, Greece Agostino Poggi, Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy Ana Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Ana Castro Correia, TECField Sistemas de Informação e Multimédia, Lda, Portugal Anja Johansson, Linköping University, Sweden Antonio Manuel Valente de Andrade, Universidade Católica Portuguesa – Porto, Portugal Antonio Magalhaes, Universidade do Porto, Portugal Augusta Gaspar, ISCTE-IUL, Cis-IUL, Portugal Bernard Riera, Reims University, France Bruno Vigário, Real Games Lda, Portugal Clodis Boscarioli, Western Paraná State University, Brazil Corinne Grenier, Euromed Management, Marseille, France Daniel Thomas, Griffith University, Australia Danny Pannicke, Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany Eva Ferreira Oliveira, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Fernando Paulo Belfo, Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal Giannis Milolidakis, Technological Education Institution of Crete, Greece & Euromed Management, Marseille, France Gyula Mester, University of Szeged, Hungary Heather O’Brien, University of British Columbia, Canada Heiko Duin, BIBA Bremer Institut für Produktion und Logistik GmbH, Germany Helena Coelho, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal Henry Emurian, UMBC, USA Ines de Seixas Duarte, Universidade Católica Portuguesa – Porto, Portugal
Isidro De Pablo, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge, University of Bremen, Germany João Orvalho, Face In Motion, Portugal Johann Riedel, Nottingham University Business School, UK Jonas Repschlaeger, Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany Jorge Bidarra, Western Paraná State University, Brazil Jose Bidarra, Universidade Aberta, Portugal Juho Hamari, Helsinki Institute for Information Technology HIIT, Finland Julia Bullard, University of British Columbia, Canada Julio Angel Ortiz, Harvard University, USA Karla Munoz Esquivel, University of Ulster, UK Kostas Anagnostou, Ionian University, Greece Ljubo Vlacic, Griffith University, Australia Luis Neri, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Mabel Okojie, Mississippi State University, USA Marcelo Fantinato, University of São Paulo, Brazil Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Mark G. Elwell, Hakusan International School, Japan Martin Heitmann, Technische Universität Berlin, Germany Michael Barlow, The University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Academy, Australia Morgan Leigh Murillo Guimarães Carneiro, Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil Nicholas Stegg Olga Albuquerque, Escola Secundária Dr Jaime Magalhães Lima, Portugal Patrícia Arriaga, ISCTE-IUL, Cis-IUL, Portugal Patricia Gonçalves, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Paula Cristina Almeida Tavares, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Pedro Campos, University of Madeira & Universitário da Penteada, Portugal Pedro Pina, ESTGOH - Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Portugal Peter J. Denning, Naval Postgraduate School, USA Peter Wasilko, The Institute for End User Computing, Inc., USA Petri Lankoski, Aalto University, Finland Pierangelo Dell’Acqua, Linköping University, Sweden Piroska Stanić Molcer, Subotica-Tech, Subotica, Serbia Ruediger Zarnekow, Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany Sarajane Marques Peres, University of São Paulo, Brazil Sofia Efraimidou, University of Thessaly, Greece Stephen Schafer, Digipen Institute of Technology, USA Tiago Gomes, University of Minho, Portugal Tim Serong Verónica Costa Orvalho, Universidade do Porto, Portugal Vítor Hugo Costa Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Vladimir Devyatkov, Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Russia Vlado Delić, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Table of Contents
Preface . ................................................................................................................................................ xv Chapter 1 Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes........................................................... 1 Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Celina Pinto Leão, University of Minho, Portugal Filomena Soares, University of Minho, Portugal Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Chapter 2 Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’......... 10 C. Karagiannidis, University of Thessaly, Greece S. Efraimidou, University of Thessaly, Greece A. Koumpis, ALTEC Software S.A, Greece Chapter 3 Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games................................ 23 Daniel I. Thomas, Griffith University, Australia Ljubo B. Vlacic, Griffith University, Australia Chapter 4 Computer Games and Libraries............................................................................................................. 52 Helena Coelho, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal Chapter 5 Games and Simulations in Distance Learning: The AIDLET Model.................................................... 67 José Bidarra, Universidade Aberta, Portugal Meagan Rothschild, University of Wisconsin, USA Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin, USA
Chapter 6 The Educational Value of Digital Games: Possibilities and Limitations of the Use of Digital Games as Educational Tools (The Spore Case)..................................................................................... 86 Ana Castro Correia, TECField Sistemas de Informação e Multimédia, Lda, Portugal Lia Raquel Oliveira, University of Minho, Portugal Chapter 7 The Pedagogical Potential of MMOG: An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players......................................................................................................................................... 103 Tiago Gomes, University of Minho, Portugal Ana Amélia A. Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Chapter 8 Browser-Native Games That Use Real-World XML Data................................................................... 122 Jonathan Chetwynd, London, UK Chapter 9 A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games..................................... 136 Pedro Campos, University of Madeira & INESC ID Lisbon, Portugal Chapter 10 Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction................................................................................. 151 Chien Yu, Mississippi State University, USA Anthony A. Olinzock, Mississippi State University, USA Chapter 11 RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability and Results of Its Application............................................................................................. 167 Brenda Flores Muro, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico Eduardo César Contreras Delgado, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico Chapter 12 When Control Education is the Name of the Game............................................................................. 185 António Pessoa de Magalhães, Universidade do Porto, Portugal Bernard Riera, Reims University, France Bruno Vigário, Real Games Lda, Portugal Chapter 13 Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience............................................... 206 Karla Muñoz, University of Ulster, UK Paul Mc Kevitt, University of Ulster, UK Tom Lunney, University of Ulster, UK Julieta Noguez, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Luis Neri, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico
Chapter 14 Business Simulators for Business Education and Research: SIMBA Experience............................... 229 Fernando Borrajo, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Yolanda Bueno, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Fernando Fernández, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Javier García, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Isidro de Pablo, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Ismael Sagredo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Begoña Santos, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Chapter 15 Educational Games.............................................................................................................................. 247 Gyula Mester, University of Szeged, Hungary Piroska Stanić Molcer, Subotica-Tech, Subotica, Serbia Vlado Delić, University of Novi Sad, Serbia Chapter 16 Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering).......................................... 263 Johann C.K.H. Riedel, Nottingham University Business School, UK Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge, University of Bremen, Germany Chapter 17 Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning?...................................................................... 280 Mabel CPO Okojie, Mississippi State University, USA Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 299 About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 324 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 334
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface . ................................................................................................................................................ xv Chapter 1 Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes........................................................... 1 Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal Celina Pinto Leão, University of Minho, Portugal Filomena Soares, University of Minho, Portugal Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal This chapter presents a research developed in collaboration by two higher education institutions. Nowadays, high education programs can only be successful with the use of new technologies in the teaching/ learning process, especially when there are special education requirements. Two experiments were carried out: (1) a set of billiard balls, for snooker game, simulated by using physics laws and, (2) aLJo 2009, a game whose aim is to achieve the correct sorting of a sequence to accomplish a common task. Both projects were developed by students with different background and from different engineering courses. The snooker game, an academic project, aims to demonstrate that, through a simple game, several areas of knowledge can be used. On the other hand, aLJo 2009 was developed considering a collaboration protocol between the university and the Parents and Friends Association of the Citizen with Mental Deficiency (APPCDM), to improve behavior and social skills in patients with mental impairments. Chapter 2 Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’......... 10 C. Karagiannidis, University of Thessaly, Greece S. Efraimidou, University of Thessaly, Greece A. Koumpis, ALTEC Software S.A, Greece In recent years the gap between educational theory and practice has been closing, but although there have been calls for ‘reflexivity’, there has been little critical examination of its meanings. Proposed reflexive methodologies still perpetuate many traditional hierarchies, and fail to consider the creative nature of the educational process as such. Much research work also takes place within the commercial sphere, and post-processual ideas cannot advance educational practice unless they can be implemented
in some type of an e-learning system. This chapter examines theoretical considerations of reflexivity, representation, subjectivity and experiential engagement to highlight their relevance to everyday educational practice, and their potential to undermine existing suboptimalities in the classroom. Chapter 3 Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games................................ 23 Daniel I. Thomas, Griffith University, Australia Ljubo B. Vlacic, Griffith University, Australia In this chapter, the authors envisage virtual beings engaging as equal partners with humans, providing richer emergent game play. In computer games, the development of artificial intelligence (AI) has been a very poor cousin to the investment in graphics and physics. AI in the most part is confined to path finding algorithms and simple state machines. Taking human and virtual beings beyond current applications of AI in computer games means that intelligent entities within the computer game cease to be “props” in a human-centric story line, but become equal participants themselves within the computer game world, engaging with humans towards achieving goals in more dynamic and realistic ways. Computer games provide a compelling environment to study and enable virtual beings to engage with humans as equals. The authors investigate the requirements, design and implementation of virtual beings that participate in computer games as humans would; playing the game and creating rich new collaborative game play experiences in areas of education, training and entertainment. Chapter 4 Computer Games and Libraries............................................................................................................. 52 Helena Coelho, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal Information literacy is a crucial attribute in today’s knowledge society, because it makes independent lifelong learning possible. Faced with a digital world where new tools for information seeking and the spaces for information sharing are developing, academic librarians must respond to the changing learning landscape in order to help students acquire essential skills. Computer games, due to their cognitive potential and engagement capacity, can be used to promote and improve information literacy instruction. This chapter consists of a review of available literature on these topics. It addresses the role of computer games in the teaching and learning process and aims at discussing its possible use as training tools for promoting information literacy in libraries. Chapter 5 Games and Simulations in Distance Learning: The AIDLET Model.................................................... 67 José Bidarra, Universidade Aberta, Portugal Meagan Rothschild, University of Wisconsin, USA Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin, USA This chapter discusses the selection and potential use of electronic games and simulations in distance learning supported by an operational model called AIDLET. The authors have developed a framework to facilitate the selection, repurposing, design and implementation of games and simulations, with focus on the practical aspects of the processes used in Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Whereas
traditional learning is based on knowledge memorization and the completion of carefully graded assignments, today, games, simulations and virtual environments turn out to be safe platforms for trial and error experimentation, i.e. learning by doing/playing. New instructional models may require that rich interactive processes of communication are supported, that assignments are structured as game-like projects, and that a culture of interaction, collaboration, and enablement drives learning and personal development. In this context, the AIDLET model was set out and verified against a taxonomy representing the main categories and genres of games to meet the requirements of distance education teachers, instructional designers and decision-makers.. Chapter 6 The Educational Value of Digital Games: Possibilities and Limitations of the Use of Digital Games as Educational Tools (The Spore Case)..................................................................................... 86 Ana Castro Correia, TECField Sistemas de Informação e Multimédia, Lda, Portugal Lia Raquel Oliveira, University of Minho, Portugal Today, digital games present themselves as one of the most common forms of entertainment, especially for children and teenagers, combining the playful factor with pedagogical advantages, promoting changes in terms of cognitive, behavioral and psychomotor skills in its users. The use of digital games in educational contexts encourages active, critical, autonomous and participated learning processes, overcoming some of the limitations presented in more ‘conventional’ methods, engaging players in non-passive forms of acquiring knowledge and skills. Aiming to demonstrate how digital games make the learning process possible by allowing the development of critical thinking, outlined during the act of playing, the authors will proceed to a critical analysis of Spore, a game created by Electronic Arts in 2008, demonstrating how the player places himself in an active learning situation which is self controlled and self regulated, facilitating the comprehension of phenomena that are not a part of formal teaching. Chapter 7 The Pedagogical Potential of MMOG: An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players......................................................................................................................................... 103 Tiago Gomes, University of Minho, Portugal Ana Amélia A. Carvalho, University of Minho, Portugal The increasing complexity experienced by electronic games, began to demand a greater cognitive effort from their players. This has fostered some capacities in its players that could be used in teaching and learning. This chapter describes an exploratory study with two phases: the first one analyses four MMOG (Ikariam, OGame, Gladiatus and Metin2) and its pedagogical potential related to the development of problem solving skills, communication and interaction skills, and motivation to perform tasks. The second phase is a survey conducted to the players of these games about their motivation to play and their perceptions about its pedagogical potential. The results showed that all of the four analyzed games are motivating for the players, they have some pedagogical potential related to problem solving, and they improve communication and interaction skills. But the majority of the players felt some difficulties in accepting that they could transfer those developed skills to their scholar or professional life.
Chapter 8 Browser-Native Games That Use Real-World XML Data................................................................... 122 Jonathan Chetwynd, London, UK The rising tide of scientific data available on the web has the potential to help us consider the complex problems that concern us today, and simulation games can help us visualize, model and plan for alternative futures. However, the modularisation of knowledge has limited communication across subject domains, and copyright legislation and business practices may need to change, if the many new visualisation tools needed are to be interoperable and share common interfaces. A game standard and specification for the web, together with easy-to-use authoring tools for creating browser-native games that use real-world XML data; could enhance communication, and engage the public in the understanding of science, and its progress. Chapter 9 A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games..................................... 136 Pedro Campos, University of Madeira & INESC ID Lisbon, Portugal Computer games have become an important part of the new digital economy, employing thousands of Information Technology professionals worldwide. Their role as a novel approach to reduce the distance between students and knowledge is also well documented. The chapter describes describe a multi-disciplinary approach to designing a particular class of educational games: business management games. Authors argue that through a better understanding of the relationship between work-domain based decisions and processes, professional game designers can achieve effective results. The design approach was based on intensive collaboration and co-design meetings with business management researchers and professors. The result was a game called “SimCompany”, aimed at teaching children about business management concepts, thus promoting an entrepreneurship culture in classroom settings. “SimCompany” proved effective as a teaching tool about business management concepts, and initial evaluation showed a positive increase in students’ rate of learning, when compared to traditional teaching methods. Chapter 10 Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction................................................................................. 151 Chien Yu, Mississippi State University, USA Anthony A. Olinzock, Mississippi State University, USA This chapter aims to provide the classroom teachers with the basic tools and fundamentals necessary to create instructional games targeted to specific courses and/or instructional objectives. By discussing the trends and issues related to today’s teaching and learning environment, the authors review the benefits of using educational games in classrooms, and provide some strategies and guidelines for creating computer games for classroom instruction. Along with discussing the fundamental issues and considerations, the authors discuss some of the challenges and impact of computer games in classrooms. Additional examples drawn from literature are also included to illustrate the use of games in education and the strategies of effective instruction.
Chapter 11 RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability and Results of Its Application............................................................................................. 167 Brenda Flores Muro, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico Eduardo César Contreras Delgado, Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico This chapter introduces a PC simulation game to conduct a study with the main objective to train children with psychomotor disabilities (coordination, equilibrium and movements). The child interacts with simulated environments which contain the needed stimulus to develop the eye-hand coordination, the child responds to the game with mouse movements by means of audible orders. The main objective for the present work, is to enhance the child´s psychomotricity with more precise movements. Converting the game in a mean to children rehabilitation, this can be used in homes aided by child´s parents. Another purpose is to have a didactical tool for professors of special education. Chapter 12 When Control Education is the Name of the Game............................................................................. 185 António Pessoa de Magalhães, Universidade do Porto, Portugal Bernard Riera, Reims University, France Bruno Vigário, Real Games Lda, Portugal This chapter relates to a serious game named ITS PLC, an interactive simulation tool aimed at control systems education and training that includes the latest technologies from the video and computer games industry, namely, real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound. The goal of the game is to make five virtual industrial plants work correctly by using an external and real programmable logic controller (PLC) running the proper software, which the trainee must develop. The main purpose of the chapter is to testify the excellent properties of ITS PLC as an educational tool throughout a collection of three success stories: the first one shows how virtual scenarios can be used to investigate real problems; the usage of ITS PLC in an “edutainment” scenario is the theme of the second story; the third case testifies the benefits of ITS PLC in introductory automation programs. Chapter 13 Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience............................................... 206 Karla Muñoz, University of Ulster, UK Paul Mc Kevitt, University of Ulster, UK Tom Lunney, University of Ulster, UK Julieta Noguez, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Luis Neri, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Computer game-based learning environments enable learning through experimentation and are inherently motivational. However, for identifying when learners achieve learning goals and providing suitable feedback, Intelligent Tutoring Systems must be used. Recognizing the learner’s affective state enables educational games to improve the learner’s experience or to distinguish relevant emotions. This chapter discusses the creation of an affective student model that infers the learner’s emotions from cognitive and motivational variables through observable behavior. The control-value theory of ‘achieve-
ment emotions’ provides a basis for this work. A Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) approach for affective student modeling, which is based on Dynamic Bayesian Networks, is discussed. The approach is tested through a prototyping study based on Wizard-of-Oz experiments and preliminary results are presented. The affective student model will be incorporated into PlayPhysics, an emotional game-based learning environment for teaching Physics. PRMs facilitate the design of student models with Bayesian Networks. The effectiveness of PlayPhysics will be evaluated by comparing the students’ learning gains and learning efficiencies. Chapter 14 Business Simulators for Business Education and Research: SIMBA Experience............................... 229 Fernando Borrajo, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Yolanda Bueno, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Fernando Fernández, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Javier García, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Isidro de Pablo, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Ismael Sagredo, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain Begoña Santos, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Business Simulators provide a simulated environment where different scenarios and decisions can be tested without risk. They are also used for education where they can help students to understand the main concepts and theory involved in business administration. In addition, business simulators can be used to carry out research in different scientific areas, such as psychology, financial planning, risk evaluation, or intelligent business. This chapter introduces SIMBA, a new simulator for business education and research. SIMBA has two main goals: one is to serve as a web-based platform for business education, allowing students to connect the simulator from any point on the web, permitting both classroom education as well as distance education; SIMBA architecture permits not only the connection of human business managers, but also software agents; the second goal of SIMBA is to provide an environment in which to design and test a Multi-Agent platform for the creation, development and evaluation of Intelligent Agents that can manage companies in the same way as humans. Chapter 15 Educational Games.............................................................................................................................. 247 Gyula Mester, University of Szeged, Hungary Piroska Stanić Molcer, Subotica-Tech, Subotica, Serbia Vlado Delić, University of Novi Sad, Serbia The market favours the best-selling computer games regardless of their social and educational effects. This chapter discusses the present trends in educational games development, technologies related to them as well as their features, through representative examples of games used for education with respect to pedagogical, business, and social aspects. Benefits and limitations of introducing games in education are pointed out, and computer games for the disabled along with their pedagogical and social effects are presented. Recent research results on the implementation of video games in schools and educational game evaluation are also presented in the chapter, based on the experience in the development,
implementation, and evaluation of several interactive e-learning educational exercises, as well as in the development and validation of several innovative computer games for the visually impaired. Chapter 16 Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering).......................................... 263 Johann C.K.H. Riedel, Nottingham University Business School, UK Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge, University of Bremen, Germany This chapter reports on the evaluation methods and findings from serious games for teaching production/ engineering. Two serious games are considered: Cosiga, a new product development simulation game and Beware, a risk management simulation game. These two games cover the front and middle parts of the engineering process – from design to manufacture to sale. For the Cosiga simulation evaluations of the communication, cognitive change and situational awareness were performed. For the Beware game evaluation of communication, risk awareness and improvement of risk management skills were performed. The findings from the evaluations showed that serious games deliver learning outcomes. However, there are drawbacks to their use that need to be taken into account. Principally the high cost of development and the need for expert facilitators for running game sessions. Chapter 17 Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning?...................................................................... 280 Mabel CPO Okojie, Mississippi State University, USA The chapter presents a critical examination of the use of computer games as motivation for learning, by reviewing evidence from the literature dealing with computer games as learning tools. Factors and difficulties associated with games as instructional strategies are discussed. Evidence from the literature indicates that current methods of applying computer games into instruction are not guided by pedagogical principles. It is recognized that the design of educational games be based on learning theories. The current practice of viewing educational games as separate entity from all other educative processes is detrimental to learning. Although, the results of scientific studies on game-based learning are inconclusive, nevertheless, the future of game-based learning is promising partly because games are generally engaging. The results of qualitative interviews reveal that the participants believe that computer games motivate them to have fun but not to learn. Thus, by implication may not sustain learning. Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 299 About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 324 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 334
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Preface
ABOUT THE SUBJECT Computer games is a multidisciplinary area that presents an exponentially growing impact on the economy, creating huge business opportunities generating large investments and large returns, new employment opportunities for professionals of several areas, from designers to programmers, from psychologists to mathematicians, from managers to politicians, from marketers to investors; increasing offer of graduation and post-graduation studies by universities worldwide. This domain claims for new professionals that are not yet enough at the labor market, but that higher education is already alert and preparing them. Simultaneously it is creating social impact on individuals and society, not always on a positive direction. Hence, opportunities and challenges must converge in order to take the maximum social, economical and educational profit of the emerging potential of this field. Computer Games as Educational and Management Tools: Uses and Approaches is a collection of the most recent developments and applications of computer games as management and educational tools in all embraced fields of knowledge or disciplines related. With the mission of discussing the main issues, challenges, opportunities and trends related to this explosive range of new developments and applications, in permanent evolution, the overall objectives achieved with the compilation of works at the readers’ hands are: to present the new technological developments related to the requirements of this industry; to discuss the impact of computer games as educational and management tools; to present practical solutions and state-of-the-art technologies; to discuss social and individual impact; to provide guidance for further research and development; and to build a bridge between research and practice. Throughout its 17 chapters, the book covers the following topics: • •
•
The technological dimension, addressing: supporting technologies and tools; computing developments and requirements; communication tools and human-computer interaction. The business or industry dimension, including: emerging businesses; business opportunities and applications; studies of opportunity and impact; critical success factors; legal aspects and copyright issues. The human and social dimension, comprising; psychological aspects; behavioral effects and social effects.
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ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK This book is a compilation of 17 contributions to the discussion of the applications and developments of computer games as educational and management tools. These 17 chapters are written by a group of 44 authors that include many internationally renowned and experienced researchers and specialists in several disciplines included and a set of younger authors, showing a promising potential for research and development. Contributions came from all over the world and integrate contributions from academe, research institutions, and industry, representing a good and comprehensive representation of the state-of-the-art approaches and developments that address the several dimensions of this fast evolutionary thematic. The first chapter, “Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes,” presents research developed in collaboration with two higher education institutions. Today, high education programs can only be successful with the use of new technologies in the teaching/learning process, especially when there are special education requirements. Two experiments were carried out: (1) a set of billiard balls, for snooker game, simulated by using physics laws and, (2) aLJo 2009, a game whose aim is to achieve the correct sorting of a sequence to accomplish a common task. Both projects were developed by students with different backgrounds and from different engineering courses. The snooker game, an academic project, aims to demonstrate that, through a simple game, several areas of knowledge can be used. On the other hand, aLJo 2009 was developed considering a collaboration protocol between the university and the Parents and Friends Association of the Citizen with Mental Deficiency (APPCDM), to improve behavior and social skills in patients with mental impairments. In recent years, the gap between educational theory and practice has been closing, but although there have been calls for ‘reflexivity,’ there has been little critical examination of its meaning. Proposed reflexive methodologies still perpetuate many traditional hierarchies, and fail to consider the creative nature of the educational process as such. Much research work also takes place within the commercial sphere, and post-processual ideas cannot advance educational practice unless they can be implemented in some type of an e-learning system. The second chapter, “Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’” examines theoretical considerations of reflexivity, representation, subjectivity and experiential engagement to highlight their relevance to everyday educational practice and their potential to undermine existing suboptimalities in the classroom. In Chapter 3, “Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games,” the authors envisage virtual beings engaging as equal partners with humans, providing richer emergent game play. In computer games, the development of artificial intelligence (AI) has been a very poor cousin to the investment in graphics and physics. For the most part, AI is confined to path finding algorithms and simple state machines. Taking human and virtual beings beyond current applications of AI in computer games means that intelligent entities within the computer game cease to be “props” in a human-centric story line, but become equal participants themselves within the computer game world, engaging with humans towards achieving goals in more dynamic and realistic ways. Computer games provide a compelling environment to study and enable virtual beings to engage with humans as equals. The authors investigate the requirements, design and implementation of virtual beings that participate in computer games as humans would; playing the game and creating rich new collaborative game play experiences in areas of education, training and entertainment. Information literacy is a crucial attribute in today’s knowledge society because it makes independent lifelong learning possible. Faced with a digital world where new tools for information seeking and the
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spaces for information sharing are developing, academic librarians must respond to the changing learning landscape in order to help students acquire essential skills. Computer games, due to their cognitive potential and engagement capacity, can be used to promote and improve information literacy instruction. Chapter 4, “Computer Games and Libraries” consists of a review of available literature on these topics. It addresses the role of computer games in the teaching and learning process and aims at discussing its possible use as training tools for promoting information literacy in libraries. “Games and Simulations in Distance Learning: The AIDLET Model” discusses the selection and potential use of electronic games and simulations in distance learning supported by an operational model called AIDLET. The authors have developed a framework to facilitate the selection, repurposing, design and implementation of games and simulations, with focus on the practical aspects of the processes used in Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Whereas traditional learning is based on knowledge memorization and the completion of carefully graded assignments, today, games, simulations and virtual environments turn out to be safe platforms for trial and error experimentation (i.e., learning by doing/playing). New instructional models may require that rich interactive processes of communication are supported, that assignments are structured as game-like projects, and that a culture of interaction, collaboration, and enablement drives learning and personal development. In this context, the AIDLET model was set out and verified against a taxonomy representing the main categories and genres of games to meet the requirements of distance education teachers, instructional designers and decision-makers. Today, digital games present themselves as one of the most common forms of entertainment, especially for children and teenagers, combining the playful factor with pedagogical advantages, promoting changes in terms of cognitive, behavioral and psychomotor skills in its users. The use of digital games in educational contexts encourages active, critical, autonomous and participated learning processes, overcoming some of the limitations presented in more ‘conventional’ methods, engaging players in non-passive forms of acquiring knowledge and skills. Aiming to demonstrate how digital games make the learning process possible by allowing the development of critical thinking, outlined during the act of playing, the authors of “The Educational Value of Digital Games: Possibilities and Limitations of the Use of Digital Games as Educational Tools (The Spore Case)” will proceed to a critical analysis of Spore, a game created by Electronic Arts in 2008, demonstrating how the player places himself in an active learning situation which is self controlled and self regulated, facilitating the comprehension of phenomena that are not a part of formal teaching. The increasing complexity of by electronic games demands greater cognitive effort from their players. This has fostered some capacities in its players that could be used in teaching and learning. Chapter 7, “The Pedagogical Potential of MMOG: An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and Their Players” describes an exploratory study with two phases: the first one analyses four MMOG (Ikariam, OGame, Gladiatus and Metin2) and its pedagogical potential related to the development of problem solving skills, communication and interaction skills, and motivation to perform tasks. The second phase is a survey conducted to the players of these games about their motivation to play and their perceptions about its pedagogical potential. The results showed that all of the four analyzed games are motivating for the players, they have some pedagogical potential related to problem solving, and they improve communication and interaction skills. But the majority of the players felt some difficulties in accepting that they could transfer those developed skills to their scholar or professional life. As discussed in “Browser-Native Games That Use Real-World XML Data,” the rising tide of scientific data available on the web has the potential to help us consider the complex problems that concern us today, and simulation games can help us visualize, model and plan for alternative futures. However,
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the modularisation of knowledge has limited communication across subject domains, and copyright legislation and business practices may need to change if the many new visualisation tools needed are to be interoperable and share common interfaces. A game standard and specification for the web, together with easy-to-use authoring tools for creating browser-native games that use real-world XML data could enhance communication and engage the public in the understanding of science and its progress. Computer games have become an important part of the new digital economy, employing thousands of Information Technology professionals worldwide. Their role as a novel approach to reduce the distance between students and knowledge is also well documented. Chapter 9, “A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games” describes a multi-disciplinary approach to designing a particular class of educational games: business management games. Authors argue that through a better understanding of the relationship between work-domain based decisions and processes, professional game designers can achieve effective results. The design approach was based on intensive collaboration and co-design meetings with business management researchers and professors. The result was a game called “SimCompany,” aimed at teaching children about business management concepts, thus promoting an entrepreneurship culture in classroom settings. “SimCompany” proved effective as a teaching tool about business management concepts, and initial evaluation showed a positive increase in students’ rate of learning when compared to traditional teaching methods. Chapter 10, “Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction,” aims to provide classroom teachers with the basic tools and fundamentals necessary to create instructional games targeted to specific courses and/or instructional objectives. By discussing the trends and issues related to today’s teaching and learning environment, the authors review the benefits of using educational games in classrooms, and provide some strategies and guidelines for creating computer games for classroom instruction. Along with discussing the fundamental issues and considerations, the authors discuss some of the challenges and impact of computer games in classrooms. Additional examples drawn from literature are also included to illustrate the use of games in education and the strategies of effective instruction. Chapter 11, “RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability and Results of its Application” introduces a PC simulation game to conduct a study with the main objective to train children with psychomotor disabilities (coordination, equilibrium and movements). The child interacts with simulated environments which contain the needed stimulus to develop the eye-hand coordination, the child responds to the game with mouse movements by means of audible orders. The main objective of this work is to enhance the child´s psychomotricity with more precise movements. Converting the game to a means for chidren’s rehabilitation, this can be used in homes aided by parents. Another purpose is to have a didactical tool for professors of special education. Chapter 12, “When Control Education is the Name of the Game,” relates to a serious game named ITS PLC, an interactive simulation tool aimed at control systems education and training that includes the latest technologies from the video and computer games industry, namely, real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound. The goal of the game is to make five virtual industrial plants work correctly by using an external and real programmable logic controller (PLC) running the proper software, which the trainee must develop. The main purpose of the chapter is to testify the excellent properties of ITS PLC as an educational tool throughout a collection of three success stories: the first one shows how virtual scenarios can be used to investigate real problems; the usage of ITS PLC in an “edutainment” scenario is the theme of the second story; the third case testifies the benefits of ITS PLC in introductory automation programs.
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Computer game-based learning environments enable learning through experimentation and are inherently motivational. However, for identifying when learners achieve learning goals and providing suitable feedback, intelligent tutoring systems must be used. Recognizing the learner’s affective state enables educational games to improve the learner’s experience or to distinguish relevant emotions. Chapter 13, “Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience” discusses the creation of an affective student model that infers the learner’s emotions from cognitive and motivational variables through observable behavior. The control-value theory of ‘achievement emotions’ provides a basis for this work. A Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) approach for affective student modeling, which is based on Dynamic Bayesian Networks, is discussed. The approach is tested through a prototyping study based on Wizard-of-Oz experiments and preliminary results are presented. The affective student model will be incorporated into PlayPhysics, an emotional game-based learning environment for teaching Physics. PRMs facilitate the design of student models with Bayesian Networks. The effectiveness of PlayPhysics will be evaluated by comparing the students’ learning gains and learning efficiencies. Business Simulators provide a simulated environment where different scenarios and decisions can be tested without risk. They are also used for education where they can help students to understand the main concepts and theory involved in business administration. In addition, business simulators can be used to carry out research in different scientific areas, such as psychology, financial planning, risk evaluation, or intelligent business. Chapter 14, “Business Simulators for Business Education and Research: SIMBA Experience,” introduces SIMBA, a new simulator for business education and research. SIMBA has two main goals: one is to serve as a web-based platform for business education, allowing students to connect the simulator from any point on the web, permitting both classroom education as well as distance education; SIMBA architecture permits not only the connection of human business managers, but also software agents; the second goal of SIMBA is to provide an environment in which to design and test a multi-agent platform for the creation, development and evaluation of intelligent agents that can manage companies in the same way as humans. The market favours the best-selling computer games regardless of their social and educational effects. Chapter 15, “Educational Games,” discusses the present trends in educational games development, technologies related to them as well as their features, through representative examples of games used for education with respect to pedagogical, business, and social aspects. Benefits and limitations of introducing games in education are pointed out, and computer games for the disabled along with their pedagogical and social effects are presented. Recent research results on the implementation of video games in schools and educational game evaluation are also presented in the chapter, based on the experience in the development, implementation, and evaluation of several interactive e-learning educational exercises, as well as in the development and validation of several innovative computer games for the visually impaired. Chapter 16, “Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)”, reports on the evaluation methods and findings from serious games for teaching production/ engineering. Two serious games are considered: Cosiga, a new product development simulation game and Beware, a risk management simulation game. These two games cover the front and middle parts of the engineering process – from design to manufacture to sale. For the Cosiga simulation evaluations of the communication, cognitive change and situational awareness were performed. For the Beware game evaluation of communication, risk awareness and improvement of risk management skills were performed. The findings from the evaluations showed that serious games deliver learning outcomes. However, there are
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drawbacks to their use that need to be taken into account. Principally, the high cost of development and the need for expert facilitators for running game sessions. The last chapter, “Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning?” presents a critical examination of the use of computer games as motivation for learning by reviewing evidence from the literature dealing with computer games as learning tools. Factors and difficulties associated with games as instructional strategies are discussed. Evidence from the literature indicates that current methods of applying computer games into instruction are not guided by pedagogical principles. It is recognized that the design of educational games be based on learning theories. The current practice of viewing educational games as separate entity from all other educative processes is detrimental to learning. Although the results of scientific studies on game-based learning are inconclusive, the future of game-based learning is promising partly because games are generally engaging. The results of qualitative interviews reveal that the participants believe that computer games motivate them to have fun but not to learn.
EXPECTATIONS Throughout these 17 chapters, the reader is faced with the discussions and confirmation of the relevance and impact of this hot topic, providing professionals, researchers and scholars with some of the most advanced research developments, solutions and discussions of computer games as education and management tools: uses, trends, approaches, solutions and case studies. It is expected to support a professional audience of top managers and computer games professionals (developers and creative individuals) and also an academic audience (teachers, researchers and students, mainly of post-graduate studies). It can support disciplines of post-graduate studies on Information Systems and Technologies related with computer games development under the design, psychology and management approaches. The Editors, Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal Paula Cristina Almeida Tavares Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal
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Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho University of Minho, Portugal Celina Pinto Leão University of Minho, Portugal Filomena Soares University of Minho, Portugal Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, Portugal
ABSTRACT This chapter presents a research developed in collaboration by two higher education institutions. Nowadays, high education programs can only be successful with the use of new technologies in the teaching/learning process, especially when there are special education requirements. Two experiments were carried out: (1) a set of billiard balls, for snooker game, simulated by using physics laws and, (2) aLJo 2009, a game whose aim is to achieve the correct sorting of a sequence to accomplish a common task. Both projects were developed by students from University of Minho (UM), with different background and from different engineering courses. The snooker game, an academic project, aims to demonstrate that, through a simple game, several areas of knowledge can be used. On the other hand, aLJo 2009 was developed considering a collaboration protocol between UM and the Parents and Friends Association of the Citizen with Mental Deficiency (APPCDM), to improve behavior and social skills in patients with mental impairments. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch001
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
INTRODUCTION Several definitions of game can be stated but, in general, a game considers a structured activity focused on pleasure, not discarding the educational purpose. The use of games and simulations as educational tools is well documented (Carpick, 2002; Mayo, 2007; Muñoz, Noguez, McKevitt, Neri, Robledo-Rella, & Lunney, 2009). For the authors, games are viewed as a strategy for getting students to, not only, understand but also to retain the concepts, helping them in soft skills as teamwork, strategy, competition, problem solving (Smith, 2008). Some others studies complement this idea evaluating games from an educational point of view, identifying that they increase the students’ level of engagement while interfacing with the game however, learning in a similar way (Muñoz et al., 2009; Annetta, Minogue, Holmes, & Cheng, 2009). Considering the teaching/learning process and how games can be employed in this process (if they really can), there is a difference between supplying information to the students and delivering learning. To give information simply is not enough for an efficient learning. Intuition, imagination, interactivity are considered as key parts in the learning process. The possibility to individually construct, manipulate, modify and control an experiment is a strong aspect for students. The paradigm ‘to learn by doing’ in a friendly and animated way is essential to form good professionals, in special in the different areas of engineering. Here, the use of games for pedagogical and educational purposes can play an important role. In this way, students acquire and develop their knowledge by challenging. Each student has his own way of learning: some learn by reading, others by listening and others by experiencing, by doing. With games, learning environments must include the elements to satisfy each student, no matter it is focused on high school learning outcomes or if it is dedicated to promote and develop social competences in disabled persons.
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Regarding the use of games to gather engineering students perception of the application of physics laws there are lots of practical examples. Among them, the billiard tables appear as an adequate tool, from very simple examples (MathsIsFun.com, 2008) to more complex systems as in (Free Download Manager, n.d.). All of these billiards games share similar equipment - a long rectangular table, balls and a stick - but they differ from each other in their goals and styles of play (Mahoney & Davis, 2007). Nevertheless, in some areas there are not available commercial solutions, or at least solutions to ensure comfort, independence and enjoyment of the whole population. In particular, people who require special education are often “forgotten” by society, resulting in increased difficulty in performing simple tasks. The education system and the educational products on the market are normally targeted at the general population; there are few products with particular characteristics for special education. The existing games in this area have some categories that stand out, as are games of Logical Reasoning, Recognition of Facial expressions/feelings, Visual Perception, Concentration, Memory and also Game Sequences (do2learn, n.d.; GreyOlltwit Educational Software, n.d.).Typically, they respond very well to visual stimuli (as bright colors and multicolor images) and sound stimuli (for example, pieces of music and funny sounds). The aim of this work is, then, the development of an educational game for young people who require special education, in particular young people with mental disability. Students in special education have a set of characteristics that should be considered in order to enhance the development of certain capabilities. Usually, they have low attention, many of them cannot read or write, and have little autonomy in carrying out simple tasks from the daily routine (Filho, n.d.). The undemanding task “eating a yogurt” can be very complicated for disabled people, who do not know the correct sequence of actions. This work is part of a research project undertaken through
Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
a collaboration protocol between University of Minho and APPACDM (in Portuguese Associação Portuguesa de Pais e Amigos do Cidadão com Deficiência Mental) from Braga. It was decided to develop a game aimed at students with mental disability, because there are several cases in this institution, and therefore therapists can assess the progress of students in the skills that the game intends to develop. Knowing that nowadays, projects tend to be multidisciplinary, the experience of a group of researcher of two higher education institutions: the University of Minho, UM (in his departments Industrial Electronics, DEI, and Production and Systems, DPS) and the Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave, IPCA, is described. The major objective of this research project is the developing of new teaching/learning methodologies where the passive attitudes in the transmission of knowledge are changed. Not only can the high education programs be successful with the progress and the use of new technologies, as well as the special education requirements, especially the education of children with special needs, can be active in the use of these new tools. This chapter is divided in four sections, the first on which corresponded to this introduction. Section two presents the development of a set of billiard balls in a Snooker game, considering the physics law, the game rules and the user interface. aLJo2009 game is presented in the third section and the experimental results obtained in APPACDM as well as the feedback from students are analyzed. The last section presents the conclusions and future work perspectives.
SNOOKER GAME: DEVELOPMENT OF A SET OF BILLIARD BALLS Motivation and Objectives Several sports activities can be described by mathematical models. Using the laws of physics it is
possible to estimate the end results (outputs) of the application when under a set of initial parameters (inputs). For example, in a golf game, the golf club choice, the force applied in the golf ball, the wind direction, speed, friction between the ball and the ground, have direct and indirectly influence on the length and on the final position of the ball. In this work, the game chosen to illustrate this purpose was a snooker game that was designed, developed and implemented, in a friendly way. Firstly, a search on the laws of physics that can be used to simulate the balls’ behavior/movement when subjected to an external force was made. The rules of the game itself were also defined, as well as the inputs and outputs parameters. In this way, the simulation of the game can be performed.
Game Development The programming language used was the ANSI C with the library GLUT (OpenGL Utility Toolkit, Lighthouse 3D, n.d.), which is a simple interface for creating OpenGL (animation)(GLUT, n.d.). This library contains several predefined roles that help in drawing functions of the objects and the user interface. With this choice, the application will draw the objects frame by frame (frame rate varies from computer to computer), and every moment, if there is movement, determines the new positions of the balls. The tool used was the Microsoft Visual Studio 2005 since is a powerful tool for software development, with high levels of productivity. Although the programming language of choice was the ANSI C, the files were created in C++ due the compatibility with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005. It was not major attention to obtain special effects and nice virtual environmental, but using physical properties of body dynamics, simulate the game. In this way the group of students involved in the game development, learn mathematics and physics by using the theoretical aspects to develop the game beyond the programming skills enlargement.
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Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
In this subsection, the body dynamics considered for the game simulation will be summarized. It was considered that the billiard balls can be in three states: stopped (initial and final positions), sliding and running. The state sliding is assumed as the moment when the ball initialized its movement. This state will be short if the applied force into the ball is high. The state running will be the most common state when the ball is in motion. The set of equations used were easily obtained (Danby, 1997; Newmann, Stoy, & Thompson, 1994;The Physics Classroom (n.d.); The Math and Physics of Billiards, n.d.). The physical equations used describe the initial linear and angular velocities, describing the first balls movement when the cue touches the white cue ball. After that, the balls can take several and different movements and velocities. Knowing that, the velocity of a ball decreases until stopped due to the frictional force between the ball and green cloth (or felt) of the table, the variation of the linear and angular velocities must also be considered. Another aspect that was taken into account was the possibility of collision between the balls. It was considered two types of collisions: between two balls and/or between a ball and the walls of the table. To detect a collision between two balls, the distance between the two balls centers that can be at most equal to the sum of two times its radius, is estimated. The time to collide is also estimated and then the new directions and velocities. This new calculus took into account the normal and tangential velocity components for each ball, being the new direction the sum of these two components.
Game Input and Output Definition The input parameters considered were the balls positions before making the putt, the force applied to the white cue ball and its related direction. Thus, the player will be able to control these two parameters each time he makes a shot. Then, due to the various factors adjacent to the system and game conditions, the balls stops producing the final
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result (output), i.e. the new positions of the balls on the table. The various factors adjacent to the system are the movement of the balls, the friction between the balls and the felt, the friction of the ball when hit the table walls, the collision type, the weight of the ball, the momentum of the cue ball, gravity, among others. The friction coefficient and the impetus time given by the cue to the ball were approximately estimated due to the complexity to determine exactly their values. Summarizing, (1) the input parameters: balls position before making the putt, force and direction applied to the white cue ball; (2) adjacent factors: balls movement kind, slide (friction coefficient with the felt=1), rotate (friction coefficient with the felt=0.05), ball hit the table walls (coefficient=0.1), ball weight and diameters (0.5Kg and 57.15cm, respectively), gravity (9.81m/s2), time of momentum between the ball and cue (0.005sec), collisions and linear and angular velocities; (3) output parameters: new balls positions on the table.
Application The application has a three dimensional representation, however, since the position of the camera, that allows the visualization of the game, is a way to visualize the top of the table, the application looks to have only two dimensions (Figure 1). The game has 16 balls placed at predetermined mark on the table (1 white, 1 black, 7 red and 7 yellow). Figure 1. Pool table and game balls just before the break off
Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
Figure 2. Player interface
Figure 3. Player 2 white cue ball direction
Game Interface Development Rules The developed game supports two players, and first to play can choose the color. The game begins with seven red and seven yellow balls in the table. The number of balls will diminish as they are inserted or increasing (up to a maximum of seven) when a fault is committed. On each turn, it is determined if the player continues to play or changes. For this, a set of rules were defined, like the color of the first ball that contact the white cue ball, if it was inserted a ball of the other player, if the white cue ball did not touch any other ball in the table. The application of the rules must follow a certain order. To know: if the white cue ball does not touch any other ball or, after assigned a color to each player, a player hit a ball of different color, a new ball must be inserted in the table (maximum of seven for each of the two colors) and the player looses the turn. If the white cue ball hits the right player’ ball, but no ball enters or a different one enters, the player looses the turn. At this time if the white cue ball enters, a new ball must be inserted in the table, the player looses the turn and the white cue ball returns to the initial point. If the player chooses the right ball and inserts the right ball, he continues to play. All these conditions are tested through variables and then the rules applied.
For the user interface, functions were developed which interact with the computer accessories(mouse, keyboard). The interface indicates the state of the game every time (Figure 2). The mouse becomes an important peripheral to control the direction that the white cue ball will take (Figure 3). The two parallel lines represent the direction of the ball; the color indicates which player to play (player 1: blue line, player 2: red line) and the line within represents the force applied to the ball. It is also available to the players a summary of the keys and correspondent actions that can be taken. During the development of the game, several problems were solved with varying difficulty, however the problem related to the holes in the table. In the game, the boundary zones were considered straight and not round. To detect whether a ball was inserted into a hole, a function was defined and the help of a sphere to determines whether the ball has or not pass its limit. If the limits were passed through, indicates that the ball was inserted. In Figure 4 the function and the spheres were represented.
Tests and Results Analysis The students’ perspectives were reached. This work was very interesting in the student point of view, since it provides the possibility by a real
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Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
Figure 4. Control inclusion ball places
Figure 6. Task “Eating and Yogurt” from the Food theme
case (snooker game), and with some complexity in terms of laws of physics, to put in practice the theoretical aspects. Somehow, they consider that the model used characterize the reality, although missing some components, such same effects, namely that ones that depend on the point of contact between the ball and the cue. As future work, beyond the effects, the game graphics of and the areas ahead of the hole could be improved.
aLJo 2009 GAME DEVELOPMENT The game was developed using the Allegro game motor (allegro.cc, n.d.; Feldman, 2000; Hattan, 2009; Malik, 2008; Dawson, 2006; Harbour, 2002). This game motor is free distributed, which was a relevant factor in our choice. This motor also contains interesting functionalities, like the
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Figure 5. List of Tasks
possibility of using the game in several operating systems, audio functions, among others. The game consists of the correct ordering of a sequence of steps necessary to perform a task, or letters, words or numbers ordering. The tasks available are simple execution tasks like, hands washing, to cross a street or buying a product. The chosen activities included in the game were daily tasks. When performed correctly by the players, they will increase hardly their autonomy and independence. The task list is presented on Figure 5. In Figure 6 it is possible to observe one of the tasks which is possible to work with, “Eating a Yogurt”. To control the game flux/task, it was implemented the chart presented in Figure 7. It is possible to verity that during the tasks execution it is given the player the possibility of help assistance. The help is given by a video which exemplifies how the task can be done. All over the task concretization are used voice messages indicating to the player if their options are or not correct. This feature was necessary because several players cannot read and so this procedure allows turning the game more friendlily to this kind of players. One of the innovations implemented was the game interface. Considering that some players present motor difficulties, which in some cases unable to use a mouse. To control the game flux it was decided to test the interface from the games console Wii
Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
Figure 7. Game/task flux control
(Wiimote, n.d.).Through the wirst moviment it is possible to control the mouse direction. In this way it is possible to measure small orientations in the wrist direction, as well as not considering involuntary movements done by the players, like tremors. The implementation of this interface vises only to analyse its viability, not being assumed a better relatioship between the player/game with its use. At last, when a player concludes with success a task, the information associated with that task lke the execution time, number of faults, number of helps, is recorded. So, it is possible to analyse the player evolution and taking conclusions about the advantagesregarding the game to the player.
Results It were executed some preliminary tests with seven students with soft mental deficiency who promptly
Figure 8. Player 1, Task Ordering Letters
revealed high interest. Some students played with the help of the teacher who explained the game procedure, others played with more autonomy. Initially the graphical environment, the images, colors and music caused a high curiosity in the students. The incentive messages during the game worked as a motivating element. The scores were also observed as factors that cause the player evolution, as well as the competitiveness between the students. Although, some students could not read, the scores were also given by an intuitive way, as using bars with different sizes for different scores. The task “Eating and Yogurt” was concluded, in general, with high scores, but some students demonstrated more difficulties in the following tasks. The scores of each player had a positive evolution with the repetition of a task, which can be the result of individual evolution. The game was presented individually, being subsequently tested in classroom context, in which a student had the game control and the others could assist. In this last phase the students demonstrated group spirit as well as comparison of the activities with real situations of their daily life. Some students demonstrated high difficulty in controlling the game with the Wiimote, being easier in this case the control with the mouse. Figures 8 to 10 present the evolution of three different players, chosen randomly, to test several times a specific task of the game (in the ordinates it is presented the time required to perform the task and in the abscissas the number of the attempt). It is necessary to refer that these results are preliminary.
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Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
Figure 9. Player 2, Task Eating a Yogurt
Figure 10. Player 3, Task Eating a Yogurt
For the players 1 and 2 it is observed a clear evolution with the task repetition (reduction of the time necessary to execute the task). This scenario does not happen to player 3, Figure 10, in which the time to perform the task increases with the number of attempts, not showing apparently a better performance with the task repetition.
in reading simple words and ordering numbers. In preliminary tests carried out, the game had a remarkable acceptance in the youth at APPACDM and there are positive developments in its repeated use. The use of Wiimote to control the game was not successful as the Roll motion is complex for the target group, resulting in inadequate control of the game. The tests carried out allowed finding particular points to be improved in the game. These include, for example, changing the format of the classification, placing bars with different sizes instead of quantitative results; the menu buttons should be in different colors so that players, that cannot read, can associate colors with actions and as such it is easier to navigate in the game; allowing the modification and integration of new tasks by the educators; optimizing the implementation of the Wiimote.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK The authors believe that the paradigm “Learning by doing” implemented through the use of educational and pedagogical games fortify the learning process. In this way, students enlarge their knowledge on the particular subject they are studying as well as they develop their creativity, their planning capacity and the communication between the working groups. Also, it can be focus on two different target groups. By one hand it can help students in understanding several physical laws as well as it can gather and promote the attention of people with impairments to be familiar to daily routines and tasks. aLJo 2009 is an educational game dedicated to young people with special needs. The game consists of ordering a sequence of simple tasks of daily life, like eating a yogurt, crossing a road, washing the teeth, in order to enable these people to be more autonomous, reducing their dependence on their families and teachers. The game also performs tasks which aim to develop skills
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REFERENCES allegro.cc. (n.d.).Game developing community network. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http:// www.allegro.cc/ Annetta, L. A., Minogue, J., Holmes, S. Y., & Cheng, M. T. (2009). Investigating the impact of video games on high school students’ engagement and learning about genetics. Computers & Education, 53, 74–85. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.12.020
Games Development for Pedagogical and Educational Purposes
Carpick, R. W. (2002). Who Wants to be an Engineer? Or Better Teaching through Game Shows. In Proceedings of the 2002 American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference & Exposition (10 pp.). American Society for Engineering Education.
Mahoney, B., & Davis, M. (2007, March). Billiards: A Lifetime Sport (Pocket Billiards Curriculum Guide & Instructor’s Manual). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.billiardeducation.org/ index.php?Itemid=39&id=29 &option=com_ content&task=view
do2learn, Learning Games for Young People with Disabilities. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.dotolearn.com/
Malik, D. S. (2008). C++ Programming: From Problem Analysis to Program Design (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology.
Danby, J. M. A. (1997). Computer Modeling: From Sports to Spaceflight…. Richmond, VA: From Order to Chaos.
MathsIsFun.com. (2008).Billiard Tables. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.mathsisfun.com/ games/billiard-tables.html
Dawson, M. (2006). Beginning C++ Through Game Programming, Course Technology (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: PTR.
Mayo, M. J. (2007). Games for Science and Engineering Education. Communications of the ACM, 50(7), 31–35. doi:10.1145/1272516.1272536
Feldman, A. (2000). Designing Arcade Computer Game Graphics. Plano: Wordware Publishing, Inc.
Muñoz, K., Noguez, J., McKevitt, P., Neri, L., Robledo-Rella, V., & Lunney, T. (2008). Adding Features of Educational Games for Teaching Physics. In Proceedings of the 39th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (6 pp.). October 18-21, San Antonio, TX, USA.
Filho, T. A. G. (n.d.). Educação Especial e Novas Tecnologias: O Aluno Construindo Sua Autonomia. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www. profala.com/ arteducesp30.htm Free Download Manager. Play89 2.0. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http:// www.freedownloadmanager.org /downloads / PLAY89_56936_p/ GLUT – The OpenGL Utility Toolkit. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www. opengl.org/ resources/libraries/glut/ Grey Olltwit Educational Software. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www. greyolltwit.com/ Harbour, J. S. (2002). Game Programming all in one, Muska&Lipman. Portland: Premier-Trade. Hattan, J. (2009). Beginning Game Programming: A GameDev.net Collection. Boston, MA: Course Technology PTR.
Neumann, P., Stoy, G., & Thompson, E. (1994). Groups and Geometry. Oxford. Smith, L. T. (2008, January).Games to Motivate Students to Learn, Society. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.associatedcontent.com / article/509779/ games_to_motivate_ students_ to_learn.html The Math and Physics of Billiards. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/ Classes/MATH198/ townsend/math.html The Physics Classroom. (n.d.).Newton’s Laws. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.physicsclassroom.com/ Class/newtlaws/ Welcome to Lighthouse 3D (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://www.lighthouse3d.com/ Wiimote (n.d.). Wii, Satoshi Konno Library. Retrieved March 20, 2010 from http://pt.wii.com/
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Chapter 2
Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’ C. Karagiannidis University of Thessaly, Greece S. Efraimidou University of Thessaly, Greece A. Koumpis ALTEC Software S.A, Greece
ABSTRACT In recent years the gap between educational theory and practice has been closing, but although there have been calls for ‘reflexivity’, there has been little critical examination of its meanings. Proposed reflexive methodologies still perpetuate many traditional hierarchies, and fail to consider the creative nature of the educational process as such. Much research work also takes place within the commercial sphere, and post-processual ideas cannot advance educational practice unless they can be implemented in some type of an e-learning system. In our Chapter we examine theoretical considerations of reflexivity, representation, subjectivity and experiential engagement to highlight their relevance to everyday educational practice, and their potential to undermine existing suboptimalities in the classroom.
INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT OF OUR IDEA With the emergence of what we shall call interpretative and reflexive approaches to education DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch002
through the reaction against the processual (or process-oriented) education of the 1970s and 1980s, the desire for the inclusion of other voices in the educational process is born. This was and still is a conscious step toward creating reflexivity within the educational profession, i.e. dissolving the rigorous praxis and constraints
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Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
of the interpretative process that followed the science-oriented approaches and realizing and accepting that interpretation occurs at all stages of the educational practice. Multivocality seems to become an “it-word” used for whenever other people besides professionals are incorporated into the interpretation of educational-related core assignments, whether through community of experts, internet forums etc, or when the role and voice of a particular professional as a person is emphasized. However, the concept of multivocality has up until now always focused on listening to different voices in the present. Various people have been consulted to discuss issues regarding a particular educational case or issue, from their point of view as professionals or experts today. But is it not possible to also allow voices from people that have been involved in the educational process in the (long or not so long) past to speak up regarding their own involvement within an educational process. This is where the concept of multivocality comes into play. It becomes a way of dealing with the educational profession and / or practice not only from the view-point of the currently involved actors but also from interpreting a case through the voices of other stakeholders besides the originally involved inter-actors. In our chapter we explore what we call the the ‘Collaboration game’ from two aspects namely the issue of multi-vocality and the issue of post-processualism and by means of adopting a service-based approach. Even if several educational services exist, these services are still un-configurable by the education expert and represent the professional (‘business’) logic view without considering the specific needs of the particular pupils. These services are designed in a silo manner and hardly, if not impossible, interconnected by the actual needs of the individual pupils. Though this reality is more or less widely adopted in the domain of general education, the needs for individualized interventions in the area of special education form rather the rule
Figure 1. Collaborative practices and interventions within and outside the classroom
than the exception. The implications of what we call ‘Collaboration as a game’ to the technical architecture of any plausible solution should take into account following the three dimensions that will be addressed in a use case we shall present in the chapter: 1. Inter-school unit dimension: It represents the overlap among processes and practices from a set of intra-organizational school units. This overlap is usually the result of necessary interaction between processes, which could be explicit or implicit. However, this interaction is not subject to a series of sequential activities but may occur between any of the entire set of activities running into the particular school organization. Indeed, all professional knowledge is not spread according to the activities predefined sequence. These interactions can exist between the same school unit, or two or more different school units. 2. Cross level-Intra- school unit dimension: It represents the common knowledge of members of the same school unit level but from different environments. This set is the federator of the community of participants
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Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
into the activities and processes of the school units involved. This knowledge is generally specific to the unit and related to its processes that lead to the difficulty to find it beyond its area of competencies. It represents the relay points between the various stages of collaboration implementation, enforcement or the establishment of one or more processes of the unit. This knowledge is often at a high level of granularity and is sometimes extracted directly from the environment of process enforcement. This high level of specialization infers their reduced interoperability with other units of the same school organization. Still that, this knowledge is compulsory for the functioning of processes within the unit and are usually transplanted into other environments under other forms. 3. Cross level-Inter unit dimension: Depending on the particular environment of the school organization, the distribution of its inherent processes can vary significantly in scheduling, operating or in prerequisites. Nevertheless, school units that contain these processes can be matched with other school units from a different environment in terms of needs, knowledge or skills. This knowledge can be a source of innovation and discovery. Indeed, a result of this knowledge is generally the use of a new form of knowledge completely different from the most common used one in this area. This makes this overlap very diverse, unstructured and thus hardly detectable compared to other levels of overlap. ‘Collaboration as a game’ can be considered a further stage of evolution that connects knowledge, represents meanings and knowledge about things so that education experts can work together, adding new levels of intelligence to the user interface of existing (operational) systems, social collaboration, applications, and the infrastructure of the Web.
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ADDRESSING SOCIAL NETWORKING ASPECTS We all witness the enormous success of many social networking services which meet personal needs of friendship (Facebook), concise textbased communication (Twitter), professional networking (LinkedIn), bookmarking (Delicious), sharing videos (YouTube) and pictures (Flickr). The success of these services rests on the user/ client/consumer being able to actively participate in a manner which is of personal benefit, thereby creating value for himself/herself. Our aim is to follow up on the success of these services and create additional value for the teacher as the user of such an infrastructure and the wider community, in terms of facilitating the creation, mashing-up, publishing, tagging, using and rating services in a simple and user-friendly interface. Whereas Flickr concentrates on pictures and YouTube concentrates on videos, our idea is to concentrate on (web) services created for and by teachers within a social networking environment. In this respect, our aim is to provide a social networking platform for developing services which address the needs of the teachers (with an emphasis to the collaboration between general and special education staff) and enable them to create value. In our initial phase, we envisage two main types of users using the service platform: 1. Novice, inexperienced teachers without any technical knowledge or programming expertise. 2. Power, experienced users aiming to promote their own services. We aim to: •
Help education experts create services to meet their needs.
Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
•
•
•
Dynamically integrate education experts’ (both from general and special education) multidimensional profiles Provide a roadmap for creating social networking services to support service provision Exploit the wisdom of the crowds (‘crowdsourcing’) in providing better services for professional users, while at the same time promoting open innovation and enhancements for service providers.
On the latter, we have reported extensively in (Karagiannidis et al, 2007) and (Karagiannidis et al, 2008). Versatility is a central attribute of the Framework, enabling the consumption of services which should address needs in a complex and highly distributed networked environment which can be seamlessly integrated with the current web. The objective for this Framework is to be a major driver for large scale exploitation, enabling users to create, share and configure services easily which address their and others’ needs, whether for entertainment, information, business or any other area, if possible, on a national scale covering the entire territory of Greece. More specifically, our idea is to define a Framework for service provision based on educators’ needs. This requires a well defined concept of service which we currently define as: “service is any item or action an education expert can offer which could meet the needs of that or another education expert either from the field of general education or from the field of special education”. The Framework is need-driven from the user aspect in order to provide ‘made-to-fit’ personalized services – rather than non- customised ‘one-size fits all’ solutions. The concept of the Framework is depicted in Figure 2, which shows that a person with a particular need can use a solution from a network of people and services. The evolution, expansion and healthy functioning of this network depend on
Figure 2. The proposed Social Networking Service Framework
the ability of individual experts or organizations, such as the local or regional Offices of General or Special Education, to add their services to the network. The functions are complemented by feedback and rating of the utilized services (ultimately promoting open innovation and enhancing service quality), as illustrated in figure 2. The Framework enables the implementation of social networking services which support both networking for their users (as does Facebook) and provide services by individuals or organizations. These services can also be networked and mashedup. Mashing-up services, i.e. combining data or functionality from two or more external sources to create a new service, in a social network fashion, can facilitate the selection and composition of services to address complex social and education needs. People are multidimensional and multifaceted and defining the range of these complex aspects would be necessary in order to enable to locate and use the appropriate service. Personal profiles and service tagging vary from short and simple to complex and detailed. We are specifically interested in the provision of a formalized structure for supporting service discovery, selection and composition (mashing-up),
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Figure 3. Need Examples
together with the relevant social networking functions (tagging, blogging, reviewing and rating). Research into the categorization of services is essential. This includes the division into the educator’s personal needs and the needs of the organization that he/she is part of. The idea of a Framework for networked services which is open to anyone in practice may seem too ambitious and easy to compromise, however the wisdom of the crowds in social networking services has helped to override such problems (e.g. in Wikipedia where false information is quickly corrected by others or a warning is provided regarding its reliability). Such approaches ensure the quality and monitoring of level of service. The Service Framework aims to become a roadmap for developing open service-provision services of the Web 2.0 genre, maintaining enough versatility to eventually address provision of needs in the upcoming Web 3.0, where semantic considerations are of importance. To this end, we develop an open architecture that allows incorporation of semantic functionalities where needed. In figure 3, we present a conceptualization of the areas that we concentrated for the evolutionary building of our framework, demonstrating the progress towards more soft aspects of the interaction and networking activity as such. It is interesting to recognise that the emergence of social networking principles is a spontaneous
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and unplanned to a great extent. Over the last few years, the rise of social software and social networking has driven the transition from contentcentred to people-centred activities. ‘Reading’ and top down content production has dominated the first era of the Internet. Now a truly participatory bottom up or ‘read/write’ approach is emerging as a dominant trend. This shift of focus represents as much a cultural phenomenon as a technological one and has resulted in many commentators questioning its impact on our sense of identity, the meaning of community and the nature of this change (e.g. Hatzipanagos & Warburton, 2009). Web 2.0 has moved beyond the original meaning of the term defined by O’ Reilly (2005) to encompass a set of tendencies exhibited by virtual communities. According to O’ Reilly (in Musser, 2006), Web 2.0 is a set of economic, social and technology trends that are based on user participation, openness and network effects. It is beyond doubt that consumer-oriented concepts can easily grow in such an environment. For instance, the best-known success stories of Web 2.0 (e.g. Wikipedia, Facebook, YouTube, etc.) are based on the concept of user participation through social networking. The terms Web 2.0 and social software and social networking are often used together or synonymously, though Web 2.0 describes more the new ways in which the WWW is used, while social software and social networking, built on Web2.0 platforms and services, describes the universe of possible interactions between individuals and communities, where users are connected and collaborate with each other. The attitudes and behaviours of these communities or social groups have become as significant as the distributed technological platforms that are being exploited by increasing numbers of internet users. One of the major characteristics of these new practices has been a shift towards ‘user-generated content’ where:
Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
Figure 4. Framework to accommodate needs of the educators and the learners community
1. Collective and collaborative information is gathered, shared, modified and redistributed in creative acts; 2. Personal sites and content increasingly belong to the so called ‘me media’ category; 3. The user controls the choice of appropriate software, tools and services; 4. The ‘collective intelligence’ of users is harnessed through aggregation and large-scale cooperative activities (O’ Hear 2005). For example, social networking sites have become integrated into the daily practice of millions of users and Boyd and Ellison (2007) describe the key features of these services as allowing individuals to:
1. construct a public or semi public profile within a bounded system 2. articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and 3. view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. In general what we identify are two important functions of these social networks: • •
Intelligence gathering, where people share and construct information online Meeting new people, where there are opportunities for one to one and one to many and many to many interactions.
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Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
Participants in internet-based social networking are immersed in fragmented digital environments, and engage in acts of computer mediated communication (Hatzipanagos 2006) through e-mail, email-conferencing and mobile texting, podcasting, personal publishing via blogs and wikis, aggregation and mash-ups, voice, chat, instant messaging and videoconferencing. Social networking is productive of and exercised by virtual communities of people with common interests. Users have the opportunity to contribute to personal and informal or professionally oriented social networks and the goal can be employment, provision of a service or collaboration. The term community has been expanded to include interdependency and a set of relationships that connect people and groups. Citizens become Netizens, an identity that relates them to the entire world, and moves them outside their local life and work settings. For example, social networking, such as Facebook, MySpace, SecondLife and LinkedIn have changed forever the way people communicate in formal (professional) or informal spaces. In all these cases, instead of business-generated content, we see user-generated content; the users contribute directly or indirectly and collectively co-create content or experiences. The users are not only consumers, but also co-developers; they do not expect the passive fulfilment of their needs by business firms. Instead, they participate actively in the development of products and services that meet their needs. Their motives for participation are related to their needs to create products, services and websites that fulfil their personal interests, to tailor offers according to their preferences, to experiment, learn and gain experiences, to contribute to the community, to offer to their peers and to communicate and share with others.
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THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS A Word on (Bypassing) Infinite Regress Activities related to both the preparatory actions needed for establishing a collaboration session of the extended ‘Collaboration game’ as well as for organising information management and processing during its course can make apparent the fact that there are plenty of infinite regress problems and that we need to disaggregate the concept of information before we can get a better understanding of the arguments. To use a quite widely known example (Smith, 1987), in short: •
•
it seems true that before we proceed to a collaboration act we have to make a decision on how much information to collect before proceeding to the particular act but, before we can make a collaboration decision on how much information to collect we also need to collect information about how much information we should collect to make that decision and so on. This is a problem in two ways:
• •
First, it produces an infinite regress. Second, it may be impossible to get reliable information even when one decides to spend time seeking the information.
We believe this is important because it demonstrates that rational choice theory has to be complemented by psychological theories in order to explain collaborative behaviour. The infinite regress problem makes it impossible to make a rational decision in some situations: if rational behaviour is logically impossible, then behaviour in those circumstances can not be explained as the outcome of rational choice (Elster, 1986).
Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
Figure 5. Domains – modules – formalisms
In the context of our research we considered at least three kinds of infinite regress problems: 1. First, we have to decide how to decide on the particular collaboration act we aim to proceed to (and this may lead to an infinite regress). Assuming we have decided how to decide, 2. we have to find the optimal level of information and deliberation before the decision rule can be used. Once again, it is possible that this leads to an infinite regress. 3. Finally, we might ask about the optimal use of a given set of information. Now, we should not need to provide evidence that these problems are separate. For instance, deciding how to decide requires us to collect information, and this leads to the second problem. We nevertheless tend to think that even if we could collect an optimal level of information, one might still have an infinite regress problem in deciding how to decide. Even if we assume that the optimal level of information is known at every stage, this does not automatically ensure that there is a final end-point. Collaboration theorists often note the infinite regress problem briefly, only to assume it away or decline to discuss it – however, it is something that has direct and practical implications. In this respect, that for Radner (Radner, 1996) it is convenient to classify the costly (resource-using) activities of such decision-making into four groups:
Figure 6. ‘Bad’ versus ‘good’ formalisms
1. observation, or the gathering of information, 2. memory, or the storage of information, 3. computation, or the manipulation of information, 4. communication, or the transmission of information.
A Note on Formalisms As shown in Figure 5, based on a domain conceptualisation, we aim to set a framework that will be expressed by a respective formalism that will support certain collaboration models. Now, the challenging point is whether the (universe of the) actually intended models will fall close to this of the (universe of the) actually supported ones or not. As shown in Figure 6, it is easy to identify and distinguish between a “bad” formalism and a (sufficiently) “good” enough in similar ways to one is using to assess the expressive power of a controlled language. Much work on controlled languages has been motivated by the ambition to find the right tradeoff between expressiveness and processability (Fuchs, 1996). An alternative suggested by several researchers related to bringing into play a “hierarchy of controlled languages”1, ordered by the degree to which they semantically approximate the target formalism. Continuing the analogy with controlled languages, in our research we aimed to design the
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Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
equivalent of a framework and its corresponding application for use by people who are education experts, teachers and teaching practitioners. Such a collaboration ‘language’ needs to be designed with at most minimal training requirement needs. In addition, the collaboration ‘language’ is intended to be used as part of a general system design and verification cycle (namely, this of assisting multi-party collaboration and collaborative decision-making activities. We want thus the collaboration framework to act as some type of a ‘controlled language’, which education experts and practitioners would find intuitive to use, without extensive learning, and which affords the same immediacy and interactivity as spoken language, i.e., which can be used without careful planning and redrafting of the input.
Decision-Making Assessment The decision-making assessment determines the benefit of a particular collaboration decision options by means of quantitative and qualitative assessments. In literature there are well-established scenario techniques which allow the impact analysis of different assumptions with regard to (any particular) value adding benefits. A result of this is the creation of preferential roadmaps. This part of the model has to describe the procedure of how to develop different scenarios and carry out an ‘environmental’ analysis according to the specific scope and needs of the particular education environment under consideration. What is to be taken for sure is that working in and with education networks together with the mastery of key processes enables change in the school environment through evolutionary processes of which an instance is this of our proposed ‘Collaboration Game’. In the current context, change should be regarded as an enabling factor for enabling adaptation of an education structure, so that the latter better responds to external conditions and the given context.
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Actually, the idea of introducing change as the result of evolutionary processes is not new at all. Furthermore, it can be regarded as one of the most important consequences of game theory in that it can be used to determine situations where one behavior is more fit than all known alternatives, or alternately, a specific mix of behaviors where no one behavior is more fit than any other (Friedman, 1991). In both cases, the result is considered as an evolutionary stasis with respect to the behaviors being considered - there is no change in relative frequency of the employed strategies over time. These situations are named, according to the game theoretical terminology as Evolutionarily Stable Strategies (henceforth: ESSs). More specifically, in the literature of game theory we identify two types of ESS: •
•
“Pure” ESS is where one strategy totally out-competes all others. In our case, this should be read as follows: mastery of a key process by a specific education environment, or alternatively, by a specific education scheme, should out-compete any other scheme. That means that regardless of its frequency, it is always more fit than any known alternative. A strategy that is a pure ESSs is considered as immune to invasion by other known strategies. In the old paradigm of collaborating in a controlled environment, such a strategy might be sought and considered as ideal. “Mixed” ESS is where two strategies permanently coexist, thus increasing the complexity of the implementation, as in a real world application any actor should distribute its resources for achieving a certain / acceptable level of “mastery” in several key processes. From a computational perspective, in contexts where three or more strategies to play, it is possible to have a situation where there is no devisable ESS.
Multi-Vocality and Post-Processualism as Methodological Assets of the ‘Collaboration Game’
It is at this stage that ad hoc or heuristic approaches are employed that may either attempt to simplify the complexity of the given context, or alternate the actual problem to be addressed. A further implication of this is that all relations in an education environment (internal and external) actually and potentially may take the form of a co-operative game. Working groups (comprised either by intra- or inter-school personnel) seem to play an increasingly important role in collaborative education activities, both at the low ‘operational’ level and at the high ‘strategic’one. The importance of this phenomenon is reflected in the emergence of endogenous pedagogical policy models. The latter concentrate on the interaction between working groups of education experts while the school management tends to keep for itself the role of the policymaker (or the arbiter?). Of course, in the case of inter-school working groups, where education experts are involved in a crossschool collaboration game, representatives from the school management boards of the participating schools may also be included. These models are typically focussing on Nash equilibriae of a properly defined game with complete information, where the various working groups (paricipants of a collaboration session) and the school management are the (fully rational) players. These issues are of obvious empirical relevance, since neither the set of working groups (and of the respective collaboration sessions which they are populating) nor their cardinality appears to be constant over time. In fact, organisational maintenance and attracting of new members (or getting rid of old ones that show sub-performances) is a continuing concern for such groups. Moreover, the realism of assuming complete information and (any type of) sophisticated strategic behaviour can be seriously questioned given the complexity of the education environment being dealt with.
CONCLUSION Taking into account that game theory is, after all, the part of economic theory that focuses not merely on the strategic behavior of individuals in economic environments, but also on other issues that will be critical in the design of economic institutions, such as; •
• •
how information is distributed as approached by (Harsanyi, 1967, 1968a, 1968b), the influence of players’ expectations and beliefs and the tension between equilibrium and efficiency (Myerson, 1983).
In general, game theory has already achieved important insights into issues such as the design of business contracts and resource allocation mechanisms which take into account the sometimes counterintuitive ways in which individual incentives operate in complex environments having decision makers with different information and objectives. There have been two means for “confronting” game theory with evidence: in the laboratory and in the field. More specifically, in laboratory studies, expected utility theory, as originally formulated by von Neumann and Morgenstern (Neumann, 1944), was one of the first subjects to attract the sustained attention of experimenters. From the very beginning this effort has both provided indications of the extent to which the predictions of the theory are approximate guides to individual choice behavior, and identified particular situations in which a significant proportion of subjects consistently violate the predictions of the theory. Using procedures of this kind, experimental methods allow investigators to measure some of the parameters on which the predictions of a theory may depend, and which would be unobservable in non-experimental situations*.
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Experimental data can also provide insights into field data. More specifically, field studies, as opposed to laboratory studies, are what economists traditionally do, in terms of concentrating their research efforts in studying behaviour of existing (operational) systems or of ad hoc developed, in order to check the validity of assumptions and of any hypotheses made. Conclusively, we note that any interactions between members of a decision-making session, as these would be described in the accompanying model according to a generic process classification scheme, may build on the notion of a co-operative game and according to various modeling perspectives. In thinking about coalitions, these may be for instance formed between: •
•
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A working group, which is considered as a single part of a decision-making session, and the school management for achieving a particular business objective. In this case, the basis for the formation of the coalition would be related to the achievement of a mutually wished management of school resources (e.g. improvement of a new teaching subject procedure, which would be combined with an increase in the acceptability or likeability rates for the pupils). Two working groups representing parts of two distinct decision-making sessions, both involved in the same decision-making process. In this case, the involved groups may identify a window of opportunity for forming a coalition for achieving their (perhaps common) goal. In any case, even when considering the case of two competitive working groups, formation of a coalition might be justified in terms of minimising the overall uncertainty that might exist when no communication and joint planning had existed, which would imply bigger operational costs.
REFERENCES Boyd, D., & Ellison, N. B. (2007). Social Network Sites: Definition. History, and Scholarship. Elster, J. (Ed.). (1986). Rational Choice. Cambridge University Press. Friedman, J. W. (1991). Game Theory with Applications to Economics. Oxford University Press. Fuchs, N. E., & Schwitter, R. (1996) ‘Attempto Controlled English (ACE)’. In Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Controlled Language Applications (pp. 124-136). Centre for Computational Linguistics. Fudenberg, D., & Tirole, J. (1991). Game Theory. MIT Press. Harsanyi, J. C. (1967-68). Games with Incomplete Information Played by ‘Bayesian’ Players. Management Science, 14. Harsanyi, J. C. (1967). Games with Incomplete Information Played by ‘Bayesian’ Players, I: The Basic Model. Management Science, 14(3), 159. doi:10.1287/mnsc.14.3.159 Harsanyi, J. C. (1968a). Games with Incomplete Information Played by ‘Bayesian’ Players, II: Bayesian Equilibrium Points. Management Science, 14(5), 320. doi:10.1287/mnsc.14.5.320 Harsanyi, J. C. (1968b). Games with Incomplete Information Played by ‘Bayesian’ Players, III: Basic Probability Distribution of the Game. Management Science, 14(7), 486. doi:10.1287/ mnsc.14.7.486 Harsanyi, J. C. (1973). Games with Randomly Disturbed Payoffs: A New Rationale for Mixed Strategy Equilibrium Points. International Journal of Game Theory, 2, 1–23. doi:10.1007/ BF01737554
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Hatzipanagos, S. (2006). HOT and Flaming Spirals: Learning and Empathic Interfaces in Textbased Discussion Forum Dialogues. European Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 2006/I. Hatzipanagos, S., & Warburton, S. (Eds.). (2009). Social Software and Developing Community Ontologies. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Karagiannidis, C., Efraimidou, S., Koumpis, A., & Molinari, F. (2007). A Collaborative Community Environment to Support Experiential Improvement of Processes and Practices in Special Education. Paper presented at 4th WSEAS / IASME International Conference on Engineering Education (EE’07), Agios Nikolaos, Crete Island, Greece, July 24-26, 2007 Karagiannidis, C., Efraimidou, S., Koumpis, A., & Molinari, F. (2008). Employing the Living Labs methodology to support experiential improvement of processes and practices in special education. Paper presented at 6th International Conference on Networked Learning 2008, 5 - 6 May 2008, Halkidiki, Greece Moulin, H. (1986). Game Theory for Social Sciences. New York, NY: NYU Press. Mueller, R. Haiduk. S., Heertsch. N., Lenz. H.-J., & Spiliopoulou, M. (2004). Studying Knowledge Trading with a Business Game. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Science, Software Engineering, Information Technology, e-Business, and Applications (CSITeA’04), Cairo, Egypt. Mueller, R., Haiduk, S., Heertsch, N., Lenz, H. J., & Spiliopoulou, M. (2005b). Experimental Investigation of the Effects of different Market Mechanisms for Electronic Knowledge Markets. In Proc. of ECIS 2005.
Mueller, R., Spiliopoulou, M., & Lenz, H. J. (2002a). Electronic Marketplaces of Knowledge: Characteristics and Sharing of Knowledge Assets. In Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Advances in Infrastructure for e-Business, e-Education, e-Science, and e-Medicine on the Internet (SSGRR 2002w), L’Aquila, Italy, Jan. 2002. Mueller, R., Spiliopoulou, M., & Lenz, H.-J. (2002b). Expertenrat in e-marketplaces, (“Expert Advice in e-marketplaces”) HMD Praxis der Wirtschaftsinformatik, 223, dpunkt (pp. 38–48). Heidelberg: German. Mueller, R., Spiliopoulou, M., & Lenz, H. J. (2005a). The Influence of Incentives and Culture on Knowledge Sharing. In Proc. of 38th Hawaiian Int. Conf. on System Science (HICSS 2005), IEEE, Hawaii, Jan. 2005. Musser, J. (2006). O’Reilly Radar: Web 2.0 Principles and Best Practices. O’Reilly Media Inc. Myerson, R. B., & Satterthwaite, M. A. (1983). Efficient Mechanisms for Bilateral Trading. Journal of Economic Theory, 29, 265–281. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(83)90048-0 (1944). Neumann, J., & von and Morgenstern. O.: Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton University Press. O’Hear, S. (2006, June 20). Web’s second phase puts users in control. The Guardian Education. Retrieved November 21, 2008 from http://education. guardian.co.uk /elearning/story/ 0,1801086,00. html O’Reilly, T. (2005). What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software. Retrieved December 4, 2009 from http://www.oreillynet.com/ pub/a/oreilly/ tim/news/ 2005/09/30/ what-is-web- OrientedEconomy20.html
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Radner, R. (1996). Bounded rationality, indeterminacy, and the theory of the firm. The Economic Journal, 106. Smith, H. (1987). Deciding how to decide: Is there a regress problem? In Bachrach, M., & Hurley, S. (Eds.), Foundations of decision theory. Oxford: Blackwell.
ENDNOTES *
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For example, the classical game theoretic models of bargaining which date from the work of Nash were unusually resistant to tests with field data because their predictions depend on difficult to observe elements of
1
the bargainers’ preferences. But laboratory experimentation presents the opportunity to measure or control these factors, and thus permits bargaining to be observed in environments for which the predictions of these theories can be known, and therefore tested. And when examined in this way, the evidence supports some of the qualitative predictions of these models, for example concerning the effect of risk aversion on the outcome of bargaining, while contradicting others, concerning, for example, what constitutes complete information about a bargaining problem. With today’s language style cliché one would call it “ontologies of controlled languages”.
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Chapter 3
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games Daniel I. Thomas Griffith University, Australia Ljubo B. Vlacic Griffith University, Australia
ABSTRACT For humans, collaboration is a natural and beneficial problem-solving attitude. In computer games, human players have worked together to achieve their objectives and many computer games today foster that collaboration with many social mechanisms. Non-human entities however, are used predominantly as props, plot devices and adversaries. Our vision is to see virtual beings engaging as equal partners with humans, providing richer emergent game play. In computer games, the development of artificial intelligence (AI) has been a very poor cousin to the investment in graphics and physics. AI in the most part is confined to path finding algorithms and simple state machines. Taking human and virtual beings beyond current applications of AI in computer games means that intelligent entities within the computer game cease to be “props” in a human-centric story line, but become equal participants themselves within the computer game world, engaging with humans towards achieving goals in more dynamic and realistic ways. Computer games provide a compelling environment to study and enable virtual beings to engage with humans as equals. In this chapter, we investigate the requirements, design and implementation of virtual beings that participate in computer games as humans would; playing the game and creating rich new collaborative game play experiences in areas of education, training and entertainment. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch003
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
INTRODUCTION Alan Turing once remarked that “We may hope that machines will eventually compete with men in all purely intellectual fields” (Turing, 1950). While may not be fully realized today, the integration of artificial beings into human organizations and society evoke powerful images of both positive and negative possibility. Despite the technology that surrounds us today, humans continue to use the imagery of science fiction to strive to create more intelligent machines capable of autonomous decision making. In this Chapter, we explore the possibility of artificial i.e. virtual beings emerging as partners to humans rather than tools used by humans in various collaborative situations. Unlike past revolutions of mechanical automation, the presence of virtual beings should not imply a redundancy for human partners, but rather a complimentary relationship. Group decision-making, including both humans and virtual beings as equals, increases the diversity of the knowledge pool (Dunbar, 1995), improving the likelihood of positive outcomes. Computer game development offers a compelling platform for such research and development. As each new computer game produced pushes the boundaries of technical possibility, it should come as no surprise that academia and the game industry have frequently cross-pollinated each other’s efforts. To this end, we explore a collaborative computer game called TeamMATE1. This environment facilitates the investigation of human and virtual computer game players engaged as fully equal partners. By investigating the nature of fully equal partners, concepts of collaboration and facilitating architecture, it is possible to address the following questions: 1. Can human and virtual beings, being heterogeneous agents, interact cooperatively as fully equal partners in the context of
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computer games, where each entity is fully replaceable or substitutable with the other? 2. How can cooperation be obtained in heterogeneous agent situations, such as a boardroom, be designed to facilitate cooperation between biological and virtual beings? 3. Can a boardroom-like game scenario be appropriate for social and educational computer games? This book chapter explores these questions, and what is required in order to engage human and virtual players collaboratively in computer games. The principles presented here are delivered from our experience in designing, developing and implementing the TeamMATE© cooperative computer game.
FULLY EQUAL PARTNERS (FEPS) To engage human and virtual beings as equal partners in a computer game setting requires interaction beyond treating the virtual partners as sophisticated tools, but rather requires a degree of social acceptance and cohesion. In such a heterogeneous group of partners, virtual beings must be able to articulate their perspectives and opinions, while taking on board the knowledge and opinions of others. For social acceptance and societal influence to occur the virtual being needs to become acceptable within the social system: Society, organization or group (Kelman, 2006). In making the transition to societal acceptance of virtual beings, there are great challenges both technical and social. To better study virtual beings as collaborative partners, it is possible to focus on a smaller, group social setting, with an assumption of social acceptance (and therefore the capability to influence) collaborative group decision-making. For this reason, computer games provide an excellent environment for understanding how humans and virtual beings can
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
positively influence outcomes in a collaborative group situation. The nature of an independent virtual being participating alongside humans collaboratively in computer games is strongly influenced by the notion of intelligent autonomous agents in computer game theory. The concept of an intelligent autonomous agent as described by Jennings and Wooldridge (Jennings & Wooldridge, 1995) is appropriate for application to the characteristics of human and virtual beings that engage collaboratively as equal participants in computer games. An intelligent autonomous agent, being situated within a collaborative computer game enjoys the following abilities: 1. Is Autonomous; operating without the direct intervention of humans or other entities, having control over its internal state. 2. Situated in and aware of its environment (the game) and is able to interact with this environment through their sensors and effectors. 3. Have some kind of Social Ability; interacting with other human and virtual beings via the use of a communication language. 4. Is able to perceive changes within the (game) environment and React to these changes in a timely fashion. 5. Is Proactive; being able to exhibit goaldirected behavior (taking the initiative) and directly affecting the game and other entities in order to achieve these goals. There have been many instances in the past where virtual players have participated in computer games as a human would (Laird, 2001). In these instances, the virtual player has typically participated as an opponent. In addition, there are many games where simple virtual players have worked as part of a human player’s “team” where they interact with these entities through simple commands. Building upon these principles, we consider that if virtual players were able to participate
Figure 1. Humans and Virtual beings as collaborative fully equal partners
and collaborate within a computer game setting, while having their own internal goals (that is, the ability to play a game as a human would), then these games would have an increased perception of realism and “life” as the interactions between human and virtual beings is not static, scripted or based upon the scenario at hand, but rather changes as these beings interact and collaborate with each other over time to affect change upon the game world that they are situated within. To this end, human and virtual beings can be considered fully equal partners (FEPs) that collaborate to achieve a set of shared goals or outcomes (Figure 1). We consider this concept as complementary to other concepts that use autonomous agents as either opponents (Laird, 2001) or as interactive story characters (Magerko, Laird, Assanie, & Stokes, 2004). Unlike the FEPs, non-player virtual characters are typically able to interact with (or provide simple assistance to) the human players, but do not participate as intelligent collaborative entities, equal in ability to a human being. Humans and virtual beings interacting collaboratively in computer games as fully equal partners enjoy the following attributes:
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
1. Can work cooperatively with other fully equal partner s (human or otherwise); 2. “Play” the game as a human would; 3. Does not work to a defined script or take centralized behavioral direction from an agent “director” such as those described by Magerko et al. (Magerko, Laird, Assanie, & Stokes, 2004) and Riedl et al. (Riedl, Saretto, & Young, 2003) and; 4. Are not necessarily aware of the nature of other FEP beings (human or virtual in nature). Simply, a Fully Equal Partner (or FEP) is an intelligent entity that performs tasks cooperatively with other FEPs (human or virtual), but is also capable of being replaced one with another. These beings are not necessarily aware of the nature of their fellow partners.
CONCEPTS OF FEP COLLABORATION Humans and Virtual beings are vastly different entities in terms of their cognitive abilities and complex interactions. This poses a number of challenges when moving from virtual computer game characters as adversaries, tools, props and plot devices to engaged societal equals to humans. A framework is required to facilitate equal engagement in a collaborative computer game. The framework used in TeamMATE© is known as the Collaborative Process. The process itself treats all players as engaged equals (but not necessarily equals in cognitive capacity). This allows the execution of computer game play scenarios with varying proportions of human and virtual players, as well as allow for replaceability.
Collaborative Engagement Consider a group of fully equal partners P engaged in the collaborative process c. There will be a set of outcomes O met at the conclusion of the process.
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The set is based upon the set of defined goals G defined at the beginning of the process and the ability of the partners to collaborate towards the desired outcomes. However there is not a 1:1 ratio of outcomes to goals, and the set of objectives may even be empty. O = c(P,G )
(1)
Each partner pk is either Human hi or Virtual aj. The collaborative group is the union of the Human and Virtual fully equal partners. P = {p1,.., pk } pk = {hi | a j } A = {a1,.., a j } H = {h1,.., hi } P = A∪H
(2)
During the collaborative process, any partner pl, where l ≠ k, may ask a question qm of any other partner pk in order to receive a response rm, where m = j+i rm = f (pk , qm )
where qm = g(pl ) rm = f (pk , g(pl ))
(3)
The response may contain facts or partial knowledge that can be collected and added to the collective knowledge obtained by the group. The collaborative process of the group in order to obtain a set of outcomes is then consensus based upon the interpretation of the group collective knowledge in order to identify whether the partners
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
have achieved (or partially achieved) the initial goals of the group. The set of Group Collective Knowledge K obtained by the group through the collaborative process is a subset of the responses obtained during the collaborative process.
the game. Typically, the goals that can be found in such a game are: individual goals, goals of the collective (group) scenario and goals of the play scenario.
