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CompTIA A+ Certification ®

®

COMPREHENSIVE, 2009 EDITION

Revisedâ•‡ Volume 1

4.9/5.0 rating from ProCert Labs INCLU DE S: ÂŽ Powerful CertBlaster® pre- and post-

assessment software ÂŽ Integrated mapping of all exam objectives ÂŽ Hundreds of activities and review questions

978-1-4260-2178-7_Axzo_cvr_Vol1.indd 1

12/7/10 10:01 AM

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Student Manual Volume One

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One President, Axzo Press:

Jon Winder

Vice President, Product Development:

Charles G. Blum

Vice President, Operations:

Josh Pincus

Director of Publishing Systems Development:

Dan Quackenbush

Writers:

Judi Kling, Andy LaPage, Tim Poulsen

Copyeditor:

Ken Maher

Keytester:

Cliff Coryea

COPYRIGHT © 2010 Axzo Press. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, transcribed, or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systemswithout the prior written permission of the publisher. For more information, go to www.axzopress.com.

Trademarks ILT Series is a trademark of Axzo Press. Some of the product names and company names used in this book have been used for identification purposes only and may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective manufacturers and sellers.

Disclaimers We reserve the right to revise this publication and make changes from time to time in its content without notice. The logo of the CompTIA Approved Quality Content (CAQC) program and the status of this or other training material as “Authorized” under the CompTIA Approved Quality Content program signifies that, in CompTIA’s opinion, such training material covers the content of CompTIA’s related certification exam. The contents of this training material were created for the CompTIA A+ Essentials exam, 2009 Edition (220-701), and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam, 2009 Edition (220-702), covering CompTIA certification objectives that were current as of September 2010. ISBN 10: 1-4260-2178-X ISBN 13: 978-1-4260-2178-7 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 GL 06 05 04 03

Contents Introduction

v

Topic A: About the manual............................................................................... vi Topic B: Setting your expectations................................................................... ix Topic C: Re-keying the course ........................................................................ xvi

Troubleshooting methodology

1-1

Topic A: Troubleshooting stages ..................................................................... 1-2 Topic B: Professionalism................................................................................. 1-9 Unit summary: Troubleshooting methodology ............................................... 1-22

Operating systems

2-1

Topic A: Operating system fundamentals........................................................ 2-2 Topic B: Directory management..................................................................... 2-40 Topic C: File management.............................................................................. 2-58 Topic D: File and folder permissions.............................................................. 2-69 Unit summary: Operating systems .................................................................. 2-82

Electricity and power supplies

3-1

Topic A: Electrical safety ................................................................................ 3-2 Topic B: Power supplies ................................................................................. 3-14 Topic C: Power supply troubleshooting ......................................................... 3-22 Unit summary: Electricity and power supplies ............................................... 3-36

CPUs and motherboards

4-1

Topic A: Central processing units.................................................................... 4-2 Topic B: Cooling techniques .......................................................................... 4-22 Topic C: Motherboards................................................................................... 4-28 Topic D: Motherboard and CPU troubleshooting........................................... 4-37 Unit summary: CPUs and motherboards......................................................... 4-40

The Basic Input/Output System

5-1

Topic A: The BIOS and CMOS....................................................................... 5-2 Topic B: The POST and boot processes ......................................................... 5-12 Unit summary: The Basic Input/Output System ............................................. 5-20

Memory systems

6-1

Topic A: Memory ............................................................................................ 6-2 Topic B: Memory packaging .......................................................................... 6-10 Topic C: Memory installation......................................................................... 6-16 Topic D: Memory monitoring......................................................................... 6-22 Topic E: Memory troubleshooting ................................................................. 6-31 Unit summary: Memory systems .................................................................... 6-35

Bus structures

7-1

Topic A: Buses................................................................................................. 7-2 Topic B: The PCI bus ..................................................................................... 7-13 Unit summary: Bus structures ......................................................................... 7-19

ii

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Expansion cards

8-1

Topic A: Video cards....................................................................................... 8-2 Topic B: Sound cards ..................................................................................... 8-14 Topic C: Internal modems.............................................................................. 8-19 Topic D: Expansion card troubleshooting ...................................................... 8-24 Unit summary: Expansion cards ..................................................................... 8-30

Peripheral connection types

9-1

Topic A: Serial and parallel connections......................................................... 9-2 Topic B: PS/2 connections ............................................................................. 9-11 Topic C: USB connections ............................................................................. 9-24 Topic D: FireWire connections ...................................................................... 9-31 Topic E: Multimedia connections .................................................................. 9-35 Topic F: Port, cable, and connector troubleshooting ..................................... 9-45 Unit summary: Peripheral connection types ................................................... 9-50

Data storage devices

10-1

Topic A: Drive adapters ................................................................................. 10-2 Topic B: Hard drives ..................................................................................... 10-14 Topic C: Optical drives ................................................................................. 10-41 Topic D: Removable storage devices ............................................................ 10-53 Topic E: Drive maintenance.......................................................................... 10-67 Topic F: Storage device troubleshooting ...................................................... 10-82 Unit summary: Data storage devices ............................................................. 10-88

Video output and image input devices

11-1

Topic A: Monitors .......................................................................................... 11-2 Topic B: Cameras.......................................................................................... 11-22 Unit summary: Video output and image input devices.................................. 11-31

Printers

12-1

Topic A: Printing technologies....................................................................... 12-2 Topic B: Printer installation .......................................................................... 12-16 Topic C: Printer optimization and maintenance............................................ 12-26 Topic D: Printer troubleshooting................................................................... 12-40 Unit summary: Printers .................................................................................. 12-52

Connecting computers

13-1

Topic A: Networking concepts....................................................................... 13-2 Topic B: Wired network connections............................................................ 13-43 Topic C: Basic internetworking devices ....................................................... 13-60 Unit summary: Connecting computers .......................................................... 13-76

Networking computers

14-1

Topic A: Addressing....................................................................................... 14-2 Topic B: Client configuration........................................................................ 14-32 Unit summary: Networking computers.......................................................... 14-64

Network troubleshooting

15-1

Topic A: Troubleshooting basics.................................................................... 15-2 Topic B: Troubleshooting the network .......................................................... 15-6 Unit summary: Network troubleshooting ...................................................... 15-39

iii Portable computers

16-1

Topic A: Notebook computers........................................................................ 16-2 Topic B: Configuration.................................................................................. 16-19 Topic C: Component replacement ................................................................. 16-25 Topic D: Notebook issues .............................................................................. 16-43 Unit summary: Portable computers................................................................ 16-55

Windows management

17-1

Topic A: System management ........................................................................ 17-2 Topic B: Task Scheduler ............................................................................... 17-29 Topic C: Resource management .................................................................... 17-37 Topic D: Remote management ...................................................................... 17-55 Unit summary: Windows management .......................................................... 17-62

Windows monitoring

18-1

Topic A: System monitoring........................................................................... 18-2 Topic B: System performance ....................................................................... 18-32 Topic C: Backup and restore ......................................................................... 18-47 Unit summary: Windows monitoring............................................................. 18-63

Operating system troubleshooting

19-1

Topic A: Windows startup .............................................................................. 19-2 Topic B: System troubleshooting ................................................................... 19-6 Unit summary: Operating system troubleshooting......................................... 19-29

Security

20-1

Topic A: Operating system security................................................................ 20-2 Topic B: Windows Encrypting File System .................................................. 20-39 Topic C: Security hardware ........................................................................... 20-49 Topic D: Common security threats ................................................................ 20-57 Topic E: The human aspects of security........................................................ 20-72 Unit summary: Security ................................................................................. 20-98

Windows installation and upgrades

21-1

Topic A: Windows installation ....................................................................... 21-2 Topic B: Upgrades......................................................................................... 21-32 Unit summary: Windows installation and upgrades....................................... 21-46

Safety and maintenance

22-1

Topic A: Safety and hazards ........................................................................... 22-2 Topic B: Computer maintenance ................................................................... 22-13 Topic C: Safe work practices......................................................................... 22-20 Topic D: Disposing of computer equipment.................................................. 22-22 Unit summary: Safety and maintenance......................................................... 22-25

The Open Systems Interconnection model

A-1

Topic A: The OSI model..................................................................................A-2

System cases

B-1

Topic A: System cases .....................................................................................B-2

Binary and hexadecimal numbering

C-1

Topic A: Count like a computer.......................................................................C-2

iv


CompTIA A+ acronyms

D-1

Topic A: List of abbreviations......................................................................... D-2

Certification exam objectives map

E-1

Topic A: Essentials (2009) comprehensive exam objectives .......................... E-2 Topic B: Practical Application (2009) comprehensive exam objectives ....... E-20

Course summary

S-1

Topic A: Course summary............................................................................... S-2 Topic B: Continued learning after class .......................................................... S-5

Glossary

G-1

Index

I-1

v

Introduction

After reading this introduction, you will know how to: A Use ILT Series manuals in general. B Use prerequisites, a target student

description, course objectives, and a skills inventory to properly set your expectations for the course. C Re-key this course after class.

vi


Topic A: About the manual ILT Series philosophy Our manuals facilitate your learning by providing structured interaction with the software itself. While we provide text to explain difficult concepts, the hands-on activities are the focus of our courses. By paying close attention as your instructor leads you through these activities, you will learn the skills and concepts effectively. We believe strongly in the instructor-led class. During class, focus on your instructor. Our manuals are designed and written to facilitate your interaction with your instructor, and not to call attention to manuals themselves. We believe in the basic approach of setting expectations, delivering instruction, and providing summary and review afterwards. For this reason, lessons begin with objectives and end with summaries. We also provide overall course objectives and a course summary to provide both an introduction to and closure on the entire course.

Manual components The manuals contain these major components:  Table of contents  Introduction  Units  Appendices  Course summary  Glossary  Index Each element is described below. Table of contents The table of contents acts as a learning roadmap. Introduction The introduction contains information about our training philosophy and our manual components, features, and conventions. It contains target student, prerequisite, objective, and setup information for the specific course. Units Units are the largest structural component of the course content. A unit begins with a title page that lists objectives for each major subdivision, or topic, within the unit. Within each topic, conceptual and explanatory information alternates with hands-on activities. Units conclude with a summary comprising one paragraph for each topic, and an independent practice activity that gives you an opportunity to practice the skills you’ve learned. The conceptual information takes the form of text paragraphs, exhibits, lists, and tables. The activities are structured in two columns, one telling you what to do, the other providing explanations, descriptions, and graphics.

Introduction

vii

Appendices An appendix is similar to a unit in that it contains objectives and conceptual explanations. However, an appendix does not include a summary or review questions. In CompTIA courses, there are two additional appendices—one contains a list of CompTIA acronyms, and the other contains a certification exam objective map. Course summary This section provides a text summary of the entire course. It is useful for providing closure at the end of the course. The course summary also indicates the next course in this series, if there is one, and lists additional resources you might find useful as you continue to learn about the software. Glossary The glossary provides definitions for all of the key terms used in this course. Index The index at the end of this manual makes it easy for you to find information about a particular software component, feature, or concept.

Manual conventions We’ve tried to keep the number of elements and the types of formatting to a minimum in the manuals. This aids in clarity and makes the manuals more classically elegant looking. But there are some conventions and icons you should know about. Item

Description

Italic text

In conceptual text, indicates a new term or feature.

Bold text

In unit summaries, indicates a key term or concept. In an independent practice activity, indicates an explicit item that you select, choose, or type.

Code font

Indicates code or syntax.

Longer strings of ► code will look ► like this.

In the hands-on activities, any code that’s too long to fit on a single line is divided into segments by one or more continuation characters (►). This code should be entered as a continuous string of text.

Select bold item

In the left column of hands-on activities, bold sans-serif text indicates an explicit item that you select, choose, or type.

Keycaps like e

Indicate a key on the keyboard you must press.

viii


Hands-on activities The hands-on activities are the most important parts of our manuals. They are divided into two primary columns. The “Here’s how” column gives short instructions to you about what to do. The “Here’s why” column provides explanations, graphics, and clarifications. Here’s a sample: Do it!

A-1:

Creating a commission formula

Here’s how 1 Open Sales

Here’s why This is an oversimplified sales compensation worksheet. It shows sales totals, commissions, and incentives for five sales reps.

2 Observe the contents of cell F4 The commission rate formulas use the name “C_Rate” instead of a value for the commission rate.

For these activities, we have provided a collection of data files designed to help you learn each skill in a real-world business context. As you work through the activities, you will modify and update these files. Of course, you might make a mistake and therefore want to re-key the activity starting from scratch. To make it easy to start over, you will rename each data file at the end of the first activity in which the file is modified. Our convention for renaming files is to add the word “My” to the beginning of the file name. In the above activity, for example, a file called “Sales” is being used for the first time. At the end of this activity, you would save the file as “My sales,” thus leaving the “Sales” file unchanged. If you make a mistake, you can start over using the original “Sales” file. In some activities, however, it might not be practical to rename the data file. If you want to retry one of these activities, ask your instructor for a fresh copy of the original data file.

Introduction

ix

Topic B: Setting your expectations Properly setting your expectations is essential to your success. This topic will help you do that by providing:  Prerequisites for this course  A description of the target student  A list of the objectives for the course  A skills assessment for the course

Course prerequisites This is a fast-paced, comprehensive course designed to present the knowledge and skills needed for both CompTIA A+ (2009 Edition) certification exams. Before taking this course, you should be highly proficient with personal computers. Furthermore, this course assumes that you have advanced user-level skills in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, or Windows 2000 Professional. These skills and knowledge can be obtained by completing the following courses:  Windows 7: Basic and Windows 7: Advanced  Windows Vista: Basic and Windows Vista: Advanced  Windows XP SP2: Basic and Windows XP SP2: Advanced

Target student This course will prepare you for the CompTIA A+ Essentials certification exam (2009 objectives, version 2.0) and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application certification exam (2009 objectives, version 2.0). It is designed for students seeking to become entry-level IT professionals. You will gain the skills and knowledge necessary to perform the following tasks on personal computer hardware and operating systems:  Identify PC components  Configure PC network connections  Provide IT support for portable computers  Monitor and manage Windows operating systems  Diagnose basic hardware problems by using a troubleshooting methodology  Install and upgrade Windows operating systems  Complete preventative maintenance tasks  Install, maintain, troubleshoot, and replace computer hardware and peripherals  Maintain and troubleshoot the Windows operating system  Install a small-office/home-office network, and troubleshoot network connections  Secure personal computers

x


Course objectives These overall course objectives will give you an idea about what to expect from the course. It is also possible that they will help you see that this course is not the right one for you. If you think you either lack the prerequisite knowledge or already know most of the subject matter to be covered, you should let your instructor know that you think you are misplaced in the class. After completing this course, you will know how to:  Describe the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting methodology.  Provide professional customer service when providing IT support.  Use basic Windows interface tools.  Examine power supplies and connectors, install and troubleshoot power supplies while following procedures for working safely with electrical components.  Identify, install and troubleshoot various motherboards and CPUs.  Configure the PC’s BIOS and boot the computer.  Identify, install and troubleshoot various types of memory, and monitor memory usage in Windows.  Examine the settings for buses.  Identify, install and troubleshoot various types of expansion cards.  Attach peripheral devices.  Install, use and troubleshoot data storage devices.  Connect video output and image input devices.  Install, configure, maintain and troubleshoot printers.  Identify various network connection types, and implement a SOHO network.  Configure a TCP/IP client.  Troubleshoot client-side connectivity.  Provide IT support for portable computers.  Manage the Windows operating system.  Monitor the Windows operating system.  Troubleshoot system startup problems and the Windows operating system.  Apply various measures to keep computer systems secure and prevent unauthorized access.  Install and upgrade Windows operating systems.  Maintain a safe computing environment.

Introduction

xi

How to become CompTIA certified To achieve CompTIA A+ certification, a student must register for and pass the CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application (2009 Edition) exam. In order to become CompTIA certified, students must: 1 Select a certification exam provider. For more information, students should visit http://www.comptia.org/certifications/testprep.aspx. 2 Register for and schedule a time to take the CompTIA certification exam(s) at a convenient location. 3 Read and sign the Candidate Agreement, which will be presented at the time of the exam. The complete text of the Candidate Agreement can be found at http://www.comptia.org/certifications/policies/agreement.aspx. 4 Take and pass the CompTIA certification exam(s). For more information about CompTIA’s certifications, such as its industry acceptance, benefits, or program news, students should visit http://www.comptia.org/certifications.aspx. CompTIA is a not-for-profit information technology (IT) trade association. CompTIA’s certifications are designed by subject matter experts from across the IT industry. Each CompTIA certification is vendor-neutral, covers multiple technologies, and requires demonstration of skills and knowledge widely sought after by the IT industry. To contact CompTIA with any questions or comments, please call (630) 678-8300 or e-mail [email protected].

xii


Skills inventory Use the following form to gauge your skill level entering the class. For each skill listed, rate your familiarity from 1 to 5, with five being the most familiar. This is not a test. Rather, it is intended to provide you with an idea of where you’re starting from at the beginning of class. If you’re wholly unfamiliar with all the skills, you might not be ready for the class. If you think you already understand all of the skills, you might need to move on to the next course in the series. In either case, you should let your instructor know as soon as possible. Skill Describing the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model Interacting professionally with users and achieving customer satisfaction Identifying operating system fundamentals Managing directories and files on a Microsoft Windows computer Controlling access to files and folders on a Windows computer Identifying electrostatic discharge and following ESD safe practices while working with computer components Describing the purpose and features of PC power supplies Installing power supplies Troubleshooting power supplies Describing the function and features of CPUs, identifying a CPU, and classifying CPUs according to their specifications Describing CPU packaging options and related slot and socket technologies, and describing the techniques used to cool CPUs and other components in a PC Installing a CPU Replacing a cooling fan Describing motherboards, their components, and their form factors Installing a motherboard Accessing the BIOS setup utility, modifying hardware configuration values, and researching BIOS updates Explaining the POST and boot processes Describing the function of memory and differentiating among various types of memory chips

1

2

3

4

5

xiii

Introduction Skill Differentiating among the various memory packages Installing memory Monitoring memory usage Troubleshooting memory Describing the primary types of buses and defining the terms interrupt, IRQ, I/O address, DMA, and base memory address Describing the features and functions of the PCI bus Describing the features and functions of the various graphic connections Describing video adapters and standards Installing an expansion card Defining sound cards and identifying the components of a sound card Describing modem standards and identifying the components of a modem Troubleshooting expansion cards Identifying and connecting serial and parallel ports, cables, and connectors Identifying and connecting USB ports, cables, and connectors Identifying and connecting FireWire (IEEE 1394) ports, cables, and connectors Identifying and connecting multimedia ports Troubleshooting ports, cables, and connectors Defining the common drive interfaces Describing hard drives, partitions, and file systems Installing a hard drive Describing optical data storage Installing an optical drive and using optical drives and discs Installing removable media drives Using removable drives

1

2

3

4

5

xiv

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Skill Maintaining and troubleshooting hard drives, optical drives, and removable media drives Explaining how CRT and LCD monitors produce images Installing and configuring cameras Comparing and contrasting printing technologies Installing, configuring, and managing printers Performing routine printer maintenance tasks Troubleshooting printers Describing the basic components of a network Comparing wired network connections Differentiating between basic internetworking devices Describing how various types of addresses are used to identify devices on a network Installing and configuring a SOHO network Creating client network connections through wired, wireless, and dial-up methods Troubleshooting client-side connectivity issues Identifying and installing notebook components Troubleshooting and maintaining notebook components Managing the operating system Scheduling tasks Participating in a Remote Assistance session Connecting to another computer via Remote Desktop Monitoring the operating system Monitoring system performance Backing up and restoring your computer Identifying the stages of the Windows startup process

1

2

3

4

5

xv

Introduction Skill Identifying operating system problems Configuring basic Windows user authentication Using Windows file encryption Discussing biometric and other security devices Recognizing and mitigating common security threats Managing the human aspects of computer security Installing a Windows operating system Upgrading from one version of Windows to another Examining safety issues and hazards in the computing environment Identifying preventative maintenance tasks for personal computers Identifying ways to avoid injury and strain when working with computers Examining proper methods for disposing of computer equipment

1

2

3

4

5

xvi


Topic C: Re-keying the course If you have the proper hardware and software, you can re-key this course after class. This section explains what you’ll need in order to do so, and how to do it.

Hardware requirements Your personal desktop computer should have:  A keyboard and a pointing device such as a mouse  1 GHz or higher 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor  1 GB or higher RAM on 32-bit processor computers or 2 GB or higher RAM on 64-bit processor computers  At least 40 GB of free hard disk space on 32-bit processor computers or at least 50 GB of free hard disk space on 64-bit processor computers  DVD-R ROM drive  Monitor with DirectX 9 graphics support; Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) 1.0 or higher  Wired NIC  Modem  A video card with two monitor ports for the independent practice activity in the “Video output ad image input devices” unit. If the video adapter cards in your computers have only one monitor port, students can do all other activities in the course, but will not be able to complete this independent practice activity. Activity hardware requirements In addition to the hardware requirements for your personal desktop computer, you will need the following hardware to complete various course activities.  Unit 3 (Electricity and power supplies):  Multimeter  Variety of batteries for testing  Extra power supply (If you don’t have an extra power supply for students to install in their computers, you can have them remove and the reinstall the existing power supply)  Unit 4 (CPUs and motherboards):  Extra CPU (This is for an optional activity. If you don’t have an extra CPU for each computer, you can either skip the activity or have students remove and reinstall the existing CPU.)  Chip puller  Extra system fan (If you don’t have an extra system fan for students to install in their computers, you can have them remove and the reinstall the existing system fan)  Extra motherboard (This is for an optional activity. If you don’t have an extra motherboard for each computer, you can either skip the activity or have students remove and reinstall the existing motherboard.)

Introduction

xvii

 Unit 5 (The Basic Input/Output System):  Extra CMOS battery  Floppy drive for the unit IPA  Bootable floppy or bootable CD/DVD for the unit IPA  Unit 6 (Memory systems):  A variety memory chips or photos of memory chips  Extra memory chip for each desktop computer  A notebook computer with extra memory chip  Handheld device, such as a PDA, with extra memory chip  Unit 7 (Bus structures):  A variety of adapter cards or photos of adapter cards for the unit IPA  A variety of motherboards or photos of motherboards for the unit IPA  Unit 8 (Expansion cards):  A variety of video cards or photos of video cards  Extra video adapter  Sound card and external speakers  RJ-11 connector  Network interface card, TV or video capture card, or media reader for the unit IPA  Unit 9 (Peripheral connection types):  Serial cable and device  Parallel cable and device  PS/2 keyboard and mouse  KVM switch  USB 1.1 and 2.0 Type A and B cable, hub, and device  IEEE 1394 a and b (FireWire) cable and device  External speakers (same as Unit 8)  Microphone  Multimedia device (coax, composite, component, S/PDIF)  Various types of connectors or photos of connectors

xviii

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One  Unit 10 (Data storage devices):  A variety ATA and SATA drives or photos  Extra internal hard drive (If you don’t have an extra internal hard drive for each computer, you can have students remove and reinstall the existing hard drive.)  Extra optical drive (If you don’t have an extra internal optical drive for each computer, you can have students remove and reinstall the existing optical drive.)  Audio CD  Blank CD-R or CD-RW disc  USB flash drive  3.5” floppy disk  Floppy disk drive  DVD-R or DVD-RW disc for the unit IPA  DVD codex for the unit IPA  Unit 11 (Video output and image input devices):  CRT monitor  LCD monitor  Digital camera  Web camera  Second monitor for the unit IPA  Unit 12 (Printers):  Local Windows 7-compatible printer  Printer paper  Printer add-on  Printer cleaning supplies  Unit 13 (Connecting computers):  Twisted-pair cable with a clear RJ-45 connector on the end  RG-6 or RG-59 cable and RG-58 coax cable with attached connector  Unit 14 (Networking computers):  Wireless access point for instructor demonstration activity  Wireless client for instructor demonstration activity  Unit 15 (Network troubleshooting)  Basic cable tester  Network analyzer

Introduction

xix

 Unit 16: (Portable computers):  Notebook computer  Hot-swappable device, such as a USB device  Internal component  Peripheral device  Docking station  Cleaning products for notebook  Packaging materials for the notebook  External monitor for the unit IPA  Unit 18 (Windows monitoring):  A backup location: CD/DVD-R, network share, or space on the second partition  Unit 22 (Safety and maintenance):  Cleaning supplies for desktop computer and peripherals

Software requirements You will need the following software:  Windows 7 Professional installation files and product keys for both classroom setup and an activity in Unit 21, “Windows installation and upgrades.”  Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, which can be downloaded from Microsoft’s Downloads Web site.  Windows 7 Ultimate installation files and product keys for an activity in Unit 21.  Windows Vista Business installation files and product keys for the independent practice activity in Unit 21.  Any Windows 7 and Windows Vista drivers needed for the independent practice activity in Unit 21.  Any Windows XP application software for an activity in Unit 21. Note: Because you will need to conduct multiple operating system installations in the “Windows installation and upgrades” unit, operating system discs should be slipstreamed with the latest service packs, if at all possible. In addition, you will need to install the following software:  Latest service pack for Windows  Sound card drivers  A copy of the avast! antivirus software. An evaluation copy is suitable and is available at www.avast.com. Optional software:  DVD decoder software

xx


Network requirements The following network components and connectivity are also required for rekeying this course:  Internet access, for the following purposes: – Downloading the latest critical updates and service packs from www.windowsupdate.com – Completing activities within the units. – Downloading the Student Data files from www.axzopress.com (if necessary)  Your computer needs to be connected to the network through TCP/IP and receiving IP addressing information from a DHCP server.  You will need a valid IP address and additional TCP/IP addressing information so that you can switch to manual configuration in an activity in Unit 14, “Networking computers.”

Setup instructions to re-key the course Before you re-key the course, you will need to perform the following steps. 1 Use a third-party disk management utility or the Windows 7 Professional installation program to configure the hard disk as follows:  A 30 GB NTFS partition for the installation of Windows 7 Professional 32bit or 40 GB NTFS partition for the installation of Windows 7 Professional 64-bit, with drive letter C:  A 6 GB NTFS partition, with drive letter D:  Leave the remaining as free space If you use the Windows 7 Professional installation program to configure the hard disk, you will be prompted to select your country or region, time and currency, and keyboard layout as indicated in step 2, prior to the hard disk configuration screen. 2 Install Windows 7 Professional on the C: drive on an NTFS partition according to the software manufacturer’s instructions.  Select your country or region, time and currency, and keyboard layout.  Enter a user account: COMPADMIN## (where ## is a unique number.)  Enter a computer name of COMPWin7-## (use the same number you chose for your username).  Enter a password of !pass1234. Enter Refer to setup as the password hint.  Enter your product key.  Select Ask me later when prompted for Automatic Updates.  Set the appropriate time zone, and time and date for your location.  Select the Work network. 3 Using Control Panel, User Accounts and Family Safety, User Accounts, create a standard user account: COMPUSER## (where ## is the same unique number that was assigned to each student’s COMPADMIN## account), with a password of !pass1234.

Introduction

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4 In Network and Sharing Center, Advanced Sharing Options, turn on “Network discovery” and “File and printer sharing.” 5 Use Device Manager to verify that all devices are functional. If you need to download Windows 7–compatible drivers for any devices from the manufacturers’ Web sites, keep a copy of the drivers for use during class. 6 Verify that you have Internet access. If necessary, install drivers for the network adapter and verify that the computer is receiving IP addressing information from the institution’s DHCP server. The computer must be able to connect to the Internet. 7 Create a folder named Student Data at the root of the hard drive. For a standard hard drive setup, this will be C:\Student Data. 8 Copy the data files to the Student Data folder. If you don’t have the data CD that came with this manual, download the Student Data files for the course. You can download the data directly to student machines, to a central location on your own network, or to a disk. a Connect to www.axzopress.com. b Under Downloads, click Instructor-Led Training. c Browse the subject categories to locate your course. Then click the course title to display a list of available downloads. (You can also access these downloads through our Catalog listings.) d Click the link(s) for downloading the Student Data files, and follow the instructions that appear on your screen. Keep a copy of the files where students can access them after reinstallation in Unit 19, “Windows installation and upgrades.”

Setting up troubleshooting activities Some of the units contain a troubleshooting activity. In these activities, you are asked to solve problems related to the material of that unit. This section presents ideas for problems that can be implemented. You will need to ask someone to implement one of these problems for you so that you can troubleshoot. Unit 3: Electricity and power supplies For the Topic C activity entitled “Troubleshooting power supply problems,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Unplug the computer from the wall outlet.  Plug the computer into a non-functioning UPS device or surge protector.  Disconnect the power supply from the motherboard.  Disconnect the hard disk from the power supply.  Replace the power supply with a non-functioning power supply.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Unit 5: The Basic Input/Output System For the Topic B activity entitled “Troubleshooting BIOS and POST problems,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Switch the keyboard and mouse cables so that each one is plugged into the other’s port.  Substitute a keyboard with a stuck key or some other defect that would cause the POST to fail.  Replace the CMOS battery with a dead battery, or simply remove the battery from the motherboard.  Reset one or more BIOS setup values that would leave the computer unbootable or unusable. For example, change the boot drive order, disable the hard drive controller (if it’s the boot device), or configure the on-board video controller to an extremely low-resolution display.  Install a defective memory module so that the POST fails when it tests memory.  (Advanced) Flash the BIOS with an incorrect or outdated version. Unit 6: Memory systems For the Topic E activity entitled “Troubleshooting memory,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Replace one or more memory modules with a defective memory module.  Loosen a module in its socket so that its pins don’t make proper connections.  Reconfigure the BIOS with an incorrect quantity of memory.  Install the incorrect type of module for the computer—install modules that are too slow, implement parity when the motherboard doesn’t, or don’t implement parity when the motherboard does, and so forth.  Install modules of different size or speed within a single bank.  Remove one of the modules from a bank. Unit 8: Expansion cards For the Topic D activity entitled “Troubleshooting expansion card problems,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Set the video mode to a mode that the monitor cannot support.  Set the video refresh rate to a value that the monitor cannot support.  Install a failing monitor that is blurry or displays an unsteady image.  Install an out-of-date and buggy version of the video driver.  Install the wrong video driver for the video adapter.  Mute the sound.  Disconnect the speaker’s power cord.  Loosen the adapter card in its slot so that its connectors do not make full contact.  Disconnect the CD-to-sound-card audio cable.  Turn off all Windows sounds in the Control Panel.  Disconnect the phone cable from the modem.  Use a bad phone cable to connect the modem to the jack.

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 Configure the modem to use incorrect connection parameters (stop bits, parity, etc.).  After the modem is installed, change COM port configurations so that the modem can’t access the ports.  Change the COM port configurations in the BIOS to values that the modem card doesn’t support.  Give students a voice or fax number to dial into instead of another modem line.  Install damaged or nonfunctioning adapter cards, such as video cards, modem cards, and sound cards.  (Advanced) Put tape over the adapter’s edge connector or paint some of the connector’s pins with nail polish so that they cannot make contact. Unit 9: Peripheral connection types For the Topic F activity entitled “Troubleshooting problems with peripheral connections,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Connect the keyboard to the mouse port and vice versa.  Disable the serial port in the BIOS.  Disable the parallel port in the BIOS.  Within the BIOS, assign nonstandard system resources that are likely to conflict with other devices in the system.  Cut one of the wires in the serial, parallel, USB, or FireWire cable.  Substitute a null modem cable for a straight-through cable.  Provide students with a USB device that requires external power, but don’t give them the power adapter.  Install too many unpowered devices on the USB bus.  Provide students with a USB 2.0–only device to go with their USB 1.1 systems.  Disable the infrared port in the BIOS.  Provide students with a nonfunctioning external modem.  Bend one of the pins in the male serial or parallel connector so that it cannot make contact.  Provide students with a defective or nonfunctioning mouse or keyboard (for example, one that has been dropped or had liquid spilled on it).  Configure the external modem to use nonstandard connection parameters, such as a very slow port speed, mark or space parity, hardware flow control, and so forth.  Provide students with a printer that supports just one parallel port mode (bidirectional, EPP, and so forth), but configure the BIOS to implement a different port mode.  Provide students with a nonfunctioning printer.  Tell students to connect to a remote PC with their modems, but give them a voice number to dial into (such as an automated weather line or some other line not likely to be answered by a person, who would get annoyed by the data calls).  Cover the infrared window on the PC or device with tape, dirt, or something like nail polish that will attenuate the infrared signal without being too obviously present.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One  Disconnect or remove the antenna from the radio wireless device.  (Advanced) Provide students with an 802.11a hub and 802.11g wireless networking cards.  (Advanced) Within the system case, disconnect the ribbon cable that runs from the serial, parallel, or USB port connector to the motherboard. Unit 10: Data storage devices For the Topic F activity entitled “Troubleshooting data storage devices,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Provide students with a damaged floppy disk. (You could scratch the disk surface, poke a pinhole in it, wrinkle it, or jam the spindle so that the disk won’t turn.)  Remove the twist from the floppy drive cable.  Configure the BIOS so that floppy drive A: is addressed as B: and vice versa.  Disable the floppy drive in the BIOS.  Disconnect the power cable from the floppy drive.  Install the floppy drive cable’s connector backward (force the connector backward into the socket).  Configure the BIOS so that the system will not boot from the floppy drive.  Install a damaged, failing, or dead hard drive.  Install the hard drive cable’s connector backward (force the connector backward into the socket).  Install the hard drive’s cable backward (connect the motherboard connector to the drive, and connect the master drive connector to the motherboard).  Install a bad hard drive cable.  Bend one of the pins in the hard drive’s connector so that the cable cannot make full contact with all of the conductors. Warning: Doing this may permanently damage the drive. Bent pins can break, leaving the drive unusable.  Configure the IDE drive identification incorrectly (for example, configure the drive as a slave when it’s actually the only drive in the system).  Configure SCSI IDs incorrectly so that there’s a conflict on the bus.  Remove termination from one or both ends of the bus, or install extra terminators within the chain.  Disconnect the power cable from the hard drive.  In the BIOS, configure the boot order so that it does not include the primary hard drive.  Delete all partitions on the hard drive to leave the system unbootable. Warning: Doing this will destroy all information on the hard drive.  Remove the “active” designation from the primary hard drive so that the system won’t boot.  Install a new drive that is partitioned, but not formatted, so that the system cannot boot from that drive.  Install, or provide students with, an extremely large hard drive (160 GB or larger) in a system that cannot support it.

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 With an older, slower drive, configure the BIOS to speed the boot process to the point where the drive cannot spin up and be ready by the time the startup process accesses it.  Use a scratched CD for the CD or DVD.  Use a burned DVD or CD.  Provide a DVD in place of a CD for use with a CD drive.  Plug the speakers into the MIC jack.  Disconnect or loosely connect the cable from the CD drive to the sound card.  Remove the driver for the CD drive.  Set the SCSI ID on a SCSI CD drive to a duplicate ID used by another SCSI device.  Remove (or add) termination to the SCSI CD drive.  Change the CD drive to the master drive (or as slave if it’s already a master) on an IDE channel.  Disconnect or loosely connect the power or data cable from the CD drive.  For an external CD drive, disconnect or loosely connect the power or data cable.  Use an audio DVD for the audio CD (if it is a CD drive rather than a DVD drive).  Change or remove the driver for the CD player.  Install a damaged CD drive that no longer works.  If you’re using an external CD drive, plug the drive into a power strip, but turn the power strip off.  Install the CD drive cable’s connector backward (force the connector backward into the socket).  Install the CD drive cable backward (connect the motherboard connector to the drive, and connect the master drive connector to the motherboard).  Install a bad CD drive cable.  Bend one of the pins in the CD drive’s connector so that the cable cannot make full contact with all of the conductors. Warning: Doing this may permanently damage the drive. Bent pins can break, leaving the drive unusable.  Disable the use of flash drives on the system.  Use a drive that has been damaged.  Password-protect the flash drive, but don’t tell students the password (until they ask later when they figure out that this is the problem).  Use a damaged drive that no longer works.  Use a damaged tape.  Provide the wrong drivers for the drive.  Use a controller card that is incompatible with the tape drive.  Use a damaged power and/or data cable.  Plug the drive into a power strip, but turn the power strip off.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Unit 12: Printers For the Topic D activity, entitled “Troubleshooting printer problems,” you can implement one or more of these problems:  Replace the ink cartridges with empty ones or ones that produce poor output.  Install a printer that prints stray marks on output.  Disconnect or loosely connect the interface cable.  Disconnect or loosely connect the power cord.  Leave the cover or door open, off, or slightly ajar.  Plug the printer into the power strip, but turn off the strip.  Create a paper jam.  Remove the printer driver.  Install the wrong printer driver.  Remove the ink cartridge(s).  Turn the printer off midway through a cleaning cycle or while printing.  Provide the wrong interface cable, power cord, and/or drivers.  In the BIOS, disable the port to which the printer connects.  Add paper that is either very static-laden or humid (to produce poor images and possibly printer jams).  Replace the toner cartridge with an empty one or one that produces poor output.  Remove the toner cartridge.  If the printer requires setup on the printer, change the settings to use a different interface, or other settings. (For example, on a LaserJet printer, use the menu on the printer to specify that it’s connected via the serial port, while it is actually connected via parallel port.) Unit 16, Portable computers For the Topic D activity titled “Troubleshooting notebook problems,” you could implement one or problems by doing any of the following:  Connect the notebook to an external keyboard and boot it. Then disconnect the external keyboard without pressing the Fn key combination to switch back to the notebook keyboard (this often results in the keyboard having the numeric keypad enabled on the letter keys).  Connect the notebook to an external monitor, switch to the external monitor, and then disconnect the monitor.  Remove the hard drive.  Remove any PC cards.  Install a non-working PC card.  Remove a memory module.  Install additional memory, but don’t configure the system to recognize it.  Don’t fully seat a memory module.  Remove the drivers for any PC cards that are installed.  Plug in an external monitor and/or keyboard, leave the notebook open, and place the external components behind the notebook and facing the other direction so that it’s not obvious that they are connected to the notebook.

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 Loosely connect peripheral cables.  Disconnect the network cable.  Remove the battery, power cable, and hard drive. Provide the wrong power cable, battery, and hard drive to each student. For the Topic D activity titled “Identifying power problems,” you could implement one or problems by doing any of the following:  Set the power options so that the monitor and hard drive are turned off after 1 minute of inactivity.  Install an uncharged battery.  Install a battery that won’t keep a charge.  Disconnect or loosely connect the power cord.  Plug the power cord into a power strip, but turn off the power strip.  If the power cord comes apart in the middle where the transformer is, disconnect or loosely connect this connection.  Plug the notebook into a power strip that is turned off, and remove the battery or install a dead battery.

CertBlaster software CertBlaster pre- and post-assessment software is available for this course. To download and install this free software, students should complete the following steps: 1 Go to www.axzopress.com. 2 Under Downloads, click CertBlaster. 3 Click one of the following links:

4 5 6 7 8

 CompTIA A+ Essentials 2009  CompTIA A+ Practical Application Save the .EXE file to a folder on your hard drive. (Note: If you skip this step, the CertBlaster software will not install correctly.) Click Start and choose Run. Click Browse and then navigate to the folder that contains the .EXE file. Select the .EXE file and click Open. Click OK and follow the on-screen instructions. When prompted for the password, enter c_a+ess09 (for Essentials) or c_a+pracapp (for Practical Application).

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Unit 1 Troubleshooting methodology Unit time: 30 Minutes Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting

model. B Interact professionally with users and

achieve customer satisfaction.

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Topic A: Troubleshooting stages This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.1

Given a scenario, explain the troubleshooting theory  Identify the problem – Question user and identify user changes to computer, and perform backups before making changes  Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious)  Test the theory to determine cause – Once theory is confirmed, determine next steps to resolve problem – If theory is not confirmed, re-establish new theory or escalate  Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution  Verify full system functionality and if applicable implement preventative measures  Document findings, actions, and outcomes

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  Use documentation and resources – User/installation manuals – Internet/Web based – Training materials

The troubleshooting process Explanation

Troubleshooting is the process of determining the cause of, and ultimately the solution to, a problem. By applying a logical, consistent method to the troubleshooting process, you make your job easier and shorten the time it takes to discover the root of a problem. When troubleshooting PC hardware problems, you can follow any of several popular models. This course focuses on the stages of the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model. CompTIA’s A+ troubleshooting model The CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model has you work through stages to apply basic diagnostic procedures and troubleshooting techniques. CompTIA recommends working through the stages described in the following table.


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Stage

Description

Identify the problem

Identify the problem by questioning the user and determining any changes the user has made to the computer. Perform a backup before making any changes on the system.

Establish a theory of probable cause

Analyze the problem, including potential causes, so you can establish a theory of probably cause. Remember to question the obvious. You can then make an initial determination of whether the problem is software- and/or hardware-related.

Test the theory to determine actual cause

Test the theory to determine the actual cause. Test components related to the problem. This process includes inspecting components for obvious things, such as connections and power being connected and turned on, proper hardware and/or software configurations, and indications of conflicts or problems in Device Manager. Also, consult vendor documentation for descriptions of status lights and other indicators. Once you’ve confirmed your theory, create a plan of action. If your theory is incorrect, re-establish a new theory or escalate to a higher level technician.

Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution

Create a plan to resolve the problem and then implement the solution in your plan. You might need to include other professionals, such as your company’s network technician, to get assistance in implementing the resolution.

Verify full system functionality and, if necessary, implement preventative measures

Verify the results, and if necessary, take additional steps to correct the problem. Additional steps might include consulting with other professionals or the vendor, using alternative resources, and reviewing equipment manuals. Once you’ve established full system functionality, you need to implement applicable preventive measures to prevent the problem from reoccurring.

Document findings, actions, and outcomes

Document the actions you took to correct the problem, as well as the outcomes of those actions.

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A-1:

Discussing the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Hector reports that his computer doesn’t work. Using the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model, describe the first step you would take to fix his problem.

2 What documentation should you record after you’ve found the solution to Hector’s problem?

3 A user calls the Help desk because her Windows 7 Business computer has unexpectedly shut down and is now displaying a blue screen with a white STOP error. After you’ve identified the problem, what should you do next?


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Information resources Explanation

When you’re troubleshooting, you can use several kinds of resources to research problems and solutions. Let’s take a look at some of the resources you should consider when resolving issues. Documentation Documentation is the key to successful troubleshooting. Such documentation takes two forms: that which is provided by others and that which you create. You’ll find product user and installation manuals, training materials, manufacturer Web sites, and technology-related knowledge bases to be invaluable sources of information. You should consult these references early in the troubleshooting process to determine if you’re dealing with a known problem that has a previously published solution. Problems that you must solve are often specific to your customer’s combination of hardware and software, as well as to how the person uses his system. Your notes are the best reference for future problems because they apply specifically to your customer’s environment Forums Forums are online discussion groups. These enable various people to gather at a central location online to discuss common interests in an open format. Members of the forum can exchange information and ideas. A generic forum might be created to discuss general network issues. A forum most often contains information on problems and solutions. This makes it useful when you have a problem because you can visit the forum and see if anyone else had a similar problem and found a resolution. These postings are not usually verified by a vendor or manufacturer as providing the best solution to a problem; they are just what worked for a particular person. An example is the Web site at msfn.org; it’s a site dedicated to Windows operating systems and desktop applications, but it’s not a Microsoft-affiliated site. Vendor-sponsored forums do have experts on staff to review the postings. They can also help members by gathering information about the problem and guiding them through the troubleshooting process. Most vendors then post a summary of the problem and step-by-step instructions for resolving the problem. An example is www.microsoft.com/communities/forums, which is a Web site dedicated to Microsoft products and technologies. Other sources Other resources that you should consult include trade magazines and Web sites, fellow employees, newsgroups, trade shows, vendor group meetings, and independent consultants. Being open to using a variety of sources to resolve your problem gives you more flexibility in finding a solution as quickly as possible. Keeping up-to-date on your knowledge through reading trade magazines and attending trade shows and vendor group meetings can help you keep abreast of potential problems. Even if you haven’t yet encountered a problem being described in the article or meeting, if it should arise, you will know what to do about it.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Your fellow employees can be a great source of information, especially if you are new to the group. You might have worked for several years in a support capacity at one company, but a new company might have a whole different set of common problems that could be easily resolved if only you knew where to look and what to do. Even on an established team of support technicians, multiple people looking at the problem can bring their own experience to the table, and what one person might not see, another member of the team might see. If you have been unable to find the solution in a timely manner, you should contact the vendor for specific help. A vendor can usually guide you through the steps to resolve the problem. Another option to consider is hiring an independent consultant who’s an expert in the area in which you are experiencing the problem. Consultants often have vast experience in their areas of expertise and can help you find the solution quickly. Microsoft Help and Support When you’re having a problem with software or hardware on a computer running a Microsoft operating system, an excellent troubleshooting reference is Microsoft’s Help and Support Web site. This site contains problem and solution references for the Microsoft client operating systems you’ll be supporting, such as Windows Vista versions, as well as many other Microsoft applications and server and client operating systems. Sometimes, the Web site provides a hyperlink to an FTP site, where you can download patches and new releases. A component of the Help and Support Center is the Microsoft Knowledge Base, which explains many Microsoft error messages. You can enter the specific message in the Search box and retrieve a description of the error’s cause and a solution for resolving the problem. To search the Microsoft Knowledge Base for a specific error: 1 Using Internet Explorer or another Web browser, go to support.microsoft.com/search. 2 Begin typing the error code or words for the search. 3 Select the desired error from the list of search results. 4 Click an article to read it. Exhibit 1-1 shows an example of the components of a Microsoft Knowledge Base article. Expand each section to read its contents. You can print articles or save them on your hard disk for later reference.


Exhibit 1-1: Components of a Microsoft Knowledge Base article

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A-2:

Identifying documentation and information resources

Questions and answers 1 If the users you are supporting have a recurrent problem, which is the best source to use in resolving the problem?

2 Discuss the potential drawbacks of using a generic forum for answers to your problems.

3 Using a variety of sources, find the best solution to the problem assigned by your instructor.

4 A user tells you that she was attempting to take her laptop running Windows 7 Professional out of sleep mode when the computer shut down. The error recorded is KERNEL_DATA_INPAGE_ERROR. Where would you go to research the cause of this problem?

5 If necessary, turn on the power to your computer 6 Log in as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234

This is an administrative user account that was created during class setup.

7 Open Internet Explorer 8 If prompted, follow the wizard to set up Windows Internet Explorer

Turn on Suggested Sites and use Express Settings.

9 Research and determine the cause and resolution of this problem. (You can use the Advanced Search feature to narrow your results to Windows 7.)


Topic B: Professionalism This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

6.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the appropriate use of communication skills and professionalism in the workplace  Use proper language—avoid jargon, acronyms, slang  Maintain a positive attitude  Listen and do not interrupt a customer  Be culturally sensitive  Be on time – If late, contact the customer  Avoid distractions – Personal calls – Talking to co-workers while interacting with customers – Personal interruptions  Dealing with a difficult customer or situation – Avoid arguing with customers and/or being defensive – Do not minimize customers’ problems – Avoid being judgmental – Clarify customer statements  Ask open-ended questions to narrow the scope of the problem  Restate the issue or question to verify understanding  Set and meet expectations/timeline and communicate status with the customer – Offer different repair/replacement options if applicable – Provide documentation on the services provided – Follow up with customers/users later to verify satisfaction  Deal appropriately with customers’ confidential materials – Located on computer, desktop, printer, etc.

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Providing professional services Explanation

To be effective as a hardware support technician, you must be professional and courteous at all times. You must deliver accurate and complete information, and make sure that the customer fully understands your communications. You must do all this even when emotions run high, such as when a user has lost critical data or has expensive equipment that isn’t working. To be a professional communicator, you must:  Consider the total message you’re sending.  Stay focused.  Consider the customer’s competence.  Speak professionally.  Respect the customer.  Be culturally sensitive.  Match the delivery channel to the customer. Consider the total message The message you deliver when communicating is more than just your words. The total message you deliver is the sum of your words, your tone of voice, facial expressions, body posture, attire, and more. The message is often more truly communicated through the nonverbal channels than through the words you use. For example, if your words express sympathy over the loss of a critical document, yet your facial expression and mannerisms convey condescension or mockery, the customer will ignore your words and take the message from your nonverbal cues. You must be aware of all parts of the message, or your words will be lost. Match your expressions, tone of voice, eye contact, and body posture with the message you intend to deliver. Stay focused Many times, customers pay for your time on a per-minute or per-hour basis. Some are quick to take offense if you "waste” time with idle chit-chat. They perceive you to be wasting their money. Stick to the task at hand, fix the problem, and move on. Of course, if you’re just watching files copy during the support call, and the user is interested in talking about last night’s game or the new restaurant that just opened, that would be a fine time to engage in some pleasantries. You should be friendly and engaging, but not too talkative. Avoid sensitive topics. Politics, religion, parenting, and relationships are all topics that you should avoid discussing with customers. When all else fails, you can always fall back on the old standby, the weather. Consider the customer’s competence You must match your communication level with your customer’s abilities. You need to judge the customer’s competence level and deliver the message appropriately. Consider how you might give a different answer to a three-year old and a high school student when he or she asks why the sky is blue. The same must be true with customers, though you should certainly never provide inaccurate or incorrect information just because a customer lacks a technical background.


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Keep in mind that most people overstate their understanding or imply they have a higher level of understanding than they actually possess. Ask clarifying questions to judge comprehension, and explain your message in various ways to ensure that the customer understands what you’re saying. Avoid using jargon where plain language suffices. You aren’t out to impress the user with all the "techno babble” you picked up at the latest conference you attended. You need to speak clearly about the issue and implement the appropriate solutions. Explain any acronyms and abbreviations you use. Many users like to think of themselves as computer-savvy and find it difficult to admit that there are some situations that they just can’t resolve on their own. Other users refuse to admit that they understand anything about computers and just throw up their hands when the least little problem occurs. It’s up to you as the hardware support technician to determine at what level the user can understand what the problem is and give you the information you need about it. Don’t talk down to the user, and don’t talk over the head of the user, either. Speak professionally Ask clarifying questions until you’re sure that both you and the customer agree that you understand the problem. Often users don’t know exactly what the problem is. They know only that when they try to do X, Y happens. In their descriptions, they might not accurately explain the problems. A caller also might not directly ask the question; he or she might dance around it, leaving you to figure it out from the various clues given. If the user tried to fix the problem on his own and covered up the original problem with his attempted fixes or made the problem worse, he isn’t likely to want to admit this to you. If he tells you that he already tried a particular fix when you try to perform a step in your troubleshooting, calmly tell the user that in order to fix the problem, you yourself need to go through all of the most likely possibilities in an orderly manner. If you do something that was already tried, then it’s possible that some step in between altered the outcome of trying that fix again. If you discover that the user has created a problem through a misunderstanding of how things work, be sure to explain how to perform the task, so the problem doesn’t recur. You might recommend an online course or a classroom course that the user should consider enrolling in to learn more about using the computer. Respect the customer It’s critical that you respect the customer and her property. One of the easiest things you can do to show the customer respect is to show up on time. It tells the customers that you value them and their time.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Other guidelines you should follow to show the customer respect include:  Don’t minimize the customer’s problem. Although this troubleshooting might not be the most important task you have to complete, it is important to the customer.  Avoid distractions. Don’t make personal phone calls or engage in text messaging unless you do so with a fellow technician as part of the troubleshooting task. Don’t surf the Web or engage in other non-work activities in the customer’s office.  Don’t eat or drink in the customer’s space.  Don’t use the customer’s printer, fax machine, or other devices unless needed as part of your troubleshooting.  Don’t adjust the customer’s chair, monitor, keyboard and mouse location, and so forth unless the current configuration makes your troubleshooting tasks impossible. Respect the customer’s privacy and confidentiality.  Don’t look through papers, drawers, or other private spaces.  Don’t eavesdrop on calls or meetings. Leave the area if necessary.  Don’t talk about what you overhear at a customer’s location. Never interrupt the customer while he or she is speaking. Listen attentively, showing interest and involvement in the conversation. Make sure to look at the customer while listening—avoiding eye contact suggests that you don’t care about what the customer is saying. Don’t argue with the customer. Even if the customer did something blatantly foolish, never be judgmental or insulting. Don’t belittle customers or minimize the importance of their computer problems. Obviously, you should never insult customers, call them names, or swear at them! You show respect for customers when you honor their privacy and confidentiality. If a customer receives a call or visitor while you are there, excuse yourself or make it clear that you won’t eavesdrop or interrupt. Never discuss or distribute information that you learn while at a customer’s premises. Be culturally sensitive The growing global economy has resulted in people from different nations, cultures, languages, and backgrounds communicating, meeting, and doing business with one another. As an information technology support person, you might be interacting with a diverse clientele. To do this successfully, you need to be culturally sensitive. Cultural sensitivity begins with knowledge. You must first be familiar with different cultures—their characteristics, history, values, belief systems, and behaviors. You exhibit culturally sensitive behavior when you can identify these differences without assigning a value to or passing judgment on them, such as better/worse or right/wrong. If you’re going to be working with people whose culture is different from your own, you can request training in the etiquette, protocol, communication styles, and negotiation approaches of those cultures. Many Human Resources departments offer such training.


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Match your delivery to the customer Technology, when abused, can prevent or hinder communication. The pitfalls that organizations should avoid when they use technology to communicate include:  Using technology for technology’s sake  Over-reliance on or unrealistic expectations of technology  Mismatching a technical solution to users’ needs or expectations You must match the communications channel to the customer. Many customers prefer phone calls to e-mail. Others want an instant message solution, prefer e-mail, or want to see you in person for face-to-face communication. Make sure you use the channel that your customer prefers, not the one that you’re most comfortable with. Guidelines for effective communication In summary, there are several basic guidelines that help you communicate effectively:  Speak clearly — It helps your receiver understand the message.  Avoid jargon — Define jargon whenever necessary to ensure that your message is accurately interpreted.  Keep messages concise — Avoid using unnecessary words, stories, and irrelevant topics.  Be specific — Keep your message specific, rather than broad and general.  Make sure the message is understood — Question your receiver to ensure that your message has been understood as intended.  Listen actively — Maintain eye contact, focus on the message, and use nonverbal cues to indicate interest. Good nonverbal cues include nodding your head in agreement and leaning slightly toward the source. Other cues such as affirmative comments, noises, and uncrossed arms also indicate openness to the source. It’s important to remember that communication is an exchange.  Paraphrase messages — Paraphrasing helps you understand a sender’s message and indicates your understanding to the sender. Pitfalls to avoid in communication When communicating, you’ll want to avoid these pitfalls:  Jumping to conclusions — Listen to someone’s entire message before planning your response. If you jump to conclusions, you might miss information that would change your response.  Becoming distracted — It’s important to remain focused on the sender so that you don’t miss important parts of the message.  Exaggerating — Although exaggeration can function as a tool for humor, it might send incorrect information.  Using negative words — Negative messages can be sent without belittling or offending the receiver. Also, when appropriate for the circumstances, replace "I can’t” statements with "I can” statements—focus on what you can do.  Sending conflicting messages — When the symbols and language of your message don’t match, you weaken your credibility. Avoid telling someone you’re listening when you’re watching people out the window. Active listening incorporates eye contact, appropriate body language, and verbal assurances. By listening actively, you can avoid sending conflicting messages and focus on receiving information accurately.

1–14 Do it!


B-1:

Maintaining professionalism

Questions and answers 1 You receive a call from a customer named Joe and visit his cubicle to provide assistance. Joe believes himself to be computer-savvy and tells you all the steps he’s taken to solve his printing problem. In fact, he becomes irate when you try to send a test print job to the queue before doing any further troubleshooting. What’s the best way to respond to Joe? A

Tell him that you’re the expert and you will solve the problem.

B

Tell him that you want to make sure that a problem really exists.

C

Tell him that you’re following a methodical troubleshooting plan, and the first step is to try printing.

D

Tell him that before arriving you degaussed the fuser and primed the piezoelectric elements so that the print device should be operational.

2 List at least three activities that you shouldn’t engage in while in a customer’s cubicle or office.

3 While troubleshooting Jill’s computer, you find that she spilled coffee into the keyboard, causing it to fail. How might you inform Jill of the problem? A

Sternly tell her that it’s against corporate policy to consume food or beverages near company computers and equipment.

B

Tell her the source of the problem and suggest that she keep food and drinks more than an arm’s reach from her computer.

C

Replace the keyboard without telling her why it failed.

D

Tell her boss what she did.


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Effective communication Explanation

Effective communication involves both verbal and nonverbal techniques. How you use your voice says a great deal about you. Listeners take note of your vocal characteristics and form opinions about your sincerity, enthusiasm, and even your knowledge of the topic being discussed. Your body language also clues listeners into your state of mind. Your posture, the firmness of your handshake, and your willingness to make eye contact all tell listeners something about your personality and character. You need to make sure you're communicating the same message with both your voice and your body language.

Verbal communication Your voice often indicates whether you are nervous, which might affect how a listener perceives your credibility. Controlling your voice and communicating in a pleasing way can help you attract and maintain listeners’ attention. To become a more effective speaker, you can work on controlling three vocal characteristics: volume, rate, and pitch.  Volume is a vocal characteristic you need to tailor to the environment. Room size, number of listeners, and external noise all influence the volume of your voice. Make sure your listeners can hear everything you say.  Rate is the speed at which you speak. Every person has a different natural rate, so it’s important to adapt your rate to the topic and listener. Nervous speakers tend to speak rapidly. If you feel anxious about the message you are delivering, you should try to maintain a slow, even rate of speech so that the listener hears the actual message, instead of being distracted by your nervousness. Conversely, you shouldn’t let your speaking rate drop much below 120 words per minute, or you risk losing the listener’s attention. Stay enthusiastic about your message to maintain an appropriate rate.  Pitch is the highness or lowness of your voice. When your vocal muscles are taut, your voice has a high pitch; when your vocal muscles are relaxed, your voice has a low pitch. If you’re nervous, your vocal muscles tighten and your voice rises above its natural pitch. Rate and volume also affect your pitch. When you speak rapidly, your muscles are tense, which causes your pitch to rise. Speaking loudly also causes your pitch to rise. Although pitch variations might be useful in emphasizing certain points, generally it’s best to maintain an even and natural pitch in most situations. What you say also affects how others see you. Use the following guidelines to make the best verbal impression with clients. Use positive language Negative language can be expressed in a variety of ways, but the main concern with negative language is the word "no.” The word "no” delivers a blunt, end-of-conversation attitude, regardless of the rest of the message. If at all possible, avoid using the word "no” and any other negative language, such as "can’t,” "won’t,” and "don’t.” Use non-inflammatory language Inflammatory language is meant to stir intense negative emotions in the listener. It’s often prejudicial against someone because of gender, ethnicity, or physical attributes. Inflammatory language is always inappropriate in the workplace.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Use powerful language Powerful language involves the use of clear, direct statements of fact and feeling rather than dancing around an issue. A powerful speaker lets you know exactly what the situation is and how to handle it efficiently and effectively. A powerless speaker uses "hedge phrases,” such as, "I guess…”and "Maybe we should….” Often, powerless speakers form their ideas as questions, such as, "Shouldn’t we start the meeting?” instead of stating, "We should start the meeting.” Powerless speakers tend to be disappointed with the results of their ambiguity. Keep in mind that speaking powerfully doesn’t mean being blunt, abrupt, or rude. An effective powerful speaker combines politeness with directness so as to be clear and concise. Remember names According to Dale Carnegie, "the sweetest sound in any language is the sound of one’s own name.” People feel that you respect them and believe in their importance when you use their name. The common recommendation is "name times three” which means you should use the person’s name at least three times in any conversation. Take care to use the other person’s name properly. In most business settings, you should start with Mr. ('mist-ər), Ms. (miz), or Mrs. ('mis-əz). If the other person shows less formality or directly requests that you use her first name, then do so.

Do it!

B-2:

Using effective verbal communication

Questions and answers 1 Identify the characteristics of negative language. A

Dull, discourages conversation

B

Bold, encourages conversation

C

Blunt, ends conversation

D

Timid, ends conversation

2 Which of the following phrases defines inflammatory language? A

Inflammatory language is appropriate and insignificant.

B

Inflammatory language stirs negative emotions and is prejudicial.

C

Inflammatory language is angry and prejudicial.

D

Inflammatory language is intense and always appropriate.


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Nonverbal communication Explanation

You are constantly communicating with those around you. You express fear, anger, happiness, sadness, enthusiasm, and many other emotions without even saying a word. It’s important to be aware of the signals you are communicating to those around you. It’s also important to be able to recognize the nonverbal signals that others are communicating to you. When two people meet, nonverbal communication gives each of them clues about the other’s personality, attitudes, and feelings. Six types of nonverbal communication have the most impact on your conversations:  Handshakes  Expression and eye contact  Proximity  Touch  Gestures and posture  Physical appearance Handshakes A firm handshake is the foundation of any business interaction. Some people carry firmness to the extreme, but you’re not trying to crush the other person’s hand. Of course, you don’t want to give a "limp rag” handshake, either. A good, firm handshake starts with a dry palm; carry a handkerchief if you need to wipe damp palms before entering a meeting where you expect to shake someone’s hand. Grasp the other person’s palm, not just the fingers. Give a positive squeeze, but not too firm to cause discomfort. Use one hand; don’t clasp both hands around the other person’s hand. Your handshake should last a couple of seconds, no longer. People are sensitive to being touched and restrained. A handshake that lasts too long can make the other person feel caught in a trap. Of course, the handshake should last long enough to appear deliberate and sincere. Look the other person in the eye. Introduce yourself with a greeting like "Hi, I’m (say your first and last name). It’s nice to meet you.” Let go of the person’s hand and then listen intently as he greets you back. Remember the person’s name; repeat it to yourself a couple times if you need to. Then use the "name times three” guideline to help yourself remember the name. Expression and eye contact A friendly expression and direct eye contact convey that you’re open, honest, and enthusiastic. When coming into a meeting or interaction, smile and look into the eyes of the other person as you’re introduced. You can show interest in the other person by maintaining eye contact as she speaks. When you tilt your head toward the speaker, you give the impression that you are an interested listener. These cues encourage the other person to relax and help open the lines of communication.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Proximity Personal space is an important element to keep in mind when communicating. Typically, people of a higher status tend to keep more than the normal four to six feet between themselves and their subordinates. Close friends and romantic partners usually keep approximately 18 inches of distance. While you don’t want to give the appearance of invading an acquaintance’s personal space, too great a distance sends a message that you aren’t totally involved in the conversation. Three to five feet of distance typically evokes feelings of closeness, trust, and parallel status between acquaintances. Touch Touch in the workplace must be dealt with carefully. Touching in the workplace is more common between women than men. Appropriate touching can convey openness, trustworthiness, and interest. It can also result in self-disclosure and compliance. Appropriate touching includes a good handshake or sometimes a light touch on the shoulder or arm of an acquaintance. Inappropriate touching conveys disrespect to the recipient of the touch. It might also demonstrate hostility. Inappropriate touching includes lingering contact and caresses or contact with inappropriate areas of the body. When determining the appropriateness of a touch, you should also consider the pressure that was used in the touch, the body part that did the touching, what body part received the touch, and if anyone else was present when contact was made. Many people are easily bothered by touching. Such folks can be offended by a hand on the shoulder or touch to the arm. When in doubt, don’t touch! Gestures and posture Although most people are aware of the hand gestures that flow naturally throughout the course of communication, many people are less aware of the messages that hand, leg, and foot activity sends. Restless hands or legs can suggest nervousness, which might make people question your honesty or integrity. Fidgeting might also indicate impatience and concealed anger. To ease nervousness, take deep, calming breaths and practice keeping your hands, feet, and legs still. Keep in mind regional differences in hand gestures. A thumbs-up sign can deliver an affirmation of a job well done or can be a vulgar insult, depending on where you are in the world. Avoid pointing at people—they can feel they are being accused or reprimanded. Similarly, your posture can affect the impression you make on someone. Standing and sitting straight signals that you are ready for open communication. Sitting or standing hunched over gives the impression that you are uninterested in conversation or contact. Appearance How you dress and look sends a message. Compare your first reaction to these two fictitious technicians:  Technician A wears dress slacks, a white button-down shirt, and shoes, not sneakers. He keeps his hair short and neatly combed.  Technician B wears faded blue jeans and a T-shirt advertising a hard rock band. His hair is shaved short on the sides and spiked in the middle. He wears dirty sneakers.