K ÍR K Í {r1,.., rm } {k1,..kq } Í {r1,.., rm }
Roles are the ingredients of a linking mechanism between the cognitive layer and the physical layer. Within the collaborative FEP architecture, roles define specific functions or duties to be performed by FEPs fulfilling the role. A FEP’s role can also affect the sensors and effectors available to the being participating in the game. While our collaborative computer game concept has been designed to operate without the assistance of an overall agent “director”, as is the case with work in the field of interactive fiction games (Magerko, Laird, Assanie, & Stokes, 2004), we have developed an authority role - The Negotiator2. The Negotiator typically is responsible for the organization, initiation and conclusion of a play scenario or defined objective within a collaborative computer game. A Leader may have to organize a team for a single task or may have to organize groups of FEPs over the entire play time of the game. Depending on how the collaborative computer game has been designed, multiple roles can be defined. In keeping with the FEP concept, a human or virtual being is permitted to perform any role defined.
(4)
For simplicity, assume that all responses rm are components of group collective knowledge K = R. This means that all results contribute to the set of collective knowledge and that all partners are aware of this knowledge. K =R {k1,.., kq } = {r1,.., rm } i.e. q = m
(5)
Outcomes of the collaborative group are a result of the collaborative process between the group of fully equal partners and the goals of the collaborative process. O = c(P,G ) O = c(P,G ) O = {o1,.., on }
(6)
on = s(P, n(G, K P )) Where s is a function of all partners P applied to an interpretation function n of the set of goals G, the set of group collective knowledge across the entire set of partners KP, resulting in an outcome on.
Goals Understanding the various types of goals that can exist within a collaborative computer game is imperative to understanding the outcomes of
Roles
The Collaborative Process The Collaborative Process is used to facilitate a framework of interaction between computer game players acting collaboratively. The process is independent of implementation and underlying communication methods utilized between players (for example, non-verbal, audio or symbolic communication instead of text-based English phrases). Maintaining this level of abstraction allows the
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 2. The Collaborative Process as used by TeamMATE©
process to be applied to a variety of collaborative applications. Figure 2 defines the collaborative process employed within the cognitive processing of participating FEPs. Each element of the collaborative process encapsulates particular stages within the collaborative engagement.
Invitation Stage In a collaborative computer game, participation is by invitation to engage in a collaborative task. Invitations themselves may be controlled by a player or set of pre-requisite criteria, or by selfinvitation.
Attendance Stage Once a collaborative computer game has been initiated, participating FEPs are able to “join” the game. Attendance can also occur internally, as human and virtual beings already participating within the game may attend and participate in many play scenarios.
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Initiation Stage At a point determined by the leader (typically when all participants are present, or the scheduled meeting time has been reached) they will declare the play scenario “started”. It is at this point that the play scenario can commence. Initiation of the play scenario is actually a special action (we describe actions in more detail later).
Definition of Goals Stage Before any meaningful collaboration can be achieved between the participating FEPs, it is necessary to define the goals of the current play scenario. This defines the framework for the conversations that will occur during the process. These goals can also be used to determine the success or failure of a particular play scenario (or whether additional game play is required).
Presentation Stage All communication and collaborative behavior within the computer game takes place in the
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
form of “Conversations”. Conversations involve the presentation of some instructions, positions, statements, or questions that require additional facts and opinions from the FEPs involved in the collaborative process.
Conversation Stage Collaborative behavior within the computer game takes place as the result of “Conversations” that engage two or more players. This involves the interpretation of the Truth/Facts revealed during the conversation process. Conversations between FEPs engaged in a collaborative process involve the transfer of information using different types of conversation elements. As the conversations occur, partners are able to collect truths as well as opinions/positions stated by the other partners. The resulting collection of information is recorded as collaborative group knowledge, which may be used to analyze, evaluate and act towards achieving the desired goals of the computer game.
Questions Questions are used to obtain truths, facts and perceptions. Questions in a collaborative computer game are any communications made by FEPs that result in an outcome (for simplicity, statements or instructions are also considered “questions”). When an agent proposes a question, there are three possible outcomes: A response (which may be itself another question), an Action or No Response.
Response A response is given when a FEP receives a directed question, or perceives (through their sensors) the necessity to respond to a question or action. As a response may happen through non-directed communication, but through the perception of other events within the collaborative computer game, a response may itself initiate a new conversation/negotiation. A special type of response that
requires the use of effectors not directly related to inter being communication is called an Action.
Actions Actions are special responses to questions that result in a transition of some item or process from one state to another. For example, if a FEP asked the question “I require a technician for Project X”, a possible resulting outcome may be that another participant in the play scenario may perform an action that results in the commencement of a recruitment process to hire a skilled technician for Project X. Actions tie the collaborative process to the defined physical layer as only those actions available within the physical layer may be enacted to change a defined entity’s state. Thus, the introduction of cognitive layer elements results in the ability to enact complex/abstract actions based on perceived physical layer effectors rather than a defined set of actions available for a defined role being enacted by a FEP.
No Response In some instances, a question may not require a response.
Negotiation Stage Negotiation involves the willingness of one or more parties involved in the conversation to accept a compromised position. Previously collected facts or collaborative group knowledge, are then used by players in the negotiation process in order to influence or determine outcomes aligned to the earlier stated goals of the collaborative process. The negotiation process involves the process of conversation that the partners engage in and allows the FEPs to discover a best fit outcome based upon the goals stated during the definition of goals phase.
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
In human to human interactions, we see many forces at play that influence one person to agree or take the side of another in a discussion. These influences need to be taken into account when collaborative work is undertaken. Even the size of a group (Fay et al, 2000) can change the way in which partners are influenced, and by whom. Collaborative FEPs may create an affinity with one or more entities and are more likely to accept their position during negotiation. Possible methods for obtaining an affinity with one or more FEPs include: 1. The degree to which one FEP’s responses convey a perception/opinion that matches that of another FEP. The more that a partner’s position matches that of another partner, it becomes more likely that the partner will “trust” the statements of that partner. 2. Some arbitrary/authoritative influence factor that has the partner tending towards the position of one or more other partners. An example in a business sense might be seniority and/or position within an organization. 3. Trade: changing a given position in order to influence another partner’s position on another item in the collaborative process. 4. A pre-existing relationship (for example a friendship) that exists beyond the scope of the collaborative process During the collaborative process, any partner pl, where l ≠ k, may ask a question qm of any other partner pk in order to receive a response rm, where m = j+i rm = f (pk , qm )
(7)
The set of Group Collective Knowledge K obtained by the group through the collaborative process is a subset of the responses obtained during the collaborative process.
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K ÍR K Í {r1,.., rm } {k1,..kq } Í {r1,.., rm }
(8)
To influence group collective knowledge, resulting responses rm that contribute to K must be changed in some way. Assuming that all responses contribute to collective knowledge: K =R {k1,.., kq } = {r1,.., rm } i.e. q = m
(9)
During the negotiation phase, an influence function changes the response for a given partner’s initial decision based on the degree of influence the other partners have with the first partner. i(rpk ) =
∑
1−n ,n ≠i
pnf * (rpn − rpk )
(10)
where i(rpk ) is the influenced response which is the sum of all influence factors pnf multiplied by the response difference partner pn and the partner under influence pk. FEPs using this influence function cannot influence themselves.
Assessment Stage At the conclusion of the negotiation phase, the Leader provides a summary of the collaborative engagement. Based on the information obtained, each goal may be evaluated in terms of the resulting outcomes. The assessments are relayed to the participating partners.
Conclusion Stage At either a specified time, or when the objectives of the play scenario have been completed success-
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 3. The three layers of a collaborative FEP system architecture
fully, the leader is able to enact a special action that concludes the play scenario. Prior to the conclusion, the leader or another nominated partner is given the opportunity to summarize or present the outcomes of the scenario to the other participating human and virtual beings. Outcomes can include gauging the success/failure of the play scenario based on the goals defined at the beginning by the leader; can also result on actions required beyond the scope of the current play scenario and could also be the determination that additional play scenarios are required.
A LAYERED COLLABORATIVE ARCHITECTURE In our work with collaborative computer games, we see a collaborative computer game architecture consisting of three distinct layers (Figure 3). This layered approach allows us to formalize the necessary attributes required starting from atomic technical concepts through to abstract concepts of the cognitive layer. Since each layer creates an additional abstraction, built upon the previous layer, it is important to provide a firm
understanding of each layer’s function within a collaborative computer game. We refer to our approach to a layered collaborative computer game architecture for FEPs as the TeamMATE© Architecture (Thomas & Vlacic, 2005). Each layer of the TeamMATE© Architecture is described in the following sections, demonstrating how this layered approach to collaborative FEPs permits a socially driven environment to exist.
Communication Layer The communication layer is a very fundamental element of a collaborative computer game. This layer defines the technical protocols used to convey information from the game or other entities from or to the FEP beings situated within the computer game. The communication layer is effectively a low level transport layer used to pass information from one place to another for example: DirectPlay, TCP/IP, radio signal etc. These protocols, along with the format of the data being transmitted are then available to a FEP’s sensors. A FEP may also transmit using these communication protocols via their defined effectors.
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Physical Layer The physical layer within a collaborative computer game defines a FEP’s available sensors and effectors within the context of the game. The term “physical” is used to refer to this layer as it defines the characteristics of sensors, effectors and entities within the computer game. Before we are able to work with the more abstract cognitive layers of TeamMATE©, it is necessary to define a layer that: 1. Is able to define the physical objects of the collaborative computer game; 2. Provides a common pattern of sensor and effector abilities available to human and virtual beings situated within the game and; 3. Defines the possible actions that may be performed using the available sensors and effectors; Human and virtual partners must be able to work with the appropriate rules/constraints of the specific play scenario being undertaken. Physical rules for a given play scenario consist of information about objects in the computer game and how they may be used. Using or enacting some change upon an entity using the defined effectors is referred to as performing an Action. Take as an example, a simple play scenario that contains these physical layer rules (Table 1). When working with more complex games, and also collaborative games that may occur within the physical world, defining all objects and all actions is not feasible. However, it is possible to define the available sensors and effectors for a FEP, while the task of relating objects and actions becomes a function of the cognitive layer. While a collaborative computer game and the human and virtual beings that are situated within a given play scenario may share a common physical layer, it is not necessarily required that the manifestation of the physical layer will be the same. For example, in order for a human being to interact with the sensors and effectors provided
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Table 1. Simplistic Physical Layer Rules Object
Available Actions
Chair
Sit, Stand, Move
Table
Place Item, Pick Item
Telephone
Call, Hang Up, Speakerphone, Listen
Stock
Buy, Sell, Report
Talk
Whisper, Tell All, Listen
by the physical layer, it would be necessary to provide a mechanism to interact with the sensors and effectors through a human user interface. Likewise, if a virtual FEP was to interact with other beings within a collaborative computer game, the physical layer would possibly be accessed as some form of software interface.
Cognitive Layer The Cognitive Layer describes the intelligent mechanisms within a human or virtual being that are capable of manipulating, communicating and collaborating intelligently using the defined sensors and effectors provided by the physical layer. The cognitive layer also defines the roles, goals and processes by which FEPs can collaborate within a computer game and provides methods for expressing this information in a meaningful manner in order for decision-making to occur. Human players engaged in computer games are assumed to have an innate cognitive ability, and that a human player engaged in a computer game does so through an interface that presents sensor and effector information in a meaningful way. This interface for human players is what they would simply perceive as the computer game’s user interface. Unlike a human player, a virtual being’s cognitive layer is designed to include decision-making processes as opposed to an innate ability to make intelligent decisions within a collaborative context (Figure 4). The following section describes how a virtual being’s cognitive layer may be constructed.
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 4. Human and Virtual beings utilizing a layered collaborative architecture
EMBODIMENT OF THE LAYERED ARCHITECTURE To facilitate collaboration amongst human and virtual FEPs a Layered architecture consisting of Communication, Physical and Cognitive layers was created. Each of these layers provides a level of abstraction from each other, allowing elements within each layer to be replaced and/or modified without affecting the others (Figure 3). From a practical perspective, the current implementations of this collaborative computer game architecture have been developed using Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 in Visual Basic. Some related technologies utilized in development include Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) as a data transport method; and SQL Server Compact Edition, a lightweight database for storing configuration, rules and domain related game data. Some examples of this abstraction include changing parts of the communication layer from utilizing Microsoft DirectPlay to Windows Com-
munication Foundation (WCF), The most important abstraction for engaging human and virtual partners is the cognitive layer. By providing this layer of abstraction, FEPs can interact with equal ability while their decision making processes are vastly different. This layered approach allows the resulting computer game to facilitate collaboration while supporting many desirable features of multi-agent environments such as exogenous events, causal structures (Hanks, Pollack, & Cohen, 1993), concepts of time (Vincent, Horling, & Lesser, 2000), experimental support as well as many practical features that allow the environment to be worked with effectively (Thomas & Vlacic, 2003). To satisfy these requirements and facilitate FEP collaboration, an embodiment of this architectural concept was developed around the notion of an Electronic Boardroom called TeamMATE©. This computer game provides a virtual “sandbox” within which it is possible to investigate various scenarios and elements of FEP collaboration.
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 5. Electronic Boardroom Computer Game Composition
Architectural Overview The game is decomposed into the primary software systems required to create a collaborative computer game. Each of these parts embodies the layered architecture elements in different ways depending on their function within the collaborative educational/training game. The Electronic Boardroom is designed to embody a layered architecture for collaborative computer games which facilitates the interaction and cooperation between FEPs. The collaborative computer game system is divided into three distinct parts (Figure 5): 1. An interfacing system that allows human beings to join (become situated in) and engage others within the computer game; 2. An interfacing system that allows virtual partners to do likewise and; 3. The game play environment which manages the “world” within which the partners are situated. Figure 6. Human Being Interface structure
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These three elements form the basis of the technical architecture within which FEPs interact and collaborate. Each of the three software systems that combine to form a collaborative computer game must apply the principles of the layered collaborative architecture. The layered architectural approach is applied to each of the main structures of the TeamMATE© system including the computer game “world” and the human and artificial being interfaces
Human Being Interface The Human Being Interface (HBI) facilitates the interaction between human and all other beings situated within the collaborative computer game. It provides a Social Ability mechanism as well as a well-defined interface to permit interaction and cooperation within the bounds of the collaborative computer game (Figure 6). Bringing all these elements together is a central “core” infrastructure of the HBI. This manages the communication, user interface processing
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 7. A Human Being Interface for engaging with other partners
and the management of physical layers for game scenarios. The human being is considered the cognitive layer, and exists separately of the rest of the HBI. The HBI itself provides the other two layers.
HBI Communication Layer The communication layer within the human being interface corresponds to the low level signals transported to and from the electronic boardroom. These signals are then interpreted by the physical layer.
HBI Physical Layer It is necessary to provide a well-defined interface between the human being and the human being interface as well as between the same interface and the electronic boardroom. Humans are only able to interact with the game using the sensors and effectors provided by the HBI. Humans can be considered completely autonomous and are able to use the defined sensors and effectors provided
by the HBI in both reactive and proactive ways to achieve their goals.
HBI Cognitive Layer When working with the human being interface, it is apparent (Figure 6) that the intelligent, cognitive layer exists within the human being and separate of the HBI, which acts as the conduit between the human being’s cognitive abilities and the collaborative computer game.
Virtual Being Interface The Virtual Being Interface (VBI) is actually very similar to the HBI. The difference however, is that the cognitive abilities required to interact and collaborate with other FEPs are contained within the VBI as the cognitive layer (Figure 8). Unlike the HBI, which allows a human being (acting as the cognitive layer) to interact with the collaborative computer game, the VBI itself can be considered to encapsulate all layers of the fully equal partner. The VBI:
35
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 8. Virtual Being Interface structure
1. Contains features that allow the virtual being to be situated within the electronic boardroom game. 2. Is autonomous; Interaction with the computer game is through a well-defined interface. 3. Provides the necessary Social Ability elements such that the virtual being may interact and cooperate with other FEPs. 4. Is able to act reactively based on the information provided by sensors 5. Is able to act proactively in order to achieve its goals While the VBI can be considered as an autonomous entity from the viewpoint of the game “world”, it is not necessarily true that it cannot exist within the same runtime system as long as its interactions are via the interface sensors and effectors. As stated earlier, a number of networking technologies have been utilized by the collaborative computer game, and in some instances a virtual network protocol has also been used.
VBI Communication Layer As with the human being interface, the communication layer is the transport system utilized by all elements of the collaborative computer game.
VBI Physical Layer While the HBI operates as a conduit, providing an actual graphical user interface to the human
36
being, and representing the available sensors and effectors used within the collaborative computer game, the virtual being simply requires a software interface directly between the physical layer (of sensors & effectors) and the virtual being’s cognitive layer. In doing this, it can be demonstrated that the human and virtual FEPs have an equivalence in terms of their interaction with the computer game, while the implementation of this equivalence is quite different.
VBI Cognitive Layer The virtual being cognitive layer is responsible for providing the “Intelligence” required to collaborate within a computer game as a FEP. This is where the decision-making processes of the virtual being reside. This subsystem is able to take interpreted sensor information (provided by the physical layer) and perform reactive and proactive decision making processes. If decisions require action, these actions are interpreted in terms of the computer game’s physical layer attributes and passed as actions (via the communications layer) to the game. In order to adequately experiment with cooperative FEPs, the cognitive layer is designed (conceptualized) as an encapsulated software component. As a practical example, one of the decision-making processes utilized in the VBI cognitive layer uses T-Function (Yan, Ryan, & Power, 1994) fuzzy logic algorithms with a
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 9. A Virtual FEP
small-footprint database storing the linguistic terms and variables. Combining this decision-making process with a language interpreter allowed the virtual FEPs to interact with their human partners.
COGNITIVE LAYER The virtual being’s cognitive layer encapsulates the intelligent decision-making components required to engage in collaborative computer games. This layer comprises the perception, analysis, decisionmaking and action elements required to participate in intelligent collaborative tasks.
Cognitive Layer Design The cognitive layer interprets and evaluates sensor messages that are passed to it via the physical layer and then determines an appropriate response, be it another message, or an action. The response is then relayed to the physical layer effectors. Figure 10 depicts the process by which the cognitive layer receives information from the computer game that it is situated within. The physical layer receives stimulus from sensors (via the
communication layer) which is then transformed and passed to the cognitive layer. The cognitive layer then interprets this physical sensor stimulus, along with inter-partner messages and determines the appropriate response. Messages are conveyed to other game partners (either virtual or human beings), from the cognitive layer as physical layer items in order to interact with other partners and objects within the computer game. Virtual FEPs receiving information via their sensors have no control of the information relayed to the cognitive layer. This means that actions and messages sent to all participating FEPs are received by the virtual partner. From a collaborative point of view this is vital importance as this allows the virtual partner to collect data through the computer game engagement for later utilization in their decision making. At this point it is possible to breakdown the details of a virtual being’s cognitive processes. The cognitive layer can be divided into the following high-level subsystems (Figure 11). Each subsystem or element of the cognitive layer plays a part in taking input stimuli in the form of physical layer sensor information to produce outcomes in the form of physical actions,
37
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 10. The Cognitive and Physical layers and their interaction
messages to other partners or in some cases, no response at all. The operational elements within the cognitive layer fall into four broad categories of operation: Perception, Analysis, Decision-Making and Action. Supporting these functional elements is a cognitive data store which provides supporting information to the operational elements. Figure 11. High level elements of the Cognitive Layer
38
Perception The cognitive layer receives information from the virtual partner’s sensors and can communicate (an action or message) via its effectors. Perception of the computer game situation involves making sense of messages received from these sensors. To achieve this, the virtual partner requires a basic knowledge of the world in which it operates. This knowledge of the world is provided by a scenario Model which represents an instance (point in time) state of the scenario. To collaborate with other partners, the virtual partner’s cognitive layer must have a basic knowledge of the communication language being utilized. This communication language may take the form of a human language, symbols or some other agreed common language for communication. It would be presumptuous to suggest that the implementation of the perception elements of the cognitive layer presented here represent a nextgeneration Natural Language Processor, but there is however some rudimentary language processing that must take place in order to make sense of the messages communicated. Once the interpretation process is concluded, the messages received from the sensors have been transformed into a simple internal structure that represents the interpreted concepts. Once a mes-
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
sage can be transformed into a structured form of the original message, analysis can occur.
Enquiries and Directives
The Analysis subsystem supports the process of taking interpreted information from the Perception subsystem, analyzing the input and providing information for the Decision-Making subsystem to formulate a response based on the information available. The analysis phase can draw upon knowledge of previous events to help infer context. By the end of this process, the message structure has been associated with definitions and meanings that have been stored in the cognitive data. Consequently, this message shall also be recorded, as well as the resulting decision and action for future reference.
An Enquiry is a question directed to one or many partners with the expectation of some form of verbal response. A Directive is a request for some form of response by one or more partners. An Enquiry is a special type of directive where the expected response is specifically verbal in nature. An enquiry or directive is required in the case of insufficient information to address the current collaborative exchange. This is particularly important when various FEPs engaged in a collaborative process have access to different sets of knowledge. In order to achieve an outcome, information has to be requested and shared with the rest of the group. This process of knowledge sharing also grows each partner’s set of indirect test data for statement assessment.
Decision-Making
Actions
Once each type of message has been analyzed, a decision must be determined as to what response is to be taken. By this point, the sensed message has been classified as one of the following message types: A Statement, Enquiry, Directive or Action.
An Action is a non-verbal message enacted by an external party (another partner or the computer game itself) and sensed by the partner’s sensors. Actions are performed upon objects within the computer game environment. An action changes the state of an object from one form to another.
Analysis
Statements A Statement is a communication between one or more partners that expresses a perceived observation made by the originating partner. Statements therefore must be tested as part of the decisionmaking process. Statements may be directly or indirectly tested. Direct testing relies on the partner being able to perform tests upon the statement and recording the result. Indirect testing relies on secondary sources of information that the partner has collected from other partners.
Making a Decision The response to each type of message is the responsibility of the Decision-Making subsystem. The responses that are available include Statements, Enquiries, Directives, Actions or No Response at all. Decisions can be made using a wide variety of methods. In the context of the play scenarios presented here, the decision-making subsystems were able to incorporate a number of problem solving techniques.
39
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Influence In addition to decisions, there is an additional process contained in this subsystem known as the influence process. Influence can modify the decision of a collaborative partner so it is either in more agreement or less agreement with another partner. As the collaborative computer game scenario is executed (and executed many times), influences between the partners emerge. These influences form forces upon the decision made by the partner causing the decision to shift slightly based on the influencing forces.
Action The Action subsystem is the process of changing the response of the Decision-Making process into a form that may be conveyed to other collaborative FEPs via the Physical Layer effectors. This process is undertaken for all verbal and non-verbal messages. The decision-making process outputs the results in the same structured message format used within the cognitive layer. This process is essentially the opposite process to the Perception processes, changing the internal message structure into messages that can be transmitted by the physical layer’s effectors.
Cognitive Data Supporting these subsystems are the various data elements required in order for the cognitive layer to interpret, evaluate and act upon the information received via its sensors (including messages between partners): The game scenario instance or model is created from a game scenario definition, along with the information required to understand and manipulate the model. The cognitive data store also maintains lists of common concepts that are used to assist in perceiving and manipulating the game scenario model. Historical actions and the results of decisions made are also preserved for further use in cogni-
40
tive processing. When a statement is tested, the corresponding results and influences are updated for future reference.
Cognitive Layer Implementation Integration Process Integrating a problem solving technique into a collaborative computer game involves several steps. When integrating a new problem-solving technique into an already existing computer game, many of the following elements shall already be defined. Due to the nature of some techniques, it is important to ensure that each element is addressed to verify whether changes may be required as part of the integration process.
Integrating a Problem Solving Technique The cognitive layer is a set of inter-connected subsystems, each responsible for a particular function and partitioned from the other operations (Figure 11). Underpinning these subsystems is the Cognitive Data Subsystem (Figure 12). Each subsystem is designed to be modular and therefore replaceable (and replaceable separately of the other subsystems). The following sections detail how a new problem-solving technique may be integrated into a virtual being’s cognitive layer.
Internal Message Structure The internal message structure is used to pass sensor input information between each of the cognitive layer subsystems. In order to integrate a problem solving technique it is important to understand what information is produced by the Perception subsystem and contained in this structure. Given the modularity of the computer game layered collaborative architecture, this structure has had opportunity to undergo incremental
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 12. Composition of the Cognitive Data Subsystem
enhancement to facilitate the transfer of progressively richer and more sophisticated information.
Cognitive Data The Cognitive Data Subsystem is where information about a scenario, the current scenario state (as perceived by the player), common concepts and memory (recorded information made by the engaged players during the scenario) is saved
for use by all four cognitive layer processing subsystems. When integrating a new problem-solving technique, it is possible that some changes may be required to the scenario and its related entities.
Scenario Model A Scenario Model reflects the internal definitions and state of the computer game play scenario and
Figure 13. Technical data representation of a Structured Message
41
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 14. Perception subsystem process
is a main element of the cognitive data subsystem (Figure 12). It consists of two primary elements: The Scenario Definition and the Scenario Instance. The Scenario Definition defines the play scenario objectives and information about the types of objects that inhabit the computer game “world”. It provides a definition for the types of entities involved in the computer game, as well as the scenario objectives.
Rules The rules stored within the cognitive data subsystem consist of two information sources: The Scenario Rules and Common Concepts. Scenario Rules are defined as part of the scenario definition and as such are specific to each game play scenario. Common Concepts are rules which may be applied across all game play scenarios an example of such common concepts are the language rules that are to be applied by the Perception subsystem.
Memory When sensor inputs are processed by the cognitive layer, the state of entities within the game play scenario is updated within the scenario model (instance information). Outside of this, information supplied by other players during the collaborative process is stored in a memory within the cognitive data subsystem. This allows the cognitive layer to recall information they have received and use in later processing. Collectively, this memory
42
forms part of the group’s collective knowledge, which is discussed in more detail in (Thomas & Vlacic, 2008).
Loading a Game Play Scenario The Cognitive Data subsystem provides the scenario model, rules and memory which are used by the four processing subsystems of the cognitive layer. To engage in a specific game play scenario, a definition is loaded from a data source (e.g. XML files, Database, etc.). Once loaded into the Cognitive Data Subsystem, the data source is used to create the Scenario Definition and the initial Scenario Instance within the Scenario Model. From here, the Scenario Rules are also created, thus preparing the cognitive data necessary for the Cognitive Layer to engage in the collaborative computer game play scenario.
Perception While not necessarily involved in the integration of a problem-solving technique, the perception subsystem does create a structured representation of the input received from the defined sensors. As Figure 14 shows, the perception subsystem takes input from the physical layer sensors and creates an internal message structure which is processed by subsequent subsystems. Definition and state information stored in the Cognitive Data layer is used to identify and associate information contained in the input.
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 15. The Analysis subsystem provides additional related information to the message structure
Analysis The analysis process involves the association of related data and determining the context of the input message. From a technical perspective, context and related information is added to the message structure as additional related information.
Decision-Making Once an input obtained from the sensors is relayed to the decision making subsystem, the message structure contains information about the original message in a structured format. Inside the decision-making subsystem, an interface is provided that allows for the construction of an interfacing component which is used to transfer data between the decision-making module and the supporting elements of the subsystem.
While other parts of the integration process do not require a highly technical level of expertise, the integration and interface mapping process currently requires some programming skills to map the internal structured message to and from the required interface of the problem-solving technique. Software code is used to implement the interface, allowing the mapping of structured messages to the input requirements of the integrated problem-solving technique. In order to achieve this, a mapping must be determined between the information found in a structured message, and the specific input requirements of the technique’s software implementation. For example “Daniel, is this coffee affordable?” (see Table 2). Conversely, once results are received from the problem solving technique software, it must then be mapped back to the structured message so that
Figure 16. Integrating a problem solving technique into the decision making subsystem
43
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 17. High level diagram of integrating a problem solving technique
the results may be passed to the Action subsystem which sends instructions to the player’s effectors. To integrate a new problem solving technique, we must: 1. Look at the input requirements of the selected problem solving technique. 2. Cross reference these requirements with what is available as part of the message structure. 3. Items that are not available as part of the message structure need to be evaluated to determine if additional information may be retrieved from the cognitive data layer, or from another external source. If a particular technique requires additional external elements beyond the cognitive layer such as the manipulation of another item defined
within the computer game “world” (for example, an electronic mediator), we must define these items in the scenario definition.
Definition Changes Integrating a different problem-solving technique may change the way in which the scenario is defined. In particular, adding additional physical items to the play scenario.
Maintaining Specific Technique Data Some decision-making techniques shall rely upon an internal store of information. With the fuzzylogic example, this data includes all the rules necessary to evaluate input information.
Table 2. Mapping message structure elements to technique input requirements Structure
Data
Partner:
Daniel
Related Item:
Coffee, $10: (Analysis process assigns attribute price, $10)
Action:
Evaluate: Affordable
Message Type:
Enquiry
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Technique Mapping Fuzzy process for: Coffee Linguistic variable: Affordable Crisp Value: 10.00
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 18. A Data Maintenance dashboard used to main scenario and technique data
Many software-based techniques provide tools to load and configure input data, or if none are provided, large volumes of import data can typically be loaded via an automated process. In a number of play scenarios using various fuzzy logic techniques, a maintenance dashboard was created to assist with maintaining the required data within the data store (Figure 18).
Action Once the message structure contains the results of the decision-making subsystem, the action subsystem converts the structured message into directives instructing the player’s effectors to perform some form of action. Once a structured message has been fully processed by the cognitive layer, it is recorded in memory for possible later use.
CASE STUDY So far, we have explored how human and virtual beings may engage in collaborative computer games as fully equal partners. We have discussed the architectural attributes that are desirable in a collaborative computer game as well as how FEPs engage within these games via the collaborative process. Added to this, we have explored the technical requirements of the communication, physical and cognitive layers with particular attention to the technical implementation of a virtual player’s cognitive layer. To demonstrate how these principles are dealt with in practice, a game play scenario is presented here to demonstrate how FEPs engage in collaborative problem-solving. Computer games of this nature can be applied across a number of computer game applications such as education, training and entertainment. A significant focus has been primarily placed upon educational computer game application however the play scenario presented is of the more familiar entertainment variety of com-
Figure 19. The Action subsystem converts structured messages into instructions for the player’s effectors
45
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
puter game. Other scenarios presented elsewhere belong to the education and training varieties of computer games (Thomas & Vlacic, 2005, 2008, 2009; Vlacic & Thomas, 2009; Vlacic, Thomas, & Amagasa, 2009). Each scenario engages players in scenarios that must be resolved collaboratively; with each play scenario exploring one or more attributes of FEPs engaged in collaborative computer games. The following four case studies explore and rely on the principles of player collaboration to achieve a positive outcome.
Hammurabi Those well versed in computer programming and in particular computer game history will be aware that Hammurabi is considered one of the oldest kingdom building style games and a forefather to many modern strategy and planning games (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, Smith, & Tosca, 2008). This particular game was chosen due to the simple game play, but intelligent decision-making required on behalf of the players. This combination allows us to focus on the details of the virtual partner’s cognitive layer in action. The original game itself is simple. A player acting as the ancient Sumerian king Hammurabi aims to survive a 10 year period (turns) in office by managing resources of grain to ensure their people were fed, and that there was enough land for cultivation. Each player starts with 100 people, 1000 acres of land and 2800 bushels of grain. Each year (turn) the player determines how many bushels of grain to feed to their people, buying or selling land and how much grain to cultivate in the fields. There are a number of basic rules that determine game play: 1. The game lasts up to ten years (turns) unless the player is impeached for poor performance. Impeachment occurs if the following conditions are met in any given turn:
46
2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
a. The number of population starved is greater than 33% b. Acres per person of population ratio is less than 7:1 Every person requires 20 bushels of grain to survive for a year. If a person does not receive 20 bushels of grain, they starve. Each acre of land requires 1 bushel of grain for cultivation Every year, a price to buy and sell land is determined Each person can cultivate up to 10 acres of land If a player lasts 10 turns, they are evaluated to determine how successful their term in office was
Each turn, a set of exogenous events occur that determine the resources available to the player for the next turn: 7. Each year, the population grows due to migration and natural growth 8. The price of land to buy or sell fluctuates between 17 and 26 bushels of grain per acre. 9. The crop yield for the turn ranges between 1 and 5 bushels per acre of cultivated land 10. There is a percentage chance each year that rats will eat a proportion of the harvested bushels of grain 11. There is a percentage chance that the kingdom shall suffer a plague which kills half the population
Scenario Hammurabi’s Boardroom is built upon the classic game Hammurabi, but expands the game to include multiple collaborative partners providing an additional mental challenge as they must collaboratively make decisions to achieve a successful outcome. The game consists of a group of up to four players. One player is Hammurabi who is responsible for commanding the Royal Steward
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Figure 20. Hammurabi’s Boardroom Game Cycle
to buy and sell land, feed the people from the granaries and order cultivation of the fields based on the council’s decision. While Hammurabi is the head of state and responsible for sending the decree to the Royal Steward; in this game a Council consisting of Hammurabi and three wise officials elected by the country has equal say in the decisions made. One the council has arrived at a collaborative decision, Hammurabi informs the Royal Steward of their commands. Once the Royal Steward receives the command to act from Hammurabi, the decision of the council is performed. Once the
commands enacted by the steward are performed, the turn “ends” (representing a year). The steward then receives a report on the performance of the country that is then brought before the council (Figure 20). Typically, each turn would result in a random assortment of exogenous events (in the form of crop yields, migrations, deaths, land price etc.). This particular game has been designed to allow specific turn results to be recorded and played back, allowing the scenario to be repeatable. Table 3 shows the factors that were applied to Hammurabi’s Boardroom for each turn cycle.
Table 3. Table of Game Factors used during experiment runs Turn
Population Increase Factor (1 – 10)
Plague Factor (-3 – 17)
Rat Population Factor (0 – 1)
Crop Yield (1 – 5)
Land Trading Price per Acre (17 – 27)
1
5
10
0.09
1
23
2
2
9
0.16
2
26
3
1
2
0.41
2
23
4
3
16
0.52
4
21
5
5
3
0.15
2
21
6
9
0
0.55
1
24
7
4
-2
0.69
2
18
8
2
-2
0.62
3
23
9
8
-2
0.62
4
18
10
4
-2
0.62
4
22
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Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
These factors were taken from the random values produced in an initial game run.
Decision-Making There are many methods by which decisionmaking can be achieved. As part of the architectural implementation, each process of the layered collaborative architecture is designed to allow replacement. Two techniques were applied to Hammurabi’s Boardroom: A fuzzy logic process and a second decision-making process based around levels of quality. Both of these approaches have been demonstrated individually in other work (Thomas & Vlacic, 2008; Vlacic & Thomas, 2009). The decision making process within each virtual partner results in a recommendation about how many people to feed, acres to trade and grain to store. This decision is then passed to the Action processor. In addition to the fuzzy approach, a second decision-making group was also implemented which instead made collaborative group decisions based on levels of quality (LOQ) that each partner brought to the decision making process. This approach is based around using a completely neutral process or mediator to deliver an outcome based upon the decisions of all partners. Each partner reviews a set of alternative decisions each turn (in the case of this computer game, the alternatives are evaluated and put forward by the partners themselves) and the group provides their decisions to the mediator based upon the levels of quality they have nominated. This electronic mediator then determines the outcome which satisfies the decisions of the collaborative group using an order-consistent achievement function (Vlacic, Wierzbicki, & Matic, 1986). The electronic mediator in the context of this computer game is the Royal Steward who enacts the outcomes of the council’s decisions.
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Table 4. Results at the conclusion of the Game for each Partner/s Player/s
Population
Bushels
Acres
Human
57
3
45
Fuzzy Partners
22
697
502
LOQ Partners
20
16
771
Baseline Partner
16
3
261
Results The computer game was constructed as a set of loosely coupled functional modules and subsystems. The Hammurabi game module itself is responsible for creating exogenous game events and managing game play. To verify the correctness of the solution, a suite of unit tests was performed in order to ensure the validity of the computer game model. Verification requires benchmarks, testing and a consistent point of reference. A single reference implementation3 of the original Hammurabi was used to generate testing outcomes with which to verify the results generated by the game. Firstly, a Baseline Partner (BP) was used to determine a benchmark position for game play. This baseline partner used strict constraints to ensure the goal of zero population loss per turn. Two collaborative groups were also tested: A Fuzzy Logic based collaborative group and a group collaborating using levels of quality and an electronic mediator. Finally, a human partner was also included in testing to verify the solution approach. Table 4 shows the results at the end of each game. The underlined values represent the “winner” of each game attribute (population, bushels and acres). What can be seen in Table 4 is that each of the Human, FP and LOQ strategies in the game resulted in each achieving a significant benefit over the others for a particular attribute. Interestingly,
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
Table 5. Individual virtual players game achievements Player/s
Population
Bushels
Acres
Hammurabi
18
0
390
Shullat
22
16
624
Hanish
23
0
692
Delondra
21
16
774
while the Baseline Partner achieved zero deaths due to starvation, it achieved a consistently lower result than any of the other game groups across all attributes. In addition, to demonstrate how the LOQ collaborative group achieved their outcomes Table 5 shows the individual virtual partners involved in the LOQ engagement after playing the game again as individuals. This illustrates how the quality levels nominated by each of the decisionmakers results in the overall collaborative decisions of the LOQ group.
SUMMARY This chapter has explored the principles of engaging human and virtual beings in intelligent collaborative computer games, the purpose being to provide engaging and effective methods by which collaborative outcomes may be achieved. Human and virtual beings can be considered fully equal partners (FEPs). That is, intelligent entities that performs tasks cooperatively with other FEPs (human or artificial), are replaceable, and not necessarily aware of the nature of their fellow players. To facilitate the engagement of FEPs in computer games, the collaborative process provides a structure within which players of different natures and levels of intelligence may collaborate effectively. The TeamMATE© system supports this process by implementing a layered collaborative architecture. The communication, physical and
cognitive layers are used to cohesively facilitate collaboration, with each layer having a level of abstraction beyond that of the previous layer. Humans are considered intelligent entities by nature, something which must be emulated or constructed for in virtual being. The virtual being is able to enact intelligent decisions via its cognitive layer subsystem. Contained within this cognitive layer are the abilities to perceive, analyze, make and then enact decisions. The results of which are conveyed to other players via sensors and effectors. The decision-making processes required within the cognitive layer are able to be replaced by other problem-solving techniques offering a flexible and extensible platform for intelligent decision-making. The Hammurabi game play scenario demonstrates an entertainment style game as well as the application of a number of different problemsolving techniques. This and other game play scenarios we have tested (Thomas & Vlacic, 2005, 2008, 2009; Vlacic & Thomas, 2009; Vlacic, Thomas, & Amagasa, 2009) demonstrate that human and artificial beings are able to interact cooperatively as fully equal partners in the context of computer games, and are capable of being substituted one with the other. It has also been shown that cooperation between FEPs can be achieved in computer games using the collaborative process and a layered collaborative architecture. Also, that TeamMATE© as an implementation of boardroom style collaborative computer games may be used in social and educational applications. The implication of effective collaboration between FEPs extends beyond computer games and the virtual environment, to physical real-world applications. In particular, the ability to engage humans and embodied virtual beings collaboratively provide many potential opportunities in the field of automated transportation systems. There may also be opportunities to apply FEP collaborative games in areas of behavioural studies as
49
Human and Virtual Beings as Equal Collaborative Partners in Computer Games
a platform for clinical research and/or various defense force settings. Whatever the future holds for virtual beings, as FEPs they will no longer be props or plot devices in virtual worlds; but will be the players, teammates and co-workers of the future, working alongside their human counterparts.
Laird, J. E. (2001). Using a Computer Game to Develop Advanced AI. IEEE Computer, 34(7), 70–75.
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Vlacic, L. B., & Thomas, D. I. (2009). Beyond Multiplayer Games: Engaging Cognitive Virtual Partners in Collaborative Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Situations. XXII International Symposium on Information, Communication and Automation Technologies – ICAT 2009. Sarajevo.
Wierzbicki, A. P. (1982). A Mathematical Basis for Satisficing Decision Making. Mathematical Modelling, 3, 391–405. doi:10.1016/02700255(82)90038-0
Vlacic, L. B., Thomas, D. I., & Amagasa, M. (2009). The Integration of Artificial Beings into Human Society in the Context of Collaborative Problem Solving. The Problem Solving Systems Symposium. Tokyo: Daito Bunka University. Vlacic, L. B., Wierzbicki, A., & Matic, B. (1986). Aggregation Procedures for Hierarchically Grouped Attributes With Application to Control Systems Performance Evaluation. In Jahn, J., & Krabs, J. (Eds.), Lecture Notes in Economics and Mathematical Systems: Recent Advances and Historical Development of Vector Optimization (pp. 285–311).
Wierzbicki, A. P. (1985). Negotiation and Mediation in Conflicts, II: Plural Rationality and Interactive Decision Processes. In Grauer, M., Thompson, M., & Wierzbicki, A. P. (Eds.), Sopron 1984 (pp. 114–131). Springer Verlag. Yan, J., Ryan, M., & Power, J. (1994). Using Fuzzy Logic. Prentice Hall.
ENDNOTES 1
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Copyright Intelligent Control Systems Laboratory, Griffith University, Australia Unlike a mediator, a negotiator has the right to participate in the collaborative process. Reference implementation used is available at http://www.hammurabigame.com/ hammurabi-game.php
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Chapter 4
Computer Games and Libraries Helena Coelho Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT Information literacy is a crucial attribute in today’s knowledge society, because it makes independent lifelong learning possible. Faced with a digital world where new tools for information seeking and the spaces for information sharing are developing, academic librarians must respond to the changing learning landscape in order to help students acquire essential skills. Computer games, due to their cognitive potential and engagement capacity, can be used to promote and improve information literacy instruction. This text consists of a review of available literature on these topics. It addresses the role of computer games in the teaching and learning process and aims at discussing its possible use as training tools for promoting information literacy in libraries.
INTRODUCTION In today’s knowledge society, the creation of value depends on harnessing the power of information. Advanced skills and high qualifications are required to ensure organizational competitiveness. Given the expansion of knowledge-based economy and the exponential growth of information available, schools and universities should help train people to be able to search, find, evaluate and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch004
use information whenever necessary. The skills and methodologies involved are transversal and allow graduates to learn throughout life, fostering their professional integration and evolution. This has consequences for the libraries of these institutions, whose professionals, due to their training in organization, retrieval and evaluation of information, are especially equipped for ensuring this aspect of preparing students for the future through a pedagogical attitude about the identification of sources of quality information and the efficient use of available resources.
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Computer Games and Libraries
In other words, libraries, while maintaining their traditional functions of building collections and providing information services, must teach its users a set of essential skills in terms of information literacy, considering not everybody is equally able to take full advantage of available resources. Fighting information illiteracy, which is a cause of social exclusion, might contribute to increase the importance of libraries as spaces for research and learning. One possible way for libraries to achieve this educational goal is to explore the potential of games in general or, more specifically, of computer games. Crawford (1997) noted that games have become an integral part of learning activities in many civilizations and are in fact “the most ancient and time-honored vehicle for education” (p. 15). Nevertheless, games have always evolved along with human culture, society, and technology. Considering that information literacy is not an easy subject to teach students, particularly given the increasing diversity and complexity of information sources, it seems natural to look for tools that take advantage of today’s digital culture and use computer games (Kirriemuir, 2008). Thus, librarians’ role as instructors would not be diminished, but updated through the use of teaching methods that employ media in which students are already engaged. As the world changes, the way people play changes too, but play’s importance remains constant. It not only help us to relax, but also prepares us for life’s challenges. The same technologies that influence our forms of entertainment and communication with other people can be used to foster knowledge construction and development of new skills. Therefore, the objectives of this chapter are to expose the need to train information literate citizens and to present arguments concerning the potential of computer games as educational tools to achieve this aim.
INFORMATION LITERACY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY Traditionally, the concept of literacy was associated to a linguistic code and defined as the ability to read, write and understand texts. However, with the rapid development of new communication technologies and the consequent proliferation of information, the nature of literacy has undergone a transformation in order to include the ability to learn, comprehend, and interact with technology in a meaningful way. Hence the advent of the expression information literacy, defined by the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) as the ability to recognize when and why information is needed, where to find it and how to evaluate, use and communicate it in an ethical manner (Armstrong, Boden, Town, Woolley, Webber, & Abell, 2005). This term incorporates the traditional views of literacy as well as new forms of literacy associated to technological progress. Probably, its meaningfulness will increase due to the recent developments of the World Wide Web, notably the change of paradigm from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 and the evolution towards the semantic Web, with its emerging methods of information extraction and semantic analysis of data. In Web 1.0, the flow of information was largely unidirectional, with the common cybernaut acting merely as a receptor. But the recent popularization of resources such as blogs, wikis, podcasts, and social tagging systems has led to the advent of the so called Web 2.0, where every person with a minimum of technological skills can be not only a consumer, but also a producer of information. For this reason, the concept of literacy will tend increasingly to include the skills and competencies involved in finding, selecting, analyzing, evaluating, and storing information, as well as in its treatment and use, independently of the associated codes or technologies. As Vieira (2008) states, from an historical perspective, literacy represents a pole of attraction for
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many aspirations of society regarding opportunities for learning, expression, creativity, and civic participation and has therefore been integrated into educational curricula, specially because it is considered one of the competencies required by an increasingly competitive labor market, that favors certain sectors of society over others (the info-excluded). In order to be successful in a knowledge-centered society, an individual must be able to determine what information is necessary, to find it efficiently and to critically evaluate its sources; that information shall be integrated in the individual’s knowledge base, so that his or hers objectives are achieved and the socioeconomic, legal and ethical variables that determine information’s use are understood. Libraries have an important role to perform as gateways to knowledge by promoting information literacy skills. As archives of knowledge and repositories of the achievements of the human spirit, they are an integral part of civilization (O’Connell, 2008). For eras, librarians have played a pivotal role, connecting people to information necessary for academic, professional, cultural or recreational purposes. School and university libraries, in particular, have the key roles of storing information and providing a place for learning and research activities. They are organizational and educational centers for students, teachers and researchers striving for academic success and trying to meet the demands of modern society. In fact, a link was demonstrated between library use and student achievement (International Association of School Librarianship, 2007).
COMPUTER GAMES IN EDUCATION According to Leach and Sugarman (2006), “a game can be defined as an activity that contains some or all of the following elements: rules, goals, challenges, fantasy, mystery, curiosity, competition, and skill” (p. 191). From observing the natural world, Crawford (1997) concluded games
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have received the approval of natural selection as educational tools for every creature capable of learning. People commonly associate playing games with children because they recognize its fundamental utility in education. Hannikainen (1997) showed children reflect in their play many questions of existential nature while trying to master skills corresponding to their acquired knowledge. Perhaps that is the reason why teachers consider play as the most important activity for children development and learning (Azevedo, van der Kooij, Neto, 1997). Leite and Rodrigues (2001) also point out the importance of game playing for intellectual and social development in a context of education for citizenship through active pedagogies, which differ from traditional ones by focusing on ludic activities as sources of both amusement and learning. Nevertheless, it is possible to conceive educational games for all ages that aim to help players in achieving a specific learning outcome. Leach and Sugarman (2006) refer the use of games as instructional tools in a variety of disciplines, as well as an increase in knowledge retention by students using an educational game compared to those who received conventional instruction with lectures and paper-based materials. More recent studies (Tüzün, Yilmaz-Soylu, Karakus, Inal, & Kizilkaya, 2009; Huizenga, Admiraal, Akkerman, & ten Dam, 2008) also point out positive effects of game-based activities on learning. Smith (2007) showed information literacy skills can be taught through games. This author implemented simple gaming activities, such as crossword puzzles and word searches in a course on information research skills for academic credit. It was an effort to integrate active learning techniques to reduce student boredom and keep them engaged in information literacy classes. After one semester, 86% of students agreed the activities were engaging and 95% agreed the activities were preferable to a lecture-only format. But why should academic libraries feel compelled to take the initiative to teach information
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literacy skills to a population that seems at ease with technology and perfectly capable of satisfying its informational needs through the Web? Today’s students seem faster at processing information than the previous generations, acting sometimes as authorities in all areas involving technology. In fact, Prensky (2006) calls them digital natives, because they grew up in a world where computer games, e-mail correspondence, instant messaging and other digital tools are commonly used, and thus developed patterns of engagement different from those of earlier generations. However, familiarity with technology does not necessarily imply sophistication in its use. In spite of the popular belief that teenagers and young adults are technologically savvy, Valenza (2006) claims that today’s young information seekers lack advanced skills or knowledge necessary to explore complex information environments and to properly evaluate the information they find; students show a limited understanding of the way information is organized, tend to use natural language instead of promising keywords when searching databases and have a manifest difficulty in identifying information needs in systems that require specific terminology in search interfaces. Calhoun (2006) seems to have the same opinion, declaring students favor search engines with simple interfaces, like Google’s, instead of academic databases that might yield more satisfying results. Both this author and Valenza (2006) also describe students’ apparent lack of concern with the quality of their sources, noting they spend more time searching than analyzing their results on the computer screen. Besides, they accept as good enough materials that many information professionals would not deem satisfactory. Nevertheless, the lack of understanding of search environments and an incomplete knowledge about the potential and limitations of Web resources often leads to feelings of frustration with less than effective approaches. A recent report of findings from respondents to a survey carried out among college students in
the United States of America as part of Project Information Literacy (Head & Eisenberg, 2009) corroborated these findings and added that students seem to conceptualize information seeking as a competency learned by rote and fail to harness the wide range of resources available to them in the digital age. Educators must recognize that technological innovations brought significant social and cultural changes that manifest themselves in schools and universities. However, although grappling with technology has usually ludic aspects, is not enough to ensure certain aspects of student’s preparation for the future. Given that several studies point to the pervasiveness of computer games in today’s society (e.g., Lenhart, Kahne, Middaugh, Macgill, Evans, & Vitak, 2008; Kirriemuir, 2008; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004), it makes sense to analyze their pedagogical potential and value as educational tools. Kirriemuir and McFarlane (2004) state that the terms computer game and video game used to refer to PC-based games and console-based games respectively, but are now used interchangeably. Generally, these authors define a digital game as one that “provides some visual digital information or substance to one or more players”, “takes some input from the players”, “processes the input according to a set of programmed game rules”, and “alters the digital information provided to the players” (p. 6). This definition includes games that operate on different platforms: personal computers, mobile devices, and hardware known as video game consoles. Although some educators may regard computer games as a waste of time, Gee (2003) considers this is a complex field whose potential is better perceived by gamers, so they must not be quickly judged. This author argues that playing computer games involves skills related to learning and game designers often use learning techniques identified and considered important by cognitive scientists. In fact, complex computer games require players to master a great deal of information in order to
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improve their results and achieve their goals; this information is often gathered by playing, so games employ a variety of techniques to encourage learning. These techniques include training players in subtle ways without giving them direct instructions and encouraging them to practice, persevere, try new things and take risks. But learning is not just about information gathering. Also according to Gee (2003), other aspects of learning, such as thinking patterns, are independent of content and can be developed through computer games. Besides, a great deal of knowledge is constructed through interaction with other players. This is of particular importance considering humans usually do not learn well from lots of overt information provided to them outside contexts in which it can be used. They tend to forget that information, especially when they are unable to imagine such contexts. These are the reasons why most games can be adjusted to a range of skills, allowing players to choose among various difficulty levels, leading them on a learning curve and providing rewards at appropriate times as capabilities are developed. In addition, many computer games present players with the opportunity to choose from different styles of play, such as stealth or overt aggression, and to solve problems in several ways (e.g., logic or trial and error), thus allowing them to customize the game to their learning style or to experiment with new styles. Computer games that are better at creating learning are more profitable in the marketplace, because there would be no demand if they were not challenging or if they proved too difficult to master (Gee, 2003). Prensky (2003), based on Gee’s work (2003), explained 36 ways players learn from computer games: 1) Doing and reflecting; 2) Appreciating good design; 3) Seeing interrelationships; 4) Mastering game language; 5) Relating the game world to other worlds; 6) Taking risks with reduced consequences; 7) Putting out effort because they care; 8) Combining multiple identities; 9) Watching their own behavior; 10) Getting more
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out than what they put in; 11) Being rewarded for achievement; 12) Being encouraged to practice; 13) Having to master new skills at each level; 14) Tasks being neither too easy nor too hard; 15) Doing, thinking and strategizing; 16) Getting to do things their own way; 17) Discovering meaning; 18) Reading in context; 19) Relating information; 20) Meshing information from multiple media; 21) Understanding how knowledge is stored; 22) Thinking intuitively; 23) Practicing in a simplified setting; 24) Being led from easy problems to harder ones; 25) Mastering upfront things needed later; 26) Repeating basic skills in many games; 27) Receiving information just when it is needed; 28) Trying rather than following instructions; 29) Applying learning from problems to later ones; 30) Thinking about the game and the real world; 31) Thinking about the game and how they learn; 32) Thinking about the games and their culture; 33) Finding meaning in all parts of the game; 34) Sharing with other players; 35) Being part of the gaming world; and 36) Helping others and modifying games, in addition to just playing. Steinkuehler and Duncan (2008) mention that the intellectual activities that constitute successful game play include not only computer literacy, but also the construction of new identities, collaborative problem solving, literacy practices and systematic thinking. They provided empirical evidence about the potential of one particular genre of computer games, called massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) as tools that foster learning, especially informal science literacy. Massively multiplayer online games are 2- or 3-D graphical, simulated worlds played online that allow individuals to interact not only with the designed environment in which activities take place, but also with other individuals. Science literacy is relevant to the broader concept of information literacy because both involve similar processes of testing (scientific hypothesis or search queries), as well as a mindset to evaluate results critically. Those are also observed when a player explores a gamespace and learns its norms by following
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a process of trial and error. Usually, a player can improve his or her performance quantitatively (by, for example, making decisions faster) or qualitatively (by modifying playing strategies). Conceiving and testing strategies is often a fundamental aspect of game playing: As part of developing efficient and effective solutions, players are customarily expected to research various game strategies and tactics by consulting on- and offline manuals, databases, and discussions, as well as by using such knowledge as the basis for in-game action. (p. 531) Prensky (2003) considers there is great value in letting players, within the world of the game, try things, form beliefs, and test and revise them, employing the same procedure scientists use in the real world. Besides, Steinkuehler and Duncan (2008) also show individuals collaborate to solve complex problems within the virtual world. Markey et al. (2008) corroborates this idea regarding information literacy games, arguing that although students want to be in control during game play, they will collaborate with their peers when the collaboration makes their goal more easily achievable. The development of collaboration skills is also important for information literacy because, according to Valenza (2006), information seeking is often a social activity and peers may play a significant role as collaborators on that process. Students have greater success in their research when they can discuss their progress and their difficulties with others who can fill gaps in their knowledge. Many other simulation-based games allow players to interact with complex systems and test hypotheses. Squire and Jan (2007) provide one example through the use of an augmented reality game, that is, a game played in the real world with the support of digital devices (PDAs or cellphones) that create a fictional layer on top of the real world context. Although the project was specifically conceived to immerse students
in genuine scientific inquiry, the authors were also concerned with general information literacy, because they recognized scientific argumentation as a literacy skill. Among practices that constitute game play, they include collecting data in the world, creating instruments to collect data, using spreadsheets to analyze data and conceive models, arguing over data collection methods and developing assertions based on data. Games can engage players by establishing associations to the real world and to issues relevant to them, as well as by asking them to inhabit roles that allow them to see themselves as active participants in the game and encourage competition, collaboration and reflexion-in-action. Besides, to help games appeal to the imagination, a narrative is often employed. Given that knowledge is contextual and experience-based, narrative contexts can help students gain an experimental understanding of notions that might otherwise remain abstract. Thus, librarians who intend to use digital games as educational tools must pay attention to several aspects. When playing, students are actors in an activity instead of passive recipients of information, and if games are to be played in informal contexts, players will often control when and how much they play (whereas in library instruction classes students are expected to learn all at the same pace). Therefore, the narrative and the task must be challenging, drawing on themes that elicit engagement from students. The roles available shall invite them to explore the virtual world in new and interesting ways. Moreover, it is necessary to consider the social nature of game play, because games often elicit social interactions, as already mentioned above. Malone and Lepper (as cited in Schaller, 2006) composed a list of key characteristics a learning game should have: challenge, control, fantasy, and curiosity. Challenge is created by clear, fixed goals that are relevant to the learner. Whereas success in accomplishing activities should promote feelings of competence for the gamer, uncertain outcomes provide challenge by offering variable difficulty
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levels, hidden information, and randomness. Control is experienced as feelings of self-determination when the gamer is presented with the opportunity to make choices that produce a visible effect. Fantasies involve both the emotions and thinking process of the learner, so they can be employed to provide relevant metaphors or analogies linking the material covered to the emotional needs of learners. As for curiosity, the authors argue it exists in two different forms: sensory and cognitive. Audio and visual effects in computer games may enhance sensory curiosity, whereas puzzle elements arouse cognitive curiosity. Schaller (2006) extended this list by adding two other criteria for an effective learning game: iteration and reflection. Iteration is described as vital to learning, because “whether it consists of small iterations within the activity sequence, or replaying the entire game to attempt alternate strategies, iteration supports the learning process by encouraging experimentation, hypothesis testing, and synthesis” (p. 6). Reflection should happen during this whole process. Thus, games are better tools when they include an interactive element that is sufficiently engaging to encourage repeated usage with meaningful outcomes.
Library Games The presence of computer games in libraries is not something new and Levine (2008) presents several situations. Some libraries develop games collections and/or books about gaming, specially in institutions offering courses associated to computer games; others offer computer games as a recreational, educational and professional opportunities; and some use them to enrich and complement existing teaching methods. In fact, several academic libraries are already attempting to develop information literacy skills in students through computer games. For example, Carnegie Mellon Libraries created the “Library Arcade”, featuring two online games designed to help students develop research skills through
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entertaining and easy-to-repeat activities. In one of them, entitled “I’ll Get It”, the player controls a student character who must help his peers to identify diverse research materials; the mouse is used to pick up their requests and the library catalog is available to look for helpful resources. Players are asked to do their best to help the colleague characters quickly in their research, or they will get annoyed and leave the library. In the other game, entitled “Within Range”, players are asked to shelve books in correct order to learn how information is organized and categorized using the Library of Congress Classification System (Carnegie Mellon Libraries, n.d.). The University of North Carolina at Greensboro also developed an interesting project for undergraduates: “The Information Literacy Game” is an online board game for up to four students with a question-and-answer format. Players take turns moving around the board answering questions and attempting to get one right in each of four categories: “Choose Your Resource”, “Searching/ Using Databases”, “Cite Your Sources/Avoid Plagiarism” and “Library Wild Card”. The game incorporates Web evaluation exercises, given that some squares on the board ask players to find specific information on a website or to compare websites based on criteria such as authority or currency. The educational objectives are for students to: 1) Understand that information can be found in a variety of sources; 2) Understand the function and use of information sources; 3) Identify useful information from the library’s catalog and online databases; 4) Understand the way collections of information are organized and accessed; 5) Determine when to cite a source and cite it properly using a specific citation style (Harris & Rice, 2007). The game files (including images, scripts, questions, sounds, and HTML documents) are freely available for download, along with instructions for other libraries to reconfigure it using their own contents. Another example is “Defense of Hidgeon”, a University of Michigan’s project born of the
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observation that librarians may be exemplary in terms of assisting students who want to acquire information literacy skills, but they only reach a few of those who need assistance (Markey et al., 2008). For that reason, a team was assembled to design, test, and evaluate a new method for teaching information literacy called storygaming. It consists in combining gaming with dramatic storytelling to maintain and build player involvement, to prevent game play from becoming tedious, and to appeal to a wide range of people. The storygame aimed specifically at teaching undergraduates the General-to-Specific Research Model for conducting research and finding information. According to this model, students are advised to start research with broad overview tools in order to develop a general understanding of their chosen topics, and subsequently replacing them for resources that provide more specific information. “Defense of Hidgeon” is a web-administered board game in which action takes place in 14th century Europe, at the height of the Black Death. Teams of four players land on each of the six different monastery libraries and must give correct answers at least three times to the questions that are posted there. Correct answers receive a scroll and give the team an opportunity to purchase an exclusive license to the library or challenge the owning team for its license. A roll of the electronic dice lands game pieces not only on the monastery library, but also on spaces that require different actions. To complete the game, it is necessary to collect all 18 scrolls and gather as much gold and property as possible. The goal is to become the fastest, richest, and most accurate research team in order to prove to Hidgeon’s ruler that one’s team can be trusted to use monastery collections responsibly and efficiently. Students started playing this game at the end of 2007 and cited some benefits: learning how to use the tools of research, doing research tasks connected with various online tools over and over again, and confronting and solving important problems during the research process.
Fletcher Library at Arizona State University created another computer game entitled “Quarantined: Axl Wise and the Information Outbreak” to teach library and information skills in first-year English classes. It was assumedly designed to meet the learning preferences of a generation of students that are comfortable with technology, appreciate collaboration, prefer immediate responses and think in non-linear terms (Gallegos & Allgood, 2009). After years of using a paper library tour exercise unpopular with students, a professional manifested the desire to “find an alternative instructional tool that would be online, engage students, and allow them to learn the same basic information as they built skills” (Levine, 2008, p. 29). The project started with educational gaming research and the creation of a board game with question cards called “Information Pursuit” as a prototype that was used for the first time in 2005. The trials were positive, with this game being successful and exceptionally popular, so in the spring of 2006, the team began developing the interactive online game that became “Quarantined”. “Quarantined: Axl Wise and the Information Outbreak” is described as an interactive single-player game that simulates the processes of selecting, using, evaluating and synthesizing multiple sources of information within a research environment. Players are faced with a deadly virus outbreak, so they must avoid contagious students and professors to remain virus free, as well as VOA (Virus Outbreak Agency) officers. In order to save the world, they are required to explore the college campus game world to discover the cause of and the cure for the virus, developing information literacy skills as they interact with characters and make decisions about the resources they encounter. A variety of information sources such as databases, the online catalog, the web, librarians, professors and peers can be useful to solve the mystery in this educational adventure game with puzzle and action elements. A computer game with similarities to the previous one, although less complex, is Bioactive, a
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web-based interactive adventure about bioterrorism developed by the University of Florida to teach library research skills. It aims at helping students to learn how to search in the library catalog, access an item in the online course reserve system, find a journal article and locating materials in the library by call number. The game files are available to download and modification by other institutions (University of Florida, n.d.). It is also possible for libraries to adapt existing games to meet their own goals. The University of Calgary is developing a project entitled “Benevolent Blue” by modifying the first person shooter “Half-Life 2” to test the effectiveness of first-person perspective action games to introduce players to information literacy skills. The player controls a virtual character in a three-dimensional world and perceives the digital environment through its eyes. The action genre was chosen because of its popularity, flexibility of challenges, progressive narrative and first-person point of view (University of Calgary, 2008). There are embedded elements (pre-generated narrative components such as video clips and scripted scenes) and emergent elements created as the player interacts with the game. In the dystopic game world, the player will find a totalitarian regime where culture, thought and choice are tightly controlled; the mission will be to discover the truth in the propaganda saturated media and to aid dissidents in revealing the forgotten memory of the nation. The player must achieve this by solving puzzles, defeating security forces, exploring an old institution of higher learning and completing tasks such as searching the library catalog, locating books, identifying citations and evaluating resources. Thus, using “Benevolent Blue”, key concepts of information literacy are presented through play, along with ideals of civic responsibility, intellectual freedom, critical thinking, access to information, copyright, privacy, diversity and preservation of resources.
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The Need to Innovate For ages, academic librarians have acted like gatekeepers of access to information. However, recent technological developments that make information appear to be easily accessible seem to challenge this institutional role. Therefore, librarians should adapt to the current digital landscape, assuming new roles in promoting information literacy skills, such as the ability to recognize when information is needed and to locate, evaluate, and use it effectively. The projects here described can be considered good examples of innovation. Their outcomes should be shared and discussed by librarians, so that lessons for the future can be learned. The team responsible for “Defense of Hidgeon”, based on students’ and on its own evaluation of the game, issued some premises for guiding the development of information literacy games in general. They claim games must be useful to the coursework students are already doing, sending them positive and negative feedback to improve their performance, giving them the possibility to see other researchers at work so they can connect what they do to what others do, and fostering opportunities for them to reflect on their own research habits and on what they are learning. They also argue that students’ performance in gaming activities must count toward students’ grades. However, it is not clear that information literacy skills should be taught in mandatory classes with an impact on students’ grades. Smith (2007) argues that students can resent mandatory classes they do not perceive a real need for. It was also found that students ranked credit-courses as their least preferred means of getting library instruction, favoring individual assistance while actively seeking information (Davidson, 2001). Given the premise that students learn best when they feel a need to know, perhaps a balance can be found, both for mandatory and non-mandatory programs, through the use of games so much as motivational tools as an integral part of the
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teaching material available online. Games that are downloadable or browser-based can be played not only in the library, during instruction classes, but also on any computer connected to the Web, as informal educational tools. If games present challenges relevant to issues students face, the intrinsic motivation and the exploratory frame of mind gamers exhibit when playing can optimize the learning experience. The online availability of computer games is of particular relevance considering academic libraries are increasingly requested to transcend their physical space in order to bring their resources and services to every student, reaching all spaces where the learning process can take place. This require librarians to accept a transition from formal to informal learning spaces, a shift from classes to personalized learning opportunities, and a change from restrictive and constructed learning activities to creative and extended learning opportunities (O’Connell, 2008). Many librarians have a conservative perspective on literacy, associating it to reading and writing skills, so they fear that promoting computer games will drive students even further away from book reading and its cultural affordances. Perhaps those librarians do not possess yet for computer games a frame of reference equivalent to the one they already developed for the presence of other resources, like CDs and DVDs, in libraries. However, considering the development of complex and engaging storylines, together with the artistry behind computer games, Easterwood and Wesson (2009) propose their popularity can be explored, so that librarians connect gamers to books. Novels and plays provide narratives and plots that are culturally engaging, and in many ways digital games, due to their embedded storytelling, are a more recent form of fiction. By examining different genres of computer games and identifying their features and the kind of books their fans may respond to, librarians have a great opportunity to act as readers’advisors, matching gamers with books and promoting reading.
For example, fans of strategy games that require good problem-solving skills, mental engagement and creativity will probably enjoy reading mystery novels; people who prefer action games could be directed towards books with as much immediacy as possible, grippingly turbulent plots, and firstperson narration; those who favor role-playing games or adventure games that revolve around a quest and combine action with puzzle solving might like fantasy and science fiction books. Non-gamers may find difficult to apprehend all the nuances, but a basic knowledge of a few key genres like the ones mentioned above would be valuable in order to better communicate with gamers, learn what appeals to them and understand key elements in a game that allow its pairing with a book. Reading reviews, becoming acquainted with computer games, and analyzing them in terms of plot, characters and required skills could be a good start. Communication and collaboration between game designers and library professionals involved in teaching information literacy is also crucial. Although librarians might not possess the skills to create digital games themselves, they need to learn the fundamentals of contemporary game design in order to communicate effectively with designers and therefore safeguard the success of their initiatives.
CURRENT TRENDS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Johnson (2006) suggests there are three factors that impact on libraries’ survival and opportunities to thrive: the growing digitalization and portability of information, the fundamental changes in the nature and sources of information, and the critical need for new skills for workers in a global economy. All these changes can be directly related to information literacy. This fact, together with a new understanding of the benefits of playing computer games, has led many academic librar-
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ies to ponder the expansion of their realm of possibilities for user instruction through gaming. One way to create games is to start by identifying real-world uses or applications of the knowledge to be taught, searching for situations that are narratively compelling and emotionally engaging, in which information is necessary to solve complex problems in simulated environments. It would also be advisable to add challenges to motivate the players, increase complexity to stimulate improvement, and provide adequate feedback by matching choice opportunities and consequences. It is possible to conceive role-playing games with pedagogical approaches such as goal-based scenarios and case-based learning, which cast students in roles where they solve complex problems. As for multiplayer games, an interesting design should foster collaboration among players in order to gather and share information. What is essential is to envision games that enable joy of use and work as both entertainment and learning experiences. The interactive and immersive character of computer games makes possible a high degree of involvedness, turning the player into an active operator instead of a passive recipient of experiences. Nevertheless, it would be interesting to know if certain game genres lead to better learning outcomes and, if so, to search for an eventual association to learning styles, as well as to information searching and processing habits. Librarians involved in this kind of initiatives should communicate and share experiences with their peers. Together, they can find innovative ways to integrate gaming on their services and instigate other professionals interested in exploring the potential of computer games to invest themselves, take risks and establish partnerships with other members of the academic community. Another valid line of research would be to study the attitudes of the academic community (including teachers, students, and other librarians) towards the use of computer games as learning tools. Obviously, it would also be of great relevance to investigate how students respond to these initia-
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tives and understand if and how their information literacy skills evolve. Libraries must not create computer games merely to present themselves as modern and trendy, but rather to adapt to the interests and needs of one particular community they serve. This requires, in the first place, a good understanding of library’s real and potential users, and then careful consideration about the impact of gaming on teaching and learning, as well as on the acquisition and distribution of knowledge and information. The aspects of gaming to be included in information literacy programs should be significant to the community and reflect on services rendered by the library. The results of subsequent surveys should be used to evaluate those programs and readjust them when necessary. A trend that deserves attention is the customization of computer games. Gee (2003) approaches the phenomenon of game players becoming game designers, mentioning that many game companies take advantage of it to ensure, through creativity, their survival in a competitive market. Sometimes, the companies provide free software players can use (often working in groups over the Internet) to create something new. Myers (2008) supports this idea for educational purposes, mentioning that inventing and experimenting with materials, rather than simply interacting with them, provide the best learning experiences. The author adds that “by allowing kids to design their own computer games, educators can facilitate deeper learning and promote the acquisition of literacies that will be crucial to success in tomorrow’s professional and social environments” (p. 55). Librarians who plan on creating computer games should eventually decide whether or not they will accept library users as collaborators on the process of game development. The possibility of players becoming creators strongly resembles what happens in the Web 2.0 world, where the distinction between information producers and consumers is blurred. In fact, both game cultures and the Web 2.0 draw upon collective intelligence and require people to navigate through multiple
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information spaces that span different media and to evaluate the reliability of what they find. Similarly, academic libraries’ websites often assemble several information resources and librarians play an important role in helping students to evaluate the authenticity and applicability of material from the web. Given these parallels, it would also be interesting to see if there is an association between gaming and the correct use of Web 2.0 tools, which is nowadays an important aspect of information literacy.
CONCLUSION In today’s knowledge society, the tools for seeking information and the spaces to share it are rapidly changing. The Web offers multiple free alternatives to information seekers, but it is full of outdated, contradictory and inaccurate data, which confuses many users. Considering that the ability to find the right information, assess its value, and interpret it is essential for full citizenship, teaching organizations have the obligation to prepare students for a future in this extremely dynamic information age and help them to obtain skills that allow not only for success in academic work, but also for lifelong learning. School and academic librarians should contribute to their institutions’ teaching strategy by developing those abilities in students. These professionals have the opportunity to assume new roles that build on their traditional training but challenge them to go further in order to update the way how they teach information literacy skills. Oblinger and Hawkins (2006) state: “Historically, library collections have ensured quality control and have safeguarded the legitimacy of the material used by students. Beyond the quality of the collection itself, professional librarians have helped students hone their information searches and find information resources” (p. 12). Nevertheless, more must be done to help students learning how to navigate today’s complex digital landscape and
adapt to new situations. Although libraries no longer have a monopoly on information sources, they do offer value-added services and this is one of them. Games in general are powerful learning tools and one proactive approach libraries can follow to develop information literacy skills in students consists in conceiving games that require them to find, evaluate, and use information effectively to solve a particular problem or make a decision. Considering that computer games provide versatile tools for recreation, education and entertainment, librarians can harness the potential of information technology and engage digital natives by creating computer games with clear goals and instant feedback, challenging without being too hard, and both socially and intellectually appealing. Their pedagogical objectives must be established taking into account its desired impact and embedded in the gaming experience with the purpose of creating effective learning environments. Driven by authentic quests, computer games can incorporate multiple resources and guide learners through tasks into a way of thinking. Besides, in designing a computer game, it is necessary to consider motivational aspects that will make it enjoyable, attract diverse users and encourage them to continue playing. Unfortunately, most library instruction initiatives are based on the historic literacies of print and have not yet adapted to the literacies of interactive technology. Librarians, as educators, have a responsibility to better understand these relatively new technologies and draw implications regarding the paths they can follow in order to achieve their professional missions. Despite the fear that computer game playing would eventually replace more culturally valued activities like reading, empirical studies show some games encourage advanced manipulation of texts, along with other materials, for achieving particular ends, including the construction of complex models to compare the effectiveness of strategies. Reading, writing and data interpretation are prevalent in game
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forums where mastering information is a source of prestige. Besides, these forums are rich sites for social knowledge construction thanks to the debate and collaboration they foster. Moreover, many computer games require some form of research that makes the act of playing very similar to exploring a database. In both activities, there are goals achievable through a series of steps that must often be repeated and involve finding, evaluating, and using information, as well as establishing search strategies, articulating constructed knowledge, and reflecting on outcomes to refine procedures. Thus, it is possible to develop pedagogies that capitalize on these forms of literacy in order to prepare students for a future in the information age, when constant learning, as well as the creation and use of knowledge, are central elements of organizational strategies. Librarians can explore the contemporary affordances of computer games in order to play their instructional role in an innovative way, both in formal and informal situations. This requires them to keep up-to-date about technology and to understand students’ habits. In fact, if new tools are to be incorporated in the definition of strategies to promote information literacy among academic communities, it is essential to know these communities needs in the first place. Only then will it be possible to conceive interesting and engaging projects aimed at helping people to become competent information seekers and users. Librarians’ motivation to experiment digital game-based teaching approaches to develop and enhance information literacy in academic communities relies on two factors: one is the recognition that learning in general and the acquisition of information literacy skills in particular can be achieved by playing adequate games; and the other is a professional drive to seek new ways to serve both the explicit and the implicit information needs of one’s community. Obviously, all initiatives should be open to feedback, support
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future innovation, and allow for the study of their impact. Careful design and constant evaluation are crucial to overcome eventual challenges and tap on the potential of computer games.
REFERENCES Armstrong, C., Boden, D., Town, S., Woolley, M., Webber, S., & Abell, A. (2005). CILIP defines information literacy for the UK [Electronic version]. Library and Information Update, 4(1), 22–25. Azevedo, N. R., van der Kooij, R., & Neto, C. A. (1997). Early childhood teachers opinions about play: An exploratory study. In International Council for Children’s Play (Ed.), Play and society (pp. 37-38). Lisbon: Faculty of Human Kinetics. Calhoun, K. (2006). The changing nature of the catalog and its integration with other discovery tools. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library. Retrieved April 11, 2008, from http://www.loc. gov/catdir/ calhoun-report-final.pdf Carnegie Mellon Libraries. (n.d.). Library arcade. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from http://search. library.cmu.edu /rooms/documents/ libraries-andcollections/ Libraries/etc/index.html Crawford, C. (1997). The art of computer game design. Retrieved October 4, 2009, from http:// www.vancouver.wsu.edu /fac/peabody/gamebook/ Coverpage.html Davidson, J. R. (2001). Faculty and student attitudes toward credit course for library skills [Electronic version]. College & Research Libraries, 62, 155–163. Easterwood, L., & Wesson, L. P. (2009). Gamers are readers: Capitalize on the popularity of videogames. School Library Journal, 55(4), 24-25. Retrieved November 12, 2009, from http://www. schoollibraryjournal.com /article/CA6647714. html
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Gallegos, B., & Allgood, T. (2007). Quarantined: Axl Wise and the Information Outbreak: Creating an online game to teach information skills. Retrieved November 12, 2009, from http://gaming. techsource.ala.org /index.php/Quarantined:_Axl_ Wise_and_the_Information_ Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Hannikainen, M. (1997). Playful actions as part of children’s culture in day care centers. In International Council for Children’s Play (Ed.), Play and society (pp. 38-39). Lisbon: Faculty of Human Kinetics. Harris, S., & Rice, A. (2007). The Information Literacy Game. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro Web site: http://library.uncg.edu/game/ gamehandout.doc Head, A. J., & Eisenberg, M. B. (2009). Project Information Literacy progress report: Lessons learned: How college students seek information in the digital age. Retrieved December 5, 2009, from http://freerangelibrarian.com /2009/12/01/ must-read-project-information -literacy-report/ Huizenga, J., Admiraal, W., Akkerman, S., & ten Dam, G. (2008). Cognitive and affective effects of learning History by playing a mobile game. Retrieved March 30, 2010, from http://www.ilo. uva.nl/homepages /wilfried/docs/ ECGBL_2008_ Huizenga%20etal.pdf International Association of School Libraries. (2007). School libraries make a difference to student achievment. Retrieved November 13, 2009, from http://www.iasl-online.org /advocacy/ make-a-difference.html Johnson, D. (2006) Dangers and opportunities: Challenges for libraries in the digital age. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from http://www. doug-johnson.com/ storage/handouts/danger.pdf
Kirriemuir, J. (2008). Teaching information literacy through digital games. In Godwin, P., & Parker, J. (Eds.), Information literacy meets library 2.0 (pp. 153–164). London: Facet Publishing. Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning. Bristol: Futurelab. Retrieved December 7, 2009, from http://www. nestafuturelab.org/ research/reviews/08_01.htm Leach, G. J., & Sugarman, T. S. (2006). Play to win! Using games in library instruction to enhance student learning [Electronic version]. Research Strategies, 20, 191–203. doi:10.1016/j. resstr.2006.05.002 Leite, C. M., & Rodrigues, M. L. (2001). Jogos e contos numa educação para a cidadania. Lisboa: Instituto de Inovação Educacional. Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A. R., Evans, C., & Vitak, J. (2008). Teens, video games, and civics. Washington: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved December 22, 2009, from http://www.civicsurvey.org Levine, J. (2008). Broadening gaming services in libraries [Electronic version]. Library Technology Reports, 44(3), 24–34. Markey, K., Swanson, F., Jenkins, A., Jennings, B., St. Jean, B., Rosenberg, V., et al. (2008). Engaging undergraduates in research through a storytelling and gaming strategy: Final report to the Delmas Foundation. Retrieved November 12, 2009, from University of Michigan Web site: http://deepblue. lib.umich.edu/ handle/2027.42/58630 Myers, B. (2008). Minds at play: Teens gain 21st-century literacy skills designing their own computer games [Electronic version]. American Libraries, 39(5), 54–57. O’Connell, J. (2008). School library 2.0: New skills, new knowledge, new futures. In Godwin, P., & Parker, J. (Eds.), Information literacy meets library 2.0 (pp. 51–62). London: Facet Publishing.
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Oblinger, D. G., & Hawkins, B. L. (2006). The myth about student competency: “Our students are technologically competent”. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 12-13. Retrieved November 12, 2009, from http://www.educause.edu/ EDUCAUSE+Review/ EDUCAUSEReviewMagazine Volume41/ TheMythAboutStudentCompetency /158049 Outbreak:_Creating_an_Online_Game_to_ Teach_Information_Skills Prensky, M. (2003). Escape from planet Jar-Gon [Review of the book What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy]. Retrieved November 11, 2009, from http://www.marcprensky.com /writing/ Prensky, M. (2006). Listen to the natives. [from https://matua.wikispaces.com/Readings]. Educational Leadership, 63(4), 8–13. Retrieved November 16, 2008. Schaller, D. (2006). What makes a learning game? Retrieved November 28, 2009, from www.eduweb.com/ schaller-games.pdf Smith, F. (2007). Games for teaching information literacy skills. Library Philosophy and Practice. Retrieved November 10, 2009, from www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ %7Embolin/f-smith.pdf Squire, K. D., & Jan, M. (2007). Mad City Mystery: Developing scientific argumentation skills with a place-based augmented reality game on handheld computers [Electronic version]. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 16, 5–29. doi:10.1007/s10956-006-9037-z
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Steinkuehler, C., & Duncan, S. (2008). Scientific habits of mind in virtual worlds [Electronic version]. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 17, 530–543. doi:10.1007/s10956008-9120-8 Tüzün, H., Yilmaz-Soylu, M., Karakus, T., Inal, Y., & Kizilkaya, G. (2009). The effects of computer games on primary school students’ achievement and motivation in geography learning [Electronic version]. Computers & Education, 52, 68–77. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.008 University of Calgary. (2008). Benevolent Blue: An information literacy FPS. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from http://www.ucalgary.ca/ ~cthomas/ wilu08_handout.pdf University of Florida. (n.d.). Bioactive. Retrieved November 22, 2009, from http://www.uflib.ufl. edu/ games/bioactive Valenza, J. K. (2006, April). They might be gurus: Teen information-seeking behaviour. E-Voya, 1-4. Retrieved November 11, 2009, from http://pdfs. voya.com/ VO/YA2/VOYA 200604T9gTeamTech.pdf Vieira, N. (2008). As literacias e o uso responsável da Internet. Observatorio (OBS*), 2(2), 193-209. Retrieved October 17, 2009, from http://obs.obercom.pt /index.php/obs/article/view/112
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Chapter 5
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning: The AIDLET Model José Bidarra Universidade Aberta, Portugal Meagan Rothschild University of Wisconsin, USA Kurt Squire University of Wisconsin, USA
ABSTRACT This chapter discusses the selection and potential use of electronic games and simulations in distance learning supported by an operational model called AIDLET. After analyzing the different approaches to the use of games and simulations in education, and discussing their benefits and shortcomings, a framework was developed to facilitate the selection, repurposing, design and implementation of games and simulations, with focus on the practical aspects of the processes used in Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Whereas traditional learning is based on knowledge memorization and the completion of carefully graded assignments, today, games, simulations and virtual environments turn out to be safe platforms for trial and error experimentation, i.e. learning by doing/playing. New instructional models may require that rich interactive processes of communication are supported, that assignments are structured as game-like projects, and that a culture of interaction, collaboration, and enablement drives learning and personal development. In this context, the AIDLET model was set out and verified against a taxonomy representing the main categories and genres of games to meet the requirements of distance education teachers, instructional designers and decision-makers.
INTRODUCTION The current model of pedagogy in conventional schools and universities is essentially teacher focused and one-way communication. It is set against DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch005
evidence that shows how students learn more by collaborating with their teacher and with each other in the context of educational narratives (Pachler & Daly, 2009). Furthermore, evidence indicates that a new model of education is emerging, one that is student-centered, networked, customized and col-
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laborative, leading to the creation of mechanisms through which infusion experiences and other rich learning contexts may support activity in novel situations (Shaffer, 2004). In addition, it is now recognized that student emotional expressions are a part of the learning process and also an essential component of basic education, a fact that continues to be a minor concern in schools and higher education. There is a growing body of evidence from the neurosciences and the cognitive sciences that recognizes the importance of emotions in cognitive processes and memory operations. The Portuguese born neuroscientist António Damásio developed a theory of emotion that has evolved from his first book, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (1994), which explains how feelings are entangled in the cogitations of the brain and the circumstances of the body. In his second book, The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness (1999), Damásio further explores the role of emotion. He attempts to connect the neurology of emotion to the neurology of consciousness and extends this to the existence of a sense of self. Essentially, Damásio states that mind and body are inseparable and integrated via mutually interactive biochemical and neural components, such as the endocrine, immune, and autonomic neural constituents, which produce chemical and electrical transmitters. As a rule, freedom of choice, challenge, participation, transparency, integrity, collaboration, fun, speed, and innovation must be a part of students’ learning experiences. Playing games may be an important part of learning as this generation’s game-playing experiences are more widespread than the game-playing experiences of previous generations. No doubt technology is transforming the ways we learn today but the most widely accepted theories and models behind learning are still valid. For instance, the pedagogical framework for implementing new software tools, games and simulations in the context of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) can be developed by drawing
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on concepts from: constructivism (Bruner, 1966; Piaget, 1973), social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978), situated cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Barab & Kirschner, 2001), and communities of practice (Wenger et al., 2002). Social constructivism in the Vygostkyan way provides a series of principles that may be accomplished during the development of educational activities. The Piagetan notion of constructivism is at the core and it basically means that students modify their current knowledge schemes to integrate new information and acquire new knowledge when in contact with teachers, peers and the surrounding environment. In addition, learning activities must be situated in authentic settings and in a context that is meaningful to each individual student, and may increase in effectiveness when students are part of community that shares values and contributes to a common objective. Constructivism, situated learning, and the establishment of communities of practice constitute a robust theoretical framework for knowledge acquisition based on the notion that learning occurs in the context of activities that typically involve a problem or task, other persons, and an environment or shared culture. A recent Educause Center for Applied Research (ECAR) survey of undergraduate technology used in the United States reports that 82.2% of undergraduates own a computer, with 80.5% owning a laptop. Web-enabled or smart phones are owned by 66.1% of undergraduate students, though not all use the features due to cost. Over 85% of students surveyed report using network resources for activities such as accessing social networking sites, playing online multiuser computer games, or accessing virtual worlds (Salaway & Caruso, 2008). Video game use has become a more diverse and popular form of entertainment than it was a decade ago. Games are not just for children, as nearly half (49%) of players are between the ages of 18 and 49. The gender divide in gamers has also greatly narrowed, with males making up 57% of online game players, and women at 43% (ESA, 2008). With the emergence of greater variety in
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game style and genre, the market is embracing a diverse range of player motivations. The numbers found in the ESA surveys will continue to shift as the games industry evolves in inclusivity. The interest in gaming for educational purposes has also increased over the last decade, with researchers identifying key pedagogical features that make good video games inherently strong learning tools. What underlies the allure of games? As educational game researcher James Gee (2003) asks how do good game designers manage to get new players to learn their long, complex, and difficult games. A well-designed game entices players into the “reality” of the game world and keeps them there until the goals of the game have been met (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). Gee points out that incorporating appropriate challenges that are “doable,” and other widely accepted effective learning principles that are supported by research in cognitive science, are in fact a large part of what makes good video games motivating and entertaining (Gee, 2004). James Gee (2007) has narrowed down the list of pedagogical strengths to thirteen principles that link good games to good learning, emphasizing the areas of learning empowerment, problem solving, and understanding. High-quality games cycle players through new content, encouraging the player to try different ways of learning and thinking (Gee, 2003). A well-designed game doesn’t distinguish between learning and playing, rather, players refine and add to their skill sets as the game progresses (Gee, 2004). When a player is successful in-game, the game expertise is linked to ‘expert’ behaviors such as self-monitoring, pattern recognition, high-level problem recognition and solving, principled decision-making, qualitative thinking, and superior use of both short and long term memory (VanDeventer & White, 2002). Popular video games like World of Warcraft emphasize cooperation and leadership rather than individual competition for the highest score (typical of arcade games, for example). These video games reward creative problem solving,
multitasking, collaboration, experimentation, and stimulate the creation of models (Steinkuehler, 2004). The instant feedback and risk-free environment invite exploration and experimentation, stimulating curiosity, discovery learning and perseverance (Kirriemuir, 2002). Learning how to learn becomes an essential skill and the speed and dexterity developed playing video games becomes an added-value. Social skills are also important: to be a guild master in a game like World of Warcraft, a player needs to be able to create a vision, recruit and inspire people, and organize the group’s strategy. And while the game industry has recognized and embraced such learning fundamentals, weaving them into design to increase value to the player, educational institutions have yet to fully recognize and integrate these models. From another standpoint, the methodology of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) is now widely based on the e-learning model, a technology-based model that has emerged as a serious contender to help support the learning needs of individuals in this day and age. According to Klopfer (2008), “e-learning itself can mean many things to many people and at its core simply means electronically supported learning, which can be online, on desktop PCs, or even on mobile devices (though the latter is sometimes referred to as m-learning). In practice e-learning often means delivery of information and content to learners through online hypertext, accompanied by images, audio, and video. But e-learning can mean much more, as evidenced by the recent surge of interest in using video games to teach everything from basic math skills for young learners to advanced communication skills for adults.“ (p. 8). For students, the major motivation for enrolling in distance education is not the technology or the network access capability, but the freedom that allows students to move through a course of studies at a time and pace of their choice (Anderson, 2008). Today, improvements in the processing power of mobile computers combined with networked media applications provide a tremendous opportunity for
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novel approaches to online learning that go well beyond the use of Learning Management Systems (LMS). Relevant examples are Personal Learning Environments (PLE) that enable individuals to access, aggregate, configure and manipulate digital artifacts in the context of ongoing learning experiences. The power of these new virtual learning environments lies in creating (hyper)spaces that give users a sense of learning by doing, or, in the case of games, learning by playing. There is reason to believe that learner-driven demand and anticipated boost in effectiveness will facilitate an increasing uptake of serious games in the short term, even if simulations have a longer association of its use to support education and training – namely in applications for business, health, and military training. In any scenario, institutions and educators will need extra support when selecting, repurposing and using games or simulations in their practice, often trying to overcome factors such as time pressure, lack of experience, shortage of resources, etc. In many cases off-the-shelf games can be successfully introduced into educational processes, always a good decision as the creation of high quality educational games has a prohibitive cost. Therefore the access to tools and frameworks that may help in the process will benefit the stakeholders in any ODL organization. For instance, US military have considered the use of a framework for the use of Massive Multiplayer Online Gaming in Military Training and Education (Bonk & Dennen, 2005). In another case, a framework for evaluating games- and simulation-based education in general has been proposed by De Freitas & Oliver (2006) indicating the main pedagogical requirements. In a similar approach, a study by Moreno-Ger et al. (2008) proposes a set of educational game design guidelines, namely: choosing an appropriate genre, adding assessment and adaptation to the design and integration with an online environment. But we were not able to find yet a comprehensive framework for the selection, repurposing, design
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and implementation of games and simulations in ODL courses, so this became our main goal. In the next section we start by analyzing the potential for the use of games and simulations in distance education, and by discussing their benefits and shortcomings in this context. Next we introduce the AIDLET framework for the selection, repurposing, design and implementation of games and simulations, concentrating on the practical aspects of the processes involved. Finally, we verify the AIDLET model against a taxonomy representing the main categories and genres of games, attempting to meet the requirements of distance education teachers, instructional designers and decision-makers.