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Without judging one look to be better than the other, these two technicians send different signals with their appearance. Which is appropriate for you depends on your industry, company dress code, region, and the expectations of your customers. Technicians working at an insurance company in the Northeast U.S. would probably be expected to dress like technician A. But a technician who dressed that way at a software startup in California would probably seem out of place. Do it!

B-3:

Using nonverbal communication effectively

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 With another student, practice your handshake and greeting. Provide constructive and friendly feedback to your fellow student, and accept his or her advice graciously. 2 With another student, determine your personal space. 3 With another student, try different postures. Have one person pose while the other guesses at mood and intention. Reverse roles. 4 Compare your appearance with the expectations of your business, company dress code, region, and customers. Do you look and dress appropriately for those expectations? If not, what should you change?

Some people are comfortable communicating within a couple feet of another person. Others need more space.

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Customer satisfaction Explanation

A problem isn’t resolved until both the technician and the user agree that the problem is resolved. Keeping a customer satisfied during a long troubleshooting process can be a difficult task, especially for a technician who’s better at dealing with hardware than with people. Such a technician needs to work on people skills to be successful in the support role.

Service-level agreements Many companies develop a service-level agreement (SLA) that specifies how clients and support personnel are to interact, what to expect from each other, and timeframes for the resolution of issues. The following table describes some of the important concerns that an SLA should cover. Concern

Description

How to contact tech support

Customers will contact tech support by phone, Web-based application, email, or some other method. The SLA might also specify contact methods that should not be used. For example, some companies might not accept email requests for assistance or stopping techs in the hallways to ask for support.

How soon the user can expect a response

Tech support will usually send an e-mail message to let the user know that the request has been received and queued up for resolution.

How soon the user can expect a tech to attempt to fix the problem

The tech might need to do something behind the scenes to resolve the problem, might be able to walk the user through the problem over the phone, or might need to meet with the user in person. In some companies, the response time is in minutes or hours. In others, it’s in days.

What happens if the tech can’t initially fix the problem

This parameter often specifies how much time the tech is allowed to spend trying to resolve the problem before escalating it. The SLA might also specify whether the user gets a loaner system (to use if his or her system is completely down) or whether other workarounds to the problem are available.

What were the services provided

This portion of the SLA describes what type of documentation will be supplied to the customer pertaining to the services the tech provided (regardless of whether or not the tech resolved the problem). This documentation keeps the customer informed and aware of actions taken to resolve their problem. It also provides the support department with a written record of the work already done if the problem needs to be escalated.

Escalation of the problem

Usually there are three tiers of support. The process often starts with a help-desk contact (via phone or e-mail), then a desk-side hardware technician, and finally a backroom technician who works at a bench making repairs. The staff for each successive tier of support usually has more experience, as well as access to additional resources to help resolve the problem.

The course "A Guide to Customer Service Skills for the Help Desk Professional, 2nd edition” is available if you’d like more in-depth coverage of this topic.

Troubleshooting methodology Do it!

B-4:

1–21

Ensuring customer satisfaction

Here’s how 1 Working in groups, determine what you’d include in your SLA for a small workgroup that needs support for basic hardware and commercial software.

2 Compare your SLA with those of the other groups. 3 Create an SLA for a department that uses specialized hardware and custom applications, in addition to needing support for basic hardware and commercial software.

4 Compare your SLA with those of the other groups.

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Unit summary: Troubleshooting methodology Topic A

In this topic, you examined the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model. You also learned about the various types of documents and resources available to use for troubleshooting computer problems, such as user and installation manuals, Internet and Web-based resources, and training materials.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that being professional, courteous, and respectful is critical to success as a support technician. You learned that you must stay focused, speak professionally, respect the customer, and stay up to date. You learned how to communicate professionally, using both verbal and nonverbal means. You learned that a problem isn’t resolved until both the technician and the user agree that the problem has been resolved. You also learned about service level agreements, which specify how clients and support personnel are to interact.

Review questions 1 Match each stage of the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model on the left with its correct order on the right. Stage

Order

1

Test the theory to determine actual cause

A. First stage

2


B. Second stage

3

Establish a theory of probable cause

C. Third stage

4

Verify full system functionality and, if necessary, implement preventative measures

D. Fourth stage

5

Identify the problem

E. Fifth stage

6


F. Sixth stage

Answers: 1-C, 2-F, 3-B, 4-E, 5-A, 6-D

2 In which troubleshooting stage do you consult vendor documentation for descriptions of status lights and other indicators? A Identify the problem B Establish a theory of probable cause

C Test the theory to determine actual cause D Establish a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution

3 A paper-based problem-tracking system would be appropriate for what size organization? A Very small

C Medium

B Small

D Large


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4 What is the name of the Web site containing problem and solution references for the Microsoft client operating systems, such as Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, as well as many other Microsoft applications? A Microsoft Answers

C Microsoft Help and Support

B Microsoft Frequently Asked Questions

D Microsoft Windows Support Center

5 You should ________ the customer and his or her property. respect

6 True or false? Using jargon is part of professional communication, so you can impress the customer. False. You aren’t out to impress the user with all the "techno babble” you picked up at the latest conference you attended. You need to speak clearly about the issue and implement the appropriate solutions. Explain any acronyms and abbreviations you use.

7 Never ______ the customer while he or she is speaking. interrupt

8 A problem is resolved when which of the following occurs? A The symptoms no longer appear on the user’s computer.

C The technician and the user agree that the problem has been resolved.

B You fix the problem either on the user’s computer or on the network.

D The user thanks you for helping her out.

9 When you match your communication level with your customer’s abilities, what guidelines for professional communication are you following? A Considering the total message

D Respecting the customer

B Considering the customer’s competence

E Matching the delivery channel to the customer

C Speaking professionally 10 You and a colleague respond to a user who is having a problem. As the user is describing the problem to your colleague, you roll your eyes. Which guidelines for professional communication are you not following? [Choose all that apply.] A Considering the total message

D Respecting the customer

B Considering the customer’s competence

E Matching the delivery channel to the customer

C Speaking professionally 11 Effective communication involves both verbal and __________ techniques. nonverbal

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 12 Which vocal characteristic describes the highness or lowness of your voice? A Frequency B Pitch C Rate D Volume 13 The statement "We should start the meeting” is an example of _________ language. powerful

14 What’s the name of the document that many companies develop to specify how clients and support personnel are to interact, what to expect from each other, and what are acceptable timeframes for the resolution of issues. A Help desk agreement

C Service-level agreement

B Help desk report

D Service report

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll identify appropriate troubleshooting steps. You’ll also use Microsoft’s Knowledge Base to investigate a problem. 1 Bob calls. He can’t see anything on his monitor. If you are following the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting model, what should your first step be to solve his problem? First, you should identify the problem by questioning the user and determining any changes the user has made to the computer. Perform a backup before making any changes on the system.

2 John is unable to access the network from his workstation. What questions might you ask to narrow the scope of this problem? Answers will vary and might include:

 Is the cable plugged in?  Is the NIC light green?  Are other users reporting the same problem?  Is the access problem occurring with all network resources or just one?  Can John access local network resources, but not remote ones such as the Internet, or vice versa?

 When was the last time John was able to access the network? Did anything change in that time?

3 Use Microsoft’s Web site to investigate the solution to printer error 0x00000006. Uninstall and reinstall the printer to fix corrupt drivers.

4 Shut down your computer.

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Unit 2 Operating systems Unit time: 75 Minutes Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Identify operating system fundamentals. B Manage directories on a Microsoft

Windows computer. C Manage files on a Microsoft Windows

computer. D Control access to files and folders on a

Microsoft Windows computer.

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Topic A: Operating system fundamentals This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.4

Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and their features  32 bit vs. 64 bit

3.1

Compare and contrast the different Windows operating systems and their features  Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit – Side bar, Aero – Terminology (32bit vs. 64bit – x86 vs. x64) – User interface, start bar layout

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces  Windows Explorer – Libraries in Windows 7  My Computer  Control Panel  Command prompt utilities  Run line utilities – Cmd  My Network Places  Location of basic network settings between OS versions  Task bar/systray  Administrative tools – Computer Management  MMC  Task Manager  Start Menu

Operating systems Explanation

An operating system is a set of software instructions that control the computer and run other programs on the computer. The operating system makes a computer able to function, accepting input from devices—such as the keyboard, mouse, scanner, and smart card reader—and creating output on other devices, such as a monitor, printer, or speakers. Applications are installed on top of the operating system, and work with the operating system and the computer’s hardware. Microsoft Windows is currently the most popular client operating system in the world, followed by Macintosh, Linux, and UNIX operating systems.

Operating systems

2–3

Microsoft Windows In January of 2010, it was reported that Microsoft Windows was installed on just over 92% of the world’s personal computers (PCs), compared to Macintosh a bit over 5% and Linux slightly over 1%. Windows can run on just about any PC from any PC manufacturer, now including an Apple Intel-based computer, if you have the appropriate utilities. Windows 3.1 was Microsoft’s first graphical operating system. A graphical user interface (GUI) has icons or menus that you can click or select to perform a function or run a program. Along with a keyboard, a mouse or other pointing device, such as a touchpad, is used to interact with the screen elements when you’re working in a GUI. In 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, which introduced the Windows interface you’re familiar with today. As of the time of this writing, Windows 7 is Microsoft’s most current client version of Windows. Most applications are written to run under the Windows operating system.

Exhibit 2-1: Microsoft Windows 7 Professional Edition Macintosh (Mac) Macintosh (Mac) is Apple’s client operating system. It runs only on Apple computers; you can’t currently install the Mac OS on a PC. Like Windows, Mac OS has a graphical user interface, and many users would have no trouble switching between the two operating systems. At the time of this writing, the current version of Mac is Mac OS X (v10.6), also known as Snow Leopard.

2–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Generally, the Mac OS is revised more frequently than Windows is, and Apple provides constant improvements and upgrades for its users. Many of the most popular applications are available for Macs, so most users wouldn’t have any trouble finding their favorite word processing, spreadsheet, graphics, and communications applications available for the Mac. Exhibit 2-2 shows the desktop in Snow Leopard.

Exhibit 2-2: Mac OS X Snow Leopard Linux Linux is a free client operating system based on the UNIX operating system. The current full-featured version is 2.6 (released in December 2003), and development continues. At the time of this writing, the latest Kernel version available for download was 2.6.32, which was published on December 3, 2009. Patches for this version have been released. You can download Linux for free, or you can buy a distribution version from a vendor such as Red Hat (Fedora), Novell (SuSE), Canonical Ltd. (Ubuntu), and Mandriva (Mandriva Linux). A popular desktop Linux version at the time of this writing was Ubuntu. It’s a free, open-source version sponsored by the U.K.-based company Canonical Ltd. Ubuntu Linux is shown in Exhibit 2-3. Linux provides a graphical Windows-like interface, which most experienced Windows users wouldn’t have trouble using. Linux runs on most PCs from popular PC manufacturers. Although Linux does have a graphical interface, many system administration tasks are still performed at the command line, which requires experience with using commandline tools.

Operating systems

2–5

Exhibit 2-3: Ubuntu Linux UNIX UNIX was developed in 1969 by AT&T. The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark. Systems that are compliant with the Single UNIX Specification may use the UNIX trademark. The standards for UNIX are UNIX 93, UNIX 95, and UNIX 98, and the most current is UNIX03. UNIX is used on both servers and clients. For additional information on the UNIX operating system, go to www.unix.org.

Windows client operating systems Microsoft has several versions of its Windows client operating systems currently in use on computers around the world, including Windows NT Workstation, Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows Me, three Windows XP versions, Windows 2000 Professional, six Windows Vista versions, and six Windows 7 versions. The latter two operating systems are the newest, and currently the most widely used, Windows client operating systems. The six Windows 7 editions include Windows 7 Home Basic and Windows 7 Home Premium, both of which are geared toward the home user, and Windows 7 Professional and Windows 7 Enterprise, which are geared toward the business user. The Home Basic version is only available in emerging markets. The Enterprise edition is designed for large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures and is available only through Microsoft’s volume licensing programs. Windows 7 Ultimate includes the same features as Enterprise but is available to smaller businesses and home users on an individual license basis. The final Windows 7 edition is Windows 7 Starter. It is a stripped-down version of Windows 7, available preinstalled on computers, especially netbooks, through system integrators and computer manufacturers.

2–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The six Windows Vista editions include Windows Vista Home Basic and Windows Vista Home Premium, both of which are geared toward the home user, and Windows Vista Business and Windows Vista Ultimate, which are geared toward the business user. Vista Home Premium includes many of the same media features available in Vista Ultimate, such as all-in-one media-center functionality. The two other Vista products are Windows Vista Starter, which is a stripped-down version of the product for use in emerging technology markets, and Windows Vista Enterprise, which is designed for large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures. The Enterprise edition is available only through Microsoft’s volume licensing programs. The three Windows XP editions are Windows XP Professional, which is geared toward the business user, and Windows XP Home Edition and Windows XP Media Center Edition, both of which are geared toward the home user. Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition includes digital entertainment features that the other Windows XP versions don’t have. Windows 2000 has more server versions than client. The single client in the line is Windows 2000 Professional. We won’t cover Windows Starter editions in this course. If you’re interested in additional information about this product, refer to Microsoft’s Web site at: http://www.microsoft.com/windows/windows-vista/compareeditions/starter.aspx

During your IT support career, you might come across all versions of Windows 7, Vista, and XP, and perhaps even Windows 2000 Professional, as you’re supporting users in both the home and the office. Windows 7 editions Microsoft’s most recent client operating system is Windows 7. Most features are included in all Windows 7 editions, but some features are unique to particular editions. The following features aren’t available in Windows 7 Home Basic edition:  Aero Glass and advanced window navigation  Easy networking and network sharing  Windows Media Center and improved media format support  Multi-touch The following features aren’t available in the two Windows 7 Home editions:  Windows XP mode  Domain Join  Network backup  Encrypting File System (EFS)  Location-aware printing  Remote Desktop Host

Operating systems

2–7

The following features are available only in Windows 7 Enterprise and Ultimate:  BitLocker Drive Encryption  Multi-Language User Interface (MUI)  Direct Access links to corporate resources without a VPN  AppLocker  Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) disk image booting  BranchCache Windows Vista editions Like Windows 7, most Windows Vista features are included in all editions, but some features are unique to particular editions. The following features are not available in Windows Vista Home Basic:  Aero desktop GUI with Flip 3D  Windows Mobility Center and Tablet PC support  Scheduled and network-based backup (however, all editions contain SafeDocs backup and restore)  Windows Meeting Space  PC-to-PC Sync The following features are not available in either of the Windows Vista Home editions:  Multiprocessor support  Complete PC Backup and Restore  Networking Center  Remote Desktop  Domain Join  Group Policy support  Windows Fax and Scan  Encrypting File System (EFS)  Shadow Copy  P2P Meeting Place  Corporate Roaming  Offline Files and Folders The following features are available only in Windows Vista Home Premium Edition and Windows Vista Ultimate Edition:  Windows Media Center and Media Center Extenders  Windows DVD Maker  Windows HD Movie Maker  Windows premium games The following features are available only in Windows Vista Ultimate Edition:  BitLocker Drive Encryption

2–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The following features are available only in Windows Vista Ultimate Edition and Windows Vista Enterprise Edition:  Multi-Language User Interface (MUI)  Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications (SUA)  Single Session Virtual PC Windows XP editions Windows XP is the Microsoft operating system that preceded Windows Vista. It is remains in use in many businesses and homes. The Home and Media Center Editions have feature sets designed for the home user, and the Professional version is designed for the business user. The feature sets of these editions vary significantly because business organizations need to control and secure their client computers more than the typical home user does. The following features are included in Windows XP Professional, but are not included in Windows XP Home Edition or Windows XP Media Center Edition:  Remote desktop  Multiprocessor support  Automated System Recovery (ASR)  Dynamic disk support  Fax service  Internet Information Services (IIS)/Personal Web server  Encrypting File System (EFS)  File-level access control (Windows XP Professional computers that aren’t domain members, and Windows XP Home Edition and Media Center Edition computers, use Simple File Sharing.)  C2 certification  Domain membership  Group policies  IntelliMirror  Remote Installation Services (RIS)  Roaming profiles  Multilingual support  64-bit version  IPSec user interface  SNMP  Simple TCP/IP services  SAP agent  Client services for NetWare  Network monitor  Client-side caching  Administrative tools (the Home and Media Center Editions have only a subset of the tools)

Operating systems

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Windows 2000 Professional Windows 2000 Professional doesn’t include many of the features that the Windows XP or Windows Vista versions do. Some of the dependability features that Windows 2000 Professional does include are:  Device driver verification  Scalable memory and processor support  Side-by-side DLLs  Windows File Protection Windows 2000 Professional has some, but not all, of the security features included with the later Windows operating systems:  Encrypting File System (EFS), with single-user support  IPSec  Kerberos Windows 2000 Professional does include the following management and deployment features:  User State Migration, a Resource Kit tool  Hardware standards support (Some, but not all, of the standards are supported)  System Preparation Tool  Remote OS Installation (partially supported)  Multilingual support  Group Policy support  Microsoft Management Console  Recovery console  Safe Mode startup options  Internet Connection Sharing  Troubleshooters (some features supported) Windows 2000 Professional does support many mobile computing features that are similar to those in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP:  Offline file and folder support  Offline viewing  Laptop power management features  Hot docking  Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) This makes it a less suitable operating system choice for notebook computers.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Processors: 32-bit vs. 64-bit

In order for a computer to be a 64-bit system, all of the hardware drivers must be 64-bit compatible and the operating system must be written as 64-bit. Microsoft offers 64-bit versions of Windows XP Professional and all Windows Vista versions. The 64-bit versions of Windows can utilize more RAM than 32-bit versions of Windows, minimizing memory swapping and thus increasing performance. You’ll sometimes hear Microsoft’s 32-bit versions referred to as x86, which is the generic name for the series of Intel microprocessors that began with the 80286 microprocessor, as well as compatible processors from other vendors. Although the 80286 processor was 16-bit, the other x86 processors—from the 80386 in 1985 until the introduction of the Athlon 64 processor in 2003—were 32-bit. Microsoft refers to its 64bit versions as x64.

Operating systems Do it!

A-1:

2–11

Selecting an appropriate Windows operating system

Questions and answers 5 You work for a small company with approximately 100 users. In addition to you, the IT staff has one other person to support the company’s network infrastructure, servers, and client computers. Of the 100 users, over 70% of them are field sales reps using laptop computers. Many of these users must provide their own support in the field, with only phone support available from the company’s IT department. You need to standardize all clients on one operating system. Which operating system would you recommend? Why?

6 You and your spouse own a small landscaping business. You currently have three networked Windows Me computers in a home office. The three computers share one Internet connection using Internet Connection Sharing. Microsoft ended support for Windows Me and you need to upgrade. You have researched Windows Vista Business and Windows Vista Home Premium Edition. What would some benefits be of using Windows Vista Home Premium Edition on your three computers?

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 7 Similar to the previous question, you and your spouse own a small catering business. You currently have three networked Windows XP Home Edition computers in a small office. The three computers share one Internet connection using Internet Connection Sharing. Microsoft ended all but self-support for Windows XP and you need to upgrade. You have researched Windows 7 Business and Windows 7 Home Premium Edition. What would some benefits be of using Windows 7 Home Premium Edition on your three computers?

8 Your company has contracted with independent vendors in several countries where English is not the primary language. You have 16 employees who need to review documents created by the contractors. Which operating system(s) would allow users to read, edit, and create documents in different languages from within the English version?

Operating systems

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Operating system interfaces All Windows 7 and Vista editions, with the exception of the Starter and Home Basic editions, sport the new Aero desktop. The Windows 7 and Vista Starter and Home Basic interfaces are similar to the Windows XP Professional interface. As you’ll see in this section, there are differences between Windows XP Professional and the versions of Windows 7 and Vista that use Aero, but most experienced Windows users can switch between them with little effort. The desktop All Windows GUIs use a desktop as the main work area and starting point for beginning all other tasks. The desktop is loaded at startup by explorer.exe. Regardless of whether you’re using a version of Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP, the desktop contains the following items, as shown in Exhibit 2-5 and Exhibit 2-6:  Taskbar — A bar that contains buttons and icons that can be used to monitor, control, and switch among running programs. The taskbar contains: – Start menu — A cascading menu from which the user can launch programs. – Quick Launch bar — Contains shortcuts to applications. The Quick Launch bar was introduced with Internet Explorer 4. – Notification area — Displays icons for system and program applications that are running but have no desktop presence. The time and the volume icon are displayed in the notification area. Sometimes you will hear this area referred to as the "system tray”; Microsoft says this is incorrect.  Recycle Bin — An icon that points to a directory where deleted files are stored temporarily until the user permanently removes them from the computer. Desktop gadgets are only available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista and are found in the Windows Sidebar. In 7 they can be placed anywhere on the desktop, and in Vista they are found in the Windows Sidebar.

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Pinned applications

Taskbar

Notification area

Desktop shortcuts

Start menu

Exhibit 2-4: The Windows 7 desktop

Sidebar with gadgets Desktop

Taskbar

Recycle Bin

Start menu

Exhibit 2-5: The Windows Vista desktop

Notification area

Desktop gadgets

Operating systems

Desktop

Taskbar

2–15

Notification area

Recycle Bin

Start menu

Exhibit 2-6: The Windows XP Professional desktop In Windows 2000 Professional, you can also find the following items on the desktop:  My Computer — An icon used to display the contents of your computer’s hard disks.  My Network Places — An icon used to display other computers and resources on your network. In Windows 7, Vista, and XP, you can place these items on the desktop. To place a shortcut to one of these items on the desktop, right-click an item’s icon on the Start menu; then choose Show on Desktop, in Windows 7 and Windows XP, or Send To, Desktop (create shortcut) in Windows Vista. To place a full version of the item on the desktop, access the Desktop tab of the Display Properties dialog box. Check the icons you want placed on the desktop and click OK.

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Taskbar

System tray

My Computer My Network Places Recycle Bin

Start menu

Exhibit 2-7: The Windows 2000 Professional desktop In all Windows versions, other programs can place icons on the desktop when they’re installed. These icons are used to start the specified programs’ executable files. Users can create their own desktop shortcuts to additional items, such as printers, files, and folders. Shortcuts aren’t the only items that can be placed on the desktop; for example, in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the sidebar containing gadgets can be placed on the desktop. In Windows 7, you can also pin items to the taskbar or to the Start menu. Right-click the item and chose either Pin to Taskbar or Pin to Start Menu. Windows Aero Windows Aero is the name of the new user interface (UI) that Microsoft introduced with Windows Vista. It’s available in Windows 7 and Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista Business, Windows 7 Professional, Windows 7 and Vista Enterprise, and Windows 7 and Vista Ultimate. The Windows UI had remained much the same from the introduction of Windows 95 up through Windows XP in 2001. This new UI includes the following features:  The Windows Sidebar (shown in Exhibit 2-5), which contains "gadgets” or mini programs that give you information at a glance and provide easy access to frequently used tools  Translucent windows, taskbar, and Start menu, examples of which are shown in Exhibit 2-8.  Taskbar thumbnails, which provide a preview of the window they represent.  Three-dimensional Windows Flip (shown in Exhibit 2-9), which allows you to flip between open windows while seeing what’s in each window.

Operating systems

Exhibit 2-8: An example of Windows Aero in Windows Vista

Exhibit 2-9: 3D Windows Flip in Windows Vista

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2–18

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One In Windows 7, Microsoft added several features to the desktop of the Aero interface. They’re described in the following table. Desktop feature

Description

Aero Peek

Aero Peek works in two different ways:

 When you place your mouse over an open application’s Taskbar icon, Windows displays a thumbnail of the window. Place your mouse pointer on that thumbnail, and Windows 7 makes all open windows transparent except the one you’re pointing to.  By placing your mouse pointer over the small translucent rectangle at the right-edge of your task bar (shown in Exhibit 2-10), it makes all open windows transparent, allowing you to view your desktop. If you click the rectangle, you’re able to access items on the desktop with your mouse. This is similar to the Show Desktop feature in previous versions of Windows. Click the rectangle again, and the transparent windows are restored. Aero Shake

When you have multiple windows open on your desktop, you can press and hold your mouse pointer on the title bar of a single window, then shake the mouse back and forth. This minimizes all other open windows, leaving just the one you “shook” on the desktop.

Aero Snap

Drag the title bar of a window to the top of the screen, and the window automatically maximizes. Drag the title bar back down, and the window goes back to its original size and position. Drag the title bar to the left or right of your screen, and it snaps to one side and takes up half the desktop.

Jump lists

When you right-click a taskbar icon (either an open application or a pinned application), Windows 7 displays a pop-up menu that you can use to select common tasks quickly for the application. Jump lists are coded by the application developers and, if available, vary from application to application. An example of the jump list for Internet Explorer is shown in Exhibit 2-11.

Exhibit 2-10: Showing the desktop with Aero Peek

Operating systems

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Exhibit 2-11: Internet Explorer jump list The Windows Aero UI has several system requirements:  1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor  1 gigabyte of system memory  128 MB graphics card  DirectX 9–compatible graphics processor that supports a Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) driver, Pixel Shader 2.0 in hardware, and 32 bits per pixel Although you can install and use Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer with a slower processor, less memory, and a non-compatible graphics card and processor, you won’t be able to enable the Windows Aero interface. Windows Explorer Windows Explorer is the GUI tool used to manage files. It’s available from the cascading Start menu in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional. Its exact location on the menu varies by operating system version, but most often you’ll find it under the Accessories menu. There are other methods for opening Windows Explorer. In all versions of Windows, you can choose Start menu items such as Computer (or My Computer), your user name, Documents (or My Documents), Pictures (or My Pictures), and Music (or My Music)—all of which open a Windows Explorer window. The difference between each choice is what gets displayed in the details pane. For example, if you choose Computer (or My Computer), the details pane lists the drives attached to your computer; if you choose Documents (or My Documents), the details pane shows the files and folders in your personal Documents folder. In Windows 7, you can also click the Windows Explorer icon pinned to the taskbar to open Windows Explorer. Exhibit 2-12 and Exhibit 2-13 show the components of Windows Explorer in Windows Vista and in Windows XP, respectively. The Menu bar is not displayed by default in Windows Vista. To access the Menu bar in Vista, press the Alt key.

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Date created or modified Menu bar

Toolbar

Files

File type

File size

Drive Folders/ directories

Exhibit 2-12: The Details view of Windows Explorer in Windows Vista Professional

Menu bar

Toolbar Files

Date created or modified File size File type

Drive Folders/ directories Drive

Exhibit 2-13: The Details view of Windows Explorer in Windows XP Professional While you’ll find the exact components vary slightly from operating system to operating system. They are very similar and if you are familiar with the interface of one, you should be able to navigate with relative ease in the others.

Operating systems

2–21

Windows 7 Libraries Explanation

A Windows library is a collection of related locations that you can see in one contents pane. Your libraries are listed in the navigation pane of Windows Explorer. The built-in libraries include Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos, and you can add new libraries. Previous versions of Windows had special-purpose folders for different types of content, and these folders were all subfolders of a personal folder that was automatically created for each user. Some of these folders still exist in Windows 7, but they are now included in the appropriate library.

Exhibit 2-14: This Documents library contains three locations The Documents library, for instance, is not an individual folder, but rather a listing of the files found in the Public Documents folder and in your personal Documents folder. You can add other folders to libraries, too. If, for instance, you store all your Word documents in a folder on an external hard drive, you can add that folder to your Documents library. In the example shown in Exhibit 2-14, the folder D:\Reports has been added to the Documents library. To see which folders are actually in a given library, select the library in the navigation pane of Windows Explorer. The included locations will be shown in the contents pane, as shown in Exhibit 2-14. Also, you can expand the libraries in the navigation pane and select an individual folder to see only that folder’s contents.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Creating and deleting libraries To create a library, do either of the following:  In the navigation pane of Windows Explorer, select Libraries; then, on the Command bar, click New library. Enter a name for the library. You can then add locations to your new library.  Right-click a folder and choose “Include in library,” “Create new library.” This action automatically creates a library with the name of the selected folder and includes that folder in the library. You can then add more locations. To delete a library, select it in Windows Explorer and press Delete, or right-click the library and choose Delete. Note: Deleting a library does not remove any of the files or folders that were included in the library. Adding folders to a library To add a location to a library, follow these steps: 1 In the navigation pane of Windows Explorer, select the library to which you want to add a location. 2 In the contents pane, under the library’s title, click the link stating the number of locations (such as “3 locations”). This opens the Library Locations dialog box for that library. See Exhibit 2-15. 3 Click Add. Navigate to and select the desired folder, and click the Include folder button. You are returned to the Library Locations dialog box with the new folder shown. 4 Click OK to return to Windows Explorer. You can also right-click a folder in Windows Explorer and choose “Include in library,” and then select the desired library.

Exhibit 2-15: The Library Locations dialog box for the Documents library

Operating systems

2–23

A folder can be included in more than one library. For instance, an online auctioneer might have a library for current items for sale; this library might include a folder for item descriptions and a folder for item pictures. These same folders might also be included in the Documents and Pictures libraries. If you include one library in another library, all of the folders in the first one will be included in the second, as though you had added them individually. However, the first library name won’t appear in the second library. Removing folders from a library Reverse the methods above to remove folders from a library:  In the navigation pane, right-click the folder under the expanded library and choose “Remove location from library.”  With the library displayed in the contents pane, click the number-of-locations link under the library title. Then use the Library Locations dialog box to remove the folder. Default saving locations and content order Every library has a default saving location—the actual folder where it will save something that is saved in the library. For instance, if you drag a file to the Documents library, the file will be saved in the My Documents folder by default. You can change the default save location from the Library Locations dialog box. Just right-click a folder and choose “Set as default save location.” You can also use the Library Locations dialog box to change the order in which the locations appear in the library’s contents pane. By default, the folders appear in the order in which they were added to the library. To change that order from within the Library Locations dialog box, right-click a folder and choose “Move up” or “Move down.”

2–24 Do it!


A-2:

Locating Windows 7 interface components

Here’s how 9 If necessary, log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN##

Here’s why The password is !pass1234.

10 Observe the Windows 7 desktop Locate the Recycle Bin icon

By default, it’s located in the upper-left corner of the screen. However, you can drag it around on the desktop. The Recycle Bin icon points to a directory where deleted files are stored until you permanently remove them from the computer.

Double-click Recycle Bin When the Recycle Bin has items in it, two Recycle Bin buttons are available. You can permanently delete all items in the Recycle Bin by clicking Empty the Recycle Bin. You can also retrieve items from the Recycle Bin by clicking Restore all items. If the Recycle Bin is empty, these buttons are not displayed.

Close the Recycle Bin 11 Locate the system tray On the far right, it displays the system clock and Show Desktop button. Other icons depend on what your system is currently running. In the graphic above, there is:  A volume icon, because a sound card is installed and functioning  A network icon, because there is a NIC installed and configured  An Action Center Alerts icon, because there is at least one security information message for the user

Point to the system clock

It displays today’s date.

12 Click

(The Start button.) To display the Start menu.

Operating systems 13 Click Computer and then maximize the window

2–25

In this window, you can do the following:  See the disks installed on your computer.  Begin common system tasks, such as viewing system properties, uninstalling or changing a program, mapping a network drive, or opening the Control Panel.  Navigate by using links to other places, including Documents, Pictures, and Music libraries.

Double-click

To view the folders on your C: drive.

Click

To leave Local Disk (C:) running, but minimize it to a button on the taskbar.

Local Disk (C:)

14 Point to the Windows Explorer icon pinned to the Taskbar

Click the thumbnail for

A thumbnail for Local Disk (C:) appears. When applications are running, you can switch from one to another by clicking its thumbnail on the taskbar. To switch to the running application.

Local Disk (C:)

Click 15 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories,

To close the Local Disk (C:) window. To open Windows Explorer.

Windows Explorer

Expand Computer

(Click the arrow next to Computer in the lower-left pane.) The lower-left pane is called the Folders pane.

Expand Local Disk (C:) Select WINDOWS 16 Scroll the Details pane down to view files

The files are listed in the Details pane in alphabetical order—folders first, then files. Details view is the default. It displays each folder and file, with its type, the date it was created or last modified, and the file size.

17 Click

To close Windows Explorer.

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System tools All Windows interfaces contain graphical tools you can use to control the computer and operating system:  Control Panel  Computer Management console  Network and My Network Places  Command-line utility  Task Manager The Control Panel The Control Panel, shown in Exhibit 2-16, is a group of utilities, called applets, that you can use to control your computer’s system settings. In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, you can open the Control Panel from the Start menu. You can also customize the Start menu so that the Control Panel is a cascading submenu. You use the Control Panel applets to: Function

Windows 7/Vista

Windows 2000 Professional

Windows XP

Perform system configuration and maintenance tasks

Administrative Tools



Configure computer security

Action Center (Windows 7)

Security Center Windows Firewall

Security Center (Vista) Windows Defender Windows Firewall Configure network settings

Network and Sharing Center

Network and Dial-up Connection Phone and Modem Options

Install, configure, and uninstall hardware

Add a device (Windows 7)

Network Connections Network Setup Wizard Phone and Modem Options

Add/Remove Hardware

Add Hardware

Add/Remove Programs

Add or Remove Programs

Users and Passwords

User Accounts

Add Hardware (Vista)

Install, configure, and uninstall software

Programs (Windows 7) Programs and Features (Vista)

Add, configure, and remove user accounts

User Accounts

Operating systems

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Function

Windows 7/Vista


Windows XP

Customize the appearance of Windows

Personalization (Windows 7)

Display

Display Taskbar and Start Menu

Personalize (Vista) Taskbar and Start Menu Change the clock, your language, or your region

Date and Time

Date and Time

Date and Time

Region and Language (Windows 7)

Regional Options

Regional and Language Options

Keyboard

Keyboard

Mouse

Mouse

Regional and Language Options (Vista) Change or configure keyboard or other input methods

Devices and Printers (Windows 7) Keyboard (Windows Vista)

Game Controllers

Mouse (Windows Vista) Pen and Input Devices (Windows Vista) Game Controllers (Windows Vista)

Set accessibility options

Ease of Access Center

Accessibility

Accessibility Options

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One There are two views to Control Panel—Classic View, shown in Exhibit 2-16, and Category View, shown in Exhibit 2-17. To switch between the two views, click the appropriate choice in the left pane.

Exhibit 2-16: Control Panel shown in Classic View in Windows Vista

Operating systems

Exhibit 2-17: Control Panel shown in Category View in Windows Vista

2–29

2–30

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Microsoft incorporated a Search feature in Windows 7 and Windows Vista to make it easier to find Control Panel applets. To search for a specific applet in the Control Panel, you type a portion of its name in the Search box. (The Search box is in the upper-right corner of the Control Panel.) The Search displays a list of links to matching applets for the term you typed. For example, if you type "network,” Search returns links to the applets shown in Exhibit 2-18. Note: Shown is just a sample of the applets returned. The results list is longer than what is displayed in the Exhibit.

Exhibit 2-18: A sampling of the results returned searching for a Control Panel applet in Windows 7

Operating systems

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The Computer Management console The Computer Management console is a group of tools you can use to manage the local computer or a remote computer. Exhibit 2-19 shows the Computer Management console in Windows Vista. To open the Computer Management console, click Start, right-click Computer or My Computer, and choose Manage. You can use the Computer Management console to: Function

Console item

Schedule tasks

Task Scheduler (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista)

Monitor system events

Event Viewer

Create and manage shared resources

Shared Folders

View a list of users connected to the computer Create and manage local users and groups

Local Users and Groups

Monitor system performance

Performance (in Windows 7) Reliability and Performance (in Windows Vista) Performance Logs and Alerts (in Windows 2000 and XP)

View the configuration of devices and add device drivers

Device Manager

Set storage-device properties

Disk Management (in all Windows versions) Logical Drives (in Windows 2000) Removable Storage (in Windows 2000 and XP)

Manage applications and services

Services and Applications

Start and stop system services

Exhibit 2-19: The Computer Management console in Windows Vista

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Network and My Network Places Network is an auto-discovery utility that uses the Link-Layer Topology Discovery (LLTD) protocol to identify and display the computers, routers, and switches on your network. To access the Network utility, choose Network from the Start menu. In Windows 7, choose Computer and then select Network in the navigation pane. You might also hear this utility referred to as "the Network map.” Exhibit 2-20 shows Network in Windows Vista.

Exhibit 2-20: The Network utility in Windows Vista My Network Places is a utility in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional for browsing network resources, such as shared file folders on other computers, networked local printers, and Web links (URLs). To open the My Network utility, choose My Network from the Start menu. The command-line utility The command-line utility enables a user to interact with the operating system in a nongraphical user interface. Using this utility, you enter character-based commands to run applications and other utilities. To open the Windows command interpreter, do any of the following:  Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Command Prompt.  In Windows Vista, click Start, type cmd in the Search box, and press Enter.  In Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition, and Windows 2000 Professional, click Start and choose Run. In the Open box, enter command or cmd, and then click OK.

Operating systems

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The Run utility is also available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista. You’ll find it on the Start, All Programs, Accessories menu. You can also add it directly off the Start menu, by using Start Menu Properties. Note: Windows adds frequently used programs to the Start menu. Once you’ve used a program several times, you might find that you don’t need to "dig” for it in the All Programs menu; instead, it will be displayed on the Start menu. A Command Prompt window is shown in Exhibit 2-21. The default color scheme for the command-line utility in Windows is white text on a black background. To increase readability in print, we have customized the color scheme to black text on a white background for the graphics in this course.

Exhibit 2-21: The Command Prompt window in Windows 7 Task Manager Task Manager is a program that provides information on processes and applications that are running on your computer. A version of Task Manager has been available in all Windows operating systems since Windows 95. In Windows 2000 Professional and all Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 editions, you can open Task Manager by:  Right-clicking an empty space on the taskbar and choosing Task Manager  Pressing Ctrl+Shift+Esc  Pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del and, in Windows Vista, choosing Start Task Manager from the list The Task Manager window is shown in Exhibit 2-22.

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Exhibit 2-22: Task Manager in Windows Vista The Microsoft Management Console The Microsoft Management Console (MMC) is a graphical user interface that is used in a variety of administrative utilities, such as Computer Management. The Microsoft Management Console was introduced with Windows 2000. An MMC contains the following panes:  The console pane, where the tools or utilities (called snap-ins) are added.  The details pane, where you work with the components of a snap-in.  The Actions pane (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista), where you can choose additional actions to take based on the snap-in and the component selected in the MMC.

Operating systems

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There are two types of MMCs—preconfigured MMCs, like Computer Management, and custom MMCs that you create yourself and save. A custom MMC containing the Device Manager and Local Users and Groups utilities for the local computer is shown in Exhibit 2-23.

Exhibit 2-23: A custom MMC in Windows Vista

2–36 Do it!


A-3:

Observing Windows 7 system tools

Here’s how 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel

Here’s why The Control Panel contains a group of tools you can use to control your computer’s system settings.

Observe the Control Panel categories 2 From the View by list, select Large icons

To view all Control Panel applets. This view is similar to the interface used in Windows 2000 Professional.

Observe the Control Panel categories 3 From the View by list, select Category

4 In the Search box, type power

To view all Control Panel applets. This view is similar to the native view for the Control Panel in Windows XP and Windows Vista. To search for the applet to configure power options for your computer.

5 Observe the results

Click Choose when to turn off display

To change the view to the Power Options applet, to edit the power plan settings.

6 Close the Control Panel 7 Click Start and right-click Computer

Choose Manage 8 Observe the categories listed in the console pane

Utilities are grouped by System Tools, Storage, and Services and Applications.

Operating systems

2–37

9 In the console pane, under System Tools, select each item and observe the information in the details pane Select Device Manager

You can use Device Manager to view a list of hardware devices and their status.

In the details pane, expand “Mice and other pointing devices”

Click the plus sign next to it.

10 Right-click your installed mouse

You can update the driver, uninstall the device, scan for hardware changes for the device, and view the properties of the device.

Choose Properties

This dialog box shows you the current status of the device.

Click Cancel 11 In the console pane, under Storage, select Disk Management, and observe the information in the details pane 12 In the console pane, expand Services and Applications Select each item and observe the information in the details pane 13 Close Computer Management 14 Click Start and choose Computer In the navigation pane, click Network

15 Observe the toolbar

To start the Network utility. It auto-detects the other computers, routers, and switches on your network. You can use these buttons to complete common network tasks or to go to the Network and Sharing Center.

2–38

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 16 Close Network 17 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories,

To open the command-line utility.

Command Prompt

Type help |more and press e

To view, one screen at a time, a list of the internal commands you can use at the command prompt, along with a brief description of the command’s function.

Press q

To advance the list of commands by a screen.

Continue pressing q until you have viewed the entire list of commands Type exit and press e 18 Right-click an empty part of the taskbar and choose Start

To close the Command Prompt window. To open Task Manager.

Task Manager

Select the Processes tab 19 Observe the processes running on your computer

You can use Task Manager to see if a process is using too much of the processor’s time. You can end a process if you need to.

Observe the summary information at the bottom of the window Close Task Manager 20 Click Start 21 In the Start Search box, type MMC and press e Click Yes 22 Choose File, Add/Remove Snap-in…

To open a blank MMC console.

Operating systems

2–39

23 Observe the list of available snap-ins

24 Select Device Manager Click Add Click Finish

To accept the default of Device Manager for the local computer.

25 Select Event Viewer Click Add Click OK 26 Click OK

To accept the default of Event Viewer for the local computer. To create your custom MMC, containing Device Manager and Event Viewer.

27 Choose File, Save As… 28 In the File Name box, type My Console

From the Save in list, navigate to select COMPADMIN##,

To save your custom MMC to the desktop.

Desktop

Click Save 29 Close your custom MMC 30 On the desktop, double-click My Console

Click Yes 31 Close My Console

Don’t save settings.

2–40


Topic B: Directory management This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Command prompt utilities

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure Windows OS  Directory structures – Create folders – Navigate directory structures

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  DIR  COPY (/a /v /y)  XCOPY  MD / CD / RD  [command name] /?

2.2

Differentiate between Windows operating system directory structures (Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7)  User file locations  User profile and program files  System file locations  Fonts  Temporary files  Program files  Offline files and folders

Operating systems

2–41

Directory structure Explanation

Hard disks are divided into usable storage spaces through partitions. Depending on the operating system used and the maximum hard disk size it supports, a hard disk can be configured as a single large partition or as multiple smaller partitions. In Microsoft operating systems, each partition is assigned a drive letter. The root of the directory structure (the top of the folder hierarchy) for that partition is denoted by a backslash, for example C:\. Underneath the root directory, information is organized through the use of directories (also called folders). You can use directories to divide your files into logical categories, as shown in Exhibit 2-24, making information easier to find and use.

Exhibit 2-24: Sample directory structure on a hard disk

2–42

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When you install Windows, it creates a default directly structure that includes locations for user files, system files, and other files used by applications and the operating system. The following table lists the default file locations for three versions of Windows. A typical installation will put these folders on the computer’s C: drive. File type

Windows 2000

Windows XP

Windows 7/Vista

User files

Documents and Settings

Documents and Settings

Users

System files

Winnt

Windows

Windows

32-bit system files*

Winnt\System32

Windows\System32

Windows\System32

Windows\SysWOW64 for 32-bit on 64-bit Windows

Windows\SysWOW64 for 32-bit on 64-bit Windows

64-bit system files

N/A

Windows\System32

Windows\System32

Fonts

Winnt\Fonts

Windows\Fonts

Windows\Fonts

Temporary files

Winnt\Temp

Windows\Temp

Windows\Temp

Program files**

Program Files

Program Files

Program Files

Offline files and folders

Winnt\CSC

Windows\CSC

Windows\CSC

* The following system subdirectories are shared by both 32-bit and 64-bit applications:  System32\catroot  System32\catroot2  System32\drivers\etc  System32\logfiles  System32\spool In Windows Vista, the CSC folder is hidden and protected by default, and it doesn’t contain any editable or readable files. To see the files in the offline-files cache, open the cache by using Offline Files and Sync Center in the Control Panel. ** 64-bit systems create a Program Files (x86) folder to hold 32-bit application files.

Operating systems

2–43

To work with files and folders on your hard disk, you can issue commands in the Windows command interpreter or use the GUI utility, Windows Explorer, in any version of Windows. Navigating in the Windows GUI To navigate the directory structure by using Windows Explorer: 1 Open Windows Explorer. As discussed previously, there are many methods for opening Windows Explorer. In all versions of Windows, you can click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Windows Explorer. In Windows 7, click the Windows Explorer icon pinned to the taskbar. The left pane in Windows Explorer is the navigation or folders pane; the right pane is the details pane. In Windows 7, the navigation pane is divided into sections—Favorites, Libraries, Computer, and Network. In Windows Vista, the navigation pane is divided into two sections—Favorite Links and Folders. 2 In Windows 7 or Windows Vista, in the Folders pane, click the arrow ( ) next to a drive or folder to expand the tree and view the subfolders in that drive or folder. In Windows XP and Windows 2000, in the navigation pane, click the plus sign (+) next to a drive or folder to expand the tree and view the subfolders. 3 Select a drive or subfolder in the Folders pane or the navigation pane to view its contents (subfolders and files) in the details pane.

2–44 Do it!


B-1:

Navigating a directory tree using the Windows GUI

Here’s how 1 From the taskbar click

Here’s why To open Windows Explorer.

Observe the navigation pane

You can use this pane to move around in the directory structure on your computer.

2 Under Computer, expand Local Disk (C:)

Expand WINDOWS Select Temp 3 Click Continue

You’re prompted to edit the folder’s security settings to allow access. The contents of the Temp folder are displayed in the details pane.

Operating systems

2–45

Navigating using the command prompt Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition, and Windows 2000 Professional all include the Command-prompt utility that enables the user to interact with the operating system in a non-graphical user interface by entering character-based commands to run applications and other utilities. Navigation commands include:  cmd or command — Starts an instance of the Windows command interpreter from the %systemroot%\System32 folder. Command.com is a legacy 16-bit application. Cmd.exe is an updated 32-bit version.  dir — Displays a list of the current or specified directory’s files and subdirectories.  chdir or cd — Changes the current directory to the specified directory. Cmd (Command) To use the 32-bit version of the Windows command interpreter, you enter: cmd

To use the 16-bit version of the Windows command interpreter, you enter: command

For the Windows command interpreter included with Windows Vista, optional parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 2-25. In syntax statements such as this, switches, which provide options for controlling the execution of a command, are preceded by the "/” symbol.

Exhibit 2-25: Optional parameters and switches for the Windows command interpreter, cmd

2–46

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Dir The syntax of dir is: dir

Optional parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 2-26:

Exhibit 2-26: Optional parameters and switches for the dir command

You can use the wildcard characters ? and * to display a subset of directories and files. For example, dir *.txt displays all files with the .txt extension; dir 200?.txt displays all files whose names contain "200” with any final character and the .txt extension, such as 2000.txt, 2001.txt, 2002.txt, and so on. Chdir (cd) To use this command, you can enter it in either of two ways: chdir cd

Each command displays the name of the current drive and directory. Optional parameters are shown in Exhibit 2-27.

Operating systems

2–47

Exhibit 2-27: Optional parameters and switches for the cd command

Help You can get general information about command-line commands by entering the following at the command line: help

You can get command-specific help by entering either of the following at the command line: cmd /? help cmd

Substitute the cmd with the name of the command for which you want to get help. The help utility displays a command’s syntax in uppercase and lowercase letters. Uppercase letters designate required characters. Lowercase letters are used for variable strings.

2–48 Do it!


B-2:

Using the command prompt

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start, type cmd, and press e

To open a Command Prompt window. You could also choose Command Prompt from the Start menu, but for this activity, you’ll run the MS-DOS cmd command.

2 Type help and press e

The operating system returns a list of available commands and a brief description of each.

3 Type dir /? and press e

Use the help information displayed to determine the answer to the following question.

4 What would be the result of the following command? dir c:\windows\system32\*.exe /p /o:-n

Type the preceding command and press e 5 Press q Continue to press q

Do it!

B-3:

To display the next screen of files. Until you reach the end of the directory listing.

Navigating a directory tree at the command-line

Here’s how 1 What command would you use to change from the current directory to the root of drive C:? Enter the command 2 What command would you use to change from the root of C: to C:\Windows\Temp? Enter the command 3 What command would you use to navigate to the parent directory? Enter the command 4 Change the directory to C:\Users\COMPDMIN##

Here’s why

Operating systems

2–49

Creating directories in the Windows GUI You can create directories in Windows Explorer. Here’s how: 1 In the Folders or navigation pane, select the drive or folder where you want to create the new folder. 2 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, choose New, Folder. In Windows XP and Windows 2000, choose File, New, Folder. 3 Type the name of the new folder. 4 Press Enter. When you create a directory in Windows Explorer, the maximum depth of the folder structure is limited by the maximum number of allowable characters in a file path, which is 255. This total number of characters includes the characters representing the drive, plus any file extensions. Do it!

B-4:

Creating directories using the Windows GUI

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In the Folders pane, under Libraries, expand Documents

Right-click My Documents and choose New, Folder Type Business Correspondence

Press e 2 Under Local Disk (C:), create a folder named Marketing

To replace the words “New Folder,” which are selected.

2–50


Creating directories using the command prompt As with navigating the directory structure, you can create directories at the command prompt or through Windows Explorer. To create a directory at the command prompt, you use the mkdir (or md) command. The syntax is: mkdir drive:path md drive:path Parameter

Description

drive

Specifies the drive on which you want to create the directory.

path

Specifies the name and location of the new directory. The maximum length of any single path from the root directory is 63 characters, including backslashes (\).

Spaces in commands The Windows operating systems use two different command interpreters to process commands at a command prompt. When you’re entering commands that include parameters with space characters, they’re processed differently, depending on the version of the command interpreter you’re using:  The 16-bit version, command.com, doesn’t allow spaces.  The 32-bit version, cmd.exe, treats the spaces as delimiters and processes the command by treating each word after the command as a separate parameter. To force the command interpreter to recognize the spaces, you should enclose in quotation marks any file or folder names that include spaces. For example, the command: md c:\my business files

is invalid in command.com. In cmd.exe, that command would create three directories: c:\my, and then a business, and files folder in the current directory. To create a single directory called "my business files,” you need to enter: md "c:\my business files"


B-5:

2–51

Creating directories at the command-line

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 What command would you use to create a directory called marketing at the root of the C: drive? Enter the command 2 What command would you use to view only directories at the root of the C: drive? Enter the command

To verify that the marketing directory was created successfully. Your screen should look similar to the one shown here. Your directories might vary from those listed in the graphic.

2–52


Copying directories using the Windows GUI You can use Windows Explorer to copy directories and their contents. To copy a directory and its contents in Windows Explorer: 1 In the Folders or navigation pane, select the directory you want to copy. To select multiple directories, hold down the Ctrl key and select each directory in the details pane. 2 Right-click the selection and choose Copy. 3 In the Folders or navigation pane, right-click the location that you want the directory and its contents to be copied to. 4 Choose Paste. Do it!

B-6:

Copying a directory using the Windows GUI

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In the Folders pane, right-click Business Correspondence

Choose Copy 2 In the Folders pane, under Computer\Local Disk (C:), right-click Marketing Choose Paste

The original folder remains in My Documents. A copy of the folder has been created as a subfolder of Marketing.

Operating systems

2–53

Copying directories using the command prompt You can also use the copy and xcopy commands to copy directories and their contents. The copy command copies one or more files to another location. The xcopy command copies files (not including hidden and system files), directories, and subdirectories. Copy The syntax for the copy command is: copy source destination Parameter

Description

source

Specifies the location and name of the file you want to copy. The source can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or any combination of these items.

destination

Specifies the location and name of the file you want to copy to. The destination can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or any combination of these items.

Optional parameters and switches for the copy command include those shown in Exhibit 2-28:

Exhibit 2-28: Optional parameters and switches for the copy command

2–54

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Xcopy The syntax for the xcopy command is: xcopy source destination Parameter

Description

source

Specifies the location and names of the files you want to copy. The source must include either a drive or a path.

destination

Specifies the destination of the files you want to copy. The destination can consist of a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or any combination of these items.

Optional parameters and switches for the xcopy command include those shown in Exhibit 2-29:

Exhibit 2-29: Optional parameters and switches for the xcopy command


B-7:

2–55

Copying a directory at the command-line

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Change the directory to C:\Windows\System32\Drivers (Enter cd \Windows\System32\Drivers.) This directory contains a folder named etc.

What command would you use to copy the etc folder and its contents to the root of C: and verify that the files were copied correctly? Enter the command 2 Verify that the etc directory and its files were copied to C:\ 3 If the folder C:\Windows\System32\Drivers\etc contained subfolders that you wanted to copy with the files, even if the subfolders were empty, what command would you use?

Use the dir command.

2–56


Removing directories using the Windows GUI To remove a directory and its contents by using Windows Explorer: 1 Right-click the folder you want to remove. (You can right-click the folder in either pane of Windows Explorer.) 2 Choose Delete. 3 Click Yes to confirm moving the folder and all its contents to the Recycle Bin. Do it!

B-8:

Removing a directory using the Windows GUI

Here’s how 1 In the Folders pane, under C:\Marketing, right-click

Here’s why You can also use the details pane.

Business Correspondence

2 Choose Delete

3 Click Yes 4 Minimize Windows Explorer

To confirm that you want to move the folder and all its contents to the Recycle Bin.

Operating systems

2–57

Removing directories using the command prompt You can also remove a directory by using the rmdir (rd) command. Rmdir (rd) Before you can delete a directory by using rmdir (rd) in the command interpreter, you must delete any files and subdirectories in that directory. The directory must be empty except for the ".” and ".. ” symbols and must not contain any hidden or system files. If the directory contains hidden or system files, you must first use the attrib command to remove the hidden and system attributes from the files. The syntax for the rmdir (rd) command is: rmdir drive:path rd drive:path

The drive:path parameter specifies the location and name of the directory you want to delete. You can’t use rmdir (rd) to delete the current directory. You must change to another directory. Do it!

B-9:

Removing a directory at the command-line

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Using the remove directory command, attempt to delete the C:\etc folder 2 Were you successful? Why or why not? 3 Using the delete command, delete the contents of the etc folder

4 Using the remove directory command, delete the etc folder 5 Verify that the etc folder has been deleted but the Marketing folder is still there

Confirm that you want to delete the files.

2–58


Topic C: File management This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Command prompt utilities

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure Windows OS  Files – Creation – Extensions – Attributes

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  EDIT

Binary and text files Explanation

Computer files come in two types: binary and text. Binary files can be read by the computer, but not by humans. Text files, typically in ASCII format, can be read by humans using a text editor, such as Notepad. Program files are binary files; data files are text files. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII is a code that represents English characters as numbers, with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127.

Operating systems

2–59

File-name extensions Typically, file names have three-letter extensions. The extension indicates the file type and is used by the operating system to open the file in the appropriate application. Windows can hide the file extensions of files shown in Windows Explorer. As a result, you might not see file extensions when you are working in Windows Explorer. Some common file extensions are listed in the following table. Additional common file extensions can be found at www.fileinfo.com/common.php. Extension

File type

.bat

Batch file

.bin

Binary file

.bmp, .gif, .jpeg, .jpg, .png, .tif

Image file

.com

Command file

.exe

Executable file for programs and applications

.hlp, .chm

Help file

.htm, .html

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) file for documents on the Web

.inf

Configuration settings file used during setup or installation

.ini

Configuration settings file

.msi

Windows Installer package file

.rtf

Rich text file; allows formatting

.sys

System file

.txt

Plain text file

.vbs

Visual Basic script file

In MS-DOS, file names have an eight-character limit. You’ll sometimes hear this referred to as "8.3” (eight characters for the name and three characters for the extension, separated by a period). Windows has a 255-character limit. This limit is based on the file system used. Under FAT16, file names can have extensions of 0–3 characters. Under FAT32 and NTFS, file names can have extensions of 0–255 characters, with the caveat that the overall name + extension must be 255 characters or less.

2–60


Text files You can create a text file by using the edit command or a Windows GUI text-editing application such as Notepad. To create a text file in the edit utility: 1 At the command prompt, type edit and press Enter. 2 Enter the desired text. 3 You can use the mouse to choose File, Save As, or press Alt, F, A. 4 To change the current directory, press Alt+D. Use the arrow keys and Enter to navigate to the desired directory. 5 To move the insertion point to the File Name box, press Alt+N. 6 In the File Name box, type a file name, including the extension. 7 Press Tab several times to highlight the OK button, and then press Enter. 8 Press Alt, F, X to exit the edit utility. To create a text file by using the Windows GUI text editor, Notepad: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Notepad. 2 Enter the desired text. 3 Choose File, Save As. 4 From the Save in list, select the desired directory. 5 In the File name box, type a name for your file. 6 Verify that Text Documents (*.txt) is selected in the Save as type box. 7 Click Save. 8 Choose File, Exit.


C-1:

2–61

Creating a text file using the MS-DOS text editor

Here’s how 1 Enter edit

Here’s why To start the MS-DOS text editor. Because you ran the edit command from within a Command Prompt window, your mouse driver is loaded and available. However, you’ll use keyboard shortcuts to choose menu items in this activity.

2 Type This is my first text file created with the MS-DOS text editor.

3 Press a

The menu bar is highlighted. The commands are shown with their keyboard shortcuts in white.

Press F

To display the File menu. The keyboard shortcuts for File menu items are also displayed in white.

Press A

To open the Save As dialog box.

4 Press a + D

(While holding down Alt, press D.) To move the insertion point to the Directories box.

Press y several times to highlight C

C: is added to the File Name box.

Press a + N

To move the insertion point back to the File Name box.

Press n

To move to the end of the File Name box, leaving C: entered in the box.

5 Type \Users\COMPADMIN##\My Text File.txt Observe the buttons at the bottom of the Save As box

OK is highlighted.

Press e

To activate the OK button and save the file as My Text File on the C drive.

6 Press a, F, X

(In sequence, not simultaneously.) To close the text editor window.

2–62


Editing text files You can edit a text file by using the edit command or a Windows GUI text editing application, such as Notepad. To edit a text file with the edit command: 1 At the command prompt, type edit drive:\path\filename and press Enter. 2 Modify the text as needed. 3 You can use the mouse to choose File, Save, or press Alt, F, S. 4 Press Alt, F, X to exit the edit program. To edit a text file in Notepad: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Notepad. 2 Choose File, Open. 3 In the Look in list, navigate to the folder containing the text file. 4 In the file list, select the desired file. 5 Click Open. 6 Modify the text. 7 Save the file and then exit the program. Do it!

C-2:

Editing a text file using the MS-DOS text editor

Here’s how 1 Enter the following command:

Here’s why The text file opens in the MS-DOS text editor.

edit "C:\Users\COMPDMIN##\My Text File.txt"

2 Press n

To move the insertion point to the end of the sentence.

3 Press q Type I have edited this file by using edit.

The text continues on one line. The MS-DOS text editor doesn’t have the word-wrap feature that’s included in GUI text editors, such as Notepad.

4 Press a, F, S

To save the changes in your file.

5 Press a, F, X

To exit the text editor.

6 Close the Command Prompt window

Operating systems

2–63

Batch files Batch files are files that contain multiple commands. When you run a batch file, the operating system runs all of the commands listed in the batch file in the order they’re listed in. Batch files are extremely useful for administrators (and users) who need to complete repetitive tasks. Creating a batch file You can create a batch file by using a Windows GUI text-editing application such as Notepad and saving the file with the .bat extension. To create a batch file in Notepad: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Notepad. 2 Enter the desired commands you’d like to run. 3 Choose File, Save As. 4 In Windows 7, you can select the desired directory from the Folders pane. In Windows 7 and in Windows Vista, in the Address bar, you can type or select the desired directory. You can also click Browse Folders to browse for and select the desired directory. In Windows XP or Windows 2000, select the desired directory from the Save in list. 5 From the Save as type list, select All Files. 6 In the File name box, type a name for your file. Use the extension .bat. 7 Click Save. 8 Choose File, Exit. The batch program typically displays (echoes) commands on your screen. Using the echo command, you can enable or disable this display. The syntax for the echo command is: Echo on|off

You can view the current echo status by entering echo in a command prompt window. The Windows command interpreter is also a helpful tool to use when you’re performing management tasks. You can combine multiple commands into one batch or script file, which runs all of the commands at once. You can run the commands locally or remotely.