THE POTENTIAL OF GAMES IN ODL It has been established that Open and Distance Learning (ODL) institutions hold great potential for the instruction of a broad and diversified range of learners. It has also been established that well-designed interactive media tools such as games, simulations, and virtual environments may provide learners with relevant and engaging paths to content mastery. The next step is to bring the two together. But overcoming the technology gap between learners and institutions is just one aspect of the problem. Traditional ODL pedagogy has to be reformulated, not just accommodating the latest technology but also enabling rich social interaction, enhancing group work and communication within educational settings. Many educational researchers today would define learning as a multidimensional construct of learning skills and cognitive learning results, for instance, procedural, normative and strategic knowledge, and attitude (Pivec & Dziabenko, 2004). Academic and life success require not just the accumulation of facts and conceptual understandings, but also attitudes, dispositions, and values that are aligned with those of science. Learning is, from this perspective, about building up knowledge, skills, beliefs
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and attitudes that together, form an identity as someone who is a capable consumer, and perhaps even producer of scientific knowledge. Some have even speculated that this “identity-level” is a good way for educators to think about transfer. Perhaps if students experience the development of identities as competent performers in science, acquiring knowledge, skills, and beliefs congruent with those valued by various scientific communities, they will take on these practices outside of formal school contexts. So, in line with the use of new digital media, a current tendency in education acknowledges the emergence of new learning experiences that games may turn out and seeks to understand their consequences for how we think, act, play, and learn (Shaffer et al., 2005).
Convergence of Learning Modes In the last decade the classroom mode and the distance learning mode have been converging, in part due to the success of many e-learning experiences, based on the progress in information and communication technologies and their permeating all learning environments in most developed countries. Using computers and accessing the Web in schools and universities, taking advantage of quality learning products in digital format, linking institutions with broadband connections, using Web 2.0 networking applications, all create favorable conditions for increasing student autonomy and learning effectiveness (Moore & Anderson, 2003). But this also creates a shift in teacher’s profiles and roles: the ability to virtually experience events in shared spaces determines that they become mediators between students and the information provided by a variety of sources, rather than being the exclusive owners of knowledge to be transmitted. Globally, the implications of this re-conception of education, as a mobile and flexible exchange of ideas in a broad context, are profound. It goes beyond the traditional view of instruction as the transmission or construction of knowledge within
the constraints set by a curriculum, to replace it with an ongoing process of learning through continual exploration and negotiation. As Don Tapscott (2008) puts it: “Educators should take note. The current model of pedagogy is teacher focused, one-way, one size fits all. It isolates the student in the learning process. Many Net Geners learn more by collaborating—both with their teacher and with each other. They’ll respond to the new model of education that’s beginning to surface—student-focused and multiway, which is customized and collaborative.” (p. 108). We would just add that learning in this way is in fact pervasive or ubiquitous education. This means that education is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, anywhere, and anytime. Pervasive learning is also a social process that connects learners to communities of devices, people, and society so that students can construct relevant and meaningful learning experiences, author specific content (text, images, audio, video), in locations and at times that they find meaningful and relevant. So, for the most part, distance learning has become a way of life for students wherever they are. For the institutions this is good news, as for the first time in history we have educational technologies that cost nothing to governments and schools: smartphones and mobile computers (most students have one), networking software (freely available, e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Skype), learning applications (increasingly available, often for free e.g., Apple Store) and open educational resources (freely available, e.g., MIT – OCW, Stanford). On top of this, there are many other free tools available for personal learning environments, such as collaborative tools (e.g., blogs, wikis, authoring software), immersive environments (e.g., virtual worlds like Second Life), media production and distribution tools, and so on. There is an old adage of distance education research that states: ‘It is not technologies with inherent pedagogical qualities that are successful in distance education, but technologies that are generally available to citizens’ (Dias et al., 2008).
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I this context we argue that the transformation of ODL curriculum and instruction processes must be based on the new digital media capabilities and its patterns of use by students, namely through interactive and rich content embedded in game-like learning experiences. For this to take place we also propose the integration of games and simulations with the existing e-learning standards and platforms used for online education. Ideally, these educational games should be able to coexist in environments that follow the learning objects model and have elevated pedagogical value (Moreno-Ger et al., 2008).
Learning Attributes of Games But what is the real potential for the integration of games and simulations in distance education? What are the expected benefits and shortcomings in this specific learning context? It may be important to note that not all games do all things. Certain game styles and formats may lend themselves better to different sorts of players and objectives. For example, there are different player experiences in single vs. multiplayer games, but no one is superior for learning per se. It depends on what the specific learning goals and player behaviors are. Also, much like other entertainment industries, games are experiencing genre shifts as developers take specific traits from multiple game styles to achieve desired systems and play experiences. It is for these reasons that the attributes and styles cannot be put nicely in “boxes”, or fit a precise matrix for that matter. There is considerable overlap. The goal of the AIDLET model is to provide a planning framework for development and inclusion of game environments for learning, taking into account familiar attributes of commonly referred to game subtypes. Let’s start first by identifying the broader categories of games referenced in educational game studies:
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Edutainment Games These are games that usually combine education and entertainment in a package that highlights intended educational outcomes targeted at specific groups of learner, very often targeted as youth and children’s games. Most edutainment games currently in the market are not supported by empirical learning evidence and thus it’s difficult to integrate them in an effective educational program.
Serious Games These are games with many of the characteristics of entertainment games but with intended educational outcomes targeted at specific groups of learners. The “serious” adjective is generally applied to refer to products used by industries like defense, education, scientific exploration, health care, management, city planning, engineering, religion, and politics. Put simply, these are games with a serious purpose; the games may include First Person Shooters (FPS), Role-playing Games (RPG), Real Time Strategy (RTS) games, and Massively Multiplayer Online Games (also called MMOG or simply MMO). In most cases, these are the games that will better integrate with the ODL workflow.
Location Aware Games This rather new designation usually refers to virtual experiences played out in real world spaces. This last aspect makes the difference and identifies the genre more specifically. In general, contextualized clues can only be discovered via real world spaces with the aid of GPS devices that are becoming common amongst students these days. Unfortunately, even with the advantage of involving students in authentic real world tasks, participation in groups, and frequent interaction and feedback, these games are difficult to integrate in an ODL workflow because e-learning students are far away and dispersed geographically.
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
Global Reach Games Also a recent phenomenon, exampled by games such as World of Warcraft or Everquest. The term covers any video game capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of players simultaneously. These by inevitability are played on the Internet and feature at least one persistent world. In the case of Second Life, which is not a game per se, we can consider the existence of a virtual world with a game-like society of users. Many types of games can be set up in a virtual world and take full advantage of a 3D environment with its realistic interaction modes. In an effort to identify more distinctive learning attributes of games we must take a look at the design specificity and comparative merits of games’ categories and genres. In many cases they extend and overlap to create mixed categories/ genres. The potential for integration in a typical ODL workflow is discussed.
Traditional and Casual Games Chess, solitaire, and card games, whether traditional or game specific, are examples of such games. Other casual games are commonly deployed online, and offer movement in 2D or 3D space with obstacles to overcome. Timing is sometimes critical, with heavy reliance on motor skills, memory, and planning. Themes may vary from games that expand concepts, such as the food chain, set matching, etc. to card games aimed at teaching math, animal, and plant species. Other games in this genre have shown potential for involving math and physics, for example, games such as World of Goo and Crayon Physics. Because these games were not developed specifically for education, the behaviors are not mapped directly to learning objectives. However, the player behaviors do support the kinds of scientific thinking practices that educational game environments tend to foster. Potential in this genre exists for games that support systems
engineering and computing concepts. The Flash technology can be used to easily produce cards or other digital artifacts for ODL.
Shooting /Action These games can include First Person Shooters (FPS) or other fighting games. The game scenarios may exist within a broader narrative framework, and are presented from a first person perspective. In shooter games, players typically aim and fire at moving objects to destroy them. This involves the development of fast hand to eye coordination and may be important in training areas associated with the police or military. In most cases the player operates virtual mechanical devices and has to accomplish some objective (e. g. drive a vehicle, fire a weapon or use a tool). Shooter and fighting games may be played solo, or designed for team collaboration. Military strategy games in these genres may also include cultural learning objectives, using local cues to engage with others in-game to accomplish missions. These games can be used in ODL as a drill-and-practice component of a course, for example, in engineering, sports, or military training. Team development objectives can also be met through multi-player modes.
Adventure Games The adventures or quests offer a series of challenges usually within a detailed framework. Most adventure games do not rely on speed or “twitch” play for success. A classic example in this genre is the interactive fiction game Myst. The tasks in the game may be relevant to the curriculum and the learning process, often in terms of motivation, as in the case of Sid Meyer’s Civilization, a widely popular and researched game that involves geography, history, and politics (also falling within the strategy genre). There is definitely room for the deployment of this kind of games in distance education.
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Role-Playing Games A Role-Playing Game (RPG) is a game in which the participants assume the roles of fictional characters. Drawing from original RPGs like Dungeons and Dragons, players inhabit a role with status and responsibility within a shared context, and in which the context is defined by a set of rules. The educational function of RPGs may be extensive. Players in educational RPGs may establish the actions of their characters (e.g., lawyers or politicians) based on their characterization, and the actions succeed or fail according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. This may be interesting for many ODL courses requiring students to learn those kinds of skills and the related tacit knowledge. This is also very useful for learners to practice behaviors in an environment that provides clear consequences based on the context and rules of the game world.
Strategy Games Sometimes called Real Time Strategy (RTS) games, this genre of video games emphasizes skillful thinking and planning to achieve a goal. They involve strategic, tactical, and sometimes logistical challenges. There are many good examples of this type of games, in the areas of history, economy, management, ecology, society, etc. Typically these games involve multiple challenges and are aimed at developing problem-based skills. Some very popular and successful titles are: Civilization and Age of Empires. These are very expensive games to design and produce but some of the themes and inherent characteristics of those commercially available may be interesting for specific ODL courses.
Simulation Games For a game to be considered a simulation game, as opposed to a pure simulation or a virtual world, a game system must exist in which the player has a
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role and specific objectives. In simulation games, the player operates a model or simulation that behaves according to a programmed set of rules. Many simulation games focus on some element of realism, thus forcing players to understand and remember complex principles and relations and progress by trial-and-error. These often very expensive games can teach anything, from flying a plane up in the sky to steering a submarine deep in the ocean. Typical examples are Flight Simulator and Train Simulator. Another is SimCity, a popular mainstream title that has been used for educational purposes. Social simulation games are also a large component in the simulation genre, with Will Wright’s The Sims the most widely recognized title. Another recent (and free) simulation game for Business Project Management training is INNOV8, developed by IBM a few years ago and now reaching version 2 (IBM, 2009). These kinds of simulation games are often suitable for online cooperative work and thus very apt for integration in ODL.
Modeling Games Modeling is often a component of the game rather than the game in itself, and usually is tied with other types of games (action, strategy, simulation, programming, etc.). For example, some car racing titles involve creating a track or building the car before you can race it. This genre is also linked with programming games, as learners may create the models before they are able to program them. Examples include robots, cars, bikes, machines, factories, companies, electronic devices, etc.
Programming Games A programming game is basically a computer game where the player has no direct influence on the course of the game. Instead, a computer program or scripts are written in some domain-specific programming language in order to control the actions of the characters, often robots, tanks or
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
bacteria, which seek to destroy each other. Many programming games are considered environments full of digital organisms, related to artificial life simulations. Games that enable users to build microworlds have been created at the MIT MediaLab, and extensive research has been published on this (e.g., programming of Lego robots and Logo projects). The potential for use in ODL is great and technology is often freely available.
Massively Multiplayer Online Games A Massively Multiplayer Online Game (also called MMOG or simply MMO) is a game capable of supporting hundreds or thousands of players simultaneously. The most accomplished and famous MMO is World of Warcraft, with many millions of players all over the world, but in education this is a hard choice to make due to enormous technological demands (software, servers, technical support, etc.). Nevertheless, there are a few multiplayer games with educational intentions, in one example (MEGG - http://www.cybertrain.info/megg.html) there is capability to build an online multiplayer educational game on any theme, with menus, text, graphics and multiple choice quiz banks.
Virtual Worlds Virtual worlds are one of the newer developments on the Internet, with Second Life being the most well known. The unique qualities of 3D virtual worlds can provide opportunities for rich sensory immersive experiences, with authentic contexts and activities for experiential learning, simulation and role-play, including the creation of complex environments and scenarios. Hundreds of university systems around the world use the Second Life Grid™ as a lively part of their educational programs. Many of the previous types of games can be set up in a virtual world and take full advantage of a 3D environment and its realistic interaction modes. One recent example is SLOODLE Game
Show, an open source game for Second Life (http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=SRVVrAp_64U)
Layered Reality Games These games are representative of a new set of experiences that consists of roughly three different categories of games: Augmented Reality Games, Hybrid Reality Games, and Alternate Reality Games, mostly involving active engagement, participation in groups, frequent interaction and feedback, and connections to real world contexts via GPS. This last aspect makes the difference and identifies the genre more specifically but implies that these games are more difficult to integrate in the ODL workflow. In general, research shows that learning through games is possible by immersing players in relevant experiences, by modeling expert problem solving, by providing guidelines to solve a problem, and by structuring problems so that the player builds on previous knowledge, which are all features of powerful and well designed learning environments (Bransford et al., 2000; Gee, 2003). On a less positive note, according to Huntington (2006), there are obvious barriers to the development or adoption of educational games in general. For instance: •
•
•
High development costs in an uncertain market makes investment in educational gaming innovations too risky for the commercial video game producers and even the educational materials industries. Change in institutions comes slowly in terms of adopting any new innovations and as do making the necessary organization and instructions changes that allow use of new learning technologies. There is unwillingness on the part of institutions to give up textbooks in order to purchase educational gaming products.
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Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
•
•
•
•
The specific educational values that are tied to established standards have not been proven through in-depth research. Some parents and teachers have very negative attitudes about the use of videogames in the classroom. Games are especially good at teaching higher order skills, which are not typically assessed in standard examinations. Access to computers is sometimes so low that it can’t play a mainstream role in student learning (the case of many developing countries).
But the application of games in education requires more than just their availability and adequacy, a new educational perspective is needed. Squire (2008) suggests the following scenario: envisage for a second that you are a teacher or instructional designer, charged with developing an advanced science course, covering a few hundred new terms, facts and concepts. How would you go about designing materials that handles these concepts? What kinds of experiences would you want learners to have? How would you pace them and how would you know if they truly mastered what you needed them to learn? These questions, which may seem traditionally the domain of instructional technologists, are also relevant for video game designers. As games get longer and more complex, designers devise ways to “teach the player” to see and act in particular ways. Whereas educational technologists ask if education can happen at a distance, gamers show you that it already does, as game designers and distributed game communities help them become better players. Part of what is interesting about contemporary video games is how experiences are ordered so that players are “taught” the game through the careful construction of levels, missions, and interactions. Few, if any, of the so called “serious games” or even research prototypes that have been made, to the best of our knowledge, take advantage of most of these design principles.
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How is assessment defined? In games that are designed for learning play behaviors are mapped to the specific actions that relate to the learning goals. Other design considerations that promote attainment of educational goals include deciding how pass and fail states map to desired player performance. Games’ environments designed for specific learning goals may also include threshold points in-game, much like educational threshold concepts are gatekeepers for understanding future content, game threshold points can be designed to scaffold player skill and require player mastery of certain behaviors before progressing in the game world. Games also provide opportunities for learning from feedback loops. As players are evaluated on their performance, feedback loops help guide player behavior towards desired outcomes. In this way, the development of the game system will support player progress in both micro and macro objectives. Assessment instruments may include capture logs of player performance in situ, recordings of student performance, and discourse analyses of students’ work in game play. Other documents emerging from the game (including students’ writing, illustrations, or digital representations) can be analyzed to identify how their thinking is (and is not) affected by the game experience.
THE AIDLET MODEL In a more pragmatic way, considering the current educational context, to attain high quality learning results based on constantly connected, highly interactive, and fully mobile media environments, the right teachers, materials, methods, and games have to be found. But this may be a rather costly and challenging proposition for many ODL organizations as it involves: investment in new information and communication technology (mildly expensive), faculty and tutor re-training (time and capital intensive), development of engaging digital materials (games and simulations
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
may be expensive), review of internal processes (habits are difficult to change) and, last but not least, establishment of a credible and high quality brand name (as online learning is often regarded as a kind of lower-grade education, not to mention games-based learning). However, even with the adoption of new digital media, games and simulations, we must accept the fact that not all knowledge can be acquired through distance learning. In some cases it is not suitable for acquiring all the necessary skills, for example in: • • • •
health sciences, especially surgery and hospital practice; experimental sciences, which require laboratory practice; applied psychology, involving direct interpersonal experience; court training in law, about oratory and argumentation.
A way to overcome this difficulty is to separate theoretical content from the corresponding practical component. The former may be taught in distance learning mode, and, to a certain extent, practice may be supported by VR applications, simulations and games representing real situations (Bidarra & Cardoso, 2007). On that note, Starr (1994) argues that simulations – the process of setting up scenarios and exploring under what conditions they might work – are at the core of business, government and science. For many years researchers have studied the uses of simulations in education and established that well-designed simulations will develop in the student a profound, flexible, spontaneous, kinesthetic understanding of the subject matter (Gibson et al., 2007, Issenberg, 2006, Teodoro, 2004, Kezunovic et al., 2004). Squire & Giovanetto (2008) argue that when considering the higher education of gaming, a core intellectual feature of a twenty-first-century educational system should include inroads into participation in cultures of simulation. In fact, students who learn by means of simulations can
improvise better in real world contexts. They can handle unexpected situations with ease and knowledge learnt is not structured around a set of norms or processes but developed from intrinsic personal experience. This is the kind of knowledge students retain for a long time. Unquestionably, today video games are the individual’s primary exposure to this important way of thinking. And in the probable scenario that games/simulations may not be developed or cannot be applied, online learning can be made more game-like (Gee, 2003) in an attempt to change the inflexible and prescriptive models in use today.
Dealing with the Issues Based on our observations and on data collected we consolidated a clear-cut framework to assist ODL teachers, instructional designers and managers in making the right decisions about the adoption and use of educational games and simulations. But for a framework or toolkit to be effective, no matter how simple or practical it is, a particular learning context has to be defined. Previous research by De Freitas & Oliver (2006), on the kinds of questions facing tutors when thinking of introducing games- and simulation-based learning into their practice, relied on some interesting questions: Which game or simulation to select for the specific learning context? Which pedagogic approaches to use to support learning outcomes and activities? What is the validity of using the chosen game or simulation? So, trying to answer those questions, our research started by exploring real world practices and went on identifying the main concepts and activities that defined those practices, in the belief that a certain way of thinking and doing could be derived and applied to new situations. For instance, the traditional classroom environment, where an instructor can guide the activity of the
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students, is very different from the online educational environment in which specific game genres have to be identified and suitable frameworks set (Moreno-Ger et al., 2008). So, in the case of ODL we were confronted with the existence of three main groups of requirements: the definition of an approach closely linked to educational content specifications, the repurposing of existing game/ simulation titles or the design and development of specific games/simulations, and the integration of games/simulations in the ODL workflow. The framework we propose builds on these requirements and is rooted in research previously conducted into conventional teaching/learning with games (Prensky, Gee, Gibson, Jenkins, Squire, etc.), all sharing essential features such as students, teachers, and resources; but in this model we had to go beyond that by explicitly addressing the requirements imposed by the typical context of Distance Education. A relation may be established with the ACTIONS model (Bates, 1995, 2000), a media selection and evaluation framework often used in ODL studies. ‘ACTIONS’ is the acronym for seven main criteria that Bates proposes for selecting a specific learning technology, namely: access, cost, teaching and learning implications, interaction, organizational issues, novelty and speed. In this model he uses a pragmatic approach to the effective costs of technologies, and relates these to other important features that are relevant for decision-makers. The fundamental principle is still valid today: educational technologies are not good or bad, it’s the way they are used that dictates the success or failure of a project. The same can be said of the application of games and simulations in ODL.
Applying the Model The chief benefit of using a conceptual model for instructional design is that common pitfalls can be avoided. So, our purpose is twofold: (1) to help distance education teachers and instructional designers in the implementation of game- and
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simulation- based learning, and (2) to support ODL organizations and decision-makers in the process of choosing the right tools and methodologies. Of course, an overall educational strategy must be in place, indicating the materials and learning objectives (content), the ways to choose, validate, organize, and present content (curriculum & instruction), the individual attention offered to each student (tutoring), the grading and confirmation of a level of competency (assessment), and the creation of peer groups that both make learning more effective and engaging (learning community). The framework we propose tries to beat the shortcomings of other models, not specifically tailored for the use of games in distance education, by introducing a six-dimensional model with the acronym ‘AIDLET’, addressing issues related to availability and cost, interaction and communication capabilities, distance education workflow integration, learning design potential, engagement and ease of play, thematic value and adequacy (summarized in Table 1). The six steps provide main criteria for consideration, certainly not intended as prescriptive, allowing for practitioners to be more critical about how they implant games and simulations into their courses. With this basis, teachers, designers and decision-makers may develop their own metrics for introducing games and simulations in specific educational programs. The key-aspects of the model may be described as follows:
Availability and Cost The widespread use of games as entertainment is a known fact but it doesn’t mean that games in general are effective for learning purposes. Some games can be selected and used to assist the learning process and others have to be designed from scratch to support a specific course. The first decision is whether to consider the repurposing of an existing title or the development of a new one. There are basically three options: buy an “off-the-shelf” title, contract with a development
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
Table 1. The AIDLET Model for selection and implementation of games in ODL AIDLET Model
Questions
Availability and cost
Is there an adequate game for the organization and for the learners? What is the cost? If the available version is not suitable, can it be modified? The game or simulation has to be developed from scratch? At what cost? What is the unit cost per student?
Interaction and communication capabilities
The game is state-of-the art in terms of concept, interface and design? Is it Web 2.0 ready? The interaction and communication features are adequate for learning?
Distance education workflow integration
Does it integrate with ODL practice and workflow? What kinds of connections can be made to other ODL tools and media?
Learning design potential
What kinds of learning are supported? What instructional approaches are possible within the constraints of the game/simulation? What other technologies can be integrated in supporting teaching and learning?
Engagement and ease of play
Are the game characteristics engaging and user-friendy? Is it accessible to teachers and students less experienced in games? How long does it take to master the basics of the game?
Thematic value and adequacy
Can the game content be used without any side effects? Are the themes appropriate? What social skills does the game develop? Are these congruent with cultural, societal and organizational values?
firm or get in-house production. The costs are very different and tend to increase from the first to the latter. There is no stable and robust model to use here as it all depends on the instructional design to be used and the budget on hand. For instance, learning history with Sid Meyer’s Civilization is quite inexpensive, because the title is widely available at affordable prices, while developing a game for a new course on telecommunications surely has a prohibitive price.
Interaction and Communication Capabilities Games and simulations are by definition very interactive yet not all of them support useful educational interaction that leads to effective learning. Furthermore, the quantity of interaction that is possible with a system does not guarantee the quality of the interaction in terms of attaining learning goals. A sense of security and progress is important and depends on broad agreement both on the ends to be pursued and on the means to achieve them. The design of the interaction is vital to the success of the game/simulation as
these are initial requirements that make or break the deal. A poorly made design will never be used by students no matter the amount of research and development that was spent in the project. Also the essential Web 2.0 features of current applications are important to enable connection with other people and resources not only for support, as is usually the case to tackle technical problems, but to achieve a strong motivation and a multiplying effect that facilitates learning. The current boom in social networking is a solid indicator of this requirement.
Distance Education Workflow Integration Learning with the new digital tools really implies much more than just using intensively a given set of applications: it comprises all the human factors and qualified work involved in conceiving appropriate learning materials, devising a sound pedagogical strategy, providing each student with efficient support, assessing individual progress, grading students, and certifying their final results. So many questions arise: how games and simu-
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lations integrate with the usual ODL workflow? How do we monitor student’s activity? What if the students do not visit all the areas in the game/ simulation? What if they wander around wasting time? How much time and effort is necessary to accomplish all the tasks? How do we assess the students? Etc. Of course, there is no ready answer to these questions; the idea is to figure out the answers specific to each project before going any further.
Learning Design Potential The best way to see the instructional benefits of games and simulations is to evaluate how they are used in education. For example, evaluating the performance of titles in the so-called “Serious Games” genre, namely, investigating the kinds of learning that may be supported, the instructional strategies that are possible within each game constraints, the e-learning platforms and technologies that are compatible. Only when students feel comfortable with the online environment and the technology provided will they be able to study and contribute. On the other hand, excessive involvement with games and simulations may damage the interaction with other course content and the interaction with people, and this certainly needs to be monitored closely. Another pragmatic way is to consider typical game-based learning scenarios to be developed, where synchronous or asynchronous online communications may be used:
Synchronous Scenarios • • • • • • •
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Training of dialogue and articulation Leading and conducting meetings Courtroom conferencing and interaction Business conferencing and interaction Collaborative design in architecture Health professional interaction practice Surgery and operation theater practice
Asynchronous Scenarios • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Dynamic learning activities (e.g., driving a vehicle, operating a machine) Active exploratory learning (e.g., archeology, history, CSI, detective work) Goal oriented brainstorming (e.g., advertising, marketing) Policy decision making (e.g., business, government, orgs) Business decision making (e.g., marketing, sales, operational) Process management (e.g., commerce, industry, communications) Strategic planning (e.g., business, government, orgs) Case study (e.g., business, sociology, health, ICT) Experiential activities (e.g., laboratory, field trip) Debating relevant issues (e.g., policy, business, academia) Science modeling (e.g., chemistry, engineering) Reporting, expressing and communicating (e.g., business, health, science) Multimedia communications design Web communications design Scientific investigation Computer programming Information systems design Computer graphics design Computer games design Language laboratory Cultural events management Sports strategy and tactics
Engagement and Ease of Play This aspect usually becomes apparent only after students start playing a game or interacting with a simulation, when participants become excited and joyful about the program. An ideal situation would be to have a prototype to try out, as is
Games and Simulations in Distance Learning
the norm in many commercial games and TV programs. Here, as well as in television contests, there must be a challenge that the player can understand and may be able to succeed at by using his or her knowledge, intelligence, and dexterity. To be engaging an educational game or simulation must be composed of purposeful, goal-oriented, rule-based activities that the players perceive as fun. This means that we must be aware of any signs of either cognitive overload or excessive dispersion of attention in the players that may impair learning activities. At the end of the day, designers and instructors have to ask if the amount of potential learning is justified by the amount of work and time to implement the game. And must be willing to admit that often it is not!
Thematic Value and Adequacy These are perhaps the most subjective of all the factors in the model: what is “valuable” and what is “adequate”. But these are important criteria because we have to consider information that is relevant to a specific culture, society, group or organization. Many games and simulations will not be suitable for adoption because of issues related to religion, politics or race, for example. On the other hand, many games and simulations were developed to engage players in a very respectful game play, for instance, World Without Oil or Food Force (World Food Program), but may not be suitable for the specific learning goals set out in the curriculum. Furthermore, some games and simulations may be too restrictive and prevent students from developing their own meanings, interpretations and critical views. This also means inquiring what instructional activities can be created to maximally address weaknesses of the game (e.g., missing, misleading or inaccurate content). Other essential aspects to evaluate are the topics breadth or depth, and the types of strategies that are promoted by game (e.g., trial and error, problem-based, etc.).
Discussion and Recommendations To test our conceptual framework we analyzed many off-the-shelf games in an attempt to assess its potential for selection, repurposing and implementation in ODL. Following the AIDLET model, we made use of a scoreboard to evaluate the sensible application of typical examples representing the main categories and genres of games (summarized in table 2). Popular games may range from shooting games to casual games, from role-playing games to family entertainment games. However, our findings concerning the potential of games in ODL show that simulations, strategy (RTS) and role-playing games (RPG) are the genres that may support good quality learning according to the AIDLET framework. This is in line with the ESA report (2008) that indicates strategy (33.9%) and roleplaying (18.8%) games as best selling games sold for play on computer systems. Success titles of these categories include SimCity, The Sims, Civilization, Age of Empires, Final Fantasy and Warcraft. Many of these games are supported by high quality simulations and have been used for educational purposes. Furthermore, some of them are responsible for engaging large groups of remotely located users, leading to the expansion of educational projects in many organizations, sometimes using multiplayer online role-play gaming approaches as a means for engaging and retaining large remotely located learner groups (De Freitas & Griffiths, 2007). On a less positive note, we are aware that games are not for all topics, learners, or environments; games are effective only if matched to content, learning styles, digital literacy and educational context, also, they may be expensive to integrate and implement. In addition, not all games are alike as they have diverse underlying strengths and strategies. The field of game-based learning is changing so fast that it is hard to keep up with all the research. As a result, there is an opportunity for new research and researchers to focus on the
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Table 2. Assessment of typical examples representing the main categories and genres of games. Sim or Game
Availability & Cost
Interaction
Distance Edu
Learning Design
Engagement
Thematic Value
Traditional
Good
Average
Average
Average
Average
Average
Action
Average
Good
Average
Average
Good
Average
Adventure
Poor
Good
Average
Average
Good
Average
RPG
Average
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
RTS
Average
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Simulation
Average
Good
Good
Good
Average
Good
Modeling
Average
Good
Average
Average
Average
Average
Programming
Good
Good
Good
Average
Good
Good
MMO
Poor
Good
Poor
Average
Good
Poor
Virtual World
Average
Good
Good
Average
Average
Average
AugRG
Poor
Average
Poor
Average
Average
Average
HibRG
Poor
Average
Poor
Average
Average
Average
AltRG
Poor
Average
Poor
Average
Average
Average
Poor = hard choice (may be expensive, difficult to integrate, cover themes not appropriate, etc.) Average = compromise (a good choice in some cases, may be partially used, depends on instructional design, etc.) Good = safe choice (already tested, easily available, low cost, most themes appropriate, etc.)
kinds of questions that will sustain a move toward a full-grown scientific field. If we don’t blend academic requirements with game initiatives and experiences there is the risk of all these efforts becoming a fad. Concurrently, due to the fact that comparatively few games are in use in ODL and the mainstream research tends to cover generally standard tertiary education and training, there is a vital need for empirical research on the specific application of games in ODL.
CONCLUSION This chapter started with a review of the values underpinning new digital media, games and simulations in today’s education. We chose to focus on how these are enacted in social practices supported by contemporary digital habits, and how they may be present in ODL, but at this point in time we were not able to demonstrate how distance education was significantly transformed through the deployment of this technology or indeed by
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any other means. In fact, while paying attention to how technological artifacts are enacted in society we were simply able to identify familiar patterns of interaction and communication that are of value to Distance Education. Games are often heralded as one remedy for the failure of conventional education but our interpretation of the research data would be to see them in terms of the influence of a popular new media form. The implications for understanding the relationship between games and learning therefore are that games need not be defined as an essential instrument or a type of content but as contemporary human creations whose forms and meanings are strategic for education. In this regard, ODL establishments need to adopt these innovative modes of learning in order to make a difference in academic development and deal with new learning styles. Also, contemporary organizations need employees proficient in effective communication, teamwork, project management, and other soft skills such as responsibility, creativity, entrepreneurship, corporate culture, etc. Simulation- or Game-based learning may be
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the right answer to those needs, particularly if supported by appropriate e-learning methodologies. In this context, the role of the instructor is a critical (if somewhat overlooked) component in the deployment of instructional games, as are other learner support strategies such as helpdesk or online mentoring. The task ahead is certainly a difficult one but we think the AIDLET model may help teachers and instructional designers make better decisions regarding the application of game-based learning in their particular topics. We believe this is a great time for ODL stakeholders to take on the challenge of adopting new digital media, serious games and interactive simulations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (grant SFRH/BSAB/833/2008), and the Games, Learning and Society research group at the University of Wisconsin in Madison.
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Bidarra, J., & Cardoso, V. (2007). The emergence of the exciting new Web 3.0 and the future of open educational resources. Paper presented at the EADTU 2007 Conference, Lisbon, November 8-9, 2007. Bonk, C., & Dennen, V. (2005). Massive multiplayer online gaming: A research framework for military training and education advanced distributed learning initiative, Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Personnel & Readiness), Readiness and Training, 4000 Defense Pentagon, Washington, DC. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school committee on developments in the science of learning. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32–42. Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University. Damásio, A. (1994). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Avon Books. Damásio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt. De Freitas, S., & Griffiths, M. (2007). Online gaming as an educational tool in learning and training. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 535–537. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00720.x De Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2006). How can exploratory learning with games and simulations within the curriculum be most effectively evaluated? Computers & Education, 46(3), 249–264. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.007
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Dias, A., Keegan, D., Kismihok, G., Mileva, N., & Rekkedal, T. (2008). Achievements of mLearning today. Report of European Union project 227828-CP-1-2006-1-IE-MINERVA-M. ESA – Entertainment Software Association. (2008). Demographics of entertainment software users. Retrieved March 14, 2009 from http://www. theesa.com/ facts/index.asp Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. New York: Routledge. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games + good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and literacy. New York: Peter Lang. Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (2007). Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Huntington, B. A. (2006). Barriers to the development of educational games. Report of the Summit on Educational Games: Harnessing the Power of Video Games for Learning. Washington, DC: Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved March 12, 2009 from http://www.fas.org/ gamesummit/ Issenberg, S. B. (2006). The scope of simulationbased healthcare education. Simulation in Healthcare: The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare, 1(4), 203–208. doi:10.1097/01. SIH.0000246607.36504.5a Kezunovic, M., Abur, A., Garng Huang Bose, A., & Tomsovic, K. (2004). The role of digital modeling and simulation in power engineering education. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 19(1), 64–72. doi:10.1109/TPWRS.2003.821002
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Kirriemur, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning. NESTA Futurelab Series. Bristol: NESTA Futurelab. Klopfer, E. (2008). Augmented learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Moore, M. G., & Anderson, W. G. (2003). Handbook of distance education. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., Martínez-Ortiz, I., Sierra, J. L., & Fernández-Manjón, B. (2008). Educational game design for online education. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(6), 2530–2540. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.012 Pachler, N., & Daly, C. (2009). Narrative and learning with Web 2.0 technologies: towards a research agenda. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(1), 6–18. doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2008.00303.x Piaget, J. (1973). To understand is to invent: The future of education. New York: Grossman Publishers. Pivec, M., & Dziabenko, O. (2004). Game-based learning in universities and lifelong learning: “UniGame: social skills and knowledge training” game concept. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 10(1), 14–26. Salaway, G., & Caruso, J. B. (2008). The ECAR study of undergraduate students and information technology, 2008 (Research Study, vol. 8). Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research. Retrieved May 19, 2009 from http:// www.educause.edu/ecar Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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Shaffer, D. W. (2004). When computer-supported collaboration means computer-supported competition: Professional mediation as a model for collaborative learning. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 15(2), 101–115.
Steinkuehler, C. (2004). Learning in massively multiplayer online games. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Learning Sciences (pp. 521-528). June 22-26, Santa Monica, CA.
Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. P. (2005). Video games and the future of learning WCER Working Paper No. 2005-4. Retrieved May 17, 2009 from http://www.wcer. wisc.edu /publications/workingPapers/ Working_Paper_No_2005_4.pdf
Tapscott, D. (2008). Grown up digital: How the net generation is changing the world. New York: McGraw Hill.
Squire, K. (2008). Educating the fighter: Buttonmashing, seeing, being. In Davidson, A. (Ed.), Beyond fun: Serious games and media. Pittsburgh, PA: ETC Press. Squire, K., & Giovanetto, L. (2008). The higher education of gaming. E-Learning and Digital Media, 5(1). Retrieved September 6, 2009 from http://www.wwwords.co.uk/ ELEA Starr, P. (1994). Seductions of Sim policy as a simulation game. The American Prospect, 5(17). Retrieved May 10, 2010 from: http://www.prospect.org/ cs/articles?article= seductions_of_sim
Teodoro, V. D. (2004). Playing newtonian games with Modellus. Physics Education, IOP – Electronic Journals, 39(5), 421-428. VanDeventer, S., & White, J. (2002). Expert behavior in children’s video game play. Simulation & Gaming, 33(1), 28–48. doi:10.1177/1046878102033001002 Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
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Chapter 6
The Educational Value of Digital Games:
Possibilities and Limitations of the Use of Digital Games as Educational Tools (The Spore Case) Ana Castro Correia TECField Sistemas de Informação e Multimédia, Lda, Portugal Lia Raquel Oliveira University of Minho, Portugal
ABSTRACT Games have always been present in the development of the human society, facilitating ways of social interaction and contributing to the maturation of culture. Today, digital games present themselves as one of the most common forms of entertainment, especially for children and teenagers, combining the playful factor with pedagogical advantages, promoting changes in terms of cognitive, behavioral and psychomotor skills in its users. The use of digital games in educational contexts encourages active, critical, autonomous and participated learning processes, overcoming some of the limitations presented in more ‘conventional’ methods, engaging players in non-passive forms of acquiring knowledge and skills. Aiming to demonstrate how digital games make the learning process possible by allowing the development of critical thinking, outlined during the act of playing, we will proceed to a critical analysis of Spore, a game created by Electronic Arts in 2008, demonstrating how the player places himself in an active learning situation which is self controlled and self regulated, facilitating the comprehension of phenomena that are not a part of formal teaching. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch006
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Educational Value of Digital Games
INTRODUCTION Gaming is considered to be a key element in child development as children, when playing, assimilate and transform their reality (Piaget, 1983). Vygotsky (1989) finds that engaging in games helps the development of creative activity among students, enhancing their abilities. In a game, children always behave beyond the normal behavior for their age, and for their daily behavior; in a game is as if it they are larger than they actually are. (…) the game contains all developmental tendencies in a condensed form and is, itself, a major source of development (Vygotsky, 1989, p.117). Winnicott (1975) highlights the importance of playing, which is conceptually identical to gaming (Huizinga, 2001), in children lives, referring that playing is universal, leads to social relationships, is a way of communication and is engaging. According to Winnicot (1975), it’s by playing that both children and adults enjoy the freedom of creation, mobilizing their whole personality. And only by using creativity can the individual discover the self, in a process of increasing self-awareness and independence. Huizinga (2001) suggests that gaming was a key factor in the genesis of culture in human history, stating that “the novelty factor underlying cultural processes is the creator of various fundamental forms of social life and the spirit of playful competition inherent to gaming is undoubtedly a very old social impulse” (Huizinga, 2001, p. 34), closely relating games to human expression and competition. In today society, many authors consider digital games powerful learning tools that promote informal learning in an active, autonomous, collaborative and participative way (Prensky, 2001a; Gee, 2003).
DIGITAL GAMES AND GAMEBASED LEARNING Engaging Digital Games We can define a digital game as a game to be played using technological devices throughout human - computer interaction, and that has, associated to it, a narrative (Pivec and Kearney, 2007; Gee, 2003). A game, acording to Zimmerman (2004) is a fictional interactive activity without obligations, with rules, a defined time and space and quantifiable outcomes. The game play is the free space of movement within a rigid structure (Zimmerman, 2004). Malone (1981) and Prensky (2000) list six fundamental elements of an engaging digital game: rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict/competition/challenge/opposition, interaction, and representation. Malone (1981), refering to digital games, states that “in order for an environment to be challenging, it must provide goals whose attainment is uncertain (p.50)”. Jones (1998) argues that, for a digital game to be engaging it must obey to the following standards: • • • • • • •
incorporate tasks with clear goals; goals that the player can achieve and complete; the ability to concentrate on the task; tasks which provide immediate feedback; a deep and effortless involvement in the game play; being able to allow the player to loose concern over the self; altering the sense of time.
There are several typologies outlined to proceed to the classification of digital games, as the one from the British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTa, 2003)1, which outlined a typology that attempts to encompass
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the various types of digital games in accordance with the style, narrative, theme and activities, and the one from Graells (2000)2, that established a typology which considers the game structure and the major skills used by the player in the game play, including psychomotor skills, reasoning, logic, strategy and memory. Summarizing, a digital game can be assessed in accordance to six criteria (BECTa, 2003; Graells, 2000; Carvalho, 2005): • • • • • •
theme/activities; duration; device used; number of players (single player or multi player; opponent (computer, another player, etc.); access to the game (open or closed community).
Game-Based Learning – An Approach Game-based learning (GBL) is a recent term that has as major proponents Prensky (2000) and Gee (2003). This two authors state, in their work, that the engagement of students in their learning processes, accelerating and improving them in an active and participative way, is accomplished by using digital games as learning tools. The concept of GBL is not peaceful and we can find many arguments for and against its adoption in educational contexts. Gee (2003) states that GBL promotes self reflective critical learning, allowing the player control over the entire game play, freedom to explore and experiment within the context of the game, to adapt to the environment and modify assumptions and interactions based on the outcome of each action the player undertakes. Acording to Prensky (2000), Gee (2003), Garris et al (2002), Pivec and Kearney (2007), Ruben (1999) and Kirriemuir and Mcfarlane (2004), GBL assembles the following aspects, as follows.
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Gee (2003) argues that GBL promotes active and critical learning, because it meets three criteria: the ability to experience the world in new ways, the ability to form new affiliations and the ability to prepare individuals for future learning. In order to meet the conditions for critical learning, the learner has to understand and produce meanings in a particular semiotic domain that is recognized by other affiliates, which are aware of that domain. The learner must also learn to think about the domain on a meta level, disassembling the component parts of that domain as a system of patterns related to each other, eventually producing new and unpredictable meanings. Gee (2003) sees a digital game, which is actively handled by the player, as a complex system of parts that relate themselves in order to engage and manipulate the player in the meta-level of the game, the space designed as a system, providing the conditions for an active and critical learning to occur, expanding and modifying the knowledge of the individual, based on a cognitive approach (Sinatra & Pintrich, 2003). Kearney and Pivec (2007) assembled a model for GBL, inspired in Garris et al (2002) model and Kolb’s learning styles (1984) that summarizes what we stated above (figure 1). According to the authors (Kearney & Pivec, 2007), digital games promote skill based, knowledge based, and affective based learning. The different types of learning occur in the micro and macro levels of the game, and are of extreme importance to the player’s reflection and self-regulation during and after the game. Skill based learning takes place in the micro cycle and between levels of the game. Declarative, procedural and strategical/ condicional knowledge, acquired by the player in the game, are achieved through reflection, and, in GBL, we can refer to it as reflection in action, occurring in the course of the gameplay, at each level. As skills are acquired and the player progresses in the game, knowledge is increased by the mobilization of meta cognitive skills. The cognition
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Table 1. Aspects assembled in GBL Aspect
Characteristics
Practice and feedback
Practice and feedback enable the development of skills based in exercises involving models of practice and repetition.
Learning by doing
Learning by doing is as a way to explore, acquire new knowledge and solve problems in real time.
Learning through trial and error
In the context of digital games, learning from mistakes involves experimentation and interactive exploration through models supported by trial and error, which can provide players the increased energy and motivation for continued interaction.
Goal oriented learning
Goal oriented learning is a pivotal element of digital games and is usually the element that allows the player to discern between the play universe and the game universe, providing encouragement and motivation to continue and try to go further in the acquisition of multiple skills.
Discovery learning
Discovery learning is related to the fact that one can learn better by oneself, exploring alternatives and overcoming limitations, than through others. This is a fundamental aspect of digital games, particularly adventure games.
Guided learning
Guided learning focuses on finding solutions, but providing users with specific objectives to be achieved, which is always the case in the game narrative of digital games.
Task-based learning
Task-based learning consistes in the immediate resolution of obstacles, integrated in blocks, gradually increasing their level of difficulty, as we can observe in the difficulty levels a player as to overcome in a digital game.
Situated learning
Situated learning has as main assumption the fact that knowledge is “contextually situated and is fundamentally influenced by the activity, context, and culture in which it is used” (McLellan, 1985, p.6). GBL compromises the majority of the basic aspects identified by McLellan (1985) as part of situated learning, being: collaboration, coaching, articulation of learning skills, multiple practice, reflection, cognitive apprenticeship, stories and technology. Digital games that offer highly immersive experiences and allow its users to develop skills that can be applied to various social contexts — acquisition and application of vocabulary, acquisition of behavior patterns associated with specific situations, and even attainment of knowledge of a specific culture — are an example of the presence of the mentioned elements in a digital game. Such games can be designed to achieve specific educational objectives. A good example of this affirmation is the game DoomEd, inspired by the First Person Shooter model, a game in which the player navigates the London Underground during the Second World War, killing aliens, aiming to understand the concepts of radiation and chemistry in order to overcome dangerous obstacles. Players must kill aliens while trying to solve scientific problems to move to the next level and thus revealing learning outcomes. Other examples are the reformulation of the game Civilization, in the United States, to teach history, as well as the Sims game, to teach various languages.
about cognition (Flavell, 1979) that happens within the game, the metacognition, applied to teaching and learning processes, reinforces reflexive skills thus promoting self-regulation processes, when practiced with intensity in a regular way (Pressley & Hilden, 2006).
The Educational Value of Digital Games Malone (1981), Ruben (1999), Prensky (2000), Gee (2003) and Pivec and Kearney (2007) advocate the use of digital games in learning processes, arguing that it’s use improves the learning outcomes of students, due to the intrinsic motivation involved in the act of play: the way the player
progresses in the exploration of the game and assimilates knowledge in a context of a continuous narrative line, embeded in a parasocial universe of characters, therefore contributing to the acquisition of meaningful learning and a deeper knowledge. Gros (2003) enhances that for digital games to be used for educational purposes they must be endowed with well defined learning goals, teaching contents to the users or promoting the development of important strategies and skills to increase their intellectual and cognitive abilities. According to Malone (1981) and Garris et al (2002), the factors that contribute to the strength and consistence of digital games as educational tools are the challenge, the fantasy (imaginary contexts, themes and fantasy characters), the
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Figure 1. A model of GBL (Kearney & Pivec, 2007, p.2551)
sensorial stimuli (visual and hearing, dramatic and new), the curiosity and the involved learning. Garris et al (2002) point out that games should include characteristics which enable quality learning. These elements must be incorporated on an integrated platform, to structure objectives and rules, a context of meaningful learning, an appealing story, immediate feedback, a high level of interactivity, challenge and competition, random elements of surprise and rich environments for learning (Garris et al, 2002; Malone, 1981). These factors determine the motivation to play and learn at the same time (Malone, 1981; Ruben, 1999; Prensky, 2000; Garris et al, 2002), being also important for an effective and successful learning, through the offer of contents like interactivity, feedback, solving problems and the effects of context, which promote reflective behaviors’ among the players (Pivec and Kearney, 2007). Games make the learning process possible
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by allowing the development of critical thinking that will be outlined during the act of playing. Garris et al (2002) consider that an important part of learning through the usage of games is made outside the game cycle, through a reflection about the experience.
Advantages of Educational Games Digital games provide amusing alternatives, more active and autonomous, opposing to the traditional methods used in the process of teaching and learning, making possible the materialization of a Prensky (2001b) statement, which predicts that today’s students, the digital natives, will teach themselves. Digital games are a new challenge to the teaching community, providing the development of cognitive skills and making possible the socio cultural interactions stated by Greenfield (1996), to whom videogames (or digital games) play an
The Educational Value of Digital Games
important social and cultural role and at the same time favor the cognitive regulation. Some types of games and technologies associated to digital games are already being used as supporting tools to achieve learning goals in formal education environments, either directly or as an attractive tool for unmotivated students (BECTA, 2003). According to Prensky (2000) and Gee (2003) games allow the development of new learning strategies, based on new interactivity patterns, like feedback, reflective and critical learning, target levels of understanding semiotics, learning through discovery and exploration, situated learning, role-playing and constructivist learning. Regarding this problem, Grealls (2000) refers that digital games enable the assimilation and the appropriation of information, the construction and the application of cognitive strategies, developing various skills such as psychomotor ability, decisions making and perseverance. To Prensky (2000), the main benefits of gaming are the users’ capability of processing simultaneous information, leading to the development of awareness of non linear information, which is typical from digital natives (Prensky, 2001a, 2001b), as well as enabling the sense of belonging to a non geographical community, which should broaden the players’ horizons. Gee (2003) suggests that the didactic principles involved in game based learning can change the learning processes in educational institutions, either in the relation between teachers and students or in the institution itself, by turning the learning process into something critical and active. To Gee (Ibid.), games are structured in a way that encourages this kind of reflexive, non passive learning, through its design and the areas of semiotics involved, which promotes the player’s understanding and establishment of interrelations between semiotic areas. This allows the development of a meta level of comprehension on these areas, enabling autonomy, reflection, appropriation of meanings, self learning and the improvement of
skills. This process is characterized for its cooperative environment and for the establishment of relationships between affiliated communities, which share one or more common interests. Malone (1981), Ruben (1999), Garris et al (2002) and Pivec e Kearney (2007) point out the development of cognitive, visual, space and memory skills that is provided by the usage of digital games.
Limitations of Educational Games Gee (2003) considers that digital games are sophisticated teaching tools as well as complex, long and demanding. They demand different types of previous and distinctive knowledge, making its use rather hard in the school context. At the Online Educa Berlin 2006, the potential of the process of learning based on gaming was discussed and several difficulties were identified (Pivek and Kearney, 2007): • •
•
difficulty in finding games that include contents from curricular programmes; low tolerance from the community to games, as the act of playing is understood as a less serious activity; the available technical resources at schools are insufficient to support this kind of learning.
Kirriemuir and Mcfarlane (2004) consider that the main obstacles to the use of digital games in a classroom context are the lack of relevance for the curriculum, the lack of scientific precision of the contents and the lack of consistency between the duration of games and the schedule of computer rooms. Balasubramanian and Wilson (2006) refer that there is a certain apprehension from the teachers in developing computing activities, since they can expose their technological vulnerabilities to the students.
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SPORE: A CASE STUDY In the analysis performed to the Spore game, it was used the SACAUSEF games and multimedia educational software evaluation grid (Carvalho, 2005), an evaluation system of games and multimedia educational software that rates them according to the analysis of it’s technical dimension (program installation, compatibility with other software and/or programming errors, design, available features, like search, document printing, information export, audio and video, user help and additional documentation and technical dimension global assessment), educational dimension (relevance to the development of core competencies, possibility of curriculum integration, possibility of different learning rhythms, learning autonomy, social Interaction and educational dimension global assessment), language dimension (adequacy of language to the target audience, linguistic accuracy, clarity of approach, use of language explicitly inclusive of both genders and linguist dimension global assessment) and global assessment (technical dimension regarding navigation and guidance, interface, scientific dimension, educational dimension, attitudes towards Humanity and attitudes towards the environment).
Characteristics and Structure Created and edited by Electronic Arts Inc. in 2008, Spore is a multilingual, massively singleplayer online game and is aimed for people over 12 years old. The themes of this game are History, Sociology and Biology, and its goal is the creation of a universe and forms of life, from a unicellular organism until its evolution as an intelligent and social specie, creating tribes, building civilizations and exploring space. According to BECTA’s (2003) typology, Spore is mainly a World-building game/‘God’ game, since the player manipulates both the unicellular
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organism and the civilization, aiming for the development and the progress of the creature/civilization, modeling and controlling environments/ worlds. According to Graells’ (2000) classification, Spore joins the category simulators/builders. Spore is an endless game which can be installed in several platforms: computers (Windows, Macintosh, Linux), Nintendo DS and mobile phones. It can only be played individually, each player interacting, inside the virtual Spore universe, with the creations of Maxis team3 and with creations of other players. The narrative is placed in an open community; the players are online and interact, asynchronously, through their creations and their avatars. Once the game begins, and after a brief introduction, we are introduced to a simple and pleasant interface, with nine planets and the options Play, Create and Share. We can then choose to: start the game, start building a creature; or share our creations. On the lower left corner of the main menu are the Options and the Sporepedia iconic buttons. As the game consists of five phases, there are several presentations for each level that cannot be interrupted by the player. After that, the menu for the correspondent level appears. Besides the tutorials and the tips for the games, available at the Settings menu – Game Settings and Capture, the game has very interesting functions, such as the possibility of uploading videos directly from the game, the Sporepedia and the Creator of creatures, buildings and vehicles. Spore allows the direct upload, in the game context, from a video of a player’s creatures directly into YouTube4, through the menu Settings – Online Settings. Sporepedia is a catalogue and an encyclopedia of the Spore universe, which presents the following menus: •
Creations - Where the user can find a list of all creatures, plants, vehicles, buildings, planets, stars and solar systems available and created that a player has found and
The Educational Value of Digital Games
•
•
•
exploited during the course of the game. When consulting Sporepedia, all creations found are available, with the name of the creation, image and creator. Each player may place a highlight or blacklist certain creator. Within this feature, important in the development of the game, the user can comment and vote on content, send messages to other players and look for content by name, content not seen and familiar content. My things – Spore personal page, where users can see statistics of the use of their creations by other players as well as it’s ranking in the Spore community. It allows observing how other players interacted with one’s creatures, civilizations and universes and read the comments made on creations. The player can also see his/her creations and correspondent personalities, dependent on choices made during the course of the game and of each phase. The personality characteristics provide special skills to the species. In this functionality the player may also consult the achievements earned throughout the game. Friends - Where the user can see friends raised and with whom he can interact during the game, asynchronously. Sporecast - A Spore Podcast, a collection of creations of a player or of a group of players, being grouped under a specific theme and available to other players by subscription. Players can, within the context of the game, download content for Spore, based on one Sporecast or a default set of Sporecasts.
The Editor/Creator at the Spore interface were published before the game, as a trial version. This Creator, that offers user generated content, present at the main menu, allows the player to create creatures, buildings and vehicles, and has two functions, the ‘construction mode’, where the
creature, building or vehicle is planned, with specific abilities (e.g. social, battle, health), presented in different menus and ‘painting mode’, also with several possibilities and painting effects. As the game progresses, it is ALSO possible to personalize and give more powers and abilities to the creature by buying different artifacts with DNA points gathered along the game. It is possible for the player to know where he is, as far as the creature phase is concerned, through the indication on the map, at the lower left corner, of the different phases of the game. The player can also explore the map in a way that will allow him to go to a certain place and perform a certain task. There are no arrows that allow the player to move forward or backwards in the game, because he needs to achieve certain goals to go to the next phase. The player can however go to the main menu, through an iconic button (Options), which will allow him to go to the next phase as far as the goals of the previous one have been achieved. If the player has not yet achieved a step, the button containing the image of that phase appears, but it’s blocked. Spore presents a hybrid structure, combining the tree structure with net structure, being the last one the prevailing one, as shown in figure 2.
Game’s Description Spore consists of five phases: Cell, Creature, Tribal, Civilization and Space. Each phase has a menu containing the consequential abilities which will be unblocked on the following steps. Each step also presents a group of goals and missions available in specific menus which have three levels of complexity: easy, normal and hard. The choices and actions made at a game level have consequences in the following steps, since the user is confronted with several options that define his/her characteristics, giving unique skills to the cell/ creature/ tribe/ civilization, and will be
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useful for the upcoming generations. This means that the path travelled as a microscopic cell will affect its skills as a creature or civilization. At the end of each stage, a feedback is given to the user on his/her performance, in the form of a line of evolution of the creature, which shows its context of evolution. As the player reaches goals and milestones in one phase and accumulates DNA points, the progress bar fills up, and when it becomes full, the user can choose to move to the next stage. At the Cell Phase, the player begins the journey of a life as a unicellular being and goes through several evolutionary phases, in a residual pool until it grows to the point it reaches earth. In order to achieve that, it has to eat plants and other cells to obtain DNA and make the cell grow. At the Creature Phase the cell evolves and changes into a creature, leaving the aquatic environment to install itself at the beach, together with the other earthly species of the planet. As it explores the world, it will find a wide variety of other species, some friendly and other more bel-
Figure 2. The Spore main menu
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licose. It needs to develop its social skills, to make new friends, and the battle skills to handle its enemies. Along this path, it will win DNA points, which the player can use to make his/her creature evolve, gain intelligence and complete the journey to become an intelligent creature and move forward to the Tribal Phase. By advancing to the Tribal Phase, the creature joins a species that dominates fire and has already formed a tribe. But other tribes will come up and they will all fight in order to rule the planet. With the newly conquered intelligence, the creatures from your tribe can start building and using tools that can help collecting more food to support a much larger population and expanding the tribe’s influence through the interaction with other tribes. This interaction can be accomplished through a battle or in a friendly way, with chants and dances and food offerings. At the Civilization Phase the player starts with a city, from which he/she will start conquering the world. Before entering the Civilization Phase, the user can choose the type of power he/she wants
The Educational Value of Digital Games
Figure 3. The Sporepedia menu
for his/her civilization by facing up with military, economic and religious options. As the nation is being expanded around the globe it is necessary to obtain spices as resources to support the development and conquer, converting or buying other civilizations before giving the big step into space. There are other tribes that have joined the civilized
world with their own cities. By unifying the planet under the military, religious or economic flag the player can build vehicles and obtain the necessary technology to send the people into outer space. At the Space Phase, the cosmos belongs to the user. He/she can use the technologies of ‘Terra-
Figure 4. Scheme of the Spore game structure
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Figure 5. The Cell Phase
formation’ to turn the planets livable for his/her population and establish a new colony. As the empire spreads through the galaxy, the player will find other space people with similar ambitions. He/she can then choose to be friends with them or turn them to ashes. The user can search for Figure 6. The Tribal Phase
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richness in the neighbouring planets or travel to the centre of the galaxy in a huge and mysterious quest. The future of the race is in the player hands and the immensity of the galaxy is at his/her disposal.
The Educational Value of Digital Games
Figure 7. The Civilization Phase
A Pedagogical Approach to the Game With Spore, the user, at his/her individual and learning rhythm, has the possibility of building, exploring and finding the functions of the game, promoting creativity and developing the
simulation of an imaginary world, facilitating the comprehension of phenomena that are not a part of formal teaching. The player places himself in an active learning situation which is self controlled and self regulated – God games are games through which the player is in charge of the operations and situations.
Figure 8. The Space Phase
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The Educational Value of Digital Games
The user has the advantage of creating, building and exploring the creatures he/she creates. This game enables the reading and interpretation of a progress bar that appears at the bottom of the screen containing different information, among which are the time and scores that can be helpful to acquire mathematic skills. The description/explaining of various concepts is useful to acquire skills related to science. One of the greatest benefits of Spore is without doubt creativity. Each user will develop his/her creativeness: there are numerous possibilities in the invention of creatures which will increase along the game – elements that can be added to creatures get unblocked as the user advances and conquers, which will motivate the player to commit himself and to develop his/her esthetical and imaginary senses, since he/she is totally autonomous in his/her creations. The user will also be lead to moments of reflection about the best strategies to get DNA, which is the main characteristic in order to acquire new skills for the creature and consequently to achieve new levels. The fact that the user can choose the level of difficulty can be considered an educational advantage. It would be uninteresting for the user not to be able to play in a unique pre-established degree, which would probably lead to withdrawal. This way, the player has what can be called an ascending path of experimentation – from the easiest, passing through medium and finally to the hardest. The game also allows the interaction between the affiliate community, creating dynamics, exchanging contents and knowledge, thus becoming a social aggregation that facilitates the development of a web of social relationships in the cyberspace (Rheingold, 2000), allowing the user to ‘perceive the structures defined by engagement in practice and the informal learning that comes with it’ (Wenger, 2007:3) and granting the opportunity to contribute in a participated process of collective learning in a shared domain, interacting in a regular basis.
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The Spore virtual community addresses the elements that Preece (2000) defines as requirements for the emergence of online communities: the existence of individuals that interact socially; a shared goal; tacitly assumed rules of interaction; and the mediation of technology.
Critical Evaluation Spore is an exciting experience, as it gives the player the power to make his/her own game, having as a main characteristic an extensive freedom of action, while offering a wide variety of options in the creation of characters. The user has the possibility of exploring his/her own creativeness and populate the universe with unique creations. The game allows you to start again from the beginning, after reaching the end. Then, the story lived in the game will be totally different from the previous one due to numerous options. The majority of the game’s controls are very simple and intuitive and the game’s interface is extremely friendly. The explanatory messages appear very often to guide the player and there is permanent feedback about his/her performance, as he/she is accomplishing his/her missions. The camera angles are free and the player chooses the best view to play, just by clicking and spinning the mouse until he/she finds the right position. Besides that, the combination of images and audio is very involving and transports the player to the context of the game’s environment. The music is very interesting (from Brian Eno) and is coherent with the development of the action, containing sounds of joy, satisfaction, friendship and constant music giving the feeling of exploration and discovery along the path. In terms of installation, however, is not as good as it was expected. Besides demanding an internet connection, it is not executable in a computer with a graphics card inferior to 128MB, which is unthinkable for schools. The available computers are only for research, meaning that
The Educational Value of Digital Games
they contain inferior graphics cards. Besides that, it is also necessary to have at least 4,7GB available in your hard drive, and even more space for future creations. A huge debate has been installed in the scientific community over the scientific validity of the game. Science magazine has even put together a team of scientists to classify it, publishing the results in October 2008 (Bohannon, 2008). The game has scientifically failed, especially in the area of Biology5. Spore contents reflect prejudices and stereotypes, namely as far as gender is concerned, as all the creatures are believed to be male. The female creatures only appear in the mating and procreation period. This is also verified in linguistics as the language is not inclusive of the two genders. This observation is consistent with affirmations made by Newman (2004), which states that woman, in digital games, are under-represented and are usually illustrated as spectators and their behaviour is stereotyped. The game also reinforces the idea of domination relationships and the quest for power, whether religious, military or economic, encouraging physical and psychological violence, illustrated, in terms of ideology, by the ethereal image of a ‘God’ of the civilization trying to dominate other civilizations. These domination interactions, power struggles and the idea of authority associated can be useful, by allowing the user to critically judge and question the dynamics inherent to the relationships established in the ‘real’ world, in comparison to the dynamics presented in the Spore virtual world, thus offering the hypotheses of making the game a vehicle for the development of a critical consciousness and for the awareness of social and political contradictions. For this critical thinking to happen, however, we think it is necessary for younger players to be questioned by older people or to be faced with opportunities for peer discussion about the game. These opportunities can be provided by the school in various contexts, such as in classes devoted to civic education. Without
this kind of confrontation, as in any game, the path of violence and domination may be the dominant trend and alienation is the most obvious result. There is an important socializing component in the dynamics of the game that promotes friendships between cultures, a vital factor to the development of the game narrative, highlighting the importance of human interactions and allowing the avatars and the players, as owners of the avatars, to interact and learn together. Again, this component can only have positive results, in terms of acknowledgement of the social value of friendship between nations, cultures and individuals, if highlighted and discussed among peers and between generations (teachers, parents, brothers, neighbors, etc.). As far as the attitudes towards the nature and environment are concerned, the evaluation is really negative, mainly in the Space Phase, as it is necessary to destroy cities, civilizations and planets and kill creatures. Counterbalancing these attitudes, but not forgiving them, in the last phase of the game the user has to collect rare fauna and flora. Still, if one can promote the discussion of the possibilities and options that the game allows, all the virtual destruction can serve as a medium of awareness of the consequences of such acts in the real world.
CONCLUSION Digital games promote meaningful learning because, as we have stated above, they allow the development of critical thinking, outlined inside the game play. To substantiate these statements, we have proceeded to the analyses and evaluation of a fairly recent game, Spore, presenting its educational potential and limitations. In conclusion, and overcoming the controversy generated by the dynamics of the game and of the evolution of the species, Spore has numerous educational advantages, as reveled by the analyses of the game, in light of the principles
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associated with game based learning, making this game a valuable educational resource. The big challenge remains the same throughout the history of curriculum integration of this kind of resources, not designed for educational purposes: a creative educator always finds ways to teach and to promote creative learning! ‘Evil’ and ‘good’ are two sides of the same coin. The analysis of what we may deem ‘evil’ induces, eventually, the formulation of what we understand as ‘good’. This leads, depending on the way one explores and interacts within the Spore universe, to the shift of negative aspects into positive ones.
REFERENCES Balasubramanian, N., & Wilson, B. G. (2006). Games and Simulations, In C. Crawford et al. (Eds.) ForeSITE (http://site.aace.org/ pubs/ foresite/) Proceedings of Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2006 (Vol. 1, p. 2). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. BECTa. (2003). How to choose and use appropriate computer games in the classroom. Retrieved January 3, 2009 from http://www.ictadvice.org. uk /index Bohannon, J. (2008). Flunking Spore. Science Magazine. Retrieved December 6, 2008 from http://www.sciencemag.org /cgi/content/full/322 /5901/531b Carvalho, A. A. A. (2005). Como olhar criticamente o software educativo multimédia. Cadernos SACAUSEF – Sistema de Avaliação, Certificação e Apoio à Utilização de Software para a Educação e a Formação - Utilização e Avaliação de Software Educativo (pp. 69-82). Número 1, Ministério da Educação.
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. The American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906 Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441–467. doi:10.1177/1046878102238607 Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us about Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Graells, P. M. (2000). Los Videojuegos y sus Posibilidades Educativas. Retrieved January 3, 2009 from http://dewey.uab.es /pmarques/ pravj. htm#fuentes. Greenfield, P. M. (1996). Video Games as Cultural Artifacts, Interacting with video. Advances in Applied Developmental Psychology, 11, 85–94. Gros, B. (2003). The impact of digital games in education. First Monday, 8(7). Huizinga, A. J. (2001). Homo ludens: o jogo como elemento da cultura. São Paulo: Perspectiva. Jonassen, D. H. (2007). Computadores, Ferramentas Cognitivas. Desenvolver o pensamento crítico nas escolas. Porto: Porto Editora. Jones, M. G. (1998). Creating Engagement in Computer-based Learning Environments, ITForum (e-mail list: invited paper posted 7 December 1998) and [WWW document]. Retrieved December 21, 2009 from http://itech1.coe.uga.edu /itforum/paper30 /paper30.html Kearney, P., & Pivec, M. (2007). Recursive loops of game based learning. In Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and telecommunications 2007 (pp. 2546-2553). Vancouver BC, Canada. Kirriemuir, J., & Mcfarlane, A. (2004). Literature Review in Games and Learning. Bristol: Futurelab.
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Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Rheingold, H. (2000). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. MA: MIT Press Edition.
Malone, T.W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 5(4), 333-369.
Ruben, B. D. (1999). Simulations, games, and experience-based learning: The quest for a new paradigm for teaching and learning. Simulation & Gaming, 30, 498–505. doi:10.1177/104687819903000409
McLellan, H. (1985). Situated Learning Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Newman, J. (2004). Videogames. London: Routledge. Piaget, J. (1983). Seis Estudos da Psicologia. Lisboa: Publicações Dom Quixote. Pivec, M., & Kearney, P. (2007). Games for Learning and Learning from Games. Informatica, 31, 419–423. Preece, J. (2000). Online Communities: Designing Usability, Supporting Sociability. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Prensky, M. (2000). Digital Game-Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Retrieved December 10, 2008, from http://www.marcprensky.com/ writing/Prensky%20-%20 Digital%20 Natives,%20 Digital%20Immigrants %20-%20 Part1.pdf Prensky, M. (2001b). Digital natives, digital immigrants, part II: Do they really think differently? On the Horizon, 9(6), 1-6. Retrieved December 10, 2008, from http://www.marcprensky.com /writing/Prensky%20-%20 Digital%20Natives,%20 Digital%20Immigrants %20-%20Part2.pdf Pressley, M., & Hilden, K. (2006). Cognitive strategies. In Damon, W., & Lerner, R. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Sinatra, G. M., & Pintrich, P. R. (2003). Intencional conceptual change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Wenger, E. (2007). Communities of practice. A brief introduction. Retrieved January 3, 2009 from http://www.ewenger.com/ theory/ Winnicott, D. W. (1975). O Brincar & a Realidade. Rio de Janeiro: Imago Editora. Vygotsky, L. (1989). O papel do brinquedo no desenvolvimento. In Netto, J. C., Barreto, L. S., & Afeche, S. C. (Eds.), A formação social da mente (pp. 105–118). São Paulo: Martins Fontes. Zimmerman, E. (2004). Narrative, Interactivity, Play and games: Four naughty concepts in need discipline. In Wardrip-Fruin, N., & Harrigan, P. (Eds.), First Person: New media as story, performance, and game (pp. 154–164). MA: MIT Press.
ENDNOTES 1
2
Action/ Adventure; Fight (beat-’em-ups); First Person Shooter (FPS); Management games; Plataform games; Racing games; Real time strategy (RTS); Role playing games (RPG); Simulation Games; Worldbuilding games / ‘God’ games Arcade; Sports; Adventure and Role Playing; Simulations and Builders; Strategy; Puzzles and Logic; Trivia and Questions
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3
4
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Electronic Arts agency responsible for the development of games Electronic Arts also has a channel on Youtube for the game Spore, ‘The Spore YouTube Channel’, displaying the most popular videos created through this procedure
5
”Spore clearly has little in common with science, especially evolution” (Bohannon, 2008).
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Chapter 7
The Pedagogical Potential of MMOG:
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players1 Tiago Gomes University of Minho, Portugal Ana Amélia A. Carvalho University of Minho, Portugal
ABSTRACT The increasing complexity experienced by electronic games, began to demand a greater cognitive effort from their players. This has fostered some capacities in its players that could be used in teaching and learning. This chapter describes an exploratory study with two phases: the first one analyses four MMOG (Ikariam, OGame, Gladiatus and Metin2) and its pedagogical potential related to the development of problem solving skills, communication and interaction skills, and motivation to perform tasks. The second phase is a survey conducted to the players of these games about their motivation to play and their perceptions about its pedagogical potential. The results showed that all of the four analyzed games are motivating for the players, they have some pedagogical potential related to problem solving, and they improve communication and interaction skills. But the majority of the players felt some difficulties in accepting that they could transfer those developed skills to their scholar or professional life.
INTRODUCTION In the 21st century, people require a new range of capacities constituted by critical thinking, team work, problem solving, collaboration, the ease in DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch007
technology use, and the capacity to work with and manipulate information (Galarneau & Zibit, 2007). Many people are learning these capabilities outside of formal educational institutions and these are now being acquired by leisure when it includes activities that demand any sort of cog-
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
nitive function. These activities are of personal choice and increasingly include video games (Johnson, 2006). One can specifically analyze the case of the rising popularity of “Massively Multiplayer Online Games” (MMOGs), a recent phenomenon made possible by the popularization of broadband connections in addition to the new generation of computers and consoles that permit access to complex virtual worlds with millions of people playing in real-time (Steinkuehler, 2004). According to Beedle and Wright (2007), the artificial intelligence systems that constitute electronic games function as an organizational mechanism based on rules which maintain the game challenge for players. This continuous cognitive challenge along with activities that demand player cooperation creates a rich environment for incidental learning which is fundamental for the development of useful learning.
MMOG: MASSIVELY MULTIPLAYER ONLINE GAMES In an effort to establish categories for electronic games that take into account the world of online games, Natkin (2006) creates a classification system that considers the knowledge players possess in terms of game rules proposing four game types: Puzzles; Strategic Games; Action Games; and Adventure Games. This classification also takes into account individual and collective games that can be played both online and offline. Meanwhile, as indicated by the author himself, the combination of these basic game structures leads to other game types. Furthermore, these same items can be expanded into multiplayer games. These will be differentiated according to the type of community: closed (a small group of acquainted players share a game session) and open (players who may or may not know each other meet spontaneously online). This way, Natkin (2006) describes “Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games” (MMORPG) as being a junction of Action Games 104
and Adventure Games created to be played in multiplayer mode in an open community. Historically, MMORPGs appear as a form of transferring the universe previously created for “Multi-user Dungeon” (MUD) to the electronic world. Generally, the player must travel the globe performing specific tasks. In this same scope “Massively Multiplayer Online First Person Shooters” (MMOFPS) appeared for war simulations, just as “Massively Multiplayer Online Social Game” (MMOSG) which appeared for environments where socialization is one of the main functionalities (Christofoli, 2006). It is possible to affirm that these games vary only in terms of the theme chosen therefore they can be designated as “Massively Multiplayer Online Games” (MMOG). This terminology includes electronic games created with the purpose of being played online in multiplayer mode in an open community where interaction between players is fundamental for success (Galarneau, 2005; Jakobsson & Taylor, 2003).
THE EDUCATIONAL POTENTIAL OF GAMES There are various studies that come to positive results after analyzing the application of specific games in a classroom context. This is especially factual when it comes to the improvement of concentration, the stimulation of task performance, the improvement of visual intelligence, and hand-eye coordination (Beedle & Wright, 2007; Ferdig, 2007; Graells, 2001; Van Eck, 2006). Electronic games are bringing forward a greater complexity of objectives as well as a challenging environment for the player. Competitors must be capable of learning to define a hierarchy among a wide range of tasks. Here, the player must choose the ideal course to follow and define the main goal because the game itself does not always do so. Furthermore, one must be able to use the interactive and communicative tools supplied for the exchange of experiences that permit the
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
establishment of links with other players who can help in obtaining success (Johnson, 2006). The environment that places players in control of their own journey meets the desires of a new generation of students. Students born after the popularization of technology and electronic games are known as “screenagers”, children of simulation culture, children of chaos, game generation, digital natives or “Net Generation” (Akilli, 2007; Alves, 2005; Prensky, 2003). These students have a few things in common. Firstly, they are information producers. Secondly, they prefer learning using the trial-error method performing several tasks simultaneously in a non-linear approach. Furthermore, they maintain a positive perspective on technology and use it as a way of improving socialization through instant messaging programs as well as the interaction possibilities brought forward by online games, forums and social networks such as “Facebook” (Alves, 2005; Beedle & Wright, 2007; Prensky, 2005; Van Eck, 2006). Electronic games can be designated as a knowledge building environment as well as a place for entertainment (Williamson, 2009). Players become active knowledge builders by actually playing as opposed to being mere observers. They can only be successful in the game after they manage to uncover a series of regulations, actions, and routines (Klopfer, 2008). This way, players create a process of interpretation regarding the gameplay causing them to develop analogies between symbolic representations encrusted within the competition and their real lives by actively decoding “tips” provided by the game itself. Players then learn the properties of the virtual world by interacting with its symbology thus establishing a relationship between these symbols and by acting accordingly by the rules that govern the game system (Squire, 2002). Games can be viewed as being authentic learning environments because players are positioned in contact with practical situations, which are closer to real life situations than those experienced in a
school environment (Galarneau, 2005; Steinkuehler, 2004; Williamson, 2009). Even though some authors state that games can increase problem resolution capacities and critical thinking (Steinkuehler, 2004; Williamson, 2009), Squire (2002) believes that there is not sufficient evidence to suggest that students are able to transfer abilities learned in the gaming environment to solve real life problems. This is due to the fact that the problems presented in games are placed in an entirely different context in comparison to those experienced in real life. The game environment becomes exceedingly motivating as described by Goldstein (2005). Players normally begin playing as a result of a personal choice thus; they do not need any type of exterior power that would entice them to initiate this activity. According to Squire (2002), the immersive and motivating environments portrayed in games and simulations promote productive gaming. This way, learning occurs through the construction of micro universes, the manipulation of simulations as well as the physical act of playing. Persuasive environments are produced. These are capable of transmitting ideas, manners of acting, and generating a sequence of collateral learning among players (Pivec, 2009; Williamson, 2009). In addition to this, Pivec (2009) affirms that games such as RPGs or real-time simulations are highly motivational and promote an ideal scenario for cognitive development because they possess immediate feedback with regards to players’ actions. The majority of video games can be played in multiplayer mode. This way, players can use the game’s settings as well as other communication tools such as forums and instant messaging programs to discuss strategies and organize groups. Most of the enterprises responsible for these games develop these forms of interaction (Galarneau, 2005). In conclusion, a game can encourage communication and the construction of social bonds between players not only by supplying communication and interaction tools but also by making 105
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Table 1. Selected games, number of players, forums, and number of daily messages Game
Number of Players
Forum
Daily messages2
OGame
33,799
http://board.ogame.com.pt/
2286
Ikariam
31,099
http://board.ikariam.com.pt/
745
Metin2
27,095
http://board.metin2.com.pt/
1924
Gladiatus
13,633
http://board.gladiatus.com.pt/
196
this interaction crucial for the accomplishment of tasks and goals. Furthermore, some games are able to create complex, dynamic social systems that are present within the real social links between players through versatile, flexible forms of interaction focusing on the content (Manninen, 2003).
the web browser. That game was selected because it has as a highly immersive environment which attracted the attention of a great number of players. The selected games, as well as the number of daily messages in each game, can be seen in Table 1. The MMOG analysis guide contains four sections:
ANALYSIS OF FOUR MASSIVELY MULTIPLAYER ONLINE GAMES
•
Four MMOGs were analyzed with the aid of the “MMOG Analysis Guide” specially designed for this purpose. The aim of this analysis intends to determine how the selected games increase problem solving, the motivation to perform tasks, as well as interaction and communication between players. These three aspects are important because they allow the identification of cognitive challenges that players are subjected to as well as the need for skills to solve them (Johnson, 2006). The four MMOGs were selected based on an Internet search, using search engines (Google and Yahoo). The MMOGs should be available in Portuguese for free and have at least one official forum. We found hundreds of results, most of them can be played for free, but it is possible to obtain advantages using real money. Besides that, most of the games were not in Portuguese. We contacted players, forum members, and mail lists in an effort to find games with a good acceptance and a large number of players. The selected games had the most active forums and a large number of members. Between them, Metin2 is the only one that cannot be played using
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•
1st Section: Identification. The purpose of this section is to identify the general features of the game. We considered the following items: name, URL of the Game, Company, System Requirements, Languages available and Type of Community as general characteristics. In this section, we also considered the Environment and the Game History as reasons for attracting players. For the item, Type of Community we expect to identify if the games have open communities: where the players don´t know each other and therefore use the virtual environment created by the game to meet each other, or if they have closed communities: a restricted community of players who know each other and can play on the Internet or even offline. 2nd Section: Objectives. This section describes the way the objectives of the game are organized and the degree of freedom the player has to accomplish these objectives through the following phases: Final (pre-defined final, pre-defined final with multiple paths or final not set), Subdivision of the main objectives (Single Task, indicated division or not indicated division)
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
•
•
and degree of difficulty between steps (Same level of difficulty, increase gradually or random variation). 3rd Section: Tasks. As in the objectives, this section analyses the items Task Order (sequential tasks or non sequential tasks), Connection between Tasks (unrelated or intercorrelated) and Existence of ExtraTasks (nonexistent, not attached to the difficulty level or in consonance with the difficulty level) trying to verify the possible ways in which players may organize the tasks they have to perform in order to complete the main objective. 4th Section: Communication and Interaction. This section intends to determine the need of interaction between players in order to perform tasks and accomplish the objectives proposed by the game, as well as to identify which official communication and interaction tools are provided by the company which creates the games.
Games Description Ikariam3: This game imitates classics such as “Civilization”. Players begin in Greek civilization and acquire knowledge that permits the growth
Figure 1. Ikariam homepage
Figure 2. General status page of the planet
and expansion of the society controlled by the player (Figure 1). OGame4: This game simulates a future where one is able to take interplanetary voyages as well as declare war on planets from other solar systems. The player begins with an empty planet and must evolve technologically in order to build up resources and necessary arms to continue the war (Figure 2). Gladiatus5: This game simulates the life of a gladiator from the Roman Empire. First we encounter an inexperienced gladiator equipped with only the basics. This character evolves with hard work and strife until he becomes a warrior worthy of great fame and honor.
Figure 3. City View Page from Gladiatus
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Figure 4. Battle scene from Metin2
Metin26: This game incorporates battles between tribes from a world dominated by medieval oriental culture as well as magical elements. Here, the player begins with an inexperienced character that has limited abilities and will only evolve after numerous battles defending territory from other tribes. All this occurs with the impending malignant influence of dark magic represented by “Metin stones” (Figure 4). Of the four games mentioned, this is the only game that limits the player’s evolution currently defined at level 99 in the portuguese version of the game.
Problems and Goals The main similarity amongst the four games mentioned above is that the main goal consists in accumulating points or experience. For this reason, the objectives presented by these MMOGs are usually vague: Can you turn it into a flourishing town and capital of a mighty island empire? (Ikariam – Game Tour7) a. The end of the game. Of the four games analyzed, only Metin2 defines its final stage, being it level 99 of experience. It is important to note that this is the limit placed on the Portuguese version. The Korean version
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has established its maximum at level 120. The other games can be played using an Internet browser. These games incorporate an equation system that guarantees infinite player evolution. Regardless of this, the need for new resources can be established as a non official barrier for these games. This limitation is recognized by players who create official forum topics so that they can exhibit their evolution records. b. Subdivision of objectives. None of the games demonstrate a subdivision of the main goals. This favors the development of different strategies and evolution paths. These techniques can be generalized in three ways: (1) Offense or attack: players concentrate on attacking other players; (2) Defense: players concentrate on personal defense as well as of their fellow companions in addition to the accumulation of resources; (3) Commercial: players aim to gather riches using the exchange of goods. Each of these strategies includes advantageous and disadvantageous aspects which are studied and commented on by players. These techniques permitted the elaboration of several player classification systems: Metin2: possesses a classification system indicated by the player’s current level which is directly linked to the game status; OGame: this particular classification system is divided into three distinct items: Points; Fleet and Research; Ikariam: Players can be classified according to 9 distinct items: Total score; Masonry Masters; Construction levels, Scientists, Research levels, Generals, Gold, Offense Points, Defense Points, Commercial Score; Gladiatus: this game contemplates six items: Level; Honor; Fame; Victories; Feats and Gold. c. Degree of difficulty among levels. Ikariam and OGame both focus on resource manage-
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
ment therefore the player must be able to establish a relationship between possible investigations as well as military units and buildings that can be constructed during one’s evolution strategy. As the player evolves within the game, the links established by the tech tree increase game complexity thus demanding a greater effort. The main scope of games such as Gladiatus and Metin2 are battles. A victory can be ensured by using items that strengthen their avatar creating a non-linear elevation of the difficulty level. These wars can be performed between all players regardless of their level. Furthermore, upon reaching the twelfth level of Gladiatus, the dungeons are opened. Here, one will encounter adversaries of advanced levels. This may cause the player to forget the new challenge until more points and abilities have been acquired, part start using not allowed strategies, or quit the game. While playing Metin2, players may find opponents that are much stronger at any given moment. This may cause the player to waste time and resources unsuccessfully thus causing a motivational decrease. On the other hand, facing weaker enemies does not favor the player in any manner because experience can only be gained by facing players of the same or higher level. Players of the four games mentioned employ the official forums in order to share tips on successful strategies.
Tasks a. Order of Tasks. None of the games analyzed present tasks in a sequential format. This means that each player can evolve within the game autonomously. This autonomy sparks a greater cognitive effort leading the player to organize existing tasks in order to easily achieve objectives according to the adopted strategy (Johnson 2006). The maturity of OGame is responsible for the birth of no-
Figure 5. Maximum values of Metin2 weapons (adapted from the Portuguese FAQs8)
menclatures that define one of the possible tactics adopted by players. These paths are numbered in manuals such as the “OGame Manual”. b. The link between tasks. Three of the four games discussed possess a link between the proposed tasks. Gladiatus is the exception. Players must use what they have learned previously to solve the problems at hand. In Metin2 the player must be able to contemplate the variables such as who is the “preferential enemy,” the ideal character, and how to choose a weapon being as they each possess advantages and disadvantages as can be seen in Figure 5. In other instances, the employment of techniques learned previously is reflected in the moment of combat. In these games, players tend to use multiple hit sequences which have proven to be efficient in the past. These techniques are also topic of discussion in the forum. In OGame and Ikariam this relationship appears to be stronger when the players are more knowledgeable concerning the game’s tech tree. This understanding should reach far beyond simply knowing. The player must recognize the need for investigating a specific piece of technology as well as evaluating the necessities according to the game strategy. As stated by the player “Djin” under the topic “Research”9 in OGame:
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Figure 6. Example of a text mission from Gladiatus
experience, this was the only activity thought to be supplementary to the main goal. It was also considered that the activity is not related to the difficulty of the level. This simply demands the possession of resources in order to buy the desired merchandise.
Communication and Interaction
The way I see it, one cannot establish in a linear way a classification for the importance of research because the importance of each investigation varies depending on the phase of the game we are in. It is important that we define this significance according to our game strategy as well as our needs at that moment. The tasks in Gladiatus are presented as disconnected missions. This way, the player does not need to use what was learned in one mission in order to complete the next. For example, the text missions (Figure 6) consist in displaying generic information which is not charged to the player. c. Extra Task. Of all tasks a player can accomplish in each of the four games, the only one that does not award points or experience is the commerce among players or between players and NPCs (Non Player Character). Being as the main goal of the four games is to enhance avatar in terms of points and
A MMOG is different from other online games because the players have to form groups with the intent of being successful in the game (Galarneau, 2005). Therefore, the companies that create these games supply a wide range of interactive and communicative tools that can be used by players to organize their groups. Table 2 summarizes the tools found in the four games. All of the games possess an external forum, an inbox for message exchange and support for the creation of new guilds. Only Metin2 incorporates a chat tool into the game environment. This application is crucial because this game is executed within an external program that complicates the usage of instant messaging programs. Figure 7. Comparison between the Luso-Brasil Guild (left) and TheSith Guild (right)
Table 2. Interaction and communication tools featured in Ikariam, OGame, Gladiatus and Metin2 Games
Forum
Chat
Inbox
Clan Support
Others
Ikariam
X
-
X
X
Assignment of positions and tasks. Control and management of troops and resources.
OGame
X
-
X
X
Assignment of positions and tasks.
Gladiatus
X
-
X
X
Assignment of positions and tasks. Territory for construction and edification.
Metin2
X
X
X
X
Assignment of positions and tasks Territory for construction and edification.
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
In the option “others” one can come across advantages offered to the guilds of each game. These advantages are used in Ikariam and OGame in order to control specific guild duties. In Gladiatus and Metin2, they allow the player to settle in by creating a specific location for the guild where members can meet and build edifices useful to them (Figure 7). This space can be developed with the use of resources donated by group members. Even though these advantages are made available, Gladiatus players do not need groups in order to carry out any action within the game. The guild is essentially used as an informal player protection force that can be advantageous to players in some ways. A group of players can support specific activities in the other games such as: Facilitate the communication between players: Using the communicative tools made available by the game, one can contact all guild members in an attempt to exchange informal messages, requests for help, or resources that players may need. Momentary Cooperation: one can cooperate by requesting the aid of a guild member. Usually the request involves attacking a stronger adversary or soliciting defense: Guys, I need you!!!! Send me troops so that I can defend myself in the City of War I because I was attacked and they took everything I had!!! Help me and I´ll help you if you are ever in the same situation… (felipe_mtx10) Permanent Cooperation: Ikariam is the only game that allows the signing of treaties between players. These can be of a cultural, commercial or military nature.
Figure 8. The guild “The Forza” declares war on the clan “VENOM7”
Wars between Groups: This is a possibility featured in Ikariam and Metin2. Guild leaders or another person designated by the leader can declare war on clans. In this case, all members ought to prepare for attacks and imminent defense mechanisms. In Metin2 these wars are declared publically within the game environment (Figure 8). Product Exchange: Players announce they are in need of a specific product in the hopes that someone will offer it. Hence, the advantages of a guild are recognized by all players regardless of the adopted game strategy.
MMOG PLAYERS’ SURVEY A questionnaire was developed in order to estimate whether or not players understood the cognitive changes provoked by games and if they recognized whether or not this caused a useful reflex in their professional or academic lives. The data collection instrument contains three dimensions: problem solving within games, motivation towards tasks and communication and online interaction during games. A Likert scale with five points was used where 1 indicated “I totally disagree” and 5 indicated “I totally agree”. This instrument took the investigation of Beedle & Wright (2007) into consideration maintaining the same goal. This study incorporated individuals who play all of
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
the four analyzed games. In order to spread the survey in one single topic in the official forums, contact was established with the forum moderators. For the games Ikariam and Gladiatus, the respective moderators, Anfira and Devil_Woman_20 suggested we contact the Portuguese Community Manager (CoMa), which is directly linked to the company responsible for the game. The contact was established, and for some months the CoMa showed some interest regarding the subject, but after sending the final version of the survey, the communication ceased. For OGame, the moderator Nudge authorized the realization of this study since it was conducted using only the private message system (MP), and not in an open topic as initially planned. In Metin2, none of the forum moderators responded to our contact efforts. Those game forums have a section for topics unrelated to the game (off-topic messages), we chose to use that space as an initial way of announcing the survey. The MP system was also used for this same effect for OGame. The forums were chosen in an attempt to reach a larger number of players, because even if the participation of players in this environment is not mandatory, the MMOG is a type of game that requires, or at least brings benefits to those using player’s interaction (Beedle and Wright, 2007; Galarneau & Melaine, 2006; Johnson, 2006). In this case, it was assumed that all active players have some form of participating in the forums. The survey concerning the four games studied was conducted online.
Sample Characterization A total of 321 responses were obtained: 107 for Ikariam, 55 for OGame, 56 for Gladiatus, and finally, 103 for Metin2. All games possess a public that is mainly composed of males (89%). Furthermore, 66% of this total is below the age of 19 and 72% is below 12. The majority of those surveyed use the Internet frequently spending over 20 hours online per week (42%). It is also 112
important to note that these are players have an intermediate experience level in online gaming being as 56% have played from 1 to 4 years.
The Survey Questionnaire The objective of the survey is to verify if the MMOG players understand the cognitive changes provoked by the games and if they recognize whether or not this has an effect in their professional or academic lives. In particular, the survey focuses on: a. Communication and Interaction skills; b. Problem solving skills; c. Motivation to perform tasks. The questionnaire is an instrument that is quick and easy to complete therefore, respondents did not lose concentration nor interest in completing the task. For this reason, we expected that a larger number of subjects completed the questionnaire. The instrument is divided into four sections:
Section I: Characterization of the Player The objective of this section is to determine who the player is. Questions aimed to identify the age, gender, and academic studies of the player.
Section II: Internet Access and Game Habits This section is intended to determine the familiarity of the player with the web and the game environment. Questions were asked about the frequency of Internet access as well as game access, more specifically, how long the player plays online and what the player does online.
Section III: Learning Perception For the third section, a Likert scale with five points was used where 1 indicated “I totally disagree”, 2 indicated “I partially disagree”, 3 was used
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
for “I don’t agree or disagree”, 4 represented “I partially agree” and 5 indicated “I totally agree”. The statements intend to characterize the way the players realize the effects of electronic games in improving their communication and interaction skills (Rosas et al., 2003; Turvey, 2006), problem solving (Johnson, 2006; Beedle & Wright, 2007) and the motivation to perform some activities (Galarneau & Melaine, 2006; Turvey, 2006). Besides that, the information regarding the communication and interaction, and problem solving skills promoted by the games, was conceptualized under two dimensions: 1. The player recognizes that the online game improves some skills; 2. The player is able to use skills acquired in the game environment in his/her academic or professional life. Thus, the statements that characterize the communication and interaction skills fostered by the games are intended to verify if the players recognize that: (1) the game requires collaboration among players; (2) promotes teamwork skills; (3) improves the communication skills of the player; and (4) players can transfer the communication and interaction skills developed in the game to their life and if they can use this interaction to solve problems at school or at work. The statements that characterize the ability to solve problems fostered by the games are intended to identify: (1) if the players realize different ways to achieve a goal; (2) understand the influence of the rules defined by the game environment; (3) restructure the acquired knowledge when faced with a new situation; (4) if the players can transfer the problem-solving skills developed in the game to their real lives and if they can use them in their academic or professional life. When speaking of the statements pertaining to the motivation players felt to perform certain tasks, players were asked if they feel motivated to: (1) assimilate the game rules (2) search for
additional material provided by the game; (3) the achievement of objectives; and (4) interact with other players
Section IV: Player’s Opinion For this section two open questions were asked about what motivates the player to continue playing and their opinion on whether online games help in their academic or professional lives. Participants were asked to justify their answers.
DATA ANALYSIS Problem Solving Within Games The study intended to determine whether or not players understood: the need for dividing a goal into various tasks, if they were able to comprehend the different methods of achieving a goal, if they understood the influence of implicit rules regarding the game environment, if the game situation helped them rethink their knowledge so that they could find ways to achieve goals, if multiplayer games allowed them to ponder the consequences their actions may bring when favoring one option over others, and whether or not they were able to apply capacities developed within the game to their lives academically or professionally speaking. The means as well as the standard deviation for each of these questions can be found in Table 3. Even though all the results were higher than the estimated mean for the items (2.5), we cannot conclude that players feel that solving game problems aids them in an academic or professional atmosphere. This item displayed a mean of 2.7 with a standard deviation of 1.3. This was the lowest mean. Item 13 intended to verify whether or not players understood the need to divide goals into smaller tasks. The answers obtained were positive being as the majority of players (69%-77%) partially or totally agreed with the statement. No
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation calculated for the survey concerning problem resolution Nº
Item
Mean (n=321)
Standard Deviation
13
One must divide a goal into various tasks in order to achieve it.
3,9
1,1
15
The game promotes different problem solving strategies to attain a goal.
3,9
1
10
Achieving a goal is easier when there is a direct link between game rules and goals.
3,9
1,1
03
Game situations help players rethink their knowledge in order to find ways of achieving a goal.
3,9
1,1
07
Multiplayer games allow players to evaluate the consequences of their actions when selecting one option among many.
3,7
1,2
11
Solving problems in this game context has enabled me to do just this in an academic or professional setting.
2,7
1,3
more than 49% of Ikariam players totally agreed with the affirmation. This difference can possibly be explained by the fact that for Ikariam, goals are defined in minor detail compared to other games. The majority of players partially or totally agree with item 15 which inquired about their thoughts on whether or not games demonstrated different ways of achieving a goal. One can contest that even though games do not possess a pre-defined goal, players are aware that whatever attitude they adopt within the game results in a point increase regardless of the item that is being measured. Gladiatus and Metin2 contain a mission system composed by items quest (Figure 9) that must be performed by the player. These missions possess one single path. Perhaps, it is for this reason that players divided themselves amongst “I neither Figure 9. Gladiatus mission book
114
agree nor disagree” and “I totally agree” on this item. The bulk of players partially or totally agrees with the fact that it is easier to perform a task when one is able define the limitations posed by game rules (item 10). Players also agree, partially or totally, that the game situation allows them to rethink their knowledge when faced with a new situation (item 3). However, in Gladiatus and Metin2, a large portion of players partially agrees with this affirmation. This may be due to a lower level of game complexity when compared to Ikariam and OGame. The majority of players are in partial or total agreement when it comes to item 7 which inquired about whether or not they believed games helped them identify the different courses possible when it comes to achieving a goal. The results vary: OGame 56%, Metin2 57%, Gladiatus 61% and Ikariam 67%. Players responded differently to item 11 because they adopted a neutral stance with regards to the question at hand. This item tried to verify whether or not players were able to use problem solving skills acquired in the game environment academically or professionally (Table 4). Moreover, 36% of the players disagreed partially or totally with this idea registering 42% for OGame. For this reason, we can say that players have dif-
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Table 4. Transference of problem solving capacities developed in game settings to an academic or professional atmosphere Solving problems in this game context has enabled me to do just this in an academic or professional setting.
I totally disagree
I partially disagree
I do not agree nor do I disagree
I partially agree
I totally agree
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Ikariam (n=107)
24
22
19
18
37
35
15
14
12
11
OGame (n=55)
19
35
4
7
17
31
8
15
7
13
Gladiatus (n=56)
13
23
7
13
24
43
9
16
3
5
Metin2 (n=103)
26
25
13
13
43
42
12
12
9
9
ficulty recognizing that they can transfer problem solving capabilities developed in games to an academic or professional surrounding. The fact that a big fraction of players does not recognize the possibility of transferring problem solving skills developed in a game setting to their academic lives is in conformity with the fact that teachers and educators are not able to include electronic games in their lessons (Akilli, 2007; Gibson et al.; 2007).
Motivation towards Task Performance Surveyed players were asked about whether or not the game motivated them towards the performance of certain tasks and/or activities. The common mean of responses on a scale of 1 to 5 is positioned above the average scale numbers with a standard deviation ranging between 0.9 and 1.3 as can exhibited by Table 5.
These results indicate that players are motivated by the game environment. The socialization power present in games is important. Item 4 questioned players regarding their motivation to interact and communicate with others and this aspect registered the highest mean (4.3) with the lowest standard deviation (0.9) It is apparent that there is a distinction between the need for interaction and the motivational environment put forth by games. It is interesting to note that 50% of Gladiatus players agreed with this statement when this particular game does not require player interaction. In item 8, players were asked about motivation when it came to achieving a goal. The majority of Ikariam, OGame and Gladiatus players partially or totally agree with this assertion bearing the following results: Gladiatus 65% and Ikariam 75%. Metin2 registered a significantly lower number of total agreements at 17% and 29% of them neither agree nor disagree. This difference of perceptions
Table 5. Mean and standard deviation for the items related to motivation for task performance Nº
Item
Mean (n=321)
Standard deviation
04
The difficulties I experience while concluding a game level motivate me to discuss game strategies with others.
4,3
0,9
08
My will to play does not diminish even if achieving a goal requires more effort.
3,7
1,2
14
I feel motivated to learn the game rules and commands as soon as I begin playing.
4,1
1,1
16
The challenges put forth by the game motivate me to search for extra material (game forum, specialized sites, etc.) so I can overcome them.
4,0
1,2
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
can possibly be linked to the mission statements featured in the game which promote the solitary quest for objects. The responses obtained concerning item 14 when asked about the conception of game rules indicate that 45% to 55% of players totally agree. Item 16 aimed to verify whether or not players felt motivated to search for supplementary material provided by the game itself. The responses obtained specify that more than 70% in all four games, partially agree (25%-30%) and (45%-50%) totally agree with this statement.
Online Interaction and Communication During Games The matter placed within this dimension aims to verify whether or not players agree that games promote communication and interaction as well as if they are able to use the newly developed capacities in a gaming environment professionally or academically. The results (Table 6) reveal that players concur that games support these two elements especially when it comes to group work skills. This component obtained the highest mean (4) with the lowest standard deviation (1). Meanwhile, the results obtained for item 6 were significantly lower registering 2.7. This question pertained to whether or not players felt they could use communication skills promoted in games to solve problems in academic or work environment.
Item 5 inquired as to whether or not players felt the game was made easier by collective collaboration. This question obtained favorable results being as 57% of players partially or totally agreed with the statement. Results indicate that Gladiatus players are uncertain as to the need for player alliance. A little over 1/3 (36%) partially or totally disagree and 43% are in agreement be it partially or totally. This was the only game in which less than 50% of players concurred with the affirmation. The majority of players (at least 64% for OGame) believe that games encourage group work skills. This can be attributed to the fact that MMOG games demand player interaction (Steinkuehler, 2004; Hobbs et al., 2006). One cannot establish a direct correspondence between the use of the official forum and the improvements in communication reported by players (item 1) because these activities are not linked to game participation. The amount of players in agreement with this idea was restricted in all games, as can be seen in Ikariam where a number below 50% was reported while Gladiatus registered only 54%. When questioned about item 2 (whether or not player interaction allowed them to use communication skills in other environments) results indicated that Ikariam players were in agreement with the affirmation registering 66% concordance. The other three games reported numbers above 50%. It is possible to conclude that Ikariam reported a higher amount of agreements because
Table 6. Mean and standard deviation for items related to the promotion of communication and interaction among players Nº
Item
Mean (n=321)
Standard deviation
05
I find it easier to complete a mission when playing in a group.
3,8
1,2
12
While playing, I find that there are many tasks I cannot perform without the help of others.
3,5
1,3
09
In my experience, playing in multiplayer mode helps me learn how to work in a group.
4
1
01
I can now express myself better thanks to my participation in debates in game forums.
3,4
1,1
02
Interacting with others within the game environment allows me to develop communication skills outside the game.
3,5
1,2
06
Interaction with other players has allowed me to solve academic or professional problems.
2,7
1,2
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
its game structure requires an elevated level of collaboration among players. When speaking of Gladiatus and Metin2, the number of players that partially or totally agrees is less than the number of those who neither agree nor disagree. This can be explained by the fact that these games possess a higher amount of tasks that must be performed individually which would limit the instances of communication between players thus making it less viable that they be able to transfer skills acquired during the game to their real lives. However, in all games analyzed, the amount of players that does not use interaction and communication provoked by game settings to solve problems is superior to those that do (Item 6). Furthermore, the sum of players that neither agrees nor disagrees with this idea is greater in half of the games (OGame 40% and Gladiatus 41%). The number of Ikariam players that partially or totally disagree with this affirmation is 39% and 43% for Metin2. This outcome shows that even though these games promote player communication, it is informal or merely game related.
ing. In order for this to occur, the questionnaire contained an open question. We obtained 282 responses that permitted the creation of a classification system (Table 7). Table 7 displays what players considered as motivational. The social component of games is confirmed by players who reveal that friends encourage them to continue (121 responses). This was the aspect mentioned by most of those surveyed. This category is proven as factual in responses such as: Friends of mine that play convinced me to start. I´ll stop when they do. The difference that exists between player responses can be explained by the Metin2 game atmosphere because this particular game permits real contact between players using avatars and instant messaging systems available within the game. Metin2 players stated: We are able to socialize with people from different worlds in chats (written and voice) and often times these individuals are great company during long playing nights.
Player Motivation The study attempted to identify which aspects of each game motivated players to continue playTable 7. Motivational aspects mentioned by players Motivation
Total (n=282)
Ikariam (n=97)
OGame (n=46)
Gladiatus (n=51)
Metin2 (n=88)
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Friends
121
25
33
19
20
24
22
23
46
37
Personal success within the game
53
11
13
7
10
12
13
14
17
13
Entertainment
40
8
18
10
4
5
9
9
9
7
Challenges
27
6
15
8
4
5
5
5
3
2
Strategies
25
5
15
8
6
7
2
2
2
2
Alliances
19
4
7
4
5
6
5
5
2
2
Game environment
19
4
9
5
4
5
2
2
4
3
Free time
19
4
7
4
2
2
6
6
4
3
Combat
17
4
9
5
4
5
3
3
1
1
Competition
17
4
2
1
4
5
7
7
4
3
117
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Figure 10. Player opinions regarding whether or not online games are beneficial academically or professionally (n=268)
When it comes to personal success within the game, some players (53 responses) stated that the “will to be the strongest” or “try to improve” is the main reason that explains why they continue playing. For these players, evolving in the game is the main motivation. Entertainment, challenges and strategies are the next aspects mentioned. Alliances, game environment, free time, combat, and competition were also indicated as motivational factors. These elements are expected in MMOGs and recognized by players even though they were indicated by a lower amount of them.
Are Online Games Beneficial In Academic or Professional Environments?
41% of players consider that online games are beneficial on some way. Moreover, as indicated by Table 8, players indicated that the time spent playing games has a negative impact on school or work (n=47). This was reflected in answers such as:
The 268 answers to this question showed that 43% of players considered that online games do not benefit life neither academically nor professionally (Garphic 1). This idea is in direct contrast with 37% of players who think they do and 21% who are undecided (agree and disagree). Metin2 exhibited the greatest difference with regards to responses, 46% of them being negative and 28% being positive (Figure 10). This difference can be confirmed by the fact that this game places the biggest part of its focus on battles. This way, players can limit themselves to learning a few commands thus making a profound knowledge of the game unnecessary. The prevalence of negative replies was not registered by Ikariam where
No, because online games require time. This time would probably be better spent working. This aspect was mentioned by Metin2 players (27% of responses). This can be due to the fact that this game demands special attention during game sessions. Among other negative aspects was the fact that players indicated that games are merely a form of entertainment (n=22) signifying that there is a clear distinction between the real world and the game world (n=18).
Table 8. Negative categories between games and academic or professional life Negative categories
Totals (n=268)
Ikariam (n=94)
OGame (n=44)
Gladiatus (n=47)
Metin2 (n=83)
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Time spent
47
27
12
22
9
33
8
30
18
27
Without motive
40
23
17
31
7
26
7
26
9
14
Merely entertainment
22
13
6
11
2
7
0
0
13
20
Distinction between worlds
18
10
5
9
4
15
4
15
5
8
Addiction
15
9
3
5
3
11
1
4
8
12
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An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
Table 8 displays that the majority of players who believed that these four games contribute to their academic or professional lives because they can improve relationships inside and outside of the game (40 players):
skills as well as the achievement of goals because they possess an open narrative structure without any indication of the possible paths a player may take. Furthermore, all games count on a wide variety of tasks that demand an elevated amount of cognitive effort. These games benefit from the collaboration of other players in order to help solve problems or in the creation of war between guilds. This permits the acquisition of group work skills. These same characteristics are understood by players however, the majority of players are not able to transfer capacities developed to their academic or professional lives. Motivational environments are those where players feel at ease to explore virtual worlds thus constructing and testing their knowledge using feedback supplied by the game environment. This statement is a reflection of answers provided by players that are motivated to interact with other players in an attempt to achieve goals, the acquisition of specific game rules, and the search for supplementary material supplied by the game itself. These games permit and demand the exchange of information as well as the construction of collective knowledge. Even though these are recognized by players that mention friends as being the main playing motivation and indicate better
I would say yes. Even though games obviously occupy precious study time, it is obvious that online games stimulate an individual’s social component as well as one’s perspective regarding problems. This result, in combination with others such as the promotion of group work (17 players) and communication (15 players) confirm once more the socialization potential contained in these games where player interaction is fundamental. Strategy, stress relief, problem solving, logic thought, and goals were also mentioned (Table 9). It is important to note that a large number of players, 40 and 23 respectively negatives and positives, did not justify their responses.
CONCLUSION Two complementary studies were also conducted. The first analyzed whether or not Ikariam, OGame, Gladiatus, and Metin2 promoted problem solving
Table 9. Positive categories between games and academic or professional life Positive Categories
Totals (N=268)
Ikariam (n=94)
OGame (n=44)
Gladiatus (n=47)
Metin2 (n=83)
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
Interaction
40
16
12
14
9
25
6
16
13
22
Without motive
23
9
9
11
3
8
4
11
7
12
Group work
17
7
6
7
3
8
5
14
2
3
Communication
15
6
7
8
2
6
2
5
2
3
Strategy
15
6
4
5
1
3
4
11
2
3
Stress relief
12
5
3
4
1
3
0
0
8
14
Problems solving
12
5
1
1
4
11
4
11
1
2
Logical thought
11
5
6
7
1
3
3
8
1
2
Goals
10
4
3
4
1
3
0
0
4
7
119
An Exploratory Study Including Four Games and their Players
relationships as being the main positive aspect of gaming, this is also recognized by analyzing the game mechanism as well as the interaction and communicative tools supplied by the companies responsible for the four games. This demand was less experienced in Gladiatus because the player´s personal success isn’t linked to the group. However, this study confirmed that there is a clear distinction between the gaming world and the real world. This can be verified by two main aspects: (1) a large part of players believe that they develop capacities such as how to work in a group and solve problems but they are unable to use these skills in a professional or educational environment (2) a large part of players does not consider that games help academically or professionally. Due to the development of skills and competences developed by the players such as communication, collaboration between teams, knowledge search, and fast decision making, the development of pedagogical and instructional models which incorporate the cognitive benefits brought by electronic games is essential and therefore should be considered not only in terms of what one could learn with electronic games, but also how that process works under that leisure environment. One must bear in mind how these online environments can be used as an asset in the process of motivation, in the quest for new challenges, in the persistence in accomplishing objectives and especially the improvement of interpersonal communication.
Beedle, J. B., & Wright, V. H. (2007). Perspectives from multiplayer vídeo Gamers. In Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and Development Frameworks (pp. 150–174). Hershey: IGI Global.
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Christofoli, J. F. (2006). Authority Distribution in a proxy-based massively multiplayer game architecture. Tallahassee: The Florida State University. Ferdig, R. E. (2007). Preface: Learning and teaching with electronic games. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16(3), 217–223. Galarneau, L. (2005). Spontaneous Communities of Learning: Learning Ecosystems in Massively Multiplayer Online Gaming Environments. In Proceedings of DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views – Worlds in Play. Galarneau, L., & Zibit, M. (2007). Online games for 21st century skills. In Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks (pp. 59–88). Hershey: IGI Global. Gibson, D., Halverson, W., & Riedel, E. (2007). Gamer teachers. In Gibson, D., Aldrich, C., & Prensky, M. (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and Development Frameworks (pp. 175–188). Hershey: IGI Global. Goldstein, J. (2005). Violent video games. In Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Computer Game Studies (pp. 341–357). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Hobbs, M., Brown, E., & Gordon, M. (2006). Using a Virtual World for Transferable Skills in Gaming Education. Higher Education Academy Subject Network for Information & Computer Sciences, 5(3), s/p.
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Jakobsson, M., & Taylor, T. L. (2003). Social Networking in Massively Multiplayer Online Games. In Procedings of DAC 2003 (pp. 81–90). Melbourne, Austrália: The Sopranos Meet Everquest. Johnson, S. (2006). Tudo o que é mau faz bem: Como os jogos de vídeo, a TV e a Internet nos estão a tornar mais inteligentes. Lisboa: Lua de Papel. Klopfer, E. (2008). Augmented Learning: Research and design of mobile educational games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Manninen, T. (2003). Interaction Forms and Communicative Actions in Multiplayer Games. The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 3(1). Retrieved October 14, 2009 from http://gamestudies.org/ 0301/manninen/ Natkin, S. (2006). Video Games & Interactive Media. Wellesley: A K Peters. Pivec, P. (2009). Game-based learning or gamebased Teaching? Retrieved September 30, 2009 from http://emergingtechnologies. becta.org.uk/ index.php ?section=etr&rid=14692 Prensky, M. (2003). Digital Game-based Learning. ACM Computers and Entertainment, 1(1), Book 2. Prensky, M. (2005). Computer games and learning: digital game-based learning. In Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Computer Game Studies (pp. 97–122). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., & Flores, P. (2003). Beyond Nintendo: design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers & Education, 40, 71–94. doi:10.1016/ S0360-1315(02)00099-4 Squire, K. (2002). Cultural Framing of Computer/ Video Games. The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 2(1). Retrived October 14, 2009 from http://gamestudies.org/0102 / squire/?ref=HadiZayifla.Com
Steinkuehler, C. A. (2004). Learning in massively multiplayer online games. In Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Learning sciences. Santa Monica, CA: International Society of the Learning Sciences. Turvey, K. (2006). Towards deeper learning through creativity within online communities in primary education. Computers & Education, 46, 309–321. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.004 van Eck, R. V. (2006). Digital Game-Based Learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 16–30. Williamson, B. (2009). Computer games, schools, and young people: A report for educators on using games for learning. Retrieved September 30, 2009 from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/ resources/ documents/project_reports /becta/Games_and_ Learning _educators_report.pdf
ENDNOTES 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2
9
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Research in part funded by CIEd. Those numbers were taken at 27/07/2008 http://www.ikariam.com. http://www.ogame.org http://www.gladiatus.com/game/ http://www.metin-2.com/ The Portuguese FAQs - Especiais e Valores Máximos - http://board.metin2.com.pt/ index.php?page=Thread&postID=397726 Translated from the message sent to the alliance NWA using the guild´s forum service on 10/6/2009. There is no fixed address.
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Chapter 8
Browser-Native Games That Use Real-World XML Data Jonathan Chetwynd London, UK
ABSTRACT The rising tide of scientific data available on the web, has the potential to help us consider the complex problems that concern us today, and simulation games can help us visualize, model and plan for alternative futures. However, the modularisation of knowledge has limited communication across subject domains, and copyright legislation and business practices may need to change, if the many new visualisation tools needed are to be interoperable and share common interfaces. A game standard and specification for the web, together with easy-to-use authoring tools for creating browser-native games that use real-world XML data; could enhance communication, and engage the public in the understanding of science, and its progress.
INTRODUCTION This chapter is the result of my experience since 1995 developing and programming browser-native online games and authoring tools in cooperation with people having a range of cognitive, mental health and physical disabilities; whilst teaching, contributing to the work of web standards bodies and filing bugs for browser developers. It is DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch008
backed up by over thirty years frustration playing the ancient oriental game of Go, and recently developing a browser-native client-server Go game application. My intention is to describe how we might improve the public understanding of science by enhancing communication through simulation games that access real-world xml data; and an interest in the requirements for an easy-to-use tool for creating browser-native games is assumed. This necessarily means some consideration of many
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
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domains, some technical, others philosophical, political and sociological. I have tried to provide references that are accessible to the general and technical reader, and hope this is satisfactory. Online simulation games have been around for many decades, perhaps as long as the Internet. Some use their own game application; others use a browser plug-in technology such as Flash or Java, however relatively few rely on the browser alone. Why is this? Do we need a web standard for games? What are the potential benefits? Are the academics and representatives of corporations that develop web specifications and standards working for the public good? Had children designed web specifications and standards, or even had they been designed for children’s needs, how might the web be different? Game applications provide a simulation different in kind to words that can help elucidate complex issues, by developing and building on our verbal and graphical vocabularies and improving communication. This action of naming and describing is the way we learn, enjoy and share experience, our measure of fun or ludic capacity. How can we capture and incorporate this metric into the development of future web standards?
What is a Game? Albarn & Smith (1997) suggest that a game is “a structure within which various skills are tested, relationships explored and initiative rewarded & it is a training ground for the encounters of real life.” (p. 14) Our web games might simply help someone learn to use a mouse or scroll-bar, rehearse going out to a party, or supermarket, manage a city or state, fly a plane, terraform then learn about a natural calamity, play a musical instrument, develop numeracy or literacy, or play a board game whilst chatting and commenting. In most cases, the application may be expected to visualise large data sets from possibly disparate sources in
a meaningful way, to respond in real time, and quite probably with a range of sensory outputs. Noughts and Crosses, Draughts and Chess are board games that computers can solve relatively well. The game of Go, also known as Baduk or Weiqui has been played in the far east for a few thousand years, and yet the very strongest computer programs can only play at novice level. Yasutoshi Yasuda 9 Dan is a top-level professional Go player from Japan. He has extensive experience teaching children, their carers, and schoolteachers how to play Go. Yasuda says: Classroom teachers can grasp children’s feelings and understand them well. To enjoy playing Go well with children, to be on the same level where we can share the joy itself is good enough; complicated explanations are unnecessary. Despite a good knowledge of Go, the game will not succeed without an understanding of how children feel. What is important is neither technical knowledge nor Go skills, but a capacity to understand children. (Yasuda, 2002, p. 5) And later he adds, “Creating a fun atmosphere is paramount” (p. 35). It isn’t sufficient for a computer program to ‘win’ a game. We need computer programs that help us to learn to play well. We need to move on from Nietzschean ideals of the superman, or chess genius Emanuel Lasker’s supreme macheïde, a being that always plays the best move. To develop Turing’s concept of the intelligent machine with an internal model of another, so that when a child asks why the sky is blue, the appropriate response is “because they ran out of green paint” rather than a detailed technical and scientific explanation. We need web applications that provide transparent and readily understood solutions, appropriate to our abilities. All games have rules, such as to play alternately, and in many games these axiomatic or given rules can share aspects of meaning, for instance “check”, “atari”, “uno” and “raichi” are warnings that must
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be spoken in order to win; it is by considering these nuances that we learn to transfer meaning from one domain to another. Game rules tend to imply further rules or patterns such as Huff in Draughts; pin in chess; ko, seki, eternal life, and life in Go; some of these implied rules may demonstrate self-organisation or emergence as in John Conway’s no-player Game of Life: thus a language develops. Games can produce a higher descriptive language of tactics and strategy that help us evaluate the status of the game from a more holistic perspective. Tactics are lower level and have local effects they include fork, pin and skewer in chess; pincer, cut, connect, attach, extend, peep and placement in Go. Strategies are higher level with global effects and they require us, to measure imponderables such as material, space, and tempo in chess and territory, thickness, and urgency in Go (Senseis, 2010); to make a risk-analysis and choose a flexible plan such as to sacrifice, exchange, invade, attack, escape or wait. In addition, we may study tewari, a form of dead reckoning that compares our recent past with alternatives that bring us to the same place by other routes; tewari is also used for forecasting. It is natural for humans to develop and extend language to describe a game, understanding game vocabularies helps us to improve our play and helps us communicate. All the games we’ve mentioned have a few simple rules, yet demonstrate such profound structures that they have produced and require vocabularies that can extend to over a hundred words. Because each of these vocabularies relates to a limited domain, its mathematical description, an algorithm, is easier to define; however it does remain difficult to code such a rich language, and we improve our understanding of problems that face the world, when we design mathematical tools that engage.
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Amateurs, Research and the Public Understanding of Science Amateurs and volunteers continue to contribute to our understanding of the world. Tom Boles (2007) is an amateur astronomer in the UK; he has personally identified over 127 new Supernovae, which is a world record. Professional astronomers rely on him, as they do not have time to scan and search. He is one highly dedicated amateur. Two amateur chess players overpowered grandmasters, and the strongest chess machines, to win the playchess. com freestyle chess competition in 2005, the rules allowed for the use of computers (Kasparov, 2010). However there are projects that do not require such ability and commitment for instance SETI@ home, which was launched in 1999 and now has over 3 million contributors, enables anyone with a networked computer to download and install a screen-saver program that analyses radio telescope data in a Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence. But humans as well as computers can be put to work, what Luis von Ahn has named the power of human cycles. About ten years ago in 2000, he was asked by Yahoo to find an online means to separate humans from software-robots, he recognised that reading is a human skill that computers cannot yet replicate well and created Captcha, in which we read some poorly rendered characters and type them in. He refined this concept and launched reCaptcha, which enables us to perform useful work, around 200 million of us contribute expertise to OCR scanning of historical documents such as the New York Times archive and make it more accurate (2008). Amateurs and volunteers given the right tools are clearly capable of far more than this, in the days and weeks following the earthquake in January 2010 on Haiti, thousands of volunteers updated available maps, which had been extremely basic, and published them to the web on openstreetmap.org (2010) using a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 copyright licence. These maps are now used by government agencies and relief agencies in their work.
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There are also educational projects with less immediate returns, such as the five-year, $50 million digital media and learning initiative funded by The MacArthur Foundation, and launched in 2006 “to help determine how digital technologies are changing the way young people learn, play, socialize, and participate in civic life” (2006). One of the bodies funded was GameStarMechanic.com (2006) which introduces children to the system of games, and provides a game authoring tool using Flash. Another, Games for Change supports and links to a broad range of games for children and adolescents that “address the most pressing issues of our day, including poverty, education, human rights, global conflict and climate change” (2009). Designing games helps us consider and learn about whole systems, and the individual’s relation to the system (Zimmerman, 2004). We will now consider our relationship to these complex issues in detail.
Communicating Across Domains of Knowledge Computer games such as Second Life, SimCity and Grand Theft Auto IV allow us to inhabit alternative worlds, where we can explore and rehearse dangerous feelings and experiences, with little risk to ourselves or others; and to share them with friends, relations and others. Games also offer us an opportunity to bring scientists and the public together to explore alternative futures for this world, in more amusing and informative ways than spreadsheets; however, judgments in these domains may remain matters of faith rather than knowledge. Eckhardt & Newcombe (1969) suggest, “The essence of dogmatism is a basic confusion between faith and knowledge.” The Smarter Government White Paper (Putting the Frontline First, 2009) proposes to make all UK government data including Office of National Statistics available through a single access point at http://www.data.gov.uk, which will go
live from January 2010, and in a related policy document states: The Government believes that if the UK is to take full advantage of the opportunities for creating wealth and improving quality of life offered by scientific discovery and technological development, it is crucial that we develop new approaches to bring scientists and the public together in a constructive dialogue to explore emerging issues. (Guiding Principles, 2009, p. 3) Since time immemorial, the public has expected a response to ‘emerging issues’ from those in authority; “We will never return to the old boom and bust.” Chancellor Gordon Brown (2007) in his eleventh and final budget statement, the following year the economy collapsed. “The earliest philosophers speak in tones of prophecy and rapture. Their sublime self-assurance is that of the sacrificial priest or mystagogue.” (Huizinga, 1950, p. 116). From the earliest times divination, has been, and indeed continues to be, used in attempts to explore the unknown. Tools for divination that survive as artefacts include astrological instruments for casting horoscopes, throwing lots as in sticks or spillikins and the I-Ching, throwing stones as in Go or bones as in dice, drawing straws, or more recently dealing and reading Tarot cards. Each a means to make order out of the chaos of existence that is beyond our understanding; the very word ‘problem’ derives from the ancient Greek προβλημα, literally what is thrown before us. Stephen J. Gould proposed using the term Magisterium to describe domains of knowledge that do not overlap (1997) and suggested Religion and Science were members. Western civilization has for many hundreds of years harboured and even nourished this schism. Around fifty years ago, C.P. Snow (1957) identified a growing failure in communication between the Humanities and Sciences. When we consider complex issues such as these together with city planning, war,
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ecology, evolution, economics, food supply or climate change, there are few public metrics or values whose outcomes we can assay as scientific and known. When we consider the individual, if we deskill the citizen, by capturing their expertise electronically, we lower their self-esteem and status, they become disenfranchised, and no longer participate, the ιδιωτης, which means private, but is read idiots. Instead if we “accept the fact that the common man can actually govern” (James, 1956), and understand with Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations, that as well as value in use, there is value in exchange. Moreover, realize after Marcel Mauss and Bronislaw Malinowski that we attach great significance to gifts, we like to exchange them and that the exchange adds value, and that we gain social prestige thereby. We understand that a public, who cannot produce and publish, can only be consumers; and that they can only value that which they can use, as they have no ability to produce. We must provide the individual, not only with the data of the state, but the tools to model it, make a personal statement, publish it and communicate with others; and by this means enable each one of us, the plebiscite to take responsibility and thus engage in and contribute to the democratic process. Raj Patel (2009) makes a convincing case for involving the public in evaluating opportunity cost, citing the 30,000 residents of Porto Alegre who allocate over $200million of local government spending through participatory budgeting. We may all benefit when tools, data and results are searchable and hence discoverable. When we try to explain, visualise and play with the complex relationships in large data sets our conclusions may be hard to justify. Data may be extensive, but algorithms and hence knowledge of relations remains limited. The late Jim Gray (2009) asserts that “we have hardly any data visualization and analysis tools” (p. xxvi) and that “Lots of new tools are needed” (p. xxx) and suggests that the Internet needs a data-intensive layer
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to cope with the data deluge, and that scientists need vastly improved data management tools; but don’t we all? What better way to engage the public in scientific debates, than to give us the tools to participate? Volunteers and amateurs enjoy contributing to scientific progress and it is a route to improving knowledge and communication on complex topics for us all. Might the much closer links between those who create knowledge and those who use it (Abbott, 2009), ultimately reside in the individual? The State, corporations, academia, standards bodies and the public will all need to have excellent channels of communication if appropriate tools for the public are to be developed.
Is W3C Fulfilling Its Mission? Web resources are necessarily constructed using technical languages. A number of working groups within the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) agree the specifications for the various technical languages such as svg, css, xml, xslt, rdf, and html that are used by web browsers; but why is there not a W3C game standards working group? Adobe & Macromedia’s flash plug-in and authoring tools have been and remain the de facto, if proprietary means for deploying games across browsers. How are we to determine whether the current web specifications, the processes used to create them and the people involved, are meeting the needs of the public? The W3C Mission is “to lead the World Wide Web to its full potential by developing protocols and guidelines that ensure the long-term growth of the Web.” And its first principle: The social value of the Web is that it enables human communication, commerce, and opportunities to share knowledge. One of W3C’s primary goals is to make these benefits available to all people, whatever their hardware, software, network infrastructure, native language, culture, geographical location, or physical or mental ability. (2010)
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Ian Jacobs, Tim Berners-Lee and other W3C officers have discussed and considered the need for an external assessment and review into whether W3C is fulfilling its mission. They have not yet commissioned one (2010). The result is that whilst the web is ubiquitous in western economies, it remains difficult to assess the successes and failures in the process. W3C charters working groups to deliver specifications. Working groups usually consist of W3C members’ representatives together with invited experts. Membership is expensive and time consuming. The process of creating and implementing a standard usually last years and can take more than a decade. The public and naïve or expert authors are not well represented. Each charter has ‘success criteria’, however it may be difficult to agree whether “Adoption of SVG by content authors and developers” (W3C Charter, 2006) has been met. Can it be satisfactorily demonstrated that it is in the public interest that representatives of corporations, who are subject to shareholders and commercial interests, agree standards for the web? At least there is the possibility for conflicts of interest. HTML and XML have been widely adopted, but have serious flaws due to the W3C process; a few of the undesirable outcomes are described here: After more than a decade, there are still no easy to use web authoring tools that produce valid accessible html code. Web standards such as html have been designed in such a way that authoring is overly complex. Vlad Alexander is a member of the Guild of Accessible Web Designers, and head of development at Belus Technology. He is personally responsible for their WYSIWYG html authoring tool. He recently stated, “Browser vendors are (again) the only ones determining the future direction of html, leaving authoring tool vendors out of the conversation.” And Charles McCathieNevile, who had been team contact for accessibility at W3C and now works for Opera, commented “the underlying issues you raise are
indeed incredibly important, not just for people with disabilities but for how we build the web in general.” (Alexander, 2010) The W3C process through modularity meant that the SVG working group relied on other working groups to develop necessary parts such as CSS, XForm and the DOM. XForm was chartered to develop an enhanced xml version of html forms, and the DOM for keyboard navigation. Keyboard navigation is an alternative to the mouse for people who are blind, lack fine motor skills, or may be using an alternative device such as a switch, and typists may prefer to use them. XForm was not implemented in browsers, and the DOM specification was created after the final draft of SVG1.1 was recommended and published, and may not now be included. Bugs for keyboard navigation were raised with Safari-webkit, Opera and Mozilla; and resolved in a non-standards way to provide accessibility and functionality. However there is currently no simple way to add a functioning form to SVG content. In html, a form can be added with about ten lines of code; when using SVG and ecmascript 2000 lines were insufficient (Honte. eu, 2009). As one commentator helpfully put it, “don’t code this, leave it to the browser.” Forms are essential, and yet after more than a decade, notwithstanding that the necessary browser application code is already present, the intending author cannot access it, because of poor connectivity. HTML lacks the most basic features of a GUI language (Alexander, 2009). There have been attempts to add a GUI description for terms such as menu, button, icon, diagram and others missing from the html language, but they remain workarounds. The RDF Schema for the semantic description of Graphical User Interfaces (Peepo, 2004) is one, and in 2008, the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative working group developed a related concept as ARIA. This defect effects the semantic description of texts that impinge on our ability to search for suitable resources and to adapt content to our individual needs.
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Inkscape is the most nearly complete opensource SVG authoring tool. It is a monster, with many features, yet it is incomplete and missing such basic functions as a timeline view. There has been discussion since 2004 about producing an easy-to-use version for children “Kidscape”, but no product has been launched. A final substantive concern is the failure to agree a single run time environment. Modularity has ensured that authors have little way of knowing what services are available, which has in part contributed to the success of Flash. The organisation of W3C into multiple standards working groups, breaks up the problem of communication into parts, but fails to look after the whole; to borrow John Wilbanks expression, the micro-specialization guild culture has lead to significant long-term problems that are, and unless addressed will remain, fundamental. Connectivity between working groups is currently provided by liaison people (representatives of external bodies who participate in W3C groups), Coordination Groups (the forums for chairs of related working groups), and cross-domain working groups such as TAG & PF, amongst others. Is W3C operating in the public interest, or if not; is it rather than a consortium, merely a cartel? Who provides the checks and balances? Who represents the interests of the public?
The State, the Internet and Copyright We expect government to oversee issues regarding the public good, monopolies, copyright and the like, and the UK Government’s Digital Britain Report (2009) “introduces policies to maximize the social and economic benefits from digital technologies.” Yet, does not mention such important aspects of the web as content, content providers, browsers, authoring tools, the standards bodies such as W3C, their processes or the standards and specifications they produce. Neither does other UK legislation including the Communication Act
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(2003) and the Digital Economy Bill currently before parliament. Ofcom has published a range of useful reports relating to Media Literacy (2010). But, are these reports and others, being incorporated into the development of tomorrow’s web standards? Ofcom is the regulator for the UK communications industries. Ofcom’s statutory duties (Communications Act, 2003) include: 3(1) It shall be the principal duty of Ofcom, in carrying out their functions; (a) to further the interests of citizens in relation to communications matters; and (b) to further the interests of consumers in relevant markets, where appropriate by promoting competition(Communications Act, 2003) Yet, whilst Ofcom is mandated to regulate Internet Service Providers, it is not currently mandated to regulate the Internet itself. The Competition Commission investigates inquiries from Ofcom and others. “The Competition Commission is one of the independent public bodies which help ensure healthy competition between companies in the UK for the benefits of companies, customers and the economy.” (Role of the CC, 2010) The Competition Commission replaced the Monopolies and Mergers Commission in 1999. It has current inquiries into over one hundred industries, including Newspapers, Radio and Television, but not the Internet. Governments may monitor extreme web content such as serious fraud, paedophilia and terrorism, and many states require the websites of public bodies to meet accessibility standards, but we may need far greater intervention, not necessarily to regulate the market, but rather to improve communication. There is much concern about copyright infringement and the losses being incurred by artists and their publishers, but relatively little that safeguards consumers interests. The first copyright legislation was introduced in 1710 to limit the monopoly of the Stationers’ Company of London. When one contrasts this fact with the size and
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power of today’s large software corporations such as Microsoft, Adobe and Electronic Arts. It may seems extraordinary that governments have failed to introduce legislation to promote the public good, curb the sizeable incomes generated, and ensure that the public is allowed access to the code, with permission to redistribute after a relatively short time in which to earn a reasonable return. On what date might we expect copyright on software such as Word, Photoshop or The Sims to expire, and their content be released into the public domain? Moreover, as the code is compiled in the distributed applications would its release only serve a limited purpose? Copyright is enforceable whether compiled or not, similarly to the case of musical scores and recordings. Would it be appropriate to consider a requirement that copyright software be published as source? Without this requirement it seems difficult to time limit the benefits to the author or publisher. Copyright and patent legislation has particular relevance to people with disabilities. Sound and vision are important for communication, and whilst images have been included in html for many years, despite concerns regarding jpeg patents; some browser developers have not yet implemented sound support because of patent concerns regarding mp3 and other codecs, and for this reason many authors choose to rely on Flash for audio. Small developers of specialised input & output devices with novel affordances feel threatened when the research and applications they have undertaken and produced in support of niche markets is compromised by large corporations patenting or copyrighting similar concepts. Furthermore, people with learning disabilities may take years to learn a symbol language; which effectively ties them, their family and friends to the copyright holder whether a particular charity or business, for life as provider of their means of communication. Copyright holders of symbol languages may for commercial reasons not wish to release their graphics on the web in any format, may limit release to a few symbols, or not allow
release in an open format such as svg. Is it in the public interest that so many people, who because of their disability are unlikely to earn a living wage, should be so additionally disadvantaged for life? There are ways we can mitigate some copyright concerns, we can at least imagine repurposing data assets across game domains, so that our carefully created Second Life character can leave her SimCity condominium and stroll through Grand Theft Auto lV. However, the relational constructs involved in gaming algorithms may not be so readily modded. There is a higher expectation of associated value, and thus greater reluctance to reveal the elements of a function. For example blue eyes, red hair and glass shoes may transfer readily, but to agree standards that enable the transfer of emotional and psychological profiles embedded in a character, reveals much to a competitor, for little apparent immediate benefit. However, the potential gains of cooperation are great, though it may be hard for companies to contribute and collaborate, without changes to copyright legislation. Google, IBM and Apache amongst others, manage many large active open source projects, whilst remaining viable corporate businesses, and there are many applications and script libraries available, but they are generally used by developers rather than the public. RSS Feeds and mashups demonstrate exciting new ways to manipulate and display data in the browser. Mashups bring together and relate data sets from more than one source. However the multiplicity of non-standard APIs detracts from their benefits, and their licences frequently contain riders or restrictions on usage. The technical difficulty of implementation puts them beyond any but the most dedicated amateurs, though the results can be great fun. To encourage API developers to share at least some parts of their tool sets, fair use might enable purchasers to copy sections of code and create their own tools, much as in the 19th century and earlier, readers kept commonplace books in to which they copied their favourite texts. Publishers might promote their snippets as interoperable or having good connec-
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tivity, whilst perhaps retaining copyright for a short time. Jacobson suggests devices might implement data policies using ontologies, provenance and locality (2009), but what about implementing application or algorithm policies. Why does anyone need more than one spellchecker? A spellchecker application that connects to our email, browser, word-editor, game, or chat application, in fact any other application that can use it. It will be interesting to see whether companies are capable of collaborating to create the many new data management tools required. Tools, that if they are to be connected simply as in plug and play, by authors and players, will require a high degree of connectivity; and this will necessarily require extensive collaboration across communities and domains. Collaboration that will help develop a suitable vocabulary, and ensure that authoring tools have great interfaces. Without this projected growth in collaboration, cooperation and connectivity, we shall be regularly re-inventing the wheel for some time to come.
Features of a Standard for Browser-Native Games How are we to enable the public to become authors, play with data, create mashups, visualise relations and contribute to the advance of science and policy? If the web standards process is not to stagnate, it needs to eagerly engage with the public and include them in the process of developing a specification. One in five adults in the UK is functionally illiterate (Moser, 1998), and people with low literacy, who necessarily have low incomes, have been excluded from the web standards process (Chetwynd, 2008). If they are to be involved in education, it is likely to be at an adult or further education (FE) college. Yet, the majority of current research is tied to Universities and Higher Education with relatively little research carried out within adult or further education colleges. Teachers and teaching assistants may require sig-
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nificant support to gain computer literacy skills. Creating web-authoring tools that are popular with FE teachers, secondary and primary school teachers, and teaching assistants will represent a significant achievement. Resources for students need to be accessible and easily re-purposed, they may also benefit from being multi-modal, using audio, symbols, graphics, graphs, diagrams, photographs, video as well as text. To create a browser-native Go game application that allows people to play Go against each other across the Internet, it was necessary to learn and hand-code svg, css, xml, xslt, rdf, html, ecmascript, php and other web technologies, and this is not a trivial task (Honte.eu, 2009). Elements of these technologies and more would need to be incorporated in a new games specification for the web. Careful thought, and consensus amongst the working groups concerned is essential and the relationship between the player, game, browser and author must be greatly enhanced by improving communication. A new standard process needs to be able to rapidly incorporate breaking technologies. The competitive practices present at the birth of the web led to much innovation, for instance putting images in documents, and Brendan Eich’s development of the popular programming language javascript. Changes may be dramatic and sudden rather than incremental, and it may be that we are once again approaching such a period of change. The multitude of game input devices or affordances is intimidating: motion detection in the Nintendo Wii, orientation and accelerometery in the iPhone, pressure touch and multi-touch texture and gesture as used by Immersion and others, vision detection in Sony’s EyeToy, numerous geolocation devices, the list becomes rather long, but one must make a start. And to these one may expect to add the new visualisation affordances that develop from a web games specification. If the standard is to be popular, an authoring tool with a simple but powerful Graphical User
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Interface is essential, it can have great depth, but the initial impression must evoke confidence. Some easy-to-use authoring tools we might like to review, though they are not all web based include: The popular and easy-to-use web authoring tools such as: Facebook, YouTube, GoogleWave, Twitter, Blogger, Yahoo and many other web applications that enable consumers to create and exchange content. LittleBigPlanet has a highly popular and innovative GUI for creating games. The drag and drop flow diagram GUI developed by Seymour Papert, and implemented by Lego Mindstorms is used by children as young as four to write programs that control robots. Flash 4, before feature-creep, used by a blind student with learning disabilities to create interactive stories with pictures and sounds. One Laptop Per Child with Sugar on a Stick is a highly ambitious attempt to create an easy to use operating system and enfranchise children from poor nations across the world. There are also the various professional game authoring tools such as Adobe’s Flash CS4, Microsoft Xbox and the XNA framework, Apple’s iPhone applications, Nintendo Wii and the game development tool from Unity, and Sony Online Entertainment and the PSP Development tool amongst many others. Essential features of an authoring tool might include the ability to create animations, graphs, diagrams and other popular visualisation metaphors that are used in simulation games. A timeline, like a musical score provides a means of portraying action over time so the author can play her script forwards and backwards. Sprites as the unit of animation that is acted upon, any icon or symbol, such as Mario, Homer or Sonic the hedgehog, a chair or an apple in fact anything that may be animated, may be a sprite. If the action is to be realistic, the graphic designer may use onion skinning, which is a semi-transparent overlay so one can flick between adjacent images to examine a transition. The action itself is a key item that requires algorithms and has high value. Examples include, gravity, squish, touch-detection which
is essential for many games, as when asteroid sprites touch and explode; paint-fill, an implication of touch-detection used in Go, Othello and many other games; more sophisticated algorithms that explore complex relations may provide riskanalysis and assessment, such as Monte Carlo, that can help prune choices and provide forecasts. Network architectures such as client-server and peer-to-peer rely on a transport protocol that enables players to communicate with one another, note this paragraph is necessarily technical; The web protocol http was designed for web pages not games, and though XmlHttpRequest can be used with ecmascript and svg to create client-server games, it is really only suitable for prototyping. Three problems that unnecessarily increase network traffic when using http are that http requires polling, the server cannot initiate communication so one has to keep asking for a response; http requires a large wrapper which may be many times bigger than the content; and http expects a response, whereas some communications such as chat content are merely sent. We need a new transport protocol for browser games to allow users to communicate with each other and a data-intensive layer quite possibly via a server. This protocol will not replace TCP/IP (Jacobson, 2009) which is used for the internet, or UDP used for some games, but may be on top of either. Examples of such protocols not used by the browser, but by Flash, Java and other applications include: Adobe’s Real-Time Media Flow Protocol which provides p2p support (Lesser, 2009); SPDY (2009) an experimental protocol for a faster web from Google. Earlier protocols included Adobe Action Message Format (2007), SVG with RTP (Gupta, Boyaci & Schulzrinne, 2007), and Game Transport Protocol (Pack, 2001). Web standards come with a great many benefits considered and included, such as accessibility, interoperability, modularity, maintainability repurposing of content and others described by Bert Bos (2003) in his excellent Design Guide. Game accessibility is a key feature that needs to
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be built into authoring tools and content. There is much work in this area, and a few useful white papers, reports and reviews published. W3C Web Accessibility Initiative, the International Game Developers Association Accessibility Special Interest Group and The Guild of Accessible Web Designers each provide useful online resources. We must continuously measure the success of a game standard, has it been implemented, is there a games working group, a specification and a charter? Are browser-native games recognised as explaining issues simply and well using XML data published from many domains of knowledge? Has a simple and easy to use authoring tool been released that is popular with children, teachers and naïve users, or are professionals, academics and scientists also making games that are fun to play? Is quantitative and qualitative assessment being carried out, perhaps on a monthly basis, enabling browser competitors to compare achievements, consumers to comment on output, and authors on their authoring tools? Perhaps one of the first outcomes might be to agree a microformat. Microformats are “designed for humans first and machines second, microformats are a set of simple, open data formats built upon existing widely adopted standards.”(2010) It seems possible that microformats may be used as a stepping stone to creating a game standard to play, render and author web games.
CONCLUSION If we are to engage the public in creating novel visualisations that model complex phenomenon for scientific purposes, we must provide suitable easy-to-use tools. We need a host of data management and visualisation tools that share common interfaces and are interoperable. This may require less restrictive and secretive practices by companies, corporations and academics, and possibly changes in copyright
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legislation to encourage cooperation amongst commercial developers. W3C may be a suitable body to develop a web standard, but might consider changes in process to make it more accountable to the public, particularly in respect of the need for authoring tools. A standards process that can flexibly respond to the opportunities that the new affordances available, will promote. A standard should provide a single run time environment that allows authors and players to combine tools and resources from various sources. It is also possible that an independent group of educators from within a large online community such as India, China, Korea or Brazil might unilaterally develop suitable tools for their native populations.
REFERENCES W3C Charter: Scalable Vector Graphics Working Group (2006). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.w3.org/2007/ 11/SVG_rechartering/ SVG-WG-charter.html W3C Mission. (2010) Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.w3.org/ Consortium/mission Abbott, M. R. (2009). A New Path for Science? In T. Hey, S. Tansley, & K. Tolle, (Eds.), The Fourth Paradigm (pp. xvii-xxxi). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Research. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://research.microsoft.com/ en-us/ collaboration/ fourthparadigm/ Adobe Action Message Format. (2007). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://download.macromedia.com/ pub/labs/amf/ amf3_spec_121207.pdf Ahn, L., Maurer, B., McMillen, C., Abraham, D., & Blum, M. (2008). Human-Based Character Recognition via Web Security Measures. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://recaptcha. net /reCAPTCHA_Science.pdf
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Albarn, K., & Smith, J. M. (1977). Diagram: The Instrument of Thought. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
GameStarMechanic.com. (2006). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.gamestarmechanic. com /publications/
Alexander, V. (2009). Rebuilding the Web. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://rebuildingtheweb.com /en/why-do-wysiwyg- editorshate-html5/
Gould, S. J. (1997). Nonoverlapping Magisteria. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www. stephenjaygould.org/ library/gould_noma.html
Boles, T. (n.d.). Supernova Discoveries by Tom Boles. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// myweb.tiscali.co.uk/ tomboles/discoveries.htm Bos, B. (2003). Design Guide, W3C (2003). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www. w3.org/People/ Bos/DesignGuide/toc.html Brown, G. (2007). Chancellor of the Exchequer’s Budget Statement. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk /bud_budget07_speech.htm Chetwynd, J. (2008). Communication with Symbols. Journal of Assistive Technologies, 2(3), 32–36. Communications Act. (2003). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ ACTS/ acts2003/ ukpga_20030021_en _2#pt1-pb2-l1g3 Dictionary.com. (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://dictionary.reference.com / browse/game Digital Britain Report. (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.culture.gov.uk/ what_we_do/ broadcasting/6216.aspx Eckhardt, W., & Newcombe, A. G. (1969). Militarism, Personality, and other social attitudes. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 13, 210–219. doi:10.1177/002200276901300204 Fodor, J. (2007). Why Pigs don’t have Wings. London Review of Books, 29(20), 19-22. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.lrb.co.uk / v29/n20/jerry-fodor/ why-pigs-dont-have-wings
Gray, J. (2009). A Transformed Scientific Method (transcript of a talk 11/01/2007). In T.Hey, S. Tansley, & K. Tolle (Eds), The Fourth Paradigm (pp. xvii-xxxi). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Research. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// research.microsoft.com/ en-us/collaboration / fourthparadigm/ Gupta, G., Boyaci, O., & Schulzrinne, H. (2007). Shared White Board using SVG and RTP. Columbia University. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/ ~gg2265/report/ SharedWhiteBoard_ SVG_RTP.htm Honte.eu. (2009). Online Go Game application. Retrieved September 20, 2009, from http://www. honte.eu http://broadcast.oreilly.com /2009/04/adobesreal- time-media-flow-pr.html Huizinga, J. (1950). Homo Ludens. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press. Jacobs. I, (2010). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://lists.w3.org/Archives/ Public/wwwarchive/ 2010Jan/0003.html Jacobson, V. (2009). Content-centric Networking Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www. parc.com/ work/focus-area/networking/ and http:// vimeo.com/6633634 James, C. L. R. (1956). Every Cook Can Govern: A Study of Democracy in Ancient Greece and Its Meaning for Today. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.marxists.org/ archive/james-clr/ works/ 1956/06/every-cook.htm
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Kasparov. G. (n.d.). The Chess Master and the Computer, New York Review of Books, Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.nybooks.com/ articles/23592 Lesser, B. (2009). Adobe’s Real-Time Media Flow Protocol. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from Literacy, M. Ofcom (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.ofcom.org.uk/ advice/ media_literacy/ MetroQuest. (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, http://yellowknife.metroquest.com/ MetroQuest. html MicroFormats. (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://microformats.org/about Moser, C. (1998). A Fresh Start. Basic Skills Agency. Retrieved January 15, 2010, http://www. lifelonglearning.co.uk/ mosergroup/ Nanotechnologies and Food. (2009). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.publications. parliament.uk/pa/ld200910 /ldselect/ ldsctech/22/22i.pdf Openstreetmap (2010). Haiti Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://crisiscommons.org/ HaitiOpen-Street-Map Pack, S., Hong, E., Choi, Y., Park, I., Kim, J. S., & Ko, D. (2001). Game Transport Protocol: A Reliable Lightweight Transport Protocol for Massively Multiplayer On-line Games. Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://mmlab.snu.ac.kr/ publications/ docs /itcom(shpack).pdf Patel, R. (2009). The value of nothing. London: Portobello Books Ltd. Peepo. (2004). The GUI Vocabulary RDF Schema for the semantic description of Graphical User Interfaces. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from www.peepo.co.uk/ temp/gui-schema
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Principles, G. The Government’s Approach to Public Dialogue on Science and Technology. (2009). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// www.sciencewise-erc.org.uk /cms/assets/Uploads/ TrackedDocuments/ Guiding-Principles/ Sciencewise-ERC-Guiding- Principles.pdf Putting the Frontline First. Smarter government. (2009). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// www.hmg.gov.uk /media/52788/ smarter-government-final.pdf Role of the Competition Commission. (2010). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www. competition- commission.org.uk/ about_us/ index.htm Senseis (n.d.). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://senseis.xmp.net /?Strategy Snow, C. P. (1959). The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution. London: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// sciencepolicy.colorado.edu /students/envs_5110 /snow_1959.pdf The MacArthur Foundation. (2006). Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.gameslearningsociety.org /macarthur.php Valuing Our Life Support Systems. (2009) Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.naturalcapitalinitiative.org.uk/files/ nci_summary_lo.pdf Yasuda, Y. (2002). Go As Communication. Richmond, VA: Slate & Shell Press. Zimmerman, E., & Salen, K. (2004). Rules of Play. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
ADDITIONAL READING W3C: http://www.w3.org/ W3C Web Accessibility Initiative: http://www. w3.org/WAI
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Game of Life. http://www.bitstorm.org /gameoflife/
The Guild of Accessible Web Designers. http:// www.gawds.org
Games, I. A. (2009). 21st Century Language and Literacy in Gamestar Mechanic. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http://www.gamestarmechanic. com /publications/Games_ PhD_Gamestar.pdf
Torres, R. J. (2009). Learning on a 21st century platform: Gamestar Mechanic as a means to game design and systems thinking within a nodal ecology. New York University: ProQuest Dissertations. UMI. Retrieved January 15, 2010, from http:// www.gamestarmechanic.com /publications/Torres _phD_Gamestar.pdf
Go: http://senseis.xmp.net /?WhatIsGo IGDA Accessibility SIG. http://www.igda.org/ accessibility
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Chapter 9
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games Pedro Campos University of Madeira & INESC ID Lisbon, Portugal
ABSTRACT Computer games have become an important part of the new digital economy, employing thousands of Information Technology professionals worldwide. Their role as a novel approach to reduce the distance between students and knowledge is also well documented. In this chapter, we will describe a multi-disciplinary approach to designing a particular class of educational games: business management games. We argue that through a better understanding of the relationship between work-domain based decisions and processes, professional game designers can achieve effective results. The design approach was based on intensive collaboration and co-design meetings with business management researchers and professors. The result was a game called “SimCompany”, aimed at teaching children about business management concepts, thus promoting an entrepreneurship culture in classroom settings. “SimCompany” proved effective as a teaching tool about business management concepts, and initial evaluation showed a positive increase in students’ rate of learning, when compared to traditional teaching methods.
INTRODUCTION The power of games as learning instruments has become unquestionable. Our students have DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch009
changed radically and today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was designed to teach. Today’s students represent the first generation to grow up with the new digital technology, having spent their entire lives surrounded by and using computers, videogames,
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A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age. Today’s average college grads have spent less than 5,000 hours of their lives reading, but over 10,000 hours playing video games (not to mention 20,000 hours watching TV). This is one out of many reasons why both researchers and practitioners have started to embrace games as educational tools, as opposed to the traditional vision of games as merely entertainment instruments. The process of designing novel educational games, however, is still far from becoming well defined. In this book chapter, we describe “SimCompany”, a fun game designed to instill in children (9-14 years old) the entrepreneurship spirit. As the young player progresses in the game, the basic concepts of consumer behavior, marketing and strategic management are described, illustrated and reinforced in a fun, easy and engaging way. The goal of the game is to reach the last level and complete it with the greatest amount of points accumulated and before time expires. As an example, we provide a brief description of the levels of this game, taken from the game’s script, which was outlined through a multidisciplinary design approach involving designers, programmers, user interface experts and - most importantly - entrepreneurship and management research and experts. The remaining of this chapter is structured as follows. The next section, “Background” provides a starting point of discussion and contextualizes this research, in terms of existing educational games and also conceptualizing the learning experience per se. The third section describes the approach followed and also describes the “SimCompany” game in some detail. The results from evaluation sessions are also presented. Finally, sections “Conclusions” and “Future Work” present a summary of the findings as well as future avenues of research in this field.
BACKGROUND Some authors observed that computer games have achieved their massive reach without going through the education system. While games may be an ideal companion to classroom instruction, they do not have to go through the classroom to access students. Other educational reforms depend on the teacher as the medium and do not necessarily take into account the many demands and constraints already faced by educators. Video games give teachers and parents the ability to reach students where they live, bypassing many of the challenges associated with restructuring the education system from the inside out.
Games for Learning Using games as an educational tool is not a novel approach. Their true potential emerged from the fact that 50 to 60 percent of all Americans play games and the typical game players are relatively young computer users (Kafai, 1995). Particularly popular games include the simulation genre, e.g. The Sims and SimCity, which allow players to create and manage simulated communities and worlds. Spore is another title aimed at simulating evolutionary adaptation (Maxis, 2006). Games have also been used for serious purposes. Early examples include games that promote health behavior change and management for children, such as Packy and Marlon, and adventure game for children to learn about diabetes self management skills, and Rex Ronin, a smoking prevention video game. Games have also proven effective in teaching children a foreign language (Baltra, 1990). Serious games have also been developed for adults to train personnel in a variety of areas. Examples include Visual Purple’s Angel Five, modeling a weapons of mass destruction terrorist attack with the trainee coordinating resources between federal, state, and local agencies; BreakAway’s Incident Commander trains first responders and
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federal employees in the new National Incident Management System for standardized response methods dealing with terrorist attacks or natural disasters; and Tactical Iraqi which uses artificial intelligence and computer gaming techniques to make learning languages quicker, more effective, and fun for military personnel. In terms of games related to business concepts, which form the core of this chapter, researchers as well as industrial practitioners have made several attempts to create entertaining forms of educating business concepts. For instance Zhou and colleagues (2008) describe and demonstrate an Internet based supply chain simulation game. The innovation presented in this game stems from a comprehensive set of supply chain (SC) management strategies which can be tested in the game. The key functionalities of the game were designed to increase players’ SC awareness, facilitate understanding on various SC strategies and challenges, foster collaboration between partners, and improve problem-solving skills. The authors concluded that such a game could be used as an efficient and effective teaching tool as well as a research tool in operations research and management science. They also observed problems and obstacles detected while engaging in the SC business scenario game. Actions were proposed and implemented to solve these problems, which resulted in improved SC performance. Another example very close to the spirit of SimCompany is Disney’s game Hot Shot Business (Everett, 2003), a simulation game designed to teach basic business concepts and encourage entrepreneurship. The authors emphasized the importance of play testing, with tight cycles of design-and-evaluate sessions, which were crucial to the game’s success and to the development process itself. It is also well known that one appealing way to motivate children to learn using technology is to apply games, which are well known, exploiting the power of popular TV shows. With the goal of minimizing the amount of effort and requirements
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to set up a situated learning environment, Lin (2007) integrated scenarios of the popular video game Pokemon in classroom education of 2nd grade math concepts. Observations showed that, in such arrangement, they could engage some students into the scenarios where math is applied. Since most children inevitably spend much time playing digital games, it is argued that digital gamebased learning is one way to involve kids to do the right things with computer (Lin, 2007). Lee et al. (2004) performed a study to investigate whether educational video games could be integrated into a classroom with positive effects for the teacher and students. They conducted the study with 39 2nd grade students using their mathematic drill software “Skills Arena” (Lee et al., 2004). Early data from the study suggested that not only do teachers and students enjoy using “Skills Arena”, students even exceeded expectations by doing three times more math problems in 19 days than they would have using traditional worksheets. Regardless of the popularity that games exhibit when it comes to teaching children, there is a lack of research towards design approaches that can prove useful when conceiving and designing such games.
Conceptualizing the Educational Game Experience Papert (1996) refers that “learning is more effective when the apprentice voluntarily engages in the process” (Papert, 1996, p. 43). The best learning experiences are the ones that “motivate and are pleasurable” (p. 43). Motivating the learners is therefore a crucial factor to increase the possibility of action and discovery, which in turn increases the capacity of what some researchers call learning to learn. In this sense, the novel constructionist-learning paradigm aims to adapt and prepare tomorrow’s schools to the constant challenges faced by a society, which is currently embracing and accelerating pace of profound changes.
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
The contact kids have with computers today is a fascinating experience, as anyone can easily attest by simply speaking to any of those children, questioning them about their computer usage experiences. The computer represents the possibility of occupying their time with activities that allow them to learn about many issues. But it’s also an exploration and play space where children can challenge the logic, feeling they possess magical powers, and where they feel that the decisions they take have an effective immediate impact over the actions, thus determining the flow of events. Vygotsky’s (1978) social cognition learning model asserts that culture is the prime determinant of individual development. Humans are the only species to have created culture, and every human child develops in the context of a culture. Therefore, a child’s learning development is affected in ways large and small by the culture–including the culture of family environment – in which he or she is enmeshed. In this context, the creation of collaborative learning groups, which bring together children with different learning levels, can prove useful. Currently, public schools have ever-larger numbers of students per classroom, with more diverse backgrounds. This poses some difficulty to attending every student’s individual needs. One possible solution lies in methods employed by the students themselves, i.e. students learn and teach each other, collaboratively. This kind of learning, called peer-mediated instruction (Campbell et al., 1991), is an alternative classroom arrangement in which students take an instructional role with classmates or other students. Many approaches have been developed in which students work in pairs or small cooperative learning groups. To be most effective, students must be taught roles in the instructional episode; to be systematic, elicit responses, and provide feedback. Research supports the use of these approaches as alternative practice activities, however, does not condone the use of peers for providing instruction in “new” instructional content.
Gardner (1983) centered his investigations on multiple intelligences and the implication they have on educational practices. Garner suggested the IQ-tests notion of intelligence is too limited and proposed eight different kinds of intelligence (Gardner, 1983). The important issue, according to Gardner, is not the number of different intelligences we have, but the actual development of all of them, according to our skills. Despite being anatomically separated from each other, Gardner declares the several intelligences rarely work independently. They are competitors but complement each other. We all possess the same intelligences but not in the same way or same proportions (Gardner, 1983). Scholar learning requires the student to deeply understand the subjects. Gardner advocates one of the best ways to accomplish this deep understanding is to approach the same subject through different entry points (music, language, spatial, etc.). Therefore, we should use an approach that covers not only the specific field of the subject at matter, but also other fields. This multidisciplinary approach Gardner recommends to schools is a better way to transfer knowledge. If the child doesn’t understand through the intelligence we elected to inform her, then the teacher can consider there are other different intelligences to explore. Based on this approach, our research that employs augmented reality and a physical user interface, allows a deeper understanding of the learning experience, using one of those multiple entry points.
A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY GAME DESIGN APPROACH There are several user-centered design approaches to designing interactive systems, such as the ones described in, e.g. (Dix et al., 2004). When it comes to game design, however, we verify that the process is largely driven by actual practice. Academic researchers have mainly focused on
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the theoretical issues regarding the game design process, and the practitioners’ concerns are very different from the researchers’. Therefore, there is a tendency to work in isolation. During the design of the game SimCompany, we followed an approach inspired by the best practices in user-centered design, but along the specific lines of human-work interaction design. This lead to a novel multidisciplinary approach we found particularly useful when designing business management games. The main actors involved in such an approach are: • • • • • •
Interaction and visual designers; Computer programmers; Human-Computer Interaction researchers; Business Managers; Entrepreneurship academic researchers; Children (the end-users).
However, simply joining these different-background, different-age actors into a single meetings room is obviously not enough to guarantee that a successful game is created. What we propose is a multi-disciplinary approach that focuses the game’s design and implementation on the actual learning goals that are desired. By centering the whole game project on the actual work performed by real business managers, the gaming experience will become particularly educational, since players will be faced with game decisions very close to the core of a business manager’s everyday tasks and decisions.
Design Approach Trying to promote a better understanding of the relationship between work-domain based experimental studies and iterative design of game prototypes can only be achieved by designing new methods and models that are more useful and usable. In the context of games, the work of interaction designers is very multifaceted: design-
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ers need practical guidance (not canned solutions), as well as concrete principles. Good models and good tools should highlight opportunities for innovation, leave the details open (concentrating on essentials), invite creative projection and inform – and guide – towards good design. Human-Work Interaction Design (HWID) is the subfield in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), which was the core influence of this game’s design approach. HWID is in fact a relatively recent research field, which was born under the auspices of IFIP’s Working Group 13.6. In a 2005 workshop (Clemmensen et al., 2005), researchers outlined new themes and directions of research on human work analysis and design to support it. The main target of the work group is the analysis of and the design for the variety of complex work and life contexts found in different business. Software design (which includes interaction design) is often a team activity and most projects involve stakeholders with different backgrounds that must cooperate in many different and interrelated activities, so it fits well into the Working Group’s directions. Complex work activities increase the difficulty of predicting the level of acceptance of novel technology and how it will be used in practice. An important and open research question is how to translate usability evaluation results into concrete design decisions. In this context, the approach we followed was based on analyzing the actual work that business managers perform when conducting their business operations and from that point we established a creative game script aimed at engaging children but also making them learn the day-to-day real work of a businessman. The approach followed for each of the game’s levels was broadly divided into three three sets of activities. The first one included (i) cognitive analysis, (ii) definition of learning objectives and (iii) definition of game variables. Activity (i) was directly concerned with outlining the kind of decisions that are made by business managers and entrepreneurs, when leading their
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
Figure 1. Outline of the approach followed
operations. Activity (ii) focused on the learning objectives, which were derived after consulting with different business managing experts in the field and also according to some interviews with business leaders and general research literature on the subject. Finally, the definition of game variables helped to turn the concept into a gamelike shape. The second set of activities included concept refinement and the translation into a game script, which was focused on writing a compelling script that children would enjoy. At the same time, the script would need to meet the learning objectives stated before. The final game script document served as a game design document and formed the basis for the user interface design of the game. In the UCD process, the three main tasks of the user designer participants are setting the requirements, generating design solutions and evaluating designs and end products (Nousiainen, 2008). In our approach, these tasks are implicit to each of the stages described. The design solutions are created in collaboration with the development team, but also receiving feedback from the teachers, business managers and scriptwriters who worked collaboratively in defining the overall game script. Figure 1 summarizes the whole approach.
After the initial three stages mentioned before, the project underwent through a concept refinement performed in parallel with scriptwriting and storyboarding. Using low-tech tools, e.g. post-it notes, whiteboards, paper & pencil, designers, programmers, business management researchers and teachers were simultaneously involved in the final game’s definition. The storyboard served as a starting point for the visual design and prototyping (the next phase). Finally, the prototype – made in Adobe Flash – was delivered to the programmers for final behavior design and implementation as a final product. Note that each set of activities received feedback from pilot evaluation sessions, following the spirit of UCD. In the following section we will describe with some detail the game SimCompany and discuss some of the issues present in the game script definition.
SimCompany “SimCompany” is a fun game designed to instill in children (9-14 years old) the entrepreneurship spirit. As the young player progresses in the game, the basic concepts of consumer behavior, marketing and strategic management are de-
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Figure 2. Overall aspect of the “SimCompany” game, Level 1
scribed, illustrated and reinforced in a fun, easy and engaging way. The goal of the game is to reach the last level and complete it with the greatest amount of points accumulated and before time expires. As an example, we provide a brief description of three levels of this game, taken from the game’s script, which was outlined through a human-work design approach. Level 1: Getting to know the consumer. At the first level, the young player will be faced with a roll of different people (consumers). Based on the description of these characters (age, sex, social class, profession, interests, etc.), the player will have to associate the various products that appear onscreen (e.g. skateboards, neckties, candies, etc.) to the most likely consumer. Figure 2 illustrates this level’s user interface. The learning objective is to show the player that there are various factors (demographic, geographic, personal tastes, lifestyle, etc.) that determine the choices of consumption, the ways that
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each person chooses to spend time and money and that should be taken into account when attempting to open the right business. To move to the next level, the player must accumulate a minimum number of points directly related to the number of correct associations made between consumer-product. Variables in footer: points Level 2: Knowing the consumer – Part 2. At the second level, the player is asked to manage a clothing store. At this level, the player, as the manager of the clothing store, must meet (as best as possible) the requests of two very different customers that enter the store simultaneously!... He will be given a brief description of each client and, based on that information, the player must choose which customer to address first, and the best way to make that approach. At the end, the decisions taken by the player will be evaluated and scored (points). The score will define if the player is able, or not, to move to the next level. Variables in footer: points
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
Level 3: Knowing the consumer – Part 3. At level 3, the consumer’s needs change and the player must figure out the best way to deal with these changes. He will have to define the product’s characteristics that meet the consumer’s needs and set prices. Advice will be given to the player so that he can change the course of business in light of new information… Depending on the decisions the player makes, he will be able to gather a number of points which may or may not ensure his transition to the next level. The learning objective, once again, is to demonstrate that the knowledge of the consumer is essential to anticipate and respond to changes in its needs/expectations. One must always be alert! Variables in footer: points, money spent, money earned Level 4: Promoting the business. At this level, the difficulty is significantly increased as the player heard that only a few people know his clothing store and its products…How sad! What to do?! The player will find himself with several scenarios where he will have to make the best possible decisions regarding the promotion of the business… The learning objective at this level is to demonstrate the importance of promoting a business (marketing communications). Will the player be a marketer good enough to move on to the next level? Variables in footer: points, money spent, money earned, bank balance Level 5: Logos and slogans. The clothing store has been a success and now our player has the opportunity to establish a company that suits him. But, before that, the player will have to guess which type of organization (supermarket, hotel, florist’s etc.) matches each logo and slogan that appear onscreen. After completing the exercise, and before knowing the results, three of the various logos shown will emerge and the player will have to choose one. The logo he chooses will match the organization the player will have to run for the next levels!
The learning objective is to show, following the previous level, the importance of logos and slogans for the identification of products/services, for the description of values and characteristics of an organization and for its distinction when compared to others. The number of right associations: logo-slogantype of organization will define the number of accrued points in this level. Again, depending on that number, the player might move to the next level or not. Variables in footer: points Level 6: Foundation. From this level onwards, the player will be the founder and manager of one of the following organizations: • •
Hotel Car factory
The player can now choose one of two hosts: Anna or Jack to guide him all through the rest of the game. The player receives information on the niche markets that must be addressed (type and number of potential customers, their needs and expectations, etc.) and an initial amount of money (budget) with which he will be able to start his business. Again, the player will have to make the right decisions (eg.: if the player chooses to have a swimming pool, he will have to designate an appropriate employee to take care of its maintenance) and not exceed the amount of money available to spend…or the game will end! The objective of this level is for the player to understand how to deal with the business opportunities that appear, selecting and managing all resources (human, physical, financial, etc.) the best way possible during the implementation phase of the business. Variables in footer: time, budget Level 7: Suppliers. At this level, the player will have to deal with changes in the industrial environment where his organization falls. More specifically, the player will have to deal with the
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suppliers. For example, in the case of the car factory, the price of some pieces will increase terribly…What can the player do? The learning objective at this level is to demonstrate the importance of the bargaining power of suppliers while developing a business. Variables in footer: time, points, money spent, money earned, bank balance Level 8: I was wishing for something else… The needs/expectations of the consumers have changed and the player must make the necessary alterations in his business in order to meet these changes. Variables in footer: time, points, money spent, money earned, bank balance Level 9: Competition. At this level, the competition increases… New organizations start to emerge, which are direct competitors…to worsen the situation there is also an increase on the number of substitute products. The player must be able to identify situations where the threat of substitutes and rivalry in the industry increases and choose the scenario where his/her organization will have better chances to survive. The learning objective is to demonstrate the importance of being aware of the threats of direct competitors and substitute products for the survival of the business. Variables in footer: time, points, money spent, money earned, bank balance Level 10: Let’s make a trip! The big finale! The business has been a success and now the player has the opportunity to diversify it in geographic terms. But, how can he do it? Where to go? Several scenarios and advice will be given and the player must use his incredible management abilities to internationalize his business in the best possible manner... It will be a difficult task but we know that he will make it...trying is all that matters! The learning objective of this level is to show children, in very simple and captivating way, the
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most basic concepts of internationalization of a business. If he can gather a number of points (directly linked to his bank balance), the player will be able to register his company in a national ranking online. He will also have access to a customized report on the decisions taken during the simulation, as well as a range of information on entrepreneurship, business plans and many other details that might complement his learning! Variables in footer: time, points, money spent, money earned, bank balance In conclusion, the game SimCompany was codesigned by a team composed of programmers, game designers, scriptwriters, business managers and teachers, as well as HCI and Entrepreneurship researchers. The final product is a set of levels each with its own learning goals, and therefore with its own game variables (points, money spent, etc.). By putting the player in the central role of a business manager, the game succeeds at conveying the learning issues in a “do-it yourself” manner. In the following section we will illustrate the game a bit more, by presenting one of its scripts.
Sample Script In order to provide a better understanding of the game design approach, it is useful to analyze a sample script and see how the business management concepts and learning objectives were converted into “game-like shape”. For brevity purposes we will transcribe a sample script for only one of the game’s levels – the other game level’s scripts were written in a similar way – and provide a brief discussion afterwards:
Level 1 - Knowing the Consumer – Part 1 Start the 2nd screen should show the following text: Hi (player’s name)!
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
At this first level, you will be faced with a roll of different characters and objects. The only thing you have to do is to associate the various products that appear onscreen to the most likely character who owns it… It is very easy, but first…make sure you know who is who! [Enter] (after clicking the enter button, the player is shown a different screen where eight characters will appear, e.g. four characters each side. If the player clicks a character, a textual pop-up balloon will show up, and the character will spoke that same text, kind of zooming the character whenever the player clicks on him/her, but maintaining the background with all characters in such a way that the player can always go back and see the descriptions of each character in an easy way, whenever wanted. The information to appear is as following). Click on each character to know who it is (Character 1) Hi, I’m Johnny! I am 7 years old and I love going to school everyday. But I get even more excited when I come back home to ride my skate! (Character 2) Hello, my name is Maria! Pleased to meet you! I’m a cooker and I have lots of fun making pizzas! When I’m not cooking, I love to watch television. (Character 3) I’m Eric. How do you do? I’m a lawyer and I enjoy reading very much. (Character 4) Hi there! I’m Jessica! I work in a clothing store and I love to make-up. (Character 5) My name is Anthony. I’m too old to work…I can’t walk as much as I used to and my eyesight is getting worse…I can’t read anything anymore. (Character 6) Hi! I’m Annie and you? I’m only 5 years old. I love playing with my toys. (Character 7) My name is Inga. I live in a very cold country. It snows all the time!! I wish I lived near to a beach and could catch a suntan everyday.
(Character 8) Hey mate! I’m Waz…I often go to the beach, that’s why I have this amazing suntan…I love the sea, the waves, the shining sun… Character Description. Johnny is a kid, about 7 years old, white skin and dark hair, kind of Beatle, wearing shirts, tennis and baseball cap. Mary is a 50-year old woman, cook, fat, using a chef’s hat. Eric’s about 40, nicely dressed with a suit, holding an executive suitcase. Jessica is about 18 years old, tall and skinny, mini-skirt and tight shirt, lots of make-up in her face, and a long brilliant hair. Anthony is an old man, white hair and wrinkles, wearing an old-fashioned knit, curved back and featuring a somewhat sad look in his face. Annie is about 4 years old, still doesn’t go to school, short dress, funny hair, holds a doll to whom she cannot be separated to. Inga is a nice-looking 30-year old woman, white skin, blue eyes, blonde hair, wearing a scarf and cozy jacket, hands in her pockets, has a cold and is shaking, slightly curved. Finally, the last character is Waz, a surfer-boy, blonde hair, lots of tan, large white smile, wearing Bermudasshorts, t-shirt and beach sandals. Associated objects: Johnny: skate and backpack, Mary: rolling pin and TV, Eric: tie and book, Jessica: mini-skirt and lipstick, Anthony: glasses and cane, Annie: teddy bear and lollipop, Inga: warm gloves and rollerblades, Waz: surfboard, sunscreen). When the game actually begins, the characters are shown, and the objects start to appear one by one. The game is to drag each object to the character that the player believes is the correct “owner”. For each correct association, the player receives 1 point. This value is accumulated and is shown in the footer. The player only succeeds if he/her obtains at least 10 points. If that happens, the following message appears: Well done! You gathered enough points to move to the next level!
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1st lesson: Before opening a business, you must first know what people need or want and then you can define what you will sell…If all your customers were like Waz, do you think you should open a toy shop? Of course not! I can’t imagine Waz playing with Annies’s dolls…can you? On the other hand, if you sold sun lotions…maybe…. If the player doesn’t achieve at least 10 points, the following message appears: What a pity! You didn’t gather enough points to move to the next level. Try again! 1st lesson: Before opening a business, you must first know what people need or want and then you can define what you will sell…If all your customers were like Waz, do you think you should open a toy shop? Of course not! I can’t imagine Waz playing with Annies’s dolls…can you? On the other hand, if you sold sun lotions…maybe... (Variables in footer: time, money spent, money earned, account balance, points (all variables should appear inactivated, except for the variable “points”). This game script sample provides interesting discussion items for any researcher interested in coupling user-centered design processes with a game design process. In fact, in our multidisciplinary approach, we found many concepts, which apply to the process as being transversal to the academic field. For instance, the popular UCD concept of personas (Chang et al., 2008; Junior and Figueiras, 2005) is very clear in the game script presented, which was written mostly by business management researchers. Personas are fictitious user representations created in order to embody behaviors and motivations that a group of real users might express, representing them during the project development process. Personas are therefore a very similar concept to target marketing segmentation and it was
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interesting to see the scriptwriting using similar concepts to UCD as a real game issue.