2–64 Do it!


C-3:

Creating a batch file using Notepad

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and in the Search box, type notepad and press e

You can also choose All Programs, Accessories, Notepad from the Start menu.

2 Type @echo off

By default, a batch file displays the commands it contains as it runs. This first command will turn off this display.

You’ll use the Windows GUI text editor, Notepad, to create a simple batch file.

3 Press e 4 Type dir "C:\Program Files" > C:\Program_File_List.txt This command will take the directory listing from C:\Program Files and export it to a text file.

5 Choose File, Save As… From the Save as type list, select All Files

In the File name box, type My Batch File.bat

Click Save 6 Choose File, Exit

To exit Notepad.

7 Open Windows Explorer

If necessary.

8 Navigate to Documents

You are going to set this batch file to always run as an administrator so that it runs with the appropriate permissions to complete the task.

9 Right-click My Batch File and choose Create Shortcut 10 Right-click My Batch File – Shortcut and choose Properties

11 On the Shortcut tab, click Advanced

Operating systems

2–65

12 Check Run as administrator

Click OK twice 13 Double-click My Batch File –

To run the batch file.

Shortcut

14 Click Yes

In the User Account Control box. You can disable UAC for administrator-level accounts if you want to bypass this confirmation step.

15 In the Folders pane, select

The command in the batch file created the Program_File_List text file.

Local Disk (C:)

16 Open Program_File_List

17 Choose File, Exit

To exit Notepad.

2–66


File attributes Files can have different attributes assigned to them. File attributes tell the operating system and applications how files should be used. You can assign the attributes described in the following table:

Do it!

Attribute

Description

Read-only

Prevents inadvertent changes to a file. Commands don’t allow you to change a read-only file. Some Windows applications allow it, although they might prompt you first, letting you know that you’re changing a read-only file.

Hidden

Hides the file from view in the default list display of the dir command and in Windows Explorer.

System

Indicates that the file is used by the operating system and shouldn’t be altered or removed.

Archive

Indicates whether the file has been modified since a backup.

Index

Available in Windows Vista. Indicates the file is not to be indexed.

C-4:

Modifying file attributes

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In Windows Explorer, in the Folders pane, select Documents

2 In the details pane, right-click My Batch File and choose Properties

3 Observe the Attributes checkboxes

You can apply Read-only and Hidden attributes to this file by checking the appropriate boxes.

4 Move the Properties dialog box so you can observe the details pane of Windows Explorer 5 Check Hidden and click Apply

Windows Explorer suppresses the display of hidden files by default.

6 Observe the details pane

My Batch File no longer appears.

7 Click OK 8 Minimize Windows Explorer

Operating systems

2–67

Attrib.exe You can use the attrib command to remove or assign file attributes. If a file has a system or hidden attribute assigned, you must remove that attribute before you can change any other attribute for the file. The system attribute can be changed only at the command prompt. You can’t change it using the GUI. The attrib command recognizes wildcards (? and *) in file names. The syntax for the attrib command is: attrib

Optional parameters and switches are shown in Exhibit 2-30:

Exhibit 2-30: Optional parameters and switches for the attrib command in Windows Vista

2–68 Do it!


C-5:

Modifying file attributes by using attrib.exe

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start In the Search box, type cmd and press e 2 Type cd documents

To use the cd command to change the current directory to your Documents folder.

3 Type attrib and press e

“A” designates the archive attribute; “S,” the system file attribute; “H,” the hidden attribute; and “R,” the read-only attribute.

4 What command would you use to remove the hidden attribute from My Batch File? 5 Enter the command you identified in the previous step Type exit and press e

To close the Command Prompt window.

6 Switch back to Windows Explorer 7 If necessary, refresh the details pane view

My Batch File is once again displayed in the list of files.

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Topic D: File and folder permissions This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces  Control Panel

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure Windows OS  Files –

Permissions

Sharing files with local users Explanation

In Windows 7, Vista, XP, and 2000, each user has a personal folder. By default, no one other than you and a computer’s administrator can access the documents in your personal folder. In Windows 7 and Vista, your personal folder is the folder you open when you click Start and choose your user name. By default, your personal folder in Windows 7 (and Windows Vista) contains your Contacts, Desktop, Downloads, Favorites, Links, My Documents (Documents), My Music (Music), My Pictures (Pictures), My Videos (Videos) Saved Games, and Searches folders, as shown in Exhibit 2-31 and Exhibit 2-32. In Windows XP and Windows 2000, you access your personal folder by clicking Start and choosing My Documents. In Windows XP and Windows 2000, by default, your personal folder contains My Music and My Pictures, as shown in Exhibit 2-33, Additional folders, such as My Videos or Downloads, might display.

Exhibit 2-31: A user’s personal folder in Windows 7

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Exhibit 2-32: A user’s personal folder in Windows Vista

Exhibit 2-33: The My Documents folder in Windows XP Public folder sharing in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Public folder sharing is an easy way for you to share documents with users who log onto the same computer. Public folder sharing enables you to place files and folders that you want to share into a Public folder (shown in Exhibit 2-34). Other users on the computer can access the files in a Public folder, and open them, edit them, and delete them. Your personal files that aren’t in a Public folder still remain secure.

Exhibit 2-34: A user’s Public folders in Windows Vista

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Windows XP uses the Shared Documents folder, shown in Exhibit 2-35, in the manner that Windows Vista uses Public folder sharing. By default, the Shared Documents folder contains the Shared Music, Shared Pictures, and Shared Video folders.

Exhibit 2-35: The Shared Documents folder in Windows XP Professional Do it!

D-1:

Sharing files in the Public folder with local users

Here’s how 1 Click Start and select your COMPADMIN## user name

Here’s why To open your personal folder.

2 Under Libraries, expand Documents and select My Documents

3 Right-click a blank area of the details pane and choose New,

To create a text file, in Notepad, in your personal folder.

Text Document

4 Type COMPPrivate## and press e 5 Open COMPPrivate## and type This is my private document.

6 Save the file and exit Notepad 7 Under Libraries, expand Documents and select Public Documents

8 Right-click a blank area in the file list and choose New, Text Document

Type COMPPublic## and press e

To name the file, using your administrative user name.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 9 Open COMPPublic## and type This is my public document.

10 Save the file and exit Notepad 11 Click Start, click

(Next to Shut down.)

Choose Switch user Log on as COMPUSER## with a password of !pass1234 12 Open COMPUSER##’s personal folder Navigate to select the Public Documents folder Observe the content

You can see the COMPPublic## document that you created with your COMPADMIN## user account.

13 Open COMPPublic## and add a few words

14 Save the file and exit Notepad

You can access and edit COMPADMIN##’s shared file in the Public folder.

15 Switch to Windows Explorer Navigate to Computer\Local Disk (C:)\Users 16 Select COMPADMIN##

This is a private user folder. You can’t access it.

Click Continue Click No

You could enter COMPADMIN##’s password and edit the permissions.

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17 In your private My Documents folder, create a text document named COMPUSER##_Private

Close Windows Explorer 18 Log off and log back on as COMPADMIN##

19 Attempt to access COMPUSER##’s COMPUSER##_Private file 20 Open the COMPUSER##_Private file 21 Add text to the document

22 Save the file 23 Close all open windows

When you click Continue, the Windows login manager passes your administrative credentials to the Local Security Authority Service, which gives you access to the user’s private folder.

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HomeGroups in Windows 7 Windows 7 provides a feature called homegroups that allows computers to share pictures, music, videos, documents, and printers with other computers in the same homegroup. By default, people can view these files but they can’t modify them in any way unless you give them specific permission to do so. To create a homegroup, you must be running Windows 7 Home Premium, Professional, Ultimate, or Enterprise, and you must be on a home network (which you designate during installation or using Network and Sharing Center at any time after installation). Homegroups are not available on networks that have been designated Work or Public. To join a homegroup, you can use any version of Windows 7.

Exhibit 2-36: Creating a homegroup To create a homegroup: 1 Open Control Panel and click Network and Internet. Click HomeGroup. If you’re not on a home network, you will not have the option to create or join a homegroup. 2 Click “Create a homegroup,” and choose which files to share, as shown in Exhibit 2-36. Click Next. Windows 7 generates a password that you can use on other computers to join the homegroup you just created. 3 Click Finish. To join a homegroup, in the Control Panel, click Network and Internet, and then click HomeGroup. You’ll see any existing homegroups listed, and you can click Join to choose which of your files to share in the homegroup, and enter the password to join the homegroup.


D-2:

Exploring homegroups

Here’s how 1 Click Start, and choose Control Panel

Click Network and Internet, and then click HomeGroup 2 What message do you see? Why?

3 How could you join a homegroup? 4 If you were on a Windows 2000 Professional computer, could you connect to a homegroup? Why or why not? 5 If you were on a Windows 7 Starter Edition computer could you create a homegroup? Could you join a homegroup? 6 Close any open windows

Here’s why

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Permissions Permissions are settings that control what users can or cannot do with a file or folder. For example, a user might be permitted only to read a file. He or she might not be permitted to save any changes in the file. In Windows, permissions come in two basic varieties: share and NTFS permissions. Share permissions Share permissions are permissions that you (or an administrator) assign to a specific shared resource. The standard share permissions in Windows 7 are:  Read  Read/Write The standard share permissions in Windows Vista are:  Reader  Contributor  Owner  Co-owner In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, the share permissions are:  Read  Change  Full Control Although the names of these permissions differ in the different versions of Windows, their functionality does not. Users with Reader or Read permissions can view files and subdirectories and execute applications, but they aren’t allowed to make any changes. Users with Read/Write, Contributor or Change permissions have the capabilities of the Read permission, plus they can add, delete, or change files or subdirectories. Users with Co-owner or Full Control permissions can perform any and all functions on all files and folders within the share. You assign these permissions to individual users when you create a share. Alternatively, you can modify a share to assign a different permission to a user than he or she was originally assigned. NTFS permissions MS-DOS wasn’t intended to be a multi-user, networked operating system and thus doesn’t include file security features. For Windows clients, only those operating systems that support NTFS—Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, all Windows XP editions, and all Windows 7 and Vista editions—provide file security. NTFS (Windows NT File System) permissions are permissions associated with the files and folders themselves. NTFS permissions are more specific and varied than share permissions, and they affect users who log onto the computer and access the folder, and users who access the folder from across the network. Using the classic file sharing and security interface, you can apply permissions to folders or individual files in an NTFS partition. The permissions allow users with the proper credentials—a valid user account and password—to complete the allowed tasks. The NTFS file and folder permissions are described in the following two tables.

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NTFS file permissions are as follows: File permission

Allows user to

Full control

Change file permissions. Take ownership of the file. Complete tasks allowed by all other file permissions.

Modify

Modify the file. Delete the file. Complete tasks allowed by the Read & Execute and Write file permissions.

Read & execute

Run applications. Complete tasks allowed by the Read file permission.

Read

Read the contents of the file. View attributes assigned to the file. View the file’s owner. View permissions assigned to the file.

Write

Overwrite the file. Change attributes assigned to the file. View the file’s owner. View permissions assigned to the file.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One NTFS folder permissions are as follows: Folder permission

Allows user to

Full control

Change permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files. Take ownership of the folder. Delete the folder, its subfolders, and files. Complete tasks allowed by all other folder permissions.

Modify

Delete the folder. Complete tasks allowed by the Read & Execute and Write folder permissions.

Read & execute

Navigate through the folder structure, even if the user doesn’t have the permissions to do other tasks in some of the subfolders. Complete tasks allowed by the List folder contents and Read folder permissions.

List folder contents

Navigate through the folder structure, even if the user doesn’t have the permissions to do other tasks in some of the subfolders. View the names of files and subfolders within a folder. The List Folder Contents and the Read & Execute folder permissions are inherited differently. List Folder Contents is inherited by folders but not files. Read & Execute is inherited by both files and folders.

Read

View the contents of the folder, its subfolders, and files. View the folder’s owner. View permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files. View attributes of the folder, its subfolders, and files.

Write

Create subfolders and files within the folder. Change the attributes assigned to the folder, its subfolders, and files. View the folder’s owner. View permissions for the folder, its subfolders, and files.

When you’re setting file permissions, consider the following:  Each user account can have multiple NTFS file and folder permissions assigned to it, plus permissions assigned to any groups the user is a member of.  NTFS permissions are cumulative. For example, if a user has the Read permission and belongs to a group that has the Write permission, the user has both Read and Write permissions. This feature also means that, in situations where permissions overlap, such as Full Control and Modify, the least restrictive permission (Full Control, in this case), takes precedence.  Unless specifically set otherwise, NTFS permissions are inherited from the parent folder by default.  An explicit denial of access to a file or folder overrides all corresponding permissions. However, administrators retain permission to take ownership and change permissions of the object.

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Assigning NTFS permissions Windows XP Home and Media Center Editions use an interface called Simple File Sharing and don’t provide the level of file security that the other operating systems provide. On Windows XP Professional computers that aren’t part of a domain, Simple File Sharing is enabled by default. Windows XP Professional computers that are part of a domain use the classic file sharing and security interface that you find in Windows NT Workstation and Windows XP Professional. By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista don’t allow simple file sharing. You must have a user name and password to access shared folders in Windows7 or Vista, including the Public folder. To assign NTFS permissions: 1 If the computer is not a member of a domain and is a Windows XP Professional computer, you must disable Simple File Sharing. To do so: a Open My Computer. b Choose Tools, Folder Options. c Select the View tab. d In the Advanced settings list, clear "Use simple file sharing (Recommended).” Click OK. 2 Open Windows Explorer. 3 In the navigation pane, navigate to the desired folder or file. 4 In the details pane, right-click the folder or file. 5 In Windows 7 or Vista, choose Properties. In Windows XP Professional and Windows 2000, choose Sharing and Security. 6 Select the Security tab. 7 Under "Group or user names,” select the user or group that you want to assign permissions to. To add a user or group that’s not listed: a In Windows 7 or Vista, click Edit. b Click Add and then click Locations. c Select the server that holds the user or group account you want to add, and click OK. d In the "Enter the object names to select” box, type the user or group name. e Click Check Names to validate the existence of the user or group. (If the object name is invalid, verify the location and spelling of the user or group name.) f Click OK. 8 In the "Permissions for (selected user or group)” box, check Allow or Deny to set the desired permissions. 9 Repeat steps 7 and 8 for additional users or groups. 10 Click OK. In Windows 7 and Vista, click OK again.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Effective permissions Effective permissions are the sum of share and NTFS permissions. The more restrictive permission determines what level of access you will have. For example, let’s say you share a folder and permit users to change your files, but you set NTFS permissions that mark the folder and its contents as read-only for a particular user. When that user connects to your share, he or she will be able to open and read the files within but not change them. Other users might have read/write access depending on how you configured the various NTFS permissions. Microsoft also uses the term "effective permissions” to refer to the resulting abilities of a user or a group, as seen in the tab of the same name. To access effective permissions, select the Security tab of the object’s Properties dialog box. Click Advanced. The Effective Permissions tab is the final tab in the Advanced Security Settings dialog box.

Do it!

D-3:

Setting NTFS permissions

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Windows Explorer and navigate to Local Disk (C:\) 2 Right-click Marketing and choose Properties 3 Select the Security tab 4 Click Edit

To open the Permissions for Marketing dialog box. You’d use this dialog box to change the NTFS permissions for this folder.

5 Select Users (Computer##\Users) and

observe the Permissions list

To see which NTFS permissions have been assigned to normal users. The options are grayed out because the folder is inheriting permissions from its parent folder.

6 Click Cancel 7 Click Advanced

The checkbox shows you that inherited permissions are included from the parent folder.

8 Click Change Permissions

Operating systems 9 Clear Include inheritable permissions from this object’s parent

10 Click Add

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You can copy the existing permissions and then edit them, or you can remove the permissions and start from scratch. To add these permissions to the Marketing folder and then edit them.

11 Click OK twice 12 Click Edit 13 Select Users (Computer##\Users)

14 Under Permissions for Users, Allow, check Modify 15 Click OK twice Close all open windows

All authenticated users can now modify the contents of this folder.

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Unit summary: Operating systems Topic A

In this topic, you learned about some of the differences between the Windows, Mac OS, Linux, and UNIX client operating systems. Then you learned about the differences between various versions of Windows. You also learned how to use this information to select the appropriate client operating system for a given situation. Finally, you identified the major components that make up the Windows graphical user interface (GUI).

Topic B

In this topic, you managed directories (folders) in Windows by creating, copying, and deleting a directory. You used both the directory management tools in the Windows Graphical User Interface and Windows command interpreter utility.

Topic C

In this topic, you created and edited a text file and changed file attributes. You used both the file management tools available in the Windows Graphical User Interface and Windows command interpreter utility.

Topic D

In this topic, you controlled access to files in Windows 7 and Windows Vista by using private and public folders. You also learned how to control access to files and folders by assigning NTFS and share permissions to individual users and groups.

Review questions 1 Which of the following types of software is responsible for accepting input from devices such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner, or smart card reader, and creating output on devices such as a monitor, printer, or speakers? A Applet

C Operating system

B Application

D Snap-in

2 What software component has icons or menus that you can select to perform a function or run a program? A Desktop

C Linux

B Graphical user interface

D Windows

Operating systems

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3 The following graphic shows which operating system?

A Linux

C Windows Vista

B Mac

D Windows XP

4 Which Windows Vista edition is intended for large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures? A Windows Vista Business

D Windows Vista Home Premium

B Windows Vista Enterprise

E Windows Vista Starter

C Windows Vista Home Basic

F Windows Vista Ultimate

5 Unless you work in an emerging technology market, which Windows Vista edition are you least likely to support? A Windows Vista Business



E Windows Vista Starter



6 Which version of Windows XP contains digital entertainment features that the others don’t? A Windows XP Home

C Windows XP Media Center

B Windows XP Home Premium

D Windows XP Professional

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 7 The Aero desktop GUI with Flip 3D isn’t available in which Windows Vista edition? A Windows Vista Business



E Windows Vista Ultimate

C Windows Vista Home Basic 8 Which Windows 7 edition is intended for large, global organizations with complex IT infrastructures? A Windows 7 Professional

D Windows 7 Home Premium

B Windows 7 Enterprise

E Windows 7 Starter

C Windows 7 Home Basic

F Windows 7 Ultimate

9 Unless you work in an emerging technology market, which Windows 7 edition are you least likely to support? A Windows 7 Professional

D Windows 7 Home Premium

B Windows 7 Enterprise

E Windows 7 Starter

C Windows 7 Home Basic

F Windows 7 Ultimate

10 Which features aren’t available in either of the Windows Vista Home editions? [Choose all that apply.] A BitLocker Drive Encryption

D Windows HD Movie Maker

B Encrypting File System (EFS)

E Windows premium games

C Windows DVD Maker

F Windows Media Center and Media Center Extenders

11 Multiprocessor support is a feature of which Windows XP version? A Windows XP Home

C Windows XP Professional

B Windows XP Media Center 12 Which Windows client operating system is not best suited for use on a laptop? A Windows Vista Home

D Windows XP Professional

B Windows XP Home

E Windows 2000 Professional

C Windows Vista Business 13 Which Windows interface component is the main work area and starting point for beginning all other tasks? A Aero

D Taskbar

B Desktop

E System tray

C GUI

Operating systems

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14 True or false? All of the components shown in the following graphic are common to Windows Vista and Windows XP. Sidebar with gadgets Desktop

Taskbar

Notification area

Recycle Bin

Start menu

False. The sidebar is only in Windows Vista.

15 What components are part of the notification area? [Choose all that apply.] A Clock

D Taskbar

B Gadgets

E Volume

C Recycle Bin 16 What’s the minimum system memory requirement for the new Aero user interface? A 1 GB

C 3 GB

B 2 GB

D 4 GB

17 Which system tool contains utilities called applets? A Command-line utility

D Network utility

B Computer Management console

E Task Manager

C Control Panel

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 18 The following graphic is an example of what utility?

A Control Panel applet

C Custom Microsoft Management Console

B Computer Management console

D Task Manager

19 Hard disks are divided into usable storage spaces through ____________. A Files

C Directories

B Folders

D Partitions

20 You organize information under the root of a hard disk partition by using which of the following? A Files

C Partitions

B Folders or directories 21 When you’re creating a directory in Windows Explorer, what’s the maximum depth of the folder structure? A 63 characters

C 255 characters

B 254 characters

D Unlimited

22 What dir command would you use to view all hidden files in C:\Windows\System32 in alphabetical order, by extension, across multiple columns? dir c:\windows\system32 /w /a:h /o:e

23 What’s the difference between the commands copy and xcopy? The copy command copies one or more files to another location. The xcopy command copies files (not including hidden and system files), directories, and subdirectories.

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24 Which operating system uses Public folders, as shown in the following graphic, to share files with other users?

A Windows 2000 Professional


B Windows XP Home

D Windows Vista

25 Which operating systems use the Shared Documents folder, as shown in the following graphic, to share files with other users? [Choose all that apply.]

A Windows 2000 Professional


B Windows XP Home

D Windows Vista

26 If you want a colleague to be able to change a file, but not delete it, which NTFS file permission should you assign? A Full Control

C Read & execute

B Modify

D Write

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Independent practice activity In this practice activity, you’ll identify the components that make up Microsoft operating systems, and you’ll create a file and assign permissions. 1 Label the Windows 2000 interface components.

Use “The Windows 2000 Professional desktop,” to check your work.

2 Label the Windows XP interface components.

Use “The Windows XP Professional desktop,” to check your work.

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3 Label the Windows Vista interface components.

Use “The Windows Vista desktop,” to check your work.

4 Label the Windows 7 interface components.

Use “The Windows 7 Desktop” to check your work.

5 At the root of C:, create a folder called HR Files. 6 Create a text file called My Lab Text File and save it in your HR Files folder. 7 Change permissions on only the file to allow access to only your user account and the Administrator. Both should have Full Control. 8 Using a Command Prompt window, create two folders on your C: drive. Give them any names you choose.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 9 Using the edit utility, create two text files in one of the folders. 10 Use the Command Prompt window to copy the two files to the other folder. 11 When you have finished the lab, close all open windows, shut down Windows and turn off the power to the computer.

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Unit 3 Electricity and power supplies Unit time: 75 Minutes Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Identify electrostatic discharge, and follow

ESD safe practices while working with computer components. B Install a new power supply in a PC. C Troubleshoot faulty power supplies.

3–2


Topic A: Electrical safety This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.3

Classify power supplies, types and characteristics  Voltage, wattage, and capacity

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  ESD  Electrical safety – Power supply


Objective

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Antistatic pad and wrist strap

Characteristics of electricity Explanation

Electricity is the flow of electrons, which are one of the fundamental building blocks of all matter. In some materials, electrons flow easily, while in others, electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and hardly flow at all. A conductor is a material that permits the flow of electricity. An insulator is a material that inhibits the flow of electricity. Most metals, some plastics, and some liquids are conductors. Most ceramics, plastics, and gases are insulators. Voltage Voltage is the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge, or electrical potential, at two locations. This value, measured in volts, is also called the potential or potential difference. The abbreviation for volts is officially an uppercase “V,” though a lowercase “v” is commonly used. Electricity flows to equalize potential. More electricity flows when there’s a greater difference in potential than when there’s a smaller difference in potential. Thus, more energy can be drawn from a high-voltage system than from a low-voltage system. Current Current is a measure of the flow of electrons past a given point—essentially measuring the speed of the electrons through the conductor. It is measured in amps, or amperes. For current to flow, there must be a complete circuit, or path, from the source, through any intervening devices, and back to ground. A complete circuit is called closed; an incomplete circuit is called open.


3–3

Any interruption in the circuit causes the current to stop. This is the principle behind a switch, which is simply a device with which you can open a circuit to stop the flow of current. Alternating and direct current Current that flows in a single direction at a constant voltage through a circuit is called direct current (DC). Batteries provide this sort of current, and it’s the type required by most electronic components. (Especially in non-technical usage, “component” is sometimes used to mean a whole device, such as an MP3 player, monitor, and so forth. However, in this context, components are circuit boards, chips, and other internal devices.) Current that flows repeatedly back and forth through the circuit at a constantly varying voltage level is called alternating current (AC). A building’s electrical service is an AC system, and most household devices require AC to operate. AC systems complete a full cycle—voltage change from zero, through maximum voltage, back to zero, to minimum voltage, and back to zero—many times a second. In North America and Japan, AC operates at 60 cycles per second (60 hertz, or Hz). Europe and other countries use 50 Hz AC electricity. AC electrical systems in the Americas and Japan operate at 110 volts (actually, within a range of 90–135 V). Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice that amount—between 220 and 240 volts. Household devices, such as light bulbs, are designed to work at the country’s power level. Sensitive electronics inside computers, televisions, and other devices use a much lower voltage. Computer components use DC at either 5 V or 12 V. Resistance and impedance Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor. Impedance is like resistance, but applies to AC instead. When resistance (or impedance) is present, electrical energy is converted to heat or some other form of energy. All conductors possess some resistance (or impedance), though considerably less than that possessed by insulators. Resistance and impedance are measured in ohms. This quantity is written using the Greek letter omega (Ω). One ohm (1Ω) is defined as the resistance of a system in which 1 volt maintains a current of 1 amp. Electrical power and energy Electrical power, measured in watts (W), is a derived quantity that you can calculate by multiplying the voltage by the current. It’s a measure of the energy delivered by the flow of electricity. When calculating electrical power, always use absolute values (change any negative values to positive for your calculation). Power supplies are rated according to the watts of electrical power they can supply. A power supply rated at “450 W” promises to deliver 450 watts of power (though, in practice, it might deliver a bit more or less than that value). Electrical energy is electrical power delivered over time. For example, one kilowatthour (kWh) is the flow of one kilowatt (1000 W) delivered for a one-hour period. The average home in the U.S. consumes about 800 kWh of electrical energy per month.

3–4 Do it!


A-1:

Examining the characteristics of electricity

Questions and answers 1 Which delivers more power: a 500 W power supply or a 1 kilowatt power supply?

2 Why might you be concerned about the output power rating of a power supply?

3 Of the various properties of electricity, which will you be concerned with as a PC technician?

4 Given what you’ve learned about electricity (particularly voltage and current), speculate on the purpose of a PC’s power supply.


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Electricity Explanation

Electricity is the source of energy for electronic equipment, including personal computers. Electricity can be dangerous. If you don’t follow proper safety precautions, electricity could kill you. Current can kill Current, not voltage, is what causes the danger. Even a small amount of current passing through your heart can be sufficient to cause ventricular fibrillation or stop your heart entirely. A dangerous level of current is possible, even with low voltage sources, such as a 9 V battery. The 1-10-100 rule The 1-10-100 rule states that you can feel 1 mA (1 milliamp, or 1/1000 amp) of current through your body, 10 mA is sufficient to make your muscles contract to the point where you can’t let go of a power source, and 100 mA is sufficient to stop your heart. This is a rule you should learn and respect. Calculating current Voltage, current, and resistance are related through the following formula: V = i * r

In this formula, V is voltage in volts, i is the current in amps, and r is the resistance in ohms (Ω). At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops. A dangerous level of current can be reached if resistance is reduced sufficiently. Resistance of the human body The human body has a resistance of about 500 KΩ (500,000 Ω). This value is a somewhat ideal figure for contact with a small area of dry skin. Moisture and sweat on your skin lower the resistance to a value nearer 5000 Ω. Contact with a greater area of skin—for example, gripping a wire between your fingers or grasping a pipe—further reduces resistance. If you were to immerse your hand or foot, or puncture the skin so the electrical connection were made with your more-conductive blood and tissue, the resistance could be as low as 100 Ω. Death isn’t likely if electricity passes from finger to finger through your body, along your arm, and so forth. However, your heart and brain are considerably more sensitive. Current that passes from hand to hand or through your head is much more likely to cause death. Electricity passing elsewhere through your body could cause an electrical burn. Visit www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/4.html for more detailed information about the resistance of the human body and dangers from electricity.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Safety precautions You should always follow common-sense safety precautions to avoid electric shock. These precautions include the following:  Don’t touch exposed electrical contacts with any part of your skin.  Touch only insulated handles and parts of tools, probes, cords, etc.  Leave covers on equipment, unless you need to access their internal components.  Work one-handed. If you use only one hand, electricity is less likely to flow through your body (specifically, your heart or head) and cause injury or death.  Never insert anything into a wall outlet other than a power cord.  Rings, watches, and jewelry can cause unintended contact with electrified components. Furthermore, these metallic items can increase the surface area that’s in contact with an electrical source and thus lower your body’s resistance. Remove jewelry and watches when working around electricity.  Keep your hands clean and dry.  Don’t work with electricity in wet surroundings, especially on wet floors.

Do it!

A-2:

Considering electrical safety

Questions and answers 1 Which is more dangerous: exposed leads in a 500 W power supply or a 12 V automotive battery?

2 Could you feel the current generated if you were to wet your fingers and touch both leads of a 9 V battery?

3 Is a shock from an electrical outlet sufficient to cause pain, contract your muscles, or kill you?


3–7

Electrostatic discharge Explanation

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is a phenomenon that occurs when the charges on separated objects are unequal. One object has an excess positive or negative charge, compared to the other. Typically, the objects are made of an insulating material (one that doesn’t transmit electricity easily) or a conductive material that’s insulated from ground. The charge imbalance creates an electric field that can cause objects to attract or repel each other—such as when a static field makes your hair stand on end. From the perspective of a PC technician, the most interesting (and dangerous) aspect of ESD happens when statically charged objects are brought near each other. When that happens, a current can flow between them to balance their charges. This current flow is characterized by a high voltage, but low amperage.

Static dangers Electrostatic discharges (the current flow) aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the voltage in the system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such discharges are potentially harmful to electronics. The microscopic wires and components that make up chips and other devices are very sensitive to even small amounts of current. A static spark can melt such components, rendering them useless. Smaller discharges can alter the data stored in chips or otherwise upset their operation, without causing physical damage. Discharge voltages To feel a static shock, you must experience a discharge of approximately 3,000 volts or more. Discharges of more than roughly 8,000 volts might generate a visible spark. Walking across a carpet on a dry day can generate a charge of up to 35,000 volts. Yet electronics can be damaged by a 30-volt discharge or less—much less than the minimum discharge you can feel.

Preventing problems with static electricity There are two ways to prevent problems from static electricity:  Prevent the buildup of static charges.  Prevent discharges, or discharge the charge safely.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Preventing static buildup To reduce the buildup of static charges, follow these tips:  Don’t shuffle your feet as you walk.  Increase the humidity in the room or building to 50 to 60%—static charges can dissipate before growing large if the humidity level is sufficiently high.  Keep yourself grounded as you work and move around. Use the tools found in a typical ESD kit, such as wrist straps (shown in Exhibit 3-1) and mats. You and the components you’re servicing can remain connected to ground so that charges can’t build up.  Wear cotton clothing, which is less likely to generate static charges than are many synthetic materials.  Remove carpeting from rooms where you service computers and from computer rooms.  Use an air ionization system to build up an opposite, and thus neutralizing, charge in the air. Preventing static discharge If a charge differential does build up, you can follow these tips to prevent or reduce the likelihood of damage from static discharges:  Equalize the charge safely. Unplug the equipment, and then touch a metal portion of its chassis.  If you must move around as you work, keep yourself grounded (with an antistatic wrist strap) so that charges can’t build up. To prevent damaging discharge from occurring, you need to be at equal charge potential with the device you’re servicing (not at equal charge with ground). Do not leave the computer plugged in while servicing it. Always service computers on a properly grounded bench. If there’s a fault in the building’s wiring system, full wall current could be flowing through the ground wire. You could be injured or killed if you came into contact with the ground.

ESD toolkits An ESD toolkit includes tools that you can use to prevent the buildup of charge differentials and to equalize them safely. You should purchase and use a good ESD toolkit. An antistatic wrist strap is a common component of such a kit. Two antistatic wrist straps, one wired and one wireless, are pictured in Exhibit 3-1,


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Exhibit 3-1: Antistatic (ESD) wrist straps

Inside the case Electrostatic discharge isn’t typically a problem when the computer case is closed. The static current is dissipated through the computer’s metal case to ground or is otherwise dampened before reaching sensitive components. (Of course, you should still avoid discharging static through the case!) The biggest problems with static arise when you have the computer’s case open and are working with its internal components. Typical internal components The typical components that you find inside a computer case include:  System board (the motherboard)  Hard drive  Removable drives, such as floppy, DVD, and CD-ROM  Power supply  Cooling fan  Adapter cards  Wires, cables, and connectors

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Such components are shown in Exhibit 3-2. Power supply

CD-ROM drive

Floppy drive

CPU with fan

Hard drive Adapter Motherboard

Exhibit 3-2: Internal components of a typical computer Opening the case Computer cases come in a variety of styles, all of which provide some means to access the internal components. For a typical tower (upright) case, the sides slide backward after you remove some sort of restraining mechanism. Older cases are held closed with screws, typically three per side. Newer cases use slide latches or push-button clips that require no tools and make opening the case much easier. These clips are shown in Exhibit 3-3. Slide latch

Exhibit 3-3: Typical slide latch used to secure a case


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Which side to open When removed, one side exposes the internal components, while the other side reveals the underside of the main circuit board. Although you occasionally need to open both sides of the case, most often you open the side that gives you access to the components. You can usually tell which side to open by looking at the connectors extending through the back of the computer. Those connectors are attached directly to the main circuit board. Thus, their location tells you to which side of the case the board is nearest. You typically open the side opposite the rows of connectors, as shown in Exhibit 3-4. Sometimes the component-side panel is released with convenient slides or buttons, while the other side is held fast with screws. Open this side

Ports are on this side

Exhibit 3-4: Typically, you open the side opposite the port connectors

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Front cover Most modern computer cases include a removable front cover. You might remove this panel to install a new disk drive into the system or replace a failed unit. Typically, the front cover is held in place with snap-clips and one or more alignment posts. The alignment posts help you line up the cover correctly so that the clips engage and secure the cover. These posts and clips are shown in Exhibit 3-5. Alignment holes

Alignment posts

Alignment holes

Spring catche

Alignment posts

Exhibit 3-5: Front-cover alignment and catch mechanisms

Electricity and power supplies Do it!

A-3:

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Opening the computer case while following proper ESD precautions

Here’s how 1 Follow safety precautions to avoid electrical shock and use the tools in your ESD toolkit

Here’s why Place your antistatic mat under the area you are working in and wear your antistatic wrist strap.

2 If necessary, shut down your computer 3 Disconnect the power cord from the computer 4 Disconnect any other external cables

For example, network cables.

5 Release the restraining mechanisms—screws, slides, or push-buttons—that secure the side that exposes the internal components If you opened the side covering the underside of the main circuit board, open the other side 6 Touch the metal frame of the computer and count slowly to three

To discharge any static charges present on your body or on the computer.

7 Remove the front cover 8 Using Exhibit 3-2 as a guide, identify the major internal components of your PC 9 Leave the case open

You’ll examine the internal components more in upcoming topics.

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Topic B: Power supplies This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.3

Classify power supplies, types and characteristics  ATX proprietary  Voltage selector switch  Pins (20, 24)


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Power supplies – Wattages and capacity – Connector types and quantity – Output voltage

PC power supplies Explanation

A PC power supply, shown in Exhibit 3-6, is the internal component that converts AC wall voltage (110 VAC or 220 VAC) to the various DC voltages used by the computer’s other components. Power supplies have a fan to cool their components and to help cool the other components inside the PC. Typically, a power supply provides some conditioning functions and can maintain DC supplies during very brief drops in and outages of supply voltage.

Exhibit 3-6: A PC power supply


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Power supply specifications Power supplies are rated according to the number of watts of DC power they can put out. Modern power supplies typically offer at least 300 watts to power the PC and its internal components. Older power supplies typically offered 200 watts or less. The power supply’s rating isn’t necessarily an indicator of the amount of power that the unit draws from the outlet: a 350 W power supply doesn’t necessarily use more electricity than a 200 W model. Power supplies draw only as much power as is needed to supply the internal components. If your system needs less than the power supply’s full capability, the power supply draws enough electricity to power the PC and no more. The following table lists typical power requirements for common PC components. You can usually find out an exact power requirement from technical specification documents posted on manufacturers’ Web sites. It’s often not possible, however, to separate memory and CPU power requirements from the motherboard’s. Component

Typical power requirement

Motherboard

30 W, not including the power for the CPU chip and memory. This is for full power mode. Sleeping states use less.

Memory

10 W per 2 GB module.*

CPU chip

AMD Phenom processors use 65–140 W; AMD Athlon 64 processors use 45–125 W; single-core and dual-core Itanium processors use approximately 100 W; Pentium 4 and Athlon-class processors use 65 or more watts; older CPUs use 50 W or less. The voltage can vary based on the processor’s workload. Voltage spikes as the processor swings between light and heavy workloads.

Hard drive

5–15 W. Some manufacturers will print the power requirement right on the drive.

Optical drive

Newer CD or DVD drives can use as little as 5 W. Older optical drives may require 10–20 W.

Floppy drive

5–10 W.

Adapter card

5–30 W. For example, the high-end graphics cards used by professional graphics software developers and computer-aided designers will require more power than a normal graphics card.

* BEHARDWARE.COM determined power consumption in a test system. They measured power consumption at 2 GB and then at 4 GB, because they state that it really isn’t possible to load the memory independently of the processor; the difference is an estimate of memory power consumption.

Standard outputs Most power supplies provide three output voltage levels at various amperage ratings to supply power to the internal components: +/-5 V, +/- 12 V, and 3.3 V. More devices draw power at the +12 V level than at any of the other ranges.

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Power connectors Standard connectors are used to connect the power supply’s output to the various devices. Separate standards exist for the following connectors:  Drive power connectors  Motherboard power connectors Standards for drive power connectors Hard drives, CD and DVD drives, and floppy drives use power connectors that are standardized in size and shape, as well as in the placement and voltage carried by the wires connected through them. There are three common power connectors: the peripheral, floppy, and serial ATA (SATA) power connectors.  The peripheral connector is sometimes called a Molex connector, after one of the manufacturers of this style of connector. Peripheral connectors are typically used to connect hard drives and CD or DVD drives to the power supply.  The floppy connector is a 4-pin Berg connector. The 4-pin Berg connector is smaller than a Molex connector and is used to connect the floppy drive to the computer’s power supply unit.  New serial ATA drives use the third type of power connector. Peripheral, floppy, and serial ATA connectors are shown in Exhibit 3-7 and Exhibit 3-8.

Exhibit 3-7: A peripheral power (Molex) connector, left; and a floppy power (Berg) connector, right

Exhibit 3-8: A serial ATA power connector


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Due to their shapes, these connectors can be inserted into drives in only one orientation. They are said to be “keyed,” which ensures that you connect the appropriate power input wires to the correct point on the device. Wire color

Molex pin numbers

Berg pin numbers

SATA pin numbers

Voltage

Yellow

1

4

13, 14, 15

+12 V

Red

4

1 (optional)

7, 8, 9

+5 V

Black

2 and 3

2 (optional) and 3

4, 5, 6 10, 11, 12

Ground

1, 2, 3

+3.3 V

Orange

Standards for motherboard power connectors The motherboard and its components must get power from the power supply. The motherboard is connected to the power supply with either one or two connectors. Newer, single motherboard connectors are keyed; you can’t insert these connectors incorrectly (unless you force-fit them backwards). The older standard for motherboard power connectors is the two-connector system. These older connectors weren’t keyed, so they could be inserted in either direction. Not only could you connect one of the pair to the wrong motherboard connector, but you could also connect the plugs backwards. Such a misconnection sometimes resulted in damage to the motherboard. Exceptions to this were the P8 and P9 connectors, which were keyed and could not be inserted incorrectly. However, the P8 and P9 connectors looked identical, so you could mistakenly attempt to put a P8 connector into a P9 port or vice versa. Although difficult to achieve, such a mistake causes damage the motherboard. A single motherboard power connector is shown in Exhibit 3-9, and dual power connectors are shown in Exhibit 3-10.

Power connector

Exhibit 3-9: Single motherboard power connector

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Dual power connectors (P8/P9)

Exhibit 3-10: Dual power connectors on an older motherboard

Form factors The form factor of a power supply refers to its size and shape. The two most common form factors for desktop computers is AT and ATX. The form factor you use must not only fit into the case you use; it must also fit in relation to the motherboard and other components. The names of power-supply form factors match those given to system cases, because together these components form a matched set. Do it!

B-1:

Identifying your computer’s power supply

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Identify the power supply in your computer

If your computer’s case is not open, follow proper ESD procedures to open the case, exposing the internal components.

2 Identify your power supply’s rating and output voltages

This information is normally listed on a label on the power supply.

3 Locate a peripheral’s power connector and examine its shape 4 Locate a floppy drive power connector and examine its shape 5 Determine if your computer has a SATA power connector 6 Locate the motherboard’s power connector Do you have a single or paired power connector?

The power supplies in newer computers provide these connectors. You can purchase adapters for older power supplies.


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Power supply installation and replacement Explanation

You might need to replace or install a power supply if:  The power supply in your system doesn’t provide sufficient power for the components that are installed.  An older power supply has failed.  You’re building a new computer from components. To install or replace a power supply, follow these general steps: 1 Shut down the computer. 2 Unplug the computer. 3 Remove the cover from the computer. 4 Disconnect all of the power wires from the various components, including the motherboard. 5 Remove any retaining screws that secure the power supply to the case. The power supply is typically held into place by four retaining screws accessible from the rear of the case. 6 Remove the power supply. 7 Install the new power supply and screw it into place. 8 Connect power wires to the various components as needed, including the motherboard. Take care to attach the connectors in the proper orientation. 9 Replace the cover or covers. 10 Plug the computer into the outlet and boot the system to test your work. Warning: Don’t open the cover of the power supply itself. Components within the power supply retain a high-voltage charge even after the unit has been unplugged for a long period of time. Shock or death could result if you were to touch these components. Voltage selection When installing a power supply unit, you can often adjust the power supply to run on 110-120 VAC or 220-240 VAC wall voltage. To make this adjustment, with the computer off, you slide a small switch to the appropriate voltage. This switch is normally next to the electrical cord port on the back of the PC, as shown in Exhibit 311.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The desktop voltage switch shown in Exhibit 3-11 allows you to select an operating voltage of 115 or 230. As you learned previously, the Americas and Japan provide electrical power within a range of 90–135 V. Europe and most other countries in the world use a voltage twice that amount—between 220 and 240 volts. When your computer is operating in the Americas or Japan always have the switch set to 115. If your computer is operating in a country that supplies power at the higher range, set the power supply toggle switch to 230.

Exhibit 3-11: Voltage selection switch near the electrical cord port If the voltage selection switch is not set properly for your country, it can prevent your computer from turning on, keep it from operating properly, or cause serious damage to the computer. Some power supplies have an auto-switching feature that senses the incoming voltage and switches itself accordingly. Most laptop power supplies are autoswitching. A directory of foreign electrical information can be found at: www.voltagevalet.com/elec_guide.html.


B-2:

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Installing a new power supply

Here’s how 1 Carefully disconnect all of the power wires from the various components

Here’s why Your computer is already shut down and unplugged, and the case is open. You’re using your ESD tools and following safety precautions to avoid electrical shock.

2 Remove any retaining screws that secure the power supply to the case 3 Remove the power supply and set it aside 4 Install the power supply provided by your instructor 5 Connect the power cables to the motherboard and other internal components

Make sure to attach connectors in the appropriate orientation.

6 Replace the cover or covers 7 Plug the computer into the outlet and reconnect all of the peripherals 8 Boot the computer

To verify that you have installed the power supply correctly.

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Topic C: Power supply troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  Hardware-related symptoms – Noise – Status light indicators

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Power devices – Appropriate source, such as power strip, surge protector, or UPS

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  Electrical safety – Inverter – Matching power requirements of equipment with power distribution and UPS


Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Power supplies – Wattages and capacity – Connector types and quantity – Output voltage

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Multimeter  Power supply tester  Specialty hardware / tools

Why power conditioning is needed Explanation

In an ideal situation, an AC electric signal would be steady and consistent, and the power would never go out. In reality, AC electricity is a “noisy” signal with many variations. Some of these variations can interrupt service long enough to shut down your computer. Other signal problems can damage your equipment.


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AC signal problems An ideal AC signal is a sine wave in which the voltage varies smoothly and steadily from a consistent positive voltage level to a negative voltage level. Such a wave is illustrated in Exhibit 3-12.

Exhibit 3-12: An ideal AC signal The AC signal rarely matches the ideal. The following table lists some typical power problems and their causes. Problem

Description

Cause

Blackout

A total loss of power

Accidents that knock down or cut wires, blown circuit breakers (or fuses), and transformer damage can cause localized blackouts. Natural disasters can cause widespread blackouts.

Brownout

A brief decrease in voltage level; also called a sag

Motors, compressors, and other devices can use so much power when starting that they can decrease the voltage available to other devices on the circuit. Demand that’s greater than supply, such as when too many people run air conditioners on extra-hot days, can cause longer-term brownout conditions.

Noise

A disruption of the smoothly varying AC signal

Lighting, industrial equipment, arc-welding equipment, generators, and radio transmitters can all introduce noise into the line.

Spike

A very brief increase in voltage

Lightning strikes are the major cause. Spikes also occur when power is first returned after a blackout.

Surge

A brief increase in voltage (longer duration than spikes)

Extra voltage is dissipated through the circuit after motors, compressors, and other high-use devices are switched off.

According to the APC Web site, brownouts (also called sags) account for 87% of all power problems. For details, see www.apc.com/power/power_event.cfm.

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Power conditioning Power conditioning is the process of restoring a problematic AC signal to a high-quality smooth signal that’s safe for your computer and other electronic devices. Power conditioning equipment includes:  Surge protectors  Battery backup devices  Generators Surge protection You can add a surge protector to a circuit to filter out spikes and surges. Typically, plug strips include surge protection circuitry. The primary purpose of a plug strip (also known as a power strip) is to provide additional AC outlets to power multiple devices located in close proximity to one another. For this reason, not all power strips include surge protectors. If you are relying on the surge protection of a power strip, you should verify that it has such capability. You can also wire in surge protection by using surgeprotecting circuit breakers or other devices. Surge protectors don’t protect against noise, brownouts, or blackouts. Battery backup You can use a battery backup unit, often called an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), to condition the power signal. (See Exhibit 3-13.) During normal power conditions, a small portion of electricity is used to charge a battery in the UPS. During a blackout, battery power is converted from DC to AC by an inverter and is supplied to the computer or other devices. An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current to alternating current.

Exhibit 3-13: A UPS that provides battery-protected and surge-protected outlets Some UPSs also protect against brownout conditions. When voltage levels drop below a preset range, battery power is used to supplement the voltage from the electrical service. UPSs are either standby or continuous. A standby UPS does not use power from the battery during normal operations. During a power problem, such as a sag, the UPS quickly supplements the power. The UPS switches between wall voltage and battery voltage so quickly that power to your computer appears to be continuous, even though it isn’t. Continuous UPSs constantly draw some or all power from the battery. Wall voltage is used to charge the batteries. Voltage to power devices is drawn from the battery even when the electrical service is operating normally. There’s no need to switch between sources during a power incident.


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Thus, continuous UPSs are better suited to very sensitive electronics that can’t tolerate the switching time associated with a standby UPS. Most UPSs include a voltage regulator that keeps voltage output levels within a predefined range. With a voltage regulator and the surge protection features also commonly provided, a UPS can provide a continuous and clean AC electric signal that’s well suited to powering computers and other sensitive electronics. UPS software If a power failure occurs, the battery in a UPS can provide power for only a short time. Once its battery is exhausted, the UPS won’t be able to supply power to your computer anymore. In essence, the UPS simply delays a blackout. Many UPSs include software and a method to send battery-level information to your computer. Together, these components enable the UPS to signal your computer that the battery is nearing empty and that the computer should shut down.

Exhibit 3-14: APC’s PowerChute software, indicating the UPS’s remaining battery life Some versions of Windows, as well as other operating systems, include built-in UPS monitoring software. If the UPS vendor provides software, you should use it instead. It provides more features and is designed specifically to work with the UPS hardware.

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Exhibit 3-15: PowerChute software when running off of the UPS’s batteries UPS and other power inverter safety precautions One might assume that, because a UPS operates from a 12V battery, it doesn’t provide as much electrical output as a power outlet. This assumption is incorrect. A low power inverter rated at 60 watts has a potentially fatal electrical output, typically delivering up to about 360mA at 230V. This output is more than ten times the current level that can stop your heart. In comparison, a small home UPS is rated at 200 watts, while a rackmounted UPS for your data center is rated at 12 kW. Adhere to the following safety guidelines when using a UPS or other type of power inverter:  Place the UPS on a reasonably flat surface, either horizontally or vertically.  Keep the UPS dry.  Avoid placing the UPS on or near heating vents, radiators, or other sources of heat.  Don’t place the UPS in direct sunlight.  Keep the UPS in a well ventilated area to avoid overheating.  Maintain the UPS operating environment with an ideal air temperature between 50° and 80° F.  Don’t use the UPS in an environment where flammable materials, fumes, or gases are present. Selecting a UPS 1 Determine whether you need a standby or online UPS.  A standby UPS switches to battery power when power goes out.  An online UPS provides unlimited backup power but is more expensive. 2 Determine the total power needs, in both watts and volt-amperes, of all the equipment that will be connected to the UPS. You need a UPS that equals or exceeds the total power requirements.


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3 Evaluate the following features for your needs:  Maximum surge current—expressed in amps. A higher number is better.  Surge suppression—expressed in joules. A higher number is better.  Suppression response time. A faster response time is better.  Battery recharge time. A faster recharge time is better.  Number of AC outlets.  Replaceable battery, and if so, whether the battery is replaceable by the user.  Battery operating times. How long will the UPS keep equipment running after power failure?  Modem surge protection.  Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI) noise reduction.  Alarms or LEDs that indicate wiring problems, when the equipment is running on UPS battery, and if the battery is low.  Software that you can configure to save documents automatically, close applications, and turn off equipment when power goes out. Generators The battery in even the best UPS eventually runs out. You can use a generator to provide power for extended periods of time or when utility service is simply not available. Generators use motors, powered by gasoline, diesel fuel, natural gas, or other fuels, to produce electric power. As long as you have fuel, you can produce electricity. Home generators—the type designed to provide power in the event of a winter storm or other disaster—generally produce noisy and inconsistent AC signals. Power from these generators can damage computers, televisions, and other electronic devices. Computer-grade generators produce clean and consistent AC signals by including features often provided by UPSs, including voltage regulators and battery backup components. Large companies often install computer-grade generators to keep their computer centers operating during power outages and brownouts. Verifying UPSs and surge suppressors You install a UPS so you can have time to save your work and properly shut down your system if there’s a power failure. What if your UPS isn’t working? Chances are, unless you test it regularly, you won’t know whether it will work when you need it. To test the UPS with the devices it’s supporting plugged into it, unplug the UPS from the wall outlet. It should sound the alarm (if it’s equipped with one), and the equipment should keep running. Most UPSs come with monitoring software and indicate how long the battery backup will keep your equipment running. Check that this time is what you expect it to be, and if necessary, replace the UPS if it no longer holds the charge to keep your equipment up as long as needed. Surge suppressors aren’t designed to keep equipment running, so there’s little you can do besides making sure that the indicator light is on and the circuit in the strip hasn’t been tripped.

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C-1:

Discussing power conditioning equipment

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 How much protection does a surge protector offer? 2 What types of systems should be protected by a UPS?

3 Shut down your computer and install the power conditioning equipment provided by your instructor

Your instructor might provide surge protectors and UPSs for you to install.

4 If you installed a UPS, boot your computer Log on as COMPDMIN## with a password of !pass1234 Unplug the UPS from the wall 5 Plug the UPS back into the outlet

To simulate a blackout condition. Your computer should continue running.


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Electrical measurements Explanation

When troubleshooting, you might be called upon to measure some aspect of electricity, such as the voltage level output from a power supply or other computer component, such as a printer or scanner. You measure these values with a multimeter. Multimeters are available in digital and analog models.  Digital multimeters output discrete numeric values on an LED or LCD display.  Analog multimeters, the older type, display their output with a needle and dial.

Exhibit 3-16: A digital multimeter

Exhibit 3-17: An analog multimeter

Using a multimeter Before taking a measurement with a multimeter, you must set options with a dial, button, or other means to indicate what you’re about to measure. For example, if you were using a digital meter, as shown in Exhibit 3-16, you’d press the appropriate buttons to indicate which electrical property you were going to read.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Measuring resistance To measure resistance: 1 Turn off the device you’re measuring and disconnect it from its power source. You can damage your meter if you leave the device connected to the power source. 2 You might need to disconnect the device from its circuit. If it remains connected and multiple paths through the circuit exist, you’ll get misleading readings. These readings can be high or low depending on the circuit. 3 Set the multimeter to read resistance. On most meters, you must indicate the resistance range that you expect to be reading. 4 Touch the two leads of the multimeter together. The meter “zeros out” and provides an indication that it’s functioning properly in the resistance mode. 5 Touch the black and red probes to either side of the circuit to be measured, and read the resistance from the meter’s display. Note: If you’re using an analog meter and the needle moves very little or moves all the way to its maximum, you need to choose another resistance scale. Full scale deflection, where the meter's pointer moves to the farthest position on the scale, could indicate a short. Measuring voltage You must exercise care when taking voltage readings, because the computer is powered up. To measure voltage: 1 The power supply must be on. 2 Set your multimeter to read either DC or AC voltage. On most meters, you must also indicate the voltage range you expect to be reading. 3 Touch the black probe to the ground, and touch the red probe to the spot where you want to measure the voltage. If you’re using an analog meter, the needle might attempt to swing backward. This indicates that you have the red probe on the ground. Reverse your contact points to take the reading. When the probes are reversed, a digital meter indicates a negative voltage, for example –55 V. Note: The device must be connected to its power source and turned on while you measure voltage. Measuring current To measure current, you must break the circuit and insert the meter in the break. The current in the circuit then flows through the meter, which should offer little disruption and not change the reading appreciably. A device specifically made for measuring current is called an ammeter. A special form of ammeter, called a clamp-on ammeter, clamps around a single wire to measure the current flow. Such a meter doesn’t require you to break the circuit. Clamp ammeters are often used by electricians to measure current flow in 110 V and higher circuits.


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Measuring continuity You can determine whether a fuse is good or a wire is whole by measuring continuity. You might also use this technique to determine which pins on one end of a cable are connected to which pins on the other end. To measure continuity, you can set your multimeter to display resistance (ohms) and look for circuits with zero resistance, or if your multimeter includes a continuity mode, you can use that. In this mode, the multimeter sounds a tone whenever it detects a closed (unbroken) circuit. Measurements you might need to take You probably won’t be called on to measure current. But you might need to measure voltage, resistance, or continuity. You might need to check the output voltage of a power supply at various leads to verify that a component is getting the power it requires. You might also need to verify that appropriate input wall voltage is available. You measure resistance most often when determining if a cable is whole or if a break exists. You might also need to determine if the appropriate size resistor (the correct value in ohms) is being used for an application. You should have your meter calibrated periodically by an approved source to ensure that it meets proper working and safety conditions.

Power supply tester As an alternative to testing your power supply unit with a multimeter, you can use a power supply tester, shown in Exhibit 3-18, to perform an automatic test.

Exhibit 3-18: An example of a power supply tester

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Testing with a power supply tester takes approximately 30 minutes. You need to read the instructions for your particular power supply tester, but in general, the steps are these: 1 Using proper ESD precautions, unplug the computer from the outlet, remove peripherals, and open your case. 2 Disconnect the power connectors for all internal components. 3 Verify that the computer’s voltage switch is set to the correct setting for your country. 4 Plug both the ATX 24-pin and 4-pin motherboard power connectors into your power supply tester. 5 Plug the computer into a working outlet. If necessary, turn on the switch to the power supply unit. (Your power supply might or might not have an on/off power switch.) 6 Turn on your power supply tester. 7 Read the values reported and verify that they are within approved limits. If the values are outside the approved range or no values are reported, you need to replace the power supply. 8 Repeat the test, using the 15-pin SATA power connector, then with the 4-pin Molex power connector, and finally with the 4-pin floppy drive power connector. 9 When you complete all tests: a Turn off (if necessary) and unplug the power supply. b Disconnect any power connectors from the power supply tester. c Reconnect the power connectors for all internal components. d Close the case. e Reconnect the external peripheral devices. f Reconnect the power cord and plug it into a working outlet. Advantages of testing with a power supply tester:  Less susceptibility to human error.  More conclusive results. 

Do it!

C-2:

Safer performance because of less direct contact with the electrical current.

Measuring electrical values

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Using a multimeter, determine the voltage being output by the various devices provided by your instructor

Your instructor will provide you with devices, such as a battery or power adapter, that you can use to determine output voltages.

2 Determine the resistance of the various components provided by your instructor

Your instructor will provide you with cables and other components for you to measure.


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Troubleshooting power supplies Explanation

Power supply failures and electrical service outages can cause a variety of problems. As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for power supply problems. You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides a few scenarios to consider when you’re troubleshooting. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Computer fails to boot when powered on, but boots after you press Ctrl+Alt+Del

Power_Good signal from the power supply isn’t present, is at the wrong voltage, or is being sent at the wrong time.

Replace the power supply with a better-engineered model.

Computer intermittently stops working or reboots

Electrical service supply is causing problems, such as brownouts or blackouts.

Add a UPS or contact an electrician to check your building’s wiring. Confirm that UPSs, surge protectors, or generators are working correctly.

There are not enough power connectors for all the devices you want to install in the computer

Power supply is undersized for your needs. Less expensive power supplies sometimes come with just a few connectors.

Replace the power supply if it’s undersized. If it’s rated to handle your selection of devices, use a Y-adapter to split the connectors and make more available.

Computer fails to boot at all, with no lights or beeps; fans don’t start

Computer is not plugged in. “Hard” power switch is turned off. Power supply has failed. Outlet or power cord is bad. No electrical service due to blackout or other outage. Power switch has failed. Power connector to motherboard is not hooked up.

Make sure the computer is plugged in. Use a multimeter to test the power source and cords. Make sure the 110/220 V switch on the power supply is set appropriately.

Computer fails to boot, but fans start

Power connector to motherboard is not hooked up. Computer component other than the power supply has failed.

Confirm internal power connections. Troubleshoot to discover other failed devices.

Noisy power supply

Vibration; loose ground.

Some power supplies are very quiet, while others are quite noisy. Verify this is a new noise and not normal noise from that particular power supply. Verify power supply cable wires aren’t too close to the fan and vibrating. Lack of ground can cause a hum in a power supply. Verify the power supply is properly grounded.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The Power_Good signal Insufficient power or a disrupted and noisy electrical connection could damage the power supply or the PC’s internal components. Modern power supplies provide some monitoring of the quality of the electrical signal. Specifically, they test the voltage levels of the power and send a signal to the motherboard indicating whether the power is sufficiently good. The Power_Good signal (also called the Power Good, PowerGood, Power_OK, or PWR_OK signal) is a +5 V voltage that is supplied over a specific wire in the connector that sends power from the power supply to the motherboard. If the signal isn’t sent because the electrical power is insufficient, the computer won’t boot. Sometimes a system doesn’t boot when you press its power button, but finishes booting after you press Ctrl+Alt+Del. This situation indicates a problem with the Power_Good signal and is a sign of a poorly designed power supply. The Power_Good signal might not be arriving when the motherboard expects it, or it might not be at the proper voltage. You can replace the power supply to fix this problem.


C-3:

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Troubleshooting power supply problems

Questions and answers 1 The customer reports that pressing the power button does nothing, and the computer fails to start. You press the button and indeed, nothing happens. What’s the first thing you should check? What else might you check?

2 You’re working on a computer that beeps and shows drive activity when you press the power button. The monitor’s power light comes on, but no image is displayed. You try a different monitor and it works just fine. Do these conditions indicate a problem with the PC’s power supply?

3 Your computer shuts itself down shortly after you boot it. You’ve had powerrelated problems in the past and have even installed a UPS with software monitoring functions. Because of the past problems, you suspect a power problem. What should you investigate?

4 One or more power supply problems have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their causes. 5 Correct the problems you have found in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another problem. Troubleshoot and fix all problems that arise. 6 Document the problem(s) you find:

7 Document the steps you take to fix the problem(s):

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Unit summary: Electricity and power supplies Topic A

In this topic, you learned that electricity is the source of energy that powers electronics and appliances. Voltage is the force of electricity. Current is a measure of the flow of electricity. Resistance is a force that opposes current. You also learned about electrical safety and the 1-10-100 rule, which states that you can feel 1 mA, 10 mA makes your muscles contract uncontrollably, and 100 mA can kill you. You learned that static electricity is a buildup and discharge of an electrical charge. You learned how to avoid static by preventing charges from building up and by dissipating charges safely if they do build up. You learned how to open computer cases and follow proper ESD precautions while working inside a computer.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that power supplies convert wall voltage to the various DC voltages required by the computer’s components. To a small extent, the power supplies condition the power signal and bridge very short power outages. You learned about the power demands of various computer components, power supply ratings, and the power connector standards used in modern computers. You also examined power supply form factors. You also learned how to select, replace, and install a power supply.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned about some common symptoms related to power supply failures. You also learned the associated probable causes and suggested solutions to the problems. You learned how to use a multimeter to measure electricity and a power supply tester to test a computer’s power supply unit.

Review questions 1 Which of the following are conductors? [Choose all that apply.] A Ceramics B Gases C Liquids D Metals E Plastics 2 Which of the following are insulators? [Choose all that apply.] A Ceramics B Gases C Liquids D Metals E Plastics


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3 Which of the following is a derived quantity that you can calculate by multiplying the force of electricity caused by a difference in charge at two locations and the measure of the flow of electrons past a given point? A Current B Electrical power C Impedance D Resistance E Voltage 4 Which of the following is a force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor? A Current B Electrical power C Impedance D Resistance E Voltage 5 Which of the following is measured in amps? A Current B Electrical power C Impedance D Resistance E Voltage 6 Which of the following are measured in ohms? [Choose all that apply.] A Current B Electrical power C Impedance D Resistance E Voltage 7 What is the formula relating voltage, current, and resistance? A i=V*r B r=V*i C V=i*r D V = i/r 8 True or false? At a given voltage, current increases as resistance drops. True.