Evaluation and Discussion The evaluation of this game has been initially conducted with two classes (children aged 9-11) at a local school. Overall there were 28 females and 21 males. In both classes, participants were randomly divided into two groups of equal dimension: a control group, composed of students who took a lesson on managing a business using traditional methods – blackboard, books and the lecture itself – and the experimental group, composed of students who played “SimCompany”. Each class was divided into three phases: •
•
•
A pretest phase, when students answered a random set of questions about the subject being taught (management) without being taught anything about it. The learning phase itself. It consisted of a traditional lesson in the control group and a “SimCompany” playing session, in the experimental group. The posttest phase, which consisted of students performing a similar posttest (but of course with different questions).
So, at the end of the class, students performed a posttest similar to the pretest, so that we could quantify their average degree of learning obtained by each. One way to measure the degree of learning (how much the students knowledge improved) obtained through a particular mode of education is quantified by the score (Mayo, 2007), which is calculated the following way: = (posttest% - pretest%) / (100% - pretest%),
where posttest% is the percentage of correct answers in the posttest and pretest% is the percentage
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
Table 1. Evolution of the students’ degree of learning . Pre-Test
Post-Test
Control Group (without SimCompany)
59.1
70.3
27%
Experimental Group (playing SimCompany)
57.2
77.4
47%
of correct answers in the pretest. The procedure for the control groups was similar, except that the teacher was asked to give the class about the exact same subject (business management concepts and entrepreneurship) but using traditional methods like the whiteboard and books. Table 1 shows the evolution from pre-tests to post-tests for each of these groups of students. The results refer to the pre and post-test percentage of correct answers; the right-most column shows the value. From this initial evaluation, it became clear that SimCompany is an effective game for teaching children general business management concepts: results showed a higher value for the experimental group than the control group. This is a step forward in designing technology that really helps children learn. Also from this initial study, we concluded that future work should include evaluating the game in more schools and students, as well as outlining general principles that can prove useful when designing this kind of games. This also contributes to a growing body of knowledge based on human-work interaction design. Therefore, we conducted a second round of more extensive evaluations, which included five more schools, with a total of ten classes and 231 students. And again, at each of the classes in every school, participants were randomly divided into two groups of equal dimension: a control
group, composed of students who took a lesson on managing a business using traditional methods – blackboard, books and the lecture itself – and the experimental group, composed of students who played “SimCompany” along with the teacher’s advice and lecturing. Table 2 shows the consolidated results from all the sessions. Results are similar to the initial evaluation results. We also noticed that the game was particularly effective among the groups of “weak” students, i.e. those students whose grading history showed worse results than the whole class average – although we didn’t measure this since it would require extensive data gathering. But the tendency was observable, especially taking into account the teachers observations during the game sessions (typically the different teachers involved in the sessions mentioned that worst students who don’t exhibit good results had met the learning goals). The levels of motivation, although difficult to quantify, were certainly easy to observe in practice – which again suggests the power of games as motivational tools.
CONCLUSION The main goal of this research was to conceive a new game that could promote the entrepreneurial spirit in children. However, during that process we
Table 2. Evolution of the students’ degree of learning, for the second round of the extended evaluation. Pre-Test
Post-Test
Control Group (without SimCompany)
54.1
68.2
31%
Experimental Group (playing SimCompany)
51.9
73.6
45%
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ended up collecting a body of knowledge regarding how business managers and teachers can act effectively, during a UCD game design process. It is now clear that as a result of the present ubiquitous environment and the sheer volume of their interaction with it, today’s students think and process information in a fundamentally different way from their predecessors. In this context, computer games have the potential to act as an effective learning tool. Some of the reasons that show its potential were analyzed through this research, and include the following: •
•
Scale: an online-based educational game can reach a much higher number of students than traditional educational methods. Its effectiveness also seems promising and shows positive improvements on the students learning rates, although more research is needed in order to correctly assess it. Availability: traditional educational lectures only occur at a pre-fixed time point, whereas educational games can be played during the children’s spare time at anytime. This is even more important if we think about the percentage of students who own smartphones, PDA’s and other computing devices that can also be used as effective ubiquitous learning tools.
Secondly, we presented an approach based on human-work interaction design concepts, involving different-background stakeholders who took a very active role in all stages of the process. This is a more expensive approach, but increases the odds of achieving a sound game, with clearly defined learning goals. In sum, professional game designers can achieve more effective results through a better understanding of the relationship between work-domain based empirical studies, and by adopting a work-based perspective of the everyday decision tasks which are taken everyday by business managers around the world.
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Finally, increasing the students’ motivation for learning is a goal that should be regarded on a “the-sooner-the-better” manner. An important research issue in education is also related to increasing the motivation and learning skills of poor students. Strong students will most likely adopt novel technologies, but poor students are the ones who deserve more attention. In this chapter, our contribution suggests that the use of this game has a stronger positive impact on poor students. The rich opportunities for improving educational digital programs are still far from being fully exploited. In this context, our research represents an important first step, since it presents a novel user interface for reducing the distance between students and knowledge.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS There are reasons to believe that the business, technological and social dimensions of games will continue to be key driving factors of the gaming billion-dollar industry. The process of creating those games, however, is still far from being optimal. One of the reasons for this is simply that professional designers often don’t have one of the following skills (although some have most of these and very few have all the skills): (i) visual design skills; (ii) programming and technical skills; (iii) knowledge of the educational curriculum and contents – and ideally they should all present these skills. However, it’s more natural to simply bring different-background persons to the project. Therefore, novel design approaches are needed, especially those approaches which are capable of effectively bringing together all these very different skills. As for future work, there are certainly many avenues of research on game design for educational goals. Whichever design approach is followed, it is essential to regard the game as an additional educational tool, rather than a solution for all problems. In particular it would be very interesting to
A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Designing Business Management Games
study how can we design educational games that promote a more collaborative style of learning. Putting students interacting with each other would be particularly useful for learning complex sets of concepts, such as those present in the business management fields. One of the most interesting success factors of educational games like SimCompany is related to its availability, as we mentioned in the previous section. This opens up the power of educational mobile games as another promising field of research, since it could exploit this factor to a further extent.
REFERENCES Baltra, A. (1990). Language learning through video adventure games. Simulation & Gaming, 4, 445–452. doi:10.1177/104687819002100408 Campbell, B. J., Brady, M. P., & Linehan, S. (1991). Effects of peer-mediated instruction on the acquisition and generalization of written capitalization skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24(1), 6–14. doi:10.1177/002221949102400103 Chang, Y., Lim, Y., & Stolterman, E. (2008). Personas: from theory to practices. In Proceedings of the 5th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer interaction: Building Bridges, NordiCHI’08 (Vol. 358, pp. 439-442). Lund, Sweden, October 20-22, 2008). New York, NY: ACM Press. Clemmensen, T., Orngreen, R., & Pejtersen, A. M. (2005). Describing Users in Contexts: Perspectives on Human-Work Interaction Design. Workshop in Proceedings of Interact’05. Dix, A., Finlay, J., Abowd, G., & Beale, R. (2004). Human-Computer Interaction (3rd ed.). Prentice-Hall.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: BasicBooks. Junior, P. T., & Filgueiras, L. V. (2005). User modeling with personas. In Proceedings of the 2005 Latin American Conference on HumanComputer interaction. CLIHC ‘05 (Vol. 124, pp. 277-282). Cuernavaca, Mexico, October 23-26, 2005). New York, NY: ACM Press. Kafai, Y. B. (1995). Minds in play: Video game design as a context for children’s learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lee, J., Luchini, K., Michael, B., Norris, C., & Soloway, E. (2004). More than just fun and games: assessing the value of educational video games in the classroom. In CHI’04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Vienna, Austria, April 24-29, 2004). Lin, Y.-H. (2007). Integrating Scenarios of Video Games into Classroom Instruction. In Information Technologies and Applications in Education. ISITAE’07. Maxis Spore. spore.ea.com (2006). Mayo, M. J. (2007). Games for science and engineering education. Communications of the ACM, 50(7), 30–35. doi:10.1145/1272516.1272536 Nousiainen, T. (2008). Children’s Involvement in the Design of Game-Based Learning Environments. PhD thesis, University of Jyvaskyla. Papert, S. (1996). The Connected Family: Bridging the Digital Generation Gap. Longstreet Press. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Everett, J. (2003). Building a business simulation for kids: the making of Disney’s hot shot business. Computers and Entertainment, 1(1), 1–9.
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Zhou, L., Xie, Y., Wild, N., & Hunt, C. (2008). Learning and practicing supply chain management strategies from a business simulation game: a comprehensive supply chain simulation. In S. Mason, R. Hill, L. Mönch, & O. Rose (Eds.), Proceedings of the 40th Conference on Winter Simulation: Winter Simulation Conference (pp. 3534-2542). Miami, Florida, December 07-10, 2008).
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Design Principles: A set of guidelines or heuristics that can guide the interface designer towards a usable solution.
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Human-Computer Interaction: The study of interaction between people (users) and computers. It is often regarded as the intersection of computer science, behavioral sciences, design and several other fields of study. Interface: The way a user interacts with a product, what he or she does, and how it responds. Interface Design: The overall process of designing how a user will be able to interact with a system/site Usability: The study of the ease with which people can employ a particular tool or other humanmade object in order to achieve a particular goal.
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Chapter 10
Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction Chien Yu Mississippi State University, USA Anthony A. Olinzock Mississippi State University, USA
ABSTRACT The purpose of this chapter is to provide the classroom teachers with the basic tools and fundamentals necessary to create instructional games targeted to specific courses and/or instructional objectives. By discussing the trends and issues related to today’s teaching and learning environment, the authors review the benefits of using educational games in classrooms, and provide some strategies and guidelines for creating computer games for classroom instruction. Along with discussing the fundamental issues and considerations, the authors discuss some of the challenges and impact of computer games in classrooms. Additional examples drawn from literature are also included to illustrate the use of games in education and the strategies of effective instruction.
INTRODUCTION The new generation of learners, frequently referred to as ‘digital natives’ (Prensky, 2006), are regularly immersed in a wide variety of new electronic media, and consequently, are developing knowledge and skills that increasingly diverge from those that are valued in school (Owston, et al, 2009). Among the many media artifacts of DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch010
the digital era, computer games are one popular and familiar medium to most young learners, and present an attractive and efficient means to bring new forms of contemporary digital literacies into the curriculum (Owston, et al, 2009). The widespread appeal of computer gaming to today’s students has motivated many educators to look for meaningful ways to understand the principles behind learning through games and the educational potential of gaming (de Castell & Jenson, 2003). The development of computer
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Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction
games in education is vast and unlimited; good games have to be designed and developed aligned with specific educational standards and objectives and field-tested in the appropriate educational settings. To be effective, educational games designed to assist instructors have to complement the curriculum; include a variety of potential situations at various levels of difficulty; provide clear instructions, prompts, feedback, and help; use appropriate media and technology to promote learning, and include a way to evaluate the ability of the user related to the objective Games with the effective use of pedagogical design principles can provide students a variety of learning experience. However, many of the commercial products can be very expensive; some require specific computer architecture and software, and may not be aligned with course objectives. An effective classroom game must complement specific courses objectives since it is not designed to just engage, motivate, and entertain students, but to assist the learner in meeting a specific objective by completing an activity designed to reach a goal. Gaming must motivate the learner to want to complete specific activities by using instructional methods that make learning fun and entertaining while complementing other classroom activities. With a little skill and training, classroom teachers can use software such as Microsoft Office which is commonly available in most educational environments, to develop original instructional games. The purpose of this chapter is to provide classroom teachers with the basic tools necessary to create instructional games targeted to specific courses and/or instructional objectives. By discussing the trends and issues of today’s teaching and learning, the authors review the benefit of using educational games in classrooms and attempt to provide some strategies and guidelines for creating games for instruction. By outlining some fundamental issues and considerations, the authors discuss some challenges and impacts of computer games in classrooms. Additional examples drawn from literature are also
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included to illustrate the use of games in education and the strategies of effective instruction.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS The inclusion of educational gaming has become an important component of instructional methodology, and a plethora of computer games are available to complement a variety of instructional areas. Educational games can be used in variety of instructional modes, from whole class to individual activities, and are an effective way to gain student attention to learn a specific topic or skill (Gredler, 2004). Well-designed games are quite challenging for the players while, at the same time, requiring the application of particular knowledge or skills (Smaldino, Lowther, & Russell, 2008). There are many advantages of using educational games. According to Gredler (2004), educational games may fulfill any of the following purposes: 1) to practice and/or refine already acquired knowledge and skills, 2) to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge or skills, 3) to serve as a summation or review, and 4) to develop new relationships among concepts and principles. Games with the effective use of pedagogical design principles allow the teacher to address various learning styles. Therefore, students are quickly engaged in learning, and teachers address the learning needs of various age groups, cultures, learners, and learners with disabilities. Games can be motivating, challenging and fun to play. “Games are competitive exercises in which the objective is to win, and players must apply subject matter of other relevant knowledge in an effort to advance in the exercise and win” (Gredler, 2004, p. 571). Games create opportunities for situated learning by providing immersive and motivating contexts for players to engage in a wide variety of activities and to develop and practice the skills necessary to be successful in those activities (Owston, et al, 2009). Games may
Creating Computer Games for Class Instruction
also be used to reward students for working hard or as a change of pace in the classroom. The literature identifies a close relationship between educational games and learning. Randel, Morris, Wetzel, and Whitehill (1992) stated that educational games can increase the motivation to learn. Terrell and Rendulic (1996) specifically indicated that games increase students’ internal motivation as well as their learning performances. Prensky (2003) pointed out that from the perspective of successful learning, motivation is an indispensable condition and that games just happen to provide such a condition. In their research, Schwabe and Göth (2005) applied games in their learning activities, which not only increase the motivation of the students but also increase the opportunity for them to interact with one another. Motivation is not the only advantage of games. Games can be used in variety of classroom settings as an effective way to gain student attention to learn a specific topic or skill (Smaldino, Lowther, & Russell, 2008). Good instructional games have to be designed to attract students, engage students, and reward students for achieving the planned objective. Because of the orientation to winning, games can be competitive unless caution is used, and the learning outcomes may be ‘lost’ because of the intention to win rather than to learn (Smaldino, et al., 2008). Sometimes, less able students may also find the game structure too fast or difficult to participate. In addition, some researchers (Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehall, 1992; Vogel et al., 2006) indicated that that they found no clear causal relationship between academic performance and the use of computer games. Another common skepticism of using computer games for learning purposes is the lack of an empirical framework for integrating computer game into classrooms. As Squire’s stated (as cited in Ke, 2008), bringing a computer game into classrooms may raise many issues. For example, playing games does not interest every student, and students may be distracted by game-playing, and not achieve the
learning goals (Miller, Lehman, & Koedinger, 1999). Furthermore, students may fail to extract intended knowledge from a complicated gaming environment (as cited in Ke, 2008), and some researchers (Smith & Mann, 2002) indicated making games where the objective is to facilitate students’ learning will risk sacrificing the game part along the way.
TRENDS, ISSUES AND CONCERNS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING The development and introduction of appropriate games has to complement and promote learning so that students can play to learn, and teachers can address a multitude of learning styles while having students demonstrate mastery of specific content. Given the potential benefits of instructional games, an increasing number of educators and instructional designers are developing and utilizing computer games for use in K-12, higher education, and business and industry settings to facilitate the achievement of a variety of learning outcomes. However, the problem is that little research is available related to how established learning theories and instructional strategies are being applied when designing educational games. The following components are seen by the authors as important trends, issues and concerns associated with computer games for teaching and learning.
Integrating Edutainment (Gaming-Based Learning) The use of educational games in learning environments is an increasingly relevant trend. According to Etuk (2008), the use of games in education, also known as edutainment, began around 1984 when a teacher named Jan Davidson created a software program for use on a newfangled contraption called the Apple II personal computer. ‘‘Edutainment’’ is a hybrid genre that relies heavily on visual material, on narrative or game-like formats, and on
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more informal, less didactic styles of address (as cited in Kara & Yesilyurt, 2008). The purpose of edutainment is to attract and hold the attention of the learners by engaging their emotions through a computer monitor full of vividly colored animations. It involves an interactive pedagogy and, totally depends on an obsessive insistence that learning is inevitably ‘‘fun’’ (Kara & Yesilyurt, 2008). Games and schooling were very separate in the past. However, according to the 2006 America’s Digital Schools research report (as cited in Renwick, 2006), school districts report using 27,898 portable gaming devices in 2006, and estimate that the number would grow to 148,451 units in 2011. The latest findings by the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) (2009), representing US computer and video game publishers, revealed that 68% of American households play computer or video games (as cited in Paraskeva, Mysirlaki, & Papagianni, 2010). Since games can intrinsically motivate students, even new generations of more powerful devices are emerging, and the trend of gaming-based learning will likely continue to reach students and get them more interested in learning, and computer games may soon be widely integrated in schools.
Fostering Educational Theories-Constructivism Constructivist learning theories posit that knowledge is built by the learner, not supplied by the teacher (as cited in Kebritchi & Hirumi, 2008). The constructivist view of teaching and learning is a commonly accepted framework for developing appropriate strategies for promoting studentcentered learning environments (Goldman & Torrisi-Steele, 2002). According to Savery and Duffy (1996), effective instructional design of multimedia interactivities may be based on eight constructivist principles. They are:
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Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem. Support the learner in developing ownership for the overall problem or task. Design an authentic task. Design the task and learning environment to reflect the complexity of the environment that students should be able to function in at the end of learning. Give the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution. Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner’s thinking. Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts. Provide opportunity for, and support reflection on, both the content learned, and the learning process itself (p. 3).
Hypermedia technologies facilitate constructivist approaches (Moreno-Ger, et al, 2008). The concept of constructivist learning could have important implications for the use of computer games. It is aimed at fostering and guiding learning and activating cognitive processing that leads to understanding. Shen (2008) pointed out that educational computer games can be designed for use in an environment that allows students to apply the knowledge they have acquired. For example, the principle of constructivism is suitable for the environment of business simulation games because the users put the existing business management knowledge to use in order to make use of the software to establish a new concept and emphasize on the importance of interaction between teachers and students. How to foster constructive learning becomes a major concern for developing educational computer games.
Promoting Learning Styles Kovalchick & Dawson (2004) state, “Learning styles are the diverse ways in which people take in, process, and understand information” (p. 418).
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It is important to understand different learning styles possessed by the learners. Litchfield (1993) indicates, “…matching learning style with design of instruction was important for both achievement and positive attitudes” (p. 5). The use of computer games in education can increase an instructor’s ability to propose and execute teaching strategies that cater to a variety of learning styles. The use of computer games can facilitate learning by providing a unique opportunity to notice and adjust to the differences in every person. Teachers can use computer games to develop and deliver instruction to a variety of learners with diverse learning styles. Educators need to know that one size does not fit all. One learner might learn best in a cooperative learning environment while another may achieve similar learning outcomes through self-study (Marlow, 2003). Therefore, a good computer game should be sensible and flexible to address individuals with different learning styles, and should include a variety of methods to accommodate individual needs.
Supporting E-Learning The innovation of emerging technologies has challenged traditional teaching and learning practices, and the concept of e-learning has been growing rapidly and greatly impacted on our educational system. E-learning fundamentally refers to educational processes that utilize information and communication technologies to mediate asynchronous as well as synchronous learning and teaching activities (Naidu, 2002; as cited in Jereb & Smitek, 2006). Since computer games depend heavily on the digital platform to present the information, the use of computer games has the potential to provide new supports to e-learning and to engage students in the process of teaching and learning. In order to do so, developers must apply pedagogical strategies when developing computer games. When designing effective gaming instruction
for e-learning developers must ensure that the computer games match the content and deliver e-learning successfully.
Evaluating Effectiveness of Computer Games and Classroom Assessment A very important part of any learning process is the assessment of the progress of the learning experience (Moreno-Ger, et al, 2008). The assessment and evaluation processes play an important role in education, and assessment has a profound impact on student’s attitude toward learning, and successful assessment is an ongoing cycle that involves the identification of outcomes, the gathering and analyzing of data, discussion, suggesting improvements, implementing changes, and reflection (Buzzzetto-More & Alade, 2006). Games are a very rich interactive medium, and this interactive behavior can be exploited for assessment purposes (Moreno-Ger, et al, 2008). The assessment of the activity of the student inside the game can be performed as an analysis of the states that the student went through during the game session. The use of computer games can provide an efficient and effective means of assessing teaching and learning effectiveness by supporting traditional, authentic, and alternative assessment. Instructional games not only support authentic assessment, but also allow greater learner expression and greater adaptive capabilities and accessibility. Thus, to enhance learning outcomes, it is important for educators to employ multiple assessment methods, other than testing, to facilitate and improve students’ learning outcomes.
Providing Collaborative Learning Hromek & Roffey (2009) conclude that collaborative learning leads to increases in academic outcomes, social skills, empathy, motivation, acceptance of diversity (racial, ethnic, physical), conflict resolution, self-esteem, self-control, posi-
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tive attitudes toward school, and critical thinking. Cooperative learning and cooperative group work have also been associated with lower levels of bullying, an increased ability to tolerate different perspectives on the same issue, and increased levels of assertive problem solving skills. Learning through collaboration is not something that simply takes place whenever learners come together, and collaborative learning combines individual and social processes (Hämäläinen, et al, 2006). In a collaborative learning process, a group of people construct a new understanding of the content they work on. Therefore, collaborative learning can be seen as a process of meaningful construction. Game-like learning environments can provide students opportunities to develop collaboration skills, and also help them to learn new concepts and synthesize new information (Colella, 2000). Learning in a group provides many opportunities to develop ideas, consolidate concepts and learn about social interaction (Robertson & Howells, 2008). The main idea of collaborative learning is that collaborative knowledge construction, coordination of different perspectives, commitment to joint goals, and shared evaluation of group activities enable a group to create something that goes beyond what any one individual could achieve alone (as cited in Hämäläinen, et al, 2006). A good computer game should foster collaboration among learners, and one central element for collaborative learning would be that the interaction enables multi-players to communicate and collaborate in the game sessions. Since the group communication improves group learning and performance, communication technology will be required to allow group members to communicate more easily, and help group members to generate more alternatives with more learning. As a result, computer-mediated communication will be a very critical tool if computer games are to enhance group performance and individual participant learning.
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Exercising Learner Control & Autonomy Learner control and autonomy is an important element to be considered when integrating computer games into classrooms. Doherty (1998) defines learner control as “the degree to which individuals control the path, pace, and/or contingencies of instruction” (¶ 3). Black, McCormick, James, and Pedder (2006) discuss that learner autonomy is highly important because ‘‘it implies that the learner can not only give meaning to the learning, but that she can also create new learning tools’’ (p. 129). One difference between game-based learning and traditional training methods is the role of the learner– whether the learner is put in a passive role. In game-based learning, the learner can be an active participant, who can control the path and pace of instruction. Lepper (1985) indicates that learner control may increase feelings of competence, self-determination, and intrinsic interest. Kinzie (1990) indicates that “exercising control over one’s learning can be in itself a valuable educational experience” (p. 6). Allowing the users free access to information may meet the needs of the learner and also positively impact attitudes about using the medium, or allowing the students to follow a specified path of information, choosing to revisit the information or to proceed onto the next step (Lawless & Brown, 1997). While some learner control can motivate students, too much can be confusing (as cited in Litchfield, 1993). Hazen (1985) suggests that the optimal degree of learner control should be determined by learner characteristics, the nature of the content, and the complexity of the learning task. Since some students may not be able to make effective use of learner control, in order to help learners make decisions over their own learning and build effective learning strategies, Jo (1993) provides the following recommendations for learner control to be integrated into the design of instruction:
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•
•
•
•
Control options should be clearly labeled to help learners use control options effectively. Immediate feedback, continuous advice on learners’ on-going progress and summaries of their uses of control options should be presented to help learners make “informed decisions” about their own learning. Basic requirement over important instructional components should be provided to learners in order to assure that they do not bypass the components. Prior to instruction, pre-training should be provided to learners to help them become familiar with the novel learning system with control options, perform conscious cognitive information processing, and understand objectives, procedures and values involved in building their own learning strategies (as cited in Jo, 1993).
Increasing Parents’ Awareness Although the computer games industry has expanded rapidly, one issue related to education from this development would be that many parents and educators observe computer gaming activities warily, suspicious of their unwarranted effect on students’ learning (Eow, et al, 2009). Their major concern is that involvement in gaming activities can have negative effects on students’ academic achievement (Smyth, 2007). Although the results of Karakus, et al.’s study (2008) reveal that some of the parents regulated their children’s game playing, it seems that parental control over their children’s game playing is not always very strict. Some of them impose restrictions, but the majority of them allow their children to play if the children do not exceed a time limit that is set for their play (Karakus, et al., 2008). Parental control is very important, because computer games including violent elements that might be detrimental to children’s cognitive and behavioral development. Since parents and children have different perceptions
and expectations concerning the appropriateness of computer game content (Karakus, et al, 2008), parents’ awareness of the games’ specific attributes and content need to be increased.
Aligning with State Standards Another advantage of gaming-based learning is that the gaming technology can be aligned with state standards and might help some of the schools in the region meet adequate yearly progress, because the use of computer games can help monitor the students, and as a result, can track students’ engagement as they meet required objectives. State objectives can provide minimal goals for technology and media integration; teachers must then integrate these goals throughout the curriculum so that computer games can be part of the instructional environment, not just a supplement to it.
DESIGNING CLASSROOM COMPUTER GAMES Prensky (2001) states that an effective educational game design must achieve a balance between fun and educational value. A key feature of instructional games is the opportunity to apply subject matter knowledge in a new context. Gaming provides learners a competitive environment in which they can follow prescribed rules as they meet a challenging educational goal. The cognitive challenge of games ranges from promoting simple motor skills (pointing, clicking, and selecting) to cognitive skills that require problem-solving and affective decision making. Examples of educational games span the range from simple computerized board games to interactive role-playing games that use techniques of artificial intelligence such as analyzing and interpreting the input of the user and adjusting the game accordingly.
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Gaming Focus/Genre
Simulation Games
When designing computer games for classroom settings, the developer must first choose a suitable genre for the games to develop, so that it is possible to devise a suitable language for describing the games, and thus to support the language with an appropriate program. Since the language is domain-specific, this will be very relevant in order to satisfy the different pedagogical requirements identified (Moreno-Ger, et al, 2008). The sophistication and difficulty of games can be varied and is only limited to the instructor’s creativity and technical skill level. The variety of games that could be developed included:
Simulation games provide the user with a model designed to represent real-life situations, and the user learns how the system functions to complete the phases of processing cycle: input, processing, and output. Because simulations are less structured and do not provide step-by-step instructions, the user must have already developed basic problem solving skills. Important characteristics of simulations are (Gredler, 2004): “a) an adequate model of the complex real-world situation with which the student interacts, b) a defined role for each participant, with responsibilities and constraints, c) a data-rich environment that permits students to execute a range of strategies, from targeted to ‘shotgun decision making, and d) feedback for participant actions in the form of changes in the problem or situation” (p. 571).
Problem-Solving Games Most problem-solving instructional games are designed to teach fundamental principles related to the topic being studied, to provide opportunities to see and apply those principles in meaningful situations, and to solve realistic problem-based situations with appropriate feedback and reinforcement. The emphasis of many games is the acquisition of problem-solving skills. The incorporation of a variety of media, today, enhances problem-solving games.
Problem-Solving Drill and Practice Games Most drill and practice games, regardless of the area of emphasis, follow a four-step process: presentation, practice, feedback, and reinforcement. Linear designed games present the same information to all users in the same sequence. Today, drill and practice software can also be developed that enables branching to take place so that specific needs of the user are addressed and it is not necessary for all users to complete the same sequence of activities.
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Visualization Games Visualization games generally integrate the use of computer graphics, animation, and/or other media to enhance instructional computer programs. Although visualization software can be quite elaborate, some of it is very simple, too, such as the graphic organizer. A graphic organizer is usually a one-page screen or form with blank areas for the student to fill in appropriate information or ideas. At the elementary level, it might be as simple as having students completing a form by dragging and dropping or copying and pasting pictures.
Instructional Videos Short instructional videos can be the basis for a game where the student watches the video and answers a series of questions, completes a problem situation, or writes a composition. The video can be made interactive with the student interacting at various points.
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General Steps for Classroom Computer Games
information that help the learner integrate the new information with ideas they already understand.
An effective classroom computer game must complement specific courses objectives. It is not designed just to engage, motivate, and entertain students. The design and development of computer games could be time-consuming, but the goal is to assist the learner in meeting a specific objective by engaging the learner in an activity designed to reach a goal, motivating the learner to want to complete specific activities, and using instructional methods that make learning fun and entertaining while complementing other classroom activities.
Step 4: Designing and Developing Gaming Activities
Step 1: Identify the Objectives
The fifth step is to field test any instructional games developed. Instructional games must be tested with a group similar to the intended audience to identify problems with the instruction or design to make the game better.
The first step is to identify the objectives for the game and/or each component of the game. Are the objectives aligned with a specific component of the course? The objectives provide a map for designing the instructional game and for developing the means to assess learner performance.
Step 2: Identify Achievements Met The second step is to identify what achievement will demonstrate that the objective has been met? What knowledge or skills have to be mastered? After determining the objectives for the game as a first step, students’ achievement should be carefully considered and weighed for a curriculum and a course.
Step 3: Identify Instructional Materials The third step is to identify instructional materials that will assist students in meeting instructional objectives, reinforcing instructional objectives, and providing remedial and/or advanced materials. The instructional materials may include all forms of instruction such as guides, student reading lists, PowerPoint presentation, and also include the
The fourth step is to plan and develop gaming activities that assist students in meeting specific instructional objectives. The activities must be based on sound learning theories and must address a variety of learning styles and levels. Instructors must be trained to use instructional software to develop games.
Step 5: Field-Testing
Step 6: Modifying the Game The sixth and final step involves making modification based on feedback from the field test in order to ensure the quality of the instructional gaming.
Sample Computer Games for Classroom Below are some ideas for simple computer games that the authors have developed using the Microsoft Office® software that teachers can construct for various education levels from early childhood to secondary education. The following are only a small sampling of the many types of games the authors have developed and that teachers can develop on their own. For example, •
Preschool students identify and name shapes and colors by dragging and dropping those shapes to various objects displayed on the computer screen. This ac-
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•
•
•
•
•
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tivity not only reinforces the learning of basic shapes and colors, but also aids in the psychomotor development required to complete the task. Students name and create fractions by clicking on parts of an object that represent the fraction identified. The teacher uses a problem template to specify the type and range of problems (addition using the numbers 0 to 5, for example) and random problems are generated within the specific parameters for the student to complete along with appropriate reinforcement when needed. Random worksheet can be developed for any learning level. A graphic organizer is used to have students identify words and pictures that begin with a specific letter Students complete and answer math problems displayed on electronic puzzle pieces and remove piece of the electronic puzzle piece with a correct answer. Solving the problem under the puzzle results in earning bonus points. Students solve electronic word problems by selecting letters of the alphabet to spell words from simple definitions. Learning the alphabet by interacting with the computer, singing, answering questions, pointing, etc. Electronic Jeopardy for any topic Electronic Tic-Tac-Toe for any topic** Electronic Three in a Row for any topic
**The step-by-step procedure how to design a ‘Tic-Tac-Toe’ game in PowerPoint® 2007 or 2010, is shown as Appendix A, is one of the sample computer games provided in this chapter for teacher to design and develop.
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CONCLUSION Games can be used in variety of classroom settings, from large group to individual activities, and can be an effective way to gain student attention to learn a specific topic or skill (Smaldino, Lowther, & Russell, 2008). The purpose of this chapter is to provide classroom teachers with the basic fundamentals necessary to create instructional games targeted to specific courses and/or instructional objectives, and to provide some guidelines for creating computer games for instruction. Through the introduction of computer games, students can play to learn, and teachers can demonstrate mastery of specific content demanding a high degree of accuracy and efficiency in the classroom. Games with the effective use of pedagogical design principles can provide students a variety of learning experience. Teachers can even design and develop the games using Microsoft Office software and specific applications such as Word®, Excel®, and PowerPoint®. Therefore, students can be quickly engaged in learning, and teachers can use instructional games to meet the learning needs of various age groups, cultures, learners, and learners with disabilities. Well-designed games are quite challenging for the players while, at the same time, requiring the application of particular knowledge or skills (Gredler, 2004). Games can be motivating, challenging and fun to play. In addition, the games can target specific course objectives. The development and introduction of appropriate games appears to complement and promote learning. In order to enhance game-based learning, it is vital for game developers to ground their designs on established learning and instructional theories, and to make sure related instructional events and experiences are integrated within the game so teachers can determine what factors have the greatest effect on learner motivation and achievement.
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TRADEMARKS Microsoft and the Office logo are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States and/or other countries.
REFERENCES Black, P., McCormick, R., James, M., & Pedder, D. (2006). Learning how to learn and assessment for learning: A theoretical inquiry. Research Papers in Education, 21(2), 119–132. doi:10.1080/02671520600615612 Colella, V. (2000). Participatory simulations: Building collaborative understanding through immersive dynamic modeling. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9(4), 471–500. doi:10.1207/ S15327809JLS0904_4 De Castell, S., & Jenson, J. (2003). Serious play. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 35(6), 649–665. doi:10.1080/0022027032000145552 Eow, Y. L., Ali, W., Mahmudb, R., & Baki, R. (2009). Form one students’ engagement with computer games and its effect on their academic achievement in a Malaysian secondary school. Computers & Education, 53, 1082–1091. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.013 Etuk, N. (2008). Educational gaming–From edutainment to Bona Fide 21st-century teaching tool. MultiMedia & Internet@Schools, 15(6), 10-13. Gredler, M. E. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationship to learning. In David, J. H. (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 571–582). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hämäläinen, R., Manninen, T., Järvelä, S., & Häkkinen, P. (2006). Learning to collaborate: Designing collaboration in a 3-D game environment. The Internet and Higher Education, 9, 47–61. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2005.12.004 Hromek, R., & Roffey, S. (2009). Promoting social and emotional learning with games: “It’s fun and we learn things. Simulation & Gaming, 40(5), 626–644. doi:10.1177/1046878109333793 Kara, Y., & Yesilyurt, S. (2008). Comparing the impacts of tutorial and edutainment software programs on students’ achievements, misconceptions, and attitudes towards biology. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 17, 32–41. doi:10.1007/s10956-007-9077-z Karakus, T., Inal, Y., & Cagiltay, K. (2008). A descriptive study of Turkish high school students’ game-playing characteristics and their considerations concerning the effects of games. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 2520–2529. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.011 Ke, F. (2008). A case study of computer gaming for math: Engaged learning from game play? Computers & Education, 51, 1609–1620. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2008.03.003 Kebritchi, M., & Hirumi, A. (2008). Examining the pedagogical foundations of modern educational computer games. Computers & Education, 51, 1729–1743. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.05.004 Miller, C. S., Lehman, J. F., & Koedinger, K. R. (1999). Goals and learning in microworlds. Cognitive Science, 23(3), 305–336. doi:10.1207/ s15516709cog2303_2 Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., Martínez-Ortiz, I., Sierra, J. L., & Fernández-Manjón, B. (2008). Educational game design for online education. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 2530–2540. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.012
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Owston, R., Wideman, H., & Ronda, N., S., & Brown, C. (2009). Computer game development as a literacy activity. Computers & Education, 53, 977–989. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.015 Paraskeva, F., Mysirlaki, S., & Papagianni, A. (2010). Multiplayer online games as educational tools: Facing new challenges in learning. Computers & Education, 54, 498–505. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2009.09.001 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game-based learning. Computer in Entertainment, 1(1), 21. doi:10.1145/950566.950596 Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me mom. I’m learning. St. Paul: Paragon House. Randel, J. M., Morris, B. A., Wetzel, C. D., & Whitehill, B. V. (1992). The effectiveness of games for educational purposes: A review of recent research. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3), 261–276. doi:10.1177/1046878192233001 Renwick, L. (2006). Tech Trends: Here are five creative uses of technology that should be implemented in your district. District Administration, 42(10), 40–44. Robertson, J., & Howells, C. (2008). Computer game design: Opportunities for successful learning. Computers & Education, 50, 559–578. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.09.020
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Schwabe, G., & Göth, C. (2005). Mobile learning with a mobile game: Design and motivational effects. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 204–216. doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2005.00128.x Shen, C. W. (2008). Technology and learning: Theory and practice. Taipei, Taipei: Psychology Publishing. Smaldino, S. E., Lowther, D. L., & Russell, J. D. (2008). Instructional technology and media for learning. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill-Prentice Hall. Smyth, J. M. (2007). Beyond self-selection in video game play: An experimental examination of the consequences of massively multiplayer online role-playing game play. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(5), 717–721. doi:10.1089/ cpb.2007.9963 Terrell, S., & Rendulic, P. (1996). Using computermanaged instructional software to increase motivation and achievement in elementary school children. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 26(3), 403–414. Vogel, J. F., Vogel, D. S., Cannon-Bowers, J., Bowers, C. A., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computer gaming and interactive simulations for learning: A metaanalysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(3), 229–243. doi:10.2190/FLHV-K4WA-WPVQ-H0YM
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APPENDIX A: TIC-TAC-TOE A simple game such as Tic-Tac-Toe can be used as a reinforcement and review activity for any class at any level, either as a large group activity or a small group activity. Among the many ways the authors have used this electronic game are to review and reinforce technical vocabulary, to facilitate the development of problem-solving skills, and to facilitate student collaboration. The focus of this activity was not the game, but rather the learning objective. The game was used to facilitate the learning of the objective.
Step-by-Step Procedures The following step-by-step procedures describe the construction of an electronic ‘Tic-Tac-Toe’ computer game in PowerPoint 2007 or 2010. 1. Open PowerPoint 2007 or 2010. Change the layout of the default title slide to “Blank Slide.” Display the gridlines by clicking the View Tab, and in the Show/Hide Group, select Gridlines. 2. Draw the Tic-Tac-Toe board using auto shapes. Use Word Art to insert the small “x” as shown in the first section in Figure 1. Change the font size to 20 points. 3. Use Word Art to enter a large “X” in box 1 as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1.
4. Click on the large “X” to select it. Animate the X for an entrance effect of “appear”: Animation/ Custom Animation/Effect/Entrance/Appear. 5. Add a trigger to have the large “X” appear when you click on the small “x” in box 1: Click on the arrow next to the effect in the Custom Animation Pane as shown in Figure 2 and select timing.
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Figure 2.
6. When the “Appear dialog box” is displayed as shown in Figure 3, click the Timing Tab and click Start effect on click of “x” (be sure to select the small “x”). Figure 3.
7. A trigger symbol will be display next to the large “X”. Go into slide slow view. The large “X” will not be displayed, but if you point to the small “x” you will be able to click on it to display the large “X”. 164
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8. Exit slide show view. Click on the small “x” and hold down the shift key and click on the large “X” so that both are selected. Press Ctrl + D to duplicate the objects and move them into position in the second section. Repeat until all sections are complete as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4.
9. Go into slide show view and click on each small “x” at random to make sure the large “X” is displayed. 10. Repeat the previous steps using a small letter “o” and a large letter “O” and a different font color. The final Tic-Tax-Toe board will look like Figure 5 when in normal view. Figure 5.
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11. Go into slide show view and play Tic-Tac-Toe using the small letters “x” or “o” to display a character in any one of the boxes of the game board as shown in Figure 6. Figure 6.
You can use the game in many different ways such as forming teams for a class review session. When a team answers a question, the team selects an “x” or “o” until the game is won. The winning team might receive a bonus point on the next quiz for each game won. Individuals with a basic competency in Power Point can improve the game by placing the game board on a slide master, and adding a clear button on the slide so that the game can cleared and played over and over.
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Chapter 11
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability and Results of its Application Brenda Flores Muro Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico Eduardo César Contreras Delgado Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Mexico
ABSTRACT Present work develops a PC simulation game to conduct a study with the main objective to train children with psychomotor disabilities (coordination, equilibrium and movements). The child interacts with simulated environments which contain the needed stimulus to develop the eye-hand coordination, the child responds to the game with mouse movements by means of audible orders. The main objective for the present work is to enhance the child´s psychomotricity with more precise movements. Converting the game in a mean to children rehabilitation, this can be used in homes aided by child´s parents. Another purpose is to have a didactical tool for professors of special education.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch011
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
INTRODUCTION The Game Translated Into a Rehabilitation Therapy The purpose of this paper is to describe the followed process to develop a PC game oriented to help motorize disable people and its diverse variations. The first focus approach is on the study of different disabilities that may be present, the on development methods used to overcome such disability. And finally it describes the acquired experience by the investigation, game development, and the use of it to serve as a didactical tool. Final results are presented with the goal to increase the fine motor skill of impeded people. There are children with mental and/or physical disorders thus hinder them to interact with everyday´s objects. Creating a familiar dependency even taught for the simplest activities. Children with equilibrium deficiencies, such as coordination and motor, are considered as psychomotor handicapped. Games are one of the most important activities for a child. He or she depends on it to develop their physical growth, if there are limitations, he or she will be physically diminished. To play with the ball, run, jump, a person uses the gross motor skill, or the motor area that has relation with changes in equilibrium and position. To play games, such as “pin the tail on the donkey”, the child needs the fine motor skill, which is the one in charge of motor coordination The grade of difficulty to play will depend on the affection and disorder levels. A child with Down syndrome, who wants to play football, has the physical strength to hit the ball, but not the intellectual capacity to make accurate passes and be prepared according to the team’s strategy. An autistic child may play with a ball by repeated and continuous movements, the same happens with console games leading a character who jumps and moves in a scenario, this is done by pressing
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control buttons repetitively making it fun and easy for the child. Now let us to imagine a hearing impaired child interacting with a game, without the ability to listen instructions or sounds that are produce by the game. A person with physical disability, impeded to use his/her hands, cannot manipulate a mouse or a joystick, how does he/she will manipulate the controls to play? Another person with cerebral palsy who has no movement in his limbs, but his intellect allows him to fully understand how to use the program, and he has the desire to do it, how will he interact with the console or PC? It is very difficult to use a PC game or specialized software for children with physical disability. In some way they can interact, acquiring necessary skills, by stimuli present in games, because for them the sounds, colors, animations represent challenges to move to the next level. This motivates them to continue playing. This is another problem they must face. Thinking on them, we have created an environment that gives them access to console or PC games. In this case the game can serve as an alternative therapy for disabled children with coordination problems, such as balance and precision movements (psychomotor disabilities).
BACKGROUND The motor is defined as the combination of nerve and muscle functions that allow mobility and coordination among members, movement and locomotion. The motor can be classified into fine motor skill and gross motor skill. Gross motor skill or global, refers to control of general body muscle movements or so-called mass, it makes the child to move hi/her self by their own or being dependent at all. (Head control, to sit, roll over, crawl, stand, walk, jump and throw a ball).Fine motor skill, refers to the process of refining gross motor skill control. It is developed after gross motor skill, and is a result
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
of the maturation of the neurological system. The control of fine motor skills in childhood is a developmental process and is taken as an important event to assess their developmental age. The fine motor skills are developed through time, from experience and knowledge; they require normal intelligence (so that you can plan and execute a task), muscle strength, coordination and normal sensation (Beruelo, 1995). The balance, coordination and motor (or movement), help children master the space, move freely and perform various tasks, which are the basis of learning and knowledge development. This is called motor development, which takes the individual as a functional unit that has managed to use their body possibilities to create, communicate, solve problems, perceive, have feelings, relate, to doubt, to project feelings, understand, want, believe or show him/herself. The physical body development, Allows the acquisition of new and more complex motor skills (i.e. Movement and contact with objects), But These Are Not Ends in Themselves, INSTEAD they serve as a basis for learning and Development of Knowledge (psychomotor). (Le Boulch, 1986; Potel, 2003). This development, called “psychomotor”, in other words, developing the ability to use sensorial systems and skeletal muscle to move, will become the base for the development of all other areas in the growth of a child. It will be the basis for developing cognitive, language and later social and emotional development. (Isaac, 2001).
Important Factors in the Psychomotor a. Laterality: according to TOMAS, J. et al. (2005) the lateral dominance, dominance is understood as observable from one side of the body on the other (left or right), valuing the participation of sight and hearing, this is not factor determined arbitrarily by the individual or by the education, but imposed
b.
c.
d.
e.
physiologically by the brain, directed and controlled. Spatial location: the child has an area of “own”, plus a second space “outside”, which has to be structured. To this end, he introduces the basics of the space environment (such as proximity, separation, succession, continuity, etc.), Using his/her own body movement (Le Boulch, 1986). Graphical Activity: with graphics, takes place primarily based learning which will serve later for the acquisition and development of writing: body posture and head, movement of the hand and arm, direction of rotation, interruption of traces, continuous outlines, distribution the graph on the paper, etc. (Le Boulch, 1986). Precision movements, manipulation of small objects, hand coordination, finger control, coordination of movement of the hand-eye and quality of pressure. (Rigal, 2006). Motor Disability: Disability is defined as physical or motor difficulty to perform conventional motor activities, whether regional or general from body.
A child or youth with physical disabilities is that with a transitional or permanent alteration of a motor unit, due to poor functioning in the nervous system, muscle and / or bone-joint, or several of them related, that in different grades limits some activities which can be performed by people of the same age. The motor disability encompasses a wide range of disorders that have in common the alteration or loss of motor control. These disturbances range from mild to severe degrees (impossibility of all voluntary movement), from people with normal intelligence superior to people with severe mental retardation and with or without sensory disorders.
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Psychomotor Development Disorders It is a disorder or perturbation that affects the function of child’s body, in real symbolic and imaginary fields. Therefore affects personal relationships, actions, learning and behavior. Marks the child with an impression of powerlessness that is evident in the difficult functional modalities he/she has to adopt in each of his/her daily activities, suffers a real split between his/her thoughts, desires and ability to operate over the world. (Peña, 1999; Calmels, 2003). Following are some of the various disorders of psychomotor development: • •
•
• • • • • • •
Child Apraxias Autism / PDD. Autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (“Pervasive Developmental DisorderNot Otherwise specified,” or PDD-NOS) Motor weakness. Clumsiness of movements (poor movement and difficulty in implementation. Paratonía Synkinesias Tonic disharmony - motor Child Dyspraxia’s Cerebral Palsy Down Syndrome Rett Syndrome
PC Games Applied to Schools There have been studies on the utility that can have online games with elementary and secondary students as a didactic resource. It was of great interest to know the activities that could be simulated through computer games, in part or all of any subject in a course. Considering also the informal learning, since most games use the systemic approach where they should be in balance a group of variables so as to maintain a stable system (in this case the game) is not necessary to
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implement strategies not learned in a classroom. Some authors (Rios, et al, 2003; Navarro, 2002), consider recreational games, as educational software without being properly a game, incorporating some activities as such as. Traditionally games have been used in the classroom or on the patio (nor console neither PC) that has been accepted as (Morales, 2006) “Enseñanza universitaria para la educación ambiental”, Juegos colaborativos “Devorón” y “Temporal”(Balcare, 2007). Any change in the educational model fosters resistance, uncertainty, conflict between teachers and doubts of the results to be obtained by applying a game in their teaching practices By us agree with several authors (Gros, 2000; Herrera, 2005; Revuelta, 2004), have concluded that computer games play an important role in the child’s learning because: • • •
• •
They are highly motivating learning materials for children. They support the work of procedural issues. These programs are very flexible since it can be used in a specific course, workshop, as cross-cutting, such as variable credit, etc. in the different educative levels, secondary school, High school and College. Provide elements for the development of self-esteem of students. It is a material that is available to everybody, students, faculty and family.
Additionally in the assessment process for PC games, which are then displayed in the results section, we found that providing simulated environments to children with psychomotor disabilities: •
It is easy to try to make their rehabilitation, in which it is easier to execute the child activity or exercise.
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
•
• • •
•
It allows the child to develop practical skills, belonging to groups experiencing the same games as he/she Decreases resistance to develop activities Provides critical and active learning. By simulating environments, requires the child to establish a permanent equilibrium between the different elements that constitute the environment. By overcoming the challenges, it gives them confidence to solve various problems.
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Method for RACEM Development: Method The following describes the development stages:
Problem Identification There are children with intellectual and / or physical disabilities; therapy is required to attend rehabilitation in order to improve gross motor and / or fine. The 2000 national census 7.1% of the population are children and 5.9% are girls under 15 who have a disability. Of the total of disabled persons, 45.3% suffer motor impairments. For people with disabilities, the average number of approved years nationally is 3.8 grades, i.e., fourth grade of Elementary School In the last population census conducted by the INEGI, it was estimated that the state of Coahuila has a population of 46,558 people with disabilities, out of which 51.3% have a physical motor disability. 2,546 Of this population are children aged 0 to 14 years in Coahuila and 637 in Saltillo.
System Study It employs a systems approach to the study of all factors involved in developing the game, so it considers the following elements: a disabled child should go to therapy to improve fine motor
skill considering its attitude to achieve self-performance in the mean that surrounds him/her, that is, family, school and streets. To achieve this, the child has to go into a public institution of physical rehabilitation and/or to a School of special education making use of the special equipment and even of the information technologies. An important part is the family that gives care and economic resources. Of all the factors above, those that are part of the solution of the problem are selected, accordingly to the approach where IT is the main element. Next step is to define conceptually and in a gross mode, the control or study variables identified as problem: •
Fine motor skill: defined by the following factors ◦⊦ Laterality: the dominance of one side of the body that prevents an orientation from left to right in a specific space. ◦⊦ Precision movements: manipulation of small objects, hand coordination, finger control, coordination of movement of the hand-eye and quality of pressure. ◦⊦ Spatial location: difficulty in grab an object within his/her visual field, being unable to calculate the distance, pressing the eye-hand coordination. ◦⊦ Graphic activity: the process of communication through writing and reading is poorly developed. ◦⊦ Information technology: it is a fundamental part of the evaluation made to the children because they implement a PC game so that the majority of children with motor impairments can use. ◦⊦ The attitude: it is one of the most important variables in the person to carry out the therapy, since from it
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
◦⊦
depends that the person achieves the objectives and desired outcomes. Psychomotor therapy: PC game as an alternative to motor rehabilitation.
Modeling the Problem The method used for the development of the game is a combination of a research model with software development models. The “psychomotor therapy” (TPM), is related to fine motor (MF), the information technology (IT) and attitude (A) TPM = f (MF, TI, A) In concern of fine motor skills it is related to laterality (L), precision movements (MP), spatial location (EU) and graphical activity (AG). MF = f (L, MP, EU, AG)
General Objective Modify therapy for motor rehabilitation through a PC game as an alternative in the use of a simulated environment by promoting a positive attitude in children with fine motor skill problems.
Particular Objectives 1. To determine if laterality can be improved through a simulated environment with the computer. 2. Evaluate through a simulated environment, the form of coordination of thought and movement of the hand with the sight, as well as, the accuracy in the strokes of a child with psychomotor disturbances. 3. To estimate the accuracy of their eye-hand coordination for which the child can locate an object in space and calculate the distance to it in a simulated environment.
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4. Check that through a simulated environment, it can be improved the precision and accuracy of fine strokes in the script. 5. Confirm that the multimedia elements of a PC game encourage a positive attitude in children with motor problems to perform the therapy.
Specific Objective Distribute and implement the product obtained in multiple centers of the Secretariat of Public Education (Secretaría de Educación Pública) or any institution that needs it to improve fine motor skills.
Hypothesis H1: There is a positive relationship between therapy by means of a PC game and fine motor skills in a disabled child. H2: Information Technology through a game with multimedia elements influences to accept a fine motor therapy. H3: There is a positive attitude influenced by a game in a disabled child to accept a therapy.
Research Questions Q1: Laterality, spatial location, graphic activity and precision movements improves with a PC game? Q2: A good user interaction and multimedia on a PC game will make a disabled child to accept it as therapy? Q3: Can a PC game increase performance and improve attention for a disabled child to take the psychomotor therapy?
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Table 1. Methodological congruencies METHODOLOGIC TABLE OF CONGRUENCIES Variable
Factor
Fine Motor Laterality Spatial location
Indicator
Dimension
Identify right
Attempts, successes and errors
Identify left
Attempts, successes and errors
Identify UP
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Identify down
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Complete figures
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Graphical activity
Writing
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Draw outlines
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Precision Movements
Following trajectories
Excellent, very good, good, bad and very bad
Interest
1 nothing 2 little 3 average 4 much
Attention Behavior Attitude
enthusiasm Certainty
1 indifferent 2 apathetic 3 excited 1null 2 little 3 leave half 4 advanced 5 finished
Information of Technology
Multimedia
audio animation
excellent, very good, good, bad, very bad
user interaction
ease of use
excellent, very good, good, bad, very bad
friendly
excellent, very good, good, bad, very bad
Requirements and Specifications for Game Development Under the concept of determination of requirements by Sommerville (2005), it was proposed to develop software that serves as a game for use as an alternative therapy to support special education teachers and therapists in physical rehabilitation in the process of improvement of fine motor skills, for children with psychomotor problems. That can be an instrument of evaluation that measures the psychomotor development and to know the behavior on the therapy, by the usage of different media as stimuli to senses (images, videos, color, and interaction). Having a simple user graphical interface (with a child as a user) considering his/ her motor disabilities. “It is required a game that can be used as psychomotor therapy for children with disabilities
to develop the areas of laterality, spatial location, graphic activity and precision movements, that contains the necessary elements to assess the child’s development with the use of game, as well as to motivate the child to have the therapy in a fun way” The theme of the game is determined by dividing it into modules containing activities that correspond to areas of psychomotor development. The requirements are established according to the Congruence Table where, fine motor skills, attitude to therapy and the use of IT are identified as variables. (IT English)
Specification Determination The game specifications are determined based on the factors listed in the methodological consistency table, we have identified:
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Variable fine motor skills, laterality factor, an indicator to identify the right and left so the game should contain the image of an object that the child will move with the mouse, either to left or right according to an order issued by voice measured by the number of attempts made in the game, i.e. if 3 correct over 10, will produce a 30% of performance. With this metric it will be known the achieved psychomotor performance during the game usage. Another specification of the same variable is the spatial location, with the factor making strokes on shapes. For this there is a picture of, let us say, a plane, marked by a red oval, the child should follow the contour of the red line with the mouse pointer, that will be marking a yellow line on an invisible surface, that is the tolerance range, which indicates to the child by means of audio if he/she has made a mistake. Another specification of the same variable is the factor of precise movements, with the indicator follow trajectories. To do this is, a scenario is shown, where a small train has to be driven by the child using the mouse without leaving the tracks to reach its destination, if the train goes out of the road a voice warns the child. Another specification of the same variable is the graphical activity factor, with the indicator writing. To do this, you must register your name in the visitor’s book of a museum by drawing it with the mouse. Now we have the Information Technology variable that contains the multimedia factors with the indicators audio, animation and interaction with the user, with ease of use and user friendly factors, these factors should have high level of importance in the game. A database of images is needed for the different games and difficulty levels. It is need a set of audio files so that the child can understand orders, listening and classical melodies to improve attention and concentration accordingly to the music therapy theory. (Wesecky, et al. 2005; Whipple, 2004). For the help, audio
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Figure 1. Main menu of the game RACEM
and text files will be used; they may contain the instructions for each module or activity. Another variable is the attitude with attention and behavior factors, an increase of the curve for attention and a positive trend must be achieved, in the use of the game to have a good psychomotor development in the child, this is a subjective variable evaluated by the instructor.
General Description of the Game RACEM The game is an alternative tool for therapy for children with coordination, balance and movement problems. With the aim of having the child to interact in a fun way with the PC game, by using the mouse and audible commands, considering child’s physical and mental state in a simulated environment as real as possible to everyday world. It is also intended that the child has good control of their upper limbs and adequate postures to obtain balance and coordination responses closer to normal without making exaggerated and / or stereotyped movements. The game is mainly based on the daily activities performed by a child with motor disabilities; these activities are performed in a classroom with a teacher for special education.
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Figure 2. Bowling alleys (Module of coordination of precise movements)
Description of Modules Precision Movement Coordination Module (Street) This module contains activities for the child to coordinate the movements of his/her hands, control fingers, to coordinate the movement of the hand with the sight and quality of pressure. Party Room: The child places images in the correct place, with the game of pin the tail on the donkey. Bowling: It consists of trying to knock over the pins with the bowling ball. The child should take the ball with the mouse and slide it until he/ she have knocked over all the pins. (See Figure 2).
The aim is to develop the infant’s autonomy in the natural environment that surrounds him/her. These are the most representative activities undertaken by children with motor impairments in the classroom, this according to interviews with different managers and specialists of different CAM, Multi-Service Center in the city of Saltillo, Coahuila. •
• •
It is asked to the child a in a work-desk, to move and locate objects on the surface, up, down, left right. The child will follow trajectories indicated on a paper with a crayon or pencil. The child will move objects to specific points on a surface, regardless of the path.
RACEM covers four modules of activities that are used in motor therapies. It adapts to the child, depending on his/her condition and evolution of it, bringing new challenges to the implementation of different difficulty levels. The program contains tasks of: movement coordination, laterality, graphical activities and spatial location.
Laterality Module (Beach) The child will use his/her lateral domain (left or right), in conjunction with the sight and sound. It will help with child’s reading and writing. Cabin: Several scenarios are presented, where moving objects are shown. The child should follow the objects with the mouse until reach them. It has two levels of difficulty. Bay: The child should take a picture and move according to the given order, e.g. down, up, go to the right, etc. The child flights an aircraft in the air by driving it with the mouse like a ship at sea (see Figure 3). It has two levels of difficulty. Graphical Activity Module (Museum) The Children will use these activities to acquire and develop of writing: body posture and head, movement of the hand and arm, direction of rotation, interruption of traces, continuous outlines, distribution the graph on the paper, etc. Visitor Registration (Fine Trajectory): With the instructor’s aid, the child will write his name, the instructor will type child’s name, which will appear in a large scale for the child to draw with the mouse. This activity consists that using the
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Figure 3. Fly an airplane (laterality module)
Figure 4. Curve trajectory (module of graph activity)
spray, in the manner of Paint Brush type his/her name in different colors of his/her choice. Curvilinear trajectory: The child with the help of the mouse should follow a selected line; this line is part of a mountain, a stream, a road, following the entire trajectory from start to finish (see Figure 4). It has three levels of difficulty. Symmetrical or geometric trace. The game displays an image, which hides a geometric figure highlighted with a red line, which should be followed with the mouse. The user with the mouse makes a yellow line on a strip (hidden) which has an area of tolerance, if the child leave this strip, a voice message will instructs the child to return to the original path. It has three levels of difficulty.
accidents, receiving voice commands. It has two levels of difficulty. Fruit Tree: The child will collect the fruits of the trees, which need to be placed in different baskets according to their type. The child is prompted to choose a fruit from the tree; the fruit must be driven with the mouse to place it in a basket. The difficulty level is increased by having three fruit trees and placing each fruit in its respective basket, if he/she made a mistake, an audio message prompts to try again until get it right. It has three levels of difficulty. A very important factor is the music that accompanies each game, classical melodies were chosen accordingly to studies conducted with people with intellectual disabilities to improve their focus and concentration.
Spatial Location Module (Park) In this module, the child will develop the senses of sight and touch (eye-hand coordination), which provide spatial perceptions of size, shape, distance and direction of objects. Let us go travel Images are presented to the child (bus, train rides), which needs to be conducted by the right way (road, railroad tracks), the paths have different distances and shapes. The child must meet the objective to drive a bus on time, and without
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Evaluation of the Game in its Testing Phase In the Multi Service Center No. 3 (public school for special education) in Saltillo Coahuila Mexico, two psychomotor therapy specialists evaluated the game, the modules it contains, and each of the activities. As a result of the assessment, we found that the game could not only help children with motor problems, but achieve supporting other
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
children develop their motor skills, regardless of his condition, to cover aspects of fine motor skills development. These are the results of tests for three months of usage with about 36 children from multiple attention centers to children with motor deficiency. The multimedia elements caused impact at calling their interest and attention. In the population 70% of the children stay still at the computer. When listening to the audio began to play the game, the rest are children who cannot bear noise of any kind. The animations called attention to 84% of children, the rest are indifferent. These are examples related to activities of therapists and the RACEM game. It is explained the dynamics of therapy and then the dynamics of the game is explained too. These two are related to help children and help the therapist in the development of such activities. In the classroom, the children piece together a puzzle on a table and played bowling with aluminum cans and a ball on the ground, this is the physical activity used by teachers and therapists. When the child plays the game, in the module of precision movement coordination, the child identifies with the activity performed previously. For some of the children it was difficult to place the mouse on the desired point and dropped the image before it reached the right place. About 60% of children, showed improvement in their precision movements during the three months they constantly use the game. It was ask to the children to catch balls in motion rolling on the table. They were given a drawing of a child; the teacher told them to point the top, middle, bottom, left and right of the child. With the RACEM game, in laterality module, in the exercise of the cabin, children followed moving images, some children followed with the head, moving it to where the image was others throughout the body and the rest with the eyes, the hand and mouse. Several children when they did not reach the image with the mouse get desperate and demanded to change the game. In
Figure 5. Drive the school bus (module of spatial location)
the exercise of the bay, when instructions were given through audio, sometimes they did not listen and the instructor had to repeat them. Although children more attentive to the audio did not need it, others pointed to the object first and to where they wanted to take it on the screen, before doing it with the mouse. By using the game about the 40% of children coordinated by listening the indications and taking the object to where it was asked to leave for, and 55% managed to reach the moving image. The therapist guides the children to move objects on roads indicated on the workbench. Some children were pushing the object on the road, followed him on a zigzag going in and out of the path way until he/she reached the end point. In another exercise, classified objects by shape and color were placed in boxes. They performed the same tasks in the game with the integrated spatial location. Several children had difficulties to follow the road; some mixed the objects and other dropped images before reaching the desired place. About 65% of children in the game, Let us go travel, took the images for the right way and the fruit tree, 60% took the fruit to its place. The therapist provides drawings on paper with a specified path, ask to children to follow the lines with a color different to the one on the
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Table 2. Variable fine motor skill Laterality Identify left
Minimum 53
Average 60
€€€€€Maximum 83
Identify right
Minimum 53
Average 75
€€€€€Maximum 90
Table 3. Spatial location Identify up
Minimum 77
Average 87
Maximum 95
Identify down
Minimum 80
Average 83
Maximum 88
Complete figures
Minimum 70
Average 90
Maximum 100
drawing, several did color diagonal lines instead of horizontal and others followed the marked line with little accuracy. In the PC game they did the activities equivalent to those performed physically, with the integrated graphics activity module, some painted the entire space, or went out of the indicated area having to start again. 30% of the children were able to draw some letters of his/ her name, a 45% got to follow the line indicated in the images.
Obtained Results Game Usage on Public Education Institutions During a school year the game has been used by various institutions, like the Center for Rehabilitation and Special Education (CREE), Multiple Attention Service Centers; Benito Juárez, Saltillo, Carlos Espinoza. A population of 65 children with various disabilities who presenting motor problems, in the range of ages between and 12 years, in sessions of 30 minutes twice a week. A summary of data collected from the use of RACEM according to the methodological consistency table (Table 2).
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This factor is a dimensionless quantitative measurement scale represented in percent, is the hit ratio divided by the number of attempts. The minimum value refers to the smallest amount obtained by one child (lower limit of the frequency distribution curve), maximum refers to the greater quantity obtained by one child (upper limit of the distribution curve) and the mean refers to the frequency, which is the value obtained by most children. There are fluctuations in the results of each child, for example a child has an average of 65 in left laterality and 90 in right, the one-sixth of children show this discrepancy. In the domain of their laterality, right prevails and better results were obtained. In this factor, the indicator complete figures uses a qualitative scale, the assigned values depend on the observer. Indicators identified up and down have a quantitative scale as the laterality factor. We can realize that children find it easier to identify up than down. Since the game contains elements attractive to identify up and down, the mouse pointer takes the shape of a plane that is moved to a place determined by a voice command, it takes the object and placing it in its place, lesser values are obtained compared with completing figures, it consists in drag the mouse pointer by a determined figure, it
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
Table 4. Graphical activity Writing
Minimum 55
Average 67
Maximum 87
Draw outlines
Minimum 37
Average 80
Maximum 87
Table 5. Precision movements Following trajectories
Minimum 45
Average 75
Maximum 87
Table 6. Variable attitude Attention
Minimum 50
Average 75
Maximum 100
Behavior
Minimum 50
Average 75
Maximum 75
Table 7. Information Technology Multimedia Images
Minimum 50
Average 75
Maximum 75
Audio
Minimum 100
Average 100
Maximum 100
Animations
Minimum 50
Average 75
Maximum 75
Ease of use
Minimum 35
Average 75
Maximum 87
Information
Minimum 50
Average 80
Maximum 100
Table 8. User Interaction
is noticeable that factors attention and behavior have a big influence on this exercise. Probably the media items at this point are not as important as overcoming a challenge and gain the satisfaction of having solved a difficult problem. This factor is measured qualitatively for write and draw outlines indicators, assigning the highest value to excellent (5) and the lowest value to very bad (1) in order to calculate the frequency distribution curve. According to the results, children have greater difficulty in drawing boundaries than writing. The cause was not identified.
14% of children showed to have great difficulty in this game because it requires coordination (eye-hand-intellect) by definition psychomotor. 75% of child were able to maintain attention over an acceptable period, 83% of children were enthusiastic in their therapy. Multimedia factor assessment and its indicators are qualitative measurements, taken by the criterion of the observer in regard to acceptance, influence and motivation that these indicators had over the children with the game. The biggest impact was the audio, through the orders received by the child to guide him/her through the game and the
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RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
background music to soothe and maintain the child’s concentration. Similarly the evaluation of user interaction factor and its indicators are qualitative measures. The text information is addressed to the instructor to indicate the objectives to be covered by the child in the game, they identify that one-sixth of the instructors have difficulty accessing information due to the bad habit of not reading instructions. With regard to ease of use, it was used only a mouse, for some children, it was very difficult to manipulate the mouse at the beginning, with further usage their movements did improve.
ISSUES, CONTROVERSIES, PROBLEMS Issues There are few published case studies in our country, related with the given use for educational software in Special Education; there is very few published investigations regarding the use that disabled children do to PC or console games. In Latin America, some countries are beginning to incorporate in official manner the computer use in classrooms, also some researchers are starting to get interested in knowing the impact of video games in these people. In Europe the opposite happens, since there are various associations that have been concerned about the access to the computer and video game usage by disabled people. The acceptance of a videogame in our country as therapy is not easy, due to cultural development in which we are.
Problems The great limitations that had the use of games for PC in these children are that the peripheral devices are not the suitable ones and some games are too complex for those who suffer other types of disabilities added to the psychomotor ones.
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At this moment the development of peripheral devices, as they are special tablets, joystick`s, software of voice recognition, identifier of instructions through movement of the pupil, and some others. Are not economically accessible or that they are for sale in a general way in countries who develop them and if there are they are too expensive.
Controversy Cultural Level and Digital Gap Still and when the professors of the multiple attention centers are people with specialized knowledge in these education problems, they are not people who have adopted the NTI in their educative model. Because of in their places of work the conditions do not exist, access to TI, spaces designed for the adoption of a vanguard culture in the use of new technological tools that allow modernization and updates in models of learning centered in the student. Same that limits the adoption of projects like this one, within its classrooms of work.
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Solutions For RACEM adoption as rehabilitative therapy the process presented below was followed. At present, special education teachers work with printed booklets, teaching aids such as magazine clippings, posters and objects that are modified or adapted (balls, boats, etc.) for their therapies. Some teachers identified that content of their notebooks, could be adapted and used in development of multimedia applications. In identifying this need, we took on the task of visiting the CAM’s, and in one of them, we found the use of commercial educational software by one of the teachers in his therapies.
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
This provides a starting point, for the teachers to adopt the new Information Technology as a means of student-centered learning in their therapy. With which it was proceed to identify the specific needs of each type of therapy. For the specific case of this project, various exercises were identified that could be simulated using technological tools. Once identified, those activities that could be simulated through the collaboration of students in undergraduate courses related to IT, a prospective study was conducted in the subjects of research seminars. Manage to formalize a research and software development project. Going to the CAM’s who wish to be beneficed by the technological tool, inviting them to participate as experts in development, conditions and characteristics that those activities to be simulated by software shall comply. Together experts (professors of CAM) and students in IT careers, developed the application that contains the teacher’s suggested activities. Later, game usage evaluation parameters were defined for RACEM related with learning of children with psychomotor disabilities. The software was tested and quality audits were driven, after that it was taken to other schools by students of IT careers within a social service program, in which they did train teachers who adopted the use of software in their classrooms. Taking individual and collective records of student’s behavior in his/her psychomotor therapy. Describing the student’s progress and improvements within the school year on which RACEM game was adopted.
Recommendations It is recommended to increasing the use of the game, and not just limited to half an hour twice a week, as well as to train teachers in the use of it to increase its incorporation. Moreover, it is recommended game development accessible to disabled people, considering their physical and/or intellectual limitations, in
other words, develop fun games with minimal complexity degree. Promote with the media to inform the community regarding to, that handicapped children are capable to use video games as a mean for their development, so that the parents and teachers allows them access to this fun way of learn, and let them know the importance of those games for this kind of children. A touch board can be used, so that the child will have better moves, and will not depend on mouse, causing the use of his/her entire body.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS A trend for the future is that PC manufacturers construct peripherals as an option for people with disabilities, for them to use low-cost components based on ergonomic studies; and that in a future game developers place strategies to offer simple games chord to a handicapped person. It is also identified in the future a potential market, for developing games, console or PC with features tailored to people with diminished skills. We identify the feasibility of a paradigm, this is, that the elements contained in the game allows us to assess fine motor skills factors without being properly a Test or purely an assessment tool, it also helps to modify the teacher’s attitude regarding the adoption of new technologies We suggest further research to develop games for people with hearing and/or visual weakness. As well as, ergonomic studies for the use of levers, (see Fig. 7 and 8), rugs, panels or any other device that can be used by a videogame. Identifying the need to acquire, levers, rugs, panels or any other peripheral device, that can connect to the computer, adapted to satisfy these people needs, may open a large market for the acquisition of such devices. We suggested future researches to develop videogames for people with audition problems and/or visual weakness. We also have the sugges-
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Figure 6. Homemade joysticks with reusable components of a mouse
tion of elaborate ergonomic studies for the use of handles rugs, panels or other device that can be used in a videogame. Identifying the necessities of the acquisition of accessories such as handles rugs, panel or another peripheral device that can be connected with the computer adapted to the necessities of these people opening an ample market for the acquisition of these special accessories.
CONCLUSION The project development and its completion through the PC game RACEM, has let us establish several important points for development of future work. 1. The CIT’s as a crosscutting tool for support in all activities of the human being, forces us, as such, to develop multidisciplinary work. CIT’s as an important factor to understand the addressed problem. In the particular case of this project, it was a challenge, to conform a team with experts in the management of children therapies with psychomotor problems, school management, students that still are in the formative stages of engineering and we as investigators.
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Figure 7. Using a joystick for a disabled child psychomotor
2. To understand the situation to face, due to children with learning problems, or as in the case of this project, for people with disabilities. They are not a priority to take care by the governments, where the role can be fulfilled through the construction and installation of CAM’s 3. The possibility to develop an ad hoc methodology that allows, by one hand to understand the problem systemically, detect all possible interactions, which facilitates the development of the approach, and therefore a good survey of requirements for software development. 4. Awakening creativity in CIT engineering students, at the modular development of the games and achieve the simulation of environments that the teacher wanted to have through visual materials or adapted objects. 5. To maintain the interest on participating, by therapist teachers on the sessions, not just to develop software, but to furthermore to have a real interactive game for children with psychomotor disabilities. 6. To participate students who developed the PC Game RACEM, in the process by which
RACEM Game for PC for Use as Rehabilitation Therapy for Children with Psychomotor Disability
7. 8.
9.
10. 11.
12.
13.
it was evaluated by end users (teachers and students from the CAM’s) The development of assessment tools for end users and not to developers only The opportunity of the PC game RACEM developer, to observe the progress of fine motor skill exercises, ant the attitude shown by the child with psychomotor disability. It was a satisfaction for the students to know the functionality and appreciate the need to make a greater effort on the development of solutions trough PC games that allows the child to overcome his/her limitations. The observation of obtained results by students of CIT’s Engineering and therapist teachers from CAM’s facilitates further future work in collective projects, and allows to include other people (other CAM’s management, and even the parents of children with psychomotor disabilities). The impulse it takes to be an instrument of support for NGOs not only to CAM’s The discovery of a potential market of PC game development for people with different types of disabilities. With this game which contains the necessary elements, children develop skills that will be very useful to read and write (for those who will be able, accordingly to his/her disability), those that will help them to make precise movements in the real environment. We’re satisfied with the results of therapy during this year of use, since an improvement was noted (in the majority) with respect to their psychomotor, slowly, as in any therapy.
REFERENCES Abrams, S. (n.d.).A gaming frame of mind: digital contexts an academic implications; Educational Media International, (4), 335-347.
Albin, M., & Peña, P. (1999, April). El trastorno psicomotor y sus consecuencias. El Cisne, 9(104). Retrieved January 4, 2010, from http://www. kinema.8m.com /arti1.htm Balcarce, G., & Dávila, A. (2007). Evaluation of the Application of Shared Games: “Devorón and Temporal.” Educative electronic investigation magazine; 9(2), 1-20, 20p. Beruuelo, P. (1995). La pelota en el desarrollo psicomotor. Madrid: CEPE. Calmels, D. (2003). Qué es la Psicomotricidad? Los trastornos psicomotores y la práctica psicomotriz. Nociones Generales. Buenos Aires: Lumen. Gros, B. (2000). El ordenador invisible. Hacia la apropiación del ordenador en la enseñanza. Barcelona: Gedisa. Herrera, S. (2005). Juegos electrónicos y aprendizaje: el desafío de la “cultura digital.”. Sinéctica, 26, 65–73. INEGI. Discapacidad en México.(n.d.).Retrieved December 28, 2009, from http://cuentame.inegi. gob.mx /poblacion/ discapacidad.aspx?tema=P Isaac, G., & Valeria, M. (2001). El desarrollo normal de un niño en su totalidad (físico, mental, emocional y social) depende de su capacidad para moverse. Centro del desarrollo infantil juvenil. Retrieved January 9, 2010, from http://ceril.cl/ P36_D_psicomotor.htm Le Boulch, J. (1986). La educación psicomotriz en la escuela primaria: la psicokinética en la edad escolar. Buenos Aires: Paidos. Márquez F., López L., & Pichardo, V. (2008). A didactic proposal for student-centered learning. Apertura: Revista de Innovación Educativa (8), 66-74. Morales, M. (2006). Juegos didácticos en la enseñanza universitaria para la educación ambiental y formación de valores. Cuban Magazine of Chemistry, 18(2), 35–41.
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Navarro, V. (2002). El afán de jugar. Teoría y práctica de los juegos motores. Barcelona: INDE. Potel, C. (2003). El cuerpo y el agua. La mediación en psicomotricidad. Madrid: Akal. Revuelta, F. (2004). On-line games and videogames educative power, a new challenge to psycho-pedagogy in the information society Theory: Science. Art and Humanity, 13, 97–102. Ricord, O., & Levinson, R. (2005). Aprendizaje por computadora aplicado al programa Aptitudes para el Trabajo. Apertura: Revista de Innovación Educativa, 5(1), 92–102. Rigal, R. (2006). Educación motriz y educación psicomotriz en Preescolar y Primaria. Barcelona: INDE. Ríos, M., Blanco, A., Bonany, T., & Carol, N. (2003). Actividad física adaptada. El juego y los alumnos con discapacidad (4th ed.). Barcelona: Paidotribo. Sommerville, I. (2005). Integrated Requirements Engineering. IEEE Software, 22(1), 16–23. doi:10.1109/MS.2005.13 Tomas, J. (2005). Psicomotricidad y reeducación. Fundamentos, diagnóstico, reeducación psicomotriz y de lecto-escritura. Estimulación psicomotriz. Barcelona: Laertes. Vidler, M., & Parker, D. (2004). Auditory brainstem response threshold estimation: subjective threshold estimation by experienced clinicians in a computer simulation of the clinical test International. Journal of Audiology, 43(7), 417–429. doi:10.1080/14992020400050053 Wesecky, A., Opitz, J., & Reynolds, J. (2005). Music therapy for children with rett syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 25(S1), 253–257. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320250527
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Whipple, J. (2004). Music in Intervention for Children and Adolescents with Autism: A MetaAnalysis. Journal of Music Therapy, 4(2), 90–106.
ADDITIONAL READING Bolaños, C. (2001). Aprendiendo a estimular al niño. México: Limusa Noriega Editores. de Mattos Ferreira, C. A., & Thompson, R. (2002). Imagen e esquema corporal. São Paulo, Brasil: Editora Lovise. de Mattos Ferreira, C. A., Thompson, R., & Mousinho, R. (Eds.). (2002). Psicomotricidade Clínica. São Paulo: Lovise. Gardini, M., & Mas, C. (2001). Observar, conocer y actuar. Método de intervención en la relación y comportamiento del niño. Madrid: Pirámide. Lázaro Lázaro, A. (2002). Aulas multisensoriales y de psicomotricidad. Zaragoza: Mira Editores. llorca, M., Ramos, V., Sánchez, J., & Vega, A. (Eds.) (2002). La práctica psicomotriz: una propuesta educativa mediante el cuerpo y el movimiento. Málaga: Aljibe. Monge J., Méndez V. (2006). El papel de la computadora en la escuela: contraste entre teoría y práctica en docentes costarricenses de primaria y secundaria Educación, 30(2), 47-62. Suárez Riaño, B. (2002). Estrategias Psicomotoras. México: Limusa Noriega Editores. Valdés, M. (2002). Psicomotricidade Vivenciada: uma proposta metodológica para trabalhar em aula. Blumenau. Brasil: Editora Edifurb. Zapata, O. A. (2001). La psicomotricidad y el niño en la etapa preescolar. México: Trillas.
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Chapter 12
When Control Education is the Name of the Game António Pessoa de Magalhães Universidade do Porto, Portugal Bernard Riera Reims University, France Bruno Vigário Real Games Lda, Portugal
ABSTRACT This chapter is about a serious game named ITS PLC, an interactive simulation tool aimed at control systems education and training that includes the latest technologies from the video and computer games industry; namely, real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound. The goal of the game is to make five virtual industrial plants work correctly by using an external and real programmable logic controller (PLC) running the proper software, which the trainee must develop. The main purpose of the chapter is to testify the excellent properties of ITS PLC as an educational tool throughout a collection of three success stories: the first one shows how virtual scenarios can be used to investigate real problems; the usage of ITS PLC in an “edutainment” scenario is the theme of the second story; the third case testifies the benefits of ITS PLC in introductory automation programs.
INTRODUCTION Video games are fascinating, and probably inescapable, attracting kids to consoles as bees to honey. In a way or another, video games have impacted many kids’ lives during the last decades, and presently, playing computer games is a favourite leisure activity for most young (and DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch012
not so young) people. Whist recreation activities extremely immersive and addictive are a natural and understandable worry for parents and educators, computer games can teach young children to read and count, as well as help middle school students to learn about science and technology (Underwood, 2009), (The Entertainment Software Association, 2010) and (Kuo, 2007). Moreover, computer games are also enabling the creation of “synthetic environments” from where scientific
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research, education and training, career development and life-long learning are possible and effective. Thus, computer games technology is getting an increasing importance in the development of valuable professional tools for scientists, engineers and educators (Chryssolouris, Mavrikios, Fragos, Karabatsou & Pistiolis, 2002), (Irawati, Hong, Kim & Ko, 2008) and (Callaghan, McCusker, Losada, Harkin & Wilson, 2009). Software applications similar to computer games but explicitly designed to serve educational or training purposes, instead of entertainment, are commonly referred as “serious games” (Barnes, Encarnação & Shaw, 2009). Serious games are not new. For instance, a professional training flight simulator is a classical example of a serious game. In here, a trainee pilot using a real cockpit interface interacts with a computer based system representing a real world scenario (Shutao, Qitao, Jun & Junwei, 2009) and (Menendez & Bernard, 2001). Until recently, highly realistic but extremely expensive simulation systems, such as flight simulators, were only common in training environments where risk and cost are major concerns; for instance, in aerospace, military and nuclear plants scenarios (Karr, Reece & Franceschini, 1997) and (Gaskell, Husman, Collier & Chen, 2007). However, the great advances and the reduced costs of computing technologies and of the supporting hardware are making serious games common training tools (Chittaro & Ranon, 2009). For instance, light vehicles, trucks and bus simulators are increasingly being used for training in driving schools all over the world. Less mundane synthetic scenarios, concerning serious games in middle and high school education as well as professional skills training can be found in (Arango, Aziz, Esche & Chassapis, 2008), which is a very interesting survey on serious games in education and training. Any serious game is a very specific product, since it is oriented to a particular and sometimes uncommon subject or training procedure, and to a certain, probably restricted, class of users.
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This means that mastering computer science and modern computer games technology, together with being a great digital artist and having funny ideas, are necessary skills for developing a successful serious game, but they do not suffice. For developing a training application, programmers have to rely on a considerable guidance from experienced trainers to meet a whole set of important user requirements; namely, trainee motivation, easy to get effective tutoring, a natural interface, some form of gratification and room for experiment and creativity (Wong et al., 2007). Hence, the effective value of a serious game is mainly predicted by a small group of trainers at its development stage. Yet, in practice, this parameter, and the overall interest of the application, is judged by another, usually very different (Prensky, 2001), group of people, accepting or rejecting the developed game: the group of trainees. If trainees found the application uninteresting, then even the most technologically powerful and great digital art based serious game is condemned to not being voluntarily played anymore, ending up in the stack of boring stuff in CD format. Therefore, not surprisingly, most computer games producers consider “serious games” as a restricted, odd, nonpredictable and thus not particularly interesting market, concentrating their professional interests, business investments and research activities in “entertainment games”. Fortunately, this attitude leaves room, scientific matter and business opportunities to proficient enough multidisciplinary teams who want to grasp the opportunity. This chapter is precisely about “grasping the opportunity” in the context of the serious games business market; more specifically, in the context of designing and producing serious games for logic control training. Central to the chapter is the “ITS PLC Professional Edition” software package (Real Games, 2010) – hereafter commonly referred as ITS PLC –, an Interactive Training System (ITS) engineered and produced by a multidisciplinary team and aimed at Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) programming education and training.
When Control Education Is the Name of the Game
ITS PLC includes the latest technologies from the video and computer games industry, such as real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound. The scientific aim is to define new standards in the state of the art of synthetic environments for logic control training, providing a platform expected to be adopted by worldwide universities, technical schools and industrial enterprises. The business plan is to join the leadership of the business market of the serious games for control education, a goal mostly dependent of the acceptance from both trainers and trainees of ITS PLC as a “de facto” effective training tool. Hence, if one wants to give this scientific and business opportunity a name, then “control education” is the name of the game. The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows: The next section discuses the role of serious games in logic control training and education. Then, computer applications prior to the release of ITS PLC and based on interactive virtual scenarios devoted to logic control training are very briefly surveyed. This reveals the existence of room and educational interest for a new generation of training environments adopting modern computer games technologies and practices that can seek the leadership of the business market of serious game for logic control education. Giving form to this conclusion, the third section introduces “ITS PLC Professional Edition”, starting by presenting its major features and new contributions to control education and training. Then the software architecture is discussed, including the successful integration of the embedded graphics and physics engines, the developed digital art and the interfaces with the external controlling hardware and human users. The fourth section is a collection of success stories in the still very short lifetime of ITS PLC: the success of students and researchers that found a safe, inexpensive and effective way to investigate real problems using virtual scenarios; the success of teachers that took ITS PLC in “edutainment” activities (Rapeepisarn, Wong, Fung & Depickere, 2006) attracting young
children to automation programs; and finally, the success of undergraduate students in better understanding control science and its associated technology by using ITS PLC as a computer game. Section five concerns the near future, discussing some improvements that will enable ITS PLC to keep the leadership of the serious games for PLC programming education and training. The last section concludes the chapter summarizing the most important conclusions.
SERIOUS GAMES IN CONTROL EDUCATION AND TRAINING In the last decades industrial plants became highly automated. This means that most of the tasks done in the past by humans are now performed by computer controlled machines. Yet, this also means that industrial automation has introduced many social changes; namely, the demanding for more knowledge workers than labour workers and the dependence on electronic components and computer programs of a significant part of the economy of the developed countries. As such, industry and governments are committed in providing and preserving a modern work force that can efficiently answer to the actual and future technological demands of industrial automation. Effective education and training play a major role in this process. Industrial control can take two forms (Dunn, 2005): continuous control and sequential control. Roughly speaking, continuous control, which is not relevant to this chapter, means continuous adjustment of the input variables of the controlled system by continuous monitoring the process variables and comparing them to some reference values. Temperature, flow, level and pressure are typically controlled by continuous controllers. Sequential control is an event-based process, intended to force the controlled system to transit along a predefined set of discrete states, usually in a particular order and within a given time interval.
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A manufacturing system is a typical industrial application requiring sequential control, also known as logic control. Programmable Logic Controllers, or just PLCs, are a class of industrial computers particularly well adapted to sequential control (Bolton, 2009). Hence, manufacturing plants and most industrial systems are controlled by PLCs. PLC programming is expected to be a major skill for any industrial engineer. However, not rarely, engineering schools hear complaints from industry that their recent graduates are unprepared to program PLCs to perform small to medium complexity control tasks, even those very common in manufacturing and industrial environments. Traditionally, teachers argue that engineering schools do not have conditions to recreate industrial plants in their labs: training applications based on industrial plants are extremely costly, require considerable room and regular maintenance and are risky for the inexperienced trainees who are trying to making them work; therefore, academic training in PLC programming cannot cover much more than introductory problems and just on the basis of the classical “lights and switches boxes wired to a PLC” approach. While, at a certain extent, this may be an honest answer, it does not mean that nothing can be done to solve this important problem. In fact, synthetic plants and serious games provide the perfect solution. Wiring somehow a PLC to a computer and then programming the first so it can control a simulated industrial plant running on the second, is the genesis of serious games for PLC Figure 1. Plant simulation in Automation Studio
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programming education and training. This idea is definitely not new, and some variations are possible. For instance, the PLC may be a software component – an industrial softPLC or just a simulation program – running on the same or on another computer and exchanging data with the virtual plant via a logic interface. Another possibility is to include a “switch” in the simulation program allowing the synthetic environment to be controlled in “Manual” or “PLC” mode. In the first case, and by using the keyboard or the computer mouse, the trainee can send control commands to the synthetic plant, trying to control it manually. This “man in the loop” approach lets trainees conduct their own experiences in order to get a complete understanding of the plant and then specify the required control algorithm; hence, “manual control” serves mainly for logic control education and training. On the other hand, “PLC control” mode is a “hardware in the loop” approach, as the behaviour of the synthetic plant strictly depends on the program running on the PLC; hence, it serves mainly PLC programming education and training. A brief survey on synthetic systems for logic control training suffices to conclude that software developers do not share a common perception of what is worth to emulate and how. For instance, in the classical “Automation Studio” (AS) (Famic Technologies Inc., 2010), mostly oriented to circuit analysis, emulation means basically animation of schematic diagrams – Figure 1. Using this software, students can sketch control solutions
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for driving electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic actuators. Later, during simulation, schemas are “brought into life”, with components being animated and lines and wires color-coded according to their state. Yet, AS has recently included an “animated virtual systems” module, which allows implementing and integrating some common mechanical devices as conveyors, elevators and grippers from which small synthetic plants can be designed. Authors have also developed their own animated virtual systems in the past. Proprietary solutions have the great advantage of letting educators choose their systems and problems of interest; yet, as control educators are not professional programmers or digital artists, the emulated plants tend to be simple and not much visually attractive. “AUTOMGEN” (IRAI, 2010) is another classical commercial simulation software package devoted to control education and training. Some of its features are common to AS, but it is much more oriented to the development of user defined synthetic target systems, including 3D plants – Figure 2. Medium complexity plants can be designed and controlled with “AUTOMGEN”. However, the resulting plants have poor visual impact and 3D navigation is not intuitive.
Despite their differences, these and other similar software packages, such as “FluidSIM” and “CIROS”, both from FESTO Didactic, (Festo Didactic, 2010a) and (Festo Didactic, 2010b), share a great potential in control education and training. Yet, they also share the lack of great visual impact, natural navigation in 3D scenarios, and complete interactivity with the synthetic environments allowing introducing disturbances on the controlled plant and forcing failures in sensors and actuators. Three years ago, a multidisciplinary team skilled in industrial automation, computer programming, computer games technology and digital art took this conclusion as the existence of a potential business market in the serious games for logic control training. They establish their own company and concentrate their professional activity exclusively in developing the “ITS PLC Professional Edition” software package.
THE INTERACTIVE TRAINING ENVIRONMENT ITS PLC Professional Edition is a breakthrough product. Currently it is the only solution in the market that offers highly realistic synthetic sys-
Figure 2. Plant simulation in AUTOMGEM
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Figure 3. Plant simulation in ITS PLC. From left to right: sorting, batching, palletizer, pick & place and automated warehouse training systems
tems for training in automation. Using modern computer video games technology, it emulates five fully interactive industrial plants representing the most common PLC programming challenges in industry: sorting, batching, palletizing, pick and place and automated storage and retrieval – Figure 3. The mission of the trainees is to control these systems by devising and programming the correct control algorithms. Yet, at a higher level, ITS PLC is also very useful in training HMI (Human Machine Interface) design and programming, SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition), MES (Manufacturing Executing Systems) and even ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) systems (Kulga & Gilfanov, 2002) and (Mertins, Rabe & Gocev, 2008). ITS PLC uses modern video game technology for the real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound. This transports the trainees to a synthetic but convincing 3D world where they can freely and
easily navigate, enjoying all the details and functionalities of each machine while discovering a way to control it. The fully Interactivity of ITS PLC allows trainees to interact with virtual objects in a very similar way as they would in the real world, where the 3D sound contributes to the quality of the simulation making the experience even more pleasant and convincing. Surprisingly, to run ITS PLC it is not required a powerful computer. Any modern computer running Windows will do. An USB port is the gateway that dissociates synthetic and real words. In fact, synthetic system include virtual sensors and actuators that exchange data in real-time with the external PLC through an USB DAQ (Data Acquisition Board) – Figure 4. This option is very interesting as it provides a plug and play functionality that makes ITS PLC extremely portable and compatible with desktops, laptops and even netbooks.
Figure 4. ITS PLC interface with the external controller
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ITS PLC Professional Edition stands out from the competition not just due to its high quality simulation but also because it includes some other very interesting educational features. Namely: compatibility with any PLC of any brand; manual or PLC control of the plants; fault simulation and state forcing in sensors and actuators; total interaction allowing the introduction of disturbances in the plant; and supporting documentation easy to read and available in many languages.
The Development Designing and developing ITS PLC Professional Edition required many technical decisions; namely, about the selection of the development tools, engine development, content creation, and the tradeoff between technology integration and product functionalities. The goal of this section is to share the choices, revealing the technical foundations on which ITS PLC is based.
The Graphics Engine Choosing the game engine on which ITS PLC is based was the first decision. Commercial game engines used to power AAA titles offered all the technical features required, but their cost was incompatible with the project. On the other hand, free game engines were available, some of them open-source, but none offered what it was required: a robust, simple to use and highly flexible engine, capable of handling complex small scenes, and possible to customize and enhance according to the needs. At the time Microsoft was announcing the release of the first version of XNA (Walker, 2007), a framework that would allow developers to create games targeting the Windows and Xbox360 platforms seamlessly. The most promising features of XNA were the concept of a managed framework for game development using C# as the programming language, the complete integration with the free
version of Visual Studio C# Express Edition and a ready to use XNA Framework Content Pipeline that would allow developers and artists to easily import and process assets into their video games (Klucher, 2006). The XNA framework seemed to be a good option: a framework offering ready to use components for video game development that hides low-level technical details. As such XNA allows developers to focus more on the development of the video game rather than solving hard technical issues that are the base of any game engine. Even though the XNA Framework offered a lot, two very important parts required for the project were missing: an efficient way to present data to users – graphical user interface – and a tool to simulate rigid bodies and to perform collision detection – physics engine. At that moment, XNA was a very recent technology, and so it was impossible to find any robust third party component that would allow solving this problem. A custom graphical user interface component was designed and implemented and an already existent physics engine was used. After some testing, Visual Studio C# Express Edition proved to be valuable tool, even for nonprogrammers, for fast prototyping. All of the development team – even artists – started to use the “still in development” game engine to quickly test and fine-tune 3D models, materials, collision shapes and even to prototype game logic. Since the target market for ITS PLC Professional Edition is schools laboratories and training centers, a major requirement for the graphics engine was to be compatible with low-end computers while maintaining a good rendering quality. Yet, the graphics engine would have a minimum requirement: support for shader model 1.1. This is because the XNA framework does not support the traditional fixed function pipeline. The ITS PLC graphics engine; it is composed by a scene graph optimized by a frustum culling technique, a material system that efficiently manages batch of materials, and by a presentation
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system responsible to manage all the user interface controls. In addition it is capable of rendering more than one hundred models in computers with graphics cards compatible with the shader model 1.1. It is worth to note that it does not include any kind of hardware skinning animation since all the major animations are powered by the physics engine. Unfortunately the default lighting and material system component provided by XNA (Basic Effect class) did not suit the ITS PLC systems’ specification. So, it was necessary to develop a proprietary lighting and material system. This allowed for materials composed of albedo, reflection, detail, specular and ambient occlusion textures. All the materials also support UV offsets and scale allowing animation when necessary – a very useful functionality for simulating a conveyor belt or the transmission chains of a transelevator. Other important functionality is the ability of drawing translucid models.
The Content Pipeline The XNA Framework Content Pipeline was used extensively to import and process practically all kinds of content needed by our game engine. Although the content pipeline offers an extensive list of importers and processors they are all related to 2D, 3D and sound content. In the present case, the project required to get different types of content into the game engine like collision shapes, material descriptions and user interface skins. Using the XML content importer and processor (Savage, 2008) it was possible to get them in a pretty straightforward way. All this content is defined in a XML file – Listings 1 and 2 – that is imported by the XML Importer and after processed by our own processor. The developed 3D assets were created using the Autodesk Softimage software and then exported to the Autodesk fbx file format. After this, the content is prepared and imported
Listing 1. A pallet material file that is imported and processed by the XML content pipeline <XnaContent> SortingContent\Textures\Pallet.dds 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 <SpecularColor>0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 <Shininess>200
Listing 2. Another example of a XML file, this time used to describe a pallet collision shape <XnaContent> <Size>0.8027 0.0808 0.617 0 0 0 0 0 0
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into our game engine using a customized fbx processor – see http://blogs.msdn.com/shawnhar for essential XNA works.
Presentation Needs Unfortunately, during the development process, it was recognized that the XNA framework lacked an efficient way to create user interface (UI) controls. The solution was to develop a custom user interface library especially designed for ITS PLC. This includes the most common controls found on any user interface toolbox: text box control, button, label, panel, image, etc. All of them are skinable making their appearance easily defined through an XML file – Listing 3. The XML Content Pipeline importer and processor had a major role on this functionality. One of the most challenging features to implement in the UI library was the ability to support Unicode characters for the maximum number of languages possible. A special Font processor was
developed which is capable of handling huge character sets as the ones found on East Asian languages, such as Japanese and Korean – Figure 5. The developed GUI library supports almost any language, provided that it does not use a complex text layout system such as Thai, Hebrew or Arabic. At this moment ITS PLC is available in nine different languages that include West Europe languages and some East Asian languages such as Korean.
Physics and Instrumentation Engines ITS PLC Professional Edition also includes a physics engine and an instrumentation engine which is an original concept. Newton physics engine was selected for the project (The Newton physics engine software and the related information is available online at http://newtondynamics.com). At the time of the development, it offered all the features required
Listing 3. A button skin described in XML <XnaContent> SharedContent/Textures/Skin.png 936 105 64 16 936 151 64 16 936 196 64 16
Figure 5. User interface elements displayed in Korean
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for the scenes, it was robust, well documented and free to use. Yet, it was required to write a complete wrapper using the .NET Framework interoperability services (Microsoft Corporation, 2010) to use it from C#. The wrapper was also coded in C#. The instrumentation engine is an original concept (Vigário, Magalhães & Freitas, 2006). It emulates sensors and actuators and manages the communication between the software and the external hardware. It is composed of two distinct layers: the sensing layer and the communication layer. The sensing layer includes generic models of sensors and actuators which are used to mimic the real world equipments typically found on industrial environments. The communication layer manages the real-time data exchange between virtual sensors and actuators, and the external hardware: the I/O DAQ board. Yet, the communication layer was carefully designed to support future communication protocols and interoperability.
SUCCESS STORIES As previously mentioned, state of the art computer technology and great digital art do not suffice to create an effective serious game. Trainers, and specially trainees, who are the main and final judges of a serious game, also include a set of personal and hard to define values in their appreciation. The goal of this section is precisely to share some judgments about ITS PLC coming from different trainers and trainees who have been using it in relevant and particularly interesting training scenarios. For this, three very dissimilar success stories were selected. They are dissimilar in two senses: because they involve very different groups of trainees – senior engineering students, young children discovering automation, and first year automation program students – and because they took place in two countries – Portugal and France. The Portuguese story is presented first.
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First Story: Automated Warehouse Training A major requirement in modern manufacturing and service industries is materials and parts handling, moving, storage and retrieval. Hence, most of them include automated storage/retrieval systems, also known as automated warehouses. Automated warehouses are “pearls” of modern technology, merging many important engineering subjects and concepts. From the point of view of modern automation, the major concepts are control engineering and inventory management. Thus, to a greater or less extent, “automated warehouses” are part of every industrial or manufacturing engineering course curricula. Yet, an automated warehouse is the perfect case of a system too big and too expensive to have in a school lab. Furthermore, it is too risky (if even possible) for control students to go inside an automated warehouse trying to “debug” their PLC programs when these go wrong. Also not practical is to manually insert or remove items in an industrial automated warehouse to preset an inventory of interest before trying a particular management strategy – for instance, a given storage and retrieval policy. To get around these problems, a group of teachers from a Portuguese school of engineering decided, a few years ago, to suggest their automation engineering students to design and construct a reduced scale physical model of an automated warehouse as their final year project. In addition to provide a valuable experience to the involved students, the idea was to get an important resource in which future students could visualize and try both logic control strategies and inventory policies. The project took several years, engaging thus successive groups of students, and has resulted in the system represented in Figure 6. The warehouse is controlled by a modular, medium size, PLC and includes a HMI (Human Machine Interface). The PLC also interfaces with a SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System), from where operational parameters can be defined. Size, cost
When Control Education Is the Name of the Game
Figure 6. Warehouse physical model: front view (left) and rear view (right)
and technological constraints, together with some pedagogical interests, provide the following main features to the warehouse: •
•
• •
A single storage rack with 6*6 storage compartments, each of which measuring 105*105*220 mm, and thus compatible with standard “Suck” containers where materials are handled; A storage machine (the stacker or transelevator) driven by two voltage regulated DC motors coupled to rotating encoders, allowing the PLC closed loop motion control in both X and Y axis; An electro-pneumatically driven extracting / inserting device; Two groups of conveyers, allowing containers to move from an input station to a pickup place and from a deposit place to an output station. Each group includes two conveyers coupled by a transfer table.
From an educational point of view, the logic control of the warehouse is very interesting but far from trivial. More important, some PLC programming errors may lead to undesirable events, such as collisions, from where damages in conveyers and in some parts of the warehouse may result. Furthermore, testing different operational policies
for this warehouse is a fairly long and energy consuming task that cannot be done by more than one group of students at the same time. Finally, demonstrations concerning the warehouse, even if very straightforward, have to take place in the lab where it stays. These common problems when training is conducted on physical systems – risk, cost, limited resources and lack of portability – motivated the development of a virtual automated warehouse. This task was conducted a few years ago by one of the authors as his final year project. Figure 7 shows a view of this prize awarded 3D simulation. The great visual impact and easy navigation comes from the support of a graphics engine and the usage of photorealistic textures. Yet, three major functional differences exist between the real and the virtual models: in the virtual warehouse the stocker moves at a constant speed; the placement of the stocker at the storage positions is recognized by binary switches; and I/O signals exchange with the controlling PLC is based on an OPC (Open Process Control) server. The first and second differences exist because software simulation makes impossible to recreate the highfrequency and phase critical signals generated from the incremental encoders of the DC motors; the third difference eliminates the need to develop
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Figure 7. A view of the academic simulation (rear view)
an isolated interface PC card containing more than 40 digital I/O points. A weakness of the virtual system is its “animation based simulation”, which means that only predicted scenarios can be rendered. And since the number of possible states of the warehouse is very high, a considerable part of them was necessarily not considered for the simulation. As a consequence, training and demonstration scenarios based on the virtual system are much more limited that those based on the real one, which reduces somehow the visual impact and the educational value of the application. Another problem with the simulation is that exchanging data between a controlled system and its controller via an OPC server introduces some latency, which may be incompatible with the real-time requirements of some highly dynamic applications. In the simulated application, the latency do happens to be considerable. For this reason, in the virtual warehouse, everything moves much more slowly than in the real system. This is good for students who are trying to control the virtual system; but terribly boring for students who are more interested in assessing operating policies and other management problems.
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The perfect solution for training operating policies in warehouses was finally found in one of the ITS PLC synthetic training environments – Figure 8. In fact, ITS PLC includes a virtual but very realistic warehouse specially designed to be used in inventory training. Using the ITS PLC automated warehouse, storage and retrieval policies or storage and retrieval order sequencing and Figure 8. A view of the ITS PLC warehouse simulation
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scheduling can be easily tested and trained. To make this sort of training easier, the logic control of the emulated warehouse, not relevant in inventory training, is fairly simple, as the virtual system includes an embedded controller that continuously (and magically!) performs the complex and low level task of positioning the stacker at a reference provided by the user. Yet, for some trainers, this feature makes the logic control of the ITS PLC warehouse too simple and unrealistic, rather preferring the physical system for PLC programming training. This option clearly reflects the classic conclusion that real and synthetic target systems are not rival, but rather complementary training solutions (Marangé, Riera, Gellot, Nocent, Magalhães & Vigario, 2009). At least, for the moment. Table 1 resumes the pro and cons of the three training environments considered in this case study, underlying the stated conclusion.
Second Story: Discovering Automation In order to develop scientific and technical culture in Champagne-Ardenne district, several original and innovating activities have been proposed to enable young people to discover the magic world of automation – Figure 9. Since 2004, more than 400 children have come to the Reims Champagne-
Ardenne University (URCA) laboratories to know and try automatic systems. However, these parties are hard to organize, since they disturb a lot the normal activities of the University, require much planning and have considerable costs. In the case of automation parties, risk to trainees and to equipment is an additional and major concern (Marangé, Gellot & Riera, 2007) and (Marangé, Gellot & Riera, 2009), especially when most of the training is made with real, while reduced scale, physical systems, as it was initially the case. Whist training with real systems does provide to the trainee a perfect understating of automation problems and solutions, simulation with realistic and interactive virtual systems also offers its own advantages. Namely, it allows portable, low cost, and safe systems from which it is possible to introduce PLC and automation systems to novice trainees; in particular, to the basic-school kids who participate in automation parties and to the first grade students of the University, who are the heroes of this and of the next “success story”, respectively. Kids’ activities in present automation parties are similar to those they performed in the past with physical systems, and have in mind to let them discover three important concepts: the role of the logic control, how a PLC works, and why PLCs
Table 1. Comparison between training models Physical System
Academic Simulation
ITS PLC Simulation
Visual Impact
Very Good
Good
Very Good
Diversity of training scenarios
Very wide
Limited
Wide
Required logic control
Complete
Simplified
Very simplified
Suitability for logic control training
Very Good
Good
Fair
Suitability for Supervisory training
Good
Fair
Very Good
Suitability for operating policies training
Fair
Poor
Very Good
Suitability for demonstration purposes
High
Fair
Very High
Global educational value
Very High
Fair
High
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Figure 9. The magic world of Automation!
are better than humans. Yet, three main concepts must be observed: • • •
Participants must experiment and be the actors in demonstrations; Systems to control must not be too simple; Experiments must be funny, so they can be interesting and motivating for participants.
ITS PLC answers to all these requirements: participants can fully interact, without any risk, with the virtual systems; the emulated plants correspond to machines and processes having some functional, structural and behavioral complexity; and the “game style” of the software is very appealing to the participants. Putting a virtual plant in “manual mode” – for instance, the sorting system – and ask the trainees to find a way to switch on and off the virtual actuators in order to accomplish some mission – for instance, to move a box from the entrance Figure 10. HMI consoles for manual control
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conveyor to the left elevator – is the perfect way to introduce the role of logic control. In fact, following this approach, the trainees perceive that they use their eyes to know the state of the system, their hands to change the system state and their brains to devise and follow the correct sequence of actions. Although manual control is possible from the user interface of ITS PLC, special Human-Machine Interface (HMI) consoles were designed for the purpose – Figure 10. An eight switches console is helpful to command the sorting, batching, and the palletizer systems, while a console containing four switches and one joystick is interesting to command the “pick & place” system – the automated warehouse is not included in the training. Visualization consoles, containing sixteen LEDs each, were also developed. The purpose is to show the state of the virtual sensors. Visualization consoles are very important to let trainees understand how a PLC works. In this
When Control Education Is the Name of the Game
second training stage, trainees must repeat the previous experience, but this time by looking to the visualization console instead of the computer screen. Hence, by taking the place of the PLC, the trainee can understand its operation and the associated I/O signals. It is also possible to let the trainee feel the problems of control latency and the consequences of sensors failures. At the final stage, the trainee is invited to play against the PLC in trying to control the sorting system. A very simple program, sorting the pallets one by one and without a buffer management, runs in the PLC. Hence, a human can do better than the PLC by using a more clever control. This shows the role of PLC programmers, who do their best in optimizing the cycle time of an automatic system. Also shown is that a PLC running an optimized program has better performances than a human. However, a PLC cannot take into account unforeseen events. That is not the case of humans who are much more adaptive than PLCs. In 2009, several automation parties were performed in Champagne-Ardenne district using ITS PLC. They were an absolute success. All participants enjoyed the experience – Figure 11. Young people and adults worked together and the “game style” of the application was found much pleasant. This kind of experiment contributes to expand the technical and scientific culture to a large audience. Today, in France, young people is not much interested in scientific and technical studies (Ou-
risson, 2002) and (Porchet, 2002). Automation parties are expected to change this trend.
Third Story: First Practical Courses in Automation A similar approach – the same command and visualization consoles wired to a PC running ITS PLC –was followed in the first stage of practical courses for students of the first year licentiate degree in URCA’s “packaging” department. Since the main goal of these introductory practical courses is to illustrate basic automation concepts, the idea is to use ITS PLC for exemplifying and training some elementary logic concepts such as binary coding, Boolean logic, sequential logics, Huffman‘s synthesis method, and so on. Yet, in these courses, the students are required to fully understand the ITS PLC interface to the real world, that is to say, the role of the USB DAQ board supplied with ITS PLC that, in some exercises, is wired to the Human-Machine Interface consoles (for manual control), and in some others, to a PLC (for automatic control). As such, students assessment includes ITS PLC related questions such as “explain the role of the USB DAQ board included in the ITS PLC training package” or “to what can the DAQ board be wired and how?”. By the end of the module, before the final examination in December 2009, a preliminary study intended to evaluate the interest and the effective benefit of virtual systems for the train-
Figure 11. Introduction to automation with ITS PLC
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ing was carried out. This study was based on an individual and non-anonymous enquiry sent to the 37 students of the module. The educators were conscious that the reduced size of the sample and the heterogeneous students’ previous knowledge in automation would make impossible to have a formal statistical analysis; however, some global trends were expected to be observed. The enquiry included five questions, each of which to be answered with a number (not necessarily an integer) in the range 0 to 10. The first four questions concerned the “usability” of ITS PLC – i.e., how much reasonable and elegant was the interaction with the computer program. The last question concerned its “utility” – i.e., how much had the software contributed to the students’ learning. Three criteria were used for assessing usability: efficiency – to what extent does the software enable
the user to reach his/her goal; rapidity – how fast can the user reach his/her goal with a minimum cognitive effort; and satisfaction – the subjective user evaluation of the quality of the interaction. The four questions included in the inquiry about usability concerned: •
• • •
Ergonomics: capability of the software to be easily installed and used – which assesses “efficiency”; Quality of the simulation: graphics and sound – which assesses “satisfaction”; Understanding of the virtual systems behaviour – which (also) assesses “efficiency”; Serious games interest – which assesses “efficiency”, “rapidity” and “satisfaction”.
Table 2 quantifies the “usability” of ITS PLC from the point of view of the trainees. Average
Table 2. Students judgment about the “usability” of ITS PLC Question 1: Ergonomics AVRG
SD
Min
Max
Girls (20)
7,3
2,1
1,7
10
Boys (17)
7,5
1,5
5,5
10
Total (37)
7,4
1,8
1,7
10
AVRG
SD
Min
Max
Girls (20)
8,5
2,2
1,2
10
Boys (17)
8,4
1,8
4,8
10
Total (37)
8,4
1,9
1,2
10
Question 2: Quality
Question 3: Understanding AVRG
SD
Min
Max
Girls (20)
6,1
2,1
1,6
9,7
Boys (17)
6,8
1,4
4,9
10
Total (37)
6,4
1,8
1,6
10
Question 4: Serious game interest AVRG
SD
Min
Max
Girls (20)
7,2
2,3
2,1
10
Boys (17)
8
1,4
5,9
10
Total (37)
7,6
2
2,1
10
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(AVRG), standard deviation (SD), minimum (Min) and maximum (Max) values concerning Ergonomics, Quality, Understanding, and Serious games interest are presented. The data can be analysed by the students’ gender. Average values between 6.4 and 8.5 (in a scale ranging from 0 to 10) in the “usability” components means that, globally, students have found ITS PLC elegant and easy to use. The quality of the simulation was particularly well appreciated, ranking 8.4 in the average. The differences between boys and girls opinions may seem a bit odd; yet, they match the conclusions that visual cognition in 3D electronic games is different for boys and girls (Ziemek, 2006). The effective “utility” of a serious game is hard to judge since it must take into account both students’ and teacher’s points of view. For the teacher, this measure depends partially on the results obtained by the students, as they reflect most of the transfer of knowledge and know-how. In the present case, the results of this group of 37 students are a little bit better than in previous years,
but the difference is not much significant. For the students, “utility” was judged by the contribution of ITS PLC to “learning”; in particular, to the understanding of theoretical concepts. Table 3 resumes students’ opinions about the “utility” of ITS PLC. From there, it is possible to conclude that, in the average, students have considered that the software was useful to understand theoretical concepts. In spite of the great differences among students about their previous knowledge in automation, it would be interesting to investigate the correlation between students’ grades in the module and their utility measures. Since the inquiries were not anonymous, this was simple to do. Students’ marks were classified from the best to the worst, and samples including the best n students, ranging from n=7 to n=37 have been defined, ignoring thus reduced size samples. Then, for each sample, the average of the learning values provided by those n students was calculated. Figure 12 shows the result.
Table 3. Students judgment about the “utility” of ITS PLC Question 5: Learning AVRG
SD
Min
Max
Girls (20)
7,6
2,5
1,4
10
Boys (17)
8
1,8
3,5
10
Total (37)
7,8
2,2
1,4
10
Figure 12. Average learning versus sample size
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This graph must be carefully interpreted. However, the trend seems to indicate that more the students have got good marks, better is the learning feeling. Thus it confirms the utility value of ITS PLC expressed by students in the enquiry. It is worth emphasizing that these are preliminary results. Similar surveys following more rigorous statistical analysis and involving larger groups of students are expected to occur in the future trying to confirm this first analysis. Therefore, a major conclusion from the “success stories” presented is this section is that, in spite of its early age, ITS PLC is showing to have numerous applications areas and is proving to be an effective education and training tool in all of them. The future will certainly confirm this trend.
THE NEAR FUTURE ITS PLC Professional Edition is a mature and worldwide well accepted product available in nine languages, ranging from West European to East Asian. Additional translations will probably be available soon, as ITS PLC is presently being used in more than twenty countries by a wide range of different users: engineering and technical schools have found an interesting solution to introduce control and automation principles to young students; industrial training centers have discovered an invaluable, off the shelf, low cost, space saving and maintenance free professional training solution; and even scientist report they have found a valuable research aid in the field of supervisory and fault-tolerant control. Nevertheless, the supporting technology of ITS PLC is now three years old. During this period, video games technology, the key stone of synthetic systems, has evolved. Some advances are particularly helpful to design synthetic systems, since they facilitate, or even enable, the development of more complex industrial plants and the introduction of additional features in the already available training scenarios. For instance:
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the actual power of multithread physics on GPUs makes possible to include highly complex rigid bodies and dynamic fluids real-time simulations in synthetic systems; by using hardware instancing techniques, it is possible to handle hundreds or even thousands of 3D models simultaneously on a scene; inverse kinematics enables the incorporation of complex 3D animations that can realistically react to the environment. These are some features that were very hard or even impossible to explore three years ago. Although most of the ITS PLC technical support comes from video games technology, it also depends most on some others; for instance, on interfacing technologies. At this moment ITS PLC includes a DAQ board, which is the only available interface with an external PLC. Yet, several experimental prototypes based on TCP/ IP and OPC technologies are showing to be an interesting and efficient way to interface ITS PLC to third party controllers. In addition, the actual constraint in data exchange between ITS PLC and the external controller resulting from the exclusive support of binary data will be eliminated in the near future, and analog data exchange will also be possible. Thus, future editions of ITS PLC will provide more flexible and efficient ways to exchange data with third party hardware and software controlling devices. Considerable research and development is also being currently conducted in order to include new sensory and modern identification devices in future synthetic plants. This is because providing virtual scenarios that include RFID devices, bar code readers, displacement transducers or level sensors, will boost their usage and educational efficiency in any industrial automation program, probably defining a new state of the art for synthetic systems based training. Additional guidelines for product improvement are also being considered; however, these will only be revealed at the proper time. After all, every game has its own secrets...
When Control Education Is the Name of the Game
CONCLUSION Central to this chapter was the ITS PLC software package, a serious game that includes five training environments for PLC programming education and training. This software package was developed by a multidisciplinary engineering team particularly skilled in industrial automation, computer programming, computer games technology and digital art. The business plan was to join the leadership of the business market of the serious games for logic control education. Yet, this goal was mostly dependent of the acceptance of ITS PLC from both, trainers and trainees, as a “de facto” effective training tool, and its subsequent adoption by worldwide universities, technical schools and industrial enterprises. This ambition defined the highly demanding and breakthrough requirements, both educational and technical, for ITS PLC: highly realistic 3D synthetic systems representing five particularly relevant industrial plants; high quality graphics enabling full interactivity with trainees, including manual control, handling of moving parts and fault injection; design of virtual sensors and actuators that can exchange data in real-time with any PLC through an USB data acquisition board; usage of the latest technologies from the video and computer games industry, such as real-time 3D graphics, physics and sound; compatibility with modern but not extremely powerful computers, including desktops, laptops and even netbooks; supporting documentation easy to read and available in the most common spoken languages. The effective value of the product and its acceptance among trainers and trainees was testified by three very interesting cases studies from two countries. The first has shown how virtual scenarios complement real training systems and can be used to investigate real problems; the usage of ITS PLC in an “edutainment” scenario was presented as a second case; the third case has testified the benefits ITS PLC for a better understanding of
control science and its associated technology in introductory automation programs. The major concern for the near future is to keep ITS PLC as the best serious game for PLC programming education and training. As such, additional educational and technical features will be available in future versions of ITS PLC. These will be the result of adopting even more sophisticated computer games technology, more flexible PLCs interfaces and new virtual sensing devices.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT The work mentioned in the “French success stories” is integrated in the frame of the CPER project EDUCASCOL, and is supported by Champagne-Ardenne district and the association ACCUSTICA.
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Chapter 13
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience Karla Muñoz University of Ulster, UK Paul Mc Kevitt University of Ulster, UK Tom Lunney University of Ulster, UK Julieta Noguez Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico Luis Neri Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico
ABSTRACT Teaching methods must adapt to learners’ expectations. Computer game-based learning environments enable learning through experimentation and are inherently motivational. However, for identifying when learners achieve learning goals and providing suitable feedback, Intelligent Tutoring Systems must be used. Recognizing the learner’s affective state enables educational games to improve the learner’s experience or to distinguish relevant emotions. This chapter discusses the creation of an affective student model that infers the learner’s emotions from cognitive and motivational variables through observable behavior. The control-value theory of ‘achievement emotions’ provides a basis for this work. A Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) approach for affective student modeling, which is based on Dynamic Bayesian Networks, is discussed. The approach is tested through a prototyping study based on Wizard-of-Oz experiments and preliminary results are presented. The affective student model will be incorporated into PlayPhysics, an emotional game-based learning environment for teaching Physics. PRMs facilitate the design of student models with Bayesian Networks. The effectiveness of PlayPhysics will be evaluated by comparing the students’ learning gains and learning efficiencies. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch013
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Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
INTRODUCTION Space and flight simulators signaled the beginning of a new revolution for training, teaching and learning (Bergeron, 2006). Technology has made remarkable progress in computing and electronics, which have converged in the game development area. Students have grown up playing video games, exposed to a large quantity of visual and acoustic stimulus and inhabit a world strongly influenced by Information Technology (IT). As a result, achieving knowledge, understanding and motivation during the teaching-learning experience has become more challenging (Oblinger, 2004). The ultimate goal has been to create enhanced learning environments that will be able to deal successfully with the learners’ expectations. Intelligent gamebased learning environments, e.g. educational games, facilitate teaching through experience by offering immediate feedback and engaging the learner’s attention (Squire, 2003). As a result, an emotional link is established between the learner and the game. This feature results in these game environments becoming straightforward motivational tools. Game-based learning environments must follow design approaches and principles that make them capable of offering effective learning (Schaller, 2005). Learning goals must lead and encourage the learner’s exploration. An assessment criterion must be incorporated to evaluate the learner’s skills and performance, and to distinguish the knowledge topics that are understood and mastered by the student from those which are lacking. It is important to note that learning to play a game effectively does not ensure mastering the domain knowledge, since games are composed of a set of rules, which define the gameplay, that are not necessarily related to the learning content. Suitable feedback must be provided when a learning need is identified. Therefore, Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) are incorporated into the architecture of intelligent game learning environments (Conati & Maclaren, 2009), since
ITSs encourage independent learning and provide adaptable responses according to each student’s pace, form of learning and history of interaction. On the other hand, emotion has been shown to influence learning and performance. Emotion, cognition and motivation are deeply interrelated (Pekrun, Frenzel, Goetz, & Perry, 2007). Hence, research is focused on enhancing the learner’s understanding and engagement by intelligently and effectively managing the affective aspects of educational games. The aim is to communicate effectively an emotional state, which will change the learner’s disposition and emotional states to those that facilitate learning and understanding (Conati & Maclaren, 2009). However, to know if the desired effects will be achieved, it is necessary to enable these systems to identify the learner’s affective or motivational states. Finding a solution to this challenge has been the focus of several research areas, e.g. Affective Computing, ITSs and Game-based Learning Environments. Affective Computing focuses on enabling computers to express and recognize emotion (Picard et al., 2004). ITSs are currently being enhanced to incorporate the emotional dimension into their framework. This chapter focuses on the specific challenges of how to design effective game-based learning environments, how to identify the learner’s emotional state and how to adapt and respond to the learner’s actions and disposition. To attain this objective the state of the art of Intelligent Game Learning Environments, ITSs and Multimodal Output Adaptation related to Affective Computing is first discussed. An affective student model, which infers the learner’s emotional states from cognitive and motivational variables, is proposed. To infer emotion an approach focusing on analyzing the learner’s observable behavior, qualitatively and quantitatively, is applied. A methodology of designing an affective student model using Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs), e.g. Bayesian Networks (BNs), is described. The affective student model is based on the Control-Value theory of ‘achievement emotions‘. PlayPhysics,
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an emotional intelligent game-based learning environment for teaching Physics at undergraduate level, is introduced. To evaluate the affective student model and test the approach, a prototyping study based on Wizard-of-Oz experiments was carried out. Once the accuracy of the model has been verified, the model will be incorporated into the Olympia architecture. The Olympia architecture is described. PlayPhysics’ teaching effectiveness will be evaluated through the comparison of students’ learning gains and learning efficiencies. Finally, this chapter concludes by highlighting the advantages of using a PRMs approach for student modeling, applying game-based learning environments for teaching and learning and incorporating affective ITSs. A preliminary prototyping exercise was conducted with the affective student model to determine if the identified variables are sufficient to infer accurately the learner’s emotional state. When a reliable model of the learner’s emotional state has been developed, the research will focus on enabling PlayPhysics to provide a response that accomplishes the maximum learning gain or that alters the learner’s emotional states to optimize learning and understanding. Dynamic Decision Networks (DDNs) will be applied to tutor modeling. The effectiveness of PlayPhysics for teaching linear momentum, vectors, circular movement and movement of rigid bodies at undergraduate level will be evaluated.
BACKGROUND Computer games are used as educational resources, since one approach to learning is through experience. Therefore, actively involving the student in the learning process has achieved enhanced learning gains and improved understanding more effectively than a passive approach, where the student simply listens (Sykes, 2006).
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Computer Games as Ideal Learning Tools Computer games reward the mastering of a skill or ability in diverse ways such as incrementing the score and advancing the narrative. In addition, games easily attain the learner’s attention, offer immediate feedback and encourage independent learning. Squire (2003) discusses that educational games enhance the teaching-learning experience through eliciting intense emotional responses. Research has also been focused on the use of games for assisting in the analysis of the learner’s patterns of interaction to create more effective game designs, enhancing the understanding of the impact of technology on individuals. Sounds and visual media have proven effective at influencing a game’s playability, since audio and visuals can communicate to, or create in, the learner a positive mood or emotion (Malone, 1981). Malone (1981) also signaled that the sense of fantasy created by the game narrative also influences the learner’s emotional state and personal disposition to play, since it enables emotional mastery over a specific event. The problem is creating a game that suits the personal demands of a spectrum of users. The semantics of colors can be used by video games to communicate feelings, e.g. cold colors can cause the user to feel detached from the environment, manage the user’s attention, e.g. bright colors easily attract the user’s attention, provide physical and psychological features to game characters, show an object’s function and indicate a change in game progression (Zammitto, 2005). However, other in-game factors have been shown to affect the user’s willingness to play, e.g. complexity, variability, novelty of the stimuli, the level of experience, personality, gender and the reinforcement of positive or negative behavior (Chumbley & Griffiths, 2006). To be effective, an educational game has to incorporate specific characteristics into its design. Challenge, curiosity, fantasy and control are features signaled by Malone and Lepper (1987).
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Challenge is achieved through specific learning goals, different levels of difficulty and unpredictability. A sense of control is created through enabling the learner to make choices, the effects of which can be perceived and experienced. Cognitive and sensory curiosity has to be encouraged during the learning experience and usually audio and visual media are used for this purpose. The learner’s emotional and thinking processes are highly correlated with the game fantasy. Therefore, the narrative should target the learner’s emotional and cognitive expectations, e.g. metaphors and analogies, and should accurately incorporate domain knowledge. The provision of feedback plays a central role in the teaching-learning experience and has to be unambiguous, effective and recurrent. Building an effective educational game involves defining effectively gameplay and user interaction, integrating domain-specific and game development techniques, integrating software and hardware interfaces, implementing the students’ preferred learning styles, creating standards for implementing content and code and implementing an assessment criterion (Bergeron, 2006). The achievement of learning goals and the mismatch between game content and curriculum content are factors that contribute to lecturers’ skepticism on using educational games as a tool to enhance the teaching-learning experience. Therefore, lecturers, who are accustomed to employing conventional means, resources and tools for teaching, perceive the acquisition of learning games as a non-secure investment (Carpenter & Windsor, 2006). Accordingly, educational games also have the challenge of targeting the lecturers’ requirements for specific domain knowledge. Although some lecturers are familiar with the use of conventional tools for teaching, it is a fact that the form of education delivery has to evolve to suit the students’ expectations. Students are living in a world highly influenced by IT, e.g. communicating, searching and socializing through the Internet are perceived as common, familiar and comfortable tasks. These students are known as
‘Millennials’ or ‘Net Generation’ (Oblinger, 2004) and are highly attracted by environments that are able to provide an enhanced sensorial experience through the incorporation of diverse media, e.g. sounds and visuals.
Intelligent Game-Based Learning Environments The applications and target populations of gamebased learning environments have been diverse. As an example, educational games have been used for teaching children and adolescents strategies for dealing with depression (Brezinka & Hovestadt, 2007), for teaching children Mathematics (Conati & Maclaren, 2009) and for teaching adolescents Electrostatic principles (Barnett, Squire, Grant, & Higginbotham, 2004). It is evident that to attain acceptance as effective learning tools, gamebased learning environments have to incorporate an intelligent assessment criterion that identifies when the student has achieved the learning goals. Accordingly, to support independent learning, suitable and adaptable feedback according to the detected learner’s needs must be provided. Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) are a computer tutoring approach that applies Artificial Intelligence (AI) principles to disconnect the logic of interaction from the domain knowledge (Clancey & Buchanan, 1982). ITSs follow student performance over time, to implement diverse pedagogical methods and techniques and to adapt intelligently to each student over time. Therefore, ITSs are incorporated into the architectures of game-based learning environments. ITSs comprise a domain model, student model, teaching model, communication module and a Graphical User interface (GUI). Research in the area of ITSs has focused on each one of these components. However, the main challenges have been selecting and communicating suitable pedagogical responses and accurately representing the student and the domain (Du Boulay & Luckin, 2001).
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The student model enables the ITS to understand the information and requirements of each student (Sucar & Noguez, 2008). In addition to allowing knowledge of the cognitive state of the learner, the student model can also identify the learner’s emotional (Conati & Maclaren, 2009) or motivational (Rebolledo-Mendez, Du Boulay, & Luckin, 2006) states. Emotion influences learning and performance and is deeply intertwined with cognitive and motivational constructs (Pekrun et al., 2007). Affective gaming arises from the union of the Affective Computing field (Picard et al., 2004) with the Digital Games field and focuses on influencing and identifying the player’s emotional state (Sykes, 2006). Emotions can be used by computers for evaluating the user’s experience, understanding when the emotion is relevant to the learning experience and when it can be safely ignored, predicting the learner’s behavior and controlling the game. Making machines capable of recognizing and expressing emotion promises to enhance the user’s experience, e.g. improved learning, engagement, motivation and training.
Identifying the Learner’s Emotional and Motivational States The approaches applied by ITSs to infer or recognize the learner’s emotional state are: 1. Recognizing the physical effects of emotion 2. Predicting emotions from their origin 3. A hybrid approach using the previous two approaches 4. Reasoning about the learner’s observable behavior For recognizing the physical effects of emotion, cameras, microphones and sensors are employed to collect information from gestures, prosodic features and body positions and signals respectively (D’Mello, Craig, Witherspoon, McDaniel, & Graesser, 2008). This information is mapped to emotional states. The challenge of this approach
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is to acquire large quantities of data that will be classified through AI mechanisms, e.g. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs). In addition, the effects are modeled through the observations of peers, i.e. lecturers and students, and trained judges. Hardware may be perceived as intrusive and may be prone to failure. Also this approach is not suitable for online learning, since students usually have to travel to special laboratories for interacting with these systems (Burlenson & Picard, 2007). Ekman and Friesen (1978) signaled that there is universality in facial expressions to convey an emotional message, and as a result, research has been undertaken that maps facial expressions to an affective state. The Ortony, Clore and Collins (OCC) model is a cognitive theory of emotion that has often been applied to inferring emotion from its origin (Chalfoun, Chaffar, & Frasson, 2006). This theory explains how emotion arises according to the interplay of a user’s goals with events and a user’s standards and attitudes (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1990). Therefore, this approach reasons about the potential cognitive antecedents of emotions and infers their existence over time. The challenges of this approach are, being aware of the learners’ standards and attitudes and assessing the learner’s goals. A hybrid approach predicts whether the emotion will happen according to the antecedents’ existence. To know if the emotion actually happened, the effects have to be identified and compared with the prediction. This hybrid approach inherits the challenges of both approaches (Conati & Maclaren, 2009). Jaques & Vicari (2007) attempted to infer emotion from its origin using the learner’s observable behavior. One challenge of applying the OCC model to inferring the learner’s emotional state is to adapt the theory to the learning context. Jaques & Vicari (2007) built two student models describing two kinds of students: one seeking to master the topics and another focused purely on performance. Effort was measured qualitatively and quantitatively during the learner’s interaction. The work of Del
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Soldato & Du Boulay (1995) formed a basis for representing the learner’s effort. Jaques & Vicari (2007) do not present any results on the accuracy of their approach. To date, no system is able to identify the relevant learner’s emotions. Del Soldato & Du Boulay (1995) applied a qualitative and quantitative approach to infer the learner’s motivational state from observable behavior. This approach was based on Keller’s Motivational Design Model (Keller, 2006). The approach focuses on analyzing the learner’s actions and decisions and mapping them qualitatively and quantitatively to effort, independence and confidence. This approach was employed by MEcolab, which is an educational game for teaching ecology and it proved to be effective (RebolledoMendez et al., 2006). Self-efficacy was signaled as an important measure of the student’s disposition to learn (Del Soldato & Du Boulay, 1995). Self-efficacy involves the learner’s beliefs about being able to perform a specific learning task, achieving a specific level of performance and the perceived control over the task, e.g. skills and knowledge. Therefore, McQuiggan, Mott, and Lester (2008) built a learner’s self-efficacy model. The model infers the learner’s self-efficacy from observable behavior and physiological data. Using only observable variables, the model achieved 70% accuracy and the accuracy of the model increased by 10% on incorporating physiological data. Models that infer the learner’s emotions from observable behavior are not effective, but inferring the learner’s motivational state and self-efficacy level using observable behavior has been more successful. Furthermore, to date, there is no student model that can completely integrate motivational and emotional aspects. Hence, this research is mainly focused on building a student model that can use motivational and cognitive variables to infer the student’s emotional state for intelligent gaming. In the section, ‘An Affective Student Model for Intelligent Gaming’, the series of steps performed for building the affective student model will be discussed in detail. In
addition, the motivational and cognitive theory employed to infer emotion from cognitive and motivational variables is described.
Multimodal Output Communication and Adaptation Providing feedback is a key factor in the teachinglearning process. The pedagogical strategies that can be selected may be focused on enhancing understanding or motivation. Research has shown that it is important to classify pedagogical actions in order to be able to identify when motivational and cognitive strategies are in contraposition, complement each other or are independent (Lepper, Woolverton, & Mumme, 1993). The aim is to select the action that will maximize understanding or motivation. To enhance the communication of pedagogical responses, research has been focused on the creation of Embodied Pedagogical Agents (EPAs) (D’Mello et al., 2008; Conati & Maclaren, 2009) and Synthetic Characters (Dias et al., 2006). The ultimate challenge is to attain believability (Johnson, Rickel, & Lester, 2000), which has encouraged research in the state of the art of animation, emotional intelligence, common sense, sociology, distributed architectures, multimodal output adaptation and cinematography. EPAs that comprise the communication module of ITSs (D’Mello et al., 2008; Conati & Maclaren, 2009) convey a feedback response, which includes data derived from the student model. The synchronization of the behaviors of Herman, the EPA of the learning-environment Design a Plant, is done through establishing hierarchical dependencies between behaviors and classifying audio and visual media through setting diverse types of indexes (Stone & Lester, 1996). The EPAs’ animation space, which comprises their behavior, can be defined by full-body and compositional animations, such as Cosmo’s animation space (Lester, Voerman, Towns, & Callaway, 1999). Visual languages are derived to achieve synchronization (Cassell, Högni Vilhjálmsson, &
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Bickmore, 2001; Bates, Loyall, & Reilly, 1992). EPAs can be implemented as self-determined entities, which react according to the changes in their virtual environment or can be controlled by a central entity, such as computer-controlled characters in video games (Mateas, 1997). To attain a reactive behavior, some EPAs are implemented using a cognitive theory of emotion as a basis (Bates et al., 1992), such as the OCC model, or a personality theory (Conati & Maclaren, 2009), such as Big Five. Computer and educational games are comprised of audio and visual media that serve diverse communication functions, such as creating a sense of immersion, setting a mood and decreasing the player’s learning curve (Collins, 2008; Malone, 1981). In addition, colors can convey different emotional states and moods (Kaya, Epps, & Hall, 2004). Research has intelligently employed color to report the learner’s emotional state in virtual learning environments (Razek, Chaffar, Frasson, & Ochs, 2006) and classrooms (Alsmeyer, Luckin, & Good, 2008). Colors have also been used to express and emphasize emotion (Nijdam, 2005). Our research will focus on selecting the most suitable feedback responses to maximize learning or understanding. Therefore, we choose to modulate game-elements, such as visuals, audio and colors, to influence the learner’s emotional state and convey cognitive, motivational and emotional responses. The implementation of these features is described in the, ‘PlayPhysics design’, section.
METHODOLOGY This section describes the research methodology applied to create and evaluate an affective student model, which infers emotion from motivational and cognitive variables using observable behavior. In addition, the design of PlayPhysics is discussed and described signaling how game-features will be modulated to deliver pedagogical responses.
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An Affective Student Model for Intelligent Gaming The theory of emotion, acting as a basis for building the affective student model, is described in this section. This model infers the learner’s emotions from cognitive and motivational variables through observable behavior. The learner’s attitudes, beliefs and social standards are determined through answers to questions posed as part of a game dialogue. In addition, the advantages of applying Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) to student modeling are outlined.
The Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions The control-value theory of ‘achievement emotions’ is a cognitive and motivational theory of emotion (Pekrun, 2006; Pekrun et al., 2007). It comprises motivational, cognitive, affective, expressive and physiological aspects. ‘Achievement emotions’ are emotions that arise when performing academic or achievement activities in which the attainment of a desired outcome is expected. The theory signals that control and value appraisals are the most relevant to determining an emotion. Control, e.g. self-efficacy, is defined as the perceived control over the activity and the outcome. Value is related to the perceived importance of the outcome and the desirability and relevance of the activity. Appraisals of control that are relevant to determine ‘achievement emotions’ are situationoutcome, activity-control and action-outcome expectancies. Situation-outcome expectancies relate to evaluation as to whether an action is or is not required to attain the desired outcome in the specific situation. Activity-control expectancies are related to confidence beliefs when starting and performing a specific action. Action-outcome expectancies are related to beliefs that specific actions can facilitate or can prevent the attainment of specific outcomes. These outcomes can be positive or negative. The causal attributions of outcomes
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are perceived as situation-outcome expectancies when the outcome is attributed to external causes and are perceived as action-control and action-outcome expectancies when the outcome is attributed to internal causes. Internal causes are defined as the learner’s actions, circumstances, skills and abilities. External causes are related to another’s actions, circumstances, skills and abilities. Intrinsic-values and extrinsic-values are relevant when determining the subjective value of actions and outcomes. These values are related to evaluating the activity and the outcome per se, i.e. intrinsic, or evaluating them for other goals, i.e. extrinsic. Control-value theory is an integrative framework of assumptions corresponding to other emotional theories, such as expectancy-value theories of emotion, theories of perceived control and attributional theories of achievement emotions. Therefore, this theory, rather than challenging the OCC model (Ortony et al., 1990), incorporates some of its assumptions. The theory classifies ‘achievement emotions’ into three types according to their focus and time frame: prospective outcome, retrospective outcome and activity emotions. The basic assumptions of the control and value appraisals are summarized in Table 1. The prospective outcome emotions arise from the expectations of succeeding or failing. The retrospective outcome emotions focus on the attribution of success and failure and the activity emotions are determined by the activity demands and the person’s disposition to participate, which are mapped to perceived control over the activity and its value. It is important to signal that ‘achievement emotions’ are the result of the product of appraisals of control and value and that if one of these is lacking no-emotion is induced. In addition, achievement emotions are domain dependent, e.g. the emotions arising in a History domain will be different from the ones arising in a Physics domain. The Control-value theory has proven effective at recognizing the learners’ emotions in the English, German, Math and Physics domains (Goetz, Frenzel, Pekrun,
Hall, & Lüdtke, 2007). The method used by Goetz et al. (2007) is the self-report of emotions using the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ), which was designed and validated through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) (Pekrun, Goetz, & Perry, 2005).
Student Modeling and Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) Modeling the user’s behavior and related data is a task that involves uncertainty (Sucar & Noguez, 2008). In the learning context, there are still questions about how the learner achieves knowledge and understanding. In addition, the personal differences between learners, e.g. diversity between attitudes, standards, beliefs and goals, make it more difficult to ensure that the learner is experiencing a determined emotion in a specific situation or domain. Also, deciding which information has to be taken into account to update the student model represents a challenge. Therefore, as a solution to this problem, Bayesian Networks (BNs) have been applied to modeling. BNs are AI tools applied to domains with inherent uncertainty. BNs are graphs that represent causal relations between random variables or events (Jensen & Nielsen, 2007) and have been applied to building cognitive (Noguez & Sucar, 2006, Muñoz, Noguez, Mc Kevitt, Neri, Robledo-Rella, & Lunney, 2009) and affective student models (Conati & Maclaren, 2009). The main effort in designing BNs lies in the time that must be invested in selecting meaningful information from the knowledge domain and the resultant complexity of the Bayesian Network (BN), i.e. the number of random variables is large and each node has more than three parents with several states. To facilitate the design of student models with BNs, probabilistic relational models (PRMs) are used (Sucar & Noguez, 2008). PRMs are an object-oriented representation of the knowledge domain that can be easily transformed into a BN or several BNs. Their representation facilitates applying the model to several domains and the
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Table 1. The Control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun et al., 2007, p. 20) Object focus Outcome/ Prospective
Outcome/ Retrospective Activity
Appraisals Value
Emotion
Positive (Success)
High Medium Low
Anticipatory Joy Hope Hopelessness
Negative (Failure)
High Medium Low
Anticipatory Relief Anxiety Hopelessness
Positive (Success) Negative (Failure) Positive Negative Positive/Negative None
Irrelevant Self Other Irrelevant Self Other High High Low High/Low
Joy Pride Gratitude Sadness Shame Anger Enjoyment Anger Frustration Boredom
inference complexity is reduced, since parts of the model can be used with instances of a larger model. The domain is divided into classes, X1, X2, …, Xn, with each class comprised of attributes Aij є A(Xi) and each attribute corresponds to one or more values V(Aij) of a specific domain (Sucar & Noguez, 2008). The dependencies are defined at class level using a relational structure, where attributes of a class can depend on attributes of other classes. The conditional probabilities of PRMs are defined in the same way as the conditional probabilities of BNs, i.e. defining the Markov Blanket for each attribute, e.g. parents and children.
Building the Affective Student Model The PRM structure corresponding to the learner’s emotions is shown in Figure 1. This model was based on the control-value theory of ‘achievement emotions’. The dashed lines describe relations between classes and the arrows represent conditional probabilistic dependencies. Three Dynamic Bayesian Networks (DBNs) were derived from this PRM. Each DBN corresponds to one of the emotion types defined by Pekrun et al. (2007), i.e.
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Control
prospective outcome, activity and retrospective outcome emotions. The DBNs were built using observable variables that are related to the learner’s interaction behavior. Control and value appraisals are inferred from the state of these random variables, which were identified from the work by Del Soldato & Du Boulay (1995), McQuiggan et al. (2008) and Pekrun et al. (2005). Initially this work focuses only on motivational and cognitive variables, since from the work of McQuiggan et al. (2008), it was noted that physiological variables may result in improved model accuracy. In addition, the existence of an emotion cannot be ensured by using as direct evidence physiological patterns (Pekrun, 2005). The DBN corresponding to outcome-prospective emotions, hope, anticipatory joy, anticipatory relief, anxiety and hopelessness, is shown in Figure 2. Control and value appraisals are inferred from variables related to the learner’s motivation, e.g. confidence and effort, and from variables related to the learner’s cognition, e.g. the latest level of performance and level of difficulty. Controlt-1 and Valuet-1 represent the probabilities that are transferred over time from the DBN corresponding to outcome-retrospective emotions,
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Figure 1. PRM structure for the learner’s emotions based on the control-value theory
which are related to the learner’s attributions of previous failure or success. Controlt+1 and Valuet+1 represent the probabilities that are transferred from the outcome-prospective emotions DBN to the activity emotions DBN, i.e. the influence that the student’s expectations have on the emotion experienced while performing the specific learning activity. As stated previously, inferring emotion from its origin must address assessing the learner’s attitudes, goals, standards and beliefs. The theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 2005) uses a qualitative and quantitative approach to assess a person’s behavioral intention, i.e. to know if the goal exists. The approach involves designing and building a questionnaire, which addresses the qualitative and quantitative assessment of a person’s attitudes, standards and control beliefs (Francis et al., 2004). Using Ajzen’s approach as a basis, we employ ‘answers to posed questions’. For the purposes of our research, these questions
were defined as part of the game narrative, which occur in cut-scenes during game dialogues. To evaluate the affective student model a prototyping study based on Wizard-of-Oz experiments (Höök, 2005) will be carried out with students of Physics at undergraduate level. The students are asked to: 1. Take a pre-test (the score is noted as soon as the students finish the test). 2. Answer the questions posed in the game dialogue. 3. Solve a Physics problem, which will be implemented as a game challenge of PlayPhysics. 4. Get permission from the student to publish the problem-solving results. Steps 1-2 (above) assist with evaluating the accuracy of the questions and the answers created to acquire the evidence corresponding to
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Figure 2. Outcome-prospective Emotions DBN
the random variable of the outcome-prospective emotions DBN. The pre-test also allows us to determine the learner’s previous knowledge and experience at solving-problems regarding the related Physics topics. A preliminary evaluation of these two points was carried out with seven students at postgraduate level at the University of Ulster. Results are shown and analysed in the section, ‘Results and Discussion’. The emotions reported by the participants were compared with the emotions inferred by the outcome-prospective emotions DBN. The objective of this phase is to achieve a preliminary evaluation of the DBN and to identify possible problems in the prototyping material that will be used to test the affective student model with students. Step 3 in the process has the objective of identifying activity emotions and outcome-retrospective emotions. To achieve an accurate evaluation, we will locate each student with a lecturer in a Gesell dome, see Figure 3, where two lecturers
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can observe their interaction behind the mirror and make the corresponding annotations for the observed random variables. These observations will be introduced in the corresponding DBNs and the DBNs’ prediction will be compared with the emotion reported by the students. Step 4 in the process will be employed to find out how relevant the students feel that the outcome is, and to determine how important it is for the students to compare their performance with the outcome obtained by other students on the same Physics course.
PlayPhysics Design Once the proposed affective student model has been formalized, it will be incorporated into the Olympia architecture. PlayPhysics is an emotional games learning environment for teaching Physics at undergraduate level. This section describes the features of the generic and affective architecture,
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Figure 3. Setting for the Prototyping Study of the Affective Student Model
Olympia. In addition, the game-design, the cognitive student model and the selection and implementation of pedagogical responses are discussed.
Affective Olympia Architecture PlayPhysics is an application of the Affective Olympia architecture shown in Figure 4. Olympia is an enhanced version of the generic architecture introduced by Noguez & Sucar (2005) and refined in Sucar & Noguez (2008). Olympia has proven effective for building game-based virtual learning environments and teaching Physics at undergraduate level (Muñoz et al., 2009). Here, Olympia is enhanced to enable it to infer the learner’s emotional state and implement cognitive, motivational and affective actions, which will improve the learner’s level of engagement, learning and understanding. The motivational and affective actions will be delivered using game elements such as visuals, sounds and colors. Olympia is comprised of static and dynamic interactive modules. These modules are incorporated to enable a virtual learning environment to depict the interaction level of an educational game. The difference between a static and a dynamic module is in its adaptability. A static module
changes in real-time according to the pedagogical, motivational and affective actions, whilst a dynamic module changes according to the decisions taken by the presentation content manager module. According to this classification, the function of each module is described below. Static interaction modules: 1. Physics and collisions module contain all the physics-and-math driven objects increasing the level of realism during simulation. 2. Input detection module senses and handles the user’s input. 3. Networking module transmits data across the network. 4. Utilities module contains other tools such as timers and resource managers. 5. Scripting module enables external control of the application. Dynamic interaction modules: 1. Emotional feedback module uses sound and color tailored to the student’s mood. 2. Interactive AI module determines the behavior of non-player characters in the scene, enhancing believability. 3. Graphics Look & Feel rendering module contains the real-time visual resource management. Olympia represents a semi-open learning environment (Bunt & Conati, 2003) where specific learning goals direct the learner’s interaction with the virtual world and the simulator. Olympia combines a game-based learning environment with an ITS. The action-challenge relation is handled by the Game mechanics module through the game rules. The Teaching & Learning AI module comprises an ITS. The interface analysis module decides which events are relevant to be analyzed by the behavior analysis module. Once evaluation of the events has been completed, the evidence provided is propagated to the student model. The
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Figure 4. Affective Olympia architecture
student model comprises cognitive and affective models, which are employed to infer the learner’s cognitive and emotional states. These models were implemented using a PRMs approach and DBNs as AI tools. Once the student model executes the inference mechanisms, the results are forwarded to the adaptable tutor model. The tutor model selects the pedagogical, motivational or affective action or actions that maximize the student’s learning, understanding or level of engagement. These actions are handled by the cognitive and motivational modulators. According to the strategies selected by the planner, the presentation content manager module makes the necessary changes in the game mechanics and the world model. The changes
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made to the world model and the game mechanics influence the behavior of the dynamic interactive modules. The tutor model will be implemented using Dynamic Decision Networks (DDNs), e.g. Influence Diagrams, which enhance the potential of DBNs through the incorporation of utility and decision nodes (Jensen & Nielsen, 2007). Olympia architecture is perceptual, intelligent, adaptable and multimodal. Its perceptual feature relates to the ability to infer the learner’s cognitive and emotional states during the learner’s interaction. It is intelligent, since it uses AI tools to handle uncertainty involved in the teaching learning experience, e.g. DBNs and DDNs. Its adaptable feature is capable of adjusting pedagogical,
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Figure 5. The most difficult topics of an introductory Physics course
motivational and affective actions to the learner’s needs. It is multimodal, since to communicate the chosen actions, it modulates, integrates and synchronizes game elements and features.
Game Design PlayPhysics is an emotional game-based learning environment and an application of the Olympia architecture. It is being developed for teaching Physics at undergraduate level. An online requirements analysis survey was conducted with lecturers and students of Physics at Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico City campus (3 lecturers and 35 students) and Trinity College Dublin (1 lecturer and 18 students). The students were enrolled on an introductory Physics course at undergraduate level and their age is about 17 and 23. The objective was to indentify the most challenging and meaningful topics in an introductory Physics course in order to create the game challenges. In addition, the learners’ preferred methods for providing feedback and engagement were analyzed. Therefore, PlayPhysics focuses on covering Mechanics (specifically Newton’s laws, circular movement and movement of rigid bodies), Vectors, Linear Momentum and Collisions, as shown in Figure 5.
PlayPhysics’ game story is a space adventure, where the learner is an astronaut, a lieutenant, whose spaceship will navigate towards the space station Athena. Athena is controlled by the supercomputer, VNUS-27-81. VNUS was infected with a harmful virus and as a result it attacked Athena’s crew. The captain, Richard Foster, could not escape from the space station Athena with all the crew. Foster, as part of the story, is the learner’s mentor. NASA realizes that the lieutenant’s spaceship is at the point of being launched and proceeds to contact him or her. NASA explains the situation and asks for the lieutenant’s help to rescue Foster and recover control of Athena. To attain these goals the learner has to apply his or her knowledge of introductory Physics. An example of a game dialogue in a cut-scene is shown in Figure 6. This game dialogue takes place before the learner starts to interact with the first challenge. This question is related to the learner’s confidence beliefs. A positive, neutral or negative belief is inferred in the form of a probability distribution.
Case Study The first challenge of PlayPhysics is to safely dock the spaceship, Alpha Centauri, on the Athena space station, which orbits around the sun between the
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Figure 6. Fragment of a PlayPhysics game dialogue
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The station is shaped like a donut as shown in Figure 8. Athena is rotating with a constant angular velocity to create an artificial gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2). The lieutenant, the student has to navigate Alpha Centauri by applying Newton’s laws of motion for particles and rigid bodies. In addition, the student has to know the topics of vectors and linear and circular kinematics. To make the problem non-trivial, the values corresponding to Alpha Centauri’s initial location and velocity with respect to Athena are initialized randomly. A minimum series of translational and rotational motions have to be performed to dock with Athena’s central part in the least time possible, since each time that a motor is ignited to perform a specific motion; α Centauri’s fuel supply is reduced proportionally to the amount of time that the motor is turned on. The challenge starts when Alpha Centauri is launched from Earth on course for the Athena
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station. Alpha Centauri has a relative velocity while approaching Athena, therefore the spaceship must first stop within a certain distance of Athena’s rotational axis by turning on the front engines. In this part of the challenge, linear motion and constant deceleration is assumed. Secondly, Alpha Centauri must align its longitudinal axis with Athena’s rotational axis by applying its upper and lower engines. Thirdly, Alpha Centauri must match Athena’s rotational velocity by applying its lateral engines. Finally, Alpha Centauri enters into Athena’s docking bay by moving slowly along its rotational axis. The exploration variables are the spaceship’s mass and rotational inertia, which are relative to its longitudinal, zenithal and azimuthal axes. The longitudinal axis is defined as the axis along the spaceship length. The zenithal axis is perpendicular to the spaceship plane and parallel to Athena’s rotation axis. The azimuthal axis is parallel to
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Figure 7. Cognitive student model of PlayPhysics’ first challenge
Figure 8. PlayPhysics First Challenge GUI (left) and player-character (right)
the spaceship’s wings. In addition, to calculate the angular accelerations and decelerations, the forces and torques of the spaceship’s motors can be explored. To recognize the learner’s knowledge of this domain, the cognitive student model in Figure 7 was derived. PlayPhysics’ multimodal output adaptation will be determined by the chosen pedagogical actions. The research by Stone & Lester (1996) will be employed as a basis for sequencing and synchronizing diverse, encouraging and praising
behaviors of non-player characters. Sounds and visuals will be applied to create a feeling of immersion, create narrative progression and set an emotional state. Colors will be employed to emphasize or influence an emotional state. As a result, colors were mapped to the emotions defined by Pekrun et al. (2007) using as a basis the work of Kaya et al. (2004). If the emotion is favorable for learning, the color corresponding to this emotion will be displayed on the player-character’s suit. Otherwise a color corresponding to the opposite
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emotion will be displayed on it. In Figure 8, the player-character’s suit is white, which signifies no-emotion. PlayPhysics’ teaching effectiveness will be evaluated by separating students enrolled in introductory Physics courses into control and experimental groups. Both groups will perform a pre-test to determine their knowledge and understanding on Physics topics before receiving the corresponding teaching. The experimental group will interact with PlayPhysics after receiving the corresponding lectures. At the end both groups will do a post-test. The learning gains will be compared and the learning efficiency will be calculated. The latter is obtained through the quotient of the times that the student succeeded in the challenge and the total time that the student played.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Seven participants, postgraduate students studying at Ph.D. level, answered a pre-test, which comprised 5 questions related to the topics in PlayPhysics’ first challenge. After completing the pre-test and being made aware of their results, they answered the game dialogue questions according to their attitudes, beliefs and previous performance experience. The participants also reported the outcome-prospective emotion that they felt before starting the first challenge. The acquired evidence of the pre-test and of the answers to the game-dialogue was propagated in the outcomeprospective emotions DBN. Results, reported in Table 2 and Table 3 and the graph in Figure 9, show that in this test the affective student model had an accuracy of 57.14%, i.e. out of 7 attempts the emotion was accurately inferred four times. The nature of these results may be due to the probabilities set in the Conditional Probability Tables (CPTs) using common sense, and due to the small population of participants, since to validate the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ), Pekrun et al. (2005) employed 389 stu-
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Table 2. Mapping between numbers and outcomeprospective emotions Number
Emotion
1
Anticipatory relief
2
Anxiety
3
Hopelessness
4
Hope
5
Anticipatory joy
6
No emotion
dents. In addition, the main aim of this preliminary test was to identify deficiencies in the prototyping materials. Some postgraduate students reported that the pre-test contained Physics definitions as formulae and they did not know what the variables in the formulae meant and suggested that an explanation of the terms would make it easier to reason about them. Other postgraduate students reported that the pre-test would be easier to reason about if a diagram was included to support the question. In questions related to the game dialogue, it was signalled that the option ‘no-emotion’ must be added to the set of emotions that the student can report. Also, it was noticed that some student’s did not know how to report the emotion they were feeling, e.g. one student reported that he felt anxious, but not in a negative way. On the other hand, in two out of three specific cases where the students reported ‘anxiety’ instead of ‘anticipaTable 3. Emotion reported by the student vs. emotion predicted by the system Number of student
Emotion reported by the student
Emotion predicted by the system
1
2
2
2
5
5
3
2
5
4
2
5
5
2
5
6
4
4
7
5
5
Affective Educational Games and the Evolving Teaching Experience
Figure 9. Comparison between predicted emotion and reported emotion
tory joy’, the students obtained a mark corresponding to a high level of performance. However, the students may report ‘anxiety’ due to the way that the evaluation process was carried out, since they were located in the same room at the same time, they may have thought that their performance would be available to everyone. Therefore, in successive evaluations, the students will be evaluated in isolation in the Gesell dome.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Intelligent game-based learning environments or educational games are inherently effective motivational tools. However, attaining the learner’s attention and engagement is simply not enough. Educational games have yet to prove effective at teaching and must incorporate assessment mechanisms and suitable feedback to support independent learning. Incorporating Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs) into educational games is a plausible solution to these problems, since ITSs can keep track of each student’s history of interaction and adapt accordingly to the identified student needs. The advantages of Affective Gaming, such as evaluating the player’s experience and understanding when an emotion is relevant, were emphasized. Our research focuses on en-
hancing ITSs and intelligent game-based learning environments through building an affective student model. This model infers emotion from cognitive and motivational variables using the learner’s observable behavior and employing the control-value theory of achievement emotions. A Probabilistic Relational Models (PRMs) approach to building the innovative affective student model was discussed. PRMs facilitate the design process of Bayesian Networks (BNs), since they reduce the required complexity. A preliminary evaluation was carried out with seven participants to identify deficiencies in the prototyping material. An accuracy of 57.14% was achieved when the reported-emotion by the students was compared with the predicted emotion by the system. These results may be influenced by the probabilities set in the Conditional Probability Tables (CPTs). To model accurately the CPTs and evaluate effectively the model a larger population of participants would be necessary. Students signaled some recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of the prototyping material, which will be taken into account when performing future evaluations. Future work includes testing the accuracy of the affective student model through a prototyping exercise involving a large number of undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory Physics course. The objective is to determine if the identified variables can ensure the accurate inferring
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of the learner’s emotions. Once the affective student model can infer accurately the learner’s emotional state, it will be incorporated into the Olympia architecture and PlayPhysics application. The tutor model selects and implements the appropriate response that maximizes learning or motivation. PlayPhysics will be evaluated through the comparison of learning gains and the calculation of learning efficiencies. Research focused on the communication modules of ITSs, related to conveying a response that enables the student to understand the effect of his or her actions, is gaining popularity and promises to significantly enhance the teaching-learning experience.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT We want to express our gratitude to Richard Walsh, from ZooCreative, for modeling the 3D player-characters of PlayPhysics. We also want to recognize the suggestions and direction provided by Prof. Mark Shevlin, from the Psychology Research Institute, and Dr. Lee Cadieux, from the Art and Design Research Institute, at the University of Ulster, Magee.
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McQuiggan, S. W., Mott, B. W., & Lester, J. C. (2008). Modeling Self-efficacy in Intelligent Tutoring Systems: An inductive approach. User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction, 18, 81–123. doi:10.1007/s11257-007-9040-y Muñoz, K., Noguez, J., Mc Kevitt, P., Neri, L., Robledo-Rella, V., & Lunney, T. (2009). Adding Features of Educational Games for Teaching Physics [Electronic version]. In Proceeedings of the 39th IEEE International Conference Frontiers in Education (pp. M2E-1-M2E-6). Retrieved January 25, 2010, from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5350630&isnu mber=5350396 Nijdam, N. A. (2005). Mapping emotion to color. Retrieved April 15, 2010, from http://hmi.ewi. utwente.nl/verslagen/capita-selecta/CS-NijdamNiels.pdf Noguez, J., & Sucar, E. (2005). A Semi-open Learning Environment for Virtual Laboratories. In 4th Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Advances in Artificial Intelligence (pp. 1185-1194). Heidelberg: Springer Berlin. Noguez, J., & Sucar, L. (2006). Intelligent Virtual Laboratory and Project Oriented Learning for Teaching Mobile Robotics. International Journal of Engineering Education, 22(4), 743–757. Oblinger, D. G. (2004). The Next Generation of Educational Engagement [Electronic version]. Journal of interactive media in education, 8. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from http://wwwjime.open.ac.uk/2004/8/ Ortony, A., Clore, G. L., & Collins, A. (1990). The Cognitive Structure of Emotions. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pekrun, R. (2005). Progress on open problems in educational emotion research. Learning and Instruction, 15(5), 497–506. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2005.07.014
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Pekrun, R. (2006). The control-value theory of achievement emotions: assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice. Educational Psychology Review, 18(4), 315–341. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9029-9 Pekrun, R., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2007). The Control Value Theory of Achievement Emotions. An integrative Approach to Emotions in Education. In Shutz, P. A., & Pekrun, R. (Eds.), Emotion in Education (pp. 13–36). London: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-012372545-5/50003-4 Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., & Perry, R. P. (2005). Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ). User’s manual. Unpublished manuscript, University of Munich, Munich. Picard, R. W., Papert, S., Bender, W., Blumberg, B., Breazeal, C., & Cavallo, D. (2004). Affective learning –A Manifesto. BT Technology Journal, 22(4), 253–269. doi:10.1023/ B:BTTJ.0000047603.37042.33 Razek, M. A., Chaffar, S., Frasson, C., & Ochs, M. (2006). Using machine learning techniques to recognize emotions for online learning environments. In Pivec, M. (Ed.), Affective and Emotional Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 255–265). Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press. Rebolledo-Mendez, G., Du Boulay, B., & Luckin, R. (2006). Motivating the Learner: An Empirical Evaluation. In M. Ikeda, K. Ashley & T.W. Chan (Eds.), The 8th Intelligent Tutoring Systems International Conference (pp. 545-554). Heidelberg: Springer Berlin. Schaller, D. (2005, June). What Makes a Learning Game? Paper presented at the Web Designs for Interactive Learning Conference, Ithaca, NY. Retrieved January 22, 2010, from http://www. eduweb.com/schaller-games.pdf
Squire, K. (2003). Video Games in Education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2(1), 49–62. Stone, B. A., & Lester, J. C. (1996). Dynamically sequencing an animated pedagogical agent. In Proceedings of the 13th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (pp. 424-431). Portland, Oregon: The MIT Press. Sucar, L. E., & Noguez, J. (2008). Student Modeling. In Pourret, O., Naïm, P., & Marcot, B. (Eds.), Bayesian Networks: A Practical Guide to Applications (pp. 173–185). West Sussex, England: J. Wiley & Sons. Sykes, J. (2006). Affective Gaming: Advancing the Argument for Game-Based Learning. In Pivec, M. (Ed.), Affective and Emotional Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 3–7). Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press. Zammitto, V. I. (2005, June). The Expression of Colours. Paper presented at the International Conference Changing Views: Worlds in Play, Vancouver, CA. Retrieved January 24, 2010, from http://www.digra.org/dl/db/06278.05074.pdf
ADDITIONAL READING Pivec, M. (2006). Affective and emotional aspects of human-computer interaction. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press. Pourret, O., Naïm, P., & Marcot, B. (2008). Bayesian Networks: A Practical Guide to Applications. West Sussex, England: J. Wiley & Sons. Squire, K. (2006). From Content to Context: Video Games as Designed Experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19–29. doi:10.3102/0013189X035008019
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Squire, K., Jenkins, H., Holland, W., Miller, H., O’Driscoll, A., Tan, K. P., & Todd, K. (2003). Design Principles of Next Generation Digital Gaming for Education. Educational Technology, 43(5), 17–23.
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Woolf, B. P. (2009). Building Intelligent Interactive Tutors: Student-centered strategies for revolutionizing e-learning. Burlington, NJ: Elsevier, Inc.
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Chapter 14
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research: SIMBA Experience
Fernando Borrajo Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Isidro de Pablo Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Yolanda Bueno Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Ismael Sagredo Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Fernando Fernández Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Begoña Santos Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain
Javier García Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
ABSTRACT Business Simulators provide a simulated environment where different scenarios and decisions can be tested without risk. They are also used for education where they can help students to understand the main concepts and theory involved in business administration. In addition, business simulators can be used to carry out research in different scientific areas, such as psychology, financial planning, risk evaluation, or intelligent business. This paper introduces SIMBA, a new simulator for business education and research. SIMBA has two main goals. The first one is to serve as a web-based platform for business education. It permits students to connect the simulator from any point on the web, permitting both classroom education as well as distance education. SIMBA architecture permits not only the connection of human business managers, but also software agents. Thus, the second goal of SIMBA is to provide an environment in which to design and test a Multi-Agent platform for the creation, development and evaluation of Intelligent Agents that can manage companies in the same way as humans. Thus, SIMBA opens up a wide field of research between Artificial Intelligence and Business Management aimed at developing efficient intelligent agents humans can compete with. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch014
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
INTRODUCTION The goal of business simulators is to offer tools, processes, and best practices for integrating, warehousing and analyzing business information. Business simulators are needed in the decisionmaking process because they help to identify the right area to change in an organization, which is a very important factor in improving the success of an organization. These tools help managers to understand their business processes and how the modification of this process impacts on the organization. In this way, the dangers involved in changes are identified before they are applied (Laguna and Marklund, 2005). Once the risk factors are identified, the business simulator can be used to change the desired parameter (Koyamada, 2007). Economic simulations try to emulate realworld situations, so they can be used for business education. Classical simulators teach the students, in an entertaining way, how to run a global business, or a part of it, in a competitive marketplace. The success or failure of the organization depends on how the managers take key decisions such as pricing, marketing, capital investment, etcetera, following a successful strategy against competitors. However, business simulators are not only used for learning and education, they also offer a complex domain where the researchers can investigate different areas. Typical uses of business simulators in research are financial planning (quantifying the impact of the decision-making process), risk management (measuring, managing and determining the right balance between profitability and risks), forecasting (analyzing historical data and using the data obtained by the business simulator to predict the future), business process modeling (establishing the business process steps in an easy way), interactive learning (business simulators can be used in teaching economics), artificial intelligence research (using Data Mining, Evolutionary Computation or Intelligent Agents).
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In this chapter we propose a symbiosis between two different research areas, Business Management and Artificial Intelligence, through the development and use of SIMBA. Business Simulators offer an accurate framework for the study of AI techniques, and we show three different examples: multi-agent theory, data mining, and reinforcement learning. The other direction of the symbiosis shows that AI techniques can contribute business administration with new tools, as multi-agent architectures, behavior prediction or autonomous decision-making. This chapter has three goals. The first one is to describe SIMBA, a Simulator for Business Administration. We describe SIMBA from two perspectives. On the one hand, Section 3 shows the business model, describing the economical model used to implement it. On the other hand, Section 4 shows the technical point of view, describing the software architecture. The second goal is to describe SIMBA as a powerful tool for business education. Thus Section 5 describes the main characteristics of SIMBA that make the simulator very useful for students and teachers. The last goal relates to the research opportunities SIMBA offers in the application of Artificial Intelligence approaches in Business Intelligence, and is described in Section 6. Last, Section 7 summarizes the main conclusions. The next section describes some related studies in business simulators and intelligence business.
RELATED WORK This section provides an introduction to the background of business simulation, as well as the application of business simulators for teaching and research.
Business Simulators The use of business simulators or business games started in the second half of the 20th century.
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
Many research studies are related to these tools of education, but they are concentrated into three main areas: education, business administration and management information systems. Simulation games have their background in board games, dating back to China in the year 3000 b.c., Go, Weiqi and I go, are followed by other modern board games such as Monopoly, created by Darrow (1933) (INVENTOR). But modern business games, or simulators in business administration, arrived on the scene before 1955 (Wolfe, 1993). In 1956 the first management simulator appeared, Top Management Decision Simulation, developed by the American Management Association, followed closely by the Business Management Game, developed by McKinsey & Company (Andlinger, 1958); Schreiber’s Management Decision Game, the first to be used in the classroom, and the Top Management Decision Game, used in University of Washington in 1957. In 1961 there were more than 100 business games (Kibbe and Nanus, 1961). Graham and Gray, in 1969, made a list of more than 190 business games in use, and in the “Guide of Business Games for Education” 228 were listed (Horn and Cleaves, 1980). The evolution in the use, number and type of management simulators has been reviewed in different studies (Faria, 1987), (Faria and Wellington, 2004), (Burgess, 1991), (McKenna, 1991) and (Day, 1968) among others. Of course, advances in IT have improved gaming technology: board games and paper yield to computer based simulators; communication technologies, and multimedia applications bring participants into closer contact and add greater realism to the competition. Some selected examples are the business simulation games developed by the Learning Lab of Wharton University, which constructed more than 20 simulators, as well as the E-Strat Challenge of L’Oreal, and Mark-Strat. There are many business games and they are being used in virtually all top universities.
Although many simulators have been developed, only a few integrate all the company’s functional areas, product diversification, geographic areas, customer segmentation, and different business technologies. The research group INNOVATIC, at the Autónoma University of Madrid, which has developed 5 business simulators, is our reference for this paper. Educational outcomes highlight the success of these software products. Advances in education based on experience and immersion learning, and the case method, achieve better results in terms of interest, motivation, participation and team work (Farrell, 2005). Business simulation improves the transfer speed from theory to practice, with a reduced cost, and savings in training time (Musselwhite, 2006). It is a change in mental models, making faster changing connections between the perceptions of decisions and actions, having quantitatively shown its effectiveness in attaining a change in mental processes involved in decisions (Scherpereel, 2005). Business simulations incorporate behavior, a valid coaching tool, advanced interfaces, learning on demand, and teach specific knowledge (Summers, 2004). As result, improvement in capabilities, competences, skills and qualities, are well reported. The results are clear in management improvement of organizational contingencies, creativity, assessment criteria, interaction and discussion, and knowledge acquisition (Wynder, 2004) (McGuinness, 2004) (Marriott, 2004). Some controversy exists as to what types of simulators improve knowledge. On the one hand, there is the problem of the interrelationship of the functional company areas, organizational contingencies, the company as an open socio-technical system, flow or stock variables and feedback, non-linear relations, qualitative information, structure-results, since simulators address only one functional area or problem of the company. The proposition of an integrated focus, the Systems Dynamics Approach, helps solve these problems (Forrester, 1961) (Krajewski, 1998) (Richardson
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and Pugh, 1981). With the emergence of the Dynamic Decision-Making in Systems Dynamics, simulators integrate this complexity, considering that decision makers do not have consistent and persistent goal structures, they are not using complex algorithms or calculating the optimal solution (there are no optimal solutions in the economy), nor are they trying to get all information to support decision making; not all decisions are rational, and non-linear quantitative processes are not developed (Simon, 1955), (Hogarth, 1980), (Döner, 1980). On the other hand, these aspects have arisen in discussions about the type of business game simulator to use: “black box” models or “transparent information” models. The black box model is justified by the arguments stated above: decision makers do not use all the information, they do not make calculations, nor do they solve complex problems, and are not entirely rational. Difficult interrelations and non-linear methodologies are difficult to interpret by the user, and it is not clear whether they are worthy for education. Business Games with transparent information, white box, or transparent box, offer the user a tool of causal diagrams and provide the methodology for making calculations, but have the disadvantage that they can only use equations and simple relationships since complex relationships and mathematical models would not be understandable for the user (Kemeny and Kreutzer 1992) (Isaacs and Senge, 1992) (Musselwhite, 2006). Although cause–effect relations and the knowledge of algorithms improve their understanding and assimilation, technical reductions and simplification excesses reduce the quality of the results obtained by the management simulator, which after all, aim to simulate the reality of the company in competition, with a complex contingent environment.
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Artificial Intelligence and Intelligent Business The origin of Business Intelligence (BI) can be traced back to the first data processing applications (McDonald and Wilmsmeier, 2004). Currently, business organizations are moving towards decision-making processes that are based on information. Business Intelligence represents technologies and methods for following the best strategy in the marketplace. Artificial Intelligence includes several technologies that may be very useful in improving BI, such as Data Mining, Evolutionary Computation and Intelligent Agents (Russel and Norvig, 1999). Adaptive business intelligence combines optimization and prediction techniques to help decision makers to take the best decisions in complex and rapidly changing environments. In these systems there are two main questions: What will happen in the future? And what is the best action to take? In these systems, Artificial Intelligence techniques such as decision trees, artificial neural networks, agent-based modeling are used. Knowledge management technologies are less mature than BI technologies, but these techniques are now combining today’s content management systems and the Web with improved searching and data mining capabilities. This combination is usually called BIKM (Business Intelligence and Knowledge Management) (Cody, Kreulen, Krishna and Spangler, 2002). Data mining techniques are frequently used to study and to discover concepts and relations in database marketing (Santos, Cortez, Quintela, and Pinto 2005). In this case, the usual objective is to find a set of rules that explain clusters of clients with homogeneous behaviors. In this work, the authors validate and eliminate irrelevant data and use Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) to explore the clustering space. Finally, decision trees are used in order to obtain the perfect set of classification rules.
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
In other studies, data mining is used to find and to analyze data in the Web. The Web-based data explosion has created a demand between executives and technologist for methods to gather, study and analyze the main information useful for organizations. The emergence of Web Mining identifies and manages the opportunities and dangers in the web. In this way, these techniques are used to collect and analyze Web-based data to help increase sales or identify threats. Software Agents are often used in BI. A MultiAgent System (MAS) is a system composed of several agents that interact among themselves. The interaction can be in the form of message passing, negotiating or changes in the environment. Multi-Agent Systems shows a great potential in advancing BI, solving complex problems in a changing environment. In (Bobek and Perko, 2006) the authors build a model proposing three fields in order to use a MAS combined with BI. These fields are: intelligence data acquisition, intelligent modeling and intelligent information brokerage. In other cases, the researchers use fuzzy logic and evolutionary algorithms to predict the consumer behavior in a business environment. A solution for business intelligence has been developed by imaginary, a company specializing in knowledge management. This solution is called iCLIP (imaginary Client Profiler). In (Tettamanzi, Carlesi, Pannese and Santalmasi 2007) the authors describe a fuzzy logic approach to data mining used by iCLIP, the MOLE engine. They present the results on a customer prediction case.
Machine Learning for Business Simulators To implement a business simulator is a hard task because it requires knowledge of computer sciences; the game must be played again and again to debug it, and many humans have to play it until correct behaviors are obtained. In one approach, some researchers have developed their
own business simulator development kit, which contains a business model description language (BMDL) and a business model development system (BMDS). BMDL is a designed language that describes business models specifying the relations and definitions among the ways to take decisions, business variables and user interfaces. BMDS generates executable codes for the server program (Morikawa and Terano, 2005). A second approach is to use Machine Learning methods. Machine Learning is a branch of Artificial Intelligence where systems improve their performance with experience, and for instance, architectures with machine-learning agents that substitute human players have been proposed. Some Business simulation games use a mixture of human and machine-learning agents. The learning agents can use a typical genetic-based learning classifier system, XCS. In that study (Kobayashi and Terano, 2003), the authors developed four kinds of agents as alternatives to human players. They implemented a random agent that makes its decision using uniform random numbers; a reactive agent whose decisions are based on the values of several variables; agents that imitate human behavior using the log information obtained in an interaction between the simulator and a human; a learning agent that uses a reinforcement learning approach to acquire action policies. Reinforcement learning (RL) allows decisionmaking agents to learn from the reward obtained from executed actions and, in this way, to find an optimal behavior policy (Sutton and Barto, 1998). In stochastic business games the players take actions in order to maximize their benefits. While the game evolves, the players learn more about the best strategy to follow. With this, RL can be used to improve the behavior of the players in a stochastic business game.
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SIMBA: A SIMULATOR FOR BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION SIMBA (SIMulation in Business Administration) was created having in mind all the requirements stated in the previous sections. It is the work of a spin-off company from the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid in collaboration with Universidad Carlos III de Madrid1. SIMBA is a WEB based computer program that simulates the performance of a series of markets. This program, improved over twenty years of experience in university and postgraduate education, emulates business reality using the same variables, relationships and events present in the business world. Its purpose is to provide the users with an integrated vision of the company, using basic techniques of business management, simplifying complexity and highlighting the content and principles providing higher pedagogical value. SIMBA has a number of features that are worth highlighting. First, it is a competition simulator2, where a team of participants can compete either against all the companies managed by the Simulator, or have multiple teams of participants competing among themselves. It is also multifunctional, because it addresses the main functional areas of the company. It is interactive, because it allows the participant to communicate both with the Simulator and with other participants of the simulation. It is very versatile because it provides different levels of difficulty, adapting to the knowledge the participants have in business administration. There is no limit to the number of users. It allows the diversification of products, markets, customer segments and technologies. Since it is a WEB based system, the users can access it directly from a computer connected to the Internet, thus eliminating the need for the application to be installed. Moreover, it can run on any platform or operating system. Therefore, it can be used anywhere and on any device allowing access to the WEB3, and can be used by participants located in different places. It works
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with different pedagogical methodologies, either distance - with a manual and material support or on-site, which adds a refined methodology of work with analytical tools providing an excellent follow-up of the simulation. Unlike other business management simulators that can be found on the market, SIMBA introduces some novelty modules: a Users Management Module allowing the university or user’s institution to adapt it to its planning and programming needs. It also has a Customization Module, where the instructor can create products and configure the market environment, currency and language in which the competition will take place, the economic environment, as well as information on possible incidents that can be used during the simulation. Its Reporting Module provides a wide range of information content and graphics about the main indicators to follow-up both the companies and the market. Finally, the Ranking Module offers an objective assessment of the teams’ management performance (Saaty, 1990). All the aforementioned allows a participant to handle all the information of a company which he/she takes on as his/her own, and to compete against other companies in the simulated market, each of them managed by other participants or by the simulator. Therefore, it allows the participants to join an immersive learning process to complete their training, develop capabilities and competencies and also to enjoy the experience.