9 True or false? You need to be concerned about electrostatic discharge because it can be fatal to humans. False. Electrostatic discharges aren’t dangerous to humans, even though the voltage in the system can measure in the range of thousands of volts. However, such discharges are potentially harmful to electronics.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 10 The power requirements of a motherboard are estimated to be which of the following? A 5W B 10 W C 30 W D 50 W E 100 W 11 Which of the following components requires the most power? A Adapter card B CPU C Hard drive D Memory E Motherboard 12 Which of the following is a serial ATA power connector? A

B

C

13 Which color wire is typically connected to ground? A Black B Green C Red D Yellow


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14 How many pins does the ATX v2.0 connector have? A 16 B 18 C 20 D 24 15 Which are more common: brownouts or blackouts? Brownouts are the most common power problem.

16 How many ohms does a multimeter read for a closed circuit, such as a good fuse or good wire? Zero

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll research power supplies and practice calculating current. You’ll also remove and replace a PC power supply unit. 1 Determine the replacement cost for the power supply in your computer. 2 Determine if there is an upgraded power supply you can purchase for your computer. What’s the cost difference? 3 How much current (in amps) flows through a circuit with a 100 Ω resistance if 100 V of electricity is applied? V = i * r, so i = V/r = 100/100 = 1 amp

4 Would you feel that voltage, or would it be sufficient to contract your muscles or kill you? A 1 amp current would kill you, if it were to pass through your heart or head. It could instead cause an electrical burn if it passed through an extremity, such as a leg or arm.

5 Open your computer by removing both sides of the case and its front cover while following proper electrical and ESD safety precautions. a Remove the power supply. b Re-install the power supply. c Test that you installed the power supply correctly.

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4–1

Unit 4 CPUs and motherboards Unit time: 105 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe the function and features of

CPUs, identify a CPU, and classify CPUs according to their specifications. Learn how to replace a CPU. B Describe the techniques used to cool CPUs

and other components in a PC. C Describe motherboards, their components,

and form factors. Learn how to replace a motherboard. D Identify the symptoms of, probable causes

of, and potential solutions to problems with motherboards and CPUs.

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Topic A: Central processing units This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  Processor sockets  Chipsets

1.4

Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and their features  Identify CPU types

 Onchip cache

– AMD

– L1

– Intel

– L2

 Hyperthreading

 Speed (real vs. actual)

 Multi core – Dual core – Triple core – Quad core


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Motherboards

 Processors

– Bus speeds

– Socket types

– Chipsets

– Speed – Number of cores – Power consumption – Cache – Front side bus – 32bit vs. 64bit


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Processors Explanation

The central processing unit (CPU), or processor, is the “brains” of your computer. It’s the chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of the other circuits in your computer. A CPU is shown in Exhibit 4-1.

Exhibit 4-1: A CPU A CPU has these components:  A control unit  One or more execution units  Registers Older CPUs and processors, in even modern mini-computers and mainframe computers, were built from multiple chips and components. CPUs contained on a single chip are called microprocessors. Almost all CPUs in personal computers are microprocessors. The control unit The control unit is responsible for managing the flow of a program. It’s the component that retrieves the next instruction to be acted upon or the data to be processed. Execution units Execution units are responsible for the processing of instructions and data. Execution units are built from the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the floating-point unit (FPU). The ALU calculates and compares numbers. The ALU does most of the work of the processor, but it’s best suited to working with operations that act on whole numbers (not fractions). The FPU is designed specifically to work with real numbers (numbers with fractional components, and very large, very small, or very precise numbers). It’s faster and more efficient at performing mathematical manipulations than the ALU is.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Older CPUs didn’t include an FPU, though one was sometimes offered as a separate add-on chip called a math coprocessor. The Intel 80386 and some 80486 processors, which predate the Pentium line of CPUs, didn’t include an FPU. In these older CPUs, the functions of an FPU were performed by the ALU, but at a slower pace. A processor can have one or more execution units. A single-core processor has one execution unit. A core is an execution unit. A dual-core processor has two execution units, a triple-core processor has three, and a quad-core processor has four. In a single-core processor, the processor orders, executes, and then selectively stores strings of instructions in its registers. Registers are very small, yet very fast, memory locations available on the CPU for holding instructions or units of data. Registers operate at the same speed as the CPU, whereas normal system memory can be many times slower. The CPU can access the contents of a register more quickly than it can access other types of storage. During their operations, CPUs store data and instructions in registers. That information is then transferred back to main system memory. To speed operations, the control unit can “prefetch” instructions and data from system memory and store it in the CPU’s registers. When the processor needs data outside its registers, it must retrieve the data from RAM through the system bus or from a storage device, such as the hard disk. This process slows down performance to the maximum speed of the bus, memory, or storage device. This speed is slower than the actual speed of the processor itself. The situation is worse when the processor must multitask. When multitasking, the processor switches back and forth between sets of instructions and programs. CPUs can have many registers, with groups of registers devoted to a specific purpose (and thus unavailable for other uses). Some modern processors can use registers as needed for the task at hand, rather than being limited by a limited quantity of specialpurpose registers. Multi-core processor In a multi-core processor, each core handles incoming strings of instructions simultaneously. When one core is executing instructions, other cores can be accessing the system bus or executing their own string of instructions. To utilize a multi-core processor, the operating system must be able to recognize multi-threading, and the software must have simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) or Non-Uniform Memory Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) written into its code. SMT enables parallel multi-threading, meaning that multi-threaded instructions are delivered to the cores in parallel. NUMA builds upon SMT by providing separate memory for each processor. Without SMT or NUMA, the software can recognize only one core. A multi-core processor is different from a multi-processor system. In a multi-core processor, system resources are shared and all cores reside on the same chip. In a multiprocessor system, there are two separate processors, each with its own system resources. All other components being equal, a multi-processor system is faster than a system with a multi-core processor.


4–5

CPU performance An instruction is the low-level, hardware-specific command to be acted upon by a processor. It might be something like “ADD AX, BY” to add the contents of the A and B registers. Before this instruction can be executed, a previous instruction must have moved the value of the X from a location in memory and stored it in the A register. Another instruction must have moved the value of the Y from memory to the B register. One more instruction is required to write the resulting sum back into a register, from where it is transferred by the control unit to a new memory location. You can determine the performance of a processor by examining the number of instructions it can perform in a second. With microprocessors, this amount is usually rated in millions of instructions per second (MIPS). CPUs are often rated according to their clock speed. In a PC, the clock circuit keeps the CPU and other chips synchronized so that they can work together. Older CPUs took more than one clock cycle to perform a single instruction. Modern processors perform many instructions in a single cycle. In fact, the clock speed is no longer a good indicator of the performance of a modern CPU. By using the techniques listed in the following table, a modern CPU can perform more than one instruction per clock cycle and even perform multiple instructions at the same time.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Ultimately, many factors control the actual speed (performance) of a CPU. The following table describes some of these factors. Design

Relation to CPU performance

Addressable RAM

The total amount of memory that’s accessible to the processor. The width of the address bus controls the amount of addressable RAM to which the processor can read or write.

Bus, address

The bus (pathway) that connects the processor to main memory. The wider the address bus, the more memory can be accessed. Data isn’t transferred over this bus.

Bus, data

The bus that connects the CPU, memory, and peripherals. The data bus is used to carry data. The width and the clock rate of the data bus determine its data rate.

Bus, internal

The bus that determines how many bits of information the processor can work with at once. The size of the internal register determines how much data the processor can handle at one time and how it moves data around internally within the chip. If the internal bus is smaller than the data bus, data and instructions must be manipulated in parts. For example, a processor with a 32-bit internal bus and a 64-bit data bus must deal with data in two halves.

Cache

High-speed temporary storage. Accessing data from cache is considerably faster than accessing it from main memory. Various computer components use caches—such as CPUs and hard disks. Processors use levels 1, 2, and 3 caching, where level 1 is the fastest and most closely coupled to the processor, level 2 less so, and level 3 even less (yet still much faster than normal system memory.)

Clock speed

The number of cycles per second of the computer’s synchronization clock, measured in hertz (Hz), millions of cycles per second (megahertz or MHz), or billions of cycles per second (gigahertz or GHz). A modern processor performs more than one instruction during every clock cycle. Older processors performed one or fewer. Normally, a clock speed rating refers to the internal or core speed of the processor, rather than to the actual speed of the computer’s synchronizing clock chip.

Data bus width

The number of bits of data or instructions that can be transferred in a single operation. The larger the data bus, the more data that can be moved and thus the faster the processor can operate.

Dual Independent Bus (DIB)

A processor architecture that includes two buses: one, called the frontside bus, to the main system memory and another, called the backside bus, to the level 2 cache. The processor can access both buses simultaneously for improved performance.

Front-side bus speed

The speed at which the processor interacts with the rest of the system. A processor’s internal core speed can be many times higher than its front-side bus speed. If the core speed is too much higher than the front-side bus speed, the processor can sit idle, waiting for data to be moved in or out and made available for processing.

Hyperthreading

Officially called Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT), this is an Intel technology that enables each single processor core to execute two streams of instructions at the same time, sharing the workload between two virtual processors when possible. Other manufacturers use similar hyperthreading technology in their processors.


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Design

Relation to CPU performance

Multimedia extensions (MMX)

An expanded set of instructions supported by a processor that provides multimediaspecific functions. Without MMX, a programmer might have to implement multiple low-level commands to perform a multimedia operation. With MMX, the same function would involve a single instruction.

Multiprocessing

The use of more than one processor within a system to speed program execution. Operating systems and applications need to be written to support multiprocessing, or no speed benefits are realized.

Overclocking

Running the CPU at a higher speed than it was rated to run at. Overclocking increases performance, but also increases the potential for errors. Also, more heat is generated by an overclocked CPU.

Pipelining

The overlapping of the steps involved in processing instructions. Instructions are normally fetched, decoded, and executed, and the results are written out to memory. Modern processors overlap these steps to speed overall execution. While one instruction is being executed, another is being decoded, and a third is being fetched.

Superscalar

A technique that enables a processor to execute more than one instruction in a single clock cycle.

Throttling

A technique by which the speed of the processor is scaled back so that it uses less power and creates less heat. Throttling reduces performance. It’s most useful with portable computers, for which low power consumption and low heat production are critical design factors.

Multiple processor support Some computers come with two processors. However, in order to take advantage of the increased performance gained with two processors, the operating system and applications you run must include symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) code. Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, and Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise include symmetric multiprocessing code. Windows XP Home and Media Center Editions and Windows Vista Home and Home Premium don’t. You can get the Linux operating system and all of its compatible applications in symmetric multiprocessing versions. The 32-bit versions of Windows 7 support multiprocessors in the same manner as Windows Vista does. The 64-bit versions of Windows 7 use Non-Uniform Memory Access or Non-Uniform Memory Architecture (NUMA) to support multiprocessors. In SMP (the traditional model for multiprocessor support), each processor has equal access to memory and I/O. As you add more processors, the system’s performance becomes limited by the processor bus. NUMA addresses this problem by providing separate memory for each processor, avoiding the performance hit when several processors attempt to address the same memory. In NUMA, the architecture is non-uniform, because each processor is close to some parts of memory and farther from other parts of memory. The processor quickly gains access to the memory it’s close to, and it can take longer to gain access to memory that’s farther away. Under NUMA, a processor can access its own local memory faster than nonlocal memory—another processor’s local memory or memory shared between processors.

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Processor specifications There are several manufacturers of CPUs. Probably the two most recognizable in the personal computer realm are Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). These two have the largest market share. Other manufacturers include, but are not limited to, Centaur Technology, Elbrus International (a Russian microprocessor manufacturer), Integrated Device Technology, Inc. (IDT), SIS (Silicon Integrated Systems), and ST Microelectronics. CPUs can be compared according to many specifications, including:  Primary specifications — Clock speed, front-side bus speed, addressable RAM, and cache sizes.  Bus width specifications — The width, or number of bits, that can pass at one time over the processor’s internal bus and data bus, plus the address bus width, which determines the maximum addressable memory.  Internal specifications — The internal and external voltages used by the chips, the number of transistors that make up the processor, and whether it includes an integrated FPU. Refer to manufacturer Web sites for specific information about the following items for individual processors:  Clock speed  Front-side bus speed  Maximum RAM  L1 cache size  L2 cache size  Internal bus size  Data bus size  Address bus size These are the appropriate Web sites:  AMD desktop processors: products.amd.com/enus/DesktopCPUResult.aspx 

AMD notebook processors: products.amd.com/enus/NotebookCPUResult.aspx

 Intel: www.intel.com/products/processor/index.htm Internal specifications The internal specifications of processors refer to the way the CPU’s circuits are constructed. The core voltage value describes the voltage level required by the core processing components of the CPU. The I/O voltage value, sometimes called the external voltage, is the level required by the CPU’s input and output circuitry. In modern processors, the core and I/O voltage values typically differ. On modern processors, one or more voltage ID (VID) pins send a signal containing the exact voltage requirements to the voltage regulator module (VRM) on the motherboard. The VRM then supplies that specific power to the CPU. Not all motherboards include a VRM. On many older motherboards, you must set jumpers or switches to match the voltage supplied to the CPU with what it requires. If you supply the wrong voltage, you can ruin the CPU.


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The number of transistors is simply a count of the transistors (microscopic electronic switches) that make up the CPU. This count provides a rough estimate of the size and complexity of the chip. Older processors didn’t include an integrated floating-point unit (FPU). Modern CPUs all include this feature. Again, for information on the specific core and I/O voltage values, number of transistors, and inclusion of an integrated FPU on a specific processor, refer to the technical documentation on the manufacturer’s Web site.

4–10 Do it!


A-1:

Identifying CPUs

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Disconnect the power cord from the computer 2 Disconnect any other external cables

For example, network cables.

3 Release the restraining mechanisms—screws, slides, or push-buttons—that secure the side that exposes the internal components 4 Touch the metal frame of the computer and count slowly to three

To discharge any static charges present on your body or on the computer.

5 Remove the cover

So you can view the motherboard and processor.

6 Locate your CPU

Modern CPUs typically have a set of cooling fins glued to them, covering all markings. This will prevent you from identifying the CPU or its specifications.

7 Record the manufacturer and model of CPU in your computer

Your instructor will provide you with this information. Manufacturer: ___________________________ Model: ________________________________

8 Using the preceding tables, determine the specifications of the CPU in your PC

CPU type: _________ Clock speed: _________ Level 1 cache: _________ Number of transistors: _________ Internal bus width: _________

9 Close your system case and assemble your PC 10 Boot your PC Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 11 Open your browser and visit www.digital-daily.com/cpu

CPUs and motherboards 12 Compare one of the AMD processors with one of the Intel processors; which do you think is the more powerful CPU and why? 13 Which processors do you or your company use?

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CPUs inside the case Hardware designers must include many other functions to create a complete working computer. CPUs must be connected to the motherboard circuitry in order to function. In addition, processors generate a lot of heat during their operation and require some method to keep cool, or their internal wiring can melt. In this topic, you’ll examine:  Chipsets  CPU packaging  Slots  Cooling techniques

Chipsets In older PCs, separate microchips were used to provide each individual function. For example, one chip controlled the processor’s interaction with memory, another managed the CPU’s interaction with add-on peripherals, and so forth. The cost and complexity of designing motherboards with many separate chips led designers to integrate the functions into single chips or sets of chips. A chipset is one or more chips, packaged into a single unit and sold together, that perform a set of functions in a computer. The term is used most often to describe the core features of a computer, which often include:  Memory control  System bus functions  Audio functions  Video display functions  System management functions The chipset doesn’t actually include the CPU. However, each chipset is designed to support a select few CPUs. Sometimes the term “chipset” is used with video adapter cards. In those cases, the (video) chipset combines what used to be separate video chips into a single chip or unit. Northbridge and Southbridge chips Two of the most important components of a PC chipset are the Northbridge and Southbridge chips. Together with the CPU, these chips define the characteristics and capabilities of the computer. The Northbridge chip controls interactions between the CPU, memory and cache, AGP and PCIe video control circuitry, and the Southbridge. The Southbridge chip controls interactions between buses and devices not controlled by the Northbridge, including the standard PCI expansion bus, floppy drive controller, and serial, parallel, and PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports.

CPU packaging Any type of microchip is made up of microscopic wires, transistors, and other components. This plain chip is called the die. To be useful, it must be connected to the rest of the circuitry of your computer. Due to the size differences between the wires on the die and the circuit boards of your computer, the die can’t be connected directly to the circuit board.


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Instead, the die is built into a package. A package is a case made from plastic, ceramic, glass, metal, or other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge the microscopic connections on the die with the external circuitry. A package might also include support function chips, memory, and cooling-related components.

Exhibit 4-2: A PDIP (plastic dual inline package) memory chip Older package types, such as the PDIP pictured in Exhibit 4-2, used connectors that were large compared to the die. Newer packages use ever smaller connectors, packing more connections into a smaller area. The pin grid array (PGA) package, shown in Exhibit 4-3, includes many more connections into an area not much larger than the die.

Exhibit 4-3: The underside of an 80486DX2 CPU, showing the pins of its Pin Grid Array package Even though newer packages use smaller connectors, overall package size has grown as functionality has grown. Newer packages include support chips, cache memory, and features that enhance the cooling of the processor. One such larger package is shown in Exhibit 4-4.

Exhibit 4-4: The Single Edge Contact Cartridge package

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One CPU packages The following table lists some current and historical CPU packages used with desktop computers. Manufacturers can vary these with updated lines, so be sure to check the technical specifications for your particular CPU on the manufacturer’s Web site.  AMD: www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/packagingtechnology/Pages/packaging-technology.aspx

 Intel desktop processors packages: www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/cs-009863.htm

 Intel notebook processor packages: www.intel.com/support/processors/sb/CS-009864.htm Package

Full name

Description

Processors

PDIP

Plastic dual inline package

The die is encased in plastic (or another material). Large, flat, metal pins are inserted into a socket that’s soldered to the motherboard.

8080, 8086, 8088

PGA

Pin grid array

Rows of pins extend from the bottom of the package. A nickel-plated copper slug sits atop the die to improve thermal conductivity. The pins are arranged so that the chip can be inserted in just one way.

80286 (68 pins), 80386 (132 pins), 80486 (168), and Xeon (603 pins)

CPGA

Ceramic pin grid array

A package that uses a ceramic substrate with pins arranged in a pin grid array.

AMD Socket A Athlon and the Duron

SPGA

Staggered pin grid array

Similar to PGA, but pins are staggered to fit more pins in a given area.

Pentium, Pentium MMX, Pentium Pro with 387 pins

PPGA

Plastic pin grid array

An updated version of the SPGA package.

Pentium Pro, early Celeron processors, and Pentium III with 370 pins

FC-PGA

Flip chip pin grid array

Similar to PGA, but the die is exposed on top. This design enhances heat transfer and cooling options.

Pentium III and Celeron with 370 pins; the 423pin version is used with Pentium 4 processors

FC-PGA2

Flip chip pin grid array 2

Similar to FC-PGA, but with an integrated heat sink, which is connected to the die during manufacturing.

Pentium III and Celeron with 370 pins; the 478pin version is used with Pentium 4 processors; 469 version used with AMD Athlon Thunderbird processors

OOI

Organic Land Grid Array (OLGA) On Interposer

In OLGA, a single layer of silicon is placed between a microprocessor’s die and interposer. In multilayer OLGA, the silicon layers are staggered vertically with metal strips providing connections between them. The die is mounted face down, as with the FC-PGA package, for better cooling, but uses a different pin arrangement.

423-pin Pentium 4


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Package

Full name

Description

Processors

OPGA

Organic pin grid array

The silicon die is attached to an organic plastic plate (fiberglass), which is pierced by an array of pins to make the connections to the socket. This package is cheaper, thinner, and lighter than the ceramic package. It also reduces electrical impedance.

AMD Athlon XP

SECC

Single Edge Contact Cartridge

Rather than mounting horizontally, this package mounts the CPU vertically on the motherboard. Rather than pins, this package uses an edge connector similar to that of an adapter card. The package is covered with a metal case. A metal thermal plate mounted to the back of the cartridge acts as a heat sink.

Pentium II processors with 242 contacts, and Pentium II Xeon and Pentium III Xeon processors with 330 contacts

SECC2

Single Edge Contact Cartridge 2

Similar to SECC, but without the thermal plate.

Later versions of the Pentium II and Pentium III processor with 242 contacts; AMD Athlon K7

SEP

Single Edge Processor

Similar to SECC without the metal case.

Early Celeron processors with 242 contacts

FCBGA

Flip chip ball grid array

Similar to FC-PGA, but uses balls rather than pins for contacts. The balls can’t be bent as the pins can.

Xeon, plus many support chips in current Pentiumclass computers

LGA

Land grid array

Has small raised contacts instead of pins. The corresponding socket has pins that meet the contacts. This is a very high-density package.

Celeron D, Pentium 4, Pentium 4 D, Pentium Extreme Edition, Core2 Duo, Core2 Extreme

PGA-ZIF

Pin grid array-Zero insertion force

Designed to be set in place with very little or no force. Typically the weight of the package is enough to seat it. Held in place by lever or slider.

Xeon; Mobile Pentium M; Mobile Celeron and Celeron M; Mobile Core, Core Duo, and Core 2 Duo

4–16


Sockets and slots The processor packages listed in the preceding table must be inserted into a socket or slot on the motherboard. The following table lists common desktop computer sockets and slots. (As with packages, manufacturers can vary sockets and slots with updated lines, so check the technical specifications for your CPU on the manufacturer’s Web site.) A desktop processor and its associated socket are shown in Exhibit 4-5. Type

Supports these packages

Processors

Notes

Slot A

AMD’s Card Module package

AMD Athlon

This wasn’t a popular design and didn’t last long on the market.

Socket A (also called Socket 462)

SPGA with 462 pins

AMD Athlon and Duron

Eleven holes in this socket were plugged to ensure that packages were installed correctly.

Socket 5

PGA, SPGA with 320 pins

Pentium

Socket 7

PGA, SPGA with 321 pins, and PGA, SPGA, and FC-PGA with 296 pins

AMD K5 and K6, Cyrix 6x86, Pentium, and Pentium MMX

First socket to support dual voltage inputs, which support the various core and I/O voltages introduced with the Pentium MMX processors. Socket 7 has one more hole than Socket 5 but isn’t electrically connected. It simply prevents a new CPU from being plugged into a Socket 5 socket.

Socket 8

387-pin PGA, SPGA, and FC-PGA

Pentium Pro

A short-lived socket design used primarily with the Pentium Pro.

Socket 423

423-pin SPGA and FC-PGA, OOI

Pentium 4

A short-lived socket design used for early Pentium 4 processors.

Socket 478

FC-PGA2

Celeron, Pentium 4, Pentium D, and Pentium Extreme Edition

The current general-purpose socket for Pentium-class processors.

Socket 370

SPGA and PPGA with 370 pins

Celeron, Celeron II, Pentium III

Similar to the Socket 7 design, with six staggered rows of pins rather than five.

Socket 603

PGA-ZIF

Xeon

603 contacts in a grid around the center of the socket.

Socket 604

PGA-ZIF

Xeon

604 pins (one dummy) with 603 contacts. Designed to support a heatsink.

Slot 1

SECC, SECC2, SEP with 242 contacts

Pentium II, early Celeron, and Pentium III

Edge connector slot developed specifically for the SECC, SECC2, and SEP packages.


4–17

Type

Supports these packages

Processors

Notes

Slot 2

SECC, SECC2, SEP with 330 contacts

Pentium II and Xeon

Similar to Slot 1, but the CPU can communicate with the Level II cache at full CPU speed, rather than at the half-speed supported through Slot 1.

LGA775 (also called Socket T)

LGA

Celeron D, Pentium 4, Pentium D, Pentium Extreme Edition, Core2 Duo, and Core2 Duo Extreme

Designed to work specifically with the new high-density LGA package.

LGA 1156 (also called Socket H)

LGA

Pentium, Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 (800 series), Xeon

Allows connections to PCIe 2.0 x16 graphics card. PCIe 2.0 x4 connection for DMI communication to platform controller hug. Two memory channels for DDR3 SDRAM.

LGA 1366 (also called Socket B)

LGA

Core i7 (900 series), Xeon (5500 series)

Replaces LGA 775. Access up to three channels of DDR3 memory.

Socket 479

PGA-ZIF

Mobile Pentium M and Celeron M

Physically similar to Socket 478 but with a different electrical pin arrangement.

Socket 495

PGA-ZIF

Mobile Celeron

Designed to support a heatsink.

Socket M

PGA-ZIF

Mobile Core Solo, Core Duo, Core 2 Duo, Celeron M

Replaces Socket 479. However, one pin is changed, making Socket M electrically incompatible with Socket 479, even though Socket 479 and Socket M are physically compatible.

Socket P

PGA

Mobile Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad, Celeron M, Pentium Dual-Core

478 pins, but not compatible with Socket M or Socket 478.

Exhibit 4-5: A Pentium MMX CPU atop its associated Socket 7 socket

4–18 Do it!


A-2:

Identifying your CPU’s socket and package type

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Shut down and unplug your PC

If necessary.

2 If necessary, open your system case

Make sure to follow proper electrical safety and ESD precautions.

3 Examine your CPU and record the socket and package type

Package: ________________

4 Identify the chipset chip on your motherboard

It’s typically a very large chip placed near the CPU socket.

Socket: _________________

Leave your computer off and open for the next activity.


4–19

CPU installation CPUs themselves rarely fail. Furthermore, you typically won’t upgrade a PC by replacing the CPU. Instead, you’ll probably either replace the whole motherboard (including the CPU) or replace the whole computer. You might have the opportunity to install a CPU if you purchase all of your computer components separately to build a computer from parts. Some motherboards support multiple processors. In such a situation, you might need to install an additional CPU in a computer. Regardless of why you might install a CPU, you must match the CPU to the motherboard. The CPU’s packaging must match the slots or sockets available on the motherboard. Furthermore, the motherboard must supply sufficient power and be rated for the speed of CPU you plan to install. If you purchase components as a set, your vendor will have selected a matching CPU. If you purchase components separately, make sure to match your CPU and motherboard. CPU packages are held in their sockets by retaining clips or other mechanisms. Older PGA packages are held in place by a locking lever. Other older slot and socket designs use retaining clips to keep the processor package in place. Current CPU packages employ a zero insertion force (ZIF) design. The purpose of the ZIF design is to avoid problems caused by the forces you apply when inserting and extracting CPU packages onto the motherboard. With the ZIF design, you move a lever or slider that pushes the contacts apart. You can then insert the CPU package with very little force. You then move the lever or slider back to its original position to close the contacts and grip the pins of the CPU package. For the socket shown in Exhibit 4-6, you pull the locking arm out from the socket to unsnap it, and then rotate it up, so it’s perpendicular to the socket.

Locking socket arm

Exhibit 4-6: Zero insertion force socket

4–20

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One To install a CPU: 1 Unplug the computer and open the case while observing general electrical and ESD safety precautions. 2 If necessary, remove the old CPU by releasing its retaining mechanisms and lifting the package from its socket. 3 Store the old CPU in an appropriate, static-safe bag or box. 4 Insert the new CPU package into its socket and secure it with the retaining mechanism. 5 Close the case, reconnect cables, and boot the PC. If you’re installing a new motherboard and CPU at the same time, install the CPU on the motherboard before you install the motherboard in the case.

CPUs and motherboards Do it!

A-3:

4–21

Replacing a CPU (optional)

Here’s how 1 Using the PC provided by your instructor, unplug the PC and then open the case while following electrical and ESD safety precautions 2 If necessary, remove the old CPU 3 Place the old CPU in a static-safe bag or box 4 Install the new CPU 5 Close the case and reconnect cables 6 Boot the PC to confirm that you’ve installed the CPU correctly Log on to Windows as: User name: COMPADMIN## Password: !pass1234

Here’s why Your instructor might have a different computer into which you can install a new or additional CPU.

4–22


Topic B: Cooling techniques This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.5

Explain cooling methods and devices  Heat sinks  CPU and case fans  Liquid cooling systems  Thermal compound


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Cooling systems – Heat sinks – Thermal compound – CPU fans – Case fans

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Cooling systems – Heat sinks – Thermal compound – CPU fans – Case fans

Cooling techniques Explanation

CPUs and the other components in a computer are designed to operate within a range of temperatures. Temperatures outside that range can damage components. In particular, too much heat can cause logic errors, in which data within the chips and wires are altered, or circuit damage, which can melt components! The current crop of desktop CPUs (excluding the processor classes defined as energyefficient or low-power) can draw over 100 watts of power. The CPUs must dissipate the heat from all that power.


4–23

For example, Intel specifies that for its Core2 Duo Desktop Processor E4300 processors, the internal temperature of your computer case should not exceed 61.4°C. To maintain that temperature range, PC designers must include one or more of the following features to cool the case and the processor itself:  Fans  Heat sinks and cooling fins  Heat pipes  Water pumps  Peltier coolers  Phase-change cooling  Undervolting Fans and air openings To maintain allowable temperatures, hardware designers must devise a way to move heat away from the components that generate it. In most situations, this means forcing hot air out of the case to allow cool air to enter. Older CPUs generated so little heat that a simple fan (typically part of the power supply) and a few openings in the case were all it took to maintain permitted operating temperatures. Modern CPUs (and other components) generate too much heat for such simple thermal management designs. Modern cases include multiple openings through which air can flow. Some cases include multiple fans, in addition to the power supply fan, to move air. Exhibit 4-7 shows a system case with both power supply and auxiliary fans.

Power supply fan

Auxiliary fan

Exhibit 4-7: A system case with power supply and auxiliary fans to improve air flow Heat sinks and cooling fins Fans aren’t sufficient to dissipate the heat from Pentium-class processors. These processors require more high-tech thermal management methods. The amount of heat that can leave a component is directly proportional to its surface area. Big, hot things cool faster than small, hot things do. Additionally, some materials transfer heat better than others.

4–24

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A heat sink is something that absorbs and transfers heat better than its surroundings. The most common type of heat sink used with CPUs is cooling fins. Fins increase the surface area that can transfer heat away from the CPU. Hardware designers began adding cooling fins to CPUs before the Pentium era—an example is shown in Exhibit 4-8.

Exhibit 4-8: Cooling fins on an older 80486DX2 CPU The fins are normally connected directly to the die or to an integrated metal plate on the CPU, depending on its packaging design. A thermal compound—a fluid with similar properties to grease and that transmits heat well—is used between the parts to improve heat flow. You might also hear thermal compound referred to as thermal grease. A heat sink (such as a set of cooling fins) relies on convection—warm air rises away from the fins while cooler air flows in from below. At some point, heat can’t dissipate quickly enough on its own. Thermal engineers can add fans to the cooling fins to forcibly improve convection, as shown in Exhibit 4-9. A heat sink without a fan is called passive heat sink cooling; a heat sink with a fan is called active heat sink cooling.

Exhibit 4-9: Cooling fins and a fan on a Pentium processor Heat sinks can get only so large before they no longer fit in the case or are too heavy for the components to which they’re attached. If more heat must be dissipated, designers can turn to other techniques, such as heat pipes. Heat pipes Heat pipes are small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled with a small amount of fluid. Heat vaporizes the fluid, which expands and rises to another area of the piping. There, heat is transferred away, and the fluid condenses, flowing back toward the CPU and heat source.


4–25

Even though no pump is involved, heat pipes provide an effective way of moving heat away from the CPU. Additionally, the heat can be moved further away so that convection can be more effective. Heat pipes also permit smaller and lighter fins. Water pumps For systems that generate too much heat for fins and heat pipes to cool, designers can turn to more exotic cooling systems. One such system is a pumped water system. Like heat pipes, tubes carry water or other liquid past the CPU to pick up heat. The heated liquid is transported away from the CPU, often outside the computer’s case, where it passes through cooling fins to transfer its heat away. Some computer-game aficionados and others who work their PCs hard go even further. They run the water cooling pipes through an ice-water bath or put the cooling fins outside their windows during the winter. Typical office computer use rarely requires such extreme cooling methods. Peltier coolers All of the preceding cooling methods rely on some form of convection. Heat moves from the hot CPU to the cooler surroundings. What if the surroundings aren’t cooler than inside the PC’s case? Factory floors and some other environments can be very hot. Convective cooling devices can’t work in those situations. A Peltier (pronounced “PELT-ee-āy”) device is an electronic component that gets colder when a voltage is applied. Peltier coolers for CPUs provide cooling when convective methods won’t work. A Peltier device is connected directly to the CPU. Devices that can drop the temperature of a CPU by 70° C are available. If more cooling is needed, Peltier devices can be combined with water coolers. Phase-change cooling Phase-change cooling utilizes a vapor compression unit, much like a window A/C unit, to cool the processor. The computer sits on the compression unit, and a tube runs from the compressor to the processor. The compressor compresses a gas or gases into liquid, and then that liquid runs through the tube to the processor. There it passes through an expansion device. As the liquid absorbs the heat from the processor, it evaporates and returns to the compressor in gas form to begin the process again. Phase-changing cooling systems are more efficient than a single-phase water cooling system—up to 10 times more efficient—but they generate significantly more noise. Undervolting Undervolting is the practice of running a CPU or other computer component with voltages below the device’s specifications, so that the component draws less power and produces less heat. However, if you run a processor at too low a voltage, it can produce system errors, freezes, or crashes. You might also be unable to power on the system at all. Be sure to check the specifications for your particular processor before you attempt to use undervolting as a cooling technique in your system. You’ll find that your ability to cool by undervolting varies by manufacturer, by product line, and sometimes even by different production runs of the same processor.

4–26 Do it!


B-1:

Examining the cooling systems in your PC

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Examine the system case. How many fans does your PC have? 2 Does your PC have a cooling grille or holes on the side or top? If so, how does the presence of these cooling mechanisms affect how you locate a PC in your work area? 3 You’re servicing a computer for a customer who has been complaining of weird system crashes and data loss. The customer’s computer is piled high with books and shoved in a cramped space under a desk. It also sits on a thick carpet. What would you suggest? 4 If necessary, open your PC’s case

Make sure to follow proper electrical and ESD safety precautions.

5 Does your CPU have cooling fins? A cooling fan? An “exotic” cooling device, such as a water cooler? 6 If your instructor has one available, examine a CPU with its cooling fins removed

To view the thermal compound that connects the two components. Leave your computer off and open for the next activity.


B-2:

4–27

Replacing a system fan

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Locate the system fan Disconnect the system fan cable from the motherboard 2 If your system fan is covered by an air baffle, remove the air baffle 3 Remove the system fan from the system case by releasing its retaining mechanism 4 Insert the new system fan and secure it to the system case If necessary, replace the air baffle 5 Reconnect the system fan cable to the motherboard 6 Close your system case and reconnect the power cable 7 Boot the PC to confirm that the fan is functional Log on to Windows 7 as: User name: COMPADMIN## Password: !pass1234

Some fans are held in place by clips; others might be held in with screws.

4–28


Topic C: Motherboards This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  Form factor – ATX/BTX – micro ATX – NLX  I/O intefaces  Riser card / daughterboard


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Motherboards – Jumper settings – Firmware updates – Socket types – Expansion slots – Memory slots – Front panel connectors – I/O ports  Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / FireWire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2


4–29

Motherboards Explanation

The motherboard is the main circuit board in a personal computer. It’s made up of various components, including the CPU and other electronic devices, wires, and adapter sockets into which additional circuit boards and devices can be attached. Exhibit 4-10 shows a motherboard with some of its primary components labeled. Socket 478 connector

3 DIMM banks ATX power supply

Back panel connectors

2 IDE ports Chipset AGP slot

Chipset Floppy drive port

4 PCI slots CMOS battery BIOS

CD-in connector (white line)

Exhibit 4-10: A motherboard The following table describes the functions of various motherboard components. Component

Function

CPU

The chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of the other components in your computer.

Expansion slots

Slots into which you can plug additional circuit boards to expand the capabilities of your computer.

AGP graphics adapter slot

A slot into which you can plug an AGP graphics adapter card, which produces the output displayed on your monitor.

Hard drive interface connectors

A header into which you can plug cables to connect hard drives, CD drives, and DVD drives to the system.

Floppy drive interface connector

A header into which you can plug the cable to connect a floppy drive to the system.

Optical drive interface connector

IDE or SCSI connector to connect and CD or DVD drive to the system.

4–30

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Component

Function

Power connector

Connector to which you connect the output of the power supply to provide electrical power to the motherboard. Older systems have a pair of connectors rather than a single connector.

Memory slots

Slots into which you insert memory modules to add system memory to your PC.

PS/2 mouse and keyboard ports

Ports into which you can plug PS/2-style keyboard and mouse connectors.

USB port

One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect USB devices to your PC.

IEEE 1394/FireWire port

One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect FireWire devices to your PC.

Serial port

One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect serial devices, such as modems or mice, to your PC.

Parallel port

One or more ports into which you can plug cables to connect parallel devices, such as printers, to your PC.

Battery

A battery to provide power for maintaining system configuration information, date, and time, while your PC is turned off or disconnected from the outlet.

Network interface

Network interface circuitry built into the motherboard to enable connections to a network without using an add-on adapter card.

Video connector

Video circuitry built into the motherboard, which provides a video connector on the back of the system case.

The motherboard is sometimes called the system board or main board. However, the latter term is typically used to describe the main circuit board in non-PC devices, such as alarm systems, televisions, and so forth.

Exhibit 4-11: Front panel connectors


4–31

In addition to the back panel connections shown in Exhibit 4-10, most computers provide front panel connections, including USB and IEEE 1394/FireWire connections, as shown in Exhibit 4-11. Daughter boards A daughter board is a circuit board that connects to a circuit board (sometimes, though not normally, a motherboard) to provide or assist with its functions. Daughter boards are often used with video cards to add more video-processing capabilities. Riser cards As shown in Exhibit 4-12, a riser card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard. Unlike a daughter board, the purpose of a riser card is to provide additional expansion slots or sockets. Riser cards are most often used with special, small motherboards designed for small cases.

Exhibit 4-12: An example of a riser card

Form factor The form factor of a motherboard is its size and shape. In addition, the form factor describes the power supply and case that can be used with a motherboard. It also describes the general physical layout of the components on the motherboard. Of course, motherboards must fit into cases, which means that screw holes or retainingclip locations must match between motherboards and cases. Standardized dimensions and mounting layouts help make sure that components work together. The following table lists the common PC motherboard form factors. Other form factors are available. Be sure to check the manufacturer’s specification documents for your PC when choosing a replacement motherboard.

4–32

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Form factor

Dimensions (inches)

Notes

XT

8.5 by 11

Obsolete, used with IBM XT-class computers.

AT

12 by 11–13

Obsolete, used with IBM AT-class computers.

Baby-AT

8.5 by 10–13

A smaller version of the AT form factor.

ATX

9.6 by 12

Standard created by Intel in 1996 and still one of the most popular form factors.

Mini-ATX

8.2 by 11.2

Micro-ATX

9.6 by 9.6

Released in 1996. Offered fewer slots than the ATX form. A smaller power supply could be used in PCs with this motherboard design.

LPX

9 by 11–13

Designed for slimline PCs.

Mini-LPX

8–9 by 10–11

Designed for slimline PCs.

NLX

8–9 by 10–13.6

Standard created by Intel in 1999; this form factor requires a riser card for add-on adapters.

FlexATX

9.6 by 9.6

Mini-ITX

6.7 by 6.7

Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2003.

Nano-ITX

4.7 by 4.7

Standard created by VIA Technologies in 2004.

BTX

10.5 by 12.8

Standard created by Intel in 2004. BTX’s ability as a motherboard/case system handles airflow and cooling better than other standards do.

MicroBTX

10.4 by 10.5

A variation of the BTX form factor. Its different dimensions notwithstanding, the MicroBTX shares the electrical and component design with the BTX form factor.

PicoBTX

8.0 by 10.5

A smaller variation on the BTX standard.


C-1:

4–33

Examining motherboard components and form factor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Examine your motherboard What form factor is your motherboard? 2 If your instructor has motherboards with other form factors, compare the size and component layout of those motherboards with yours 3 Identify each of the following items on your motherboard:

CPU and its socket Memory slots Bus (expansion) slots I/O ports (serial, parallel, mouse, and keyboard) Integrated drive controller slots, if applicable USB and FireWire ports, if applicable Integrated video port, if applicable

4 Close your system case and assemble your PC 5 Boot your PC Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 6 Open your browser and visit www.motherboards.org

7 On the left, under Compare Prices, click Motherboards 8 Examine the list of motherboards available for sale 9 What’s the most popular motherboard form factor for sale?

4–34


Motherboard installation Motherboards occasionally fail, often due to manufacturing defects or rough handling. If failure occurs, you might need to install a new motherboard. You might also need to install a motherboard when upgrading a PC or building one from scratch. Motherboards are typically held in the case by screws, but occasionally plastic clips are used. Most often, you need to open both sides of the system case to access these screws or clips. Additionally, you need to remove any wires, cables, connectors, and perhaps even other system components, such as the power supply and drives, to remove the motherboard. Standoffs are basically pegs that support the motherboard as you install it. You use standoffs to keep the soldered contacts on the back of the motherboard from touching the metal case. Without standoffs, if the contacts touch the metal case, it could cause the motherboard to short out. Standoff pegs or spacers come in a variety of materials. Some are metal (brass), while others are plastic. To install a motherboard: 1 Unplug the computer and open the case while observing general electrical and ESD safety precautions. 2 Disconnect any wires, cables, and connectors from the old motherboard. 3 If necessary, remove the power supply and drives from the system. In some cases, these items are in the way and prevent you from removing the motherboard. 4 Remove the old motherboard by unscrewing it from the case or by releasing the retaining clips that secure it. 5 Store the old motherboard in an appropriate, static-safe bag or box. 6 Orient the motherboard and match its mounting holes to the case mounting holes. 7 Install metal or plastic standoffs. a If the motherboard holes line up with the case mounting holes, attach a metal standoff into the case. b If the motherboard holes line up with eyelet holes, insert a plastic slider standoff onto the motherboard. 8 Install the new motherboard and secure it with the retaining mechanism (screws or clips). 9 If necessary, reinstall the power supply and drives. 10 Connect the necessary wires, cables, and connectors. Configure any jumpers. 11 Close the case, reconnect cables, and boot the PC. Windows activation requirements With Windows XP, Microsoft introduced product activation for its Windows operating system. Product activation is a type of cataloging process by which the software product (in this case, Windows), its product key, and the hardware signature of your computer are entered into a Microsoft database. Microsoft assures users that the process of activation is completely anonymous, yet specific enough to prevent the same product key from being reused on a different computer.


4–35

Commercial versions of Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 have a 30-day grace period, after which activation is mandatory. After the grace period expires, Windows basically functions only enough to allow you to complete the activation process, although Windows 7 and Windows Vista provide some additional functionality above that offered by Windows XP after the activation deadline. Every few days, Windows uses a pop-up window to remind you about activation until you successfully complete the process. You can activate Windows over the Internet or by telephone. The Internet option is usually completed in seconds. The phone option can take several minutes while you exchange unique numbers with the customer service representative or automated attendant. If you attempt to activate a copy of Windows that uses the same product key as an already activated system, Internet and automatic activation will fail. You will then be forced to perform telephone-based activation. This is a security measure to prevent piracy. If you’ve simply upgraded your hardware, Microsoft will allow the new system to be activated, but the activation of the old system will be voided in Microsoft’s database. Activation might be unnecessary for some new computer systems on which Windows is already installed. Also, some of the volume licenses purchased by large companies use special product keys for Windows that do not require individual system activation. Activation has both benefits and drawbacks. One benefit is that it ensures that you’ve purchased a fully licensed and valid product and did not inadvertently obtain a pirated copy. Unfortunately, it can have one large drawback. If you make a significant change in your hardware—such as replacing the motherboard or replacing multiple system components simultaneously—your activation can be invalidated.

4–36 Do it!


C-2:

Replacing a motherboard (optional)

Here’s how 1 Using the PC provided by your instructor, unplug the PC and then open the case while following electrical and ESD safety precautions

Here’s why Your instructor might have a different computer into which you can install a new or replacement motherboard.

2 Disconnect any cables, wires, and connectors from the motherboard 3 If necessary, remove the power supply and drives 4 Remove the old motherboard 5 Place the old motherboard in a static-safe bag or box 6 Install the new motherboard 7 If necessary, reinstall the power supply and drives 8 Connect any cables, wires, and connectors from the motherboard 9 Close the case and reconnect cables 10 Boot the PC to confirm that you have installed the motherboard correctly Log on to Windows as: User name: COMPADMIN## Password: !pass1234

To access the motherboard. You might not have to remove these components.


4–37

Topic D: Motherboard and CPU troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  Hardware-related symptoms – Excessive heat

– Status light indicators

– Noise

– Alerts

– Odors

– Visible damage (e.g., cable, plastic)


Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Motherboards – Jumper settings – CMOS battery – Advanced BIOS settings – Bus speeds – Chipsets – Firmware updates – Socket types – Expansion slots – Memory slots – Front panel connectors – I/O ports  Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / FireWire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2  Processors – Socket types – Speed – Number of cores – Power consumption – Cache – Front side bus – 32bit vs. 64bit

4–38


Motherboard and CPU failures Explanation

Motherboards and CPUs can fail for various reasons. One of the most common causes of failure is a large electric spike, such as that caused by a nearby lightning strike. Often, a motherboard or CPU failure shows up in one of two ways: a complete system failure occurs (nothing happens when you turn the computer on); or unusual problems occur, perhaps sporadically. As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for motherboard- and CPU-related problems. You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it will give you a few scenarios to consider when troubleshooting motherboard and CPU problems. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

The system fails to boot.

Power problems are the most likely cause. If those aren’t the cause, a motherboard component could have failed.

Replace the motherboard.

A burning or foul odor or smoke comes out of the case.

Components, including the CPU, are overheated or burning.

Unplug the computer immediately and try to identify the failed component. If it can be replaced, do so. Otherwise, try replacing the motherboard.

Single slow beep alert from the computer when booting

Bad or failing CPU

Replace the CPU

Noise from the system case.

Faulty cooling fan

Clean cooling fan to remove accumulated debris; replace cooling fan.

Fans come on and power lights indicate that power is present, but the system fails to boot.

Power-control circuitry on the motherboard could have failed.


Video display problems occur on a system with an integrated display adapter.

Video circuitry has failed.

Replace the motherboard. In some computers, you can disable the on-board video circuitry and then install a separate video adapter.

Intermittent problems occur that can’t be traced to the failure of another component.

The motherboard might be faulty.


For a motherboard and CPU troubleshooting flow chart, see www.fonerbooks.com/cpu_ram.htm.


D-1:

4–39

Troubleshooting motherboard and CPU problems

Questions and answers 1 You are troubleshooting a computer. When it boots, you hear a slow, single beep, but nothing appears on screen. The power light on the monitor is amber. The computer won’t begin the POST. What do you suspect is the problem?

2 What should you try first to resolve this issue?

3 You are troubleshooting a computer that’s unstable (it hangs, gets BSODs and memory errors, spontaneously reboots, etc.). The user states that the symptoms have gotten more frequent. What do you suspect is the problem?

4–40


Unit summary: CPUs and motherboards Topic A

In this topic, you learned that CPUs are the chips that process instructions, manipulate data, and control the interaction of other PC components. You examined the characteristics of popular CPUs, as well as the CPU features that determine its performance characteristics. You learned that processors are sold as part of chipsets, which together control the core functions of the computer. You examined the various CPU packages and the corresponding slots and sockets into which they’re inserted. You learned how to install a CPU on a motherboard.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that CPUs generate an enormous amount of heat and require active and passive cooling mechanisms to prevent overheating.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned that the motherboard is the primary circuit board in a personal computer. You learned that motherboards come in specific sizes and shapes that describe their form factor. Additionally, you learned about computer case form factors and learned that the form factors of your motherboard and case must be compatible.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned that motherboards and CPUs fail for various reasons, particularly lightning strikes and electrical spikes. You learned about common symptoms of such failures, their probable causes, and suggested solutions.

Review questions 1 Which is not a component of a CPU? A Bus architecture B Control unit C Execution unit D Register 2 The math coprocessor was the predecessor to which CPU component? A ACL B Core C FPU D Register 3 A single-core processor has one of what component? A Control unit B Execution unit C FPU D Register 4 ______________ are very small, very fast, memory locations for holding instructions or units of data. Registers


4–41

5 Which type of bus connects the processor to the main memory? A Address bus B Data bus C Internal bus D Generic bus 6 Which processor caching level is the fastest for accessing data? A Level 1 B Level 2 C Level 3 D All are equal 7 Which of the following performance features can overheat the processor? A Multiprocessing B Overclocking C Pipelining D Superpipelining E Throttling 8 True or false? Most current processors have both L1 and L2 caches. True

9 The data bus for current CPUs is how many bits? A 16 B 32 C 64 D 128 10 Which of the following CPUs does not use a 64-bit internal bus? A AMD Athlon C Core2 Duo B Itanium D Sempron 11 The _____________ chip controls interactions between the CPU, memory, PCIe and AGP video control circuitry. Northbridge

12 The plain chip called a “die” is built into a(n) _____________ so that it can connect to the rest of the circuitry in your computer. package

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 13 Which package type is similar to the PGA-style packages, except that the die is exposed on top, enhancing heat transfer and cooling options? A FC-PGA B OPGA C PPGA D SPGA 14 Which package type has no pins, but uses small raised contacts instead? A LGA B OOI C PDIP D SECC 15 Which socket type is similar to the Socket 7 design, but with six staggered rows of pins instead of five? A Socket 8 B Socket 370 C Socket 423 D Socket 478 16 True or false? CPUs of the same class are interchangeable. For example, you can replace any Pentium 4 CPU on a motherboard with any other Pentium 4–class CPU. False. You must match the physical, electronic, and performance characteristics of a CPU to the motherboard.

17 A(n) ________ card is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide additional expansion slots or sockets. Riser.

18 True or false? Thermal compound is basically a grease-like fluid used between the CPU and its heat sink or cooling fins. True. The compound improves heat flow by closely mating the CPU die to the heat sink or fan.

19 Which cooling system relies on small tubes filled with a small amount of fluid? A Cooling fins B Heat pipes C Heat sinks D Peltier coolers 20 Which cooling system uses an electronic component that gets colder when voltage is applied? A Cooling fins B Heat pipes C Heat sinks D Peltier coolers


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21 You open your PC and look at the CPU. How can you tell if it uses active or passive cooling? If there is just a heat sink on the CPU, it uses passive cooling. If there’s a fan attached to the CPU, it uses active cooling.

22 Before the Pentium CPU was introduced, what was the most common CPU cooling mechanism? A simple fan, typically part of the power supply, was all that was used with the 80286 and 80386 CPUs. Some 80386 and most 80486 CPUs also used cooling fins.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying appropriate CPU and motherboard requirements for a PC. You will also practice replacing the CPU and motherboard components of a PC. 1 Given a budget of $1000, use the www.motherboards.org Web site to plan the highest-capability PC that you could purchase. Focus on CPU and motherboard performance and form factor. Make sure your PC could support a sufficient number of add-on devices, such as hard drives and CD/DVD drives. Record the specifications of the system you’d purchase here: CPU (type, model, speed): ____________________________ Motherboard (make and model): _____________________ Form factor and drive bay capacity: ____________________ 2 If available, examine the motherboard and CPU of a computer in your room, other than your lab station computer. Record the following information about this computer: CPU (type, model, speed): _______________________________________ CPU socket type: ______________________________________________ Cooling mechanism: ____________________________________________ Motherboard (make and model): ___________________________________ Form factor: ___________________________________________________ Ports (serial, parallel, and so forth):_________________________________ Integrated peripherals: ___________________________________________ 3 Remove the motherboard from your computer. 4 Remove the CPU from your motherboard. 5 Reinstall the CPU. 6 Reinstall the motherboard. 7 Boot your computer and log on to Windows as COMPADMIN## to confirm that you’ve performed all the steps correctly.

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5–1

Unit 5 The Basic Input/Output System Unit time: 90 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Access the BIOS setup utility, change

hardware configuration values, and research BIOS updates. B Explain the POST and boot processes; and

identify the symptoms of, probable causes of, and potential solutions to problems with the BIOS and POST.

5–2


Topic A: The BIOS and CMOS This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  BIOS / CMOS / Firmware – CMOS battery

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Updates – Firmware

3.4

Explain the basics of boot sequence, methods, and startup utilities  Disk boot order / device priority


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Motherboards – CMOS battery – Advanced BIOS settings

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Motherboards – CMOS battery – Advanced BIOS settings – Firmware updates

4.2

Implement security and troubleshoot common issues  System – BIOS security  Passwords  Intrusion detection

Firmware Explanation

Firmware straddles a gray area between hardware and software. Firmware is software written permanently or semi-permanently on a computer chip. Firmware is used to control electronic devices, such as computers, printers, remote controls, calculators, and digital cameras. In a computer, firmware is implemented using the BIOS and CMOS.


5–3

BIOS The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is the computer’s firmware—a set of software instructions stored on a chip on the motherboard. The BIOS instructions enable basic computer functions, such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse, serial ports, and so on. Without the BIOS, your computer would be a useless collection of wires and electronic components. AMI (American Megatrends Inc.), Award, MR BIOS (Microid Research Inc.), and Phoenix are some common BIOS manufacturers. A motherboard manufacturer selects a BIOS and integrates it into the design. Shadowing At startup, many computers copy the contents of the BIOS into standard memory to improve performance. This technique is called shadowing because the contents in memory are like a shadow of those on the BIOS chip.

CMOS CMOS is memory that stores BIOS configuration information. A battery, typically on the motherboard as shown in Exhibit 5-1, provides power to the CMOS chip so that its contents are maintained when the computer is turned off or unplugged. CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) is actually a type of computer chip. This type of chip can maintain information using power from the CMOS battery when the system’s power is removed. The best known use of CMOS chips is to store BIOS configuration data. The term “CMOS” is frequently used to refer to the storage location of the BIOS configuration information, rather than to the chip-manufacturing technology.

Battery

Exhibit 5-1: A CMOS battery CMOS configuration To configure the values stored in CMOS, you use a system setup utility provided by your computer’s manufacturer (or by the BIOS maker). This utility is often built into the BIOS itself.

5–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One CMOS utility access BIOS manufacturers provide various ways to access the system setup utility. For example, on a Dell computer, you press F2 during the text mode portion of boot. Consult your system’s documentation to determine the exact procedure you need to follow.

Configuring BIOS settings Setting BIOS configuration values is normally a “set and forget” operation. On most systems, you won’t need to configure anything; the settings from the manufacturer have been configured to meet the needs of the system. However, you might need to configure the BIOS when you set up the computer for the first time or when you add new hardware. Other than that, you typically don’t need to modify the BIOS configuration. Configurable settings Typical BIOS configuration settings include:  Date and time — Set the system date and time.  Boot sequence — Specify the order of devices that the BIOS searches when looking for an operating system to load.  CPU options — Specify the type of CPU installed in your system, and configure speed and voltage settings.  Optical drive options — Specify which drives (CD and DVD), and in which order, the system should boot from. You can also typically enable, disable, and configure optical drive options.  Floppy drive options — Specify which floppy drives, and in which order, the system should attempt to boot from. These include both internal floppy drives and external floppy drives, such as USB. You can also typically enable, disable, and configure floppy drive options.  Hard drive options — Specify the hard drive’s type, size, and geometry, and enable or disable on-board hard drive controllers.  Serial port options — Set configuration options, such as device addresses and communication modes.  Parallel port options — Specify whether to enable unidirectional or bidirectional printing, and configure ECP (Extended Capabilities Parallel port) and EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) settings.  Integrated devices — Enable or disable integrated devices, such as video adapter, network adapter functionality, and ports, such as USB, LPT, Serial, and PS/2.  Performance features — Configure performance features, such as enabling or disabling multiple CPU core technology and setting HDD acoustic mode.  Plug and Play — Enable or disable hardware support for Plug and Play features.  Power management options — Specify whether to enable hardware-based power management features. Typically, you must choose a set of supported power management standards, such as APM (Advanced Power Management) or ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface), as well as “wake up” options, such as whether to wake up the computer when the modem rings.


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 Security — Enable or disable hardware-based passwords, set passwords, configure intrusion alerts, and enable or disable TPM security.  Virus detection — Enable or disable hardware-based virus detection. BIOS configuration procedure To configure the BIOS: 1 If necessary, shut down your PC. 2 From a powered-off state, boot your PC. 3 At the appropriate time in the boot sequence, press the key combination that opens the BIOS setup utility on your system. 4 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to configure your system. 5 Follow the on-screen prompts or menu system to save the new configuration data to CMOS memory. Do it!

A-1:

Updating your PC’s BIOS settings

Here’s how 1 If necessary, shut down your PC

Here’s why Don’t put the computer in hibernation or sleep mode. You must turn it all the way off.

2 Turn on the computer 3 At the appropriate time in the boot sequence, press the key combination that opens the BIOS setup utility on your system 4 Follow the on-screen instructions or use the menus to set the date and time

If they’re already correctly set, set them back an hour or so and then reset them to the current time.

5 Explore your computer system’s setup utility

To determine its capabilities. Each BIOS manufacturer provides similar setup options.

6 Exit and save your configuration changes

Your system automatically restarts when you’re done.

5–6


BIOS updates Explanation

The BIOS is provided in a form of a memory chip that doesn’t lose its contents when the power is turned off. The BIOS can be implemented either in ROM (read-only memory) or flash memory (a type of electronically reprogrammable memory chip).  ROM-based BIOS is programmed at the factory. This is an older technology. You can’t change this kind of BIOS without replacing the chip itself.  Using a special program provided by the computer (or BIOS) manufacturer, you can update a flash-memory-based BIOS without changing the BIOS chip. This action is often called “flashing the BIOS.” Usually, the BIOS version that ships with your PC is all you ever need. However, you might need to upgrade your BIOS in the following situations:  There are device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer identifies as being caused by BIOS problems.  There are device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than the BIOS. Additionally, you have exhausted all other troubleshooting avenues in trying to fix the problems.  You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your system, aren’t supported by your BIOS. It’s important to note that, while this course focuses on updating a computer’s BIOS, the firmware of other electronic devices, such as printers and routers, needs to be kept current as well. BIOS update sources AMI, Award, and the other BIOS manufacturers don’t provide BIOS updates directly to consumers. Instead, these companies provide the BIOS to computer manufacturers, who build it into their computers. The BIOS manufacturers give the BIOS to PC manufacturers in an incomplete state. The PC manufacturers make final modifications to tailor the BIOS to their exact hardware. This tailored BIOS is what’s shipped to you in your new PC. For this reason, BIOS updates must come from your PC’s manufacturer, not from the original equipment manufacturer. Determining the BIOS version You can find the version of the BIOS installed in your system by using the Windows System Information tool or running the DirectX Diagnostic Tool (DxDiag.exe.) To determine the version of BIOS installed in your Windows 7, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, or Windows Vista, system: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs (or Programs), Accessories, System Tools, System Information. 2 Record the value listed in the BIOS Version/Date field. As shown in Exhibit 5-2, this field lists BIOS version data, which you can use to determine if a newer version is available on your PC maker’s Web site. 3 If it’s present, record the value listed in the SMBIOS field. The SMBIOS is used by PC inventorying programs to collect data about your computer. SMBIOS updates are usually included with BIOS updates. Not all PCs include the SMBIOS.


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Exhibit 5-2: The System Information utility displays the BIOS version

Flashing the BIOS To update the BIOS in your system: 1 Use the System Information tool to determine your current BIOS version. 2 Visit your PC manufacturer’s Web site and navigate to its support pages to locate the BIOS update files. 3 Compare the version number and release date with the information reported by the System Information tool to determine if a new BIOS version is available. 4 Download the installation file for the new BIOS version. Make sure you choose the version that matches your PC model. 5 If it’s not part of the BIOS installation file, download the appropriate BIOS flashing utility from your PC manufacturer’s Web site. Make sure you choose the version that matches your PC model and operating system. 6 Close all open applications. 7 Open the flashing utility and follow the instructions it provides to update your BIOS. 8 Restart your PC when prompted.

Exhibit 5-3: The Phoenix BIOS flash utility’s startup screen

5–8


BIOS update failures BIOS updates can fail, and when they do, you can be left with an unbootable and useless computer. Follow these guidelines to minimize the risks of a failed update:  Don’t update your BIOS unless you must. Usually, the BIOS version that shipped with your PC is sufficient for the entire operating life of your computer.  Never turn off your computer during a BIOS update, and make sure the power doesn’t go off during an update (connect desktop computers to a UPS). Don’t press Ctrl+Alt+Del during the operation.  Make sure you use the correct BIOS flash utility. The utility is specific to your brand of computer, model, BIOS chip, and operating system. Contact your PC’s manufacturer or visit its Web site to obtain the correct flash utility.  Follow the flash utility’s instructions exactly. Make sure you run the utility under the correct operating system—flash utilities are typically compatible with a single version of Windows (or other operating system).  Most flash utilities offer the option of backing up your old BIOS before updating it. Perform this backup. You might be able to use it to recover if the update fails. Recovering from a failed BIOS update You have a few basic options for recovering from a failed BIOS update:  Use the BIOS backup created by the flash utility to try to restore the previous version.  Many modern BIOSs include a small area that’s never overwritten during an upgrade. This “boot block” section has sufficient support to boot your PC from a USB thumb drive or floppy disk. Depending on your system, you need to provide a USB thumb drive or floppy disk containing the correct BIOS and flash utility. The contents vary depending on your BIOS’s manufacturer. No video is displayed during this operation. After the PC has booted from the thumb drive or floppy and copied the correct BIOS over the corrupt version, you reboot your PC.  Some Intel motherboards have a flash-recovery jumper switch. You set this jumper switch to the recovery position, insert the system upgrade floppy disk into the drive, and boot your PC. The system boots from the disk and copies the original BIOS over the corrupted BIOS. No video is displayed during this operation. When the drive light on your floppy drive goes off, the procedure is done. Reset the recovery jumper to its normal position and reboot your PC again.  If the preceding methods don’t work for you, you might need to get a new BIOS chip from your motherboard or PC’s manufacturer. You need to replace the damaged BIOS chip with the new one.

The Basic Input/Output System Do it!

A-2:

Researching BIOS updates for your PC

Here’s how 1 Boot your computer

Here’s why If necessary.

2 Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 3 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools,

To open the System Information utility.

System Information

4 Determine your current BIOS (and SMBIOS if present) version, and record those details here: Close System Information 5 Visit the support Web site for your PC’s manufacturer 6 Determine the latest version of the BIOS for your make and model of PC Is there a newer BIOS version available for your PC? 7 Read the manufacturer’s information about the BIOS update Should you update? 8 Close your Web browser

Manufacturer: Version: Date:

5–9

5–10


Bad CMOS batteries Explanation

Configuration data is stored in the CMOS. This chip retains its data when the PC is off, thanks to a battery connected to your motherboard. In older PCs, the battery was soldered in place and wasn’t easily replaceable. Nowadays, the battery, often a button cell, is inserted into a socket and held in place with retaining clips. You might need to replace the CMOS battery if your computer is losing its time or date settings when you boot or if you’re receiving one of the following error messages:  CMOS Read Error  CMOS checksum error  CMOS Battery Failure A charge generally remains long enough for you to replace the battery without losing data. To replace the CMOS battery: 1 If you’ve customized your BIOS settings and they haven’t reverted back to the default due to the battery failure, write the settings down. 2 Following proper ESD precautions, power down, disconnect external cables and the power cord, and open your computer’s chassis. 3 If necessary, remove any cables that prevent access to the battery on the motherboard. Remember where to reconnect each cable you disconnect! 4 Gently slide the battery out of its compartment, taking care not to break the holding clamps. 5 If necessary, discharge the CMOS memory by moving the motherboard jumpers near the battery. Typically, you move the jumpers from pins 1 and 3 to pins 2 and 4 to clear the memory. Then you move the jumpers back. 6 Insert the new battery into the holder, again taking care not to snap the holding clamps. 7 Reconnect any cables you disconnected to gain access to the battery on the motherboard. 8 Close the PC chassis. 9 Reconnect any cables and the power cord. 10 Reboot and, when prompted, enter the correct date and time. 11 Access the BIOS to reset any custom values.

The Basic Input/Output System Do it!

A-3:

5–11

Replacing the CMOS battery

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Shut down your PC and unplug it from the electrical outlet 2 Following electrical and ESD safety precautions, open the case 3 Locate the CMOS battery on the motherboard 4 Remove or release the retaining clip, and slide the battery out of its holder 5 Install the new battery, securing it with the retaining clips 6 Close the system case 7 Restart the computer 8 If necessary, use the BIOS setup utility to set the correct date, time, and device options

A charge should remain long enough to retain these values while you change the battery.

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Topic B: The POST and boot processes This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  BIOS / CMOS / Firmware – POST

3.4

Explain the basics of boot sequence, methods, and startup utilities  Disk boot order / device priority – Types of boot devices (disk, network, USB, other)


Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Motherboards – CMOS battery – Advanced BIOS settings – Firmware updates

The power-on self test Explanation

When you turn on your computer, a program contained in the BIOS performs a series of basic checks to make sure your system components are in proper working order. This set of checks is called the power-on self test (POST). The POST isn’t a complex or comprehensive test. There are four basic parts, which are carried out in this order: 1 The BIOS tests the core hardware, including itself, the processor, CMOS, the input/output system, and so forth. Any errors detected at this stage are reported as a series of beeps (see the “Beep codes” section that follows). 2 The BIOS tests the video subsystem. This test includes checking the memory dedicated to video operations, checking the video processing circuitry, and checking the video configuration (that it’s valid and not corrupted). 3 The BIOS identifies itself, including its version, manufacturer, and date. 4 The BIOS tests main system memory. Some BIOS versions display a running count of how much memory has been tested. Others are “silent” unless an error is found.


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Beep codes Before the video system is initialized, the BIOS has no way to display errors on your screen. Thus, errors detected early in the POST test must be reported as one or more beeps played through the internal PC speaker. It’s important to note that, if the system’s speaker is not functioning, you won’t hear these beeps. The exact beep codes vary by BIOS manufacturer. The following table lists a few of the more common beep tones. For a more complete reference, visit www.computerhope.com/beep.htm. Beeps

Description

1 short beep

Typically indicates that no problems were found. Some systems sound two short beeps to indicate that all is well.

3 long beeps

A keyboard error.

8 short beeps

Video adapter memory problems.

9 short beeps

A BIOS problem.

1 long and 3 short beeps

A memory error.

Numeric codes When the POST has finished its core hardware tests, the system begins to initialize other devices, including the video display circuitry. Once the video is initialized, any further error codes can be displayed on the monitor. The exact numeric codes and their meanings vary by manufacturer. You should visit your vendor’s Web site to get the list of codes for your specific hardware. The following table lists a few Lenovo-specific numeric error codes you might encounter. Manufacturers other than Lenovo use similar numbers. Code

Description

151

Real-time clock failure.

161

Bad CMOS battery.

162

Configuration mismatch: the configuration data stored in the CMOS doesn’t match the actual hardware in your PC.

164

Memory size mismatch: your PC has more or less memory than the amount the CMOS says your system has.

201 or any 20#

Memory failure.

1762

Hard drive configuration error.

Logo screen Some BIOS manufacturers hide the display of BIOS and POST messages. Instead, they display their logo or another graphic. Typically, you can show the POST messages and hide the logo by pressing the Tab key when the logo is displayed.

5–14 Do it!


B-1:

Observing the POST process

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, shut down your PC

Make sure you turn it all the way off.

2 While holding down s, turn on your PC

Holding down a key like this should simulate a keyboard failure.

3 Are any beep codes played?

You might hear the normal one or two “system OK” beeps, followed by your BIOS manufacturer’s code for a keyboard failure.

4 Are any numeric codes displayed?

Your BIOS manufacturer’s code for a keyboard failure is likely shown on your monitor. Depending on your BIOS, perhaps just the beep code is played.

5 If the option is presented, press !

To bypass the error and continue booting. Your PC might continue booting without interaction or boot after you release the Shift key.

If the option isn’t presented, shut off your PC and turn it on again

To boot normally.

6 If necessary, press t to hide the logo screen 7 Observe any POST messages as your system boots

Your PC might display memory test results and other POST information as it boots.


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The boot process Explanation

The POST process covered previously is just one of the steps that your computer performs when starting up. The following steps detail the hardware portions of the boot process. 1 You turn on the power. 2 The timer chip begins sending continual reset signals to the CPU to prevent it from booting the PC. 3 The power supply performs internal checks. When that’s done and power output levels have stabilized, it sends the Power_Good signal to the CPU. 4 With the arrival of the Power_Good signal, the timer stops sending reset signals to the CPU, thereby permitting it to begin the boot process. 5 The CPU loads the BIOS and then searches for devices that have BIOS extensions to load. Video adapters are the best example of devices that would require a BIOS extension. 6 The BIOS checks whether this is a cold or warm boot. Cold boots happen when you boot the PC from a powered-off state or when you press the hardware reset button on the front of the system case. Warm boots happen when you click Start, choose Shutdown, and click Restart. (With older versions of Windows and with DOS, you could perform a warm boot by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Delete.) 7 If this is a cold boot, the BIOS performs the POST procedure. 8 The BIOS reads the CMOS configuration data and configures devices. 9 Plug and Play devices are detected and configured. 10 The BIOS determines which drive to boot from by checking the CMOS configuration data. 11 The BIOS reads the master boot record (MBR) from the boot drive. This record provides the information necessary for the boot process to proceed from this point onward. If the MBR can’t be located, the CMOS displays an error message, such as “Non-system disk or disk error.” 12 The MBR contains the code for passing control of the boot process to the operating system. The OS takes over and completes the boot process. Boot devices The boot device is the drive that the computer uses to load an operating system during the boot process. In current computers, a boot device can be many different types of drives, such as:  An internal hard disk  An internal optical drive (CD or DVD drive)  A USB drive (flash drive, or external hard disk or optical drive)  A network drive, using a network interface card that supports the Preboot eXecution Environment (PXE) Examples of older boot devices include:  Floppy disk drives  SCSI devices  Zip drives

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One You add, remove, and change the order of boot devices in the computer’s BIOS, as shown in Exhibit 5-4.

Exhibit 5-4: Boot devices listed in the system BIOS Do it!

B-2:

Checking the boot order

Here’s how 1 If necessary, shut down your PC 2 Turn on the computer 3 At the appropriate time in the boot sequence, press the key combination that opens the BIOS setup utility on your system 4 Identify the boot devices included in your PC’s boot sequence 5 Identify the order of devices in the boot sequence 6 Exit the BIOS utility

Here’s why Don’t put the computer in hibernation or sleep mode. You must turn it all the way off.


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BIOS-related problems and causes Explanation

As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for BIOS-related problems. You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides some scenarios to consider when you’re troubleshooting problems. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Devices misidentified

The BIOS is configured incorrectly.

Use the BIOS setup utility to reconfigure device options in the BIOS.

Wrong memory size reported during POST or available after booting

The memory modules aren’t properly installed and can’t be recognized by the system.

Remove and reinstall the modules to verify that they’re seated properly.

Hard drive inaccessible

The geometry parameters are set incorrectly in the BIOS (older hard drives). The hard drive might be disabled in the BIOS (newer hard drives).

Use the BIOS setup utility to reconfigure the hard drive settings.

System won’t boot from hard drive

The boot drive order is incorrect. Hard drive configuration data in CMOS doesn’t match the hard drive’s actual geometry. The hard drive is disabled in CMOS.

Use the BIOS setup utility to reconfigure device options in the BIOS.

System boots from the wrong device

The BIOS boot order is set incorrectly, or the drive isn’t bootable.

Use the BIOS setup utility to configure the boot order. If that doesn’t solve the problem, the device isn’t bootable; see a hard-drive troubleshooting reference.

Date and time incorrect or reset after the computer is turned off

Most likely, the CMOS battery is dead and needs replacing. However, the BIOS date could be set wrong.

Try resetting the correct date and time in the BIOS; then shut down and unplug the computer. Wait five minutes or so, and then plug in and start the computer. If the date is still incorrect, replace the CMOS battery.

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POST-related problems and causes The following table lists some common power-on self-test (POST)–related symptoms that you might encounter, along with probable causes and solutions. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

There’s no video; instead, the computer emits eight short beeps.

The video adapter card isn’t seated properly.

Remove and reinstall the graphics card to verify that it’s seated properly.

Potentially due to failed memory on the video adapter. If the system uses integrated video circuitry, this error could also indicate a failure of main system memory.

Replace the memory modules on the video adapter. If that’s not possible, swap the video adapter with a known working adapter. If you have an integrated video adapter, try replacing the main system memory modules.

The system emits three long beeps.

A keyboard error: a key is stuck, or the keyboard is plugged into the mouse port.

Confirm that the keyboard and mouse are plugged into the correct ports. Attach a different keyboard and try booting again.

The system emits one long and three short beeps.

A memory problem.

Replace the main system memory modules.

POST code 162 is displayed.

Configuration data stored in CMOS doesn’t match the PC’s actual hardware.

Run the BIOS setup utility to confirm the proper configuration values.

POST code 164 is displayed.

PC has more or less memory than the amount listed in the CMOS settings.

You can often press a key (your screen tells you which one) to automatically update the CMOS with the correct amount of memory and continue booting. If that’s not an option, run the BIOS setup utility to let it detect the correct amount of memory, then exit and save settings.


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CMOS-related problems and causes The following table lists some common CMOS-related symptoms you might encounter, along with probable causes and solutions.

Do it!

Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Error message “Non-system disk or disk error”

The BIOS can’t find the master boot record on the boot drive.

You might have specified the wrong drive as the boot drive in the CMOS settings. Use the setup utility to confirm and reconfigure, if necessary. Alternatively, your boot drive might not be bootable, meaning that it doesn’t have the files needed to boot the system.

Error message “Display type mismatch”

The video settings in the CMOS don’t match the monitor attached to the system.

Connect the correct type of monitor.

Error message “Memory size mismatch”

The amount of memory listed in the CMOS settings is different from the amount actually installed in the system.

Run the BIOS setup utility to correct the information.

Error message “CMOS checksum failure”

The BIOS has detected a memory problem in the CMOS. This could be a sign that your CMOS chip has failed. More likely, it means that the CMOS battery is dead.

Try replacing the CMOS battery. If that doesn’t correct the problem, the CMOS chip is probably bad. This isn’t typically a replaceable component. You probably need a new motherboard to correct the error.

B-3:

Troubleshooting BIOS and POST problems

Here’s how 1 One or more BIOS- and POST-related problems have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their causes. 2 Correct the problems you’ve found in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another problem. Troubleshoot and fix all problems that arise. 3 Document the problem(s) you find:


5–20


Unit summary: The Basic Input/Output System Topic A

In this topic, you learned that the BIOS is a set of programs that control the most basic hardware interactions within your PC. The BIOS is stored on a chip that isn’t erased when you turn off the power. Hardware configuration data used by the BIOS is stored in CMOS. CMOS data is retained when the power is off, thanks to a battery installed on your motherboard. You learned how to access and use the BIOS setup utility to change the CMOS configuration data. You learned that, with modern PCs, you can flash the BIOS to update it. You also learned that a failed BIOS update can render your PC unusable, and you looked at the ways you could recover from a failed BIOS update attempt.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that the BIOS tests your computer’s hardware at boot time by following the POST process. You learned about various beep and numeric error codes that might be reported during the POST if the BIOS detects a hardware failure. You learned how to determine the order of boot devices in your computer. You also learned how to identify symptoms and causes of BIOS, CMOS, and POST problems and then how to resolve the issue.

Review questions 1 True or false? The BIOS and CMOS are the same thing. False. The BIOS is a set of instructions that control the low-level hardware functions of your computer. CMOS usually refers to memory (backed up by a battery) that stores hardware configuration data.

2 The battery shown in the following graphic is used to provide power to what component?

A BIOS B CMOS C Firmware D RAM


5–21

3 True or false? The same key combination will get you access to the system utility on all personal computers, except laptops. False. BIOS manufacturers provide different ways to access the system setup utility.

4 Which is not a reason to update your system BIOS? A Your system has device problems or other bugs that your PC manufacturer identifies as being caused by BIOS problems. B Your system has device problems that you can attribute to no other cause than the BIOS. C Your PC manufacturer has sent out a technical document notifying you of an update. D You need to use new hardware options that, while supported by your motherboard, aren’t supported by your BIOS. 5 True or false? If the system stops responding during a BIOS update, you can use the Ctrl+Alt+Del key combination to recover. False. Never turn off your computer during a BIOS update. Make sure power doesn’t go off during an update (connect the PC to a UPS). Do not press Ctrl+Alt+Del during the operation.

6 The clock on your computer reads January 1, 1980. What is the likely cause? A Your system BIOS needs updating. B When the operating system was installed, the correct date was never set. C The CMOS battery needs replacing. D A BIOS update failed. 7 Which of the following is not a step in the POST process? A BIOS identification B Core hardware test C Main system memory test D Master boot record being read from the boot drive E Video subsystem test 8 True or false? The boot processes for a cold boot and a warm boot are exactly the same. False. The POST and other initial hardware tests aren’t performed during a warm boot.

9 True or false? To boot the computer, your boot device must be an internal hard disk, internal optical drive, internal floppy drive, or USB flash drive. False. Boot devices can also include an external USB hard disk or optical drive or a network drive, using a PXE-compliant NIC and older technology such as an external SCSI or zip drive.

10 What is the best source for BIOS updates? The PC manufacturer’s Web site

11 A BIOS update failure usually results in: An unbootable computer

5–22

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 12 You receive the CMOS error message “CMOS checksum failure.” What does that indicate? A CMOS memory error has been detected. It could mean that the CMOS chip is bad, but this error is more likely to occur when the CMOS battery has died.

13 Why does your computer use beep codes to indicate an error, rather than simply displaying a message on the monitor? Beep codes are sounded during the portion of the boot process before the video subsystem has been initialized. Thus, the system can’t yet display anything on the screen. The system’s only output option is to emit a beep through the system speaker.

14 True or false? Every BIOS manufacturer uses the same flashing utility. False. Flashing utilities are proprietary to the BIOS manufacturer, and you should always use the correct version for your BIOS.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice support tasks related to the computer system’s BIOS and CMOS. 1 If your computer has a floppy drive, configure the CMOS data to disable it. Attempt to boot from a floppy disk. Enable the floppy drive. 2 Change the boot order so that your PC attempts to start from disks in this order: CDROM drive, hard drive, floppy drive (if present). 3 Test your work by inserting a bootable CD in the CD-ROM drive and a bootable floppy disk in the floppy drive. Your computer should boot from the CD even though your hard disk is bootable and a bootable floppy is in its drive. 4 Shut down your computer and disconnect the mouse. Boot your PC. Does your computer report any beep or numeric error codes? If so, which codes? If not, why not? The mouse isn’t a core device like the keyboard, so you shouldn’t receive any error codes.

5 Attach the mouse and shut down your PC. If your computer uses PS/2 keyboard and mouse devices, disconnect the keyboard and plug it into the mouse port, connecting the mouse to the keyboard port. Boot your PC. Does your computer report any beep or numeric error codes? If so, which codes? If not, why not? You should receive the beep and numeric codes that indicate a keyboard failure. However, some PCs can automatically correct this sort of misconnection and will boot normally.

6 Shut down your PC and connect the keyboard and mouse to the correct PS/2 ports. Boot your PC.

6–1

Unit 6 Memory systems Unit time: 120 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe the function of memory and

differentiate among various types of memory chips. B Differentiate among the various memory

packages. C Install RAM into a system while handling

it properly and meeting your PC’s installation requirements. D Monitor memory usage. E Troubleshoot memory problems.

6–2


Topic A: Memory This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.6

Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics, and their purposes  Types – DRAM – SRAM – SDRAM – DDR/DDR2/DDR3 – RAMBUS  Single channel vs. dual channel  Speed – PC100 – PC133 – PC2700 – PC3200 – DDR3-1600 – DDR2-667

Computer memory systems Explanation

Memory, commonly called RAM (random access memory), is the hardware component that stores instructions and data as the CPU works with it. RAM is implemented as computer chips attached to a specialized module. Physical memory, or primary memory, is different from storage devices, or secondary memory, such as hard drives, floppy drives, and optical discs. Storage refers to the locations where data—including your applications—is held in the long term. Data in storage remains there when your computer is turned off. An analogy for RAM You can compare RAM and storage with the papers you work with at your desk. You keep important papers in the file drawer, and you pull them out and put them on your desktop to work with them. The file drawer is like the hard disk in your computer; it’s where you store your data (papers) when you’re not working on them. The desktop is the working area and is analogous to RAM. When necessary, the computer can "borrow” an area of your hard disk to use as if it were memory. A page file temporarily stores active data that doesn’t fit in the RAM installed on your computer. However, the computer can’t work with the data in the page file. It must first read the data back into real RAM, while writing some other data to the page file.

Memory systems

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Additionally, some types of chips don’t lose their contents when power is removed. For example, CompactFlash cards—commonly used with digital cameras—are simply computer chips in a convenient package. Yet a CF card is storage, not memory, because you use it for the long-term storage of data (most often photos, but you can store other files on a CF card, too). Importance of RAM Having sufficient RAM in your system is critical for the following reasons:  Performance — Having more RAM almost always leads to improved computer performance. When you have insufficient RAM, the CPU must work harder shuffling data between RAM and the page file.  Software support — Many applications require a minimum amount of RAM. Having less RAM than specified can prevent you from running these applications. Or, if they do run on your system, they perform so badly as to be unpleasant to use. Poor-quality or defective RAM is a major source of system crashes. One bad memory storage location out of the millions of such locations in your RAM chips can bring your system down. Your computer tests the RAM during the POST, but that test isn’t exhaustive and problem chips can slip through. Additionally, the type of RAM your system uses, as well as the maximum amount of RAM supported by your motherboard, has a direct effect on your system’s upgradeability. Make sure to buy a system that will support your future RAM needs, as well as those of your current applications.

Measuring memory The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called cells. Each cell stores a single bit of data. A bit is a 0 or 1, representing an on/off or yes/no binary state. The data you work with and the programs you run are made up of millions and billions of individual bits of data. Describing such large units is confusing and inconvenient. Instead, computer professionals use various units of memory storage to describe memory and storage amounts. Basic memory units The following table lists the most basic units of memory storage. Name

Number of bits

Number of values that can be stored in this much memory

Bit

1

2 (a zero or one, equivalent to 21)

Nibble

4

16 (24)

Byte

8

256 (28)

Word

Depends on the processor. With a 32-bit CPU, a word is 32 bits. On a 64-bit CPU, a word is 64 bits.

Varies, but a 32-bit word offers 4,294,967,296 possible values (232)

6–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Larger units Saying a computer has 2,147,483,648 bits of RAM is more confusing and less convenient than saying it has 2 GB of memory. The common units of memory are listed in the following table. Name

Abbreviation

Number of bytes

Byte

B

1 byte, which equals 8 bits

Kilobyte

KB

1024 bytes, or 210 bytes

Megabyte

MB

1024 KB or 220 bytes

Gigabyte

GB

1024 MB or 230 bytes

Terabyte

TB

1024 GB or 240 bytes

Memory types Memory can be classified in various ways:  Volatile vs. non-volatile  Static vs. dynamic  Asynchronous vs. synchronous Volatile and non-volatile memory Volatile memory loses its contents when power isn’t present. Non-volatile memory doesn’t lose its contents when power is removed. The following table lists the various types of common memory, categorized as volatile or non-volatile. Type

Volatile or non-volatile

Description

RAM

Volatile

The working memory for your computer. Because RAM is volatile memory, its contents are lost when power is removed, even for a very brief period.

CMOS

Volatile

The storage location for BIOS configuration data. CMOS requires a battery to retain its information. Without the battery, CMOS loses its contents. Thus, despite what many sources say, it’s volatile memory.

ROM

Non-volatile

Read-only memory. ROM is used to store the BIOS and other programs and data that must be preserved when the computer is unplugged. ROM must be written at the factory.

PROM

Non-volatile

Programmable read-only memory. PROM must be programmed at the factory and can be programmed only once using a PROM burner.

EPROM

Non-volatile

Erasable programmable read-only memory. You erase the contents of an EPROM chip by exposing its glass window to ultraviolet light. Then you can program the chip by using a PROM burner.

Memory systems

6–5

Type

Volatile or non-volatile

Description

EEPROM

Non-volatile

Electronically erasable programmable read-only memory. You can erase and program the contents of an EEPROM chip by using a burner or special circuitry within your computer.

Flash

Non-volatile

(Similar to EEPROMs.) Chips that don’t lose their memory when power is removed and can be burned using burners or circuitry within your computer. Flash memory is written block-by-block.

Dynamic and static memory Some types of RAM lose their contents quickly, even when power is present. Devices that use this type of memory must continually refresh the contents of the chips, or data is lost. Such memory is called dynamic RAM, or DRAM. DRAM must be refreshed hundreds of times per second. Circuits using DRAM must include the components necessary to refresh its contents, adding complexity to the overall system. Due to the design of DRAM circuitry, simply reading a location in memory results in its being refreshed. In contrast, static RAM, or SRAM, doesn’t need to be refreshed. Due to the way these chips are built, this memory holds its contents until power is removed. SRAM chips can be read more quickly than DRAM chips can. Main system memory is implemented with DRAM. Cache memory and CMOS memory are most often implemented with SRAM. DRAM chips are as much as four times smaller than SRAM chips per unit of storage. DRAM circuitry is simpler, making DRAM considerably cheaper than SRAM to manufacture. The refresh circuitry is simple and inexpensive to implement, too. Thus, DRAM is much cheaper to use than SRAM when large amounts of memory are needed, such as for main system memory. SRAM is considerably faster, which makes it well suited to the smaller level 2 and level 3 cache memories that typically use it. Asynchronous and synchronous memory Asynchronous DRAM (ADRAM) isn’t synchronized to the system clock. Regardless of the clock’s speed, asynchronous DRAM takes the same amount of time to access and return data from a memory cell. In contrast, synchronous DRAM, or SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. Modern SDRAM returns data from a memory cell in a single cycle of the system clock. (Older SDRAMs required multiple clock cycles per access.) SDRAM is faster than asynchronous DRAM and keeps pace with the rest of your computer better. For this reason, most modern computers use SDRAM for system memory. The SDRAM you install must be capable of operating at your system’s bus speed.

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Memory access To access the data in a particular memory cell, the CPU must have the address of that cell. Although memory cells could be arranged in one long line, giving each cell an individual sequential address, such a design would lead to slow and large chips. Instead, chip designers arrange cells into rows and columns, much like the cells in a spreadsheet. To read the data of any cell, the CPU needs both row and column addresses. The exact way that CPUs address memory, along with many other factors, lead to a confusing array of abbreviations describing memory types. The following table compares the types of RAM found in older and current computers. The technologies are listed in approximate increasing order of performance. Abbreviation

RAM type

Description

DRAM

Dynamic RAM

Older technology, not used in modern computers. The CPU sends the row address and then sends the column address to access a cell. The CPU must repeat this process for every cell.

FPM

Fast Page Mode

The CPU sends a row address, followed by a column address. If the CPU needs more cells from the same row, it can send just the column address.

VRAM

Video RAM

A modified version of FPM. VRAM has two ports; one port can be read to refresh the image on the screen, while the other can be used to generate the next image to be displayed.

EDO

Extended Data Out

Works essentially like FPM, except that a new cell access request can begin before a previous request has finished.

BEDO

Burst Extended Data Out

Adds pipelining technology to EDO to improve performance. This technology never caught on.

SDR SDRAM

Synchronous DRAM

Is synchronized with the system clock to improve performance. Internal interleaving enables overlapped accesses, as with EDO and BEDO.

DRDRAM

Direct Rambus DRAM

(Formerly called just RDRAM for Rambus DRAM.) Uses a 16-bit data bus running at up to 800 MHz, transferring data on both the rise and fall of the clock signal.

DDR SDRAM

Double Data Rate

Doubles the transfer rate by transferring data on both the rise and fall of the clock signal (compared to SDRAM, which transfers on just the rise).

DDR2 SDRAM

Double Data Rate 2

Doubles the transfer rate of DDR SDRAM by placing twice as much data on the rising edge and twice as much on the falling edge.

DDR3 SDRAM

Double Data Rate 3

Doubles the transfer rate of DDR2 SDRAM.

Memory systems

6–7

Access time It takes a certain amount of time to access the data in memory, regardless of type or technology. Of course, some memory types are faster and some are slower. All memory has an initial latency, the amount of time between when an address (of the data being requested) arrives on the bus and when the memory is ready to return that data. After initial latency, a certain time passes before the data is retrieved and put onto the bus so that the CPU can use it. Access time is the overall amount of time between when a request is made and when the data is available on the bus. In modern RAM, this time is very short, sometimes as little as a few nanoseconds. A nanosecond is a billionth of a second. Memory speed Although RAM speeds are often measured in nanoseconds (ns), you’re more likely to see modern RAM rated by megahertz (MHz). A hertz is a cycle per second, so a megahertz is a million cycles per second. The net result is that the MHz rating of RAM is simply 1 divided by its speed in nanoseconds; alternatively, you can divide 1 by the MHz rating to determine the speed in nanoseconds. Overall speed While you might see a module rated at 10 ns and another rated at 20 ns, you shouldn’t conclude that the 10 ns module is twice as fast. DRAM ratings don’t include the initial latency required for address decoding. Furthermore, today’s DRAM, in the form of SDRAM, is tied to the system clock. The actual speed at which your memory operates is controlled by your system’s bus speed, which is determined by your motherboard’s chipset and clock speed. In reality, the speed rating of a memory module represents a maximum speed at which it can operate. You simply need to choose memory that’s fast enough to keep up with the rest of your system. Doing so today is easier, because SDRAM modules are rated to match the front-side bus speed used with the CPU and motherboard. Bandwidth Bandwidth, or maximum theoretical throughput (or just throughput), is the amount of data that can be transferred to or from memory per second. It’s perhaps even more important than a raw speed rating. Overall bandwidth is determined by the speed of the RAM itself, plus the chip’s memory technology design. For example, an SDRAM module operating at 100 MHz has a lower bandwidth than a 100 MHz DDR module does.

6–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Speed ratings How can you know whether a memory module will be able to keep up with your system? Memory and motherboard manufacturers have created a speed notation standard you can use to choose the correct memory. The following table lists the common PC memory types, along with their technologies, single-channel-mode bandwidths, and speed ratings. Module

Chips

Bandwidth, or maximum throughput (in MBps)

Front-side bus speed

System clock speed

PC100

SDRAM

800

100 MHz

100 MHz

PC133

SDRAM

1000

133 MHz

133 MHz

PC1600

DDR-200

1600

200 MHz

100 MHz

PC2100

DDR-266

2100

266 MHz

133 MHz

PC2700

DDR-333

2700

333 MHz

166 MHz

PC3200

DDR-400

3200

400 MHz

200 MHz

PC2-3200

DDR2-400

3200

400 MHz

100 MHz

PC2-4200

DDR2-533

4200

533 MHz

133 MHz

PC2-5300

DDR2-667

5300

667 MHz

166 MHz

PC2-6400

DDR2-800

6400

800 MHz

200 MHz

PC2-8500

DDR2-1066

8500

1066 MHz

266 MHz

PC3-6400

DDR3-800

6400

800 MHz

100 MHz

PC3-8500

DDR3-1066

8500

1066 MHz

133 MHz

PC3-10600

DDR3-1333

10600

1333 MHz

166 MHz

PC3-12800

DDR3-1600

12800

1600 MHz

200 MHz

Consult your PC owner’s manual to determine which type of memory the PC can support, or match new modules to existing ones. Then purchase that type of memory. Often, your system supports faster memory (a type with a higher rating) than its minimum required type. For example, if your system requires PC2100 memory, you can probably install PC2700 memory without a problem. However, if the system requires PC2700, you can’t install PC2100 memory. Make sure to consult your owner’s manual before installing any type of memory.

Memory systems Do it!

A-1:

6–9

Identifying memory characteristics

Questions and answers 1 You want to install the fastest memory you can in your system. Should you install DDR2 or DDR3 memory?

2 What does the number in a PC rating, such as PC2100, tell you about that memory?

3 Which of these memory types are volatile memory? (Choose all that apply.) A

RAM

B

Flash

C

EEPROM

D

CMOS

4 Which of these memory types is synchronous memory? A

SDRAM

B

SRAM

C

EEPROM

D

CMOS

5 One gigabyte is how many bytes?

6–10


Topic B: Memory packaging This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  Memory slots – RIMM – DIMM – SODIMM – SIMM

1.6

Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics, and their purposes  Parity vs. Non-parity  ECC vs. non-ECC  Single sided vs. double sided

Packaging Explanation

In the very early days of PC computing, you purchased individual DRAM chips and installed them into sockets on your motherboard or video card, which is shown in Exhibit 6-1.

Exhibit 6-1: Individual memory chips installed on an early video card That era passed with the release of the IBM AT computer. Since that time, DRAM chips have been factory-installed on small circuit boards, called packages. You install the package, more commonly called a module, into a slot in your computer.

Memory systems

6–11

Modules are easier to handle and work with than are individual chips. A memory module has metal pins, or contacts, along its bottom edge. When inserted into the appropriate motherboard socket, these pins complete the electrical connections between the computer’s circuitry and the memory module circuits. Single- and double-sided modules Early memory packages featured DRAM chips on just one side. Manufacturers quickly learned how to double the amount of memory in a given area by installing DRAM on both sides of the module. Number of DRAM chips Early module types had eight DRAM chips, one to store each bit in a byte of data. Think back to the addressing schemes described earlier; while each DRAM chip can store multiple rows of data, it stores just one column’s worth of data. Thus, eight chips were required to store the eight bits of a byte that spanned a single row of data. Thanks to ever-shrinking fabrication technologies, the number of chips on a module no longer has a 1:1 chip-to-bit limit. A module might have two, four, or some other number of chips, yet hold massive quantities of data. For example, 4 x4 chips can be replaced by just 2 x8 chips.

6–12


Package types The following table lists the most common memory package (module) types. The memory package type you use must match the memory slots on your motherboard. Two common examples of PC memory modules are shown in Exhibit 6-2 and Exhibit 6-3. Note that 30-pin SIMMs are 8-bit devices; 72-pin SIMMs are 32-bit devices; and DIMMs are 64-bit devices. You must install enough devices to satisfy the width of the system data bus. For example, for a 64-bit Pentium class CPU, you install eight 30-pin SIMMs, two 72-pin SIMMs, or one DIMM. Package

Pins

Used in

Description

SIMM

30

386-class desktops, early Macintosh computers

Single inline memory module. A notch on one end ensures that you insert this module in the correct orientation.

SIMM

72

486 and early Pentium desktops

One notch in the middle and another notch at one end ensure that you insert this module in the correct orientation.

DIMM

100

Printers

Dual inline memory module. Has 50 pins on the front and 50 pins on the back. Two notches, one centered and the other off-center, ensure correct installation.

DIMM

168

SDR SDRAM in desktops

Has 84 pins on the front and 84 pins on the back. Two notches, one centered and the other off-center, ensure correct installation.

DIMM

184

DDR SDRAM in desktops

Has 92 pins in front and 92 pins in back. Single notch.

DIMM

240

DDR2 SDRAM in desktops

Supports 64-bit memory and processors. Has 120 front pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.

DIMM

240

DDR3 SDRAM in desktops

Has 120 front pins and 120 back pins. Single notch.

RIMM

184

Intel Pentium III Xeon and Pentium 4 systems

16-bit RIMM. Used with RDRAM chips and trademarked by Rambus. Has 92 connectors on each side with 1 mm pad spacing. RIMM is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for "Rambus inline memory module.” Note: 32-bit RIMMs have 232 pins.

MICRODIMM

144

Subnotebook computers

Micro dual inline memory module. Pins and notches may vary.

SODIMM

144

Laptop and notebook computers

Small outline dual inline memory module. Has 72 front pins and 72 back pins. A single off-center notch ensures correct installation. Note: 32-bit SODIMMs have 72 or 144 pins. SODIMMs with 144 or more pins are 64-bit devices.

Memory systems

6–13

Package

Pins

Used in

Description

SODIMM

200

DDR memory for laptops and notebooks

Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single offcenter notch ensures correct installation.

SODIMM

200

DDR2 memory for laptops and notebooks

Has 100 front pins and 100 back pins. A single offcenter notch ensures correct installation. DDR2 SODIMMs are virtually indistinguishable in appearance from DDR SODIMMs.

SODIMM

204

DDR3 memory for laptops and notebooks

Has 102 front pins and 102 back pins.

Remember, as you saw earlier when examining memory speed ratings:  PC100 and PC133 use SDRAM.  PC1600, PC2100, PC2700, and PC3200 use DDR SDRAM.  PC2-3200, PC2-4200, PC2-5300, PC2-6400, and PC28500 use DDR2 SDRAM.  PC3-6400, PC3-8500, PC3-10600, and PC3-12800 use DDR3 SDRAM.

Exhibit 6-2: A DDR or DDR2 SODIMM package from a laptop (note the notch location)

Exhibit 6-3: A 168-pin DIMM package from a desktop computer

6–14


Memory error recovery Memory errors occur, perhaps more frequently than any of us wants to know. However, there are technologies that enable computer components to detect and even recover from a memory error. These technologies are parity and error correcting code (ECC). Parity Parity is a method used to detect loss of integrity in bits of data stored in memory. Consider a memory module that stores eight bits (a byte) of data in eight chips. If the data in one or more chips goes bad, the entire byte becomes corrupt. To help detect when an error occurs, a ninth , or parity bit, is added in a ninth chip. In even parity, the parity bit is set to zero, if the sum of all the other bits is an even number, while in odd parity the parity bit is set to one, if the sum of the bits is odd. To detect whether the bit in one chip has gone bad, the computer recalculates parity after reading the data and comparing the result to the value in the parity bit. When the parity bit is not used and is always set to one, it’s called mark parity, and when the parity bit isn’t used but is set to zero, it’s called space parity. Unfortunately, with this simple scheme, your computer can’t tell which of the eight bits in the byte was corrupted. It just knows that one of the bits has been changed. Exhibit 6-4 shows two early SIMMs. One module, from a Macintosh, had just eight DRAM chips and didn’t support parity. The other module, from a PC, had nine chips and supported parity.

Exhibit 6-4: Two early SIMMs, one with parity support and one without ECC Error correcting code (ECC) permits your computer not only to detect that an error has occurred, but also to correct that error. As with parity, when the computer reads the data from the module, it recalculates the ECC value and compares it to the value on the module. If the values match, no errors have occurred. If they don’t, then by using other calculations on the ECC value, the computer can determine what was changed and what its original value was. Use of parity and ECC in current computers Early PCs used parity memory, while early Macintosh computers didn’t. PC aficionados of the day claimed that as a reason for the PC’s superiority, but you could say that the Macintosh was simply ahead of the curve. Modern computers of both platforms rarely use parity or ECC memory.

Memory systems

6–15

In a move to save money, hardware designers have eliminated parity and ECC support from most modern desktop and laptop computers. Designers hope that memory errors won’t occur that frequently. To a lesser extent, memory errors can be detected with software rather than hardware. It’s cheaper to make a non-parity or non-ECC memory module than one with those features. The difference is probably close to 11%, because designers can use one fewer out of nine chips by not storing that parity bit or ECC code. Server-class computers often do include ECC or parity. Take care when purchasing memory modules for your computer. You must use modules that either support, or don’t support, parity or ECC, as dictated by your system’s design. Do it!

B-1:

Comparing RAM packaging

Here’s how 1 Identify the memory modules supplied by your instructor. For each, note its type, the number of pins, and whether it’s for a notebook or desktop computer 2 You want to add more RAM to a computer you own. What’s the first step you should take? 3 With the instructor, your lab partner, or another student in class, debate the pros and cons of using ECC memory in your computer

Here’s why

6–16


Topic C: Memory installation This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Memory

1.3

Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop components  Hard drive and memory

Memory modules Explanation

Today you install memory modules by inserting them into slots on the computer’s motherboard. To do so, you must consider these factors:  Banking requirements  Proper handling techniques  Slot insertion techniques  Safe storage  BIOS configuration Banking requirements You physically install memory modules into slots on the motherboard, and those slots are arranged into groups called banks. For example, depending on your computer’s design (including the system data bus, the bit-width of the package, and how many channels in each bank), a bank might include one, two, or four slots, which are usually color-coded on the motherboard. When you install new memory, you must fill every slot in a bank. For example, if your computer uses two-slot banks, then you must install memory modules in pairs. Many modern computers and laptops use single-slot banks. With this type of bank, you have to install only one module. Depending on your computer’s configuration, you must use the same type and speed of memory in every slot in a bank. In a few situations, you must use the same type and speed of memory in every memory slot in your computer, even in different banks. In most computers, you simply leave empty any extra slots. However, in computers that use DRDRAM (Rambus memory), you must fill extra slots with a continuity module, which is a small circuit board designed to complete the electrical circuit but not add RAM to your system. Dual-channel architecture is a technology that doubles data throughput from the memory to the memory controller by using two 64-bit data channels, giving you a 128bit data path. Dual-channel architecture requires both a dual-channel-capable motherboard and two or more DDR, DDR2, or DDR3 memory modules. You install the memory modules into banks. Each memory module accesses the memory controller through a separate path, thus increasing bandwidth. Using identical memory modules is recommended for best compatibility in dual-channel operations. Markings on the motherboard—either text labels or outlines—identify the banks and their slot(s), if present.

Memory systems

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Proper handling Memory modules are extremely sensitive to static and you can easily damage them. Carefully follow static-safe work procedures, including these precautions:  As always, unplug the computer before opening it.  With the computer unplugged, use the proper method to dissipate static electricity and use an appropriate anti-static workstation.  Once you’ve discharged any static potential, try to move as little as possible. The movement of your clothing or shoes on the floor could generate new charges.  Always handle modules by their edges, without touching the pins, components, or traces (the wires embedded in the surface of the circuit board). Inserting and removing the modules Memory modules include notches or are shaped in such a way that you can insert them into the slots in only the correct orientation. Don’t force a module to fit if you can’t insert it easily. With most SIMM modules, follow these steps to insert a module into a slot: 1 Gently insert the module into the slot at about a 45-degree angle. 2 Firmly, but gently, push the module into its slot while moving the module to the fully vertical (or horizontal) position. As you do this, the metal or plastic retaining clips engage to hold the module. With most DIMM modules, follow these steps to insert a module into a slot: 1 Ensure the locking clips are open to the sides, and gently insert the module straight into the slot, perpendicular to the motherboard. 2 Push firmly until the retaining clips snap into place on either side. To remove a SIMM module: 1 Gently release the retaining clips at both ends of the module. 2 With the clips released, you should be able to move the module easily to a 45degree angle. 3 Remove the module. To remove a DIMM module: 1 Release the retaining clips on both ends of the module. 2 Remove the module by pulling it straight up from the slot. You should store memory modules in their original packaging. CMOS configuration The BIOS checks the memory in a computer when you boot it. The BIOS compares the amount of memory in the computer with the amount listed in the CMOS setup data. If there’s a discrepancy, the computer displays an error message. With most modern computers, you simply press a key to automatically change the value for the CMOS memory amount without using the BIOS setup program. In some computers, especially older computers, you must run the BIOS setup utility. Depending on the utility, you might be able to select the amount of installed memory, you might be prompted to enter the correct amount, or you might be prompted to save the settings with the new memory automatically included.

6–18 Do it!


C-1:

Adding memory to a desktop computer

Here’s how 1 Consult your PC’s owner’s manual to determine the PC’s memory banking requirements 2 Determine the type of memory module required by your PC 3 Obtain suitable modules from your instructor 4 Install the modules into your PC, following safe ESD practices 5 Boot the computer, and if necessary, reconfigure the CMOS to support the new memory 6 Continue the boot process to confirm that you’ve successfully installed the new memory 7 Log on as your COMPADMIN## user with a password of !pass1234 8 If directed by your instructor, remove the additional memory from your PC, following safe ESD practices

Memory systems

6–19

Notebook memory The location where you install memory in a notebook or laptop computer varies greatly. In some notebooks, you unscrew a compartment cover on the underside of the case. In others, you have to remove the keyboard from the case to access the memory area. Refer to the documentation for your notebook to determine exactly how to install memory into it. Memory shouldn’t be installed until you shut down the computer, unplug the power cord, and remove the battery. You don’t want to get shocked by voltage from the battery or wall socket. You also don’t want to turn on the computer accidentally while you’re installing or replacing memory. Shared video memory In some notebook computers, some of the main system memory is shared with the video circuitry. Such systems have no dedicated video memory. Reduced cost is the primary benefit of this design, though there are also some savings in power consumption and heat generation. The downside of shared video memory is that some of your computer’s RAM is dedicated to video operations and is thus inaccessible to the operating system and applications. For example, in a notebook computer with 512 MB of memory and running at 1024×768, 16-bit color display resolution, about 12 MB of RAM is used for normal video options. That’s not all that bad. However, 3D, texture mapping, and shading operations can use many times that amount of memory. Even without considering the needs of gaming applications, your system might use as much as 128 MB of memory for video operations, leaving just 384 MB for operating system and application use. Another big downside of shared video memory is that system memory is much slower than dedicated video memory. Notebooks with shared video memory perform more slowly than those with dedicated video memory. If your notebook uses shared video memory, adding more system memory can offer more of a performance boost than you’d get from adding memory to a system with dedicated video memory. Not only does the extra memory provide more space for your applications, but it also reduces the impact that video operations have on available memory. It’s critical for these systems that you use the highest performing memory modules that are supported by your notebook.

6–20 Do it!


C-2:

Adding memory to a notebook computer

Here’s how 1 Shut down the computer

Here’s why You’ll remove and replace the memory in a notebook computer.

Unplug the computer

From the electrical outlet.

Remove the battery

From the battery compartment.

2 Remove the cover over the memory

Refer to the documentation for your notebook for instructions on accessing the memory.

3 Remove the memory module from the computer

Follow the directions in the notebook’s documentation.

4 Install the memory module

Again, refer to the documentation for your notebook.

5 Replace the memory module cover 6 Start the computer

To verify that it successfully boots.

Log on as your COMPADMIN## user

7 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties

8 Close all open windows 9 How can you determine if your system uses shared video memory?

To verify that the correct amount of memory is found.

Memory systems

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Handheld computer memory Some handheld computers can’t be expanded. In those, there’s no way to install additional memory. However, many of the newer handhelds, particularly the more expensive models, offer ways to add more memory. Some expandable handhelds use memory modules similar to those in a notebook computer. However, most expandable handhelds use memory cards like those used in digital cameras. These handheld computers have a slot into which you can insert the flash memory card, often without removing the PDA’s case. Follow the instructions in your PDA manual. Do it!

C-3:

Adding memory to a handheld computer

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Determine if your PDA has a memory expansion slot

You’ll add memory to your PDA if it supports this capability.

2 Locate a memory card that’s compatible with your PDA

Most PDAs expand memory through the use of flash memory cards.

3 Install the memory card

If necessary, check the PDA’s documentation for information on how to perform this step.

6–22


Topic D: Memory monitoring This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces  Task Manager

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Virtual memory


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Task Manager – Resource usage

Task Manager Explanation

One of the primary tools for monitoring memory usage on your PC is Task Manager. It’s a Windows GUI utility that provides information on applications, processes, and services that are running on your computer. A version of Task Manager is available in all Windows operating systems discussed in this course—Windows 2000 Professional, all Windows XP versions, and all Windows Vista and Windows 7 versions. The Windows 7 version is shown in Exhibit 6-5. There are various ways to open Task Manager:  In all Windows operating systems, press Ctrl+Alt+Delete. Depending on the operating system, either Task Manager or the Windows Security dialog box will open. If necessary, click Task Manager in the Security dialog box.  In Windows 2000 Professional, all Windows XP versions, and all Windows Vista versions, right-click an empty space on the taskbar and choose Task Manager.  In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, and Windows Vista, press Ctrl+Shift+Esc.

Memory systems

Exhibit 6-5: Windows Task Manager in Windows 7 Professional

6–23

6–24

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The Performance tab You can use the Performance tab in Task Manager to monitor your computer’s performance, using the most common indicators. The Performance tab is shown in Exhibit 6-6. The indicators are described in the following table. Indicator

Description

CPU Usage

Shows the percentage of time the processor is working. If certain processes appear to be running slowly, this graph might display a higher percentage.

CPU Usage History

Shows how busy the CPU has been over time. The value selected for Update Speed (on the View menu) determines how often this graph is updated. You can set updates to occur twice per second (High), once every two seconds (Normal), once every four seconds (Low), or not at all (Paused). You can press F5 to update a paused graph. On multiprocessor or multi-core systems, there’s one graph per processor or core. On Pentiums with a quad-core processor, Task Manager shows four graphs.

Memory (Windows 7/Vista)

Shows, in megabytes, how much physical memory is being used at the current moment.

Physical Memory Usage History (Windows 7/Vista)

Shows how much physical memory has been used over the past few minutes.

PF Usage (Windows XP/2000)

Shows the amount of the page file’s capacity being used by the computer. If this graph shows that your page file is near the maximum, you should increase the page file’s size.

Page File Usage History (Windows XP/2000)

Shows the percentage of the page file’s size used over time. The value selected for Update Speed (on the View menu) determines how often this graph is updated.

System (Windows 7/Vista) or Totals (Windows XP/2000)

Shows the dynamic totals for the number of handles, threads, and processes running. A handle is a unique object identifier used by a process. A thread is an object or process running within a larger process or program.

Physical Memory

"Total” shows the total amount of physical memory in MB installed on your computer.

In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, this section also shows up time (the amount of time that has passed since the computer was started) and the size of the page file on the hard disk.

"Free” in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (or "Available” in Windows XP and Windows 2000) is the amount of memory that’s currently unused or doesn't contain useful information. “Available” in Windows 7 is the amount of memory that's immediately available for use by processes, drivers, or the operating system. "Cached” in Windows 7 and Windows Vista (or "System Cache” in earlier versions of Windows) shows the amount of current physical memory being used to map pages of open files.

Memory systems

6–25

Indicator

Description

Commit Charge (Windows XP/2000)

Shows the amount of memory allocated to programs and the operating system. This number includes virtual memory, so the value listed under Peak might exceed the actual physical memory installed. The Total value is the same as in the Page File Usage History graph.

Kernel Memory

Shows the amount of memory being used by the operating system kernel and device drivers. "Paged” is memory that can be copied to the page file to free up physical memory for the operating system to use. "Nonpaged” is memory that won’t be paged out.

Summary data

(Along the bottom of the tab.) Shows the current number of processes, the current CPU usage percentage, and the current amount of physical or commit-charge memory being used, compared to the maximum available. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, this value is shown as a percentage.

Exhibit 6-6: The Performance tab of Task Manager, on a Windows Vista Business computer with a quad-core processor

6–26 Do it!


D-1:

Monitoring memory usage

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, boot your computer Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN##

2 Open Task Manager

Press Ctrl+Shift+Escape.

3 Select the Performance tab Observe the CPU Usage History graph 4 Open Documents

To generate some computing activity on your computer.

Observe the CPU Usage History graph

You see a spike in CPU usage as the processor carries out your request to open Documents.

5 Observe the CPU Usage box

This displays the percentage of time the processor is working.

6 If the CPU Usage box displays a high number, what does it mean? 7 Observe the Page File value in the System box

This shows the amount of the page file’s capacity being used by the computer.

8 If Page File displays a number very close to the page file’s maximum size, what should you do?

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9 Observe the Physical Memory box

This box shows the amount of RAM installed, the amount of free memory available, and the amount of current physical memory being used to map pages of open files.

10 If the Free memory was very low and the Cached was very high, compared to the amount listed under Total, what would be your concern? 11 Close Task Manager Close Documents

6–28


Virtual memory Windows operating systems use a memory-management scheme called virtual memory. Virtual memory is actually hard disk space that allows Windows to load applications and data as if there were more RAM available than is physically installed in the computer. With virtual memory, Windows swaps data and instructions back and forth between actual RAM and a file on the hard disk called a page file or swap file. If an application calls for data it thinks is in RAM, but Windows has temporarily placed it in a page file, a page fault is generated and the Windows Virtual Memory Manager pulls that data back into RAM for the application to access. This process, which normally happens invisibly, is illustrated in Exhibit 6-7. If through a hardware or application error Windows can’t find the page file, an invalid page fault error occurs, causing a blue-screen error. It’s important to note that applications can’t actually read data from virtual memory. The data needs to be put back into physically memory when it’s needed, thus making reading data stored in virtual memory slower than reading memory stored in physical memory.

Exhibit 6-7: Virtual memory

Optimizing the page file By default, Windows places the page file on the boot partition, where the operating system is installed. The page file’s size is initially determined by the amount of physical RAM installed on the computer. To offer the best performance, Windows automatically increases or decreases the size of the page file based on system memory requirements and available hard disk space. However, you can manually override these settings and establish minimum and maximum values in megabytes.

Memory systems

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To determine the size of the page file, Microsoft recommends a range determined by multiplying the amount of physical RAM by 1.5 and 3.0. However, this is just a general guideline. As the amount of RAM in a computer increases, the need for a large page file decreases. To calculate your page-file size, use your system’s peak commit value. By setting your page file size to your system’s peak commit value, you will cover the unlikely scenario in which all of the committed pages are written to disk-based page files. You can also place a page file on a different hard disk from the boot partition to optimize performance. When the page file is stored on the boot partition, Windows has to perform disk input/output (I/O) processes on both the system directory and the page file. Moving the page file to a different disk allows Windows to handle multiple I/O requests more quickly. To change the Windows page-file size: 1 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties. In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, right-click My Computer and choose Properties. 2 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, click Advanced system settings.

3 4 5 6

In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, select the Advanced tab. In the Performance section, click Settings, and then select the Advanced tab. In the Virtual memory section, click Change. Clear Automatically manage paging file size for all drives. Select Custom Size, and set the initial and maximum size based on the range discussed above.

6–30 Do it!


D-2:

Changing the size of the Windows page file

Here’s how 1 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties

Here’s why (If you’re running Windows 2000 Professional or running Windows XP in Classic Start Menu mode, right-click My Computer on the desktop and choose Properties.) To open the System window.

Advanced system settings

In Windows XP or Windows 2000, select the Advanced tab.

3 In the Performance section, click

To open the Performance Options dialog box.

2 In the navigation pane, click

Settings

4 Select the Advanced tab

If necessary.

5 In the Virtual memory section, click Change

To open the Virtual Memory dialog box.

6 Clear Automatically manage paging file size for all drives

7 Select Custom size 8 In the Initial size (MB) box, enter a value 1000 higher than the current value

The current value is listed under Total paging file size for all drives, Currently allocated. To increase the starting size of the page file.

9 In the Maximum size (MB) box, enter a value 2000 higher than the current value

To increase the maximum size of the page file.

10 Click Cancel as needed 11 Close the System window

You’ll cancel this operation. If you were to click the Set button, you would enable these new values. To close all of the dialog boxes.

Memory systems

6–31

Topic E: Memory troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Memory

Diagnosing memory problems Explanation

The memory-testing actions performed by the BIOS are relatively simple and not very accurate. Many memory problems aren’t detected by the BIOS. To test memory fully, you should use a dedicated memory-testing utility. Memory-testing utilities Memory-testing utilities typically perform hundreds, if not thousands, of read and write operations in every memory location. In addition, the utilities write more than one type of value to every byte of memory to test various types of possible failures. Complete testing cycles with these utilities can take many hours, or even days, depending on the speed of the computer and the amount of RAM installed. The following are some popular memory-testing utilities. Utility

License

URL

Memtest86

Free, open source

www.memtest86.com

Microsoft Windows Memory Diagnostic

Free, unsupported, commercial

oca.microsoft.com/en/windiag.asp

Memtest86 Memtest86 is perhaps the most popular free memory-testing utility available. It’s released under the Gnu Public License (GPL). It can test any Intel x86 computer, regardless of operating system.

6–32


Exhibit 6-8: The Memtest86 screen, showing the default test in progress As with nearly all such utilities, you must create a bootable floppy disk or CD that contains this utility and support files. Then you boot from that disk rather than running the utility from within Windows.

Memory systems

6–33

Troubleshooting As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested "first try” solutions for memory-related problems. You might encounter problems not listed in the following table, but it provides a few scenarios to consider when you’re troubleshooting memory-related problems. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

201 BIOS error code at boot time

Bad memory location.

Test memory with a RAM-testing utility to determine which portion of memory has failed. Using the output from that program, determine which module has failed, and replace it.

Parity error message

Bad memory (in a system with parity memory).

Test memory with a RAM-testing utility to determine which portion of memory has failed. Using the output from that program, determine which module has failed, and replace it.

Computer randomly freezes (locks up) or crashes

Bad or failing memory chip; bad power supply; inconstant wall voltage; CPU overheating.

Test memory with a RAM-testing utility to determine if memory is the cause of these symptoms. Replace modules, if appropriate.

Using memory that’s too slow for the system; mixing memory of different speeds.

Confirm that the proper type of memory is installed, according to manufacturer’s specifications.

Wrong amount of memory reported by the BIOS

Failed memory module; less memory installed than you thought; modules not installed properly according to PC’s banking requirements.

Test memory. Confirm proper BIOS configuration settings. Make sure you’ve installed as much memory as you think you have. Make sure you’ve installed memory modules according to your PC’s banking requirements, such as installing equally sized DIMMs in pairs.

Windows reports Page Fault or Exception errors

Poorly written applications; bad memory.

Check the application vendor’s Web site for updates or patches. Test memory with a RAMtesting utility.

Random crashes, corrupted data, strange application behavior

Virus infection (more likely); bad memory.

Scan your PC for viruses. If none are found, test memory with a RAM-testing utility.

6–34 Do it!


E-1:

Troubleshooting memory

Here’s how 1 One or more memory-related problems have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s). 2 Correct the problems you’ve found in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and fix all problems that arise. 3 Document the problem(s) you find:


Memory systems

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Unit summary: Memory systems Topic A

In this topic, you learned that RAM is the hardware component that stores active data and applications. You learned about the various units, such as MB and GB, which are used to describe the quantity of RAM installed in your PC. You learned about the various characteristics of memory, such as whether it’s volatile or non-volatile and synchronous or asynchronous, as well as the technology by which it’s accessed.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that chips are bundled into packages called modules. You learned about the various memory module types, including SIMMs, DIMMs, and SODIMMs. You learned that errors in memory can be detected and even corrected through parity or ECC.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned how to install RAM and handle modules. You also learned about banking requirements, slot insertion techniques, safe storage methods, and BIOS configuration requirements.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned how to monitor memory usage by using the Performance tab in Task Manager. You also learned about the Windows page file and how to adjust its size.

Topic E

In this topic, you learned that RAM can fail for various reasons. You learned how to troubleshoot common symptoms of failures, and how to determine probable causes and implement suggested solutions.

Review questions 1 The actual storage locations on a memory chip are called what? A Bits B Cells C RAM D Word 2 Which memory unit’s size depends on the processor? A Bit B Byte C Nibble D Word 3 Which term refers to the type of memory that loses its contents when power isn’t present? A Asynchronous B Dynamic C Non-volatile D Static E Synchronous F Volatile

6–36

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 4 Which of the following memory types are non-volatile? [Choose all that apply.] A CMOS B EPROM C EEPROM D Flash E PROM F RAM G ROM 5 What type of RAM loses its contents quickly, even when power is present? A DRAM B Flash C SRAM 6 Which type of memory is tied to the system clock? A Asynchronous B Dynamic C Non-volatile D Static E Synchronous F Volatile 7 Which of the following is defined as "the amount of data that can be transferred to or from memory per second”? A Access time B Bandwidth C Memory speed D Overall speed 8 Individual memory chips installed on the motherboard were replaced with memory ______________. packages or modules

9 Which of the following memory packages are used in laptop or notebook computers? [Choose all that apply.] A 144-pin MICRODIMM B 184-pin RIMM C 200-pin SODIMM D 240-pin DIMM

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10 True or false? Parity permits your computer not only to detect that an error has occurred in memory, but also to correct that error. False. ECC permits your computer to detect and correct errors. Parity enables just error detection.

11 You need to add more memory to your system. You know it has a 133 MHz system bus. How can you determine what type of memory to install? Consulting your owner’s manual is the best way to determine the supported memory types.

12 List at least two options for testing PC memory. Answers might include: Memtest86, Microsoft Windows Memory Diagnostic, DocMemory Diagnostic, and the POST are common and free memory testing options.

13 Which tab in Task Manager can you use to monitor the performance of memory in your computer system? A Applications B Networking C Performance D Processes E Services 14 In Task Manager, the CPU Usage History is divided into multiple graphs when you have more than one _________________. processor or core

15 When you’re speaking of RAM, what is a bank? A group of one or more memory slots. You must fill an entire bank when installing RAM.

16 Always handle memory modules by: Their edges, taking care not to touch the pins, components, or traces.

17 As measured in Task Manager, what’s kernel memory? This is the memory used by the operating system’s kernel (core) and device drivers.

18 True or false? The POST is sufficient to detect most memory problems. False. The POST is too fast and simple to catch most memory errors. You will need a dedicated memory-testing utility to find most memory problems.

19 In a Rambus system, what must you do to meet banking requirements? You must fill all empty slots with continuity modules.

20 What’s the first step in installing memory in a computer? Shut down the computer. If it’s already shut down, then the first step is to unplug it from the electrical outlet.

21 Where should you store unused memory modules? In the original packaging or in static-safe bags.

22 A computer randomly freezes up. Could this be an indication of bad memory? Yes, random lockups can indicate bad memory. Operating system or other commands could be written to the bad memory and become corrupted. Executing those commands would cause the lockup.

6–38


Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying and installing correct memory upgrade modules for a PC. 1 Open the Control Panel, and then open System and Security, and System. 2 How much RAM is installed on your computer? Answers will vary.

3 Using your computer manufacturer’s support Web site or computer’s user manual, determine the type of memory modules that your computer supports. Answers will vary, but will include: RAM type, such as DDR2 SDRAM Package type, such as DIMM Error correcting (ECC or non-ECC) Memory speed, specified in MHz Speed rating, specified as PC-#, PC2-#, or PC3-#

4 Using your Web browser, determine the cost to replace 2 GB of RAM for your computer. Answers will vary. For example, Dell sells a 2 GB memory module for its XPS 420 desktop for $35.

5 Close all open windows. 6 Install an additional memory module into your computer and confirm the installation. 7 Remove a memory module from your computer and confirm that you have done so correctly.

7–1

Unit 7 Bus structures Unit time: 45 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe the primary types of buses, and

define interrupt, IRQ, I/O address, DMA, and base memory address. B Describe PCI and PCIe buses, and PCI and

non-PCI video standards.

7–2


Topic A: Buses This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Modem  Bus architecture  Bus slots – AMR – CNR

Computer buses Explanation

In computer lingo, a bus is a communication pathway. A PC has multiple buses to enable communication among the various components of the PC. A bus is defined by various characteristics, including how many bits it can transmit at one time, which signaling techniques are used across it, and how fast data can be transferred. Bus types A typical PC has the following types of buses:  Address — The bus that transmits memory addresses between the CPU and RAM. The memory controller also plays a crucial role between RAM and CPU.  Data — The bus that transfers data between the CPU and RAM. It’s known as the system bus or system data bus.  Expansion — The bus to which add-on adapter cards are connected in order to enhance the functionality of the PC. In this unit, you’ll focus primarily on expansion buses. Address and data buses Address buses and data buses enable the basic operations of the CPU and its interactions with memory. You generally don’t have to be concerned with these buses, though their characteristics affect the overall performance of your system. Expansion bus An expansion bus is the communications pathway over which non-core components of your computer interact with the CPU, memory, and other core components. For example, data sent to and from your computer’s hard drive travels over an expansion bus. By installing new adapter cards into slots that connect to an expansion bus, you can add new hardware to your PC. For example, your desktop computer might not have come with a wireless network card for connecting to the network through your wireless router. You can purchase a wireless network adapter card and plug it into an expansion bus to add this capability to your computer.

Bus structures

7–3

Many expansion bus standards have been used over the years, but the PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus, shown in Exhibit 7-1, is the predominant one, although PCIe (PCI Express) is taking over. Others, such as the ISA, EISA, Micro Channel, and PC bus, are rarely found today, unless you’re working on an older computer.