Architecture of SIMBA Figure 1 gives a general perspective of SIMBA’s structure showing the different operating modules it includes from the user’s viewpoint. The following subsections describe the modules, the interrelationships among them and the versatility they provide the tool with.
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
Figure 1. Simulator Model
Users’ Module
Communication Module
This module permits the system’s administrator to define user profiles to satisfy the needs of the institutions that will use the simulator. This module allows the creation of customers, administrators, instructors or assistants, and participants. A customer or administrator can be any institution licensed to use the simulator. The functions of the administrator are to manage the remaining modules of the tool. However, SIMBA also provides the functionality to be run automatically responding to certain predefined specifications and does not need the involvement of an administrator. Instructor’s and assistant’s profiles are designed to work with large teaching groups --as is the case of a competition at the international level-- and to adapt to the academic regulations found in higher education. The participant’s profile is the one SIMBA is run for: it represents individuals who join the teams that manage the companies participating in a simulation. User profiles are associated with certain functionalities described in the previous section. Therefore, it is necessary to define access and priority policies.
This module provides a valid and dependable means of communication amongst all users and also supports trade relations among participating teams. Thus, it is a key to dynamize market evolution and, therefore, the simulation.
Customization Model It covers a range of functions aimed at creating products, geographic and economic environments, start-up situations of companies, news, and it also chooses the currency and the language of the competition. All this information allows the generation of simulations tailor-made to the participants’ needs. This module provides a very interesting and innovative adaptive ability. The main functionalities of this module are described in Table 1.
Planning Module This module allows the instructor to organize and define the characteristics of each simulation. It creates teams by assigning participants, determining the number of decisions to be taken and their
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Table 1. Functionalities of the Customization Module CUSTOMIZATION MODULE PRODUCTS
Creating a new product only requires name identification, a brief description and, if desired, a picture.
GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE
Creating a new geographical scope only requires name identification, a brief description and, if desired, a picture.
CURRENCY
To be consistent with the selected geographic scopes, the tool provides the ability to personalize the market’s currency (€,US$, ¥, £)
ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
To create the economic environment specifications there are 15 variables. The values of these variables will change the market reaction due to company decisions. Some of them are: cost of labor, cost of raw materials, interest of the assets and liabilities, CPI (Consumer Price Index), etc.
START-UP SITUATION OF COMPANIES
It takes 115 variables between decisions and results, with a history that covers two years of life of the company. This number of variables will be multiplied by the number of companies to compete in the market.
NEWS AND INCIDENCES
There are different categories of news and incidences; to create a new one it must be written to identify optimal conditions of use and the recommended actions.
INTERNAL PARAMETERS
There are approximately 90 parameters, which seek to reflect fluctuations in the behavior of certain environment parameters or market specifications. Some of them are: the seasonality of demand, the criteria for depreciation of fixed assets, deducting the purchase of factors, tax rates, etc.
LANGUAGES
The simulator can present information in Spanish or English
scheduling, defining the number of markets and the number of companies in each market, and assigning teams to companies. Later, the module must define how the markets will be structured. That is, the geographic area in which the market simulation will take place and the economic environment parameters defining it, what products to sell, the companies’ names, their start-up situations, and whether to open up commercial transactions between companies.
Reporting Module Each decision cycle is equivalent to a quarterly period of the simulation. By choosing this time unit SIMBA aims to reflect yearly business activity patterns, both long-range economic cycles and annual seasonality. In every decision period, SIMBA provides very complete information about the companies and the market (competitors and economic environment), accessible on the screen, but also available in PDF, HTML, or worksheet format, so the participants or the instructor can use it outside the program environment.
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The simulator also offers a number of market activity reports. This information is very useful for diagnosing market behavior and is only available upon the instructor’s request: for pedagogical purposes, or to justify ongoing or final results. In business reality, managers do not have all the information about the market, so this creates uncertainty and risks to face. But as the aim of the Simulator is basically pedagogical (“to know why things happen”), the administrator can make available to participants a series of graphics and tables that clarify the obtained results. Table 2 summarizes the information available in the reports.
The Analysis and Diagnosis Module Once participants have access to all reports in the most appropriate format for them, they will have to make a diagnosis of their company’s situation, in accordance with the corporate strategy and objectives defined by the team. To perform this function they can use a series of tools (worksheet, calculator, statistical package, etc.) as well as support material of all kinds related to business management theory and practice. Logically part
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
Table 2. Information available in the reports AVAILABLE INFORMATION News Bulletin
News published by both the instructor and the participants of the simulation.
Competitors Information
Commercial information companies of the market and year-end economic statements, Balance, Profit and Loss Statement.
Environment and Industry indicators
The evolution of environment and industry activity indicators.
Economic forecast
Short term forecasts about the evolution of main environmental indicators
Marketing and Commercial information
Historical information about the marketing policy followed by the company and its commercial results.
Operation Information
Historical information about the operational strategy followed by the company, its inventory policy and the evolution of their costs.
Human Resources Information
The policy of recruiting and training of staff.
Economic-Financial Information
Balance sheet Income Statement, profit and loss Cash flow Cash flow statement Economic - financial ratios Liabilities: equities and loans
RESULTS ANALYSIS Commercial and Marketing
Demand coverage for each company and market segment. Corporate and market segment size. Cost of the company’s advertising effort by market segment. Cost of the company’s sales force effort by market segment Price policy per company and market segment Sales performance by company and market segments. Market share evolution per company and period. Market share evolution in the outsourcing market
Production
Unit cost of R&D per company and segment. Product quality evolution. Productivity evolution per company. Unit cost evolution per company.
Human Resources
Dimensioning of human resources: number of employees per company.
Finance
ROI evolution per company ROE evolution per company Debt analysis. Stock price evolution.
of the usefulness related to this module depends on the participant’s personal commitment.
The Decision-Making Module Once these analyses have been made the participants must approach the decisions on their companies’ different functional areas. Each market in the competition requires the use of approximately twenty-five variables, a figure that can be expanded
if companies engage in outsourcing negotiations. This is an indicator of the Simulator’s capacity to approach the complexity of managerial decisionmaking. Additionally, teams can edit company or market related news that will be published in the Newsletter of the period. The estimated time for a team to analyze initial information, make a diagnosis and take the decisions for the next period is at least two hours per market, under the assumption that each team
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member takes on the responsibility of a functional area in the company.
The Arbitrage Module This module is aimed at controlling the competition’s dynamic and the interaction among teams and instructors. It is run every time a decisionmaking period ends, according to the scheduled calendar, verifying that all teams have taken their companies’ decisions. This module also allows the instructor to select news and incidents, some of which can be created in the Customization Module, which may alter the market dynamic thus adapting the Simulator to the skills and abilities of the participants. This information is also published in the Simulation’s Newsletter. Then the “time machine” or the market arbitration is run. By doing this, the program integrates the previous period’s situation, the teams’ decisions, and the parameters of the general economic environment together with those of each geographic market, and starts the Simulator’s engine to generate output information for the new period. It first calculates the products’ perceived market quality in that period before proceeding to calculate the demand for each company. This requires the calculation of total demand for that period, and, as a function of the companies’marketing policy, obtains the potential demand for each of the companies. Then the total sales volume is calculated for each company considering its stocks and outsourcing policy. Finally the economic, financial and accounting calculations are made in order to generate financial information. This process is carried out for all the companies in one market, and then for all the markets run in a simulation competition. Once this is finished, the results will be available for the participants to start a new decision cycle until the end of the competition. At this stage the use of the Ranking Module is relevant, and will be discussed below.
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The Ranking and Evaluation Module As a conclusion to each simulation SIMBA offers a ranking of the participating teams. To perform this assessment it uses a multi-criteria procedure in which the behavior of a series of indicators (mainly economic, commercial, financial and management magnitudes) is analyzed. SIMBA allows the instructor to set weights for each of them, depending on the importance he/she wants to give to each indicator. Moreover, when there are multiple markets in a simulation, a more complex evaluation procedure can be applied. SIMBA provides a consolidated ranking, or scoring, a “synthetic index” of the business units the teams manage during the competition. This index is calculated by consolidating the positioning of each strategic unit (products, markets, customers or alternative technologies) in each of the following criteria: positioning by business size weighted according to key economic, financial and management indicators; positioning according to criteria such as diversification and risk of their business portfolio; and positioning according to the market value and the life cycle of the industry. These three criteria are consolidated in a single weighted ranking and the results and details of the ranking are available to the teams as needed, depending on the instructor’s criterion.
The Training Module Playing the part of an add-in and a support tool, both for participants as trainers, SIMBA has extensive support material on the main issues of Business Administration. Taking into account the need to provide a methodology that makes the best use of this type of tool, SIMBA includes different materials to facilitate self-learning and provide instructors with directions to accomplish their educational goals. The tool has a “user manual” addressed to the participants that, in synthesis, describes the basic
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
rules of the functioning of markets, as well as the procedures to follow to gain the most experience. An “instructor’s manual” is also included which offers a more comprehensive view of the Simulator’s potential, where, beyond the mere basic rules of the market dynamics, there are detailed organizational aspects for running a simulation. A series of management tools, accessible for both instructors and participants, are also available. Their aim is to approach specific aspects of management and decision-making processes by helping structure information and decision processes. Specific management tools are defined in Table 3. This documentation provides an important training supplement that takes into account both in an in-house or distance learning educational program.
Table 3. Management Tools
SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE OF SIMBA Figure 2 shows the software architecture of SIMBA. The main modules are the Web Server, the Simulation Engine and the Simulation Server. The Web server connects SIMBA with both human users and intelligent agents. This system has been developed to permit different kinds of end-users who can connect with an open protocol (SOAP) that permits different types of access. For instance, Section 6 defines an experimental manager module in which the decision-making is executed by software Agents written in Java. These Agents are connected to make decisions and generate data for the experiments. The Simulation server implements all the modules described in Section 3, so it is in charge of handling users, customization options, simulation calendars, reports, decisions and results. This module is decomposed, as shown in Figure 3, in the following sub-modules: •
MANAGEMENT TOOLS Human Resources Area
HH.RR. Planning HH.RR. Productivity analysis
Operations Area
Production capacity planning Productivity of labor Demand forecasting Production planning Inventory Management Costs analysis of production
Financial Area
Balance sheet Profit and loss Statement Financial planning Ratio analysis Cash-flow analysis Debt analysis Inventory evaluation The average period of maturity Market evaluation
Marketing Area
Demand Analysis Product policy Pricing policy Communication policy Distribution policy
General Management
Strategic analysis Competitors analysis Breakeven analysis Business positioning indicators
• •
Users: This sub-module manages the users and clients of the system Simulations: This sub-module manages the simulations. Interface: This sub-module connects the Simulation Server with the Web Server.
Both users and Simulations Modules require storing information in a database. Therefore, the Database Module contains both the information about simulations as well as user information. Last the Simulation Engine Module implements the necessary calculations to perform simulations. It stores the mathematical models that govern the simulations, and is divided into different business areas.
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Figure 2. SIMBA’s Architecture
Figure 3.Sub-modules of SIMBA
SIMBA FOR BUSINESS EDUCATION The evolution of information technology and communications, and the new demands of higher education models (adaptation to different user profiles, distance learning, etc.) justify the development of new training tools, as is the case of SIMBA. Focusing more specifically on the pedagogical advantages of Business Simulators, we must highlight that the main feature of this methodology is “immersion learning“. This means that students use techniques and concepts acquired during their training, and requires them to analyze, take decisions and evaluate results, thus acquiring practical experience and strengthened knowledge.
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So far SIMBA is been utilized in Business Schools and training programs in which business administration is either a core or complementary content. In these contexts SIMBA has played two alternative roles. On the one hand as an integrating activity for the participants –- a “neutral” business environment in which they interact, get to know each other, and play different professional roles-- and, on the other, to relate concepts and put into practice the knowledge and techniques provided in other subjects. But there are many other benefits derived from using simulators in business education. Some of them are related to technical learning objectives, while others deal with the development of capacities and competencies highly appreciated in
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
modern education systems and business settings. These contributions are summarized in Table 4. Due to all these advantages we can point out that the Business Simulator SIMBA emerges as a powerful training tool since it meets many of the demands set by high quality education. Moreover, its playful and competitive environment provides a high degree of satisfaction and involvement, both for the student and the professor. “Learning by playing” is the golden rule that guarantees success. But not all are advantages. The main challenges associated with the use of business simulators are: • • •
High development cost. The design of an effective training methodology to exploit their potential. The need to train instructors in both the tool and the teaching methodology.
• •
They require a minimum technological infrastructure depending on the simulator. If their use is complemented by mentoring support to participants, this activity becomes a labor-intensive teaching experience.
Even though the above-mentioned benefits have made simulators an innovative educational tool, the needs perceived in the educational market at all levels, and the continuous technological development and innovation in this type of tools, suggest new evolutionary trends: •
Implement Artificial Intelligence algorithms to improve the tool and, gradually, its behavior. This is aimed, in short, at emulating users’ behavior in the decision-making process, feeding this information back
Table 4. Contributions of SIMBA in Education CONTRIBUTIONS OF SIMBA IN EDUCATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Supplement theoretical training provided by conventional methods, strengthen the knowledge acquired. Acquire experience in decision-making practice without taking the risks of learning in real business situations. Self-confident handling of concepts and management techniques used in decision-making processes. Analyze the “cause - effect” relationship of decisions, that is, the market and business consequences of the actions taken by the participants. Understand the relationship between the various activities and functional areas of the company. Opportunity to learn from errors as a means of reinforcing learning. Allow students to familiarize themselves with business and economic terms in other languages
DEVELOPMENT OF WORK ABILITIES AND SKILLS
Develop management skills. Develop negotiation abilities Time management Develop workgroup and even intercultural and interdisciplinary abilities. Promote the use of the computer as a prime management work tool.
TEACHING FUNCTION
Enables the professor to follow up students’ involvement by checking connection time. Can be translated into several languages fostering the integration of foreign students, or even organizing international competitions Allows the professor to plan very structured course content. Provides an efficient and objective evaluation system. Bridges the lack of “hands on” training found in many educational programs.
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•
•
•
to the tool, thus making it more sensitive to participants’ decision-making styles. To access the descriptions and formulations of the different variables, concepts, and logical rules via hypertext techniques, linking information generated by the Simulator with the conceptual underpinnings and scientific foundation in the Training Module. Evolve the Training Module towards a knowledge management system, allowing, on the one hand, the participant to perform a self-assessment of what they learned, and, on the other, the instructor to track the participants’ learning progress. Apply videogame technology to obtain more realism in the simulator’s business environment.
SIMBA FOR ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE RESEARCH This section describes how SIMBA can be used for research in the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to the area of business administration, which may provide us in the future with new methodologies for intelligent business and Figure 4. MAS perspective of the Business Simulator
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decision support systems. Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) is a sub-field of Artificial Intelligence that provides both concepts and principles to build complex systems involving multiple software agents and mechanism to coordinate the independent agent’s behavior. There is no accepted definition of “agent” in AI (Russell and Norvig, 1999). An agent can be considered as an entity with goals, actions and domain knowledge, situated in an environment (Sterling, and Taveter, 2009). The design of complex programs like a Multi-Agent System presents a paradigm where systems are described as individual agents solving problems by pursuing high-level goals. Figure 4 shows the architecture of the business simulator from a MAS perspective. The architecture designed enables us to use different players, including both software agents and human players. The different players participate in a simulation in a step by step round mode. In every step the player (software or human) receives the current state of the environment and the player chooses the best decisions to make. Then the round proceeds. In this easy way, we can manage the simulation where human and software agents participate in the game. We have developed three kinds of
Business Simulators for Business Education and Research
software agents as alternatives to human players. All the actions that these agents can perform are constrained by the semantic of the business model, so we assume that the agents only take “in range” decisions. •
•
•
Random Agent: It chooses the best decisions to make using uniform random numbers. We use this agent to explore the action space. Hand-Coded Agent: Agent sets decision variables increasing their values using the Consumer Price Index (CPI). His behavior is more intelligent than that of the random agents. Intelligent Agent: Use the current state of the environment, action and reward information to choose the best decisions to make in every decision period.
A business strategy is a plan that integrates an organization’s major goals, policies, decisions and sequences of actions into a cohesive whole (Baye, 2006). The managers select a business strategy to gain a competitive advantage in a particular market. It can apply at all levels in an organization and affect to any of the functional areas of management. Different business strategies appear in business literature, and they all could be followed to manage the companies in SIMBA, like incremental decisions, risk or reactive decisions, low cost strategies, differentiation or specialization, etcetera. Which strategy management is chosen in every moment depends on the organization’s strengths and its competitor’s weaknesses. This strategies could be implemented in the simulator by handcoding them, following classical expert system methodologies. However, creating virtual agents can also be performed using Machine Learning (ML) approaches. A first approach of ML to learn virtual agents in SIMBA is using lazy learning approaches like KNN (Aha, 1997). KNN is a type of instance-based
learning, or lazy learning where the function is only approximated locally. We have proposed a variant of KNN called Adaptive KNN. In this variant, a data set C is obtained during an interaction between the agent and the environment. This data set C is composed by tuples in the form < s1, a, r > where s1 ∈ S (space of all the possible states), a ∈ A (space of all the possible actions) and r ∈ â—œ is the immediate reward (variable that we want to maximize, like the profit). In each step, the simulator returns the current state s where the agent is. The algorithm selects the K nearest neighbors to the state s in C. Among these K neighbors, it selects the tuple with best reward. Then modify slightly the actions of this tuple and execute it. If the reward obtained is better than the worst reward in K, it replaces the worst tuple in K with the new experience generated. Other ML technique used to create virtual agents in SIMBA is Reinforcement Learning (Sutton and Barto, 1998). Among many different RL algorithms, Q-learning has been widely used in the literature. Q-learning is an on-policy method where the learned function, Q(s,a), for s ∈ S, a ∈ A, directly approximates the optimal action-value function, independently of the policy being followed. This value function measures the utility of executing each action from each state. In SIMBA, function Q can evaluate, for instance, the profit that a company expects to receive if it is in a given state and perform a given action. Q-learning is based on just the one next reward, using the value of the state one step later as a proxy for the remaining rewards. This action-value function gives a utility measure of executing an action (or decision), a, from a situation or state, s. The update of such a function is performed using an experience tuple<s, a, s’, r> (where s is the initial state, a is the action executed, s’ is the state achieved after executing a from s, and r is the reward or profit received) following equation 1 (where α is a learning parameter, and γ is a discount factor that reduces the relevance of future decisions). Except in very small environ-
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REFERENCES
ments it is impossible to enumerate the state and action spaces. The problem of learning in large spaces is addressed as generalization techniques such as Vector Quantization (VQ) [5] or CMAC (Garcia García, López-Bueno, Fernández and Borrajo, 2010).
Aha, D. (1997). Lazy Learning. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Q(s,a) = (1- α) Q(s, a) +α [r + γmaxa’∈A Q(s’,a’)] (1)
Baye, M. R. (2006). Managerial economics and business strategy (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
CONCLUSION This paper has introduced SIMBA, a WEB based business simulator. In this chapter we have described its model, software architecture and main functionalities, together with the logic and methodologies imbedded into it to make it a responsive, proactive tool capable of responding to varying teaching demands. The ongoing research in AI, providing multi-profile learning agents to be installed within SIMBA make it a powerful instrument. SIMBA can be successfully used both for teaching and research. In teaching, SIMBA provides several advantages over traditional business teaching in different pedagogical areas, like the learning objectives, the development of work skills, and the teaching function. From the point of view of research, SIMBA offers a very successful framework for different research areas. In this work attention is centered in Artificial Intelligence, offering some insights in the application of Data Mining approaches and Automatic Decision Making using Multi-Agent Systems. This approach provides an exciting research field both for decision-making strategies and management styles, and for the development of efficient agents capable of a behavior resembling a human, or team, player.
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Andlinger, G. R. (1958). Business Games - Play One! Harvard Business Review, 36(11).
Bobek, S., & Perko, I. (2006). Intelligent Agent based Business Intelligence. Current Developments in Technology-Assisted Education 2. Burgess, T. F. (1991). The Use of Computerized Management and Business Simulation in the United Kingdom. Simulation & Gaming, 22, 174–195. doi:10.1177/1046878191222002 Cody, W. F., Kreulen, J. T., Krishna, V., & Spangler, W. S. (2002). The integration of business intelligence and knowledge management. IBM Systems Journal, 41(4). doi:10.1147/sj.414.0697 Dale, A. G., & Klasson, C. R. (1962). Business Gaming: A Survey of American Collegiate Schools of Business. Austin, TX: Bureau of Business Research, University of Texas. Day, R. (1968). Beyond the Marketing Game-New Educational Uses for Simulation. In Proceedings of the American Marketing Association. Döner, D. (1980). On the Difficulties People Have in Dealing with Complex System. Simulation & Gaming, 11(1), 87–106. doi:10.1177/104687818001100108 Faria, A. J. (1987). A Survey of the Use of Business Games in Academia and Business. Simulation & Games, 18, 207–224. Faria, A. J., & Wellington, W. J. (2004). A survey of simulation game users, former-users, and neverusers. Simulation & Gaming.
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Farrell, C. (2005). Perceived Effectiveness of Simulations in International Business Pedagogy: An Exploratory Analysis. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 71–88. doi:10.1300/ J066v16n03_05 Forrester, J. W. (1961). Industrial Dynamics. Cambridge: MIT Press. García, J., López-Bueno, I., Fernández, F. D., & Borrajo, D. (2010). A Comparative Study of Discretization Approaches for State Space Generalization in the Keepaway Soccer Task. In Reinforcement Learning: Algorithms, Implementations and Applications. Nova Science Publishers. Hogarth, R. M. (1980). Judgment and Choice: The Psychology of Decision. Chichester, UK: Wiley. Horn, R. E., & Cleaves, A. (1980). The Guide to Simulation/Games for Education and Training. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Isaacs, W. N., & Senge, P. (1992). Overcoming Learning Limits In CBLE’S. European Journal of Operational Research, 59(1). Kemeny, J. M., & Kreutzer, W. B. (1992). An Archetype Based Management Flight Simulator. In Proceedings International System Dynamics Conference. Kibbee, J. M., Craft, C. J., & Nanus, B. (1961). Management Games. New York: Reinhold Publishing Company. Kobayashi, M., & Terano, T. (2003, August). Exploring Business Gaming Strategies by Learning Agents. In Proc. 34th Conf. Int. Simulation and Gaming Assoc. (ISAGA 2003) Social Contributions and Responsibilities of Simulation and Gaming (pp.557-566). Koyamada, K., Tamura, S., & Osama, O. (2007). Systems Modeling and Simulation: Theory and Applications. In Asian Simulation Conference 2006, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Krajewski, L. (1998). Motivating students in the Operations Management class: challenges for the publishing industry. Production and Operation Management, 7(2). Laguna, M., & Marklund, J. (2005). Business Process Modeling, Simulation and Design. Prentice Hall. Marriott, N. (2004). Using computerized business simulations and spreadsheet models in accounting education: a case study. Accounting Education. McDonald, K., Wilmsmeier, A., Dixon, D. C., & Inmon, W. H. (2004). The Origins of Business Intelligence. Mastering the SAP Business Information Warehouse. Wiley Publishing. McGuinness, M. J. (2004). A Simulation Game for an Introductory Course in International Business. Journal of Teaching in International Business. McKenna, R. J. (1991). Business Computerized Simulation: The Australian Experience. Simulation & Gaming, 22. Morikawa, A., & Terano, T. (2005). Business Simulator Development Cycle with Both Human and Computer Players. Agent-Based Modeling Meets Gaming Simulation. Musselwhite, C. (2006). University Executive Education Gets Real. T + D, 57-59, 6. Richardson, G., & Pugh, L. (1981). Introduction to System Dynamics Modelling With Dynamo. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Russell, S. J., & Norvig, P. (1995). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Saaty, T. L. (1990). Multicriteria decision making: the analytic hierarchy process: planning, priority setting resource allocation (2nd ed.). RWS Publications.
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Santos, M., Cortez, P., Quintela, H., & Pinto, F. (2005). A clustering approach for knowledge discovery in database marketing. Transactions of Information and Communication Technologies. Scherpereel, C. M. (2005). Changing mental models: Business simulation exercises. Simulation & Gaming, 388–403. doi:10.1177/1046878104270005 Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational Choice. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 9.
Wynder, M. (2004). Facilitating creativity in management accounting: a computerized business simulation. Accounting Education.
ENDNOTES 1
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Sterling, L., & Taveter, K. (2009). The Art of Agent-Oriented Modeling. The MIT Press. Stone, P., Veloso, M. (2000). Multiagent Systems: A Survey from a Machine Learning Perspective. Autonomous Robotics, 8(3). Summers, G. J. (2004). Today’s business simulation industry. Simulation & Gaming, 208–241. doi:10.1177/1046878104263546 Sutton, R., & Barto, R. G. (1998). Reinforcement learning: an introduction. Cambridge: MIT Press. Wolfe, J. (1993). A History of Business Teaching Games in English-speaking and Post-Socialist Countries. Simulation & Gaming, 24.
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Simuladores Empresariales, S.L. is a spin off of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, promoted by the Research Group INNOVATIC of the Department of Organization of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. SIMBA has been developed in collaboration with the Planning and Learning Group (PLG) of the Computer Science Department of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. The term competitive indicates that the decisions taken by the participants from each computer influence both their own results and those of the other competing teams (Biggs, 1990 p.25) For example, a PDA with access to a wireless network, or with Apple’s iPhone
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Chapter 15
Educational Games Gyula Mester University of Szeged, Hungary Piroska Stanić Molcer Subotica-Tech, Subotica, Serbia Vlado Delić University of Novi Sad, Serbia
ABSTRACT The market favors the best-selling computer games regardless of their social and educational effects. This chapter will discuss the present trends in educational games development, technologies related to them as well as their features, through representative examples of games used for education with respect to pedagogical, business, and social aspects. Benefits and limitations of introducing games in education will be pointed out. Computer games for the disabled along with their pedagogical and social effects will be presented. Recent research results on the implementation of video games in schools and educational game evaluation will be presented in the chapter, based on the experience in the development, implementation, and evaluation of several interactive e-learning educational exercises, as well as in the development and validation of several innovative computer games for the visually impaired.
INTRODUCTION Every child and the majority of adults enjoy playing games. Games were used for the purpose of education before computers entered everyday life, but in view of the important role that computer games have in the entertainment of young people today, obtaining an advantage in education from computer games became the focus of a number of studies. Most young people are familiar with DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch015
IT and they spend several hours daily in front of computer screens. Most of them have Internet connections at home and while studying, they retrieve most of the information they need from the Internet rather than from a library. Their perception abilities are predominantly audio-visual, they learn more easily from images than from text. Their capability of multitasking in their activities is outstanding, they can focus on multiple parallel objects, and they are able to switch between activities quickly. They seem to be impatient, as they expect immediate answers to their questions.
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The widespread use of social networks points at their need for company and associates; they like to belong to groups and to work in teams. This feature of young people existed in previous generations too, but the difference is that today’s contacts are not necessarily personal, and that the physical and the virtual partly overlap. These circumstances have led to a different way of learning and different expectations regarding education. For example, games enhance the ability to connect the virtual and the physical, thus helping the development of different skills. Young people today prefer to learn by exploring, discovering and doing rather than by being told facts and given instructions. They seek interactivity in every segment of learning. These new aspects of the learning process can be exploited by taking the advantages that games offer as opposed to traditional learning and teaching methodologies: they attract learners, they activate learners’ imagination, curiosity and the desire for challenge and they also offer a wide range of possibilities to work in teams. Educational games compose a special group of video games, with particular requests on technology, design, and cost. At The National Summit on Educational Games held on October 25, 2005 in Washington, DC, sponsored by The Federation of American Scientists, the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) and the National Science Foundation, nearly 100 experts discussed the ways of accelerating the development, commercialization, and deployment of new generation games for learning in order to find answers to the questions: (1) why the United States should focus on digital games for learning, (2) what research is needed to improve games for learning, (3) what stands in the way of introducing games and simulations to education and (4) what should the government, industry, and education community do to get educational games to teachers and learners. After a brief discussion of present trends in educational games development, some statistical facts will be given from the economic point of view. The second section gives more detail on
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technologies and features through representative examples of games used for education worldwide with respect to pedagogical, business, and social aspects. The main benefits and limitations of introducing games in education will be pointed out in a subsection. The third section is dedicated to some innovative computer games for persons with disabilities. An analysis of pedagogical and social effects of educational games is given in a subsection. Recent research results on the implementation of video games in schools, and an educational game evaluation will be presented as well. The final section contains some concluding remarks and future lines of research.
Trends in Educational Games Development In recent years educational computer games have received increased attention from researchers, educators, and learners. Being a multidisciplinary issue, educational games are in the field of research of various disciplines such as psychology, literature, media studies, sociology, educational theory, and computer games studies (Gros, 2007). While in the nineties e-learning was going through a crisis because the huge amount of information it could offer was static, today’s trend is towards creating learning systems adaptive to learners. The new methodology requires monitoring the learning process, collecting data from the users and introducing dynamic changes of learning methods, depending on the learners’ needs (Moreno-Ger, et al. 2008b). Learning models are neither linear nor static, hence, computer games can meet these new requirements without losing any of their amusing aspects. In the past the main issues about introducing games in education were whether to use games in education or not, whether the games are useful or not, and how much benefit they bring to the learning process. At present the main questions are rather different. One of the research topics is to what extent the games are cost-effective. This
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depends on the number of the target users and on their expectations regarding the quality of graphics or such modern features as the possibility of multiplayer gaming in educational games. The unification of the API which could support the pedagogical requests and be used in different games is also a current task for the developers. Changes in schools that might be required in order to introduce educational games should also be considered, especially by governments and government policy makers. The development of a specific game for the purposes of education is a multidisciplinary task which calls for the cooperation of various experts: video game designers, content experts, researchers in the field of didactics. Users such as teachers and instructors should also be included in the development projects. Involving potential users, especially learners, in multimedia product development is also highly important (StanićMolcer & Delić, 2007).
Business Aspect of Multimedia Tools in Education and Distance Learning According to the data from ESA, in 2004 the average age of game players was 30 while in 2005 it increased to 33, in 2006 the average age was the same (33). In 2007 and in 2008 it was 35. The former game players have grown older and are still playing. Considering the genre of on-line games, the use of Persistent Multi-Player Universe games has exhibited the highest growth. For example, World of Warcraft has gained popularity among 11.5 millions players in the last 4 years. The U. S. computer and video game sales grew from 2.6 billion dollars in 1986 to 7.4 billion dollars in 2006 and 11.7 billion dollars in 2008. In September 2009 Businessweek reported that “As today’s video games continue to reach a broader audience, it’s no wonder the video game industry has grown 57% with total sales reaching $1.7 billion in March from the same period a year ago.” According to the Eeindex, the stock
market crash in September 2008 negatively affected the market of computer games too, but in 2009 a recovery from the crisis is noticeable. In September 2009 the index regained the value it had at the end of 2006 and the beginning of 2007. Although the video game business is constantly growing and continues to be profitable, the development of educational games is connected with financial problems and limitations. Publishers demand that games be sold well, magazines reward the best-selling products, hence an alternative source of funding is needed for educational games which do not meet the expectations of the market (Martinez, 2006). A good example are computer games created for persons with disabilities. Currently, it can be seen that computer games are being introduced primarily into the education of younger generation, because they grew up using computers and they are more familiar with playing games. The fact is that today the net generation, which was born in 1980 or later (Oblinger, D. & J., 2005), has grown up into adulthood. Concerning lifelong education, it would be meaningful to conduct research on introducing games in postcompulsory education as well. The rapid development of technology requires that lifelong education should keep up with innovations, which is only possible with modern learning transfer technology. “In adult education, lifelong learning – integrated into working processes and built on the development of the learning abilities – is developing in the direction of individual learning management and self-management” (Fogarasi, 2009). The EU has shown an increasing interest in the strategies of introducing e-learning in higher education during the past years. One of the most important international organizations in the field, EDEN (European Distance and Elearning Network), was established in 1991. This association has been focusing on open, flexible, distance and e-learning research since its foundation. It organizes conferences with participation of researchers from Europe, America, Australia, China and South Africa, thus enhancing the co-
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operation and collaboration between institutions, networks and individuals. Among the goals of EU funded projects EU-FP5, EU-FP6, and EU-FP7 is the research on information and communication technologies (ICT) as well as research on possibilities of lifelong learning. EU made remarkable investments to support the goals of e-Europe, E-learning Action Plan and eContent Programs. It had invested 350 million Euros until 2006 into “Socrates” and “Leonardo da Vinci” programs, and more than 200 million Euros into the eContent program within the research and development frame program. The World University Service (WUS) Austria increases quality in higher education in accordance with international standards through its activities and the provision of project development, project management, networking and consulting services. The eContent Program of WUS in Bosnia and Herzegovina had the aim to introduce the creation and use of digital educational content, transforming courses into online educational content. The main goal was to promote the general and specific aspects of eLearning within the university staff and students’ community (Supporting the Development of Higher Education, n.d.). The Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) is a European Funding program of the European Commission’s Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency in the field of education and training (Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency, n.d.). It enables individuals at all stages of their lives to pursue stimulating learning opportunities across Europe.
EDUCATIONAL GAMES TECHNOLOGIES AND FEATURES Educational Game Technologies The special requirements of educational games are flexibility, easy change of content, easy updating and easy adjustment to individual needs, as well as cost-effectiveness while the selected genre
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should maintain a balance between entertainment and education. Some of the special features of educational games are: the possibility of monitoring, negotiation mode of games and collaborative discourse. The process of creating a game is complex because experts in different areas interact. Decisions of each member of the team have consequences on the other’s work. Designing games of a story-like genre is a project which requires collaboration of script-writers, graphic designers, sound-artists and programmers. Interactivity makes a game out of an ordinary story. The user must have the impression that he or she is the protagonist of the story. Additional difficulty comes from the fact that most of the game stories are not linear. That means that the development of the story is dictated by the choices that the user makes, and the story cannot be told like in a movie. One of the methods of creating a non-linear story is to start by making a linear version of it, then adding different chains of quests that the user can embark on depending on his previous choices, thus making the game non-linear. Amory & Seagram (2003) present a model which provides a framework for conceptualization, design and development of educational games, which can serve in the process of creation of educational games. The model intends to integrate education theory and game design and it consists of three models: the Game Object Model (GOM), which provides support for getting along from pedagogical elements (abstract) to game components (concrete). The Persona Outlining Model (POM) supports the creation of human-computer interaction in the game, and consists of elements which describe the user, not only in terms of his or her features (occupation, age, gender, education) but in terms of cognitive, literary, communication and motor elements as well. It includes all the abstract interfaces of the GOM. The concrete interfaces of the GOM are implemented in the Game Achievement Model (GAM) which enables the learning objectives
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to be achieved by adequate construction of the story, and deals with scenes and their elements, actors and problems. The GAM serves to make the learning objectives clear and helps to address one or more learning objectives in each scene. The GAM was evaluated in a workshop organized for creating a story for an educational game. Special features of educational games can be summarized as follows: •
•
•
•
•
•
Educational game genres: the design has to be cost-effective and to balance between entertainment and education. The possibility of using for education commercial games which have originally been created for entertainment (Civilization, Sim). Special requirements from educational games: flexibility, easy change of content, easy updating and easy adjustment to individual needs. Monitoring: tracking student activity, assessment, grading, and collecting data for the purpose of improving the existing educational games and getting guidelines for creating new ones. Negotiation mode of games – dialogue with the computer based on “Human Plausible Reasoning Theory” introduced by Collins and Michalski in the early 1990’s, the theory about plausible inferences that people make about topics they know only partially, relying on similarities, generalization, differences, etc. Collaborative discourse.
The adaptive character of a game can be a huge advantage, so that events which happen rarely in the real world can occur more frequently in a game. Torrente et al. (2009) describe the use of the adaptive elements of the game in a virtual blood-test laboratory. An event which is rare in real life was made to occur in the experiment at a random moment, but only once for each user of
the game. In this way, every student could gain the experience of handling a situation which would otherwise be very difficult to simulate. The society is changing, and the new model of society requires workers who are flexible, capable of accepting fast changes, and ready for fast but lifelong learning. When the needs of distance learning consumers are concerned, the role of computer games in education is maybe even higher than in “traditional” education. Considering that the negative side of many e-learning materials is the lack of interactivity, and simple content delivery via the Internet, educational games should be a supplement in the existing learning environment and they should contribute to compensation for the lack of interactivity in the absence of a teacher. The inherent characteristics of video games offer possible personalization in terms of content and learning styles, hence adaptive and assessable designs of games can be integrated in on-line education. Moreno-Ger et al. (2008a) propose a game design in which the user (the instructor in the course) is able to choose assessment rules in the game. The game is connected with an on-line environment, while its assessment and adaptation rules lie in the Learning Management System. The assessment of learning is perhaps the most difficult task in a teacher’s work. Educational games provide special ways of assessing learning. One of them is tracking the students’ activities such as clicking the mouse buttons during game playing. These data can serve to evaluate the technology through the learning assessment. The problems are that not every game is amusing enough, not every game is educational, not everybody likes playing games, and not everybody is familiar with playing games. A particular game justifies its use only if it brings benefits to the users in the learning process. Students who have plenty of experience with digital games are more demanding. They have more expectations from virtual reality systems in terms of design
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and quantity of action than the students without such experience. Several studies report about bad influences of computer games on children and adolescents, for example Anderson & Bushman (2001), Sharif & Sargent (2006), Bartholow et al. (2005), Gentile et al. (2004), hence, cautions are required while designing educational games to avoid the potential harm that playing could cause. Game designers are presented with different goals which have to be achieved, such as providing standardized test scores, fitting the content to the curricula which lists the abilities that the student will acquire at a certain grade level. As the standards of curricula differ in different countries and even vary from school to school, game development becomes more expensive (Martinez, 2006).
Pedagogical and Social Effects of Educational Games One of the opportunities that educational games offer is to improve thinking, i.e. cognitive processes. Playing games stimulates creativity, and enables learning by exploring and discovering. For effective learning, knowledge should be uniquely constructed by people through play, exploration and social discourse with others (Amory & Seagram, 2003). Learning objectives presented in the constructivist learning environments should be firmly embedded in a context, and should, at least in some way, represent everyday life situations. Learners should also accept responsibility for their own learning and be self-motivated to explore different knowledge domains. Takashi (2007) gives results of research on the state of video games and learning games in Japan and describes the educational functions of games. Educational games should enhance various abilities: problem solving, strategic thinking, group decision making, planning, negotiation and communication ability. Games also stimulate metacognition in learners, because performances on the screen can be objectively observed.
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Gros (2007) points out that educational games are able to effectively promote conceptual learning, problem solving skills, co-operation, and practical participation. Completely preoccupied with the problems that the game sets, children should feel pleasure in their own strength test to solve the problem. Thus, a game is an important motivational tool for stimulating children’s thinking and learning activities. Children experience their first encounter with a computer often through playing a computer game. The implementation of educational computer games is an opportunity to begin using computers in teaching younger pupils at elementary schools. Squire et al. (2008) describe a case study about a one year long program of learning history through a historical computer simulation game situated within a community. Several pupils between the age of 8 and 12 who had problems in school, did not like school, had poor achievements in learning, did not like history, had not been interested in history and disliked social studies, were part of a one year long project of learning history in a learning community through a video game, namely Civilization 3. The participating pupils did not have any experience in playing computer games before. They did not even have any knowledge of the Windows environment, but they were highly motivated to participate in the game and enjoyed it. During the year of the project, they got better grades in social studies, and they began to read books and watch documentaries about history. The camp functioned as a bridging gaming space which connected the school and the out-of-school life of the participating pupils, which is a difficult achievement for an underserved and underprivileged youth. Non-traditional students live mostly distant from the faculty, they are mainly full-time workers and often have dependents, hence distance learning is more convenient and in many cases the only way for them to get further education. Distance learning, accessible at any time from any place, can
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make learning pleasant and comfortable, which, in the case of adult learners, are features more important than personal contact with lecturers and other students. Interactive exercises implemented as games and quizzes can give them a continuous and immediate feedback about their progress in the learning process. Having feedback on the achievements is essential in keeping motivation sustainable and learning successful. Massively multiplayer online gaming environments have flexible parameters which make the gaming environments change. There is a learning ecosystem formed by spontaneous self-organization of the participants inside such game environments. This process is the result of collaboration-based characteristics of the game, where players, as co-producers, can influence the rules, affect the outcome, and create a rich universe of social interactions (Galarneau, 2005). Apart from the educational purpose, computer games have both entertainment and social roles as well. They can have particularly important role in the process of inclusion of young persons with disabilities in their development. Socialization and inclusion of the visually impaired, especially young people faced with this handicap, represents a challenge for the modern society and science. Education plays the key role in the integration of persons with disabilities, because it is crucial for breaking the prejudices related to their ability. People with disabilities are not able to adopt certain elements of the curriculum units using only traditional methods. For that reason teachers in specialized schools use special techniques that enable pupils with disabilities to acquire the necessary skills, but the techniques used are far from what can be applied today. The results achieved are lower than those potentially attainable. Computer games are a part of everyday life for children and the young, and therefore the communities of the visually impaired are striving towards the development of computer games suited for all children, including the disabled ones, in order to make their inclusion into the society
more successful (Archambault et al., 2009). Sadly, the production of such games world-wide has been financed mostly by non-government organizations with very limited funds.
Evaluation and Validation of Educational Games Evaluating a product such as an educational game or in general a learning material is a task that is neither easy nor simple. This is because there are many factors which influence the learning process and the learning outcome. It is difficult to separate the impact of a new learning technology from other existing impacts. Evaluation methods are still not standardized. Some experience in the evaluation of an interactive distance learning system and the validation of educational games for the visually impaired will be presented in the next section, as well as the results of a recent research conducted in order to compare learning methods which include using games and the traditional learning methods which do not incorporate games. Conducting research on the effectiveness of each created educational game would be unacceptably time-consuming and expensive. There is a need for research which could suggest measurable parameters for the evaluation of educational games. There is also a need for further research which could result in getting validation methods for educational games. “Although trends of game-based and simulation-based learning are set to increase, there have been few attempts to introduce frameworks that can help support tutors to evaluate games that can be most effective in their particular learning context including their specific subject areas” (De Freitas & Martin, 2006). The reason for this is perhaps that there is not a clear boundary between games for education and games for entertainment. Many people erroneously think that all evaluation is done after a project is completed. Actually, formative evaluation improves a project during the development and implementation phases.
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Formative evaluation provides feedback during the program development and implementation. Some recently developed frameworks will be described which could support the evaluation of educational games and help lecturers to choose the game which best fits their curricula as well as to implement the chosen games in everyday education. Naden (2007) focuses on the evaluation of learning, considering it as a part of the evaluation of the effectiveness of education technology. The complete evaluation should consist of elements including concepts of usability, user’s attitude, usability and implementation. Three methods of assessment of learning supported by game playing learning technology are discussed: survey, in-game data collection, and the combination of these two methods. The evaluation criteria were that the evaluation strategy had to assess learning accurately without burdening the user, and that the evaluating strategy had to pass as politically acceptable according to the existing standards. The advantage of the survey is that the researchers can form questions in such a way that the answers can be direct and lead to the research goal. The disadvantage of surveys is that they have a serious limitation because of the nature of their mechanism. The survey usually evaluates how well the student recalls facts about a topic, and not the ability of using such knowledge in real world, which is a much higher level of knowledge. On the other hand, in-game data collection has the disadvantage that the data can be misinterpreted because the motor abilities such as the speed of positioning the mouse and clicking the mouse button lead to differences in the results. The combination of the two methods can unveil the user’s problems with the game. Evaluators can confirm the data, thus avoiding misinterpretations. Researchers can utilize the collected data to improve the game play and the learning. To meet the requests of standards considering political acceptability, the participants of the research have to be provided by sufficient information so that they can decide
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whether to participate in the research. Users also have to be informed about collecting data when in-game data collection is in question. Virvou et al. (2005) describe the comparison of learning with Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) with and without virtual reality games and animated-speaking agent. The ITS without games was predominantly based on hypertext. The communication with the students was realized through dialog boxes, drop-down menus and forms. The highest level of improvement in learning was noticed with the students who had had low grades before. This leads to the conclusion that those students had not been interested before, but the game-way of learning motivated them. Teachers reported that previously discipline had also been a problem for those students. The important finding of the study was that the educational effectiveness of the game was particularly high for the students who used to have poor performance in the domain taught prior to their learning experience with the game. The results of the evaluation show that educational virtual reality games can be very motivating while retaining or even improving the educational effects on students. Sustainability of the product is an important aspect. It would be necessary to track students’ performance for a certain period and to make continuous evaluation, to get results about the time the students are interested in the same game, as well as how much the fact of being a novelty influences the students’ satisfaction with the game. Formative evaluation has to be conducted from the beginning of the project of game designing. The feedback from representatives of the potential users can serve as a guideline to improve the project. As the technology is improving and the environment is changing rapidly, there is a need for doing formative evaluation even when a project development phase has been finished and exploitation begins. Often modifications are necessary to enhance the learning objects to keep step with the growing expectations of the users. A survey in the form of on-line questionnaire can be
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effective. Besides the students’ answers, the user’s behavior can be observed too, and statistics can be made about their work, such as the amount of time they had spent to complete a particular task. The limitation of a query is the restricted spectrum of possible answers. This problem can be overcome by asking the participants to give comments on the learning object or on the part of it. Notes collected in this way are even more useful than the results of a survey in which answers are pre-defined or where the users grade particular segments of a product. Stanić-Molcer (2009a, 2009b) present a distance learning system with interactive online exercises created for teaching digital signal processing to students of engineering in which emphasys was put on meeting the style of learning of today’s young generation oriented toward inductive discovery and exploring, and the interactivity needed in learning materials. After the analysis of the results of the on-line questionnaire given to the learners, it was clear which of the exercises were misunderstood and, consequently, changes in the instructions could be made of those tasks to make them clearer to the students. Effectiveness and attractiveness of the on-line exercises were continuously evaluated during the development of the e-learning project. Formative evaluation was accomplished continuously, which gave guidelines to the extensions and modifications of the e-learning program. According to the results obtained from each evaluation, new, enhanced versions of the system were developed. Pohl et al. (2008) describe the development of an educational game (named Suli), which was conducted with the participation of the future users. Pupils from the target group were involved in every stage of the design process. Modifications of the designs are easier in the first stage of the development, and the use of a prototype can lower the cost of the final product. A similar experience is presented in the development of a game called Lugram, particularly its version for the visually impaired (Lučić et al., 2009).
TECHNOLOGIES SUPPORTING HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION FOR THE DISABLED User Interfaces for the Disabled Persons with disabilities need different kinds of user interfaces depending on the type of their disability. The visually impaired have to touch or hear information presented on the screen. On the other hand, the hearing impaired cannot use audio information – it should be conveyed as text or additional images on a screen. Apart from people with sensual disabilities, some people with physical disabilities need suitable keyboards and user interfaces. Computer games for the visually impaired will be described in more detail in this subsection. The visually impaired can play audio and tactile computer games within the limitations of their abilities. It should be noted that due to the financial factor, they predominantly use the audio presentation of the graphic interface than the tactile one. The blind generally use computers with the help of screen readers and synthesizers, which are used in games of entertaining purpose generally for positioning active fields and in the explanation of the rules of the game. However, in the case of educational games, these tools are vital for the playability of the game (Cunningham et al., 2006). Achieving playability for the visually impaired is quite different from achieving it for the blind. A visually impaired person may have one or more types of impairment, such as insufficient severity, tunnel vision, loss of sight in certain parts of the field of view, color-blindness. Therefore it is necessary to use color and texture that will enhance contrast and enable them to detect the text and objects more easily, as well as to use suitable font and text size (IGDA, 2004). The core of the problem of developing or adapting video games to the visually impaired is the graphical user interface (GUI). The GUI that is being used in multimedia games is not suit-
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able for the visually disabled, and furthermore, it differs from game to game. The International Game Developers Association (IGDA, 2004) in their study “Accessibility in Games: Motivations and Approaches”, discusses the availability of games to every person with a disability including the visually impaired. The study presents speech synthesizers, screen readers and speech recognition as assistive technologies which can contribute to a greater availability of games for the visually impaired. Unfortunately, the application of these new technologies which would allow the adaptation of the user interface to the ergonomics of the visually impaired is not the primary concern for the game industry. On the other hand, a connection between the visually impaired children and these technologies is of a crucial importance to their inclusion into the society. User interfaces differ from game to game, and consequently, their ability to be adapted to the visually impaired, as well as the process of adaptation itself, also differs from game to game. In the literature video games are usually divided in four classes: action games, adventure games, strategy games and puzzle games. Action games are the games where the point of the greatest importance is a right-timed response to the audio and visual information that the player receives. Audio signals are the key factor of these games when adapted to the visually impaired. These audio signals have to differ from each other so that the player can easily identify them and respond at the right moment and in a right manner. The characteristics of adventure games are interesting scenarios, investigation of new areas and resolving mysteries. The motion of the avatar – a figure in the virtual world controlled by the player – is as important as the riddles and the scenario. Because of such characteristics, almost no games of this type were developed for the visually impaired. Strategy games usually require the player to control armies, vast territories and resources by using maps. The player must manipulate numerous parameters to allow the survival and growth of
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the population. Unfortunately the sense of sight is vital for the use of maps, and thus only games which are principally oriented on either management or simulation are convenient for adaptation to the visually impaired. Puzzle games are the only games which are based on the same principles regardless of whether they are audio or tactile. For example, there are more than 300 audio games at http://www.AudioGames.net. In general, educational computer games should be appropriate for the level of the cognitive development of potential players. For example, if a game is intended for younger pupils, it should be kept in mind that presentations in the form of images or sounds should have a dominant role in the learning process. Also, when designing educational computer games for the disabled, it has to be taken into consideration that their cognitive level of development is in many cases different from the cognitive level of the development of people without disabilities. Beside the adaptation of the game to the level of cognitive development of the player, games for people with disabilities should be adjusted to their ergonomics. Customizing games according to the ergonomics of the disabled is the issue in which educational games designed for the disabled basically differ from educational games designed for people without disabilities, and this can sometimes be an insurmountable difference, because the existing technology does not support the development of appropriate solutions. For mathematics teachers who work with the visually impaired the major problem is how to achieve visual representation of concepts and phenomena. Beside the formulas, these visual representations are a fundamental part of the mathematical language that is used everywhere in the world. Geometry as a branch of mathematics is one of the most difficult areas from the point of view of adaptation for the visually impaired, but on the other hand, it is very useful for orientation in space and executing everyday tasks. There are papers that show that it is possible to make a very efficient geometric representation of
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Table 1. Audio games categorisation based on genre and some examples Action Games Bobby’s Revenge
Arcade Games Dark Destroyer
Puzzle Games Battleship
Strategy Games Blankblock
Sports Crazy Tennis
Crazy Darts
Egg Hunt
JFW Hangman
Lonewolf
Light Cars
Duckhanter
Finger Panic
Maze Craze
Memory
Wincar
Monkey Business
GTC 100 tank
Maze Game
Tictacto
Wingolf
Shades Of Doom
3D Snake
Sound Puzzle
3WinBoard
Winpong
objects where the visually impaired people can get the whole picture of that object by senses of touch and hearing. For example, positive results that a computer game named Lugram (Lučić & Vujnović-Sedlar, 2009) has achieved in regular education encouraged its authors to adapt the game for visually impaired, as described in (Lučić et al., 2009).
Audio Technologies in the Computer Games for the Visually Impaired Generally speaking, the audio interface of a game consists of speech, music and various sorts of audio effects (Gaver, 1997). They must be presented to a visually impaired user in such a manner that allows him/her a suitable, timely reaction. Speech is mostly used to introduce the user to the guidelines and rules of the game, and for this purpose synthesized speech is most commonly used. Synthesized speech can be used in the game itself more or less, depending on the type of the game. If greater authenticity of the situation is to be achieved, or in order to ensure that the right reaction will be made, in most cases synthesized speech can be replaced by recorded, natural speech. It should be noted that the literature emphasizes speech technologies as being crucial to the adaptation of video games to the visually impaired (Delić & Vujnović-Sedlar, 2010). Audio effects are used to illustrate situations or various objects in the game (Ratanasit, 2005). For the visually impaired it is of particular importance to have certain audio effects which would inform
them whether their reaction was suitable or not. Music can also be a good element for depicting states and situations a player can find himself/ herself in, or it can be used just as a background. Due to the lack of sight, the blind rely on other senses heavily, especially on the senses of touch and hearing, making these senses more advanced (Doucet et al., 2005), and allowing them to easily learn to use keyboards very skillfully (attempts have been made to add sound to the motion of the mouse pointer). The alternative to using keyboards is automatic speech recognition (ASR). Because of intra- and interpersonal differences in the speakers’ voice, different setups and qualities of microphones and the communication channels, as well as different levels of ambient noise, ASR is a very demanding task for the computer and is not well developed for all languages. Studies usually mention using ASR for issuing certain (already standardized) voice commands, but unrestricted human-to-computer speech communication is not so common yet. In the process of creating an audio game particular attention is devoted to presenting information in audio form, because sound presentation must carry all relevant information that allows the player to react timely and in the right manner. The GUI of a video game carries most of the information, which gives particular broadness and freedom while developing such games as opposed to audio games. Portraying all relevant information in audio form presents an interesting challenge because the presentation of audio information to the user is limited. In sound-based
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games a player gets a mental picture of all present objects and persons by listening to the sounds which characterize them. Stereo positioning is used to spatially distinguish the sounds of objects. It allows the sound to traverse from left to right, and vice versa. These sounds are critical for the player and his/her understanding of the game. Yet stereo positioning only gives the player one dimension, which is a constraint compared to the two dimensions of a screen. On the other hand, binaural localization with four or five channels produces a feeling of being surrounded by a unique sound field. This occurs because every channel conveys different information, a different form of sound, so the user has a sensation of sound coming from one direction. Although this form of audio spatial presentation is paramount, it is most commonly not accessible for visually impaired users because of financial or other reasons. In the following sections, some experience in design, implementation, and validation of several education games for the visually impaired is briefly presented.
Memory Game The first memory game intended for the visually impaired using speech technologies in Serbian (Delić & Vujnović-Sedlar, 2010), introduces visually impaired children to working with computers and speech technologies, while it also stimulates the development of motor skills and represents a step towards better socialization. It is a simple and well-known memory game with sixteen fields hiding eight pairs of objects. The goal of the game is to locate pairs of objects, with a speech synthesizer naming every object in such a way that determining its position on a four-by-four board is facilitated by way of binaural localization. The user has two options – to select the square using verbal commands (by pronouncing the coordinates of the square), or simply to use the keyboard.
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The basic problem while developing the memory game was to enable binaural two-dimensional localization of objects, one that would allow visually impaired players a quick, suitable response. The problem would be solved more easily if the solution employed more than two sound channels, but as most visually impaired users only have ordinary headphones, a two channel solution had to be found. Based on the characteristics of binaural hearing the authors have decided to present the horizontal position of the field by simple stereo presentation (different interaural levels between ears), and to indicate the vertical position of the field by using different audio frequencies (pitch of the synthesized speech) (Gärdenfors, 2003; Delić & Vujnović-Sedlar, 2010).
Lugram Following the example of ancient Chinese Tangram, Lugram is designed as a puzzle game based on composing a given geometric figure (Lučić & Vujnović-Sedlar, 2009). Elements to be used for assembling are square tiles containing geometric figures: triangles, rectangles or squares, as shown in Figure 1. The principles of Lugram are in line with the curriculum and the level of geometric education in primary schools, thus helping the formation of a solid basis in the initial learning of geometry. As it is a multimedia, interactive game, supported by a database allowing adaptation for different user needs, and as it has different complexity levels, it can be adapted to the age of the targeted pupils. Bringing practical work through problem solving exercises, the game is successful in providing a motivation factor in learning geometry. Lugram is a set of very simple geometric puzzles, therefore, it is possible to adjust it to the people with disabilities. One direction of the development of the game led to a successful adaptation for visually impaired users (Lučić et al., 2009), and opened the perspective for a special
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Figure 1. The squares containing geometric figures and an example of a task
challenge of creating a new version of the game for children who are totally blind.
Testing and Validation of Educational Games for the Visually Impaired During the recent cycle of training of 14 visually impaired children for computer use in Serbia, a survey (Perepatić, 2010) was made among their parents. A number of the questions were related to computer games in general, with the aim of determining the parents’ opinions about computer games and possible benefits to the children that can be expected from computer games. They could choose two of five answers: •
• •
The primary role of computer games is entertainment as is the case with any other games (8/14=57%) Computer games could be educational and stimulate creativity in children (8/14=57%) Computer games are good for improving some skills like speed, memory, etc. (8/14=57%)
• •
Computer games are the means for socializing with peers (4/14=28%) I do not see any benefit from computer games (0/14=0%)
A wider analysis of the survey has shown that the attitudes of parents of children with impaired vision are based on their previous experience and that they should not be generalized. They are aware of the importance and possibilities of education through computer games, but for them the general concept of games is primarily connected with entertainment. They also realize that games can have educational character and that they are good for developing motor skills, but many of them do not realize that computers and games can also contribute to communication and socialization.
CONCLUSION Despite many discussions about the potential harmfulness of computer games and research on their potentially bad influence on the young people, computer games are, whether we like it or not,
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becoming a ubiquitous element of everyday life. Accepting the situation that has arisen, an education system has to conform to the circumstances of the society and has to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the ever-enhancing technology. The ultimate goal is, of course, benefit to the learners. Caution is needed when introducing new methods, learners’ reactions have to be observed, as well as the effectiveness of the methods in terms of learning outcomes. In the present educational environment, in which e-learning takes more and more place, it must be taken into account that a huge effort of on-line course creators is aimed at achieving interactivity of the materials offered. Educational games, interactive by nature, represent ideal candidates for being integrated into e-learning systems.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Educational computer games have not yet reached the quality of commercial games. Research has to be made in the direction of enhancing educational games to become more amusing, interesting, with top quality animations thus showing the attributes expected from learners - game users. The development supported by high quality animation is necessary, because it seems that disadvantages in that aspect can be fatal for the sustainability of a specific game. Apart from having high expectations, the net generation accepts novelty very fast, but while introducing new ways of learning into their education, such as playing computer games, researchers should also have in mind the readiness of teachers to handle the new methods. Teachers have to be supported by education, enabling them to keep up with the rapid development of technology. The entire educational potential and inherent power of games have not been utilized to their fullest extent so far, and regarding the related activities as a multidisciplinary process, more rapid development and introduction of games
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into education systems can be achieved by a joint commitment and close cooperation of researchers in all disciplines involved.
REFERENCES Amory, A., & Seagram, R. (2003). Educational Game Models: Conceptualization and Evaluation. South African Journal of Higher Education, 17(2), 206–217. Anderson, C., & Bushman, B. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: a meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353–359. doi:10.1111/14679280.00366 Archambault, D., Ossmann, R., Gaudy, T., & Miesenberger, K. (2009). Computer Games and Visually Impaired People. Retrieved from http:// cedric.cnam.fr/PUBLIS/ RC1204.pdf Bartholow, B., Bushman, B., & Sestir, M. (2005). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2(4), 532–539. Cunningham, S., Grout, V., & Hebblewhite, R. (2006, October). Computer Game Audio: The Unappreciated Scholar of the Half-Life Generation. Paper presented at the Audio Mosty Conference – a Conference on Sound in Games, Piteå, Sweden. De Freitas, S., & Martin, O. (2006). How can Exploratory Learning with Games and Simulations within the Curriculum Be Most Effectively Evaluated? Computers & Education, 46, 249–264. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.11.007
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Delić, V., & Vujnović-Sedlar, N. (2010). Stereo Presentation and Binaural Localization in a Memory Game for the Visually Impaired. In Development of multimodal interfaces: Active Listening and synchrony (LNCS 5967, pp. 354363). Springer, Heidelberg. Doucet, M.-E., Guillemot, J.-P., Lassonde, M., Gagné, J.-P., Leclerc, C., & Lepore, F. (2005). Blind subjects process auditory spectral cues more efficiently than sighted individuals. Experimental Brain Research, 160, 194–202. doi:10.1007/ s00221-004-2000-4 Education, Audiovisual, and Culture Executive Agency (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2010, from http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/index_en.php Fogarasi, I. (2009). Development of International Markets of E-learning Technologies and Its Relation with the Implementations, Experiments and Strategies in Institutes of Higher Education Between of 2001 and 2008. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Pannonia, Hungary. Galarneau, L. (2005). Spontaneous Communities of Learning: Learning Ecosystems in Massively Multiplayer Online Gaming Environments. In Proceedings of DIGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views – Worlds in Play. Vancouver. Gärdenfors, D. (2003). Designing Sound-Based Games. Digital Creativity, 14(2), 111–114. doi:10.1076/digc.14.2.111.27863 Gaudy, T., Natkin, S., & Archambault, D. (2008, June). Pyvox 2: an audio game accessible to visually impaired people playable without visual nor verbal instructions. In 3rd International Conference on E-learning and Games. Nanjing. Gaver, W. (1997). Auditory Interfaces. In Helander, M., Landauer, T. K., & Prabhu, P. (Eds.), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978044481862-1/50108-4
Gentile, D., Lynch, P., Ruh Linder, J., & Walsh, D. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 5–22. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.002 Gros, B. (2007). Digital Games in Education: The Design of Games-Based Learning Environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23–38. IGDA. International Game Developers Association. (2004). Accessibility in Games: Motivations and Approaches. Retrieved on February 15, 2005, from http://www.igda.org/accessibility/ IGDA_Accessibility_WhitePaper.pdf Lučić, B., & Vujnović-Sedlar, N. (2009, November). Geometric Puzzle Lugram - Development and Application (in Serbian). In Proceedings of TELFOR (Vol. 17). Belgrade. Lučić, B., Vujnović-Sedlar, N., & Delić, V. (2009, November). Computer game Lugram - version for visually impaired children (in Serbian). In Proceedings of TELFOR (Vol. 17). Belgrade. Martinez, S. (2006, October). Educational Games: How Attitudes and Markets Influence Design. Paper presented at the Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns, Queensland. Moreno-Ger, P., Burgos, D., Martínez-Ortiz, I., Sierra-Rodrigez, J., & Fernández-Manjón, B. (2008b). Educational Game Design for Online Education. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(6), 2530–2540. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2008.03.012 Moreno-Ger, P., Sierra-Rodrigez, J., & FernándezManjón, B. (2008a, June). Game-Based Learning in e-Learning Environments. The European Journal for the Informatics Professional, 9(3). Naden, K. (2007). Evaluation Strategies for Educational Technology: Assessing Learning in Educational Video Games. Retrieved January 17, 2010, from https://wiki.doit.wisc.edu
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Oblinger, D., & Oblinger, J. (Eds.). (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Washington, DC: Educause. Perepatić, J. (2010). Possible benefits of computer games to the visually impaired children - a survey of parent’s opinions. Non Government Organisation “Iskrica”, Novi Sad, Serbia (unpublished). Pohl, M., Rester, M., Judmaier, P., & Leopold, D. (2008). Designing Game Based Learning – a Participatory Approach. In Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (pp. 1317-1322). Vienna, Austria. Ratanasit, D., & Moore, M. M. (2005). Representing Graphical User Interfaces with Sound: A Review of Approaches. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 99(2), 69–84. Sharif, I., & Sargent, J. D. (2006). Association Between Television, Movie, and Video Game Exposure and School Performance. Pediatrics, 118(4), e1061–e1070. doi:10.1542/peds.20052854 Squire, K., DeVane, B., & Durga, S. (2008, June). Designing Centers of Expertise for Academic Learning Through Video Games. Theory into Practice, 47(3), 240–251. doi:10.1080/00405840802153973 Stanić-Molcer, P., & Delić, V. (2007). Formative Evaluation of On-Line Matlab Exercises, In Proceedings of Conference on Electrotechnique and Computing ETRAN. Igalo, Montenegro.
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Stanić-Molcer, P., & Delić, V. (2009b). Web-Based Exercises for Educating Basis of Fuzzy Logic, In Proceedings of International Symposium on Intelligent Systems and Informatics SISY. Subotica, Serbia. Stanić-Molcer, P., Delić, V., & Popović, B. (2009a). Implementation of Learning System for Educating Digital Signal Processing by WebBased Exercises (in Serbian). In Proceedings of Conference on Electrotechnique and Computing ETRAN.Vrnjačka Banja, Serbia. Supporting the Development of Higher Education. (n.d.). Retrieved March 26, 2010, from http:// www.wus-austria.org/content/28/15.html Takashi, S. (2007, October). Present State of Videogames and Learning Games – Use and Effects. Paper presented at the OECD Expert Meeting on Videogames and Education, San Diego, Chile. Torrente, J., Moreno-Ger, P., Fernández-Manjón, B., & del Blanco, Á. (2009, August). Game-like Simulations for Online Adaptive Learning In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on E-Learning and Games Edutainme, (pp. 162173) Banff, Canada. Virvou, M., Katsionis, G., & Manos, K. (2005). Combining Software Games with Education: Evaluation of its Educational Effectiveness. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 54–56.
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Chapter 16
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering) Johann C.K.H. Riedel Nottingham University Business School, UK Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge University of Bremen, Germany
ABSTRACT This chapter reports on the evaluation methods and findings from serious games for teaching production/ engineering. Two serious games are considered: Cosiga, a new product development simulation game and Beware, a risk management simulation game. These two games cover the front and middle parts of the engineering process – from design to manufacture to sale. For the Cosiga simulation evaluations of the communication, cognitive change and situational awareness were performed. For the Beware game evaluation of communication, risk awareness and improvement of risk management skills were performed The findings from the evaluations showed that serious games deliver learning outcomes. However, there are drawbacks to their use that need to be taken into account. Principally the high cost of development and the need for expert facilitators for running game sessions.
INTRODUCTION Today’s manufacturing is marked by trends towards globalization and rapid technological advances. This results in manufactured products DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch016
being increasingly customized and complex with shorter life-cycle times, which increases the marginal cost per product (Scheer, 2002). Therefore, organizations are confronted with the challenge of continuously adjusting their capacities and machines, necessitating a high degree of flexibility in dynamic environments.
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Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
In addition to business complexity, a number of behavioral factors come into play and make the challenges, which organizations face, even greater. First, the bounded rationality of the economic actors (Simon, 1997) is a supplemental element, which exacerbates the situation. Indeed, decision makers generally opt for the first satisfying solution, and hence, they stop looking for better alternatives. Second, decision makers, like people in general, are prone to the misperception of feedback. This means that their performance in complex and dynamic systems is hindered by non-linearities, time delays and feedback structures (Sterman, 1989). Therefore, decision makers will tend to make poor decisions. Third, decision making in dynamic systems is hard because it calls for dynamic decision making, that is, where a stream of decisions are interdependent on one another. Last, decision makers are also limited by the magical number seven, plus or minus two (Miller, 1956). This number sets the maximum number of cues, which can be simultaneously considered by people while they evaluate a problem. Consequently, organizations are more and more eager to collaborate around structured and emergent manufacturing frameworks such as production networks. These networks entail the jointmanufacturing of products and are regarded as a new form of co-operation between organizations (Wiendhal & Lutz, 2002). Although, organizations do take advantage of being a part of production networks, since today competition takes place between entire supply chains, or networks, instead of single organizations, production networks are nevertheless vulnerable and inflexible since many disparate entities populate them, increasing the risk of collapse due to external shocks of market instability, or boom & bust cycles. Dynamic systems such as production networks confront their workforces with ever-changing working environments (Baalsrud Hauge et al., 2006). This stresses the need for continuous learning, which constitutes the true competitive advantage for organizations (Senge, 1990, p.
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17). Moreover, the learning rate of the organization must be higher than that of competition, so that the former can survive (de Geus, 1988). An effective tool for mediating learning is serious computer games, also known as business games (Warren & Langley, 1999). Computer games not only convey hard skills such as the understanding of how complex systems operate, such as production networks, but also mediate soft skills, like collaboration and communication (Scholz-Reiter et al., 2002). Even though it is shown that the use of games are useful for mediation of soft skills (Windhoff, 2001), it is still difficult to find suitable methods for measuring the learning outcome of serious games. The objective of this chapter is to show different approaches for the evaluation of the learning outcomes of serious games and to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the methods. The chapter is based on the authors’ experience of using games in lecturing activities in the field of product development in production networks. The target group for the games is engineering students. The first section of the chapter deals with the background of using serious games for the mediation of skills, and gives an introduction to the two games. These games have been used in several courses over several years, so there are a lot of evaluation results available. The second section deals with the different evaluation methodologies that were applied. It also explains the different results. The final section is a comparison on the used methods and also includes a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods.
BACKGROUND Serious games have a long tradition in the education of military officers (Hays and Singer 1989). In military education they are mainly used for simulation and planning of war operations. In the 1950s the application area of simulation games
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
was extended through the combination of war games, computer science, and operations research to support new teaching approaches within civil training (Wolfe, Crookal 1998). The first games were business games aiming at supporting the development of decision making process skills. In 1964, the “INTOP” simulation game was the first game to represent a complete enterprise operating in different markets (Rohn 1995). Developed in 1985, the “BEER Game” has been the first simulation game that addressed engineering related content (Kaminski and Simichi-Levi 1998). It simulates order transactions between manufacturing, sales, wholesaler, and the retailer, to demonstrate variations in material flow, the so called “bullwhip effect”. It is still in use today and relevant for the supply chain. In the following years, a variety of production management related games have been developed, since they have been proven to be successful for the mediation of skills in complex systems. Collaboration is based upon the relationship between humans and their environments. For a person operating in a production network, this actually means that the person needs to deal with a dynamic environment. However, experiments have shown that people can only handle seven, plus or minus two, variables at once (Miller, 1956). This is less than needed. Therefore, people take decisions based upon their perceptions or misperceptions of their environments (cognitivism) or based upon their experiences (constructivism). Games, even though mostly constructivist, comprise different elements of pedagogical theories and may therefore lead to improved results for decisions taken in a dynamic environment. This hypothesis is investigated in this chapter through the evaluation of two games designed for the teaching of engineering to undergraduate and graduate engineering students. These games are described below.
The Cosiga Game This chapter reports on the experiences gained from evaluating the COSIGA New Product Development (NPD) simulation game. Cosiga is a multi media, multi player computer based simulation game which was designed to support the education of engineers in the use of Concurrent Engineering for new product development. It realistically simulates the collaborative and co-operative process of product development, with an emphasis on a concurrent engineering approach (Riedel et al, 2001). It is a team player game, played by five people. It can be played by individuals in the same room or in a distributed group, using the internet and telecommunications (phone, fax, videophone, etc). Each person plays a role in the product development process (project manager, designer, marketing, production and purchasing manager) and works collaboratively together, using communication means, to specify, design, and manufacture the final product - a type of truck. This would involve them in drawing up a market specification, a product specification, ‘designing’ the product, purchasing components and allocating manufacturing processes. The product’s manufacturability will then be put to the test in the simulated factory to produce the final products. COSIGA is unique, because it enables students to experience the process of new product development from the perspectives of the different disciplines involved in the design process and to build their own understanding of the issues of design, manufacture, marketing, project and purchasing management; and the interactions between these disciplines. The game enables students to interact through continuous communication, to share and exchange information, initiate argumentation on problems and concepts, form relationships between pieces of discipline specific information and finally articulate knowledge and make decisions. During their experience with COSIGA, students are not
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Figure 1. Screenshots of the Design and Production screens from COSIGA
really learning about the technical aspects of design and manufacturing a truck, but learning how to increase their awareness of the many complex, often interdependent issues of the design process, through constant information sharing, rationale forming and building their capacity to act, make decisions and create new knowledge.
The BEWARE Game The objective of the Beware game is to increase the understanding and awareness of risks in enterprise networks and to improve the players’ skills for risk management in enterprise networks. The Beware game is an extension of a game engine which was developed and used at BIBA. The basic game, dealing with communication barriers in companies, was developed by Schwesig in 2005 (Schwesig, 2005). In their work, Windhoff (Windhoff 2001) and Schwesig showed that it is possible to mediate skills on collaboration and team working by using games. In addition Schwesig also states that the students find it more difficult to develop suitable problem solving strategies than to identify any communication barriers and problems (Schwesig, 2005). The Beware game is adapted in such a way that it can be used for the mediation of skills and awareness rising of risk management for engineering master students.
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Beware is a role based multi–player game, and is facilitated and played in a distributed environment. The facilitator has a monitoring tool, which allows the facilitator to monitor the game without taking an active part in the game, it also offers the possibility to actively control the game by setting game events. The facilitator can also communicate with the players via the chat function, and can reset game processes. Beware simulates risks in production networks, however, many of the risks occurring in a production network also occur in a single enterprise, so in a first step, the players will only deal with risks within an organisation. In a second step they will operate in an inter-organisational collaboration. The reason for this is that the students hardly have any knowledge of risk management before they join the gaming session, and not very much experience in collaborating. In order to reduce the complexity until they know the methods, it is easier to just deal with single organisational risks. In the first level of Beware, the players have to specify, design and produce a simple product in one company. They act as employees of an organisation that covers the basic economic functions: procurement, manufacturing and sales/ services. They have to cooperate and to communicate, as well as to analyse hidden risks to be successful. The players can schedule physical meetings to discuss relevant issues. The exchange of infor-
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
mation between different departments enables the players to improve their communication skills in distributed environments. Following their role descriptions, some players act in a noncollaborative way to simulate “people barriers”. Together, the players experience the destructive effect of such behaviour. Sometimes the information will disappear and suppliers deliver too late and the information system stops working. This simulates a real organisational environment. Within the second level of the Beware game, the players use the acquired knowledge and skills in the inter-organisational contract negotiations in order to then specify, design and produce a complex product inter-organisationally. In the Beware game a production network consisting of three companies is simulated: two manufacturing companies and a services company. The service company takes leadership of the production network and develops services, the two simulated manufacturing companies develop and produce generic cell phone parts. As the necessary information is distributed unequally by the game, the partner companies have to cooperate to enable a constant flow of information that will then lead to a constant flow of material. Also different events and risks are included, and the players need to carry out some risk management tasks. In order to develop and produce the game’s product, the overall success depends on every partner’s successful contribution. In order to simulate interorganisational learning and related challenges realistically the constant flow of information is affected by the simulated organisational boundaries of space, time and diversity. The players are required to find appropriate solutions in order to overcome the barriers. Since the participating organisations are located at different locations, holding physical meetings is quite expensive and thus no longer possible. This challenge requires intense communication and collaboration among the organisations. Additionally, two of the companies receive cooperative role descriptions to simulate diverse cultures. The following section
discusses evaluation and how the two games were evaluated.
EVALUATION STRATEGIES “Evaluation is the systematic investigation of an evaluand’s worth or merit. Evaluands include programmes, studies, products, schemes, services, organisations, policies, technologies and research projects. The results, conclusions and recommendations shall derive from comprehensible, empirical qualitative and/ or quantitative data.” (DeGEval 2003, p. 5) The term evaluation is often used to simply express that something has been tested, assessed or judged (Kromrey 2001 in DeGEval 2003). But a professional evaluation goes beyond that, it strives for a comprehensive assessment of the evaluand. Frank and Kromrey define evaluation as “the assessment of an object by applying certain methods in order to derive an extent of concordance of the specific object with a certain set of goals” (Kromrey, 2001 in Fettke and Loos, 2004). An evaluation approach consists of four components: •
•
Evaluation object (Evaluand): the specific artifact that needs to be evaluated, as well as its environment and its effects. In this chapter there are three evaluation objects: the games as a product, the training courses and the games’ learning outcomes. These will be evaluated individually and different evaluation methods and criteria will be applied, as they all have different evaluation objectives. Evaluation objectives: A set of objectives determines the goal of the evaluation project in question. Examples here are that the objective of the evaluation of the training courses is to evaluate the learning outcome as well as the suitability (i.e. if the course trains the user on the right subject and level). The evaluation objective of the quality
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•
•
in use of the game is quite different. Here it is the objective to evaluate if the game has the features needed in order to be supportive for training on resilient production networks. Evaluation criteria: A set of evaluation criteria needs to be determined, as it is not possible to evaluate all available aspects of an artifact. Such criteria can include reduced costs, increased speed, learning outcome, etc. Evaluation method: This determines the process and phases of an evaluation project. In this chapter different methods are applied depending on the evaluation object.
Evaluation is always done for a specific purpose. The purpose of an evaluation may differ since evaluations focus on various aspects (see DeGEval 2003). Therefore, in order to carry out the evaluation process, it is necessary to evaluate and assess the evaluation object against some criteria. In order to ensure an objective evaluation, it is an advantage to use quantitative measures, since these are mostly objective. However, measuring the change in soft skills (e.g. communication) is difficult. Some approaches for evaluating changes in soft-skills, used in the evaluation of two serious games are reported below.
Evaluation of the Cosiga Game Various experiments and evaluations have been carried out since the first working version of the Cosiga software was available in mid-1999. These evaluations have been based on: observation, analysis of the text chat log files, analysis of cognitive change, analysis of situation awareness, analysis of audio and video recordings, analysis of decision making and analysis of the knowledge creation process. Participants have included undergraduate and postgraduate engineering students,
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postgraduate business students, and industrial participants from engineering companies. The results of evaluation presented here are: communication analysis, cognitive analysis, and situational awareness. Typically a game run takes one working day, starting with participants’ briefing, game practice session, gaming session, and debriefing. For the cognitive evaluation pre- and post-gaming questionnaires were issued. For the situation awareness evaluation, in-game questionnaires were issued at regular intervals. The communication evaluation was done by analyzing the text chat log files produced by the internet chat tool used during games.
Communication Evaluation of the Cosiga Game For the analysis of communication, experiments were set up in a near-virtual environment – the participants were located in the same large room but physically distant from one another. They were also asked to use an internet chat tool for communication and not to talk to one another. The analysis of the chat log from several games showed who communicated with whom and what was communicated. The following table shows the distribution of the types of communication. The results of the communication analysis demonstrated that the games showed the expected communication pattern. Information was asked for, and given, by those expected to do so: Design and Production asked; Marketing answered. Frustration was experienced by the downstream roles (ie. purchasing and production), but not design and marketing. Non-task discussion was confined to those with less to do (purchaser, project manager and production). This demonstrates that the Cosiga simulation’s aim to simulate the communication pattern in real-life product design processes was achieved.
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
Table 1. Distribution of communication type during a Cosiga game Communication Type
Frequency
Ask for (mostly Specific) Information
37%
Offer Information
12%
Request Action (time)
17%
Cajoling Action (e.g. re-requesting time)
9%
Replying to Action Request
6%
Describing Action
3%
Compliments
2%
Frustration
5%
Non-Task
9%
Cognitive Evaluation of the Cosiga Game The cognitive analysis was performed by constructing a ‘questionnaire’ consisting of a set of 19 concepts related to NPD and concurrent engineering. These were placed in a triangular grid, such that each concept had to be rated by participants on a scale of 0 to 10 as to how related it was to the other 18 concepts. The questionnaire was issued to the participants immediately before the briefing at the beginning of the gaming session and after gaming had finished. The responses to the questionnaire were processed by the Pathfinder Network Analysis (Schvaneveldt, 1990) method to plot maps of the relationships between the concepts. The maps were then quantitatively analysed by calculating the change in the number of links (relations) each concept had as a result of the simulation (number of links after – links before). This gives a measure of how much the importance of a concept (as determined by the number of links to other concepts) changes as a result of playing the Cosiga simulation. The results can be plotted on polar plots, Figure 2. It can be seen that the marketing manager had a relatively positive experience from playing the game: quite a few concepts increased in importance. The designer had a very positive effect:
nearly every concept increased in importance. However, the production manager had a bad experience: most concepts fell in importance, five remained the same and only one increased in importance. This result shows that the persons at the downstream of the process (production) do not get a very positive experience – due to their lack of involvement (having to wait before they can carry out any substantial actions). This, however, is a reflection of reality and shows that the simulation has a good degree of fidelity with the real-life NPD process; although from a gaming point of view it is not very nice. The cognitive analysis is a very useful tool which enables game developers to fine tune their simulations. For example, within Cosiga there is no emphasis upon the cost of the product and so this concept fell in importance for most participants. So this was an effect of the particular configuration of Cosiga at that time – making product cost an issue in the simulation will mean that the concept should increase in importance. Table 2 shows the game effect and NPD/ Concurrent Engineering (CE) effect for one individual. It can be seen that several key concurrent engineering concepts increased significantly in importance (prioritize work activities, work in parallel, reduce time-to-market, and develop an effective working relationship). Two other CE/NPD aspects also increased in importance (understand each others’ objectives and focus on quality). Game effects, resulting in a reduction in importance, occur as there is no specific emphasis within the game on reducing product cost, avoiding duplicating work activities, understanding ease of manufacture, understanding the task/problem in depth, and developing new products (this last one is explicitly the aim of the game).
Situational Awareness Evaluation of the Cosiga Game In collaboration with the Advanced Technology Centre of BAE SYSTEMS experiments have also
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Figure 2. Cognitive Maps for designer, marketing and production. (middle ring = no change in importance of concept, outer ring = increase, inner = decrease)
Table 2. Cognitive change summary example (one person, one game) CE/NPD Concepts
Change in Importance
Game Effect
CE/NPD Effect
Prioritize work activities
Big Increase
***
Work in parallel
Big Increase
***
Reduce time to market
Big Increase
***
Develop an effective working relationship Share information continuously Understand market/customer needs Develop new ideas/ solutions Modify existing designs Understand each others’ objectives Focus on quality
Big Increase Increase Increase Increase Increase Increase Increase
*** ** **
Establish a common language Work with experts from different backgrounds
No change No change
Work cooperatively
No change
Reduce product cost
Big Reduction
***
Avoid duplicating work activities
Big Reduction
***
Understand ease/difficulty of manufacture Understand task/problem in depth Develop new products
Big Reduction Big Reduction Big Reduction
*** *** ***
been conducted with engineers from the aerospace industry. These industrial studies focused on understanding the situational awareness of co-located and virtual new product development teams among other things (Sakiroglu et al, 2002).
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In these experiments under the first condition the participants were co-located in the same physical location and were allowed to have face-to-face communication as well as online text chat. This condition meant that participants were allowed to collaborate, and share information as much
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
as they wanted. The duration of the experiment was around four hours. In the second condition the participants were located in different offices, were not allowed to meet face-to-face and had to communicate via an internet chat tool and the telephone (virtual/ dispersed condition). During the experiment questionnaires were issued to the participants to assess their situational awareness at regular intervals of approximately one hour. Situational awareness (SA) is conceptualized as the current knowledge about what is actually happening in a given situation, what it means and what to do about it (Dourish & Belloti, 1992). It is a mental model of the dynamic context in which a person is operating, including its status and dynamics, with which one evaluates the current and possible future situations in terms of one’s goals, thereby optimizing decision-making and performance. An exemplary result from the SA questionnaires is that of ease of understanding (Figure 3). The interaction between physical/virtual condition and time is significant. Post-hoc tests suggest that there is a statistically significant difference between the collocated and dispersed teams at intervals 3 and 4 (each interval point is approx 1 hour apart). It would appear that the difference between teams developed only after a prolonged period of time was spent working on the game. The data suggest that this finding is a result of the virtual team’s understanding becoming worse with time and the collocated team’s understanding improving with time. This finding of difference at junction points 3 and 4, between the teams was similar for the other seven situation awareness variables examined (Sakiroglu, et al 2002). The experiment illustrates that the virtual team’s performance is worse than the collocated team, and that this gap never closes.
Conclusion of Cosiga Evaluation The results of the analyses of the evaluations carried out over an eight year period of the Cosiga
New Product Development (NPD) simulation game showed that the simulation achieved its aim of delivering NPD/ concurrent engineering experience (knowledge) to participants. The results also showed that the simulation game was a sufficiently realistic simulation, with complex decision making, that it is a good proxy for the real NPD process. Analysis of the data obtained from the experiments concluded that the majority of NPD activities are interdependent, and that progression requires the involvement of different disciplines and continuous information sharing. It was also found that in order to create knowledge, or common understanding, of the issues, individuals need to link pieces of information to their background knowledge through arguments. The context of engineering is shifting from being information oriented towards being knowledge intensive, and therefore it is important to realize that engineering students should not only be spoon-fed technical information, theoretical models, and mathematical formulas but also taught real life knowledge of how to design and how to manufacture, which entails how to co-operate in multidisciplinary teams. Knowledge creation is a social process which requires the understanding of multidisciplinary inputs, trade-offs and implications on the design process during new product decision making processes. These fundamental issues are hard, or even impossible, to teach in a classroom setting in traditional ways. There is a need for the development of new educational approaches and tools. Multi-media, multi-player, computer based simulation games are great alternatives, providing interactive, social environments for learning. The ground-breaking COSIGA simulation game is realistically designed and provides players with a new product development context, enabling them to take the responsibilities of different disciplines, analyze information, identify problems, initiate discussions, assess and analyze situations and make decisions. The integration of these various activities within COSIGA enables players to articulate and create their own under-
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Figure 3. Ease of Understanding (Y) against time, for physically collocated and virtual teams (a lower score means easier understanding)
standing of how to do new product development, and how to improve the process.
Evaluation Strategies Implemented in the Beware Game The evaluation approach used for the continuous evaluation of the Beware game and its blended learning concept was based on the use of different sorts of input: 1. The observation and the exchange of information between the facilitator and the students, 2. Questionnaires comprising questions on the functionalities, the utility, the usability of the software, and on the individual learning outcome, 3. individual and group presentations, 4. Feedback collected in the debriefing phase as well as the completion by students of an extensive laboratory report comprising information on the involvement in the game, skills
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gained and past experiences. Additionally, the laboratory reports also contained information on how the participants applied the learned methods in the game as well as on the developed game scenarios, including their own goals and the fulfillment of these goals. In developing the evaluation methodology for the BEWARE game some aspects were considered whereas other aspects have been put aside. First of all, the focus for the evaluation is to evaluate the BEWARE game regarding its learning outcomes and quality in use. The second aspect is the purposes of the evaluation. There are different purposes and uses of evaluation of learning programmes (Phillips, 1997). The purposes for evaluation of the BEWARE game are 1) evaluating BEWARE as a learning tool for individual learning and 2) Evaluating BEWARE as a learning tool for group learning. Knowing what to evaluate and why to do this, a prescription on how to evaluate can be made.