Exhibit 7-1: The slots for the PCI expansion bus The riser bus A riser is a circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide additional expansion slots or sockets. PC manufacturers use riser buses to bring the basic wiring and control of a function, such as a LAN connection or audio support, to a motherboard. Using riser buses decreases the cost of including the function. There are two main riser types:  Audio/Modem Riser (AMR). Intel developed this riser slot standard to support modems and audio cards. An AMR slot provides both audio and modem support. This slot moved analog input/output functions off the motherboard and onto an external card. An AMR-compatible motherboard includes no other analog I/O functions. Such motherboards don’t have to be subjected to time-consuming Federal Communications Commission (FCC) certification tests. Thus, AMR-compatible motherboards are faster and cheaper to produce.  Communications and Networking Riser (CNR). Intel developed the CNR riser slot standard as an expansion of the AMR slot idea. The CNR expansion slot supports specialized modems, audio cards, and network cards. CNR also provides for extensions that would enable manufacturers to create CNR-based cards to support new technologies, such as cable modems and DSL modems. AMR slots are typically located in the middle of the motherboard, but CNR slots are normally near the edge. Both slots are normally brown. A motherboard has either an AMR slot or a CNR slot, not both. All of these riser slots are designed with the goal of simplifying the expansion card, thus further lowering its price. The tradeoff is that the CPU must perform many of the functions that a dedicated controller chip would handle on a “normal” expansion card. Because the CPU must handle all processing for these cards, they are considerably cheaper than their PCI- or ISA-based counterparts. Riser card devices might only cost a few dollars, while PCI- or ISA-based devices typically cost tens of dollars.

7–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Most times, a computer’s manufacturer populates a riser slot with a modem or other add-on card. Riser slot–based aftermarket add-ons are less popular. Unless one fails, you might never need to install a riser slot–based modem or expansion device.

Do it!

A-1:

Examining buses

Here’s how 1 Shut down your PC and unplug it from the outlet 2 Following proper ESD and electrical safety precautions, open your PC 3 Identify the expansion bus in your PC 4 Are there connectors for the address or data buses? Why or why not? 5 Identify one or more devices that connect to your computer through the expansion bus 6 Does your PC have a riser bus? 7 Close your PC, plug it in, and start it Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234

Here’s why

Bus structures

7–5

System interaction Explanation

Hardware and adapter cards must work together to access memory and CPU resources. They must do so in an orderly manner so that they don’t conflict with each other. To avoid conflicts, hardware must perform the following functions:  Gain the attention of the CPU.  Access shared memory locations.  Extend the system BIOS.  Transfer data across the bus.

Interrupts The CPU does the processing (or most of it) in a computer system. Devices must gain the attention of the CPU in order to get it to do their work. The CPU is often busy doing other work, so devices get its attention by sending an interrupt. An interrupt is a signal that a device sends to the CPU to get its attention. For example, whenever you press a key on your keyboard, the keyboard controller sends an interrupt to the CPU. The processor stops whatever it was doing, reads which key was pressed, and passes that key’s code to the active application. From there, the CPU might return to what it was doing before, depending on the priority of the tasks that need its attention. Without interrupts, a CPU would have to poll each device, round-robin fashion, to see if attention was needed. IRQs Computers rely on interrupts to provide an orderly way of gaining the attention of the CPU. Not every interruption carries the same priority. Furthermore, the CPU must have a way to determine which device interrupted it. These needs are met through IRQs, or interrupt request lines. Every device that uses interrupts is assigned an IRQ. IRQs are numerical identifiers that, in most cases, are uniquely assigned to devices. The original IBM PC and XT-class computers supported IRQ numbers 0–7. Beginning in 1982, the AT-class and similar computers supported IRQs 0–15. Rather than redesigning the interrupt controller to directly support the expanded IRQs, which would have made it incompatible with existing operating systems, designers pulled a little trick. The new IRQs, 8–15, were cascaded to IRQ 2. When a device sends an interrupt over IRQ 10, for example, that IRQ is routed through IRQ 2. In this way, an OS that supports only the original IRQ set still receives the interrupt. Additionally, because modern computers have many more devices than older computers do, this architecture has seen further extensions in the way the hardware and operating system address interrupts. From 2000 forward, x86 systems have used an Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller (APIC) architecture to support more than 15 IRQs. An APIC architecture is a programming interface for up to 255 physical hardware IRQ lines per APIC (the distributed set of devices that make up an interrupt controller). In Intel’s model, there can be as many as eight I/O APICs collecting interrupt signals from hardware devices. Each I/O APIC has an arbitrary number of IRQs. Most Intel-based personal computers have support for 24 IRQs per I/O APIC, although some have as many as 64.

7–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When multiple devices send their interrupts to the CPU at the same time, the system interrupt controller processes the device request with the lowest IRQ value first. The following table lists the default IRQ assignments for standard hardware devices in order of priority. As you can see, no devices use IRQ 2, so it can be used to cascade the higher IRQs. IRQ

Common use

0

System timer

1

Keyboard

2

Cascade of IRQs 8–15

8

Real-time clock

9

Various

10

Various

11

Various

12

PS/2 mouse

13

Floating point unit or math coprocessor

14

Primary IDE (hard drive) channel

15

Secondary IDE (hard drive) channel

3

COM2

4

COM1

5

Sound cards or LPT2

6

Floppy disk controller

7

LPT1

Modern operating systems calculate and assign IRQs for you. With Windows, the technique is called Plug and Play (PnP). Of course, the adapters you use must support PnP. With such support, every time you start Windows, the BIOS determines which IRQs are available, which devices need IRQs assigned, and what IRQs each device can support. Then, the BIOS dynamically assigns IRQs to all devices you’ve installed, and relays this information to Windows.

Bus structures

7–7

Device Manager As shown in Exhibit 7-2, you can use the Windows Device Manager to determine which IRQs have been assigned to the various devices in your computer. If you need to do so, you can even manually assign IRQs, overriding the default assignments made by the BIOS, which takes into account any IRQs that you’ve manually assigned when it determines which IRQs remain available.

…

Exhibit 7-2: Device Manager’s IRQ assignments To open Device Manager: 1 Click Start. 2 Right-click Computer or My Computer, and choose Manage. 3 Under System Tools, select Device Manager. 4 Choose View, Resources by type. 5 In the details pane, expand Interrupt request (IRQ).

7–8 Do it!


A-2:

Examining IRQ assignments

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and right-click Computer

Choose Manage 2 In the navigation pane, select Device Manager

3 In the Actions pane, click More Actions and choose View,

To display the list of system resources.

Resources by type

4 In the details pane, collapse all sections

The available sections are Direct Memory Access (DMA), Input/output (IO), Interrupt Request (IRQ), and Memory.

5 Expand Interrupt request (IRQ)

To display the list of IRQ assignments determined by PnP when you started your computer.

6 Collapse Interrupt request (IRQ)

Bus structures

7–9

I/O addresses Explanation

Input/output addresses (I/O addresses) are a number range assigned to each device that allows the CPU to communicate with it. A number range instead of a single number allows the CPU to communicate multiple commands. Devices listen on the address bus for their corresponding numbers and respond to the CPU when called. As with interrupts, devices must work together to avoid using the addresses of the other devices. To ensure this security, either you or the BIOS must configure a range of I/O addresses assigned to each device in your computer. Common devices have preassigned addresses. As shown in Exhibit 7-3, such I/O addresses are designated with 16-bit hexadecimal numbers. In general, devices are assigned between 4 and 32 bytes of input-output memory, though some get more or less than that.

Exhibit 7-3: A sample list of I/O addresses in Device Manager Do it!

A-3:

Viewing your computer’s I/O address assignments

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In Device Manager, expand

To display the I/O address assignments on your computer.

2 Examine the assignments

Some items are assigned more than one I/O address.

Input/output (I/O)

3 Collapse Input/output (I/O)

7–10


Direct memory access (DMA) Explanation

In the input/output scheme described so far, the CPU must be involved in every data transfer with every device. While the CPU is certainly powerful, this involvement with every data transfer can negatively affect performance. To improve performance, designers created the direct memory access (DMA) controller, which is essentially another processor chip to handle data transfers between devices and main memory. DMA frees the CPU to perform other tasks. The DMA controller communicates with each device over a dedicated channel. Each device must have its own channel with the DMA controller. As with the other resources, you or PnP must configure the DMA channel assigned to every device. DMA has largely been replaced by newer techniques, such as bus mastering. For this reason, DMA is generally used by core devices, such as the floppy disk controller, whose designs haven’t changed significantly over time.

Do it!

A-4:

Viewing your computer’s DMA channel assignments

Here’s how 1 Expand Direct memory access (DMA)

2 What types of devices are using DMA channels on your PC?

3 Collapse Direct memory access (DMA)

Here’s why To display the DMA channel assignments on your PC.

Bus structures

7–11

Memory addresses Explanation

Some devices extend the system BIOS with new routines, or new versions of existing routines. Display adapters are the most common type of device to do this, but IDE and SCSI adapters also use BIOS extensions. These devices include their BIOS extensions in a chip on their adapter card. The system BIOS must locate and load these BIOS extensions. This means that the adapter BIOS must be “mapped” to memory locations where the system BIOS can find it. You, or PnP, must configure the memory address range of the device’s BIOS. By configuring this value, you provide a way for the operating system to access the system routines contained on these devices. As with the other resources, each device that requires a memory address assignment needs its own unique assignment. PnP ensures that conflicting address ranges aren’t assigned to devices in your computer. Historically these addresses have been in the upper memory block (UMB) – the space between 640KB (0x000A0000) and 1MB. Exhibit 7-4 shows a list of memory address assignments in Device Manager.

Exhibit 7-4: Device Manager’s list of typical memory address assignments

7–12 Do it!


A-5:

Viewing your computer’s memory address assignments

Here’s how 1 Expand Memory 2 What device seems to be using the most memory within the base memory address space? 3 Close Computer Management

Here’s why To display the base memory address assignments on your PC

Bus structures

7–13

Topic B: The PCI bus This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Sound – Video  Bus slots – PCI – AGP – PCIe

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Video – PCI – PCIe – AGP

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Explanation

The PCI standard was developed by Intel Corporation and introduced in 1992. The current crop of PCI adapters and expansion slots generally implement the PCI 2.0 specification, released in 1993. The PCI specification supports bus speeds of either 33 MHz or 66 MHz. It also supports both a 32-bit and 64-bit bus design, though the 32-bit version is much more popular. With a 32-bit implementation at 33 MHz, the PCI bus supports a peak transfer rate of 133 MBps. In a 64-bit implementation at 66 MHz, the PCI bus supports a peak transfer rate of 533 MBps. PCI slots are shorter (in length) and taller than ISA slots. A graphic of PCI slots are shown in Exhibit 7-1. A PCI card is shown in Exhibit 7-5.

Exhibit 7-5: A PCI card

7–14


PCIe There’s a newer specification, PCI Express (PCIe), that uses serial communication instead of the parallel communication PCI uses. A connection between a PCIe device and the system is known as a link. Each link uses a dedicated, bidirectional, serial, point-to-point connection called a lane. In PCIe version 1.0, each lane can transfer 2.5 Gbps (0.25 GBps) of data simultaneously in each direction using 8b/10b encoding. A link can use more than one lane at a time, but all links must support at least a single-lane connection. This is referred to as an “x1” (pronounced “by-one”) link. PCIe supports x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32 bus widths. PCIe cards can’t connect to the system through PCI buses, but they are compatible with software that uses the PCI standard. PCIe cards physically fit into slots designed for their lane configuration or higher (up-plugging), but not into slots designed for lower lane configurations (down-plugging). Multifunction cards and maximum devices The PCI specification supports multifunction cards, in which a single adapter provides the functions of more than one expansion device. The specification permits up to eight functions on a single card. Additionally, it permits up to five slots and cards per system. So, in theory, through multifunction cards, you could add the equivalent of up to 40 expansion devices to your PC. Do it!

B-1:

Identifying a PCI bus

Here’s how 1 Following all electrical and ESD safety precautions, shut down your PC and open the case 2 Locate a PCI slot How many PCI expansion slots does your computer contain? How many of the PCI expansion slots are in use? How many are available? 3 Does your computer contain expansion slots other than PCI? Identify them 4 Leave the cover removed for the next activity

Here’s why

Bus structures

7–15

PCI video adapters Explanation

The video adapter is the component that generates the signals sent to your monitor. This component can be built into your motherboard or can be an adapter card added to your system later. Depending on the technology used, a video adapter can communicate over an expansion bus. Manipulating video data, such as drawing the dialog boxes and image content of a typical Windows-based application, uses more system resources than most other computer operations. Video display circuitry requires faster access and higher bandwidth access to the CPU and memory than do any other subsystems in your PC. Some video adapters are built into the motherboard. This arrangement is common on low-end systems in which the manufacturer’s main goal is to make the machine as inexpensive to the customer as possible. On other machines, the video adapter might be installed in any of three types of slots: PCI, PCIe, or AGP. AGP and PCIe are wellsuited to transmitting video data at high speeds. Video adapters in most modern computers are connected through one of these buses. PCI-based video PCI slot–based adapters are the slowest of the three types. These have to share the PCI bus with all of the other PCI-based devices in the system. However, they work well for implementing a two-monitor system if you are using two separate video cards. If there is not an AGP or PCIe slot on your motherboard, this is your only option for upgrading the video on your system. PCIe-based video PCIe cards are designed to replace AGP video cards in new systems. Motherboards that support PCIe video cards became available in 2004. A x16 PCIe video card has a 4 GBps bandwidth in each direction. Theoretically, you can achieve 8 GBps capacity with data moving upstream and downstream at the same time, because this is a dual-lane technology. The high transfer speeds make this technology an ideal solution for multimedia applications, such as gaming, photography, and videography. PCIe cards have 22 control pins; a x16 slot has 186 pins. A x16 PCIe video card is shown in Exhibit 7-6. You’ll find a comparison among PCI standards at tinyurl.com/ylpk4lw.

Exhibit 7-6: A PCIe video card

7–16


AGP video adapters Intel developed the AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) bus standard in 1997 to improve video performance. AGP’s release coincided with the release of the Pentium II chipsets from Intel. Since this initial release, newer AGP standards have been released. These include:  AGP 1.0  AGP 2.0  AGP 3.0  64-bit AGP  Ultra-AGP  AGP Pro  Ultra-AGPII AGP, which is PnP configurable, is technically not a bus standard; it’s a port standard, so it’s more correct to call it a port rather than a bus. Buses support multiple devices, but AGP provides a direct connection between the video adapter and the CPU. An AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 7-8. Video memory Before AGP, video cards required, and could use, only memory that was on the adapter card. Data needed to be transferred from main system memory over the video bus to the adapter, which would render the data for display on the monitor. Originally, one of AGP’s biggest performance improvements was its ability to access and use main system memory. During certain rendering operations— namely, mapping a texture to a shape—the AGP adapter could access texture data in main system memory without first transferring the data to the adapter. Intel called this feature Direct Memory Execute (DIME), and for some operations, it offered as much as a tenfold performance improvement, compared to video adapters that couldn’t access main memory in this way. As the price of memory has dropped, desktop PC AGP cards have gained more on-board memory. In fact, many modern AGP cards don’t use main system memory at all, relying entirely on on-board memory. The situation is often reversed with laptop computers. To save money, reduce power consumption, and reduce heat generation, many laptop AGP cards don’t contain memory. Instead, main system memory is used for video operations. Compared to true video RAM, shared system memory is much slower. So, while AGP DIME is faster than memory access techniques used by older video cards, AGP cards having true video RAM are many times faster yet. Some AGP cards are available with two connectors to enable you to connect two monitors to the system. AGP is being phased out for PCIe.

Bus structures

7–17

Exhibit 7-7: An AGP adapter (note the hook beside the edge connectors) Characteristics You will see AGP speeds referred to as #x. Using various techniques, the effective bus speed of an AGP port is increased, or “pumped,” to a multiple of the standard speed. The “x” in AGP specifications refers to how many times data is transferred during each clock cycle. For example, an AGP 3.0 8x slot transfers data 8 times per clock cycle, making it 8 times faster than the bus speed. The maximum speed would be 2.13 GBps, assuming an effective clock rate of 533 MHz for the PCI bus. You might encounter some older systems with slower bus speeds. AGP 1.0 was released with both 1x and 2x speeds. AGP Pro was released for cards that required more power. The AGP 2.0 4x bandwidth is up to 1.06 GBps on a virtual 266 MHz bus system. The AGP 2.0 2x slot would have a bandwidth of up to 533 MBps on a virtual 133 MHz bus system. This and other information about AGP is summarized in the following table. All bus widths are 32-bit. AGP version

Speed

Pumping

Frequency

Max. data transfer

Voltage

1.0

1x

Single

66 MHz

266 MBps

3.3 or 1.5 V

1.0

2x

Double

66 MHz

533 MBps

3.3 or 1.5 V

2.0

4x

Quad

66 MHz

1066 MBps

3.3 or 1.5 V

3.0

8x

Octuple

66 MHz

2133 MBps (1 GBps)

1.5 or 0.8 V

7–18

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One AGP slots AGP slots are typically brown, though sometimes maroon or another dark color. Modern video adapters require active cooling (fans) and thus more space than other adapters. For this reason, an AGP slot is typically well separated from other bus slots. A graphic of an AGP slot is shown in Exhibit 7-8. Most systems include a single AGP slot. However, some high-end systems include multiple, independent AGP slots.

AGP slot

Exhibit 7-8: An AGP slot Do it!

B-2:

Identifying graphics connections

Here’s how 1 Identify the standard used by your current graphics card 2 Identify the options available in your PC for adding a graphics card

Here’s why

Bus structures

7–19

Unit summary: Bus structures Topic A

In this topic, you learned that a bus is a communication pathway. Your PC has three categories of buses: address, data, and expansion. You then learned that interrupts are signals sent by a device through a controller chip to the CPU when the device needs attention. Devices also use I/O addresses, which receive communication from the CPU, and DMA channels, which help to speed transfers. Some devices also extend the BIOS, requiring you to configure base memory addresses, each of which defines the beginning of a memory range that contains the BIOS extension.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that the PCI bus, a 32-bit or 64-bit standard, is currently the most prolific expansion bus. It supports PnP and shared system resources and is considerably faster than previous bus technologies. You also learned that the PCIe bus is quickly replacing the PCI bus as the standard. You then learned that video adapters can use either the AGP or PCIe. Both offer improved throughput to improve video display performance.

Review questions 1 Which PC bus is responsible for transmitting memory addresses? A Address B Data C Expansion 2 Which bus is used to enhance PC functionality? A Address B Data C Expansion 3 By convention, PCI slots are typically which color? A Brown B Gray C Tan D White 4 Typically, the PCI bus is a(n) ____-bit bus. 32

5 The AGP bus is a(n)____-bit bus. 32

6 COM1 and COM2 are assigned to which IRQs? A 1 and 2 B 2 and 3 C 3 and 4 D 9 and 10

7–20

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 7 In Device Manager, I/O addresses are represented as what? A Bits B Binary numbers C Hexadecimal numbers D Exponents 8 What technology has replaced DMA? A Bus mastering B Memory transfers C Polling D Riser cards 9 With the PCI specification, a single adapter can provide up to how many functions? A One B Two C Four D Eight 10 PCIe uses ___________ (serial/parallel) communication. serial

11 The bus speed of a 2x, 4x, or 8x AGP card is _____ MHz. 66

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying different types of adapter cards and their associated bus types, different types of motherboards, and the bus types that are implemented on the motherboard. If you are working on this activity outside the classroom, you can do a Web search to find and identify different types of adapter cards and motherboards. 1 Your instructor will provide you with a selection of adapter cards or images of adapter cards. Determine which bus each card implements. 2 Your instructor will provide you with one or more motherboards or images of motherboards. Identify the bus types implemented on the motherboards.

8–1

Unit 8 Expansion cards Unit time: 120 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe video adapters and standards, and

install a video adapter. B Define sound cards, identify the

components of a sound card, and install a sound card. C Describe modem standards and identify the

components of a modem. D Identify the symptoms, probable causes,

and potential solutions for problems related to expansion cards.

8–2


Topic A: Video cards This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Video

1.7

Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics  Connector types – VGA – HDMI – DVI pin compatibility


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Adapter cards – Graphics cards – Sound cards – Storage controllers  RAID cards (RAID array – levels 0, 1, 5)  eSATA cards – I/O cards  FireWire  USB  Parallel  Serial  Wired and wireless network cards  Capture cards (TV, video)  Media reader

Expansion cards

8–3

Video adapters Explanation

Video adapters convert computer data to the signals required to produce the images that you see on your screen. In the early generations of PCs, video adapters created just text output, and often monochrome output at that. Nowadays, video adapters create the signals necessary to display full-color and full-motion images and video. Due to the enormous amount of information that must be manipulated by the adapter to produce these signals, modern video adapters are almost computers in their own right. They often feature a specialized processor chip and lots of on-board memory. Perhaps even more than the CPU type or amount of memory in your system, the video adapter is the component most responsible for the overall performance of your PC. Creating an image Although monitors aren’t the subject of this unit, a brief look at how they work will help you understand why video adapters work the way they do. A traditional TV-style monitor creates an image when a stream of electrons hits a phosphorescent coating on the inside of the screen. In the earliest monitors, this coating would glow green in the presence of the electron beam and remain black when it wasn’t being hit with electrons, hence the green and black of early monitors. Later developments in phosphor coatings permitted the display of red, green, and blue glows that, when combined, produced a full range of colors. This electron beam is very narrow, hitting a spot on the screen barely a quarter of a millimeter across at any particular time. To create a full-screen image, the beam is moved rapidly back and forth across the screen, from the top to the bottom of the screen, many times a second. To create a flicker-free image, the beam must paint out the full screen image at least 60 times every second. The rate at which the image is painted is called the refresh rate. With some early video display standards, the full image couldn’t be refreshed entirely in a single pass. These systems used interlacing, in which the odd lines of the image were painted during one pass of the beam and the even lines were painted during a second pass. Such interlaced displays often suffered badly from flickering. This occurred because the effective refresh rate was half the specified rate (30 Hz instead of 60 Hz, or 42 Hz instead of 84 Hz). Resolution An image to be displayed, whether it’s text or a picture, is divided by the display adapter into a series of dots called pixels (adapted from “picture elements”). Officially, a pixel is the smallest addressable unit of a picture. A monitor’s resolution is the number of pixels across and down that an adapter can create. CRT monitors use groupings of three subpixels, one each of red, green, and blue. These three subpixels are arranged in a triangular pattern or as stripes, either of which is small enough to appear as a single dot. A separate electron gun illuminates each color of subpixel. LCD monitors use three colored stripes, though they use a backlight rather than electron guns to illuminate the subpixels.

8–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Color depth To create the full range of colors you see, the display adapter must create, and your monitor must be capable of showing, many shades of each color. Such shades are determined by the intensity that each red, green, or blue subpixel is made to glow. The number of shades that each component can be set to is determined by the color depth, or the number of bits per pixel devoted to each shade. Another term for color depth is pixel depth. Consider a display adapter that devotes 8 bits to each of the red, green, and blue components of an image for a total of 24 bits of color depth. Each pixel can be set to one combination of 256 shades of red (8 bits gives 256 possible values), 256 shades of green, and 256 shades of blue. The total number of colors equals 256 × 256 × 256, or 16,777,216. Color depth (bits per pixel)

Maximum number of colors

Bytes of storage per pixel

Descriptive name

1

2

1/8

Monochrome

4

16

1/2

VGA

8

256

1

SuperVGA

16

65,536

2

High color

24

16,777,216

3

True color

Video display standards In the earliest years of the PC, IBM was the only significant source of personal computers for business use. Thus, the video adapters and associated standards that IBM created were adopted as the official standards to be implemented by third-party manufacturers.

Expansion cards

8–5

The following table lists the popular video standards developed by IBM. Standard

Text mode resolution

Graphics mode resolution

Text mode matrix (W × H)

Maximum number of colors

Maximum refresh rate

Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA)

80×25

n/a

9×14

2 (black and green/amber/ white)

50 Hz

Hercules Graphics Card (HGC)

80×25

720×348

9×14

2 (black and green/amber/ white)

50 Hz

Color Graphics Adapter (CGA)

80×25

640×200 (mono) or 160× 200 (color)

8×8

16 in text or low-resolution graphics modes, 4 colors in high-res graphics

60 Hz

Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA)

80×25

640×350

8×8

16 out of a palette of 64

60 Hz

Video Graphics Adapter (VGA)

Emulation of EGA and other early modes, or via graphics emulation of text mode

640×480

Emulation of EGA and other early modes

16 at 640×480, or 256 at 320×240 resolution, out of a 262,144color palette

60 Hz

Aspect ratio The aspect ratio defines the relationship between the width and height of a display (or of a display resolution). A 4:3 monitor, for example, is four units wide for every three units tall. A resolution of 800x600 is an example of such a ratio—4x200 wide by 3x200 high. Most traditional or historical computer display resolutions use 4:3 aspect ratios. Modern, widescreen computer displays, such as a 1440x900 widescreen monitor, have an 8:5 (or 16:10) aspect ratio. SuperVGA VGA was the last widely accepted standard created by IBM. Shortly after it was introduced, VGA was superseded by the capabilities of third-party graphics adapters. Although the offerings from many of these vendors came to be called “SuperVGA,” there was no official standard beyond VGA.

8–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One eXtended Graphics Array IBM introduced the eXtended Graphics Array standard in 1990. Abbreviated XGA, this broad class of display standards defines the most popular resolutions. The following table lists some of the more common XGA standards, plus two HD television standards for comparison. Name

Width x Height (aspect ratio)

XGA – eXtended Graphics Array

1024 x 768 (4:3)

WXGA – Widescreen XGA

1280 x 768 (5:3) 1280 x 800 (8:5)

SXGA – Super XGA

1280 x 960 (4:3) 1280 x 1024 (5:4)

WSXGA – Widescreen Super XGA

1440 x 900 (8:5)

UXGA – Ultra XGA

1600 x 1200 (4:3)

WUXGA – Widescreen Ultra XGA

1920 x 1200 (8:5)

HD TV (basic high definition)

1366 x 768 (16:9)

HD-1080 (full high definition)

1920 x 1080 (16:9)

Connectors MDA, HGC, CGA, and EGA video adapters produced a digital signal. This signal was sent to the monitor via a 9-pin DIN connector. Beginning with VGA and continuing to modern video displays, video-out signals are typically analog. The typical VGA connector (used also by most of the modern XGA standards) is a 15-pin connector officially called a DE-15 connector, as shown in Exhibit 8-1.

Exhibit 8-1: A VGA (DE-15) connector

Expansion cards

8–7

The typical VGA socket is shown in Exhibit 8-2.

Exhibit 8-2: A VGA socket Flat-panel monitors are connected via either analog or digital lines. Many of these monitors ship with a 15-pin VGA connection cable, even if they’re equipped to handle digital video interface (DVI) connections, as shown in Exhibit 8-3. Some monitors come with cables for both connection types. If you want to use this interface, you might need to purchase a video card with a DVI connection. You also need to determine what type of DVI connection the card accepts.

Exhibit 8-3: DVI connection types DVI-A DVI-A provides an analog signal. It isn’t used very often because the VGA connector, which also provides an analog signal, is less expensive.

8–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One DVI-D DVI-D is a digital-only connection. A dual-link DVI-D connection contains 24 pins in three rows of eight, plus a grounding slot, as shown in Exhibit 8-4. A single-link DVI-D connection contains 18 pins.

Exhibit 8-4: A dual-link DVI-D port DVI-I DVI-I supports both digital and analog signals—the “I” stands for integrated. The DVI-I connector contains four more pins than the DVI-D connector. These four pins, which carry analog signals, are located above and below the grounding slot. Exhibit 8-5 shows a DVI-I connector.

Exhibit 8-5: A DVI-I port Single vs. dual-link The DVI family of standards supports single- and dual-link configurations. For example, a DVI-D single link (with 18 conductors/pins) and a DVI-D dual-link (with 24 pins). The extra six conductors are used to transmit additional pixel data to enable both higher resolutions and higher refresh rates. For example, a single link DVI interface can handle a maximum of 60 Hz and 2.75 megapixels. That’s the equivalent of 1,915 × 1,436 pixels in a 4:3 aspect ratio arrangement. For higher resolutions, or higher refresh rates, additional bandwidth is required. The additional “link” provides 6 extra conductors to transmit the additional information. A dual-link DVI interface can handle 4 megapixels at 60 Hz. HDMI Like DVI-D, HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) delivers video signals in a digital format without analog conversion, using the TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling) protocol. DVI-D and HDMI are similar to one another in terms of image quality, but HDMI can deliver up to eight channels of digital audio in addition to video. HDMI also supports higher resolutions than DVI-D does, including some resolutions not yet available commercially. HDMI uses a different type of connector than does DVI-D. As of this writing, there are four types of HDMI connectors: types A, B, C, and D. Types A, C, and D have 19 pins, though wiring arrangements vary between these types. The type C connector is smaller than type A, and type D is even smaller. The smaller connectors are intended for portable devices. Type B connectors have 29 pins and support the dual-link configuration. Dual-link configuration doubles the maximum transfer rate and permits much higher resolutions.

Expansion cards

8–9

HDMI is fully compatible with DVI-D and DVI-I. DVI-D, DVI-I, and HDMI use the same encoding scheme, so a DVI-D or DVI-I source can be connected to an HDMI monitor (or vice versa) with a DVI/HDMI converter cable. One end of the cable is HDMI, and the other DVI-D or DVI-D. HDMI isn’t compatible with DVI-A.

Exhibit 8-6: An HDMI Type A port HDMI includes support for Consumer Electronics Control (CEC). This standard defines a one-wire serial bus to provide remote control functions for connected devices. With CEC, users can control multiple HDMI-connected devices with a single remote control. And, CEC-enabled devices can issue commands to and control other CEC devices without user intervention. According to the HDMI specification, products and cables must be wired to support CEC but are not required to support the remote control functions. Do it!

A-1:

Identifying video adapter types

Here’s how 1 If necessary, shut down your PC and open its case 2 Examine the adapter cards in your computer Which cards can you use to attach a monitor? 3 What type of bus is each card connected to? For each video card in your computer, does it support analog, digital, or both? 4 Examine each of the video adapter cards provided by your instructor Identify the type of each card For each card, does it support analog, digital, or both?

Here’s why Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.

8–10


Installing expansion cards To install an expansion card, you must consider how to handle the cards safely as well as how to configure the device if PnP doesn’t do it for you. Safe handling Expansion cards are sensitive to ESD (electrostatic discharge). You should always follow ESD precautions when working with these cards or any device that must be installed inside a PC’s chassis. When handling expansion cards, follow these guidelines:  Unplug the computer before opening it.  Work at a static-safe workstation, which includes a grounded work surface that is not prone to a buildup of static charges. Such workstations sometimes provide built-in antistatic wrist straps or grounded points to which you can connect wrist straps.  Ground yourself to the chassis before touching internal components.  Keep expansion cards inside static-protective bags or packaging until you’re ready to install them.  Handle cards by their edges or slot cover plates. Don’t touch board components, traces, or edge-connector pins.

Expansion cards

8–11

Drivers Drivers are utilities that enable a device’s functionality. Every expansion device or adapter card in your PC requires a driver. Some drivers are supplied with the operating system. Other devices require drivers supplied by the device manufacturer. Device vendors often supply their drivers to Microsoft. If Microsoft’s Windows Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) determines that the driver doesn’t destabilize Windows, they digitally sign the driver. At that point, Microsoft either includes the driver in the operating system files or make the driver available on the Windows Update Web site. Sometimes, however, you need to use the drivers supplied with your expansion device, either on a CD that comes with it or on the vendor’s Web site. Inserting cards In general, you’ll follow these steps to install an expansion card in a PC. Expansion cards include graphics, sound cards, storage controllers (IDE, SCSI, SATA, eSATA, RAID), I/O cards (FireWire, USB, parallel, serial), network cards (wired and wireless), video cards, capture cards, and media readers. Although exact steps might vary for specific hardware, you will generally follow these steps to install an expansion card: 1 If you’re not using a PnP-compatible expansion card or operating system, determine the available system resources (IRQs, I/O addresses, and so forth). Configure the DIP switches or jumpers on the card, as necessary, to assign available system resources to it. If you’re using a PnP-compatible card and operating system, the vendor might direct you to run an installation utility before installing the device. This installation program puts the necessary drivers in a location where Windows can find them when you’re done installing the device. If appropriate, run that setup program. 2 Shut down the PC, unplug it, and open the case. You might want to remove any peripheral cables before opening the case. You might need to do so simply to move the PC to a convenient work location. Removing the cables also prevents static discharges from traveling from the PC to the peripheral. Also, doing so prevents an electrical fault in the peripheral from conducting to the PC while you’re working on it. 3 Locate an empty and available expansion slot of the correct type. 4 Remove the cover for that slot. These covers are generally either screwed in place or held by spring-clips. 5 If necessary, move or remove wires or other expansion cards that are in the way, so that you can access the slot. 6 If you need to connect wire assemblies to the expansion board—not to its back slot cover plate, but to the board itself—connect that end of the wire assembly before installing the card. That way, you can easily reach the connector and be sure you’re installing the wire assembly in its correct orientation. Connect the other end after you’ve installed the card. 7 Begin inserting the end of the edge connector that’s farthest from the slot cover. When the edge connector is level with the slot, gently push the card into place in the slot. This helps you line up the connector correctly. Inserting the card at an angle is usually easier than pushing it straight into the slot. 8 Fix the card in place with screws or clips, as appropriate to the case’s design. 9 Connect any wiring assemblies, including those you temporarily removed to install this card.

8–12

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 10 Close the case, connect peripherals (if necessary), and start the system. 11 Depending on the operating system, OS version, and adapter card technology, configure the card. If you’re using PnP-compatible components, PnP handles this for you. 12 If necessary, install required drivers. If you have to install drivers yourself, you most likely need to configure them to use the same hardware resources you configured the card to use. When you’re done, some devices and operating system versions will require you to restart the computer. This step fully loads the drivers and configures the operating system to support the new device.

Video adapter slots Some video adapters are built into the motherboard. Such integrated video cards provide all of the regular video adapter features without taking up an expansion slot. This design is common on low-end systems in which the manufacturer’s main goal is to make the machine as inexpensive to the customer as possible. The BIOS often includes functions to disable the integrated video adapter. You might do this if you suspect a problem with it or if you want to use a specialized add-in adapter. For example, gamers often use very-high-performance aftermarket video adapters to speed up their games. Other machines most commonly have three types of slots in which the video adapter might be installed. These are PCI, AGP, and PCIe slots.

Expansion cards Do it!

A-2:

8–13

Installing a video adapter card

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If specified by the adapter’s manufacturer, run the adapter’s setup utility

To copy the driver installation files to your hard disk, where Windows can find them.

2 If necessary, shut down your PC and open its case

Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.

3 If a video adapter is already in an expansion slot, remove that adapter 4 Install the video adapter 5 Close the PC case 6 If your PC has an integrated video adapter, boot the PC and load the system’s BIOS setup program

You’ll need to disable the on-board video adapter.

Disable the on-board video adapter and save your changes 7 If your PC doesn’t have an integrated video adapter, or after you’ve disabled the on-board adapter, start your PC 8 Log on to Windows

Log on as your COMPADMIN## user with a password of !pass1234.

9 If necessary, configure the driver

You’ll probably have to choose a resolution and color depth at which you want the driver to operate.

10 Remove the video adapter and reinstall or re-enable the original adapter

Unless your instructor directs you to do otherwise.

8–14


Topic B: Sound cards This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Sound

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Multimedia – Sound card


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Adapter cards – Sound cards

Sound and your PC Explanation

Before the introduction of the sound card, PCs could produce simple beeps and clicks through an on-board speaker. Such a speaker is still included in nearly every PC, but on its own it has never been capable of producing music, computerized voices, and other tones. The ProAudio AdLib sound card, and later the Creative Labs SoundBlaster card, revolutionized PC sound. These cards provided the ability to output music in addition to the various beeps and other tones. With such cards, you could also input sound by connecting an audio device, such as a tape player, to the input jack. The card would digitize the sound for use or storage on your computer. The SoundBlaster Pro is still considered the base standard with which all other sound cards typically comply. Most sound cards provide features beyond those available in the SoundBlaster Pro. Sound card functions To produce a signal for your speakers, a sound card must convert digital data into analog sound waves. To enable you to input, or capture, audio, the sound card must also convert analog sound signals into digital signals. Older sound cards enabled you to connect a game device, such as a joystick or game paddle, and many of those also enabled you to connect MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) instruments. Nowadays, such functions are most often enabled through USB, FireWire, or even wireless links.

Expansion cards

8–15

Components Exhibit 8-7 shows a sound card. To perform its functions, a typical sound card includes these components:  Digital signal processor (DSP) — Functions like a CPU for sound processing functions.  Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) — Converts analog signals (such as sound waves) to digital signals.  Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) — Converts digital signals to analog, producing the signals needed by speakers or other analog audio devices.  Various jacks — Used to connect speakers, microphones, line-input or lineoutput devices, game adapters (joysticks), and sometimes MIDI devices.

Exhibit 8-7: A sound card Sound card connectors Sound cards typically feature connectors for speakers, microphones, line-input or lineoutput devices. The function of each connector is typically labeled with a small icon. Exhibit 8-8 shows some of these connectors and their functions.

Center speaker Microphone

Rear speakers Line in

Main (front) speakers or headphones

Exhibit 8-8: Standard sound card connectors

8–16

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Speakers Sound cards are designed to work with external speakers (or special built-in speakers in a laptop computer). Typically, external speakers require an external source of power. You must connect a cable from the speakers to the speaker-out jack on the sound card and plug the speakers’ power adapter into an outlet.

Exhibit 8-9: External speakers CD audio You might encounter an older internal CD drive that includes an audio-out cable that you’re supposed to connect to your sound card. This cable allows you to play audio CDs in your drive and have the sound played through your PC speakers. Modern optical drives, including CD, DVD, and BlueRay, don’t use this sort of cable, yet all are capable of playing audio content. Do it!

B-1:

Identifying the components of a sound card

Here’s how 1 Examine the sound card provided by your instructor What connectors do each of them include that your computer’s sound card doesn’t? 2 Identify the connectors included on your sound card

Here’s why You will install this sound card in your computer in the next activity.

Expansion cards

8–17

Installing a sound card The sound card you use must be compatible with the expansion bus in your computer. For example, you’ll need a PCI sound card if your computer has only PCI slots available. Many motherboards include integrated sound card functionality. CD audio connection Older internal CD drives include an audio-out cable that you can connect to your sound card. When you do so, you can play audio CDs in your CD drive and have the sound played through your PC’s speakers. When you install the sound card or the CD drive, if you don’t connect this cable, you won’t be able to play audio CDs (no sound will come from the speakers). Drivers As with any add-on hardware, sound cards require device drivers. Typically, you install the drivers before installing the hardware. This process puts the driver files where Windows (specifically, Plug and Play) can find them after you install the card.

8–18 Do it!


B-2:

Installing a sound card

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If specified by the adapter’s manufacturer, run the adapter’s setup utility

To copy the driver installation files to your hard disk, where Windows can find them.

2 If necessary, shut down your PC and open its case

Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.

What type of bus will your sound card connect to? 3 If a sound card is already in an expansion slot, remove the card 4 Install the sound card 5 Close the PC’s case 6 If your PC has an integrated sound card, boot the PC and load the system’s BIOS setup program

You’ll need to disable the on-board sound card.

Disable the on-board sound card and save your changes 7 If your PC doesn’t have an integrated sound card, or after you’ve disabled the on-board adapter, start the PC 8 Log on to Windows 9 If necessary, configure the driver 10 Connect the external speakers and plug their power adapter into an outlet 11 In the notification area, click

Drag the volume slider up or down and release it 12 Remove the sound card and reinstall or re-enable the original card

To display the volume control.

The computer should play a “ding” sound through your speakers. Unless your instructor directs you to do otherwise.

Expansion cards

8–19

Topic C: Internal modems This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Modem  Bus slots – AMR – CNR

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Communications – Modem

4.2

Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations  Connectors – RJ11

Modems Explanation

Modems are devices that enable you to connect your computer to another computer through a phone line. The modem in the sending computer must convert the digital signals within the computer to analog signals that are compatible with the phone system. The receiving modem must convert analog signals to digital signals. Modulation and demodulation Modems convert a digital signal into an analog one through a process called modulation. The digital signal is layered over a standard analog wave to produce a composite analog wave. To convert the composite signal back to digital, the receiving modem demodulates it. Demodulation is the process by which the modem electronically subtracts the carrier analog wave, revealing the digital signal it carries. A modem gets its name from this process. It modulates and demodulates; hence it’s called a modem. Forms A modem can be an external component that you connect to your PC through a serial port. (In fact, that was the original purpose of serial ports on PCs.) Internal modems are also common. These modems can be built into the motherboard, implemented on an adapter card that you insert into your PC’s expansion bus, or implemented on a card that you insert into a riser slot.

8–20

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Riser cards The early internal modems were implemented as adapter cards that plugged into a PC/XT or ISA slot. For a period of time, Intel and others attempted to popularize special expansion buses designed specifically for internal modems. These “riser slots” included:  The Audio Modem Riser (AMR) slot  The Communications and Networking Riser (CNR) slot  The Advanced Communications Riser (ACR) slot Holding an AMR card vertically while looking at the faceplate (slot) cover, you’ll see that its components are located on the right side of the circuit board. CNR cards have their components on the left when held the same way. Riser slots and cards never caught hold in the marketplace. Modern add-on modems are most typically PCI adapter cards. Or, if not an add-on, the functionality is integrated into the motherboard.

Expansion cards Do it!

C-1:

8–21

Identifying your internal modem’s interface

Here’s how 1 If necessary, shut down your PC and open its case

Here’s why Follow electrical and ESD safety precautions.

2 Locate the modem card in your computer 3 What type of bus is it connected to? Is your modem implemented through riser card technology? If so, what type? Identify your modem manufacturer and model

Record the identifying information for your modem here:

4 Close the cover, reconnect peripherals, and start the system 5 Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 6 Click Start Right-click Computer and choose Manage

To open Computer Management.

In the navigation pane, select Device Manager

7 Expand Modems 8 Right-click your modem and choose Properties

To open the modem’s Properties dialog box.

Observe the Location

This tells you what bus the modem is installed on.

9 Leave the dialog box open for the next activity

8–22


Modem connections Modems use phone lines to communicate with other computers. You connect your modem to a phone line by using a standard phone cord. Such cords feature RJ-11 connectors, which are square connectors with six pins. Analog phones and modems use just two of those wires. Digital phones use four or more. The wires in a phone cord are crossed from end to end: pin 1 on one of the RJ-11 connectors goes to pin 6 on the other RJ-11 connector, pin 2 goes to pin 5, and so forth.

Exhibit 8-10: RJ-11 connectors Most office telephone systems use digital phone lines. These lines might also connect via RJ-11 jacks. However, you shouldn’t plug a modem into a digital phone line. Doing so will burn out your modem. Modems typically feature two RJ-11 jacks. You use one to connect the modem to the phone line. You can use the other to connect a phone-in line. The phone signals pass from the wall jack, through your modem, and to the phone.

Exhibit 8-11: Modem jacks, showing the line and phone connection points

Expansion cards

8–23

Data transmission speed Data transmission speeds are measured in bits per second. However, you might encounter the term “baud” used to represent modem speed. Baud is a measure of signal changes per second. Because modem signals are analog, the baud rate is comparable to the frequency of an analog wave. Early modems transmitted one bit per cycle change. For those modems, the baud rate and bit-per-second rate were the same. Modern modems transmit many bits per signal change. Thus, the bits-per-second rate is the product of the baud rate times the number of bits sent per signal change. ITU modem standards The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) defines standards for modems and modem connections. Such standards are given “V dot” names, such as V.32 or V.90. Revisions to existing standards are noted with the French terms bis for second revision or terbo for third revision. ITU modem standards range from V.32 (at 9,600 bits per second) to V.92 (at 56,000 bps). Error detection and compression Microcom, a manufacturer of modems, developed a series of technologies for error detection and data compression. These technologies were widely adopted and became de facto standards known as the MNP classes. Classes 1–4 simply provided error detection and correction mechanisms, along with protocol efficiencies. It wasn’t until class 5 that Microcom added data compression to produce even greater gains in throughput. Do it!

C-2:

Identifying modem connections

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Using the modem’s Properties dialog box, and an Internet search if necessary, determine the ITU modem standard it uses The ITU standard is often incorporated into the modem name.

Close your modem’s Properties dialog box and Computer Management 2 Identify the line-in and line-out ports for your modem Examine the RJ-11 connector on the modem cable provided by your instructor

8–24


Topic D: Expansion card troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Updates – Drivers


Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Adapter cards – Graphics cards, memory – Sound cards – Storage controllers  RAID cards  eSATA cards – I/O cards  FireWire  USB  Parallel  Serial  Wired and wireless network cards  Capture cards (TV, video)  Media reader

Expansion cards

8–25

Updating drivers Explanation

Often one of the solutions to hardware problems involves obtaining and installing updated device drivers. As a device is put in use by users, the manufacturer might find that the driver needs to be changed due to conflicts or faulty code, or just to make the device function more efficiently. Although most devices are packaged with drivers, some of them might not be the most up-to-date. In addition, Windows might not install the best drivers for your new device if it’s installed with PnP. At some point, you might need to find additional drivers on the Web, most likely from the device manufacturer’s Web site. Most manufacturers offer free downloads of drivers and utilities for their devices. Just find the name of the manufacturer and visit the appropriate Web site. Look for a link that offers drivers, support, or downloads. Then download the driver (which is sometimes zipped) to a local hard disk, from where you can install it on the appropriate computer. After you’ve found an updated device driver, you can install it. With self-installing drivers, simply run the installation program. For other drivers, open Device Manager, view the properties of the device and click the Update Driver button. Then, point the wizard to the location of the new driver.

Do it!

D-1:

Searching for and installing updated drivers

Here’s how 1 In Device Manager, pick a device you want to update (maybe one of the devices you installed or maybe a display adapter). Write down the manufacturer’s name and the model of the device. 2 Visit the manufacturer’s Web site. (Use a search engine if you have to.) On the Web site, find the link for support, downloads, or drivers. 3 Find the drivers for the device you chose. Download them to your computer and save them on the desktop. 4 In Device Manager, right-click the device and choose Update Driver Software. Don’t search for a driver automatically; choose to browse your computer for driver software and navigate to the folder on your desktop. Complete the wizard, clicking Have Disk if prompted. Update the drivers if they’re the same version or newer. 5 If necessary, restart the computer. Use Device Manager to verify that the device is working properly.

8–26


Troubleshooting expansion cards As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for problems related to expansion cards. You might encounter problems not listed in the tables here, but they provide a few scenarios to consider when you’re troubleshooting. The following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for the following types of expansion cards:  Video adapters  Sound cards  Internal modems Video cards The following table lists video adapter problems you might encounter. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

No video at all

Monitor is turned off or disconnected; video card failed; cable is bad; wrong video mode is used; card loose in socket.

Make sure the monitor is connected and turned on. Attach another monitor that’s capable of very high resolution modes. If video is displayed, set a lower resolution mode and then reattach the original monitor. Check for bent or broken pins in the video connector and visible damage to the cable. Replace the video card or cable if necessary. Reseat the video card (remove and reinsert it into the slot).

Video scrolls, flips, wavers, is too large; doubles up lines; and so forth

Video card is set to refresh rate or resolution mode that monitor can’t support; card loose in socket.

Either replace the monitor with a better one, or reconfigure the driver to use a lower resolution mode or lower refresh rate. Reseat the video card.

Video flickers

Refresh rate is too low.

Configure the driver to use a higher refresh rate.

Video is blurry

Monitor is failing.

Replace the monitor.

Image artifacts are displayed across the screen

Software is at fault: either drivers or application software.

Update the video card drivers. Check application settings or check for application updates.

System freezes during a video change, such as an image scrolling or changing

Video driver could be at fault.

Update the video card drivers.

Video is connected to DVI connector, but monitor displays message that analog connection is disconnected

Button on monitor that switches between analog and digital was pressed or menu option was changed.

Reset the button or menu choice to digital connection.

Expansion cards

8–27

Sound cards The following table lists sound card problems you might encounter. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

No sound

External speakers not connected or turned off; bad cables; sound muted; volume set to zero; Windows configured to operate silently.

Connect the speakers or turn them on. Uncheck Mute in volume control or press hardware button on computer or keyboard. Turn up the volume. Confirm the sound configuration in the Control Panel. Check for visible damage to cables and replace if necessary.

Sound is very low

Volume on speakers set too low; audio output levels set too low.

Turn up the volume knob on the speakers. Click the speaker icon in the system tray and drag the volume slider up.

Sound is distorted

Volume set too high for speakers; bad driver; card loose in socket.

Turn down the volume knob on the speakers. Click the speaker icon in the system tray and drag the volume slider down. Update the audio card drivers. Re-seat the card.

No audio captured

Microphone not connected; bad microphone; bad cable; audio input levels set too low or muted; incorrect input device selected.

Right-click the speaker icon in the system tray and choose Open Volume Controls. Under Line In, drag the volume slider up. You might need to uncheck Mute. Confirm input device is correctly selected in application and Control Panel. Check for visible damage to cables and replace if necessary.

No audio from CD

CD audio volume set too low or muted; CD audio cable not connected to sound card.

Turn up volume in Windows and on external speakers (if applicable). You might need to uncheck Mute. Open the PC and confirm that the sound cable from the CD drive is connected to the sound card (if applicable).

8–28

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Modems The following table describes modem-related problems you might encounter. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Modem picks up line and dials, but doesn’t connect

Not dialing correct number; remote modem disconnected.

Confirm that you’re dialing the correct number (try dialing it with a telephone to confirm that you get modem tones from the remote end). Confirm that the remote modem is online and accepting calls.

Modem reports no dial tone detected

Phone cord not connected; bad phone line; phone cord connected to wrong port on modem.

Confirm that the modem is correctly connected to the phone jack. Connect a phone to the modem line and pick up the handset. If there’s no dial tone, contact your telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the line problem. Check for visible damage to phone lines, and replace if necessary.

Connection drops frequently

Noisy phone line.

Connect a phone to the modem line, pick up the handset, and press a single number. If the line isn’t silent, contact your telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the line noise.

Modem connects, but only at low speeds

Noisy phone line; remote modem supports only lower speeds.

Connect a phone to the modem line, pick up the handset, and press a single number. If the line isn’t silent, contact your telephone company or technician to troubleshoot the line noise. Confirm that the remote modem supports highspeed connections.

Modem doesn’t work at all

Modem has failed; drivers not installed; card loose in socket.

Try installing another modem. Confirm that the required modem drivers are installed. Re-seat the card.

Configurationrelated error messages

COM port conflicts; system resource conflicts.

Use Device Manager to confirm that the COM port used by the modem is available and not assigned to another device. Confirm or resolve resource conflicts (IRQs, I/O channels).

NIC indicator lights Most networking devices have status indicator lights that you can observe to see if the devices are working. Typically, the lights are green if the device is sending or receiving data properly. Many NICs have indicator lights, called activity lights, that flash when data is being sent or received. Some have a separate link light to indicate that there’s a working connection to the network. If these lights aren’t illuminating, you should check the configuration of the card to see if that’s the problem. You can do so through Device Manager. The network card should appear in Device Manager without any error or warning icons. In Exhibit 8-12, the LAN network card is reported as functioning, but the wireless adapter is reported as disabled.

Expansion cards

8–29

Exhibit 8-12: Device Manager displaying the status of NICs The General tab of the NIC’s Properties dialog also displays the device’s status. As shown in Exhibit 8-13, it should display, “This device is working properly.”

Exhibit 8-13: NIC status Do it!

D-2:

Troubleshooting expansion card problems

Here’s how 1 One or more expansion card–related problems have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s). 2 Correct the problems you’ve found in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and fix all problems that arise. 3 Document the problem(s) you find:


8–30


Unit summary: Expansion cards Topic A

In this topic, you learned that video adapters convert computer data into the signals that are sent to the monitor for display. You learned that resolution is the number of pixels that an adapter can create and that color depth (or pixel depth) defines the number of colors that can be displayed. You also learned about the various video display standards, including CGA, EGA, and VGA. In addition, you identified the various connector types—VGA 15-pin DE-15, DVI-I, DVI-D, DVI-A, and HDMI.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that sound cards produce music and tones to be played on external, powered speakers. Before the advent of sound cards, computers could create beeps and clicks through on-board speakers. Sound cards typically exceed the features of the SoundBlaster Pro sound card.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned that modems enable you to connect to remote computers over telephone lines. Modems convert digital signals to analog, and then back again. You learned about the riser slot types, which are sometimes used for attaching internal modems to motherboards.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned that expansion cards can fail for various reasons, and you learned how to update hardware device drivers and troubleshoot expansion cards. You also examined common symptoms of failures and the probable causes and suggested solutions.

Review questions 1 The rate at which an image is painted on screen is called which of the following? A Interlacing B Pixel depth C Refresh rate D Resolution 2 The number of pixels across and down that an adapter can create is called what? A Interlacing B Pixel depth C Refresh rate D Resolution 3 Which DVI connection types support both digital and analog signals? [Choose all that apply.] A DVI-D single link B DVI-D dual-link C DVI-I single link D DVI-I dual-link

Expansion cards

8–31

4 Which type of video port is shown in the following graphic?

A DVI-A B DVI-D C DVI-I D HDMI E VGA/SVGA 5 Which of the following is necessary to produce a signal for your speakers? A Converting analog waves to digital signals. B Converting digital data to analog waves. C No conversion is necessary. 6 Which of the following are best-practice guidelines for avoiding electrostatic discharge? Select all that apply. A Unplug the computer before opening. B Work at a static-safe workstation. C Ground yourself to the building’s electrical ground. D Handle cards by their edges or cover plates. 7 True or false? Riser cards are a common way to connect an internal modem in a modern PC. False. Riser cards never became popular, and PCI remains the most popular expansion bus type for internal modem cards.

8 True or false? The cables you use to connect a modem to a phone jack have RJ-45 connectors. False. Such cables use an RJ-11 connector.

9 Your computer produces no sound, yet you know that it has a sound card installed and speakers connected. What is a possible cause of the problem? The sound is muted or the volume is set at or near zero.

10 A customer tells you that the image on her monitor flickers and is giving her headaches. Which of the following is the most likely cause of the problem? A Color depth set too high. B Refresh rate set too low. C Video card driver is out of date. D Pins in the video connector are bent or broken.

8–32


Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying adapter cards and their features. 1 Your instructor will provide you with one of the following expansion cards: I/O card; network card; TV or video capture card; or media reader. Following safe ESD practices, install the expansion card you were given. 2 Verify the card is functional. 3 Use Device Manager to determine the name of your video adapter card. 4 Search the Web to find the data sheet for your video adapter, and review its features. 5 Use Device Manager to determine if your sound card is functioning properly. 6 Open the Control Panel and then Hardware and Sound, Sound to view the configuration settings available for your sound card. 7 Use Device Manager to query (test) your modem by using the Diagnostics tab of your modem’s Properties dialog box. Review the query results. 8 Close all open windows.

9–1

Unit 9 Peripheral connection types Unit time: 105 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Identify and connect serial and parallel

ports, cables, and connectors. B Identify and connect PS/2 ports, cables,

and connectors. C Identify and connect USB ports, cables,

and connectors. D Identify and connect FireWire ports,

cables, and connectors. E Identify and connect multimedia ports. F Identify the symptoms, probable causes,

and potential solutions for problems related to ports, cables, and connectors.

9–2


Topic A: Serial and parallel connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Serial – Parallel  Communications – Modem

1.8

Install and configure peripherals and input devices

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  I/O – Serial – Parallel  Communications – Modem

1.11

Install and configure printers

Ports Explanation

A port is a connector into which you can plug cables from external devices, or sometimes, plug in the devices themselves. Two ports that have been available from the earliest PC models are the serial and parallel ports. Serial and parallel transmission Serial transmission is a technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a time, across the transmission medium. You can imagine the bits marching single-file down a single data transmission wire (or across a single wireless transmission channel), as illustrated in Exhibit 9-1. Special sequences of bits delineate data from associated control information, such as marking the beginning and end of bytes or blocks of data.

Exhibit 9-1: Serial transmission


9–3

Parallel transmission is a technique by which data is transmitted simultaneously over multiple conductors, with each bit traveling over its own path in the transmission medium. Parallel transmission is illustrated in Exhibit 9-2. In a wired configuration, each bit would travel over its own wire. Control and timing information is sent over additional wires.

Exhibit 9-2: Parallel transmission

Serial ports Serial ports are the connectors into which you plug devices that use serial transmission to communicate with your PC. While many types of devices and ports use serial transmission, when most people speak of serial ports, they mean the communicationsoriented ports to which you connect devices such as modems. These ports are called the communication or COM ports. The basic PC hardware supports four COM ports: COM1, COM2, COM3, and COM4. You can use only two of those at any one time. Windows supports software emulation of additional COM ports, when extra ports are necessary. Therefore, you might find PCs with higher-numbered COM ports. System resources By default, COM ports use the system resources listed in the following table. Port

IRQ

I/O address (hex)

COM1

4

03F8-03FF

COM2

3

02F8-02FF

COM3

4

03E8-03EF

COM4

3

02E8-02EF

COM ports 1 and 3 share the same IRQ, and COM ports 2 and 4 share the same IRQ. This means that you can’t have COM ports 1 and 3 (or 2 and 4) enabled at the same time unless you reconfigure one of the ports to use a different IRQ.

9–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One To configure the resources used by these ports, you can use your system’s BIOS setup utility or Windows Device Manager. Plug and Play should detect these settings and configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm PnP settings by using Windows Device Manager. Operational characteristics Personal computer serial ports typically implement the RS-232 standard. This standard—also known as EIA RS-232, EIA 232, or TIA 232—defines the electrical and physical characteristics of connectors and cables. It also specifies the meaning of and timing of signals sent through the port. In addition to specifying the IRQ and I/O addresses used by a COM port, you can configure some of its operational characteristics. These are described in the following table. Parameter

Description

Port speed

The rate, in bits per second, at which data communications proceed over the COM port. This speed controls how fast your computer interacts with the serial device (not the communications speed of the device itself). Consider an external modem: the port speed determines the speed at which your PC and modem interact. The modem might communicate over the phone line either faster or slower than that rate. If it communicates faster than the port speed, it has to buffer data destined for the PC.

Data bits

The number of bits of data sent within a single block.

Start/stop bits

The number of bits added before and after the data to designate the beginning and end of the data within a block. Often, this value is configured as just the stop bits.

Parity

The error checking method used over the COM port. Options are: None — Parity checking is disabled. Even — If the sum of the data bits is an even number, the parity bit is set to 0. If the sum is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. In this way, the sum of data and parity bits is always an even number. Odd — If the sum of the data bits is an odd number, the parity bit is set to 0. If the sum is even, the parity bit is set to 1. The sum of data and parity bits is always an odd number. Mark — The parity bit is always set to 1. Space — The parity bit is always set to 0.

Flow control

A means by which communications over a serial port can be slowed down or even stopped to permit the devices involved to keep pace with communications. Options are: None — Flow control is disabled. Hardware — Devices use a separate flow-control wire, within the serial cable, to send “handshaking” signals. Through these signals, devices can start and stop the communications. Xon/Xoff — A software handshaking technique in which Transmit On (Xon) and Transmit Off (Xoff) signals are sent over the same data communications line that transmits the data. The receiving device sends the Xon and Xoff signals to the sender. Xoff is ASCII character 19 (equivalent to the Ctrl+S key combination), and Xon is ASCII 17 (Ctrl+Q).


9–5

Serial cables Standard serial cables come in the following types:  EIA/TIA-232  EIA/TIA-449  V.35  X.21  EIA/TIA-530 The maximum distance for a serial cable depends on the data rate. In general, the slower the data rate, the longer the maximum distance can be without signal degradation. The following table lists the various data rates and corresponding recommended maximum distances for the various types of serial cables. Data rate

EIA/TIA-232

EIA/TIA-449, -530, -530A, V.35, and X.21

2400 bps

60 meters

1250 meters

4800 bps

30 meters

625 meters

9600 bps

15 meters

312 meters

19200 bps

8 meters

150 meters

38400 bps

4 meters

75 meters

56000 bps

3 meters

30 meters

1544000 (T1) bps

Not supported

15 meters

Typical serial connectors PCs serial connectors are typically either 9-pin or 25-pin connectors. Few modern devices use the 25-pin connector, instead favoring the smaller 9-pin variety. Connectors come in one of two types, called genders. The gender of a connector determines whether it has pins or sockets (into which the pins go). Male connectors have pins, and female connectors have sockets, as shown in Exhibit 9-3.

Exhibit 9-3: Male and female connectors (left to right)

9–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Typically, the male connector is used on the computer, while devices usually have the female connector. Thus, to connect a serial device, you need a cable with a male connector on one end and a female connector on the other end. By convention, the serial ports on modern PCs are teal or surrounded by a teal label. This color helps you distinguish the serial port from the other connectors on your PC. Sometimes they’re labeled with “COM” or with a series of ones and zeros to suggest the one-by-one transmission of bits of data. The pins (or sockets) in the connector at one end of a serial cable connect to certain sockets (or pins) at the other end. To assist cabling technicians, the manufacturers assign standard numbers to pins (and sockets). The standard numbers are shown in Exhibit 9-4. Pin 6 Pin 9

Pin 5 Pin 1

Exhibit 9-4: A 9-pin serial connector Typical serial cables Even though serial data is sent one bit at a time over a single wire, serial cables use multiple wires. At least three wires are required: one for sending, one for receiving, and one for ground. The other pins provide power and control signal transmission. Serial cables come in two forms:  Straight-through — Use straight-through cables to connect your PC to a serial device.  Null modem — Use a null modem cable to connect two PCs as if each were connected to a modem. In a straight-through cable, the corresponding pins at each end of the cable are connected. In other words, pin 1 is connected to pin 1, and so forth. In a null modem cable, pins at one end of the cable are connected to specific pins at the other end to simulate the presence of a modem between two devices. A pin at one end of the cable might be connected to two or more pins at the other end.

Peripheral connection types Do it!

A-1:

9–7

Attaching a serial device

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Locate the serial port on your PC, and describe how you know that it’s the serial port

2 On the cable supplied by your instructor, determine which end connects to your PC, and which end connects to an external serial device 3 Attach the serial device to your computer 4 If the serial device requires it, install the appropriate drivers 5 Verify that your serial device is functional

Parallel ports Explanation

Parallel ports are the connectors into which you plug devices that use parallel transmission to communicate with your PC. Most often, when people speak of parallel ports, they’re referring to the ports used for printers. These ports are called the LPT ports. LPT stands for “line printer,” reflecting the use of this sort of printer with earlymodel PCs. The basic PC hardware supports two LPT ports: LPT1 and LPT2. Additional LPT ports can be added through expansion adapters. Many modern printers don’t use the LPT port at all, instead using the newer and more capable USB port. System resources By default, LPT ports use the system resources listed in the following table. Port

IRQ

I/O address (hex)

LPT1

n/a

0378 - 037F

LPT2

n/a

0278 - 027F

LPT3 or sometimes LPT1

n/a

03BC - 03BF

Because LPT devices are used for output, these devices don’t need to signal the processor. Thus, LPT ports aren’t typically assigned IRQs for printing in Windows. By default, in all Windows 7 versions, all Windows Vista versions, all Windows XP versions, and Windows 2000 Professional, the parallel port driver doesn’t assign an interrupt.

9–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One If you are using the parallel port for a device other than a printer, LPT1 and LPT3 are typically assigned IRQ7, while LTP2 is typically assigned IRQ5. You can use another IRQ if these IRQs are already in use. You can configure the resources used by these ports through your system’s BIOS setup utility or Windows Device Manager. PnP should detect these settings and configure Windows accordingly. You can confirm the PnP settings by using Windows Device Manager. Unidirectional and bidirectional LPT ports Originally, the LPT port was a one-way communications port: the PC sent data to the printer, but the printer never sent data to the PC. Such unidirectional ports were suitable for interfacing with printers but not with other types of devices, such as external hard drives. Even though the port was unidirectional, the printer could, in effect, signal some conditions to the PC. Before transmitting data, the PC would check five control lines to determine if the printer was ready, out of paper, had experienced an error, and so forth. The original LPT port specifications were developed largely by the Centronics Corporation, thus the port is often called the Centronics port. Few modern printers support this old unidirectional parallel port mode. A group called the Network Printing Alliance formed to improve the functionality of the LPT port. Their work resulted in the IEEE 1284 standard, which defines five modes of operation:  Compatibility mode—also called standard parallel port (SPP) mode. This mode provided backward compatibility with Centronics-compatible printers.  Nibble mode, which is a unidirectional mode that enables the printer to transmit four bits of data (a “nibble”) over the status lines. This communication sent additional status information to the PC.  Byte mode, which is similar to nibble mode, except that eight bits of status data can be transmitted over the status lines.

 Enhanced parallel port (EPP) is a half-duplex bidirectional mode supporting data transmission of up to 2 MB per second.  Extended capabilities port (ECP) is a half-duplex bidirectional mode supporting data transmission of up to 2.5 MB per second. The EPP and ECP modes enabled two-way communication across the parallel port. This development enabled manufactures to create devices, such as external hard drives or data transfer cables (like the once popular LapLink cable), that operated over the parallel port. These modes supported data transfer rates nearly equal to the ISA expansion bus, which was the most popular type when these modes were first defined. Modern PCs typically support each of these modes. You might need to use the BIOS setup utility to enable or disable specific modes.


9–9

Typical parallel connectors Typically, parallel ports are 25-pin ports. The PC normally uses a female D-connector, matching that used by a 25-pin serial port (though opposite in gender). Such a port connector is shown in Exhibit 9-5.

Parallel port

Exhibit 9-5: The female 25-pin parallel port on a PC According to the PC99 specification, parallel ports should be burgundy or surrounded by a burgundy label. (On most PCs, the color you see would be better described as magenta or hot pink.) This color helps you differentiate the parallel port from the other connectors on your PC. Sometimes parallel ports are labeled with a graphic of a printer. Printers often feature a 36-pin Centronics connector, officially called the Centronics-36 connector. The female connector is mounted on the printer. Such a port connector is shown in Exhibit 9-6.

Exhibit 9-6: A female Centronics connecter on a printer

9–10

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Typical parallel cables Typical parallel printer cables have a male DB-25 connector on the end that you connect to the PC, and a male Centronics-36 connector on the printer end. Exhibit 9-7 shows the connectors on a parallel printer cable.

Exhibit 9-7: Printer cables have DB-25 (left) and Centronics connectors Do it!

A-2:

Attaching a parallel device

Here’s how 1 Locate the parallel port on your PC, and describe how you know that it’s the parallel port

2 On the cable supplied by your instructor, determine which end connects to your PC and which to the printer 3 Consider this scenario: You plug a printer into the parallel port of your PC. Windows recognizes the new hardware and installs the proper driver. Is your printer port unidirectional or bidirectional? 4 Attach the parallel device to your computer 5 If the parallel device requires it, install the appropriate drivers 6 Verify that your parallel device is functional

Here’s why


9–11

Topic B: PS/2 connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – PS/2

1.8

Install and configure peripherals and input devices  Mouse  Keyboard  Bar code reader  KVM switch

Input devices Explanation

Keyboards, mice, and trackballs typically attach through keyboard and mouse ports on the back of the PC’s case. Other input devices, such as pens (styli) or touch screens, typically connect to a USB or specialized port. In this topic, you’ll focus on the keyboard and mouse ports. Keyboard ports and connectors The typical modern keyboard port is a round, six-pin mini-DIN port, about a quarter inch in diameter. Exhibit 9-8 shows this port. It’s typically called a “PS/2” port because it was used for the first time with that model of IBM PC.

PS/2 keyboard port

Exhibit 9-8: A PS/2 keyboard port Keyboard ports are typically purple or surrounded by a purple label. There might be a keyboard icon next to the port. The keyboard port is usually located right next to the nearly identical mouse port, making it easy to mistakenly connect these devices to each other’s ports.

9–12

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The keyboard connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN connector, as shown in Exhibit 9-9. Sometimes the connector has a label or keyboard icon molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Sometimes you’ll have to trace the wires back to the device to see if it connects to the keyboard or the mouse.

Exhibit 9-9: A PS/2 keyboard connector As you can see from Exhibit 9-8 and Exhibit 9-9, the PS/2 keyboard connector is a “keyed” connector. The large, rectangular pin, along with notches in the plastic of the inner barrel, helps ensure that you insert the connector into the port in the correct orientation. Don’t force the connector into the port; if it doesn’t fit easily, try turning it until it does fit. The original IBM PCs used a larger, 5-pin DIN port, shown in Exhibit 9-10. Generally called the “AT keyboard port,” this connector was too large for the smaller computer designs, beginning with the PS/2. Also, the plug was more likely to make a bad connection with this sort of socket than with the newer PS/2-style port.

Exhibit 9-10: The AT keyboard port

Exhibit 9-11: An AT keyboard connector


9–13

Mouse ports and connectors The typical mouse port is identical in form to the PS/2 keyboard port, as shown in Exhibit 9-12. It’s typically green or surrounded by a green label and might be accompanied by a mouse icon.

PS/2 mouse port

Exhibit 9-12: A PS/2 mouse port The mouse connector for this style of port is the male version of the mini-DIN connector, as shown in Exhibit 9-13. Sometimes the connector has a label or mouse icon molded into the plastic to make identification easier. Mouse ports and connectors, like their keyboard equivalents, are keyed so that you connect them in the right orientation.

Exhibit 9-13: A PS/2 mouse connector Older serial mice used the 9-pin D-shaped serial port connector. During a brief transition time before the PS/2 port became popular, some adapter card manufacturers added proprietary mouse ports to their video and other expansion cards. These ports were often round like the PS/2 connector. Most used a different number of pins. You can’t connect these older mice to a PS/2 port, nor can you connect a PS/2 mouse to one of these proprietary ports. Interchangeability The mouse and keyboard connectors and ports aren’t interchangeable. You can’t plug the keyboard connector into the mouse port, and vice versa, or you’ll receive an error. Typically, you get a BIOS keyboard error message if you boot the PC with the mouse and keyboard connected incorrectly. Generally, you should connect the keyboard and mouse before you boot the PC. You shouldn’t unplug, or “hot swap,” these devices when the PC is running.

9–14

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Some bar code readers connect to the keyboard port. A Y-adapter is used to connect both the bar code reader and the keyboard to the port. An example of such a connection is shown in Exhibit 9-14.

Exhibit 9-14: A bar code reader and a keyboard connected to the keyboard port


B-1:

9–15

Attaching a keyboard and mouse

Here’s how 1 Power down your computer

Here’s why If your computer has a USB keyboard and mouse, you will need a PS/2 keyboard and mouse for this activity.

2 Examine your PC to locate and identify the keyboard and mouse ports. What clues did you use to determine which was which?

3 Speculate on some ways that the similarity between these ports could have been designed to be less of a problem 4 Disconnect your keyboard and mouse from the PC ports 5 Reattach your keyboard and mouse in the opposite ports 6 Boot your computer 7 What error do you receive?

8 Power down your computer 9 Disconnect your keyboard and mouse from the PC ports 10 Insert the mouse and keyboard connectors into the correct ports 11 Boot your computer 12 Log onto Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 13 Verify that both your keyboard and mouse are functional

To practice installing this sort of connector.

9–16


Setting mouse properties Explanation

You can customize a mouse to suit a user’s needs and work preferences. For example, if the user is left-handed, you can configure the right button as the primary button and the left button as the secondary button. The user can then use the right button for doubleclicking, dragging, and selecting, and the left button for opening shortcut menus. You can also change the speed with which the mouse pointer moves across the screen. To access the mouse properties, open Control Panel. Click Hardware and Sound and then, under Devices and Printers, click Mouse. The Mouse Properties dialog box contains five tabs, described in the following table. Tab

Used to…

Buttons

Specify whether the mouse is set for right-hand or left-hand use. You can also set the doubleclick speed and activate ClickLock.

Pointers

Specify the appearance of your mouse pointer. If you are using a USB mouse with Windows Aero, you might notice that the mouse pointer’s position on the screen is not accurate and the mouse doesn’t move correctly. If this occurs, change the Mouse Pointer Scheme to (None).

Pointer Options

Specify how you want the pointer to act on screen, including speed and visibility, and enable or disable the Snap To feature.

Wheel

Specify the number of lines the screen moves for each wheel notch in both the horizontal and vertical directions.

Hardware

Open the Properties dialog box for your specific brand and model of mouse, so you can work with the mouse driver. If you open the mouse’s Properties dialog box through this method, some of the driver buttons might be grayed out; that’s a UAC feature.

Exhibit 9-15: The Mouse Properties dialog box


B-2:

9–17

Setting mouse properties

Here’s how 1 Open Control Panel

Here’s why From the Start menu.

2 Click Hardware and Sound

3 Under Devices and Printers, click Mouse To open the Mouse Properties dialog box, shown in Exhibit 9-15. The Buttons tab is active by default.

4 Observe the options

By default, the mouse is configured for righthanded use. The double-click speed is set halfway between Slow and Fast.

5 Under Double-click speed, drag the slider bar to the right

To increase the double-click speed.

In the test area, double-click the yellow folder

To test the new double-click speed. If you double-click successfully, the folder opens (or closes if it is already open).

Reduce the double-click speed

To set it to a comfortable setting.

9–18

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 6 Select the Pointers tab

You’ll change the pointer scheme.

Under Scheme, from the list, select Windows Inverted (system scheme)

Observe the Customize list

It displays the pointer shapes that will appear in various situations.

Click Apply

To apply the selected pointer scheme.

Observe the pointer The shape of the pointer changes to a solid black arrow.

7 Change the mouse pointer back to the default scheme Click OK

Windows Aero (system scheme).

To close the Mouse Properties dialog box.


9–19

Keyboard properties Explanation

You can also change the keyboard properties. In Windows 7, to do so, open Control Panel, and under Hardware and Sound, click Devices and Sound, and right-click your keyboard and choose Keyboard settings. In Windows Vista, open Control Panel, and under Hardware and Sound, click Keyboard. The Keyboard Properties dialog box has two tabs: Speed and Hardware. As described in the following table, you’ll most likely use the Speed tab to change keyboard settings. Property

Tab

Description

Character repeat: Repeat delay

Speed

Specifies how long Windows waits before repeating a character whose key you’re holding down.

Character repeat: Repeat rate

Speed

Specifies how quickly a character is repeated when you hold down its key.

Cursor blink rate

Speed

Specifies the rate at which the insertion point blinks on the screen.

Device

Hardware

Specifies the driver used to control the keyboard.

Exhibit 9-16: The Keyboard Properties dialog box

9–20 Do it!


B-3:

Setting keyboard properties

Here’s how 1 In Control Panel, switch to Small icons view

Here’s why In the View by list.

Click Keyboard 2 Under Cursor blink rate, drag the slider bar to the right

To increase the rate at which the cursor blinks. The blinking cursor to the left of the slider bar shows the rate.

3 Click Cancel

To leave the blink rate at the default setting.

4 Return to Category view

Choose Category from the View by list.

Close the Control Panel


9–21

KVM switches Explanation

KVM stands for keyboard, video, mouse. A KVM switch is a hardware device that allows you to connect multiple computers to a single keyboard, video display, and mouse. Each computer is connected to the box through a cable set provided with the box. The keyboard, video display, and mouse are connected to the specified ports on the box. You use a manual switch on the front of the device or a keyboard shortcut to select which computer you want to use with the keyboard, display, and mouse. Typically, a light on the front of the switch box will light up, indicating which computer has control of the keyboard, video, and mouse, as shown in Exhibit 9-17.

Indicator light: computer is controlling the keyboard, video, and mouse

Indicator lights: computer is turned on

Selector switch

Exhibit 9-17: Front of PS/2 KVM switch Exhibit 9-18 shows the back of the KVM shown in Exhibit 9-17. It is an older-style KVM that provides PS/2 ports for the keyboard and mouse.

Keyboard Master video, keyboard, and mouse connections

Mouse

Video

Video, keyboard, and mouse connections to individual computers

Exhibit 9-18: Back of a PS/2 KVM switch Newer KVM switches have USB ports, as shown in Exhibit 9-19. Newer KVMs also sometimes provide speaker and microphone ports, as shown in Exhibit 9-19.

9–22


Exhibit 9-19: Back of a USB KVM switch The KVM switch typically receives its power from the computer itself through the PS/2 mouse connection or USB connection. Thus, many KVM switches don’t require connection to an external power source. Do it!

B-4:

Using a KVM switch

Here’s how 1 Examine the KVM switch provided by your instructor

Here’s why You will work with at least one other student to connect your computers up to the same monitor, keyboard, and mouse through the KVM switch

Determine where the master keyboard, video, and mouse plug in 2 Determine how the KVM switch gets its power 3 Shut down your computer 4 Disconnect your monitor, keyboard, and mouse 5 Verify that the ports on the KVM switch match the corresponding device ports on your computer 6 Connect one monitor, keyboard, and mouse to the master ports on the KVM switch 7 Both partners connect the provided KVM cables to the monitor, keyboard, and mouse ports on their computers 8 Connect the other end of the cable to one set of ports on the KVM switch

For example, a USB KVM switch can’t be used to connect a PS/2 keyboard and mouse.

Peripheral connection types 9 Turn on your computer Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 10 Observe the indicator lights on the front of the KVM switch Which computer currently has control of the video, keyboard, and mouse? 11 Switch between computers and verify that each one can use the keyboard and mouse 12 Shut down your computer 13 Disconnect your computer from the KVM switch 14 Reconnect your monitor, keyboard, and mouse 15 Turn on your computer Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 Verify that the monitor, keyboard, and mouse are functioning correctly

9–23

9–24


Topic C: USB connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – USB 1.1 and 2.0

1.8

Install and configure peripherals and input devices  Mouse  Keyboard  Bar code reader  Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI, microphones)  Biometric devices  Touch screen  KVM switch

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  I/O – USB

1.11


Universal Serial Bus Explanation

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a standardized peripheral specification developed by Compaq, Digital Electronics Corp., IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, and Northern Telecom. The USB specification defines bus architecture, similar in concept to the PCI or ISA buses, to which you can connect one or more expansion devices. USB offers these features:  Hot-swapping and self-configuration — The bus and its devices are hotswappable and self-configuring. This means you can plug a device into or unplug a device from the bus while the computer is running. Devices identify themselves to the bus controller, which informs the operating system that a new device is present. If the necessary drivers are on the system where Windows can find them, Windows loads the drivers and enables the USB device for immediate use.  Multiple-device support — Typical PCs include two or more USB ports. You can connect USB devices or hubs to those ports. Hubs provide additional ports to which you can attach additional devices or hubs. You can connect a maximum of 127 devices to the bus.


9–25

 High-speed data transfer — Depending on the version of USB supported by your system and peripherals, the USB specification enables data transfer rates of up to 480 Mbps (USB 2.0) or 5 Gbps (USB 3.0).  Power — USB can deliver electrical power through the port. USB classes According to the specification, USB components are categorized into classes. There are two basic classes, which are described in the following table. Class

Description

Host

There’s just one host per bus. This class is responsible for managing the USB bus. The host provides power to devices and manages the configuration process that’s followed when devices are added or removed. A system might include multiple hosts, each representing a separate USB bus. Windows Device Manager identifies the host as a Hub or Controller.

Device

This class is divided into two subclasses: Functions and Hubs. The Functions subclass includes the peripherals that you connect to the USB bus. Equipment in this class can send and receive data over the bus, and control the flow of data. These are the devices themselves, such as keyboards, mice, external drives, and so forth. The Hub subclass (not to be confused with the Windows labeling of the Host as a hub) defines the expansion devices that provide no functionality other than providing more USB ports.

USB device classes USB devices themselves are categorized into classes. The following table details some of the device classes defined in the USB specification. Class

Typical devices in this class

Audio

Audio input and output devices, including MIDI instruments.

Communication s device

Network adapters, including wireless network adapters.

HID (Human Interface Device)

Keyboards, mice, joysticks, and steering wheels; Point of Sale (POS) devices, such as barcode scanners and scales; and arcade devices, such as coin changers, general input and output devices, and other arcade devices.

Imaging

Still digital cameras and scanners.

IrDA Bridge

Software that supplements or replaces IR transceivers built into the motherboard. An IrDA bridge is software that converts data between USB and IrDA. It enables a computer to use USB to monitor, control, and exchange data over the IrDA interface.

Mass storage

Hard drives and optical drives; card readers (for CompactFlash, Memory Stick, Secure Digital, and other memory cards); and digital cameras that use the mass storage interface (they appear to the operating system as a drive letter rather than enabling camera-specific functions).

Monitor

Monitors.

Printer

Printers.

Video

Video cameras and video capture devices.

9–26

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One USB versions The USB specification is an active and growing standard. As of this writing, USB 1.1 and USB 2.0 version devices are widely available. USB 3.0 devices were first sold in January, 2010, and have not sold significant volumes. The following table compares these USB versions. Version

Transfer rates

Notes

USB 1.1

12 Mbps

This specification is generally called “USB” and is still sometimes used by devices that don’t need high-speed data transfers or other functions provided by the newer specifications, such as keyboards and mice. Half-duplex, meaning that it can upload or download, but cannot do both simultaneously.

USB 2.0

This specification defines three transfer rates: Low-speed: 1.5 Mbps Full-speed: 12 Mbps Hi-Speed: 480 Mbps

Backward-compatible with USB 1.1, in that you can connect USB 1.1 devices to this bus. However, they will operate at USB 1.1 speeds. Additionally, the entire bus will slow to USB 1.1 speeds. Most USB 2.0 devices also work on a USB 1.1 bus, though at USB 1.1 speeds (USB 2.0’s full-speed mode). Like USB 1.1, USB 2.0 is half-duplex.

USB 3.0

Supports USB 1.1 and 2.0 rates Adds SuperSpeed mode, with up to 5.0 Gbps

Uses slightly different plugs and sockets that are upwardly compatible. The means you can plug a USB 1.1 or 2.0 cable into a USB 3.0 socket. It will not fit in all the way, making contact with only the pins necessary to provide USB 1.1 or 2.0 connectivity. However, a USB 3.0 cable will not fit into an older style socket. Full-duplex, meaning that it can upload and download simultaneously (it’s bidirectional).

Distinguishing between versions You can determine which USB version a device supports by examining the USB logo on the device or its connector. USB connectors are typically identified by the symbol shown in Exhibit 9-20.

Exhibit 9-20: The USB port symbol Devices that comply with the USB 2.0 specification often display the label shown in Exhibit 9-21.


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Exhibit 9-21: The USB 2.0 label

Exhibit 9-22: USB 3.0 labels You can determine which type of USB is available in your system by using Device Manager. According to motherboard manufacturer documentation, USB 3.0 hosts are identified with “USB 3.0” in their names. The terms USB2 or Enhanced identify USB 2.0 hosts. Hosts with none of those terms in their names are USB 1.1. A modern system often includes multiple hubs of varying types.

Exhibit 9-23: Device Manager, showing both USB 1.1 and USB 2.0 hubs Physical characteristics USB ports and connectors come in two shapes, generally called Type A and Type B. Both types use four pins or conductors. Type A ports and connectors are wide and flat and are used at the PC end of a USB-to-device connection. If the device uses a removable cable rather than a permanently connected one, it uses the Type B connector. These two port and connector types are shown in Exhibit 9-24 and Exhibit 9-25.

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Exhibit 9-24: USB Type A (left) and B (right) ports

Exhibit 9-25: USB type A (left) and B (right) connectors Computers and hubs provide power to the USB bus. Devices use that power. The use of different connector and port types prevents you from inadvertently plugging in two devices that both provide power to the bus. Doing the latter would potentially damage one or both devices. Various smaller versions of these connectors have been created. Digital cameras, cell phones, MP3 players, and so forth use these smaller connectors. Most phone manufacturers have standardized the micro-USB connector to provide both battery charging power as well as connectivity to your PC or other devices. The USB specification permits you to daisy-chain up to five hubs, that is, connect one hub to another hub. In practice, you’ll probably encounter problems with more than two hubs in a line. For USB 1.1 buses, cables can be up to 3 meters long. For USB 2.0 buses, cables can be up to 5 meters long. In theory, at least, you could connect devices up to 25 meters away by daisy-chaining hubs. The practical limit is closer to 15 meters. The USB 3.0 standard doesn’t define maximum cable assembly lengths. However, it’s estimated that its top speed is achievable with a maximum cable length of 3 meters. USB power The USB standard specifies that the host must provide power to the bus for use by devices on the bus. Low-power devices, such as mice and keyboards, can be completely powered by the USB bus and thus don’t require an external power supply. Other peripherals, such as external drives, require more power than USB can provide. Such devices require an external source of power. More technically, a USB host provides 5 volts of power on the bus in increments called a unit load. In USB 2.0, a unit load is defined a 100 mA (milliamps). A device may draw up to 5 unit loads (500 mA). USB 3.0 increases that to 150 mA and permits devices to draw up to 6 unit loads (900 mA). Devices are supposed to connect at one unit load level and then request the number of unit loads they actually need to operate.


9–29

External USB hubs are available in powered and unpowered versions. An unpowered USB hub does not provide power to the bus and simply passes through the power provided by the host. A powered hub uses an external power supply and provides bus power to the ports it supplies. You might need to use a powered USB hub to provide sufficient power on the bus, even if you’re connecting only low-power devices such as webcams. Such devices will fail to initialize, or connectivity might intermittently fail, if there’s insufficient power on the bus. Factors, such as the devices in use, how many are attached, and the cable lengths involved determine if you need to use a powered hub to provide extra power. Installing USB devices Typically, you must run an installation or setup program supplied with your USB device before connecting it the first time. This operation puts device drivers into your Windows system folder, where Windows can locate them. Only after running this program should you connect your USB device. Depending on the device and driver, you might be prompted to restart your computer during these steps. Devices that connect via the USB port include:  Barcode readers  Keyboards  Mice  Touch-screen monitors  Multimedia devices, such as Web cameras, digital cameras, and MIDI controllers  Scanners  Printers  Biometric devices, such as fingerprint readers  KVM switches  External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives

9–30 Do it!


C-1:

Installing a USB device

Here’s how 1 Locate one or more USB ports on your PC

Here’s why Systems often include ports on both the front and back of the unit.

2 Why do you think a PC might include USB ports on both the front and back of the case?

3 Determine whether your PC’s USB ports are USB 1.1, USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 ports, and describe how you were able to determine this information 4 Examine the USB cable supplied by your instructor to locate the Type A and Type B connectors 5 Examine the USB device supplied by your instructor, and determine whether it uses a Type A or B connector, and which USB version it supports 6 If necessary, boot your computer and log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 7 If one is provided with your device, run the installation program

To place the device’s drivers in the Windows System folder, where Windows can find them.

8 Connect the USB device to your computer

Windows should recognize the device and make it available for use.


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Topic D: FireWire connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – IEEE 1394 / FireWire

1.8


1.11


IEEE 1394 Explanation

FireWire, also known as IEEE 1394 and i.Link, is a high-speed peripheral interconnection bus. FireWire offers these features:  Hot-swapping and self-configuration — The bus and its devices are hotswappable and self-configuring.  Multiple-device support — You can connect up to 63 devices to the FireWire bus and interconnect up to 1023 of these buses in a tree topology.  High-speed data transfer — FireWire supports transfer rates of 800 Mbps and beyond.  Asynchronous and isochronous transfer modes — FireWire supports devices that require time-critical transfers on the bus. Naming FireWire was originally developed by Apple Computer Corp., which trademarked the name. Later, with support from Microsoft, Philips, National Semiconductor, and Texas Instruments, this specification was standardized by the IEEE (the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) as IEEE 1394. Rather than using either of those names, Sony decided to use i.Link to identify its implementation of this technology. Other than their names, all of these technologies are identical. FireWire is trademarked, so companies must pay to use the name. You’ll find that many companies will use “IEEE 1394” on their devices instead of “FireWire” to avoid paying the licensing fee. Architecture FireWire is a peer-to-peer bus, in which every device is an intelligent component. This means that devices work together to negotiate access to the bus and handle data transfers. The best device on the bus is put in charge of managing access and data transfers. In contrast, USB uses a master-slave model, in which the PC controls all aspects of the bus. As a result, even though FireWire’s “raw” throughput rating might be comparable to that of USB, FireWire 400 outperforms USB 2.0 in actual use.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One FireWire versions The IEEE 1394 specification has undergone some revisions since its original release. Some people now refer to the original IEEE 1394 specification as FireWire 400 or 1394a. IEEE 1394b is a revision to the original standard and is usually called FireWire 800. FireWire 400 supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5 meters. The specification also says that there can be a maximum of 17 physical devices on the bus, interconnected by up to 16 cables. Any of these devices can support multiple connections, each of which can be connected to a distinct bus. Such multiple connections enable you to interconnect up to a theoretical maximum of 64,449 devices. As a peer-to-peer system, the “central” PC is not necessarily involved in communication and might not actually be centrally located on the overall FireWire network. FireWire 800 supports transfers at up to 800 Mbps, with cable lengths up to 4.5 meters. Additionally, you can use optical repeaters with FireWire 800 to extend cable lengths to 1000 meters. FireWire 800 also supports multiple connection devices and the interconnected buses specified by FireWire 400. FireWire S3200 was approved by the IEEE in July of 2008. (FireWire S3200 is not equivalent to IEEE 1394c.) This version of FireWire supports transfers of up to 3.2 Gbps, while preserving energy properties so that it can power some devices. FireWire S3200 is backward-compatible with FireWire 800 and works with the original FireWire 400 through an adapter. FireWire 3200 is positioned to complete against USB 3.0. Isochronous transfers Most devices work just fine if a block of data arrives a fraction of a second or two late. These asynchronous devices include disk drives and network adapters. On-board buffers hold data during transfers or hold applications simply waiting for such data transfers to finish. Some devices, however, require time-critical delivery of data. Video capture and video streaming devices are examples. Full-motion video proceeds at a fixed rate. Your computer and the FireWire bus must keep pace with that rate, or frames will be lost during capture. For these devices, FireWire supports the isochronous transfer mode. Isochronous transfers can’t be interrupted or delayed. They proceed at a steady pace. In this way, the bus keeps pace with the time needs of the transfer. Your PC might not be able to keep pace if it’s too slow. In that case, video frames would still be dropped. But it would be the PC, not the FireWire bus, that caused the data loss. The use of isochronous transfer mode makes FireWire ideal for video applications. This includes video streaming (from cameras, for example) and video editing applications in which video data is transferred to a PC from drives or arrays of drives. Physical characteristics FireWire 400 devices use either a 4-pin or 6-pin connector. The 4-pin connector is used at the device end of the cable, while the 6-pin connector hooks up to the PC. The 4-pin port and connector are shown in Exhibit 9-26. The 6-pin port and connector are shown in Exhibit 9-27.


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Exhibit 9-26: A 4-pin FireWire 400 port and connector

Exhibit 9-27: A 6-pin FireWire 400 port and connector FireWire 800 devices use a 9-pin connector at both ends of the cable. With the appropriate adapter cables, you can connect FireWire 400 devices into FireWire 800 ports and vice versa. FireWire 800 devices operate at full speed only when you connect them to a FireWire 800 port. FireWire power The IEEE specification calls for up to 1.5 amps at 30V for a total of 45 watts of power provided on the FireWire 800 bus. This is considerably higher than USB, so you should have fewer power-related problems connecting FireWire devices to the bus. The 4-pin FireWire connector doesn’t support power.

Installing FireWire devices In all Windows 7 versions, all Windows Vista versions, all Windows XP versions, and Windows 2000 Professional, installing FireWire expansion adapters or devices doesn’t often require you to install drivers. Support for the bus itself is built into these operating systems. The operating system interacts with the individual devices on the bus through a standardized means, as defined in the IEEE 1394 specification. Furthermore, because the devices themselves are intelligent, driver software isn’t needed to manage interactions on the bus. So, installing a FireWire device is a simple matter of plugging it in.

9–34

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Some of the devices that you might encounter with IEEE 1394 connections include:  Video cameras  Printers  External storage devices, such as hard disks and optical drives

Do it!

D-1:

Installing an IEEE 1394 device

Here’s how 1 Locate one or more IEEE 1394 ports on your PC

Here’s why Many PCs do not include these ports on the motherboard. They’re added through expansion cards instead.

2 Do the IEEE 1394 ports on your PC support FireWire 400 or FireWire 800, and how can you tell? 3 Examine the IEEE 1394 cable supplied by your instructor and determine the IEEE 1394 specification it supports 4 Connect the IEEE 1394 device to your computer

Windows should recognize the device and probably won’t install drivers for it.


9–35

Topic E: Multimedia connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – Sound – Video

1.7

Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics  Connector types – S-Video – Component / RGB

1.8

Install and configure peripheral and input devices  Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI, microphones)

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Multimedia – Sound card – TV tuner cards – Capture cards

Types of multimedia connections Explanation

Multimedia connections might be built into the motherboard or provided through a sound card. Some multimedia devices, such as Web and digital cameras, connect through standard computer ports, such as USB ports. The ports specifically provided for multimedia devices include:  TRS, or mini-stereo, jacks  RCA connectors  Coax  MIDI  S/PDIF  S-Video

9–36

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The TRS jack Officially known as the TRS (Tip, Ring, and Sleeve) jack, the mini-stereo or audio jack is used to connect speakers, microphones, headphones, and other audio devices. The TRS jack has three contacts (the tip, ring, and sleeve). Variations include the twocontact TS and four-contact TRRS jacks. Various sizes exist, but the most common are 1/4”, 1/8” (officially 3.5 mm), and 3/32” (officially 2.5 mm) sizes. The 1/4” size is rarely used with computers. The 2.5 mm size is more common with MP3 players and other small devices. As shown in Exhibit 9-28, there at least three 1/8" connectors on a sound card. At a minimum, there are line-in, line-out (also referred to as the headphone or main speaker jack), and microphone ports. There might also be separate output connections for additional speakers.

Center speaker Microphone

Rear speakers Line in Main (front) speakers or headphones

Exhibit 9-28: The 1/8" connectors on a sound card The line-in port is used to connect a device that’s being used as an input device. Examples of devices include portable musical keyboards, cassette tape players, or other audio devices with a 1/8" connector. Typically, a cable with a 1/8" connector on both ends is used to connect a device to this port. The port is usually marked with “Line-in,” “Input,” an arrow indicating an inward path, or some similar symbol. If color coding is used for the ports on the system, this port is light blue. Exhibit 9-29 shows a music keyboard with 1/8" connectors. The loose end gets connected to the line-in port on the sound card.

Exhibit 9-29: A music keyboard connected via a ⅛" jack


9–37

The line-out port is used to connect a device being used as an output device. If a separate speaker port isn’t included, the speakers usually connect to this port. It’s usually identified by “Line-out,” “Output,” or a symbol or arrow indicating an outward path. If color coding is used for the ports on the system, this port is lime green. The mic port is used to connect a microphone. This port is usually indicated by the word “Mic” or a picture of a microphone. If color coding is used for the ports on the system, this port is pink.

Speakers You hear operating system and application sounds through the speakers. A system with a CD or DVD player can play music or video, and the audio portion will be played through the speakers. Exhibit 9-30 shows speakers connected to a computer.

Exhibit 9-30: Speakers connected to a computer Speaker or line-out port Speakers connect to a speaker (line-out) port. On some systems, there’s a separate port for headphones, but sometimes you have to unplug the speakers and plug the headphones into the same jack. Some speakers have a headphone jack on the speaker. Plugging the headphones into that jack overrides the sound coming out of the speakers so that it comes out only through the headphones. If your computer has color-coded ports, the speaker port is lime green. All of the ports on the sound card are 1/8" round ports. The connector from the speakers fits into any of the ports, but functions properly only when connected to the speaker or line-out port. Even though speakers come in pairs, they still connect to a single 1/8" port. The speakers connect to each other, and then one of the speakers has a connection that goes to the port. Exhibit 9-31 shows how speakers connect to each other and to the computer.

9–38


Exhibit 9-31: Speakers connect to each other and then to the computer Some sound cards (or motherboards) feature separate connectors for the various speakers in a surround-sound system. Others have a single 1/8" port to which you connect all of the speakers in the system. Consult your computer’s owner’s manual for information about connecting your speaker system.

Microphones Microphones can be used with a computer to record sounds. The microphone connects to a microphone port on the sound card. To identify this port, look for a picture of a microphone, the word “Mic,” or a pink port, if it’s color-coded. Exhibit 9-32 shows a microphone and the port to which you connect it on a computer.

Microphone port

Exhibit 9-32: A microphone connection to a computer Windows Sound Recorder Sound Recorder, shown in Exhibit 9-33, is a simple Windows program that you can use to record sound from a microphone attached to your sound card. Depending on the version of Sound Recorder, you can save the recorded audio to various types of sound files, including .wav, .wma, and .mp3. To listen to the sound file you recorded, you can use Windows Media Player.


9–39

Exhibit 9-33: The Sound Recorder program in Windows 7 Do it!

E-1:

Using a sound card

Here’s how 1 Connect the speakers to each other

Here’s why If necessary, refer to the documentation for information on how to connect the speakers together.

2 Locate the speaker jack on the computer Connect the speakers to the speaker jack 3 Plug in the power for the speakers

If the power cord ends with a large transformer, try to place it on the end of the power strip so that it doesn’t block other outlets, or use a strip with widely spaced outlets for transformers.

4 Turn on the speakers

There’s either a pushbutton or a dial to turn the speakers on.

5 Locate the microphone jack on the computer

You’ll connect a microphone to your computer.

6 Plug in the microphone 7 Choose Windows, All Programs, Accessories, Sound Recorder

8 Click Start Recording 9 Speak into the microphone

For example, say “My name is John Smith. I am working with my sound card.”

10 Click Stop Recording 11 In the File name box, type My Sound Recording

12 Observe the location on the hard disk where the file will be saved Click Save 13 Close Sound Recorder

By default, it’s saved in your Documents folder.

9–40

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 14 Open Documents 15 Double-click My Sound Recording

16 Close Windows Media Player 17 If you are unhappy with the quality of sound, repeat the steps to record, and try again

The file opens in Windows Media Player. The sound file begins to play automatically. You might need to adjust the volume of your speakers to hear properly.


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RCA and S-Video connectors Explanation

You might encounter computers with RCA connections for connecting video devices and/or cable-TV cable. These are on a separate card from the sound card. They are often used for connecting VCRs or video cameras that don’t have FireWire or USB ports to transfer the analog images to the computer for conversion to DVDs or for use in digital editing applications. Exhibit 9-34 shows RCA connectors on a PC. RCA connectors

S-Video

FireWire

USB

Exhibit 9-34: RCA connectors on a PC The yellow connector is for composite video connection. The white connector connects to the left audio channel, and the red connector connects to the right audio channel. Separate Video (S-Video) is an analog video connection in which analog signals for brightness and color are carried separately. In standard composite video connections, both brightness and color are carried together, resulting in a lower-quality image. An S-Video connection enables you to connect devices, such as televisions and game systems, that otherwise could not be connected to the computer. As shown in Exhibit 934, the S-Video connection is a 4-pin mini-DIN connection. Some laptop computers have an S-Video connection that users might mistake for a keyboard or mouse port. Trying to force a keyboard or mouse connector into the port can damage the pins. Component video Component video uses five cables to carry audio and video, compared to composite video’s three cables. Component video is paired with the white and red audio cables just like with composite video. However with component video, the video signal is sent over red, green and blue cables. Component video has twice the resolution of composite video. Coax connectors Some computers have a coax connector for a cable television connection, enabling the computer to be turned into a digital video recorder. By using this TV tuner card and adding software to the computer, you can tune in specific TV channels and record the broadcast to your hard drive. A video capture card can be used to record video and might include a TV tuner. A TV tuner/video capture device can be either an internal expansion card or an external USB device. TV tuner cards and video capture cards are available in both analog and digital versions. When you have a TV tuner or video capture card that’s compatible with Windows Vista Ultimate, Windows Vista Home Premium, or Windows XP Media Center Edition, you can watch and record television on your Windows Media Center PC by connecting it to a TV signal received from an antenna or cable TV source. A coax connector, similar to what you’d use to connect to satellite or cable TV, is the rightmost connector in Exhibit 9-35.

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Exhibit 9-35: Coax connector (rightmost connector) for connecting TV antenna MIDI connectors MIDI connectors are found on musical instruments that are connected using the musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) protocol. MIDI defines the port connector, the format of the data sent, and the format in which the sounds are stored. The port is a large DIN connector. Devices can be daisy-chained together, with one device connecting from its MIDI output port to another device’s MIDI input port. You can use doubleended cables to extend the connection’s length. The devices can also be connected to a mixing board, a synthesizer, or a computer. A hub or connection box enables you to disconnect an individual instrument without rerouting the remaining instruments. Some high-end sound cards include MIDI connections, but usually an adapter is used. The MIDI cable has the DIN connection on the MIDI device end and has either a 15-pin joystick connector or a USB connector on the other end. There are also MIDI controller boxes that have MIDI ports built into them; the box then connects to the computer through a USB cable. Exhibit 9-36 shows a MIDI device and MIDI cables. The MIDI drum kit on the left side of the picture has MIDI-in and MIDI-out cables connected. A close-up of the MIDI ports is shown in the upper right. Below the instrument is a MIDI connection device. The MIDI instruments connect to the MIDI ports on the box, and a USB cable connects it to the computer. Notice that the MIDI cable ends in a large DIN connector, similar to the old-style keyboard connector.

Exhibit 9-36: MIDI connectors


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S/PDIF Sony/Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) is a standard developed by Sony and Philips for digital audio transfer. This connection is found on CD and DVD drives. It connects to an S/PDIF connector on a sound card or on the motherboard. Because they are digital rather than analog, S/PDIF connections eliminate the need to convert digital CD or DVD data to analog. And because the signal doesn’t have to be converted, S/PDIF eliminates the noise that would be created during the signal conversion and would lower the audio quality. In addition to internal drives, you can have external S/PDIF connections. These are typically added through a card dedicated to digital multimedia connections. External devices using S/PDIF connections include home theater receivers and professionalquality CD and DVD players. The external devices connect via either a square connector or a coaxial connection. Examples of these are shown in Exhibit 9-37.

Coax S/PDIF connectio ns

Square S/PDIF optical connections

Exhibit 9-37: S/PDIF connections The square connectors shown in Exhibit 9-37 have spring-loaded covers that close automatically when you disconnect a cable. This arrangement prevents potentially eyedamaging light (from the internal fiber) from exiting the connector when nothing is connected to it. You can connect TOSLINK connectors to the square-style S/PDIF sockets.

9–44 Do it!


E-2:

Connecting multimedia devices

Here’s how 1 Determine which of the multimedia connections are available on your computer 2 Connect one or more devices to the appropriate port(s) 3 If you needed to connect a game system to your computer, what connection would you most likely use?

Here’s why Remember, S/PDIF connections are likely to be internal, if they’re available.


9–45

Topic F: Port, cable, and connector troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam version 2.0 objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Adapter cards – I/O cards  FireWire  USB  Parallel  Serial

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Loopback plugs

Working with ports, cables, and connectors Explanation

As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for port, cable, and connector problems. The following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for the following equipment:  Serial ports, cables, and connectors  Parallel ports, cables, and connectors  PS/2 ports, cables, and connectors  USB ports, cables, and connectors  IEEE 1394 ports, cables, and connectors  Wireless ports  Multimedia ports You might encounter problems not listed in the tables that follow, but they provide a few scenarios to consider when you’re troubleshooting problems. The information listed is the same not matter if the port in question is on the front of your computer or the back.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Serial ports, cables, and connectors The following table lists common problems you might encounter with serial ports, cables, and connectors. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Serial port physically present, but not listed in Device Manager

Port disabled in BIOS; system resource conflicts.

Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the serial port. Check for device conflicts in Device Manager.

Serial port inaccessible

System resource conflicts.

Check for device conflicts in Device Manager.

PC can’t detect or connect to external modem

Bad serial cable; communications settings configured incorrectly; serial port disabled on motherboard.

Try using a different serial cable. Confirm the communications settings between the PC and modem. Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the serial port.

Parallel ports, cables, and connectors The following table lists common problems you might encounter with parallel ports, cables, and connectors. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Parallel port physically present, but not listed in Device Manager

Port disabled in BIOS; system resource conflicts; external connector not plugged into motherboard.

Use the BIOS setup utility to enable the parallel port. Check for device conflicts in Device Manager. Confirm that the connector is plugged into the motherboard, and if it’s not, connect the cable.

Parallel port inaccessible

System resource conflicts.

Check for device conflicts in Device Manager.

Can’t print to printer connected to the parallel port

Printer turned off or disconnected; bad parallel cable; wrong type of parallel cable; wrong parallel port operation mode for printer; no printer drivers installed; external connector not plugged into motherboard.

Confirm that the printer is plugged in and turned on. Confirm that you’re using the correct type of cable; try using a different cable that you know to be working. Use the BIOS setup utility to confirm that the parallel port mode (SPP, ECP, EPP) is compatible with the printer. Confirm that the connector is plugged into the motherboard, and if it’s not, connect the cable.


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PS/2 ports, cables, and connectors The following table lists common problems you might encounter with PS/2 ports, cables, and connectors. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

“No Keyboard Found” BIOS error

Keyboard not connected; keyboard connected to the mouse port; bad keyboard.

Confirm the keyboard and mouse connections. Try using a different keyboard.

Moving the mouse causes random characters to appear on screen, or computer emits a series of beeps

Mouse connected to the keyboard port.

Confirm the keyboard and mouse connections.

No mouse pointer, or pointer won’t move when you move the mouse

Bad mouse; cable disconnected; or operating system crash.

Replace the mouse with one you know to be good. Confirm that the mouse is connected to the correct port. Restart the computer.

Mouse moves erratically

Dirt in roller mechanisms.

Clean the mouse.

USB ports, cables, and connectors The following table lists common problems you might encounter with USB ports, cables, and connectors. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Can’t connect to or use USB device

Cable not connected; USB cable is bad; device is powered off; USB port isn’t enabled; motherboard doesn’t support USB; external connector not plugged into motherboard.

Confirm that the cable is connected. Try using a different USB cable. Make sure the device is powered on. Use the BIOS setup utility to confirm that the motherboard supports USB; enable that support, if necessary. Confirm that the connector is plugged into the motherboard, and if it’s not, connect the cable.

USB device not listed in Device Manager

Motherboard doesn’t support USB; device is turned off or not connected.

Confirm that the motherboard supports USB. Confirm that the device is connected and turned on.

USB device works intermittently or not at all

Bad cable; too long a cable; insufficient power on the bus.

Try replacing the cable with a shorter cable that’s known to be good. Use a powered USB hub, or connect the device directly to the PC. Unplug other USB devices to further reduce power demands.

“Unknown Device” in Device Manager

Device driver not installed; corrupted installation of driver.

Detach the USB device, install drivers for it, and reattach it. Alternatively, use Device Manager to remove the device and the USB host controller from the operating system, and then reboot. Windows will detect the host controller and re-install operating system support for it.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One IEEE 1394 ports, cables, and connectors The following table lists common problems you might encounter with IEEE 1394 ports, cables, and connectors. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Device doesn’t appear in Device Manager or is marked with a yellow exclamation point

Device is unsupported.

If the device is a host controller, try using a comparable Windows driver. Only OpenHCI host controllers are supported by Windows. NonOpenHCI controllers require additional device drivers, typically supplied by the manufacturer.

Device disappears from Device Manager after installation

Power management feature of device has turned it off, thus removing it from the system.

Change the power management settings on the device itself.

System stops responding after you connect the device

Bus is reset due to bad hardware, unsupported hardware, or a loopback condition in which cables have been looped back to the controller.

Turn off power to the device, remove the device, verify that the cables haven’t looped back to the host controller, and then turn on the power.

Device that’s buspowered isn’t receiving power

Host controller that supplies the power isn’t connected to power source inside the system.

Verify that power has been connected to the host controller.

A 4-pin device being used that can’t draw power from the bus.

Plug the 4-pin device into a separate power source. Verify that the 4-pin device is connected to the end of the device chain.

Multimedia ports The following table lists common problems you might encounter with multimedia ports. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

S/PDIF connection produces garbled data, or error messages indicate Unknown Format or Wrong Sample Rate

Analog cable used instead of digital cable.

Replace the cable with a digital 75 ohm cable.

MIDI device isn’t found

Usually an application problem.

Review the MIDI sequencer application for information on how to locate and use the MIDI device.

Video problems occur when using S-Video connection

Driver problem.

Try using an older or newer driver for the video card. If you’re using a tuner card, try changing the driver for it.

No sound from speakers

Audio muted; speakers plugged into line-in jack; no power.

Verify audio is not muted. Verify that the speakers are plugged into the line-out or speaker port on the sound card. Verify that the speakers are connected to a power source.


9–49

Loopback plugs When you’re testing ports, a useful device to have in your toolkit is a loopback plug, also known as a loopback adapter. This device is specific to the type of port you’re testing, and it plugs into the port. The loopback adapter enables you to perform a loopback test, in which a signal is sent, passes through all of the necessary circuits to complete the path, and returns to the port being tested. The returned signal is compared to the sent signal to determine if there’s a problem with the port or on the path that the signal traveled. Do it!

F-1:

Troubleshooting port, cable, and connector problems

Here’s how 1 One or more problems related to ports, cables, and connectors have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their causes. 2 Correct the problems you’ve found in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and fix any other problems that arise. 3 Document the problem(s) you find:


9–50


Unit summary: Peripheral connection types Topic A

In this topic, you learned that bits are sent one by one over a single wire in serial transmission and that multiple bits plus control signals are sent simultaneously over multiple wires in parallel transmission. Serial ports, often called COM1, COM2, and so forth, implement serial transmissions for devices such as modems. These ports typically use 9-pin D-shaped connectors. Parallel ports, often called LPT1, LPT2, and so forth, implement parallel transmissions for devices such as printers. These ports typically use 25-pin D-connectors or Centronics connectors.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that you typically connect keyboards, mice, and trackballs to your PC by using the PS/2 ports. A PS/2 port is a round 6-pin mini-DIN connector. The keyboard connector is typically purple and the mouse connector is typically green. Although you can physically connect these devices to the opposite ports, they won’t function if you do.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned that the USB port is a high-speed, hot-swappable peripheral bus that you can use to connect many types of devices, including keyboards, mice, monitors, digital cameras, and external drives. USB components are categorized as hosts or devices. Devices are divided into functions—which are the peripherals you connect to the USB port—and hubs. You can daisy-chain hubs. USB versions include USB 1.1, USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, of which USB 3.0 offers the highest speed and greatest distances.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned that FireWire, IEEE 1394, and Sony i.Link are all names given to the same high-speed peripheral interconnection bus. IEEE 1394 is a hotswappable, high-speed bus that supports up to 63 devices. FireWire uses a peer-to-peer architecture for greater efficiency than can be achieved with USB. IEEE 1394 supports asynchronous and isochronous transmissions. You also learned about the three IEEE-approved FireWire standards—FireWire 400, FireWire 800, and FireWire S3200.

Topic E

In this topic, you learned that there are several multimedia ports. Sound cards typically have 1/8" round jacks. Some computer systems include RCA jacks for connecting VCR, video cameras, and other electronic devices that use RCA jacks. You also learned that most systems connect MIDI devices to either a joystick or USB port. Some computer systems include a card with MIDI ports. S/PDIF is found on some systems for audio connections. S-Video connections enable you to connect devices that would normally not be connected to a computer, such as a TV or a game system. You also learned about TV tuner cards and video capture cards, which allow you to view and record analog and digital television signals from an antenna, cable, or satellite.

Topic F

In this topic, you learned that ports, connectors, and cables can fail for various reasons. You learned how to troubleshoot these components. You also examined common symptoms of failures and the probable causes and suggested solutions.


9–51

Review questions 1 The following picture is a connector for what type of communication?

A Parallel B Serial 2 True or false? In parallel transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the transmission medium. False. In serial transmission, bits of data are sent one at a time across the transmission medium.

3 How many COM ports are supported by PC hardware? A One B Two C Four D Eight 4 True or false? You’ll never find more than the maximum number of COM ports on a computer than what is supported by its hardware. False. Windows supports software emulation of additional COM ports. Therefore, you might find PCs with higher-numbered COM ports.

5 Which type of bit is used for error checking? A Data bit B Flow control bit C Parity bit D Start bit E Stop bit 6 True or false? LPT parallel printer ports are one-way communication ports. False. Originally, the LPT port was a one-way communications port. However, various techniques such as EPP and ECP, have enabled two-way communications.

9–52

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 7 Which of the following connectors is a Centronics connector? A

B

C

D

8 What color is a PS/2 keyboard port? A Black B Green C Pink D Purple E Red F Yellow


9–53

9 What color is a PS/2 mouse port? A Black B Green C Pink D Purple E Red F Yellow 10 True or false? You can connect a barcode reader or a keyboard to a PC’s PS/2 keyboard port, but not both. False. You can use a Y-adapter to connect both the barcode reader and the keyboard to the port.

11 Which USB version has a top transfer speed of 480 Mbps? A USB 1.0 B USB 1.1 C USB 2.0 D USB 3.0 12 Which USB connector is wide and flat? A Type A B Type B 13 You can get cable lengths of up to of 25 meters with USB by ______________. daisy-chaining

14 Which FireWire version supports data transfers of up to 400 Mbps? A FireWire 400 B FireWire 800 C FireWire S3200 15 True or false? A FireWire S3200 device plugged into a FireWire 800 port operates at the FireWire S3200 speed. True.

16 Which FireWire port is shown in the following graphic?

A FireWire 400 B FireWire 800 C FireWire S3200

9–54

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 17 How many pins does a FireWire 800 connector have? A 4 B 6 C 8 D 9 18 What size are the connectors on a sound card? A 1/16" B 1/8" C 1/4" D 1/2" 19 The multimedia ports shown in the following graphic are which type?

A PS/2 B Centronics C MIDI D RCA E S-Video 20 Which type of multimedia port is shown in the following graphic?

A Coax B S/PDIF C MIDI D RCA E S-Video


9–55

21 True or false? A TV tuner card allows you to record your favorite television programs on your hard disk. False. A TV tuner card only allows you to receive the TV signal for your favorite television shows and watch them. To record the show on your hard disk, you need a video capture card. Some, though not all, video capture cards include TV tuners.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying different types of ports, connectors, and cables. Your instructor will provide you with either a variety of device ports and connectors, or photos of device ports and connectors. You need to successfully identify each example. 1 Given devices or photographs, correctly identify the following connection types: 9-pin serial

FireWire 400 4-pin

Coax

25-pin parallel

FireWire 400 6-pin

MIDI

Centronics

FireWire 800 9-pin

S/PDIF square

PS/2

1/8"

S/PDIF round

USB 2.0 Type A

RCA

S-Video

USB 2.0 Type B

2 If available, also correctly identify: 25-pin serial, USB 3.0, and FireWire S3200.

9–56


10–1

Unit 10 Data storage devices Unit time: 165 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Define the common drive interfaces. B Install hard drives, and create partitions,

and file systems. C Describe optical data storage and use

optical drives and discs. D Use removable drives. E Maintain your hard disks. F Identify and resolve problems with hard

disks.

10–2


Topic A: Drive adapters This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – USB 1.0 and 2.0 – Serial – IEEE 1394 / FireWire – Parallel  PATA – IDE – EIDE  SATA, eSATA

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  I/O – SCSI – Serial – USB – Parallel


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Adapter cards – Storage controllers  RAID cards (RAID array – levels 0, 1, 5)  eSATA cards – I/O cards  FireWire  USB  Parallel  Serial


10–3

Adapters, controllers, and interfaces Explanation

Host bus adapter (HBA) is the formal name given to the expansion card or circuitry integrated onto the motherboard that connects your PC to a storage device. In practice, that term is usually reserved for use with a few types of drives, such as SCSI drives. The term adapter is used when referring to IDE/ATA, SATA, and other types of storage devices. Regardless of its name, the purpose of an adapter is to enable your computer’s CPU to communicate across the storage bus. At the other end, the controller is the circuit that enables the storage device to communicate across the bus. Typically, a controller is implemented in a single chip or set of chips integrated into the drive’s interface circuitry. An interface is the communications standard that defines how data flows to and from the disk drive. In current practice, an interface is implemented as a circuit board attached to the top (or bottom, depending on how you look at it) of the drive unit, as shown in Exhibit 10-1. With older drive technologies, the interface was implemented with circuitry on the adapter rather than on the drive. Thus, you sometimes encounter the term “interface” referring to that circuit board on the drive. Given that such a circuit board implements the logic and functions of the interface specification, that use of the term makes a certain amount of sense.

Exhibit 10-1: A hard disk drive showing its drive interface board

10–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One PC drive interfaces The following table lists various interfaces that have been developed for PCs. All are in common use now. Interface

Introduced

Description

SCSI

Early 1980s

The original, and still popular, Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) is a parallel system bus, in some ways like an expansion bus. Newer incarnations of SCSI, including the Serial Attached SCSI, use a serial transmission method instead of parallel transmission. Many devices can be connected through a SCSI interface, but drives, particularly optical drives, are the most common devices to use it.

IDE

Mid-1980s

The Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface is an older drive interface largely replaced by ATA, SATA, and other interfaces. It was developed by Western Digital.

ATA, PATA, and SATA

Standardized by ANSI in 1994

The AT Attachment (ATA) interface is an evolution of the IDE interface. Two versions, Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA) exist, though SATA has largely replaced PATA in new systems. eSATA is a version of SATA used with external devices.

IEEE 1394 (FireWire, i.Link)

Mid-1990s, standardized in 1995

FireWire was developed by Apple Computer Corp. and later standardized by the IEEE to provide a high-speed serial device interface. Many components, in addition to drives, can be attached through a FireWire interface.

USB 1.1, USB 2.0, and USB 3.0

Mid-1990s

USB is not technically a drive interface. It is a generic serial bus that can transport almost any kind of data. However, USB flash drives use the USB bus instead of a traditional drive interface. External USB drives, however, typically use an ATA interface and adapter circuitry that connects that interface to the USB bus.

ATA, PATA, and SATA The AT Attachment (ATA) interface is an especially popular drive interface thanks to good performance and low implementation costs for manufacturers. ATA evolved from Western Digital’s IDE and was standardized in 1994 by ANSI as X3.221-1994. ATA has undergone many revisions since its first release. It can be divided into two groups: Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA). As of 2009, SATA has just about replaced PATA in consumer PCs. PATA continues to be used in CompactFlash storage applications. The following table describes various incarnations of the ATA interface. Standard

Transfer rate

Description

Speed enhancements

ATA

3.3–8.3 MBps

The first ATA standard. Supported only hard drives.

Programmed Input Output (PIO) modes 0, 1, and 2; single- and multi-word DMA.

Enhanced IDE, Fast ATA, Fast ATA-2

13.3-16.6 MBps

Proprietary extensions to the ATA specification developed by companies such as Western Digital, Seagate, and Quantum.


10–5

Standard

Transfer rate

Description

Speed enhancements

ATA-2

11.1–16.6 MBps

The ANSI standardized version of EIDE/Fast ATA. It provided for power saving and security features.

PIO modes 3 and 4, plus two multi-word DMA modes. Allowed 32-bit data transfers and block mode transfers.

ATA-3

Up to 16.6 MBps

Improved the reliability of highspeed data transfers compared to ATA-2. Introduced the SelfMonitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology (SMART) for monitoring drive health.

None.

ATAPI

No transfer rate specified in the standard

AT Attachment Packet Interface—an extension of the ATA specifications to support tape and CD-ROM drives.

None.

ATA/ATAPI-4

16.7–33 MBps

An enhancement of the ATAPI and ATA-3 specifications. It added data integrity checks (CRC checking) and the new drive control commands, and it removed obsolete commands.

UltraDMA modes 0, 1, and 2, and an improved 80-conductor cable specification. UltraDMA mode 2 offered the best performance, and drives supporting it are often called UltraDMA/33 drives, reflecting their 33 MBps transfer rates.

ATA/ATAPI-5

Up to 66.7 MBps

A further enhancement to the ATA specification that offered speed enhancements, command cleanup, and functions to detect whether the 80-conductor cable was in use.

UltraDMA modes 3 and 4; mandatory use of the 80conductor cable for UltraDMA mode 4. Drives running in UltraDMA mode 4 are most often called UltraDMA/66 drives.

ATA/ATAPI-6

Up to 100 MBps

Further enhancements to offer increased throughput and support for extremely large hard drives.

UltraDMA mode 5. Drives implementing this mode are often called UltraDMA/100 drives.

ATA/ATAPI-7

Up to 133 MBps

Yet another enhancement to offer increased throughput.

UltraDMA mode 6 with drives being called UltraDMA/133 drives.

SATA 1 (SATA 150)

Up to 1.5 Gbps (150 MBps)

Serial ATA—a serial bus implementation of an ATA-style interface.

Many enhancements, including a dual cable arrangement and dedicated connections to each device.

SATA 2 (SATA 300)

Up to 3 Gbps

SATA Revision 2.0

Various design enhancements including improved support in multitasking environments.

SATA 3 (SATA 600)

Up to 6 Gbps

SATA Revision 3.0

Various design enhancements including improved support in multitasking environments.

10–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Standard

Transfer rate

Description

Speed enhancements

eSATA

Up to 3 Gbps

External SATA—a version of SATA designed for connecting external SATA devices.

Competes against USB and FireWire interfaces. It’s faster than FireWire 400 and 800 but not as fast as FireWire S3200. eSATA has a shorter maximum cable length: 2 meters.

Speed improvement techniques In the original ATA schemes, the CPU was involved with every data transfer through a scheme called programmed input/output (PIO). Five PIO schemes were developed, with each new level improving performance through various techniques. These schemes are listed in the following table. PIO mode

Transfer rate

0

3.3 MBps

1

5.2 MBps

2

8.3 MBps

3

11.1 MBps

4

16.7 MBps

Later, designers came up with direct memory access (DMA) schemes that removed the need for the CPU to be involved with every transfer. The six DMA schemes provided the performance levels listed in the following table. DMA mode

Transfer rate

Single-word 0

2.1 MBps

Single-word 1

4.2 MBps

Single-word 2

8.3 MBps

Multi-word 0

4.2 MBps

Multi-word 1

13.3 MBps

Multi-word 2

16.7 MBps

Later improvements of the DMA schemes became known as UltraDMA (sometimes called UDMA). Currently, there are seven UltraDMA modes, which provide the performance levels listed in the following table.

Data storage devices UltraDMA mode

Transfer rate

0

16.7 MBps

1

25 MBps

2

33.3 MBps

3

44.4 MBps

4

66.7 MBps

5

100 MBps

6

133 MBps

10–7

Cables and connectors The following exhibits show PATA motherboard connectors, PATA drive cables, and SATA connectors.

Exhibit 10-2: 40-pin PATA motherboard connectors

Exhibit 10-3: A 40-wire PATA drive cable

10–8


Exhibit 10-4: A high-speed 80-wire PATA drive cable

Exhibit 10-5: SATA data cables Drive capacities The original hard drive specifications limited capacities to 504 MB. This was due to limitations on the physical parameters of various hard drive components, namely the number of read/write heads, the number of tracks on the disk, and the number of sectors (sections) in each track. Memory and other programming space must be set aside for each. The standards that led to this limit were developed when MS-DOS was the primary operating system, and memory was limited to 1 MB. At that time, a 500 MB limit seemed beyond foreseeable needs. However, the need for storage space quickly outgrew this limit. Another limit was reached later when drive capacities pushed beyond the 137 GB maximum capacity supported by the ATA specification itself. To increase the maximum supported drive size, the various ATA enhancements used a variety of techniques:  LBA — Logical block addressing increased the size limit to 8.4 GB through the use of sector translation. Basically, the interface made the drive appear to have a different physical arrangement that bypassed limits that its actual geometry would impose.  ECHS — ECHS is another version of LBA-style sector translation that supports up to 8.4 GB disks.