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
There are many ways of performing an evaluation. The main elements in the evaluation methodology are: 1) Pre- and post testing of gamers’ knowledge in risk management and production network risks, 2) Mission, and 3) a period of playing the game followed by a debriefing phase and finalised with a questionnaire. The pre-, mid- and post-test are tests to find out if the player has gained knowledge from playing the game. It is only on reconstructable knowledge, so it does not deliver enough information concerning if the player has improved his skills on resilience. It corresponds to Kirkpatrick’s level “learning”. The player is requested to play twice, at different levels and in different contexts. Analysing the changes in how the player solves his tasks and how he behaves gives some indication of the learning outcome regarding soft skills and increasing awareness. It corresponds to Kirkpatrick’s level three. At the end of the training session, the player is asked to present and explain her/ his tasks/ missions – a written task with challenges to be solved in the game. The mission will be followed up to get information about how the mission was accomplished. Information of interest will be: Did the player complete the task? What choices did he make? This supports the reflection phase in Kolb’s learning cycle as well as Kirkpatrick’s level four. The mission element measures whether or not the player completes the lesson, and thereby covers what Chen and Michael (2005) refer to as Completion Assessment. The mission will also measure some In-Process Assessment (Chen and Michael, 2005), however this was restricted to what was available through the computer log and the facilitator’s assessment. The pre-, mid and post tests, as well as, the presentation and assessment of the report can be interpreted to be what Chen and Michael (2005) refer to as a Teacher Evaluation, as they assess the change in knowledge. The post-questionnaire focuses on the player’s view of whether the BEWARE game is suitable as an individual learning tool, and to track the changes
in knowledge and his/her subjective awareness of improvement of her /his communication and collaboration competencies.
Evaluation of the Beware Game’s Learning Outcome on Risk Awareness and Management One main objective of the Beware game is to increase the skills in applying a risk management process in enterprise networks. Applying risk management successfully requires that the participants know the steps of the process. The figure below shows that around 40% do not have any idea before they start, but after playing the game, this percentage is very low. On the other hand, comparing the pre- and the post tests shows that there is a clearly increasing number of participants knowing all, or almost all, of the steps of the risk management process. This could, of course, also be a result of the introduction lesson as well as of the script they get, thus we introduced a mid questionnaire in the winter term 2008/2009. Comparing the results again, shows however, that the level increases more after the game than after the introduction. For the winter term 2008/2009, the mid-test was introduced for the second group only, so that the number of evaluands is lower than in the pre and post test. Figure 5 is very interesting, because it shows that in the first year of using the Beware game for risk awareness, it was not very successful. It can clearly be seen that in the first two terms, the number of participants not being able to list the internal and external risks, both within the company (in Winter Semester 2007/2008 this was constant) and enterprise networks was reduced by 50% between the pre and the post test, but it was still very high, since more than 30% still answered inadequately. The second interesting observation was that there was not a large increase in the number of those answering better after rather than before the game. This goes both for risks within
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Figure 4. Beware Game Evaluation results of the knowledge of risk management process steps
a company as well as for risks in the enterprise network. After discussing these results with the participants and also looking for the reasons, some changes were introduced. The participants mentioned two main causes, first, they lost the overview and did not manage to deal with the user interface and what was happening. Secondly, they found it difficult to identify risks, which were not clearly addressed. In real life, these risks are not clearly addressed, so it is not the aim of Beware to clearly address them in the game, but by reducing the complexity and adding additional tasks focusing on specific risks (like supplier risks) it could lead to an increase of awareness for other risks. Thus, some new processes were added. Secondly, the overall duration was increased, so that it was possible to increase the period between the games and also between the introduction and the game. Thirdly, the facilitator’s tool was introduced, as well as the use of events. Looking at the results for the following period shows that it has been possible to decrease the inadequate answers after the game. However, the results show that there is still room for improvement, and at the moment we investigate what extent specific events can improve the awareness even more. Mostly, the events are introduced on level 1 (company level) and so far it seems that this also has a positive impact on level 2 (enterprise network). This in-
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dicates that it is possible for the participants to construct their own knowledge (in level 1) and to apply it in a new context (level 2).
Evaluation of Communication Level, KPI and Debriefing The performance in each game is very dependent on the players and the communication level. At the beginning, before the facilitator’s tool, it sometimes happened that it hardly worked. This has now been reduced, probably because they know that the facilitators watch, but also because the performance indicators have a direct impact of the number of time consuming and challenging events. The facilitator tool offers the possibility to track the communication flow against performance in the game. The communication carried out by using the chat function is stored in the database, but up to now, we never used it for more detailed analysis. The reason for that is that the facilitator tracks the communication level during the game, and analyses it and looks at what impact the communication level has on the different KPIs. This is mainly done online, and thus there was never a need for analysing the communication after the game. Debriefing is a central part of the two stage game, and time is set aside for the players to analyse the communication and collaboration
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
Figure 5. External and internal risks in companies and enterprise networks
problems identified during the game in this phase. The trend in these discussions supports the impression of the facilitator, that the communication level has an important impact both on the KPIs as well as on the risks that need to be dealt with.
Evaluation of the Impact of Presentations and Reports for the Learning Objective As part of the game each participant needs to prepare his tasks as a presentation, which is presented after the game. The intention is that he will then gain more knowledge and be more aware of what and why he acts as he acts during the game, because he knows that he must explain this later.
Since the output is a presentation of the identified risks and how to treat them, it does not have objective criteria which can be compared every time the game is played, but it shows if the participant understood the task and if he was able to identify risks. Since the presentation is explained to the other participants they are also telling their impressions. The presentation sometimes shows some misunderstandings of how to apply the methods, but they have the possibility to discuss that in the group and to improve the tasks in the written report. The students report that they find the presentation and explanation of the other participants, as well as the additional written reports, helps them to deepen their understanding of risks and also of the application of useful methods.
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Conclusion of Beware Evaluation The results showed that especially for students without any, or with a little, knowledge of a specific topic, it is important to make their task more visible during the first level of the Beware game. Furthermore, it was seen that the process of playing one game, debriefing it, and then playing another game level helps to increase the performance on the second game because of the transfer of knowledge from one game to another through debriefing. The participants identified the risks, as well as developed strategies for reducing the collaboration risks to a much higher degree in the second game. The continuous evaluation of the learning effect demonstrates that the time requested to transfer information into knowledge not only depends on the essential debriefing phase, but also relies on the experience that the participant already has, and that this needs to be taken into consideration at an early stage. Based upon the last changes to the gaming workshop setting and also the use of the facilitator tool there has been a positive impact on the learning outcomes.
DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION This chapter has presented the evaluation methods and findings of two serious games for teaching production/ engineering at university level. The decision to adopt serious games in this context was driven by the need to teach the appreciation of the operation of engineering management processes in a practical way – it is difficult for engineering students to gain such experience during placements in companies (due to the short period of placements and the risks of making mistakes). Serious games provide a way to deliver an experience of engineering processes in a risk free environment, which allows experimentation and learning by doing. The results of the Cosiga, new product development simulation game, showed that it fulfilled
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its design and pedagogical objectives – teaching the process of designing a new product in a multidisciplinary and collaborative way. The pattern of communication between the game participants was as expected according to theory. The analysis of cognitive change showed that Cosiga delivered learning benefits and also that the actual design of the game had effects too (for example the emphasis on product cost was reduced after game play, as there is no mention of product cost in the game itself). Thus the cognitive evaluation was a powerful tool for fine tuning the pedagogical outcomes of serious games in a scientific manner. The analysis of situational awareness showed that games played by virtual teams suffered a performance loss compared to collocated teams. There is potential to use Cosiga as an experimental platform to investigate the impact of different communication means upon this performance gap. The results of such experimentation could then be used to give recommendations for improving virtual team performance. The results of the evaluation of the Beware, risk management game, show that it is possible to use a game in order to increase the awareness of risks in production networks. However, the learning outcome depends on whether the participants find the game fascinating/challenging and whether they have the expected level of knowledge in the topics dealt with by the game. Therefore, the success of a game is based upon its adaptability and portability, so that the game always fits the requirements of the target group. Furthermore, it stresses the impact that the communication and collaboration levels have on the arising risks as well as on the possibility of the users to identify the risks at an early stage. The less communication, the more severe is the impact of the risks before they are discovered. In conclusion we can say that it is a lot of work to measure learning effects especially for collaborative games. It requires careful preparation of the research instruments (questionnaires, etc) and disciplined application during gaming
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
sessions. The results of investigating the learning outcomes are not always straight forward – they are dependent on the prior knowledge of participants; and non-homogeneous groups introduce other factors. The problem with using objective metrics is that it is very difficult to measure the learning outcome on soft skills and also there is a problem to measure to what extent the learners have learned how to gather information and apply it afterwards, i.e. to construct their own knowledge. Since this is important for experiential learning this is a future topic for further research. Nevertheless, we can show positive learning effects of serious games. We strongly recommend that monitoring tools are built into serious games that allow the progress of participants to be monitored during game play. Such monitoring can then be used to enter unexpected events into the game to push participants’ learning in the required direction. Further, the inclusion of performance indicators allows both participants and facilitators to point the learning in the required direction.
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Windhoff, G. (2001). Planspiele für die verteilte Produktion. Entwicklung und Einsatz von Trainingsmodulen für das aktive Erleben charakteristischer Arbeitssituationen in arbeitsteiligen, verteilten Produktionssystemen auf Basis der Planspielmethodik. Aachen, 2001. Wolfe, J. D., & Crookal, D. (1998). Developing a Scientific Knowledge of Simulation/Gaming. In Simulation and Gaming (pp. 7-19).
ADDITIONAL READING Aldrich, C. (2004). Simulations and the Future of Learning: An Innovative (and Perhaps Revolutionary) Approach to E-learning. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive Games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Geise, W. (1992). Möglichkeiten der Evaluation von Rollenspielen In Keim, H., Planspiel, Rollenspiel (Eds.), Fallstudie – Zur Praxis und Theorie lernaktiver Methoden. Köln. Gentry, M., Iceton, J., & Milne, D. (2001). Managing challenging behavior in the community: Methods and results of interactive staff training. Health & Social Care in the Community, 09/2001, 143–150. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2524.2001.00290.x Getsch, U., & Siemon, J. (2002). Evaluation von Wissensvermittlung durch Planspielen Methoden und Erkenntnisse aus der wirtschaftspädagogischen Forschung. In Planspiele in der beruflichen Bildung. Aktualisierter Planspielkatalog 2002 sowie Abriss zur Auswahl, Konzeptionierung und Anwendung von Planspielen. Bonn. Gibson, D., Clarke, A., & Prensky, M. (Eds.). (2006). Games and Simulations in Online Learning. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Evaluation of Simulation Games for Teaching Production (Engineering)
Harvey, J. (Ed.). Evaluation Cookbook. A practical guide to evaluation methods for lecturers. The Learning Technology Dissemination initiative. Retrieved from http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/ltdi/ cookbook/cookbook.pdf. Mandl, E. (2004). On the Path to a new learning culture- the contribution of web based Business Games. In Eberle, T., Kriz, W., Puschert, M., & Gloetzner, F. (Eds.), Bridging the Gap. Transforming Knowledge into Action Through Gaming and Simulation. Proceedings of the 35th Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (pp. 202-213). Munich.
Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious games: games that educate, train and inform. Boston, MA: Thomson Course Technology. Premi, J., & Shannon, S. I. (2001). Randomized controlled trial of an educational program for individualized learning. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 17, 245–249. doi:10.1002/chp.4750170408 Prensky, M. (2006). Digital Natives. Learning in the Digital Age, 63(4), 8–13.
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Chapter 17
Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning? Mabel CPO Okojie Mississippi State University, USA
ABSTRACT A critical examination of the use of computer games as motivation for learning is provided. The examination is addressed by reviewing evidence from the literature dealing with computer games as learning tools. Factors and difficulties associated with games as instructional strategies are discussed. Evidence from the literature indicates that current methods of applying computer games into instruction are not guided by pedagogical principles. It is recognized that the design of educational games be based on learning theories. The current practice of viewing educational games as separate entity from all other educative processes is detrimental to learning. Although, the results of scientific studies on game-based learning are inconclusive, nevertheless, the future of game-based learning is promising partly because games are generally engaging. The results of qualitative interviews reveal that the participants believe that computer games motivate them to have fun but not to learn. Thus, by implication may not sustain learning.
INTRODUCTION There is no doubt that computer has revolutionalized all aspects of our economic and social life. For instance, military, health and educational institutions (to name but a few) have to a large DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60960-569-8.ch017
measure been shaped by technological advancement. These institutions tend to be judged by the sophistication of their technological apparatuses. In educational institutions, online courses and hybrid platforms are becoming the norm. As a result, the need to acquire technological skills continues to gain momentum at a consistent rapid pace. As the velocity for the demand for technological skills
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increases, educators and practitioners are continually seeking new ways to facilitate and improve instruction using technology. The integration of multimedia into instruction has received wide acceptance. Lever-Duffy, McDonald and Mizell 2008) argue that multimedia can positively impact all the senses through which learning occurs. These authors argue that audio (sound), video (visual) and kinesthetic (movement and activity based) can reinforce learning by stimulating sensory awareness simultaneously. In spite of the use of multimedia to facilitate instruction, achieving effective learning outcome for many students remains a perennial problem. Lack of motivation among students has been seen as a hindrance to learning. The focus has now shifted from multimedia to computer games as possible motivating tools for achieving effective learning. The essence of this chapter is to critically assess the claim that computer games can be used to facilitate learning, motivate students to learn as well sustain learning.
GENERAL PERCEPTIONS OF GAMES/COMPUTER GAMES It is pertinent that we examine the perception that guides the development of computer games before considering its motivational influence on learning. Game industries are hard at work trying to develop computer and video games that they claim can be used to facilitate learning and motivate students to learn. The key word is motivation; it is an abstract concept which has several attributes. Because of the elusive properties that make up the word motivation, behavioral and cognitive psychologists, curriculum specialists and other practitioners have not been able to develop reliable, measurable and inspiring activities that can stimulate students to learn. It is ironical to assume that somehow computer game designers can produce games that will motivate students to learn despite the advances made in gaming industry without examining the
process of learning. Such assumption ignores the logic upon which computer games and other forms of games are rationalized which is to have fun. Learning on the other hand is a more serious endeavor. Generally, games are perceived as pastime, amusement and entertainment. Such perception has not changed. Pitzer (2007) believes that people’s perception of a problem shapes their definition of such problem. Using computer games as motivational devices for learning may require a change in their perception. The idea will be to portray computer games as fun but also to show that serious strategies and activities are incorporated into games so that they can be used to enhance learning outside the confine of the game environment. This in part means that computer games will not focus exclusively on fairy tales, fantasies or virtual images. Unfortunately, these attributes are fundamental to computer games and they represent avenues through which games generate fun and engage gamers. Learning implies the acquisition of knowledge which involves applying knowledge, synthesizing knowledge, transferring knowledge including evaluating knowledge (Bloom, 1956). These characteristics of learning make it a job oriented activity as opposed to computer games that are perceived as fun activities. Lever-Duffy, McDonald and Mizell 2008) have indicated that “learning is a transfer of knowledge that can be ensured only when all the components of the process have been incorporated in the learning event” (p. 10). Ahn Liu & Blum (2006) explain that “despite colossal advances over the past 50 years, computers still don’t possess the basic conceptual intelligence or perceptual capabilities that most humans take for granted” (p. 96).
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TRENDS IN COMPUTER GAME DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING Most people will agree that computer and video games have taken off like a wildfire and the intensity with which it burns is ferocious. The acceleration of computer games is embedded on the rapid advancement of technology generally. Arnseth (2006) has documented how electronic game consoles like Sony PlayStation, Microsoft Xbox including the Nintendo DS and Sony PSP have transformed into a popular culture. According to Arnseth (2006), such popularity has created consciousness among educators and game researchers regarding the use of game activities as learning tools. Gaming industries have unequivocally taken advantage of the dominance of computer in economic and social fabrics of the society as well as in cultural development. The exceptional success of gaming industry has provided incentives for the development of computer game programming (Doughty, 2010). There is little dispute in the literature that the development of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) by Thomas T. Goldsmith in 1947marked the beginning of the computer era. In 1958, William Higinbotham created Tennis for Two on an oscilloscope designed as an entertainment for those who visit Brookhaven located in New York. Also in 1961, Steve Russell and a group of students succeeded in programming a game known as Spacewar. Don Daglow provided the first Computer Baseball game using a PDP-10 mainframe computer. It is believed that Mike Mayfield created Star Trek in 1971. In the 1980 and 90s, many more computer games are created with better sophistication and complexities. Among them is the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) which emerged in 1985. In 2005, Nintendo provided details of their video game console known as Wii (http://www. computernostalgia.net/articles/HistoryofComputerGames.htm). For decades, men especially boys dominated video and computer games. But as Oser (2004)
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has noted, the constituents of video and computer games are changing; 43% of women now play electronic games. According to Cloultie (2004), women who are 40 years or more spend about 50% of their time playing various kinds of games. The average age of gamers is equally changing. About a decade ago, teenage boys played video games more than any other age group but the trend seems to be changing. The average age of gamers is 29 years and the age groups which indulge in games is between 18 and 35 (Goodale, 2004). Age range for computer and video games is getting more diverse, the choice for games is equally more diverse. The problem for game designers is produce games that appeal to diverse game enthusiasts in terms of age as well as the growing female players. The other issue is to design computer games that will generate fun for diverse constituents and at the same time motivate them to learn without compromising pedagogical principles and authentic learning outcome. So far these expectations have eluded game designers and educators.
3D COMPUTER GAMES FOR LEARNING The birth of three-dimensional (3D) image has become a new buzz word. Movie industries and film producers have capitalized on it. As a result, entertainment industries are eager to give make-up to their movies using the 3D features. The highly acclaimed Avatar is a case in point. Gaming industries and educational institutions are jumping the bandwagon to experiment on 3D novelty. But what is 3D and how will it motivate students to learn? In a simple term, 3D is a representation of height and width as well as depth. There is no doubt that perceiving a physical universe from a 3D perspective provides students with better interpretative skills because the object can be viewed from three angles. Neville and Shelton (2009) discussed how 3D, Digital Game-Based
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Learning (3D-DBL) was used to teach literary and historical topic and they found that “3D provides deceptive sense of cultural-historical transcendence by allowing them to use their own contemporary behavioral assumptions and attitudes in the game” (p. 4). According to Neville and Shelton, the use of 3D-DGBL is problematic because its virtual space can only produce “remediated knowledge” (p. 4) which invariably produces second hand knowledge under the illusion of firsthand knowledge. The implication of this could be that students may interpret the knowledge they receive as an accurate historical experience as Neville and Shelton noted. The work of Sutherland, Connolly and Livingstone (2007) has demonstrated that 3D game-based learning may also be problematic. According to Sutherland, Connolly and Livingstone, teams of students with strong background in computer programming are required to teach database management and design skills using a virtual yacht marina. The purpose of the project is to create an environment that depicts what systems analysts do in a real life situation. At the end of the project, Sutherland, Connolly and Livingstone observe that “the work each team produced, despite being totally separated from each other in time, was remarkably similar. In both cases their work fell below the usual standard expected of such student development teams” (pp. 20-21). Sutherland, Connolly and Livingstone observe that all the teams failed because it is difficult to motivate students to create game for learning. The implication of the authors’ comment is far reaching. The difficulty arises because the students are required to design educational games that are embedded on the reality of what system analysts actually do and not on fairy tale. In spite of the poor completion of virtual yacht marina project, 3D game provides opportunity for students to be creative and imaginative.
FASCINATION WITH COMPUTER AND VIDEO GAMES Csikszentmihalyi (1990) has used the concept of flow to explain how computer game players are hooked on games to the point that nothing else is important. Kirriemuir and McFarlane (2004) have summarized the meaning of flow as a situation where players focus tremendously on their games and less on the other issues in their lives. The question is: why do game activities have flow effect and why such flow effect is non-existent in the learning process? The answer may to some degree lie in the perceptions of the gamers and the satisfaction they derive from game activities. The problem for educational game developers is to design learning environment in such a way that students may experience flow effect. So far such “flow effect” has eluded game designers and researchers. Most young people tend to find computer games more appealing than studying. In computer games, individuals involved understand that games are make-believe activities; gamers like to live in the world of fantasy. It is a way to escape from reality and live in a world of trouble-free. The fantasy of playing computer games can be described as living in a castle in the sky. Jones (1997) observes that games are engaging but the problem is to find out why and how games engage players. On the other hand, learning is about reality, accountability and responsibility. Learners are expected to meet the requirements of their courses. There is no such requirement in game recreation except abiding by the rules of the game. Some students shy away from learning because of fear of failure. Schank and Neaman (2002) recognized that failure may inhibit motivation to learn. Students may gravitate toward computer games because failure may be seen as inconsequential. Dissonance can easily be managed in game playing. As Jones explains: In educational software, it is more difficult to design for dissonance because ultimately we must
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answer to the content and its veracity. In games, if one needs a new element to make the work, it can be created. While elements in learning environment may be manufactured, it could never be at the expense of the content (p. 5). Facer (2002) has also made similar observation as Jones when the former states that: It is repeatedly pointed out, for example, that young people of their own volition choose to spend many hours playing complex computer games outside school. Games, it seems, have something’, they seem to have a way of engaging and interesting young people. The desire to harness this motivational power to encourage young people to learn is the main driver behind an interest in computer games for learning (p.1). Transfer learning is critical in any learning environment and a good teacher will always endeavor to assist students transfer learning outcome to workplace environment. This means that students are required to complete real life challenging activities as part of their lessons. In computer game, such requirement is not the norm because of the fairy tale characteristic of games. This shows that computer game players live in the present that exists in a vacuum. It also seems that computer games do not allow for reflective learning. Prensky (2001) states that “reflection is what enables us according to many theorists, to generalize from experience” (p. 50). According to Okojie, Okojie-Boulder & Boulder (2008), “reflection involves turning the topic over and over mentally or probing the topic being examined as a process of understanding the underlying assumption” (p.154). Computer games may not in most cases offer opportunity that requires gamers to spending time on reflective learning activities or scaffolding.
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY AND COMPUTER GAMES Most educational institutions encourage the use of constructivist learning theories as foundation for designing and delivering instruction. Constructivists believe in providing rich and authentic learning environment where students collaborate and share ideas (Okojie, Olinzock, Adams and Okojie-Boulder (2008). Computer games are rooted on individual triumph by emphasizing on personal win and not on collaboration and sharing of ideas. Bruner (1966) indicates that learning involves sharing of ideas. Computer gamers focus on out-witting their opponents for the purpose of winning. Jonassen (1991) maintains that “instruction should be anchored in some meaningful, realworld context” (p. 29). Bruner argues eloquently that the primary function of education is to help individuals acquire knowledge and to use such knowledge to create other knowledge and not to make living library of people. It is not clear how using computer games as learning tools can aid transfer learning because in most cases the knowledge acquired from games may not reflect real-life situation. Karagiorgi and Symeou (2005) argue that knowledge involves scaffolding where students are guided by what they already know and transition to the unknown by exploring their learning environment and related situations or activities. Computer games do not offer opportunity to engage in scaffolding or exploration. Ericksen (1984) has succulently summarized the practice of good learning and it is thus described: Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in class listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignment and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write it, relate it to past experiences, apply it to their daily lives (p. 51). The characteristics of computer games do not seem to match Ericksen’s description of effective
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learning encounter. Schafersman (1991) warns that critical thinking is crucial in learning and this can be achieved as students analyze, synthesize and reflect on learning activities by completing home work, assignments, examination etc. It is not clear how computer games will be used to accomplish all these activities. The findings of Gokhale (1995) demonstrate that “collaborative learning fosters the development of critical thinking through discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation of others ideas” (p. 8).
PEDAGOGICAL PROCESSES AND COMPUTER GAMES Any tool used for the facilitation of instruction must be aligned with pedagogical processes. The overarching issue is to determine how computer games can be aligned with lesson objectives, methods of instruction, evaluation, pace of learning and learning styles. Gaming technology must take into consideration, these pedagogical principles upon which teaching and learning practices are rationalized. Ignoring the principles of learning in the application of game technology tantamounts to overlooking the cognitive processes through which learning occurs. Diaz and Bontembal (2000) cogently point out that “pedagogy-based training begins by helping teachers understand the role of learning theory in the design and function of class activities and in the selection and use of instructional technologies” (p. 6). This means that the selection of gaming activity must be based on the the principles of learning theories upon which its selection is justified. Fletcher (1996) believes that “we must not lose sight that technology for the most pat is a tool and it should be used in applications which address educational concerns” (p.87). Educational computer games are no exception; their roles in instructional design and delivery need to be examined. This means that in selecting instructional objectives, teachers should take into consideration instructional methods,
the type of technology to be used to (whether it is computer games or not) support educational practice. Any technology used for instruction including computer games should also provide opportunities for students to engage in follow-up learning activities. Game designers should also consider course enrichment activities in order to assist students sustain learning. Leh (2005) has revealed that teachers agree that they did not resist technology per se but agreed that they could not fully integrate it into their own practices because of the organizational, administrative, pedagogical or personal constraints” (p. 19). Some teachers are naïve about computer games especially older teachers. Therefore, it begs the question whether teachers can successfully integrate computer games into the process of teaching and learning if they have limited knowledge on how to use games to facilitate learning or how to play the games. Bosch and Cardinale (1993) admit that while it is necessary for teachers to be provided with technological skill, it is equally important to provide them with the skill and techniques on how to use technology to facilitate instruction. By the same token, it will be desirable for teachers to understand how computer games work, their strengths and weaknesses and how the games can be used to motivate and sustain learning. The problem of balancing having fun and meeting educational goal has been discussed by Moreno-Ger and Fernández-Manjón (2008). If students do not find games entertaining, they will not play and if they spend too much time playing, it will be detrimental to their academic success. The desire to achieve balance between students having fun and at the same learning effectively makes educational games difficult to design (Koster, 2004). In spite of the fact that teachers may not be ready to implement computer game-base learning strategies, there are enthusiasts who believe that computer games can impact positively on learning.
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SUPPORT FOR COMPUTER GAMES AS MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING The study conducted by Akpan and Andre (2000) which involves 81 students shows that the experimental group is exposed to simulated frog dissection before the actual dissection. According to Akpan and Andre, the results indicate that the experimental group significantly out-performed the control group indicating that the students who used simulated form of dissection understood the anatomy lesson better than those who are exposed to dissection alone. However, DeJong and Joolingen (1998) found no difference in their study of 46 students using physics simulation game. Oblinger (2004) believes that “oftentimes students are motivated to learn materials (e. g., mythology or math) when it is required for successful game play – that same material might otherwise be considered tedious” (p.13). According to many observers, computer games have known to generate social relationships among gamers and that such shared interest can improve communal and cultural understanding (Squire, 2002). Researchers argue that computers games involve interactive participation and collaboration and as a result may enhance collaborative and active learning process which involves learning by doing (Mitchell and Savill-Smith, 2004). Jones (1982 and Nemitcheva (1995) maintain that scientists have provided report that increasing fun while learning can promote learning because such fun activity can stimulate the dopamine system which in turn improves the process of learning. Uzun (2009) observes “that games “are perceived as a reward or free time which highly motivates students” (p. 47). The position taken by Uzun supports Purushotma (2005) who claims that games can possibly be motivating even to the point of arousing addictive tendencies. Batson and Feinberg (2006) argue that “computer games provide straightforward navigation and increased motivation, which makes it easier for students to stay with the game in order to learn the concepts”
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(p.42). According to Prensky (2005) all sorts of electronic devices including music, movies, and computer games engage students. Siang and Rao (2003) conclude that “when basic rules of the games are understood, players start to think cognitively how they should respond in new situation, actively update existing knowledge to fit what is newly confronted in the game environment” (p. 241). Whelan (2005) acknowledges that games provide the opportunity for students to be involved in fun stimulating activities and that such involvement will “motivate them to retain the learned materials (p. 41). Whelan further states that “if we treat school activity in terms of learning, playing, and helping, then we can more thoroughly engage children in the learning process” (p. 41). The power of computer games to re-create the past has been documented by Squire (2002) as shown below. games allow learners to interact with systems in increasingly complex way. Digital games players can relive historical era (as in pirates!), investigate complex systems like the Earth’s chemical and life cycles…(p. 3). Tuzun, Yilmaz-Soylu, Karakus, Inal and Kizilkaya (2009) have reported that 24 fifth graders who participated in their study exhibited high level of intrinsic motivation and less worry concerning grades following the study of geography lesson which utilized game format. Ke (2008) and Papastergiou (2005) perceive educational games as well as simulations to be effective in motivating students to learn. While the proponents of computer games for learning believe that games can enhance learning opportunity, critics point out that computer games may hinder learning and that learning resulting from games may not be appropriate.
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CRITICISMS AGAINST COMPUTER GAMES AS MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING Whitton (2007) argue that computer game is perceived as a “hot topic in education” (p. 163). The justification for using computer games as learning tools is based on the assumption that such games will provide intrinsic motivation for individuals to learn (McFarlane et al (2002), Becker, (2001) and Alessi and Trollip (2001). Available scientific evidence which supports the use of computer games to motivate learning is inconclusive to say the least. Disproportionate amount of the existing literature suggests that computer games may not necessarily motivate students to learn. Linderoth, Jones, Lantz-Anderson and Berner-Lindstrom (2002) have summed up the argument for and against the use of computer game as learning device thus: “many have strong beliefs that the use of computer games can contribute to different aspects of children’s development. On the other hand, there is an even stronger anxiety that computer games have negative social and cognitive effects on children” (p. 1). Whitton observes that games may be motivational but may not possess effective learning strategy. Whitton has also criticized advocates of games as learning strategies because they do not consider those people who do not view computer games as motivational and that players’ choices of games may not be homogenous. Knowles (1998) argues that motivation derived from games may be considered incidental and as a result may not sustain learning. Whitton interviewed 12 participants; six are computer game players and six do not play computer games. Whitton found that the dominant reasons of those who play game are for mental and physical challenge as well as for the purpose of social experience. Among the nongame players, the dominant reasons for playing computer games are to combat boredom and for social interactions. None of these two groups consider computer games as motivation for engaging
in learning. According to Whitton, when people who play computer games as recreational activities were compared with those who use the games as instructional devices, no relationship exists in their learning outcome “(X2=6.482,df=4,p=0.166)” (p. 1066). Whitton concludes that: the findings indicate that a large proportion of the students who took part in the study do not find games motivational at all, and that there is no evidence of a relationship between an individual’s motivation to play games recreationally and his or her motivation to use games for learning. These findings indicate that employing games for their motivational benefits alone is not justification for their use. (p. 1). Fortugn and Zimmerman (2005) believe that the use of computer games as learning tools is problematic. The argument is that using computer games for learning requires substantial computer game playing experience; unfortunately, professional educators and scholars have limited knowledge about the design and development of computer games. Fortugn and Zimmerman maintain that educators fail to recognize that game making is a difficulty activity. Kordaki (2004) warns that even those educators with high technical expertise and familiarity with software design, it is difficult to evaluate game software for appropriateness and suitability for educational use. Choi, Kim and Kim (1999) observe that it is a problem distinguishing what makes a game to be a fun activity between game developers and game players. This is important because the fundamental value of any game is to provide fun to players. If players do not enjoy a game, its educational goal becomes questionable because they will not play it. The first condition any game must satisfy is to induce fun among players before its educational value can be evaluated. Repenning and Ioannidou (2005) argue that the engineering methodologies derived from software engineering are not suitable for teaching and learning in K-12
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education system. Linderoth (2004) believes that the knowledge which players gain from playing computer games is context specific and rooted in the meaning of the specific game. This criticism is echoed by Kirriemuir and McFarlane (2004) in Arnseth (2006). These writers (Kirriemuir and McFarlane) observe that “the games have been too simplistic, that tasks are repetitive and poorly designed in the sense that activities are limited to isolated skills or content, and hence, they do not afford any active exploration “(p. 5). The implication of this observation is that learning through computer games may not be suitable for transfer learning. Other critics who oppose the use of computer games for instruction point out that those games may have negative impact on the players’ attitude and behaviors (Anderson and Dill (2000). Skeptics like Rieber and Noah (1997) have discussed how games may negatively affect learning. According to them, students who do not use velocity-acceleration game scored higher in physic concept posttest than those students who are exposed to the velocity-acceleration game. Rieber and Noah claim that the game users become proficient on the game they play but remark that the gamers are not aware of the underlying assumptions upon which the game is based because they have not reflected on the games but rather applied the game mechanically. Becker (2001) warns that the advocates of games for learning do not consider students’ choices because games differ especially for older students. Clark (1993) has argued that children may become violent as they engage in violent and aggressive computer and video games. Overwhelming evidence from the literature indicates that computer games may not necessarily motivate students to learn; those games may also impact on the gamers negatively. Wlodkowski (1984) notes that the problem of motivation decreases when students discover what they want to do and they are expected to succeed.
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MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS IN COMPUTER GAMEBASED LEARNING Managerial problems have been blamed for some of the failures in the workplace including in educational institutions. Rolstandas and Anderson (2000) argue that managerial problem and other problems may prevent people from doing their job. These authors argue that: There are three broad possibilities. First, people may lack the knowledge or skill to do the job effectively (ignorance problem). Second, people know how to do the job but fail to do so because they are not motivated to do so (incentive problem). Third people know how to do the job and want to do the job but are prevented from doing so by inadequate tools, poor communications or obstructive organizational structures (managerial problem) (p. 191). The use of computer games for learning suffers from what Rolstandas and Anderson call ignorance, incentive and managerial problems. Ignorance problem exists because computer game designers may not possess the content knowledge and may not understand pedagogical process to enable them design educational games that are engaging and entertaining. Perhaps, future trend could be to initiate structural changes on the part of computer game industries by requiring them to address pedagogical issues in the design phase of educational games. Teacher training institutions could also expand their training programs to include basic game design skill. The idea is to transfer elements of computer games that are entertaining and engaging into classroom teaching and learning processes. Incentive problem also exists because electronic artists and game designers may have the know ledge to design games for instructional purposes. However, they are reluctant to design games that could have educational value because
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they perceive it as wearisome. Sutherland, Connolly and Livingstone (2007) explain that “it also proved impossible to persuade digital artists to get involved. For both programmers and artists the ‘boring’ word kept reappearing, despite their need to create a significant game piece as part of their future employment portfolio” (p. 21). The third problem is managerial. Game-based learning environment needs a different kind of classroom management and organization structure to allow for the uniqueness of games-based instruction. Game playing requires reflective thinking and logistic maneuvers; these mental and physical activities require longer time than is provided in the time-table. To be effective in using computer games as tools for learning, teachers need a new paradigm to address gaming in the classroom, schools need to understand gaming rules, procedures and processes and reconcile them with educational policies and practices.
DIFFICULTIES IN USING COMPUTER GAMES TO MOTIVATE LEARNING One of the difficulties facing the use of computer games for learning is that game designers focus on building authoring tools for games and not considering the process of instruction and how it sequenced. Fortugno and Zimmerman (2005) argue that for teacher to use games for instruction they should have considerable knowledge in gaming activities including acquire theoretical knowledge in basic game design. Game makers have not addressed the issue of choice differences in computer games. It is not clear how this may impact on educational games. It is also necessary to consider age appropriateness in computer game selection as well as cultural ramifications implicit in some of the games sold in the market. Evidence suggests that a great number of teachers may not be comfortable using the ever changing computer games for instruction. Textbook designers must design textbook that
will accompany computer games for students’ all-round intellectual development. There is the question of financing game-based instruction. Will teachers be re-trained to make them ready for the new paradigm in instructional delivery? Will the state or federal government make game software available to all students? Otherwise, students from humble background will be disadvantaged. The current virtual divide will be exacerbated. There is also the question of monitoring students to make sure that while using computer games to learn that they also read their textbooks and complete the prescribed assignments or homework. Game industries and brokers must take into consideration the school timetable in order to properly allocate available school time. It is also important that school personnel like principals; curriculum and technology specialists possess basic knowledge of computer games and theories in order to make informed judgment regarding the appropriateness and suitability of instructional games.
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN COKMPUTER GAMES PREFERENCES Klawe (1998) studied 4th and 5th graders and found that boys and girls exhibit different game preferences. Klawe recalls that when both boys and girls play games together, the latter feel intimidated and reluctant to compete. However, when girls compete among themselves, they show more zeal and also become more expressive. Klawe remarks that during discussion, girls acknowledge that they are uncomfortable playing with the boys because they assume that boys are more skilled in playing computer games and as a result are somehow intimidated. Klawe points out that it is difficult to establish the cause of such difference; it may be due to attitudinal differences or level of experience each gender has in playing computer games. One way of addressing the problem is for teachers to encourage and assure the girls that they can com-
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pete as much as the boys and advise them not to perceive boys’ presence as intimidating. The work of Graves and Klawe (1997) reveals that there is statistical significance difference between boys and girls when games are used as instructional strategies; boys measured more progress over a period of time than girls. Sedighian and Westerom (1997) state that there are also differences in the type of emphasis boys and girls make as they play computer games; boys are more interested in the number of puzzles which means making quick progress. If differences exist in the choice of computer games between boys and girls, then part of the solution is to make sure that suitable computer games are selected in a way that reflects gender preferences. The study of Guimaraes and Murray (2008) shows that males account for 90% of students who enroll in video games while females represent 45%. However, Guimaraes and Murray argue that women are equally successful in playing videogames as much as their male counterparts. Guimaraes and Murray claim that their finding contradicts the assumption that women are not able to compete successfully with men in computer games. There is also the problem of stereotyping in computer games. Provenzo (1992) has indicated that computer game may impact on children’s attitudes toward gender stereotyping. For instance in most Nintendo games, women are cast as victims and rarely as aggressors (Provenzo, 1992). Newman (2004) maintains that 16% of women engage in computer games; and 47% of female characters are depicted as props or bystanders. On the other hand, 47% of males are usually portrayed as competitors. Teachers must consider ways to select games for learning to avoid depicting girls as the victims and boys as the aggressors. In the selection of computer games, schools must be wary of the message they are sending to the larger society about role identity. It is interesting to note that gamers may develop dislike for a particular game if they master the skill embedded in such a
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game; they may become incline to look for new games in the market.
STUDENTS’ RESPONSES ON COMPUTER GAMES AS MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING The question which baffles game researchers and educational practitioners is: why do many young people indulge in playing computer games for long hours without feeling bored or tired but are unable to show similar zeal for learning. To respond to these questions, seven graduate students in a four-year college in the southern part of the United States are interviewed. These students were made of four females and three males and they volunteered to be interviewed. They are between the ages of 25 and 33 years. The participants are made of four African American and three Caucasian students. The interview is conducted over the telephone. The researcher interviewed each participant separately; one at a time. All the participants are asked the same questions. After each question is asked, responses that emerge are in the form of discussion. Therefore, the interview can be described as semi-structured. Interview with each participant is recorded; a draft copy of the interview is given to each participant to verify the accuracy of the comments. The duration of the interview is about seven minutes. The following questions guided the interview: 1. You have acknowledged that you play computer games at regular interval before scheduling this interview; discuss what motivates you to play computer games. 2. Does computer game motivate you to learn? 3. How will you describe computer game? 4. How will you describe learning? 5. How do you feel after playing computer games?
Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning?
Students who participated in the interviews are identified as A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT A (11/13/09) Student A is 32 years old African-American student studying for a Ph.D. degree. The interview with Student A shows a dichotomous difference between playing computer games and learning. She states “I play computer games mostly at night to reward myself and to chill out.” The researcher asks why she would reward herself and she responded “I work hard studying and taking care of my children all day and I need to relax to pull myself together.” The interviewer inquires why the interviewee believes that playing computer is relaxing. She re-iterates “I just enjoy playing game on the computer and I smile when I beat the computer. I feel good when I beat a smart machine like the computer.” In responding to question #2, Student A states that computer game has not motivated her to learn, she adds “I do not think about computer games during the day.” She continues, “I do not see how it could help me because I am not doing something related to computer games.” She suggests that it may help young children. Student A describes the act of playing computer games as removing herself from all the worries and just live in a world nobody can touch (imaginary world). According to Student A, learning donates “hard work, reading, writing and researching.” In question number 5, Student A states that sometimes she “feels that it is good to relax playing computer games” but she also states “I feel I have wasted time.”
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT B (11/16/09) Student B is 27 years old and a Caucasian student who is reading for a Ph.D. degree. In responding
to question number 1, Student B states that she plays computer games with her friends to socialize and have fun. “I am a student; I need to do something else apart from preparing for exam or writing assignments.” She adds, I am young, I need to enjoy myself and keep up with what goes on around me”. In response to question number 2, Student B is adamant that computer games do not motivate her to learn. She remarks that “games can motivate kids who cannot make decision for themselves; they need something to remind them about the importance of learning.” Responding to question number 3, Student B describes computer games as having fun and enjoying without worrying. According to her, she just focuses on winning the game and beating others playing with her. In question number 4, she describes learning as working hard to understand what professors want, complete the degree and find a job. In question number 5, Student B acknowledges that she feels good after playing computer games because it provides her with the opportunity to hang out with her friends and find out what is happening in the neighborhood.
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT C (11/18/09) Student C is a 25 years old African-American student reading for a Master’s degree. She is vibrant. According to her, she plays computer games to combat boredom and to have fun (response to question number 1). In question number 2, Student C agrees that computer games help her to live in a fantasy world and just have fun and relax. She admits that computer games will motivate her to acquire new skills in the area of computer games and in doing so improves her problem-solving skill. The interviewer asks her if she has transferred any problem-solving skills she acquired from playing computer games to solve problem outside computer game room. She responded, “Not yet.” However, she agrees that games do not
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motivate her to study or read her books but they motivate her to have fun. She describes learning (question #4) as “working hard and challenging.” Student C states: “I feel good playing computer games when I learn how to play new games and win my opponents, I feel good too”
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT D (11/19/09) Student D is a 33 years old Caucasian student reading for a Ph.D. degree. In responding to question number 1, Student D states, “I play computer games to feed my procrastination”. Playing games helps me justify why I have not done what I suppose to do. I do not feel bored when I play computer games.” In question number 2, he emphatically says, “No, computer game does not motivate me to learn, in fact it takes time away from me.” Student D believes that computer games are about having fun. According to him, learning is a serious job and it involves working hard to achieve success.” He acknowledges that although he enjoys the games he plays but at the end of the games, he feels that he could have spent time on other things like studying. He recognizes that his problem is making sure that while he plays computer games that he finds time to meet his other commitments.
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT E (11/20/09) Student E is a 30 years old African-American student reading for a master’s degree. He believes that his main purpose for playing computer games is to avoid being bored, socialize with peers and have fun. He states that computer games do not motivate him to learn; “games help me avoid learning, computer games do the opposite for me”. He adds that “if computer games motivate learning, perhaps parents and teachers will not
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have trouble getting kids do their homework.” He describes computer games as fun activities and living in a fantasy world. He states that “learning is about doing some work which needs perseverance; learning and playing computer games are two different things. One is about work and the other is about fun”. He maintains that he feels bad after playing computer games for long hours especially during the holidays. He admits that sometimes he thinks that games motivate him to waste his time on less pressing activity (game playing).
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT F (1/7/2010) Student F is a 29 years old African-American student in a Master’s degree program. Student F believes that her motivation for playing computer games is to relax and socialize after a full-time job and being a full-time student. She admits that she plays computer games and in doing so, she releases stress. She believes that computer games do not motivate her to learn; “games can make you lazy if you are not disciplined” she adds. She states that playing games is “like relaxing and worry about nothing.” According to Student F, “learning is the opposite of playing computer games which help relaxation.” She says that “learning needs a lot of work.” She acknowledges that sometimes she plays games for a long time if she has time and does not feel bad because it is about relaxing.
SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW WITH STUDENT G (1/7/2010) Student G is a Caucasian student reading for a Ph.D. degree. He is 31 years old. He believes that computer games are part of the evolving world. His purpose for playing computer games is not necessarily to motivate him to learn although he believes that he acquires some ideas from the games he plays. He states “I play it for fun but
Can Computer Games Motivate and Sustain Learning?
I learn from it, although this is not why I play games”. He remarks, “I enjoy playing games because it brings out the less serious part of me. It is not like studying for exam or working in the garden. If I do not like a game, I won’t play it. But I must read my textbooks and learn what I am supposed to learn even though I may not like the course or the textbook”. Student G indicates that computer games may motivate children to read but adult learning is a more serious activity. He says that playing computer games is “about having fun without thinking about the consequence.” He believes that learning is about life and anything we do in life is real and reality has consequences. “Learning is about working hard and hoping for the best”. According to him, he does not feel bad playing computer games because as an adult he makes his choices. He says, “I make sure that I do other things which are important in my life and also play computer games. I practice a balancing act.”
DISCUSSION OF THE INTERVIEWS AND COMMENTS All the students interviewed agree that their motivation for paying computer games is not for the purpose of enhancing their desire to learn. The results of the interviews show that the purpose is to have fun and relax. These findings support the result of a study conducted by Whitton (2000) where 12 participants in the study acknowledge that computer games do not motivate them to learn. Some of the interviewees play games as a means of socialization. Three students agree that games help them to avoid learning; for instance, one of the participants claims that paying computer games “feeds” his “procrastination” and two others state that game playing takes away valuable time that they could have invested in learning. The responses of these participants support the views expressed by Rieber and Noah (1997) who argue that game may negatively affect learning.
Two respondents believe that computer games can motivate them to learn if such learning is related to the concept of computer game. Another two of respondents recognize that games may motivate children to learn perhaps, they need something stimulating like games in order to focus. The implication may be that children need guidance and direction due to their immaturity; therefore, games are needed to keep them motivated. Knowles (1998) recognizes that adults learn when they perceive immediate use of the knowledge and skill they will acquire but computer and video games are based on fantasies and imaginary concepts not on reality. Perhaps, the fantasies associated with games in general make it difficult for learners to perceive computer games with the seriousness attributed to learning. As it is evident from the interview responses, the fun characteristic of games puts a wedge between computer games and learning. The latter is perceived is as real and knowledge acquired from learning is seen as a symbol of investment for the future. The former is recognized as a momentary enjoyment. If computer games are seen to generate momentary entertainment, it is doubtful if it can be used effectively to motivate and sustain learning. According to the interviewees, game and learning serve two different functions. The former is used for relaxation and the latter is seen as work. The idea is that after working hard, it is necessary to relax. Invariably, people choose to relax using the activity they believe can induce fun. It is important to know that three of the female participants believe that some of the games they play present difficult challenges and when they are able to win the game, they feel empowered having defeated a smart machine as one of them describes the computer. These women also feel good if they win while playing with others or just playing in the computer by themselves. It is interesting to observe that none of the male respondents feel a sense of empowerment when they win. This finding is important because it
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shows that some women are still playing catchup with men in the domain of computer games. The results of these interviews also show that most participants feel good after playing games. But one respondent indicates that games help in perpetuating procrastination and the other two interviewees believe that playing games takes reading time away from them. Three participants admit that they use computer games to avoid boredom. All these point to the negative aspect of computer games. The assumption that motivation to play computer games will unequivocally motivate students to learn is rather too simplistic. Such assumption ignores the obscure differences between playing games and learning as the results of the interviews have shown. In any given learning situation, some students succeed in achieving good grades but in computer games, only one individual emerge as a winner. In learning, students are required to use their knowledge to solve problems outside the confine of the classroom by requiring them to complete real-life projects. Gamers are not subjected to this requirement; the essence of games is to enjoy and have fun and this is explicitly demonstrated in the interview as well as in most literature reviewed. The lesson learned from the these interviews is that learning and playing computer games are two different activities; the former is linked to work and the latter to fun, thereby, they fulfill two different desires of life. Therefore, it is assumed that the activities designed for games may not adequately serve as motivation for learning. The interviews also show that computer games can serve as a distraction for some of the students.
CONCLUSION The review of both empirical and theoretical papers including the results of the interviews discussed above show that the use of computer games may not necessarily motivate learning. Current research on computer and video games focuses on the use
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of computer games to facilitate instruction rather than on students’ motivation to learn. Opinions on the educational value of computer game-based instruction are divided. There is no doubt that computer games are fun to play and that they have the power to captivate players and keep them focused. The problem facing game developers and designers is how to harness such captivation and transfer it into the learning environment so that learning can be improved. Therefore, the task for educational practitioners and game developers is to produce games that have fun elements, based on learning theories and educate teachers on the application of those games including the underlying theories that justify their educational use. The stumbling block is to determine how this can be achieved. The findings of the interviews discussed above demonstrate that fun generated by computer games alone may not necessarily motivate students to learn. While it is may be naïve to draw a firm conclusion based on the interviews, nevertheless, the results have provided insight regarding students’ motivation to play computer games and their perceptions of games and learning. Rigorous research studies are needed to further investigate educational benefits of computer-games. Judging from the data gathered from the literature, it is logical to conclude that game-based learning has a promising future as game researchers begin to address issues that cloud the implementation of educational games. So far the effectiveness of computer games as learning tools remains speculative partly because it is still evolving. Before the question of whether or not computer games can motivate learning, the first step is to provide robust scientific evidence showing that games can be used effectively to improve learning before it can be successfully determined if they (computer games) can also motivate and sustain learning. So far, much vagueness surrounds the use of computer games to motivate students to learn and/or sustain learning.
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About the Contributors
Maria Manuela Cruz-Cunha is currently an Associate Professor in the School of Technology at the Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave, Portugal. She holds a Dipl. Eng. in the field of Systems and Informatics Engineering, an M.Sci. in the field of Information Society and a Dr.Sci in the field of Virtual Enterprises, all from the University of Minho (Portugal). She teaches subjects related with Information Systems, Information Technologies and Organizational Models to undergraduated and postgraduated studies. She supervises several PhD projects in the domain of Virtual Enterprises and Information Systems and Technologies. She regularly publishes in international peer-reviewed journals and participates on international scientific conferences. She serves as a member of Editorial Board and Associate Editor for several International Journals and for several Scientific Committees of International Conferences. She has authored and edited several books and her work appears in more than 70 papers published in journals, book chapters and conference proceedings. She is the co-founder and co-chair of CENTERIS – Conference on ENTERprise Information Systems. Vitor Hugo Costa Carvalho received his degree in industrial electronics engineering in the option of telecommunications and industrial informatics, in 2002 and MSc in industrial electronics, in the option of automation and robotics in 2004, both from Minho University, Portugal. In July, 2008, he received his PhD degree in industrial electronics, covering the development of an automatic system of yarn characterization. He his currently working as assistant professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal and in the Portuguese Catholic University (UCP), Braga, Portugal as well as Researcher in the Algortimi Centre of Minho University, Braga, Portugal. He is also the Director of the Department of Technologies at IPCA. His main fields of interest are industrial informatics, data acquisition and signal processing. He has published more than 50 papers and is member of the Editoral Advisory Board of several Journals and Conferences. Paula Cristina Almeida Tavares, Artist, professor and researcher. Phd in Fine Arts, with the thesis “The complex relationship between art and politics in Western culture. The political art as institutional contradiction.” Her research interests are in fine arts and design, autonomous disciplines linked by drawing. She is the Director of the Research Laboratory, Production and Perception [LIPP], and belongs to Modo Group (http://grupomodo.wordpress.com/). Has been participating in exhibitions and events since the nineties (http://www.anamnese.pt/?projecto=az). Adjunct Professor at the Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and the Ave and Head of Department of Design. Coordinator Professor at the Superior School of Arts of Porto in Guimarães [ESAP-GMR].
About the Contributors
*** Filomena O. Soares received her degree in chemical engineering in 1986 at Porto University, Portugal. In 1997, she obtained her PhD in chemical engineering in the same University. Since 1992, when she starts working in the Industrial Electronics Department Minho University, she develops her research work in R&D Algoritmi Centre. Her main scientific interests are in the areas of system modeling and control, with application to chemical and biochemical processes and in the area of automation systems (in particular, development new equipments for textile industry regarding yarn quality assessment). New research and application fields are also being studied in Biomedical engineering science and how robots can foster the communication with autistic children. Recently, she is interested in new teaching/ learning methodologies, in particular blended-learning. Celina Pinto Leão received her MSc degree in industrial Mathematics from University of Strathclyde/ Glasgow Caledonian University, Scotland, in 1994, and in 2003 her PhD in Engineering Science from Porto University, Portugal. Presently she is at University of Minho, Portugal, as an Auxiliary Professor and as a researcher with the Algoritmi Center. Her main interests are in modelling and simulation of processes, and in the application of new methodologies in the learning process of numerical methods and statistics in engineering. Her interests also include Engineering Gender studies. Charalambos Karagiannidis is Assistant Professor at the University of Thessaly, Department of Special Education, Greece. His research interests are in the areas of assistive ambient living technologies and intelligent user interfaces. Charalambos has worked as researcher and senior researcher in two of the biggest research institutes in Greece in the area of ICT: the Institute of Computer Science of the Foundation for Research and Technology (FORTH-ICS) in Crete, and the Institute for Telematics and Informatics of the Centre for Research and Technology in Thessaloniki (CERTH-ITI). Charalambos pioneered with his PhD by employing quantitative approaches for the improvement of intelligence in the field of Human-Computer interaction. You may contact him at:
[email protected]. Sofia Efraimidou is a PhD candidate at the University of Thessaly, Department of Special Education, Greece. She holds a bachelor degree from the Educational Sciences Academy of Belgrade, Serbia and a bachelor degree of the Philosophy and Pedagogical Sciences from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She holds also a postgraduate degree from the Primary Education Department of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Her current research lies in the area of modeling of interactions between teachers of general and special education by means of CSCL technologies and tools. You may contact her at:
[email protected]. Adamantios Koumpis heads the Research Programmes Division of ALTEC Software S.A., which he founded in 1996 (then as independent division of Unisoft S.A.). His previous job position was at the Institute of Computer Science, FORTH, at Heraklio, Crete, where he worked at the Rehabilitation TeleInformatics and Human-Computer Interaction Group in several European Commission’s RTD projects (RACE, ACTS and TAP). Adamantios holds a PhD degree from the University of Kingston in the UK as well as a degree in Computer Science from the University of Crete in Greece. You may contact him at
[email protected].
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About the Contributors
Daniel Thomas graduated with honours in 2000 with a Bachelor of Engineering (Software) from Griffith University. Daniel shares his professional development between industry and academia. He is Technical Architect with TechnologyOne Ltd.’s Human Resource & Payroll team developing enterpriseclass software. He is also a member of the Intelligent Control Systems Laboratory at Griffith University where he is currently a part-time PhD student. His research interests include intelligent decision-making, collaboration and computer games. Ljubo Vlacic is with Griffith University’s School of Engineering and Director of its Intelligent Control Systems Laboratory. His career has included a number of research & development and management positions with both industry and academia. His research interests and contributions to research span the areas of: control systems, decision theory, intelligent control and computer & systems engineering; and, the application of these methodologies to: industrial automation, mechatronics, intelligent robotics, knowledge management, intelligent vehicles & transport systems, and engineering education. He was named the 2003 Queensland Professional Engineer of the Year by the Queensland Division of the Institution of Engineers Australia; and awarded the 2004 Sir Lionel Hooke Award, by the Australian Council of the Institution of Engineering and Technology – IET; the 2004 IEE Achievement Medal (World-wide), IEE United Kingdom and a number of appreciation awards for notable services and contributions. Helena Sofia Felisberto Coelho has a Master’s Degree in Information and Documental Sciences from Faculty of Letters, University of Lisbon. Her master thesis was titled “Web 2.0 at Portuguese University Libraries: a study on the implementation of the paradigm of Library 2.0”. She is a member of the Portuguese Association of Librarians, Archivists, and Documentalists. Currently, she works at the Faculty of Human Kinetics Library (Technical University of Lisbon), where she has been gathering experience in users’ instruction in regards to information searching and retrieval. She is interested in the promotion of information literacy and in computer games, particularly in their educational potential. José Bidarra received his PhD in Educational Communications at Universidade Aberta (the Portuguese Open University), where he is currently Assistant Professor in the Department of Science and Technology. He is coordinator of two master degree programs, one on Multimedia Educational Communications and another on Graphical and Audiovisual Expression. His current research interests focus mainly on the application of multimedia and hypermedia in distance education, but also include cognitive mapping, serious games and simulations. Some of his doctorate students are developing new methodologies to engage students in valuable learning experiences with digital media. Most of the research is conducted at Universidade Aberta and at UIED, the Educational Development Research Unit linked to the Faculty of Science and Technology at the New University of Lisbon. The present work is the direct consequence of a sabbatical period spent with researchers at the Games, Learning, and Society program at the University of Wisconsin – Madison. Meagan Rothschild is an Instructional Design and Educational Programs consultant in Madison, Wisconsin. Meagan has a BA and MEd from the University of Hawaii at Manoa, with undergraduate studies in Hawaiian Language and special education, and a post graduate degree in Educational Technology. Meagan has six years of experience in the Hawaii Department of Education system serving in varied roles, including high school classroom teacher, grant writer and manager, technology coordinator,
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About the Contributors
and Magnet E-academy coordinator. She also served as the Instructional Designer for Cosmos Chaos!, an innovative video game designed to support struggling fourth grade readers developed by Pacific Resources for Education and Learning (PREL). As a PhD student at the University of Wisconsin - Madison, her work now focuses on planning and developing multimedia environments that merge research-based educational principles with gaming strategies to engage student learners. Kurt Squire is Associate Professor at the Educational Communication & Technology program in the Curriculum & Instruction Department, University of Wisconsin – Madison; he is also Associate Director of Education Research & Development, Wisconsin Institutes for Discovery, and Co-founder and Director of the Games, Learning, & Society Initiative. Squire’s research investigates the potential of video game-based technologies for systemic change in education. His work integrates research and theory on digital media (particularly games) with theories of situated cognition in order to understand how to design educational environments in a digital age. He has a particular interest in using games to increase civic participation in science. Squire is the recipient of an NSF CAREER award, as well as grants from the MacArthur Foundation and Department of Education. Before coming to Wisconsin, he was Research Manager of the Games-to-Teach Project at MIT, Co-Director of the Education Arcade, columnist for Computer Games magazine, co-founder of Joystick101.org and a Montessori teacher. In addition to writing over 75 scholarly articles and book chapters, he has given dozens of invited addresses in North America, Europe, and Asia. Ana Castro Correia is an education professional that has worked in various fields, such as adult education, art education, and educational technology. Her interests are focused in serious gaming and in virtual worlds as online learning communities. Ana Castro Correia holds a graduation diploma in Education Sciences and is currently finishing her Master in Educational Technology, in the Minho University, in Braga, Portugal. She is currently responsible, in TECField, a multimedia and information systems company, for the training management and the usability and accessibility testing of the interfaces that the company develops, being currently involved in the creation of various IPhone and IPad applications. She is the author of several papers in the field of educational technology. Lia Raquel Oliveira is Professor of Educational Technology at University of Minho, Institute of Education. She coordinates the Multimedia Resource Center of this institute and leads the collective research project DesignDem, Design of Educational Settings: processes, environments and learning objects (Research Center in Education, CIEd). Her interests focus on issues of content for education in a critical perspective that include the network platforms that allow its creation, sharing and new forms of literacy. She also cares for pedagogy in higher education and she integrates the research team TPU, Transforming Pedagogy at the University. She is author of several articles, papers, book chapters and two books (about elearning, 2004, and about informational literacy, 2002). She is co-editor of two books on Curriculum and Educational Technology (2006, 2008). Tiago de Souza Lima Gomes: Working as Instructional Designer in the Federal University of Minas Gerais within Giz - network of development of practice in higher education - is responsible for the integration of technology and education within the Medicine course of this University. Has a Graduate Degree in Physics by the Federal University of Minas Gerais and a Master in Educational Technology
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by the University of Minho – Portugal. The dissertation focused on the educational potential of games like MMOG. He has several works in the field of Computer Science with emphasis on Database and dynamic web sites using data access language such as PHP and Java, with works in the following topics: Database, monitoring, evaluation, distance learning and virtual learning environments. http://www. tiagoslg.net -
[email protected]. Ana Amélia A. Carvalho is a lecturer and researcher at the University of Minho, Braga, Portugal. She teaches courses such as Multimedia Systems, Web Sites Evaluation, Edutainment, Usability Evaluation and Educational Technology. She was responsible for the organization of the following conferences: WebQuest, Web 2.0 and Podcast. She developed several research projects related to distance learning, and to interactive activities to improve teaching and learning. She has several publications related to learning objects, webquests, podcasts, mobile learning, analysis of educational software and digital games in journals and in national and international conferences. e-mail:
[email protected]. Jonathan Chetwynd: Interests include, philosophy, the arts, internet programming languages, the public understanding of science and the ancient oriental game of Go. He has won awards for film making and furniture design, and taught adults and teenagers with special needs for over ten years. He conceived The Peepo Project that enabled people with low literacy to have fun surfing the internet; raised over £300,000 and was appointed manager by Lambeth College and Wandsworth Borough Council. He has filed many hundreds of bugs with reduced test cases and even a few specification errata. He has been an invited expert on W3C working groups. He recently prototyped perhaps the first browser-native clientserver game application for two players. Pedro Campos is an Assistant Professor at the University of Madeira, Portugal, where he teaches Human-Computer Interaction and Requirements Engineering. He is also the Program Director for the BSc. in Computer Science and an Invited Researcher at the Visualization and Intelligent Multimodal Interfaces at INESC ID Lisbon. His main research interests lie upon Natural Interaction for Modeling, Museums and Cultural Heritage, Interaction Design Tools and Serious Games. He has authored over thirty papers in peer-reviewed top journals and international conferences. Pedro has participated in several R&D projects and he is also a founding member of the IFIP 13.6 Working Group on Human Work Interaction Design, as well as Co-Editor-In-Chief of the International Journal on Agile and Extreme Software Development. Chien Yu is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Instructional Systems and Workforce Development at Mississippi State University. Dr. Yu has presented and published numerous articles in areas related to distance learning, multimedia instruction and technology. She currently teaches Interactive Media, Trends and Issues in Instructional Systems, Instructional Design for Industry, and Technology Issues for School Administrators. Her research agenda include instructional design, multimedia, distance education, technology integration, and educational leadership. She is a frequent presenter at various scholarly professional association conferences. Her e-mail address is
[email protected]. Anthony A. Olinzock is currently a Professor in the Department of Instructional Systems and Workforce Development at Mississippi State University. He has also held faculty positions at The Ohio State
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University and the University of Pittsburgh, and has worked as a business trainer for new and emerging technology. He has also worked as a technical consultant for the government of the Bahamas. Dr. Olinzock has written numerous textbooks and journal articles in areas related to education and technology. His most recent textbook – Integrated Business Projects, 3rd edition, will be released this year. He is a frequent presenter at various scholarly professional association conferences. His e-mail address is
[email protected]. Brenda Flores Muro is professor at “Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila” and research associate of systemic studies in research department of “Facultad de sistemas”, Member of General Postgraduate Studies & Research Department of “Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila”, Coordinates the program of communications and Information Technology Engineering, coordinates social network of Information technology of Coahuila’s state, with partnership with “Consejo de Ciencia y tecnología del estado de Coahuila.” Eduardo César Contreras Delgado is part of systemic studies research department of “Facultad de Sistemas” and General Coordination of postgraduate education at “Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila”, he works also as research associate of “Instituto Tecnológico de Saltillo”. He actually works in the project “Therapy of communication for people with speech disabilities”, The main purpose of professor Eduardo is to develop software for people with different disabilities in public special education schools, providing training to therapists and special education teachers on the usage of Information Technologies as a didactic resource. His hobby is t play PC games.
[email protected]. António Pessoa de Magalhães is an assistant professor at the Automation, Instrumentation and Control Group of the Mechanical Engineering Department of the Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto. In 1995 he received a PhD degree in Real-time Control from the same Faculty. His research interests include sequential control, industrial communications, discrete event systems and control education. He has been developing and using serious games in PLC training for more than a decade. Bernard Riera received the PhD degree in automatic control from the “Université de Valenciennes et du Hainaut-Cambrésis, Valenciennes, France in 1993. Since 2002, he has been a full Professor in control engineering with the “Université of Reims Champagne-Ardenne (URCA), Reims, France. He is also a member of the CReSTIC laboratory (Research Center for Information and Communication Sciences and Technologies) and the head of the “automatic control and hybrid systems” team. His main research interests are supervisory control, Human-Machine Systems, verification and validation of PLC programs, and control education. Bruno Vigário graduated from the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto in 2004 with a degree in mechanical engineering. One year later, he achieved a postgraduate degree in automation, instrumentation and control at the same faculty. Since 2004 that Bruno looks for ways of using his passion for game technology in creating simulations of industrial systems. He was a co-founder of Real Games in 2006 and since then he spends his daylight hours working as a software engineer and product manager.
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About the Contributors
Karla Cristina Muñoz Esquivel is full time Ph.D. student at the University of Ulster, Magee campus. She has a M.Sc. in Computing and Intelligent Systems from the University of Ulster and a B.Sc. in Electronic Systems Engineering from Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico City. In 2008 she was granted a Vice Chancellor’s Research Scholarship (VCRS) by the University of Ulster to sponsor her Ph.D. studies. In 2008, she was awarded with 8over8 prize, which is allocated to the top performing student on the M.Sc. Computing with Specialism course at the University of Ulster. In 2007 she was granted a high level scholarship for Latin America (ALβAN) by the European Union Program for pursuing her M.Sc. studies at the University of Ulster. She has presented papers in workshops and international conferences. Karla’s research interests include e-learning, Problem-Based Learning, User-modeling, Virtual and Game Learning Environments, Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Artificial Intelligence techniques for reasoning and making decisions under uncertainty. Paul Mc Kevitt, B.Sc. (Hons.), M.S., Ph.D., M.Ed., is Chair in Intelligent MultiMedia at the School of Computing & Intelligent Systems, Faculty of Computing & Engineering, University of Ulster, Magee. Previously, he was Associate Professor (Senior Lecturer) in the School of Electronics, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The Queen’s University of Belfast. He has been Visiting Professor of Intelligent MultiMedia Computing in the Institute of Electronic Systems, Aalborg University, Denmark, and a British EPSRC (Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council) Advanced Fellow in the Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, England. His research is on the integration of natural language, speech and vision processing. He has been Visiting Professor at LIMSI-CNRS, Orsay, Univ. Paris Sud, France, Visiting Fellow at Dublin City University, Dublin and Research Scientist and Research Fellow in The Department of Computer Science, New Mexico State University, New Mexico, USA. He has published numerous papers in international conferences, books and journals and has been awarded international patents. Tom Lunney BSc (Hons.), M.Sc., P.G.C.E, Ph.D., MIEEE, MBCS received his degrees from Queen’s University Belfast, and is now a Senior Lecturer in Computer Science in the University of Ulster. His research areas include concurrent and distributed systems, artificial intelligence and multi-modal computing. He has presented papers at a range of International Conferences and participated in the organising committees for many international conferences and workshops. He has taught at a number of other institutions including Queen’s University, Belfast and The University of Pau, France. He is currently Course Director for postgraduate masters programmes in the School of Computing and Intelligent Systems, University of Ulster. Julieta Noguez Monroy is Associated Professor and researcher at the Department of Computer Science and Information Systems in the School of Engineering and Architecture (EIA) at Tecnológico de Monterrey (ITESM), Mexico City Campus CCM. She holds a M.Sc. and a Ph.D. in Computer Science from ITESM and she has over 20 years working as a professor. She is certified in Project Oriented Learning technique by ITESM. She has more than 30 publications and she has supervised four M.Sc. projects and one Ph.D. thesis. She has been reviewer for the FIE Conferences from 2005 to 2009. She is a member of the National Research System of the Science and Technology Mexican Council. She is the leader of the e-Learning research group at ITESM-CCM, and her main research interests include
330
About the Contributors
Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Virtual Laboratories, Collaborative Learning, Probabilistic Reasoning, Project Oriented Learning, and e-Learning. Luis Neri Vitela is Professor at the Department of Physics and Mathematics (DFM) in the School of Engineering and Architecture (EIA) at Tecnológico de Monterrey (ITESM), Mexico City Campus (CCM). He holds a Ph.D. in Physics from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) and has over 25 years of experience as a professor. He is author and co-author of three Physics textbooks, and several Blackboard courses approved by ITESM. He is certified in Problem-Based Learning and Collaborative Learning techniques by ITESM and he gives seminars to qualify teachers of Active Learning methods at CCM, and his main research interests include Collaborative Learning, Active Learning in Physics, Problem Based Learning, M-Learning, and e-Learning. Fernando Borrajo holds a PhD in Business Administration by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), and Master in Quantitative Finance by EFA. Actually associate full time Professor in Strategic and Business Organization at UAM, where is Director of Master Business Administration (Executive) and Director of Doctorate Program of financial economics. Yolanda Bueno holds a Degree in Business and a MBA by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (Spain). Now she is Collaborator Professor in Business Organization at UAM, where she is currently Vicedean for Students at the Faculty of Economics. Her professional activity at the university is research, teaching and consulting in the areas of Management Science and Operations Management. This professional expertise has been applied, amongst other results, to the design and development of several Business Games, both as training and research tools. Fernando Fernández is a faculty of the Computer Science Department of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, since October 2005. He received his Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from University Carlos III of Madrid (UC3M) in 2003. He received his B.Sc. in 1999 from UC3M, also in Computer Science. He was a postdoctoral fellow at the Computer Science Department of Carnegie Mellon University since October 2004 until December 2005. He is the recipient of a pre-doctoral FPU fellowship award from Spanish Ministry of Education (MEC), a Doctoral Prize from UC3M, and a MEC-Fulbright postdoctoral Fellowship. He is interested in intelligent systems that operate in continuous and stochastic domains. Javier García received his B.Sc. in Computer Science in 2006 from the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M), Spain. He is currently a Ph.D. student in the Computer Science Department at UC3M. His research interests include machine learning, reinforcement learning and multi-agent systems. Isidro de Pablo holds a MBA by the State University of New York, and a PhD in Business Administration by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Spain. Now he is Full Professor in Business Organization at UAM, where he is currently in charge of the Center for Entrepreneurial Initiatives (CIADE). His professional background starts in the Auditing and Management Information Systems Consulting practice until his incorporation to the university where he has developed an intensive research, teaching and consulting activity in the areas of MIS, General Management and Entrepreneurship. This professional expertise has been applied, amongst other results, to the design and development of several
331
About the Contributors
Business Games, both as training and research tools. He is the founder of Simuladores Empresariales, S.L. the spin-off company from the UAM specialized in business games development. Ismael Sagredo received the B.Sc. in Computer Science in 2006 from The Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M), Spain. He is currently a M.Sc. student in the Computer Science Department at UC3M. His research interests include instance-based learning, machine learning and multi-agent systems. Begoña Santos holds a PhD in Economics and Business by the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Spain. Now she is Professor in Business Organization at the Faculty of Economics of the UAM. Her professional activity at the University is research, teaching and consulting in the areas of Management Information Systems. This professional expertise has been applied, amongst other results, to the design and development of several Business Games, and she has given numerous seminars with this tool in Business School and in-Company Programs. She is one of the founders of Simuladores Empresariales S.L., a spin-off company of the UAM dedicated to developing simulators. Gyula Mester received his D.Sc. degree in Engineering from the University of Novi Sad in 1977. Currently, he is a Professor at the University of Szeged, Department of Informatics, Hungary. He is author of 168 research papers. His professional activities include R/D in different fields of robotics engineering and soft computing: Intelligent Autonomous Mobile Robots, Humanoid Robotics, Intelligent Control of Manipulation Robots, Adaptive Robot Control, Fuzzy Control in Robotics, Sensor Based Remote Control. He is an invited reviewer of more scientific journals in the field of interest. He worked in various teams of researchers on different engineering projects. He is coordinator of the Robotics Laboratory from the University of Szeged, in European Robotics Research Network – Euron Member. Dr. Gyula Mester won a special award from American Biographical Institute: Man of the Year 1997. His CV has been published in the Marquis “Who’s Who in the World 1997”. Piroska Stanić Molcer has a Master degree since 1992 from the Faculty of Electrotechnics at the University in Zagreb, Croatia. She is a lecturer at the College of Applied Sciences Subotica Tech in Subotica, Serbia. She was a teacher of electronical subjects at the Secondary Technical School in Subotica, Serbia for several years. She participated in the project of reforming education in Serbia, as well as curriculum development for telecommunication technicians. She started PhD studies at the Faculty of Technical Sciences at the University in Novi Sad, Serbia at the department of Power, Electronics and Communications engineering. Her field of interests are e-learning, digital signal processing, and intelligent systems. Vlado Delić has a PhD degree in electrical engineering since 1997 from the University of Novi Sad, Serbia. Professor, researcher, and project manager, particularly interested in audio signal processing and speech-based human-machine communications. He is a professor at the Faculty of Technical Sciences, UNS, where he established a R&D group that is the leader in applications of speech technologies in South Slavic languages (e.g. aids for the visually impaired: Text-to-Speech in several languages, on-line Audio Library, Voice Portals). He has published chapters in several books of communications and signal processing and more than 100 scientific papers in the last 10 years. He has some experience in training and consultancy in the area of non-profit management, philanthropic and social entrepreneurship. Prof.
332
About the Contributors
Delić was bestowed several prestigious awards for his creative work and contribution to innovations in the region. Memberships: IEEE, AES (Audio Engineering Society). Johann Riedel is senior research fellow in the Centre for Concurrent Enterprise at Nottingham University Business School, UK. Johann has published over 80 refereed publications for conferences, journals and book chapters. He has a B.Sc. in electrical and electronic engineering, M.Sc. in social and economic aspects of science and technology and a PhD in design management. Johann’s research has focused on innovation, design, engineering and the management thereof. He was one of the key designers of the advanced simulation game for Concurrent Engineering/ new product development (COSIGA). He has also developed innovative evaluation strategies and methods to validate the learning process and outcomes of simulation based learning. This has included the evaluation cognitive/conceptual change, analysis of communication, and analysis of processes – knowledge creation, problem solving, decision making, and negotiation. Further, the COSIGA simulation game has being used in research experiments to understand multidisciplinary team collaboration in virtual environments (multi-site, multinational, multi-lingual), and in particular with China. Jannicke Baalsrud Hauge graduated as Physicist in the field of applied optics in 1995 and as Economist (main field: Logistics) in 2001. She is employed at BIBA (University of Bremen). She was involved in the Leonardo da Vinci project LogTrain until April 2001 and dealt with simulation of Supply Chains in logistics. From January 2001 until June 2003, she was responsible for the BIBA contribution to the IST Project SMARTISAN, which dealt with development of an XML-based e- and m-business platform for SMEs and she was also involved in a BMBF project V-Top which dealt with transport-optimisation and modal shifts in waste logistics, based upon simulations of estimated transport flows. She has also been involved in a national project dealing with simulation based business games for experiencing collaboration in production networks as well as a European research Project, Tool-East which developed an open source based collaboration tool with ERP functionalities for the tool and die making sector. At the moment she is involved in the European IP project EURIDICE as workpackage leader of WP32 Training. In addition to research project work she also gives lessons to industrial engineering and economics students at the University of Bremen. In her research she is concentrating on logistics and risk management in production networks. Mabel CPO Okojie is an Associate Professor at Mississippi State University (MSU). Dr. Okiojie has taught various courses within educational studies. These Courses include foundations of education, educational research, technology integration, workforce education, curriculum theories and planning including industrial human relations courses etc. She has graduated 17 doctoral students as major adviser/dissertation director. She graduated nine educational specialist and 23 master’s degree students. She developed and initiated six new courses at MSU. She coordinated and chaired the committee that modified and redesigned the Ph.D. degree program in the Department of Instructional Systems and Workforce Development. Dr. Okojie has published numerous articles in national and international peer review journals. She co-authored a text-book, reviewed a World Bank book and written chapters published in Encyclopedia including 10 citations for Lexicon Distance Education. Dr. Okojie has written funded grants over $1.2 million. She is a reviewer for the Delta Pi Epsilon National Journal.
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Index
Symbols 3D digital game-based learning (3D-DBL) 283, 297 3D game-based learning 283
A academic communities 62, 64 Achievement Emotions Questionnaire (AEQ) 213, 222, 227 active learning situations 86, 97 adventure games 59, 61, 73, 104, 137, 149, 256 affective computing 207, 210 affective computing field 210 Affective Olympia 217-218 artificial intelligence (AI) 23, 50, 104, 138, 157, 209-210, 213, 217-218, 225-227, 229-230, 232233, 241-242, 244-245 artificial neural networks (ANN) 210, 232 automatic speech recognition (ASR) 257
B baseline partner (BP) 48-49 basic game design 288-289 Bayesian Networks (BN) 206-207, 213-214, 223, 226-228 Beware 263, 266-267, 272-274, 276-277 billiard tables 2, 9 binaural localization 258, 261 blogs 16, 53, 71, 193 body dynamics 3-4 British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTa) 87-88, 91-92, 100, 121, 205 browser-native games 122, 130, 132 Business Intelligence (BI) 229-230, 232-233, 244245 business management games 136, 140, 231 business model description language (BMDL) 233
business model development system (BMDS) 233
C calculus 4 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) 282 Center for Rehabilitation and Special Education (CREE) 178 Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) 53, 64 civic responsibility 60 Civilization 54, 73-74, 79, 81, 92-95, 97, 99, 107, 125, 251-252 class instruction 151 classroom management 289 cognitive layers 27, 29, 31-33, 35-38, 40-42, 44-46, 49 cognitivism 265 collaboration games 10-11, 16, 18-19 collaboration theorists 17 communication language 25, 38 computer-based training 185 computer game-based learning environments 206 computer programming 46, 80, 189, 203, 283 concurrent engineering (CE) 265, 269, 271, 278 Conditional Probability Tables (CPT) 222-223 constructivism 68, 154, 265, 296 constructivist learning theories 154, 284 Consumer Price Index (CPI) 243 cooperative computer games 24 Cosiga 263, 265-266, 268-272, 276
D database management 283 digital economy 128, 136 digital game-based teaching 64 digital games 55, 57, 61, 65, 86-91, 99-100, 138, 162, 204, 210, 248, 251, 261, 286 digital games field 210
Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Index
digital information 55 digital natives 55, 63, 90-91, 101, 105, 121, 151, 279 DirectPlay 31, 33 domain conceptualisation 17 Dynamic Bayesian Networks (DBN) 206, 214-216, 218, 222 Dynamic Decision Networks (DDN) 208, 218
E educational adventure games 59 educational games 2, 8-9, 52, 54, 69-70, 72-73, 75, 77, 81, 84, 90-91, 121, 136-138, 148-149, 151153, 157, 161, 206-209, 211-212, 217, 223, 226, 247-256, 259-261, 277, 280, 283, 285286, 288-289, 294-295, 297 educational institutions 69, 91, 103, 280, 282, 284, 288 educational products 2 educational professions 10-11 educational tools 2, 53-55, 57, 61, 83, 86, 89, 137, 148, 162, 185, 241 education systems 2, 137, 241, 260, 288 edutainment 72, 153-154, 161, 185, 187, 203-205, 297 e-learning 10, 21, 67, 69, 71-72, 80, 83, 85, 155, 228, 247-251, 255, 260-262, 279, 297 electronic games 67, 103-105, 112, 114, 120, 163, 201, 205, 282 Embodied Pedagogical Agents (EPA) 211-212 Entertainment Software Association (ESA) 68-69, 81, 84, 154, 185, 205, 248-249 European Distance and E-learning Network (EDEN) 249 Evaluation criteria 254, 268 Evaluation method 268 Evaluation object 267-268 Evaluation objectives 267 evolutionarily stable strategies (ESS) 18, 100, 120, 183 evolutionary stasis 18 extensible markup language (XML) 42, 122, 126127, 130, 132, 192-193
F Facebook 12-14, 16, 71, 105, 131 Flickr 12 flow effect 283 frictional force 4 fully equal partners (FEP) 24-37, 39-40, 45-46,
49-50 further education (FE) 130, 252 fuzzy logic 36, 45, 48, 51, 233, 262
G Game Achievement Model (GAM) 250-251 game-based learning 80-84, 87-88, 101, 121, 138, 149, 156, 160, 162, 205-209, 217, 219, 223, 227, 261, 280, 283, 288-289, 294, 297 game-based learning (GBL) 80-84, 87-88, 101, 121, 138, 149, 156, 160, 162, 205-209, 217, 219, 223, 227, 261, 280, 283, 288-289, 294, 297 game history 46, 106 game interface 5-6 game motor 6 Game Object Model (GOM) 250 game simulations 4 gaming environments 105, 116, 120, 153, 253, 261 global economy 61 globalization 263 Google 55, 106, 129, 131 Grand Theft Auto IV 125 Graphical Activity 169, 172, 174-175, 179 Graphical Activity Module 175 graphical environments 7 graphical user interface (GUI) 36, 127, 131, 134, 191, 193, 209, 221, 255, 257 Graphics Look & Feel rendering module 217
H Half-Life 2 60 Hammurabi 46-49 hand-eye coordination 104 Human Being Interface (HBI) 34-36 human-computer interaction (HCI) 140, 144, 149150, 224-225, 227-228, 250, 255, 261, 298 Human-Machine Interface (HMI) 190, 194, 198199, 226 human-work interaction design (HWID) 140, 147149
I imaginary Client Profiler (iCLIP) 233 incentive messages 7 industrial electronics 3, 204 information and communication technologies (ICT) 71, 80, 155, 246, 250, 298 information literacy 52-66 information technology (IT) 2-8, 11-12, 14, 16-19,
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Index
21-22, 24, 28, 30-38, 40-43, 45, 49, 51-64, 6768, 70-72, 74, 76-79, 81, 84, 87-89, 92-95, 98100, 103-106, 108-112, 114-117, 119, 121-132, 136-140, 142, 144-150, 152, 154-161, 163-164, 168-183, 186, 188-195, 197, 199, 201-202, 204, 207-214, 216-219, 222-224, 229-236, 238-244, 247-260, 264-271, 273-277, 280-287, 289-294, 297 input detection module 217 instructional games 83, 151-153, 155, 157-160, 289 instructional strategies 80, 153, 280, 290 intellectual freedom 60 Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) 4-5, 7-8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 25, 36, 38, 40-41, 49-50, 52-56, 59-61, 63-64, 69-70, 72-73, 75, 81, 86, 88, 91-92, 94, 99, 103, 105, 108, 116, 118, 122, 124, 126-127, 129, 133, 143-144, 148-149, 161, 167-168, 171, 174, 176-182, 185-187, 189-194, 196-203, 205-211, 213, 215, 217-218, 220, 223-227, 231, 233-234, 238, 241, 243244, 249-251, 254-255, 257-258, 261-262, 267, 270-273, 276-277, 281, 283-285, 287 Interactive AI module 217 interface design 141, 150 International Game Developers Association (IGDA) 132, 135, 255-256, 261
L laboratory studies 19-20 Laterality 169, 171-178 Laterality Module 175-177 learning environments 2, 63, 70-71, 75, 83, 100, 105, 138, 149, 151, 153-156, 203-204, 206209, 212, 216-217, 219, 223, 226-227, 251252, 261, 283-284, 289, 294, 296-297 learning phase 146 learning tools 62-63, 69, 87-88, 148, 156, 208-209, 273, 280, 282, 284, 287, 294 levels of quality (LOQ) 48-49 librarians 52-54, 57, 59-64 Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) 250 LinkedIn 12, 16
M Machine Learning (ML) 225, 227, 233, 243, 246 massively multiplayer online first person shooters (MMOFPS) 104 massively multiplayer online games (MMOG) 56, 72, 75, 85, 103-104, 106, 108, 110-112, 116, 118, 121
336
massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPG) 104 massively multiplayer online social game (MMOSG) 104 Microsoft 3, 33, 129, 131-133, 152, 159-161, 191, 194, 204-205, 282 MMOFPSs? 104 mobile texting 16 modularisation 122 Motivational Design Model 211 Motor Disability 169, 171 Multi-Agent System (MAS) 51, 137, 168, 184, 220, 233, 242, 244, 295 multi-user dungeon (MUD) 104
N Networking module 217 New Product Development (NPD) 263, 265, 269272, 276 Newton physics engine 193 Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) 282 online games 56, 58-59, 65, 68, 72, 75, 85, 92, 103106, 110, 113, 118-122, 162, 170, 204 online tools 59 OpenGL Utility Toolkit (GLUT) 3, 9 Open Process Control (OPC) 195-196, 202 Ortony, Clore and Collins (OCC) model 210, 212213
P Parents and Friends Association of the Citizen with Mental Deficiency (APPCDM) 1 Pathfinder Network Analysis 269 pedagogy-based training 285 Persona Outlining Model (POM) 250, 277 Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) 170 physics and collisions module 217 PlayPhysics 206-208, 212, 215-217, 219-222, 224 podcasts 53, 93 Portuguese Community Manager (CoMa) 111 posttest phase 146 Precision Movement Coordination Module 175 precision movements 168-169, 171-173, 175, 177, 179 presentation content manager module 217-218 pretest phase 146 Probabilistic Relational Models (PRM) 206-208, 212-215, 218, 223 Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) 185-205
Index
Project X 29 psychomotor 86, 88, 91, 160, 167-170, 172-174, 176, 179-183 Psychomotor Development Disorders 170 psychomotor skills 86, 88
R RACEM Development 171 radio signals 31 rational choice theory 16 real-world XML data 122 reflective learning 284 Reims Champagne-Ardenne University (URCA) 197, 199 reinforcement learning (RL) 230, 233, 243, 245-246 role playing games (RPG) 72, 74, 81, 101, 104-105
S school management 19-20, 182 scientific inquiry 57 scripting module 217 Second Life (SL) 71, 73, 75, 125, 129 Self-Organizing Maps (SOM) 232 SimCity 74, 81, 125, 129, 137 simulation games 74, 85, 101, 122-123, 131, 138, 150, 154, 158, 167, 224, 231, 233, 244-245, 252, 263-265, 271-272, 276, 278, 286 Simulation in Business Administration (SIMBA) 229-230, 234-236, 238-244, 246 situational awareness (SA) 263, 268, 270, 276 smart machines 291, 293 social networking 12-16, 68, 79, 121 social networks 13, 15-16, 20, 105, 248 social software 14, 21 social tagging 53 software-based techniques 45 Sony PlayStation 282 sound stimuli 2 spatial location 169, 171-178 Spatial Location Module 176 Spore 86, 92-95, 97-100, 102, 137, 149 storygaming 59 Structured Query Language (SQL) 33 student collaborations 163 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) 190, 194 supply chains (SC) 138, 150, 264-265, 277
T teaching and learning environments 151 technological skills 53, 280, 285 Tic-Tac-Toe 160, 163, 166 transfer learning 284, 288 Twitter 12, 71, 131
U user interface (UI) 3, 5, 12, 32, 34, 36, 137, 139, 141-142, 148, 191-193, 198, 209, 255-256, 274 utilities module 217
V Vector Quantization (VQ) 244 Virtual Being Interface (VBI) 35-36 virtual beings 23-28, 31-33, 35-37, 40, 45, 49-50 virtual environments 49, 67, 70, 106, 212 virtual partners 24, 32-34, 37-38, 46, 48-49, 51 virtual players 24-26, 45, 49 virtual worlds 50, 57, 66, 68, 71, 73-75, 99, 104105, 119-120, 203-204, 217, 256 Virus Outbreak Agency (VOA) 59 visual intelligence 104 visually impaired children 256, 258-259, 261-262 visual perception 2 visual stimuli 2
W Web 2.0 14, 21, 53, 62-63, 71, 79, 84 Web 3.0 14, 83 Wii 6, 9, 130-131, 282 Wiimote 7-9 Wikipedia 14 Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) 33 working groups 8, 19-20, 126-128, 130, 132, 140 World University Service (WUS) 250 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) 126-128, 132-134
Y Yahoo 106, 124, 131 YouTube 12, 14, 75, 92, 102, 131
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