10–9

 Interrupt 13h extensions — Limits in the BIOS routines limited drive capacities to 8.4 GB. Moving beyond this limit required BIOS changes. The interrupt 13h extensions changed the way the BIOS accessed disk drives. Changing the BIOS in this way required changes to both the BIOS firmware and the operating system. Since Windows 95, operating systems have supported the interrupt 13h BIOS extensions. Interrupt 13 extensions theoretically permit drives of up to 8 ZB (8,549,250,196 TB), though limitations in ATA can limit drives to as little as 128 GB.  ATA limits — Design limits in the ATA specification limited drives to 137 GB. Newer versions of the ATA specification, beginning with ATA-6, remove this limit.  Large LBA — The most recent capacity enhancements were made possible by the ATA-6 interface standard. It increased the number of bits used for sector addressing to 48, leading to a maximum capacity of 144 petabytes (150,994,944 GB). This technique is often called large logical block addressing. Drive identification The PATA specification supports two drives per controller. One drive must be designated as the master disk. The other is called the slave. You must configure or connect drives to support this arrangement, or communications between the drives won’t work. You have two methods to configure drive roles in a PATA system. With the earliest IDE and PATA drives, you set a jumper or DIP switch to specify the role: master, slave, or the only drive in the system. Later drives enabled you to rely on a feature called cable-select (CS). You’d set the jumper to the CS position, at which point where you connected the drive to the cable determined its role. As shown in Exhibit 10-6, the drive connected furthest from the motherboard is the master drive. When using cable-select, the CS jumper must be set on both drives and the motherboard. Otherwise, neither of the drives will work. When assigning roles specifically via the jumpers without CS, where you connect the drive to the cable has no effect. In other words, you could plug the master drive into the middle connector and it would still function as the master as long as you set jumpers correctly. Motherboard

Slave

Master

Exhibit 10-6: A PATA cable, showing where to connect the master and slave drives

10–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Primary and secondary channels Most modern motherboards include two built-in PATA channels, as shown in Exhibit 10-7. These are designated as the primary and secondary channels. While not required, you would typically connect your primary hard drive as the master device on the primary channel. For best performance, you would then connect your optical drive to the secondary channel.

Secondary IDE

Primary IDE

Exhibit 10-7: Primary and secondary PATA connectors on the motherboard

SCSI The Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) is a bus interface and is, in many ways, more like an expansion bus than like a drive adapter technology. SCSI, which is pronounced “scuzzy,” supports all sorts of data storage devices, printers, scanners, and video devices. SCSI has even been used as the basis for very high-performance computer networks. SCSI was developed in the early 1980s but not standardized by ANSI until 1986. Since that time, the technology has undergone many changes. It remains a popular drive interface with workstations, servers, and high-end desktop computers. It’s also commonly used with higher-end scanners and digitizing devices. Until recently, SCSI was also very popular with drives used with Macintosh computers. Standard

Bus width (bits)

Bandwidth

Maximum cable length

Maximum number of devices

SCSI

8 bits

5 MBps

6 meters

8

Fast SCSI

8 bits

10 MBps

1.5–3 m

8

Fast Wide SCSI

16 bits

20 MBps

1.5–3 m

16

Ultra SCSI

8 bits

20 MBps

1.5–3 m

4–8

Ultra Wide SCSI

16 bits

40 MBps

1.5–3 m

4–16

Ultra2/LVD

8 bits

40 MBps

12 m

8

Ultra2 Wide

16 bits

80 MBps

12 m

16

Ultra3

16 bits

160 MBps

12 m

16


10–11

Standard

Bus width (bits)

Bandwidth

Maximum cable length

Maximum number of devices

Ultra-320

16 bits

320 MBps

12 m

16

Ultra-640

16 bits

640 MBps

12 m

16

Serial-attached SCSI (SAS)

1 bit

300 MBps

8m

128 device ports, supporting up to 16,256 devices

Device IDs Every SCSI device, including the host bus adapter (HBA), must be assigned a unique ID number. SCSI IDs begin at 0 and count upward. With 8-bit SCSI implementations, SCSI ID 7 has the highest priority and 0 the lowest. With 16-bit SCSI, ID 7 is still the highest priority (to maintain backward compatibility). SCSI 15 has the next highest, counting downward to 8 having the lowest priority. The HBA is normally assigned the highest priority SCSI ID, which is always SCSI ID 7. You must assign unique IDs to devices. It’s not uncommon when implementing SCSI devices to have ID conflicts that prevent devices from working. Termination Both ends of the SCSI bus must be terminated. Such terminators are basically electrical resistors that absorb signals that reach the end of the bus. Without them, signals could reflect back onto the bus, leading to a confusing mix of actual and reflected signals. The HBA includes either removable resistors or switch-selectable on-board terminators built in. Drives and other devices can also include switch-selectable termination or removable terminators. Exhibit 10-8 illustrates an external drive with switch-selectable termination.

SCSI ID Termination switch

Exhibit 10-8: External SCSI drive with SCSI ID selector and termination slide-switch SCSI terminators are supposed to add electrical impedance equal to the impedance of the cable. Passive terminators are simply resistors that dampen reflected signals through non-electronic means. They come close to matching the impedance in most situations. In demanding applications, however, you should use an active terminator. An active terminator is an electronic component that dynamically tunes itself to exactly match the impedance of the cable. Active termination is most often used with the newer, higherperforming types of SCSI.

10–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Differential SCSI In the original SCSI specification, electronic signals are referenced compared to a common ground. In other words, whether a signal is or isn’t present on a particular wire is determined based on its voltage difference as compared to a common ground signal. This single-ended (SE) scheme works well with slower data transfer rates and short cables. With the introduction of Ultra SCSI, engineers developed differential SCSI, which worked better with longer cables and higher data rates. In differential SCSI, later renamed High Voltage Differential (HVD), data lines are paired. The signal on one line is the electrical opposite of that on the other. In this way, the presence of a signal is determined by examining the difference between the voltage levels on these two lines. In the Ultra2 SCSI specification, designers refined the HVD scheme, reducing the voltage from ±5 V to ±3.3 V, and Low Voltage Differential (LVD) was born. The terms Ultra2 SCSI and LVD can be used interchangeably.

USB USB is not a drive interface, but instead a general purpose data bus. Most USB drives are actually ATA drives with an integrated USB interface adapter. While this is certainly a convenient way to attach an external ATA drive to your PC, it’s not the same as connecting a drive directly to the USB interface. True USB drives are feasible. The circuitry of the drive would be connected directly to the USB bus without any sort of ATA controller involved. Hard drives with this configuration are rare, perhaps non-existent. However, the typical USB flash drive or memory card reader is just such a drive. Circuitry in these devices translates directly from the memory card’s electrical interface to the USB bus. No ATA/PATA controller is involved in most USB flash drive designs. USB flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class (UMS), which is a set of communications protocols defined by the USB Implementers Forum. UMS enables operating systems to access storage devices via the USB bus. UMS is supported in Windows since the Windows 98 days. It is also supported by Mac OS X and Linux. UMS doesn’t support the full range of low-level hard drive functions, such as S.M.A.R.T., command-queuing, and so forth. For USB flash drives, this is typically not a concern. External hard drives in a USB enclosure might be a PATA drive internally. But, because they connect to the PC via the UMS interface, they are likewise unable to take advantage of these advanced low-level functions. The USB 1.1 specification limited data transfer to 12 Mbps (megabits per second). The USB 2.0 specification increased that limit to 480 Mbps. The USB 3.0 specification has a maximum transfer speed of 5 Gbps.


10–13

IEEE 1394 / FireWire IEEE 1394 is a serial interface technology based on the Serial SCSI standard. It’s a general-purpose interface. As with USB, it’s possible to use FireWire in place of a more traditional drive interface. Akin to USB’s UMS standard, IEEE 1394 uses the Serial Bus Protocol 2 (SBP-2) to enable the operating system to interface directly with storage devices without a traditional drive interface involved. FireWire 400 supports up to 400 Mbps throughput, while FireWire 800 supports up to 800 Mbps. FireWire S1600, with a data transfer rate of 1.6 Gbps; and FireWire S3200, with a data transfer rate of 4 Gbps are newer versions designed to compete with the new USB 3.0 standard. FireWire supports isochronous transfers in which a device can be granted dedicated access to the interface for a period of time. This makes FireWire well-suited for video data, whether it be as a stream of digital video from a camera or a stream of digitized video read from a fast disk drive or array. Do it!

A-1:

Distinguishing among drive controllers

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, shut down Windows 7 and power off your computer 2 Following all electrical safety and ESD precautions, open your PC’s case 3 Determine if your PC supports ATA drives

Locate the ATA connectors on the motherboard.

4 Determine if your PC supports SATA drives

Look for the SATA data and power connectors on the motherboard.

5 Determine if your PC supports SCSI drives

Look for the SCSI data and power connectors on the motherboard.

6 Determine if your PC supports USB drives

The interface circuitry of the USB drive is connected directly to the USB bus without any sort of ATA controller involved. This type of internal drive connection is uncommon.

7 Examine the selection of drives and adapters provided by your instructor. For each one, determine its interface type. Then rank them in increasing order of performance.

10–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One

Topic B: Hard drives This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.1

Categorize storage devices and backup media  HDD – Solid state vs. magnetic  Removable storage – External CD-RW and hard drive

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  Contrast RAID (levels 0, 1, 5)

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Administrative tools – Computer Management

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  File systems – FAT32 vs. NTFS


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  HDD – SATA – PATA – Solid state  Adapter cards – Storage controllers  RAID cards (RAID array – levels 0, 1, 5)

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  FORMAT

Data storage devices #

Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results

10–15

 Disk Manager – Active, primary, extended, and logical partitions – Mount points – Mounting a drive – FAT32, NTFS, FAT64 (exFAT)  External hard drives  Flash drives – Drive status  Foreign drive  Healthy  Formatting  Active unallocated  Failed  Dynamic  Offline  Online

Hard disk drives Explanation

Most consumer PC hard drives store data by means of magnetism. Magnetic hard drives are made up of the parts described in the following table. Component

Description

Platters

The metal or plastic disks on which the magnetic material is coated. Data is recorded in that magnetic material as a set of magnetically polarized regions.

Spindle

The axis, or central hub, that the platters spin around. A motor turns the spindle very quickly, 7200 revolutions per minute for example.

Read/write heads

The magnetic devices that both read and write data on the platters. The heads are attached to the arms, which are moved by the actuator.

Voice coil actuator

The mechanism that moves the heads very precisely into position over the magnetic tracks written on the platters.

10–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Exhibit 10-9 shows the components of a typical magnetic hard drive. Arm

Actuator

Head

Platter

Spindle

Exhibit 10-9: The internal components of a hard drive Solid-state drives Some hard disk drives are solid-state drives (SSDs), meaning that they use memory chips (RAM or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of using a rotating disk. SSDs have no moving parts. Therefore, they are less fragile than magnetic hard drives and are silent. RAM-based disks require power to maintain their data and typically include backup batteries. SSDs are becoming increasingly available in laptops, netbooks, and smartphones. They are more expensive than magnetic hard drives of comparable capacity, form factor, and transfer speed. Solid-state drives have the following advantages:  Faster startup time, because the drives don’t need to “spin up” like magnetic drives do  Faster transfer speeds, because the drives don’t have to move a read/write head  Lower power consumption  Less heat generated  Ability to operate in higher temperatures (magnetic drives typically operate between 40°F and 130°F; solid-state drives can operate at up to 160°F)  Less risk of failure, because SSDs don’t have the magnetic drive’s mechanical parts Magnetic drives have the following advantages:  Lower cost  Greater capacity than what is available with current solid-state drives  Higher number of write/erase cycles than SSDs  Faster write speeds  Powering all the way down when the PC is turned off (RAM-based SSDs can continue to draw power when the PC is off)


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Hard drive geometry In magnetic drives, data is written by the heads onto the platters as the platters spin beneath the heads. Data is recorded onto both the top and bottom of each platter. A disk drive typically has more than one platter stacked concentrically. Data isn’t written in a spiral groove, as with an old phonograph record. Instead, data is written in a series of concentric tracks. A cylinder is the logical collection of all of the tracks at a given distance from the axis. Each track is divided into sectors. Each sector contains identification information at its beginning and end, and contains data in between. A sector typically holds 512 bytes of data. Sectors are gathered logically into groups called clusters or allocation units. A cluster typically contains between 1 and 128 sectors, for a range of 512 bytes to 64 KB. Files are stored in one or more clusters. A table stored on the hard drive tracks the clusters assigned to each file. If a file does not fill an entire cluster (or the entire last cluster in a group of clusters to which it is assigned), some space on the disk will be wasted. The cluster will be marked as in use and thus unavailable. However, some of the cluster will be left empty. Using smaller cluster sizes typically wastes less space but results in more overhead tracking of the clusters occupied by files. Access times can be increased and performance reduced. Using larger clusters instead wastes more space but results in less overhead and sometimes better performance. You can specify the cluster size when installing a new disk drive to balance space and performance factors. Exhibit 10-10 shows the logical geometry of the typical hard drive. Cylinder

Sector

Exhibit 10-10: Hard drive geometry

Track

10–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Heads and head crash During use, the read/write heads float on a very thin cushion of air about half a millionth of an inch—half of a microinch—above the platter. In comparison, a human hair or common dust particle is 2000–3000 microinches in diameter. This thin cushion makes hard drives susceptible to head crash, a condition in which the heads come into contact with the platter surface. Head crash can damage the heads, platters, or both. Fortunately, modern materials and manufacturing techniques have made head crash less of a concern than it was with older drives. When you shut down your PC, the read/write heads are moved by the voice coil actuator into a safe position and are safely brought to rest, either on the surface or mechanically suspended above it. The heads are said to be parked. Before Windows and operating-system shutdown procedures were introduced, you had to use a special utility to park the heads on your hard drive. Before shutting off your old DOS PC, you would run the utility to park the heads. Then you’d turn off the power to your PC. Drives themselves now handle this operation automatically when you shut down Windows. Connections You can purchase internal or external hard disks. Internal hard disks can be connected through a PATA, SCSI, or SATA interface. External hard disks might use eSATA, USB, or IEEE 1394 (FireWire) connections. Some external hard disks will come with a variety of ports so you can choose the one that best meets your performance needs and fits the connections on your computer.

Physical installation Physically installing an internal hard disk drive into a PC involves a few steps, which you must perform in the following order: 1 Shut down the PC and open its case. (Observe electrical and safety precautions.) 2 Set jumpers or switches on the drive to provide drive identification. 3 If you’re installing a SCSI drive, you might need to configure bus termination by setting switches or jumpers or by installing or removing terminator blocks. The bus must be terminated on both ends and cannot have extra termination installed in the middle of the chain. 4 Install the drive into the PC chassis. 5 Connect data and control cables from the adapter to the drive. 6 Connect the power cable from the PC’s power supply to the drive. After you physically install the drive, additional preparation steps are required to make it available to the operating system.


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Chassis installation You can typically use any available bay for a hard drive. However, one or more smaller, drive-sized bays are typically available for this precise purpose. Make sure you install the drive in a location that the data and power cables can reach. Most modern drives work equally well mounted horizontally or vertically. Unlike with older drives, there’s typically no harm in mounting a drive one way and then mounting it in a different orientation later. As always, before you open a PC’s case, make sure you shut down the computer and unplug it from the outlet. Follow all of the typical static safety precautions. Don’t bump or jar the drive. Hard drives are sensitive to shocks, and you can easily damage them. Data cable connections Most drive cables are keyed—that is, their connectors are molded in such a way that you can insert them only the correct way into the connector sockets. If you’re using an older non-keyed cable, wire 1 in the cable is marked with a red (or other color) stripe. Pin 1 on the socket is labeled with either a number or a small triangle pointing at the pin. You need to line up the cable so that pin 1 goes into socket 1. If you’re using cable-select to set the master/slave selection for a drive, make sure you connect the IDE drive to the intended connector. If you’re using SCSI, make sure the bus is correctly terminated at both ends and that termination is not applied in the middle of the chain. Power cable connections Most PATA and SCSI drives use the large peripheral power connector. This connector has beveled corners so that you can insert it into the socket correctly. SATA drives use a specialized power connector that looks very different from the peripheral power connector. It’s also keyed so that you’re sure to connect it properly.

10–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Do it!

B-1:

Physically installing a hard drive

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, shut down your PC and unplug it from the outlet

You’ll install an additional hard drive in your system.

2 Open your PC’s case

Follow all electrical and ESD precautions.

3 Set the jumpers or switches, as appropriate, to specify the drive identification

You’ll need to set master, slave, single drive, or cable-select for an IDE drive, or set the SCSI ID for a SCSI drive.

4 Locate an available drive bay and install the drive 5 Install the data ribbon cable

Install the cable in the correct orientation, and attach the drive to the correct connector on the cable.

6 Install the power cable 7 Close the PC’s case Don’t turn on your computer yet

You have physically installed the drive, but you must prepare it for use with the operating system. You’ll do that next.


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Hard drive preparation Once you’ve physically installed a hard drive, you must prepare it for use by the operating system. With hard drives, the following steps must be performed separately: 1 Historically, the first step was to perform a low-level format. This step is not necessary with modern drives. 2 Partition the drive. 3 Format the drive (with a high-level format).

Low-level formatting Low-level formatting divides the disk into tracks and divides each track into sectors. Historically, this was a step that the user performed. Since the early 1990s, low-level formatting is done at the factory. It’s not something that you have to do after it comes from the factory. In fact, in most cases, you cannot low-level format a drive, even if you wanted to. Background information Older hard drives used a stepper motor to move the heads into position over the tracks. Each step of the motor would move the heads one track in or out. Due to heat, wear, and other factors over time, the size and shape of the platters changed. Eventually, the steps moved by the motor no longer put the heads precisely over a track. At that point, data read/write errors made the disk unusable. Eventually, your only solution was to lowlevel format the drive to define new tracks beneath the new positions of the heads. Of course, doing so obliterated your data. New hard drives use voice coil actuators rather than stepper motors. Drive circuitry can detect whether the head is positioned precisely over the track. If not, the voice coil can tweak the position to optimize read and write operations. This process eliminates the need to repeat low-level formatting of a drive. In older hard drives, each track contained the same number of sectors. Modern hard drives use complex sector arrangements such as zoned bit recording (ZBR). With ZBR, more sectors are recorded in the larger outer tracks than in the smaller inner tracks. ZBR is optimized by the drive manufacturer to balance transfer speed and data density. Together with the benefits of voice coils, ZBR is another reason why low-level formatting has become a process done only at the factory.

10–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Partitioning Partitioning divides a hard drive into one or more logical drives, also called volumes. Consider a 500 GB drive. You could partition it into two 250 GB drives, each with its own drive letter. You still have one physical disk drive, but it appears to the operating system to be two drives. Partitioning drives was an important consideration with early hard drives and operating systems that couldn’t support large volumes. Without partitioning to create additional volumes, you couldn’t use all of the available space on a hard drive. When you install Windows operating systems from the command prompt, you can delete and create partitions. The original Windows XP product, with no service packs, supported partitions of only 137 GB. To install Windows XP on a partition larger than 137 GB, you need the SP1 or later version for Windows XP. Windows 2000 SP3 and later, plus all versions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista support larger partitions right out of the box. Most modern computers and current operating systems support enormous volumes, so you can generally use the entire space of a drive in a single volume. However, you must still partition a hard drive into at least one volume.

Exhibit 10-11: Disk partitions as shown in Disk Management in Windows 7 The master boot record (MBR) The first sector on the bootable hard disk is called the master boot record (MBR). This sector serves the same purpose as the boot sector on a floppy disk. The MBR, which is sometimes called the master boot block or partition table, contains partition information and other information used by the computer after the POST has finished. Critically, it also contains a pointer to the boot loader, which is used to start your operating system. Primary and extended partitions Primary partitions are those partitions that are directly accessed by the operating system as volumes. Historically, in DOS and Windows 9.x, you could create a single primary partition on each hard drive. In all newer versions of Windows, you can create up to four primary partitions per drive. Most of the partitions you create are primary partitions.


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You can also create extended partitions. Each extended partition contains one or more logical volumes, which are what the operating system accesses for file storage. With all of the PC operating systems, you can create a single extended partition, which can contain as many logical drives as space permits. In most situations, you won’t need to create extended partitions. You can install a separate operating system into each volume (including into each logical volume within the extended partition). Thus, one justification for creating an extended partition is to enable booting into more than four operating systems on a single system. It’s important to note that Microsoft changed the partitioning scheme for Windows 7 and Windows Vista to accommodate expanded drive sizes. It places the starting and ending points for partitions in different locations on the hard disk than in previous versions of Windows. That makes the new partitioning scheme incompatible with the scheme used in previous versions of Windows. If you need to create a multiboot computer, you should create all of your partitions by using Windows 7 and Windows Vista, not a previous version of Windows or a third-party utility. Partitioning utilities In DOS and Windows 9x systems, you use the MS-DOS fdisk command to partition a hard drive. The version of fdisk that was included with Windows 98 could also partition drives for use with the FAT32 and NTFS file systems. To force fdisk to write a new MBR, you must use the fdisk /mbr command. You can use the Disk Management component of the Computer Management console in Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server. You can access this console component via the Control Panel and use it to partition and format new disk drives. You can use the text-mode diskpart command in Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server 2003 and newer. (You might have to download the tool for some Windows versions.) This command-line tool enables you to perform all the disk management tasks that you’d perform with Disk Management. You can also use this tool within management scripts, making it a powerful alternative to the graphical tools. Disk Management and diskpart are designed for adding a drive to a working Windows system. For new drives in new systems, you need a different method. Most versions of Windows since Windows NT offer you the option of partitioning the hard drive during the operating system installation.

File systems The operating system must be able to access and track files stored on the hard drive. The file system is the collection mechanism that enables these functions. A file system defines such parameters as the minimum and maximum cluster sizes, how the locations of files are tracked, and how files and directories are stored within the actual clusters. An operating system can find any file on the hard drive by looking it up in the file system’s data structures. You select the file system you want to use when you install the operating system. If you have more than one partition, you can use different file systems on each partition.

10–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One After installing the OS, you can format partitions that don’t contain your operating system files by using the Disk Management console, the diskpart tool, or the format command. There are two broad families of file systems used with PCs:  The FAT file system family  The NTFS file system family The FAT file system The File Allocation Table (FAT) file system was originally developed for the DOS operating system. It was later extended to support the Windows 9x family of operating systems. There are 16-bit and 32-bit versions of the FAT file system, called FAT16 and FAT32, respectively. The FAT16 file system is frequently called simply FAT. The FAT16 file system can store files with names containing up to eight alphanumeric characters and a three-letter file extension. FAT16 file names can’t contain spaces or most punctuation characters. This is the file system that was used with DOS, Windows 3.1, and Windows 95. FAT16 volumes cannot be larger than 4GB. Newer Windows versions can read FAT16 volumes and in many cases create them. However, this support is provided for backward compatibility reasons and, in general you should choose a more modern file system. A derivative of FAT, FAT32 was originally introduced in Windows 95 OSR2. The FAT32 file system can store files with names containing up to 255 characters and with extensions longer than three characters. FAT32 file names can contain spaces but still can’t contain most punctuation characters. FAT32 volumes cannot be larger than 2TB. This file system is used with Windows 98 and Me and is supported by Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, though it is less commonly used in these latter operating systems. As with FAT16, modern Windows versions support FAT32 but mostly for backward compatibility reasons. FAT16 and FAT32 don’t support file-level security. Volume sizes are more limited than with NTFS. Performance of a FAT32 drive is at least theoretically less than that offered by an NTFS volume of similar size. Server versions of Windows cannot store domain information on a FAT32 volume. For those reasons, administrators typically choose NTFS rather than FAT32 for hard drives, both internal and external. However, most flash drives are preformatted with FAT or FAT32. Extended FAT (exFAT), sometimes known as FAT64, is a new file system that Microsoft introduced in 2006. exFAT removes the file and directory size limits of FAT32, and it provides support for access control lists when used with Windows 7. So far exFAT has been used primarily for Flash and other removable media and portable devices, such as external hard drives. Windows 2000 computers can’t access exFAT volumes; Windows XP computers require an update from Microsoft; and Windows Vista computers require Service Pack 1 or later. Windows 7 computer natively support access to exFAT volumes. The NTFS file system The Windows NT File System (NTFS) was originally developed for Windows NT. This file system has been updated continually since and is the default file system for Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Server. As of this writing, the current version of NTFS is version 5 (NTFSv5).


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NTFS theoretically supports astronomically large partition sizes. A partition can in theory contain up to 264-1 clusters, each of which could be up to 64KB for a total size of approximately 1 yottabyte (1 YB, or 280 bytes). Actual implementations of the file system in various Windows versions impose smaller volume size limits. For example, Windows XP permits up to 232-1 clusters. With 64 KB clusters (the maximum size), an NTFS partition on Windows XP can store up to approximately 256 TB. With NTFS, individual files can theoretically be up to 16 exabytes (EB). An NTFS volume can store up to 4,294,967,295 (232-1) files. NTFS supports file compression and encryption. In addition, NTFS contains structures that make it more resilient and less prone to file loss or corruption than other file systems. Some of the advantages of NTFS include:  Greater scalability for large disks and better performance than FAT-based systems on larger partitions.  Ability to configure security permissions on individual files and folders stored on an NTFS partition or volume.  Built-in support for both compression and encryption.  Ability to configure disk space quotas for individual users.  Recovery logging of disk activities, which allows information about NTFS partitions or volumes to be recovered quickly in the event of system problems.  Support for dynamic disks (or dynamic volumes) in which a single volume can span multiple physical disks. The opposite, basic disks, must be contained within a single physical disk. If you are running a dual-boot system in which one of the operating systems cannot read NTFS volumes, you might want to use FAT32 (or maybe even FAT16). Otherwise, in most situations, you use NTFS with Windows 2000 Professional, all versions of Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7.

10–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One File system comparison The following table compares selected features of the FAT16, FAT32, and NTFS file systems. Feature

FAT16

FAT32

NTFS

File name length

1–8 characters

1–255 characters*

1–255 characters*

File extensions

0–3 characters

0–255 characters*

0–255 characters*

Maximum file size

2 GB

4 GB

16 EB (exabytes)

Maximum volume size

2 GB

32 GB (some OSes up to 2TB)

256 TB (theoretically much higher with NTFSv5)

Maximum files per volume

65,536

4,194,304

4,294,967,295

Most often used with

DOS, Windows 3.1, Windows 95

Windows 9x, Me

Windows NT, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, and Windows Server

Supports file-level security

No

No

Yes

Supports file compression and encryption

No

No

Yes

* FAT32 and NTFS file names are limited to 255 characters overall, which are divided between the file name and extension. For example, you could assign a 200-character file name and a 55-character file extension.

The directory tree Most PC operating systems use the paradigm of a directory tree to organize files. In this scheme, a disk contains one or more folders, also called directories. Each folder can contain files and additional folders (subfolders). These folders are arranged in a familytree-like hierarchy collectively called the directory tree. The root directory is the highest-level folder on the disk; it’s the starting point for the directory tree. As shown in Exhibit 10-12, the root directory is typically identified as Local Disk (C:) in Windows Explorer. The root directory can contain files and folders. In the FAT16 file system, the root directory can contain a maximum of 512 files and folders (total). The FAT32 and NTFS file systems don’t have this limitation.


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Exhibit 10-12: Windows Explorer identifies the root directory of C: as “Local Disk (C:)” A file system table (called a file allocation table in the FAT file systems) stores the name and address of the first cluster of each file and folder contained in the root directory. A marker in each cluster either notes the address of the file’s next cluster or marks it as the last cluster in the chain. Folders other than the root directory are essentially files that contain data about the actual files and folders they contain. The operating system reads these special files and uses the information in them to display the list of files and folders. There’s no limit to how many files and folders you can store in a folder that’s not the root directory (other than the overall limits defined by the file system type).

10–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Formatting Formatting clears out the file system tables and structures to prepare them to store new files. Formatting defines the type of file system that’s used on a hard disk. Although formatting is considered a destructive process, you can sometimes recover from accidentally reformatting your hard drive. The contents of the disk clusters aren’t overwritten when you format the disk. Instead, just the file allocation tables are emptied. Special utilities can painstakingly read every cluster on the disk to recover most of what was stored in the file allocation tables. You’ll probably lose some files during the recovery, but you’ll be able to recover most of your data. You can use the format command, included with most Windows operating systems, to format a hard drive. You can also use the text-mode diskpart utility with some Windows versions. Starting with Windows 2000, you can use the Disk Management console to format volumes.

The Disk Management utility You can use the Disk Management utility in Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 to manage hard disks and partitions. To open Disk Management, open Computer Management (right-click My Computer or Computer, and choose Manage), and select Disk Management in the left pane. Disk Management displays information about all hard disks and partitions in the computer. You can create partitions and format volumes, and you can add and initialize new hard disks.


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Depending on the status of a hard disk or partition, Disk Management will display one of the status messages listed in the following table. Status

For

Description

Healthy

Partition/Volume

The partition/volume is available for use and functioning correctly. If the partition or volume shows “Healthy (At Risk),” it means that I/O errors have been detected.

Unallocated

Partition/Volume

The partition/volume hasn’t been formatted yet.

Formatting

Partition/Volume

The partition/volume is being formatted.

Failed

Partition/Volume

The disk containing the partition/volume is likely damaged, or the file system has become corrupt.

Basic

Disk

The disk is configured as a basic disk.

Dynamic

Disk

The disk is configured as a dynamic disk.

Not initialized

Disk

The disk doesn’t contain a valid signature. You will have to re-initialize the disk.

Initializing

Disk

The disk is being initialized by the operating system.

Online

Disk

The disk is accessible and functioning correctly. A disk will show “Online (Errors)” when a volume status is Healthy (At Risk).

Offline

Disk

The dynamic disk has suffered a hardware failure or has become corrupted in some way. If the status changes to Missing, the disk can no longer be located.

Unreadable

Disk

This status indicates a hardware failure or I/O errors.

Foreign

Disk

This status is displayed on a dynamic disk that’s been moved from another Windows computer. You can import the foreign disk into Disk Management to access its data.


B-2:

Partitioning and formatting a hard drive

Questions and answers 1 Give at least one reason you might choose to use the FAT32 file system rather than NTFS on a Windows 7 system.

2 List at least two advantages of NTFS over FAT32.

3 When do you assign the file system that’s used on the disks in your PC?

4 Boot your PC and log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234

If necessary.

5 Click Start and right-click Computer Choose Manage

To open the Computer Management console.

6 In the left pane, select Disk Management You should have space that is listed as Unallocated.

7 Select the Unallocated space

The size of your unallocated space might vary from that shown in the screen.

8 Right-click the Unallocated space and choose New Simple Volume… 9 Click Next 10 In the “Simple volume size in MB” box, enter a number that is approximately half the current value Again, the size of your unallocated space might vary from that shown in the screen.


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11 Click Next 12 Click Next

To accept the default drive-letter assignment.

13 In the Volume label box, type My Drive

14 Observe the options

A quick format doesn’t scan the disk for bad sectors like a normal format does. You choose this option if your hard disk has been formatted before and you’re sure that the hard disk isn’t damaged. The file and folder compression feature decreases the size of files and folders, reducing the amount of space they use on your storage devices.

15 Click Next 16 Record the drive letter of your new drive

Drive letter: _________

17 Click Finish

To proceed with partitioning and formatting.

18 Close Computer Management 19 in the AutoPlay box, click Open folder to view files

Close Windows Explorer

This window displays the contents of the new volume. It’s currently empty.

10–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Mounting a volume to a local folder Instead of assigning a drive letter to a volume, you can mount it to a local folder on an NTFS partition. Disk Management will assign a drive path instead of a drive letter. Windows creates what’s called a mount point between the volume and the file system; the mount point provides invisible access to the mounted drive. To mount a volume, in Disk Management, right-click the partition or volume you want to mount and click Change Drive Letter and Paths. Click Add, and click “Mount in the following empty NTFS folder.” Type the path to the folder, or click Browse to find it. Using the Browse button is generally recommended: you’re sure to specify the correct path to the mount point, and if needed, you can create the folder to which the volume will be mounted. Do it!

B-3:

Mounting a volume

Here’s how 1 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose

Here’s why To open Computer Management.

Manage

2 Under Storage, select Disk Management

3 Right-click the unallocated space on your primary disk and choose New Simple Volume…

Click Next 4 In the size box, enter 5000, and click Next

To create a 5 GB volume.

5 Select Mount in the

To mount the new volume to the empty C:\Marketing folder.

following empty NTFS folder, and in the box, type C:\Marketing

Click Next 6 Edit the Volume label box to read My mount

Verify Perform a quick format is checked and click Next Click Finish


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7 Open Computer and display the C:\ drive Observe the new icon for the Marketing folder

It has changed to reflect the mounted volume.

8 Right-click the Marketing folder and choose Properties Observe the General tab

You can see the mounted-drive icon and the Mounted Volume type in the description.

Click Cancel 9 In Disk Management, right-click My mount and choose Change Drive Letter and Paths…

Click Remove

To remove the mount point.

Click Yes 10 In Computer, observe the Marketing folder 11 Close all open windows

The icon has changed. The mount point has been removed.

10–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Fault tolerance Fault tolerance is the ability of a system to continue operating during a component or environmental failure. For example, by using a backup power generator, your server can continue running even during a blackout. A multi-processor computer might continue running in the event one of its CPUs fails. Even though it would perform more slowly, the server could continue running until you replaced the failed CPU. Data backups are not an example of fault tolerance, even though they are critical to prevent data loss. If a hard drive fails, data created since the last backup is lost. Furthermore, your system can be offline until you provision a new server and restore data from your backup. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent [or Inexpensive] Disks) is a fault-tolerant data storage scheme in which multiple drives are used to store your data. In its simplest form, two disks are used. Data is written to both disks simultaneously. If one drive fails, data can still be accessed from the remaining drive. Many more advanced RAID schemes exist and are covered in the next section. RAID can be implemented through software, which manages writing and reading data from the multiple disks and managing operations in the event of a disk failure. RAID can also be implemented through hardware. For example, you might use a special disk adapter to which you connect two hard drives. The adapter handles writing to the disks during normal operations and accessing or rebuilding data when a drive fails. The Windows Server products support software RAID configurations via built-in features. Third-party utilities also enable you to create RAID configurations without relying on operating system-specific features. Third-party hardware-based solutions are also widely available.

RAID levels RAID is a technique for adding redundancy, lengthening disk life, improving performance, and enabling relatively uninterrupted access to data. There are various basic levels of RAID, which have been extended by nesting the basic types.


10–35

The basic RAID levels are as follows:  RAID level 0 — Striping with no redundancy features. Striping works by spreading data equally over two or more drives, as shown in Exhibit 10-13. It is used to extend disk life and to improve performance. Data access on striped volumes is fast because of the way the data is divided into blocks that are quickly accessed through simultaneous disk reads and multiple data paths. The disadvantage is that if one disk fails, you can expect a loss of all data on the volume.

Exhibit 10-13: RAID level 0, two disks in a striped volume  RAID level 1 — Disk mirroring. Data is duplicated onto multiple drives (a “mirror” set), typically two disks. In the event of a failure of one of the disks, data can be read from the secondary disk (or disks). Disk mirroring is illustrated on the left in Exhibit 10-14. Disk duplexing, illustrated on the right in Exhibit 10-14, is similar to disk mirroring, but each disk is managed by a separate adapter.

Exhibit 10-14: RAID level 1, disk mirroring (left) and duplexing (right)

10–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One  RAID level 2 — Bit-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped, bit by bit, across all disks in the array. Parity (error detection) information is stored on one or more dedicated disks in the array. RAID 2 is rarely used.  RAID level 3 — Byte-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped, byte by byte, across the disks in the array. Parity is stored on a dedicated parity disk. RAID 3 offers high-read performance, but write performance can suffer because of the bottleneck caused by the single parity drive.

Exhibit 10-15: RAID 3 stripes data and stores parity on a dedicated drive  RAID level 4 — Block-level striping with dedicated parity. Data is striped, block by block, across the disks in the array. Parity is stored on a dedicated parity disk.  RAID level 5 — Block-level striping with distributed parity. Data is striped block-by-block across the disks in the array. Parity is distributed across all of the disks rather than being stored on a dedicated parity disk. Distributing the parity data removes the single drive bottleneck that limits write performance in lowernumbered RAID levels.

Exhibit 10-16: RAID 5 stripes data and parity across a set of drives  RAID level 6 — Block-level striping with double distributed parity. Essentially identical to RAID 5, except that the parity information associated with each block of data is stored twice (on separate drives). This enables the array to continue operating in the event of two failed drives.


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Nested RAID levels In many cases, the drives in an array can themselves be arrays. Such a configuration creates a nested array, in which one whole array takes the place of a single drive in a larger array. This arrangement was originally called a hybrid array but is now generally called nested. The most common nested RAID levels are:  RAID 0+1 (or RAID 01) — A mirrored set of striped disks. At minimum, this arrangement requires four drives. For example, two drives are striped and then mirrored with another pair of striped drives.

Exhibit 10-17: RAID 0+1 is a mirrored set of stripes  RAID 1+0 (or RAID 10) — A striped set of mirrored disks. For example, two mirrored drives are striped with another pair of mirrored drives.

Exhibit 10-18: RAID 1+0 is a striped set of mirrors Many other nested RAID combinations are possible. Each offers a mix of benefits, such as greater redundancy or higher performance, and detractions, such as higher costs and greater complexity.

10–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Considerations for using RAID When considering a RAID solution, keep the following factors in mind.  RAID 0 (striping) doesn’t provide any redundancy. Its only benefit is speed.  Windows Server 2000 and newer and Windows Vista and 7 natively support RAID levels 0, 1, and 5 via dynamic disks. You must install, partition and convert each to dynamic disks first. Then, you can use Disk Management to join them into a single volume based on one of the three listed RAID levels.  You can place the boot and system files onto a RAID 1 volume when using Windows Server, but not with the client operating systems. You cannot place these files on a RAID 5 volume.  There is a minimum number of required physical disks for each of the RAID levels. For example, RAID 1 requires at least two disks. RAID 5 requires at least three disks, though typically more are used.  On a per-gigabyte (or per-megabyte) level, RAID level 1 is more expensive to implement than RAID level 5. The reason for this is that, with RAID 1, half of your total disk space is used for redundancy, whereas that value is one-third or less for RAID 5. The amount of disk space used for parity in RAID 5 is 1/n times the capacity of your smallest drive, where n is the number of drives in the array.  Reading from disk is faster than writing with both RAID 1 (duplexing) and RAID 5. This difference results from the system’s being able to read files or blocks of data from multiple drives simultaneously, whereas it must write as a singular operation. Level-specific considerations In addition to the general considerations given in the preceding section, there are factors specific to each level that you should examine when choosing a solution. RAID level

Benefits

Detractions

RAID 0 (striping)

Reduces the wear on multiple disk drives by equally spreading the load.

No fault tolerance other than that gained through reduced wear.

Increases disk performance compared to a single disk.

A loss of a single disk in the stripe set destroys the data on the entire volume.

Enables you to create larger volumes than a single physical drive might permit. RAID 1 (mirroring or duplexing)

Increases read performance over single-disk solution. Can protect the boot and system volumes. You can “split the mirror” to back up one drive while the other one services ongoing disk requests.

With mirroring, write performance can be degraded, because a single adapter manages write operations to both disks in the set. Depending on the software and hardware implementation, read performance might not be enhanced. For example, older IDE adapters could read from only one of the drives in a set. Software might compare data read from each drive to check for errors, thus reducing performance to a single-drive level.


10–39

RAID level

Benefits

Detractions

RAID 5 (striping with distributed parity)

Read and write performance can be better than with a single drive as long as writes, on average, involve the same amount of or more data than will fit in a single stripe.

When writing chunks of data smaller than a single stripe, the overhead for calculating parity can reduce performance below that of a single disk (or mirror or stripe).

Lower cost-per-gigabyte compared to RAID 1.

The performance of random write operations, such as those associated with databases, is slower than with a single disk (or mirror or stripe). Mean time between failures (MTBF) can theoretically be worse than that of a single disk.

Software RAID and hardware RAID Two approaches to RAID can be implemented on a computer: software RAID and hardware RAID. Software RAID implements fault tolerance through the computer’s operating system (such as by using the Disk Management tool in Windows) or through third-party software. Hardware RAID is implemented through hardware in the server or a dedicated storage subsystem and is independent of the operating system. Some manufacturers have implemented hardware RAID on the adapter, such as a SCSI adapter, to which you connect multiple drives. You can also purchase dedicated storage appliances, such as a storage area network (SAN) or network attached storage (NAS), that might implement one of the RAID levels. (Not all SAN and NAS devices implement RAID.) Hardware-based RAID is more expensive, but offers the following advantages over software-based RAID:  Read and write performance can be better with hardware-based RAID. The hardware might implement caching or optimization techniques. Even without caching, RAID hardware manages striping or mirroring operations or calculates the parity, removing that burden from the operating system.  Depending on the hardware system, you might be able to place boot and system files on different RAID levels than those supported by Windows software-level RAID.  Typically, you can hot-swap a failed disk without shutting down the server when using a hardware-based RAID. (This option can vary by manufacturer.)  Manufacturers might offer additional redundancy features that cannot be matched by software. For example, a built-in battery backup can prevent data corruption that might occur if the power goes out in the middle of a write operation.


B-4:

Exploring fault tolerance

Questions and answers 1 How many hard disks are required to implement a RAID-5 volume at a minimum? A

Two

B

Three

C

Four

D

Five

2 What term is used to describe disk mirroring when each drive is connected to its own hard disk controller? A

Disk mirroring

B

Disk duplexing

C

Shadowing

D

Controller mirror

3 Which of the following RAID levels provides no fault tolerance? A

RAID 0

B

RAID 1

C

RAID 4

D

RAID 5


10–41

Topic C: Optical drives This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam objective. #

Objective

1.1

Categorize storage devices and backup media  Optical drives – CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray  Removable storage – External CD-RW and hard drive

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam objective. #

Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Optical drives  CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray

CDs Explanation

CDs are 120 mm (12 cm) plastic discs that contain a layer of reflective metal-alloy foil encased in transparent plastic. The CD contains a single spiral track. A 74-minute CD can hold 650 MB of data; an 80-minute CD can hold 700 MB of data. Exhibit 10-19 illustrates the components of a CD.

Exhibit 10-19: Components of a CD

10–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Commercially produced CDs are created through a process called mastering. A glass template is made by depositing a thin film of nickel onto a glass disc. A high-powered laser removes portions of the nickel coating to create pits and “lands” (high, flat spots). Nearly melted plastic discs are pressed against the glass master disc—using as much as 40 tons of force—to form the almost-finished discs. The CDs are clear at this point, so a layer of aluminum is deposited on them to increase reflectivity. Labels are often applied or printed on the CDs before the manufacturing process is complete. A group of colored books known as the Rainbow Books detail the specifications for various types of CDs. The Red Book contains the specifications for audio CDs, the Yellow Book contains the specs for CD-ROMs, and the Orange Book contains the specs for recordable CDs. The Orange Book contains sections for CD-MO (magneto optical), CD-R (previously known as CD-WO for write once), and CD-RW (rewritable) discs. Recordable CDs Writable CDs are written using a process called burning. This is what you do when you write to CDs with your PC. CD-R discs can be read many times but written to just once. They’re composed of a gold metal alloy and an organic dye. The dye is heated with the laser, and this process causes pits and bumps. CD-RW discs have a silver alloy layer. The alloy can exist in two states—crystalline and amorphous (non-crystalline)—each of which reflects the read laser’s light differently. A two-powered laser system is used to transform the alloy between states. A high-power laser melts the alloy, which cools to its amorphous state. A lower-powered laser melts the alloy so that it crystallizes as it cools. CD-RW discs can be written to multiple times, and you don’t have to write the entire disc in a single operation. Sessions An optical disc is arranged in sessions. Each session contains these components:  Lead-in—contains meta information about the session, including a table of contents. It serves a similar purpose to the partition table on a hard drive.  Tracks—each session can contain up to 99 tracks, which contain the actual data.  Lead-out—contains closure information on the session. A single-session disc, such as a typical CD-R, contains one session. Multisession discs, as the name implies, contain more than one session. Regardless of type, an optical disc must contain at least one session.

CD drives CD drives have largely been supplanted by multi-format drives that can read (and maybe write) CDs, DVDs, and other optical disc types. If your computer has a “plain” CD drive, it is typically one of two types:  CD-ROM drive — Can only read from CDs.  CD-RW drives — Can read from and write to CDs.


10–43

CD drives of either type contain three major parts, which are illustrated in Exhibit 1020.  The drive motor — Drives the spindle, which spins the disc.  The laser lens and laser pickup — Focuses in on and reads the disc.  The tracking drive and tracking motor — Moves the laser to follow the track on the CD. Spindle

Laser

Tray

Exhibit 10-20: CD drive components Drives might also contain buttons to control the operation of the CD. The buttons include:  Start  Stop  Next track  Previous track The drive might also contain:  A headphone jack.  A volume control dial.  A release hole. Pushing a stiff wire, such as a straightened paper clip, into this hole forces open the tray or ejects the disc. You use this hole if software cannot be used to eject the disc, such as when the power is off. Be careful if you use this mechanism, as it is possible to damage the disc or the drive itself, if the wire misses the release lever inside the drive. File systems and formats CDs can store either digital computer data or audio information. These data types are stored using different formats. Data is stored using the ISO 9660 file system, also known as CDFS (Compact Disc File System). ISO 9660 (CDFS) is supported by many operating systems, including Windows, Macintosh, and most Linux versions. Audio CDs are recorded in the Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA) format. CD-DA is a two-channel (stereo) 16-bit PCM encoded format with a 44.1 kHz sampling rate per channel. Monaural (mono) sound is not officially included in the standard; typically, mono recordings are stored in a single channel or both channels store matching copies of the mono audio.

10–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One CD drive speeds The speed of a CD drive is expressed as #X, where # is a number. A 1X CD transfers data at approximately 150 KBps. The original tactic to improve performance was simply to spin the disc faster. Thus a 2X drive spins the disc twice as fast to double the throughput. This technique worked up to approximately 12X, at which point vibrations and heat problems prevented any further speed increases. In practice, the X rates higher than about 10X don’t represent an actual spin rate difference. They do, however, represent an approximate throughput multiplier. (Actual rates are often not quite as good as the advertised values.) Thus, a 52X drive spins about 10 times faster than the original 1X drive and achieves further throughput increases through faster electronics, multiple read heads, and other techniques. The theoretical throughput of a 52X drive is 7,800 KBps. CD drives can use either a constant linear velocity (CLV) or constant angular velocity (CAV) method for spinning the disc, or they can use variations, such as zoned CLV ZCLV). With CLV, a consistent linear area of the disc spins by the read heads in a given time, regardless of where the laser is located. In other words, the disc turns faster when the laser is near the outer edge than when it’s near the inner edge of the disc. CAV discs are spun at the same RPMs, regardless of where the laser is located. Spin rates range from 210 to 539 RPM for a 1X drive and at higher rates for faster drives.

DVDs Like CDs, DVDs are 120 mm (12 cm) diameter discs but are often thinner than CDs. DVDs use a different encoding method than the one CDs use, and DVDs are higherdensity discs. The higher density requires a narrower laser beam than CDs require. A DVD track is 0.74 microns wide, whereas a CD track is 1.6 microns wide. DVD drives have become standard devices on computers, typically replacing CD drives. Many computers include DVD-Rewritable (DVD-RW) drives. Read-only DVD drives can sometimes read and write CDs. A DVD drive running at 1X transfers data at 1.38 MB per second. DVD drives are available in higher speeds, up to 16X. They come in read-only, write-once, and rewritable versions. Note that a 1X DVD is approximately nine times as fast as a 1X CD drive. DVD drives use red and infrared lasers with a 650 nm laser beam. Compare this to the longer-wavelength 780 nm laser used for CDs. To play a DVD movie, the computer system requires an MPEG-2 decoder. Originally, this was a separate board installed in the system. Sometimes it was incorporated into the graphics card. Current systems are powerful enough to handle decoding the content through software. DVD media A standard DVD disc has a 4.7 GB capacity. This DVD is also known as a DVD-5; the “5” refers to the DVD holding almost 5 GB. Discs can be single-sided and singlelayered, as the DVD-5 disc is. A 3" mini-disc is also available; it holds 1.5 GB of data. Data DVDs use the UDF (universal disc format) file system. (Movie and other noncomputer data DVDs don’t use UDF.)


10–45

DVDs can also be double-sided, double-layered, double-sided single-layered, or any combination of single and double sides and layers. Double layering is achieved by having two layers of pits, one deeper than the other. The laser is refocused on the deeper layer to read the second layer. The following table summarizes the number of sides and layers and the capacities of various types of DVDs. DVD type

Sides

Layers

Capacity

DVD-5

Single

Single

4.7 GB

DVD-9

Single

Double

8.5 GB

DVD-10

Double

Single on both sides

9.4 GB

DVD-14

Double

Double on one side, single on the other side

13.3 GB

DVD-18

Double

Double on both sides

17.1 GB

DVD standards, which were created by the DVD Forum, include DVD-R, DVD-RW, and DVD-RAM. Media created according to these standards can display the DVD logo. Full details can be found on the DVD Forum Web site, at http://dvdforum.org. Another source for further information about DVDs is http://dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html. The DVD+RW Alliance created standards for DVD+RW, DVD+R, and DVD+ R DL media. These aren’t official DVD standards and can’t display the DVD logo. Instead, they display the RW logo. Details can be found at the http://dvdrw.com Web site. DVD-Rs and DVD+Rs are both write-once media, however with DVD+R discs, you don’t have to write the entire disc in a single session; you can record additional sessions later. This makes DVD+Rs more suitable for use with a computer in which you might record data in a series of sessions. DVD-Rs are reputedly more compatible with home theater DVD players, though that’s not as true now as it used to be. DVD-ROM discs, being non-recordable, are used to distribute software. DVD-RW and DVD+RW are rewritable discs, with the latter being faster to format. A DVD-RAM holds up to 9.4 GB. That standard never became well established, and few modern systems can use it.

10–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Blu-ray discs The Blu-ray disc was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group of representatives from consumer electronics manufacturers, computer hardware manufacturers, and the motion picture industry. The Blu-ray standards were finalized in 2004. Blu-ray discs are optical discs created with a “blue” (actually, violet) 405 nm laser. Because of the violet laser’s shorter wavelength, standard dual-layer Blu-ray 12cm discs hold up to 50 GB of data, and single-layer Blu-ray discs hold up to 25 GB of data. This capacity is significantly higher than a DVD’s capacity. It’s important to note that the Blu-ray specifications don’t indicate a maximum upper storage limit. There are less common higher capacity discs available such as:  Quad-layer (100 GB) discs consisting of four layers containing 25 GB each  Discs that can hold 200 GB of data on a single side, using six 33 GB data layers.  400 GB discs containing 16 data layers of 25 GB each  Hybrid discs that contain both Blu-ray and DVD layers on the same side of the disc. For example, Infinity’s Code Blue disk contains a single Blu-ray Disc layer (25 GB) and two standard DVD layers (9 GB) on the same side of the disc Some of the higher capacity discs require special equipment or firmware to be read. Currently, Blu-ray discs are primarily used to store high-definition video or large amounts of data. Blu-ray discs are also available in a mini size of 8cm designed for use in consumer electronic equipment, such as camcorders. The mini-Blu-ray single-layer discs hold up to 7.8 GB of data, and the double-layer discs hold up to 15.6 GB. Blu-ray recordable There are two types of recordable Blu-ray media:  BD-R discs can be written once  BD-RE can be erased and rerecorded multiple times The maximum recording speed for Blu-ray discs is currently 12×. This isn’t as high as a standard DVD’s 20x or 25x, because the higher speeds of rotation cause too much wobble for Blu-ray discs to be read properly.

Optical drive installation Installing an optical drive is similar to installing other internal drives. In addition to the interface cable and power cable, older optical drives had an audio cable that connected to the sound card so you could listen to music and other audio components from the disc. Modern drives no longer need or use such a cable. You need a 5.25" drive bay to install an internal optical drive. Older drives required you to use a horizontal bay, because the disc trays and loading mechanisms did not work in a vertical orientation. Modern drives, particularly slot-style drives, can be installed in a vertical orientation. Verify that the interface cable and power cable can both reach the back of the optical drive. You can get extensions for the power cable if you need to, but not for the interface cable. If required, make sure the audio cable reaches from the sound card to the optical drive.


10–47

Before installing the drive, you need to set the jumpers on an IDE drive to master, slave, or cable-select. It’s much easier to set them before you install the drive into the bay. On SCSI drives, you need to set the device ID and perhaps termination. For most systems, the drive is installed directly into the bay and screwed in place. Along both sides of the drive are screw holes that you should be able to match up with holes in the bay. In some systems, there’s a box you remove; you install the drive in the box and re-install the box in the computer. Some systems, usually older ones, use drive rails. The rails attach to both sides of the drive, and they slide into the bay to hold the drive in place. After you’ve fit the drive into the bay, you should check that the door to the optical drive can open freely and that the tray can extend freely. If the drive is off-kilter and hits against the frame, you won’t be able to open the drive and insert a disc in the tray. Optical drive connections Optical drives can be internal or external devices. Internal devices can be connected via IDE, Serial ATA, or SCSI. External drives are most often IEEE 1394 or USB 2.0 devices. Some external drives might also be connected via SCSI, or even a parallel connection for older drives. External versions aren’t as popular as they were in the past because computers now come with internal optical drives as standard components. Optical drive connections are shown in Exhibit 10-21.

Exhibit 10-21: Optical drive connections: here, for a CD drive Drivers After you install an optical drive and restart your PC, Windows should detect the new hardware. Windows will try to identify and install the appropriate driver for the drive. If Windows can’t find it, you’ll be prompted to supply the driver from another source. If your drive requires specific drivers, they should have been supplied on a disc with the drive. The drivers are usually available from the Internet as well. Hardware manufacturers maintain up-to-date drivers on their Web sites. Other third-party Web sites also maintain drivers for many devices, but third-party sites might not have the most current versions of drivers.


C-1:

Installing an optical drive

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Turn off the computer Remove any external cables 2 Open the computer case

Refer to the system documentation if necessary.

3 If you’re replacing an optical drive, remove the cables from the back of the drive Remove the drive from the drive bay

Unscrew any screws securing it to the bay.

4 Locate pin 1 on the drive’s data connector

So that you install the data interface cable correctly in a later step. It’s easier to do this before installing the drive, while you can hold it up to the light, turn it over, and inspect it more closely. Pin 1 is most often located on the side nearest the power connection.

5 Set the drive for Master, Slave, or Cable Select

If it’s an IDE drive.

Set the drive ID

If it’s a SCSI drive.

Terminate the drive

If it’s the last drive in a SCSI chain.

6 Insert the drive in the drive bay Mount the drive

Use the mounting method required by your computer.

Secure the drive in place

Use screws or whatever mechanism your system uses to secure the drive to the bay.

7 Verify the alignment with the case

To make sure the drive door and disc tray can open freely.


10–49

8 Connect the interface cable

It should be connected to the secondary IDE channel or to the SCSI chain, if it’s a SCSI drive.

Connect the power cable

Be sure that it’s properly oriented and firmly plugged in.

Connect the audio cable

If the sound card contains a wire to connect to the optical drive.

9 Reconnect the power cord and external cables

You’ll listen to an audio CD.

Turn on the computer 10 Observe the New Hardware bubble

A message should be displayed, stating that new hardware was found.

11 Place an audio CD in the optical drive 12 If this is the first time you’ve run Windows Media Player, you’re prompted to configure settings Select Recommended settings

Click Finish 13 Click the Stop button, and remove all discs from the optical drive 14 Close Windows Media Player

Windows Media Player opens and the first track on the CD begins playing.

10–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Using optical drives When you load an optical disc in the drive, Windows 7 and earlier Windows operating systems ask you what you want to do with the CD. (AutoPlay has since been removed to help prevent malware from loading.) The options listed in the AutoPlay dialog box depend on the type of disc you inserted. Exhibit 10-22 shows the options displayed when an audio CD is loaded into the drive.

Exhibit 10-22: The AutoPlay options in Windows Vista for an audio CD CD software By default, you can read and write audio CDs by using Windows Media Player. If you have other software installed that can read from or write to CDs, then when you insert a CD, the “What do you want Windows to do?” options includes the actions provided by the additional software. A list of CD recording software can be found at Andy McFadden’s CD-Recordable FAQ Web site, at http://cdrfaq.org/faq06.html. Playing DVD and Blu-ray discs Movies and video are encoded in a compressed format before being stored to optical disc. To play back such videos, you need a matching decoder. Common encoding formats include MPEG-2, MPEG-4, DivX, H.263, and H.264. Windows Media Player and other video playback software won’t typically support every encoding format. You might need to add missing decoders in order to play back some video types. Visit the software vendor’s site to download or purchase add-on decoders for your software.

Data storage devices Do it!

C-2:

10–51

Using an optical drive

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Place an audio CD in the CD drive 2 Select Recommended Settings

Click Finish

(If necessary.) To configure Windows Media Player on your computer. The audio CD begins playing automatically in Windows Media Player.

3 Click

To pause the playing of the CD. The Pause button becomes the Play button.

4 Click

The Play button becomes the Pause button again.

5 Click

Notice that the progress bar continues moving while Mute is enabled. The Mute button becomes the Sound button.

Click

6 Click

Click 7 Click

Check two titles and clear all others 8 Click 9 After the songs are copied, remove the audio disc and insert a blank CD-R or CD-RW in the CD-RW drive

To unmute the CD.

To copy songs from the CD automatically to the Windows Media Player Library. The playback continues as the files are copied to the hard drive and stored in the library. To stop the copy.

To open the library. Here you can select which files you want to rip from the CD. To copy only two songs to the library.

To rip the two selected songs from the CD to the library.

10–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 10 Click open the Burn tab

In the left pane, select Music Scroll to find the two songs you just added

Windows Media Player ships with some free music samples.

11 Select and drag the two songs to the Burn list

12 Click Files are converted and then copied to the CD. The progress percentage is shown in the lower part of the window.

Observe the Status column

When the CD burn is complete, the CD drive tray opens.

13 Close the CD drive tray

If the player is capable of playing burned CDs, you can listen to the CD you just made.

14 Click

To stop playing the CD.

15 Remove the CD from the drive 16 Close Windows Media Player


10–53

Topic D: Removable storage devices This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam objective. #

Objective

1.1

Categorize storage devices and backup media  FDD  Removable storage – Tape drive – Solid state (e.g., thumb drive, flash, SD card, USB) – Hot-swappable devices and non-hot-swappable devices


Objective

1.1

Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Storage devices – FDD – Removable  External

USB flash drives Explanation

USB flash drives are a popular storage solution. They are about the size of an adult person’s thumb or a pack of chewing gum, and they weigh about as much as a car key. They come with capacities from a few megabytes to many gigabytes. Their capacity is much greater than that of a floppy disk, and many flash drives can hold more than a CD can. Flash drives are designed to be hot-swappable, meaning that you can attach or detach the device from your computer without shutting the PC down and restarting it. This functionality is part of the USB specification. When hot-swapping, be sure that the drive has finished writing before you remove it. If the drive is in the middle of a write operation when you disconnect it, the file that was being written, or even the entire directory structure, can become unreadable. Sometimes, an LED light on the drive indicates when a write operation is in progress. Generally, you should use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to stop the device before removing it from the computer. Some computer makers recommend ejecting the drive instead. To do so, right-click the USB flash drive in Windows Explorer and choose Eject. Exhibit 10-23 shows three USB flash drives. Notice that the top one is made to look like a pen, and the drive is contained in half of the pen. Most drives have a size and shape similar to these examples, but some have slightly different shapes. Some drives have bulges and ridges to make them easier to grip when you’re inserting them in and removing them from the USB port.


Exhibit 10-23: USB flash drives The technical specifications of USB flash drives can be found at the usb.org Web site. In general, USB flash drives are typically composed of:  A controller with a USB interface  A non-volatile memory interface connected to memory Optionally, USB flash drives might include:  An LED to indicate drive activity  A crystal for external clock generation on high-speed drives  A write-protect switch  A fingerprint sensor  An integrated MP3 player Some flash drives have a built-in MP3 player. A 2 GB drive can hold 33 hours’ worth of MP3 files. Exhibit 10-24 shows a flash MP3 player.

Exhibit 10-24: Flash MP3 player The drivers that support USB flash drives are included in Windows 2000 Professional and all versions of Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7. Drivers are also included in Macintosh OS 9 and OS X or later, as well as Linux kernels 2.4 and later. Many flash drives come with one or more security features. These include:  Encryption  Password protection  A fingerprint sensor


10–55

Booting from flash drives The BIOS in newer computers often supports booting from a flash drive. Older computers typically do not permit this boot option. Of course, your flash drive itself must be bootable. The manufacturer might supply a utility to make the drive bootable. Third-party utilities and publishers of “portable applications” also provide tools to make a flash drive bootable. Do it!

D-1:

Using a USB flash drive

The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 10\Topic D.

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Remove the cover from the flash drive, or connect the USB cable to the drive

If appropriate.

2 Connect the USB drive or its cable to an open USB port on your computer

Modern PCs include front-accessible USB ports to make it more convenient for users to connect USB drives and other similar devices.

Observe the Windows notification area

Windows 7 installs appropriate drivers and notifies you that the device is ready for use. The AutoPlay dialog box is displayed, as is a Driver Software Installation dialog box.

3 In the Driver Software Installation box, click Close

4 Click Open folder to view

files using Windows Explorer

5 Observe the files on the flash drive

The drive might be empty.

6 From the student data folder for this unit, copy USB drive.txt to the USB drive

Drag a file onto the drive’s icon or into its window.

7 Close Windows Explorer

10–56 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 8 In the system tray, click

The Safely Remove Hardware and Eject Media icon. (You might have to click the arrow button to display the icon.)

Select Eject device

Windows notifies you that it is safe to remove your USB device.

9 Disconnect the USB drive

Unplug it or its cable from your PC.


10–57

Floppy disk storage A floppy disk is a removable data storage medium composed of a thin, typically brown, plastic disk contained within a stiff or rigid plastic case. Floppy disks are also called floppies or diskettes. An example of a 3.5” floppy disk, opened to show its recording medium, is illustrated in Exhibit 10-25.

Case (opened)

Diskette medium

Exhibit 10-25: A diskette opened to reveal its recording medium A floppy disk drive (FDD) is the PC component that reads data from and writes data to floppies. This drive can be internally connected, typically through a 34-pin data connector on the motherboard. External FDDs are available with USB, IEEE 1394, and eSATA connections. Floppy disks were the original storage medium for PCs. By today’s standards, they hold a miniscule amount of data and are very slow to access. Most modern computers don’t include a floppy drive. Form factors The original PC floppy disks measured 5.25" in diameter. These disks featured a soft, flexible outer cover. They held relatively little data, even compared to other floppy disk technologies. A 5.25" floppy is pictured in Exhibit 10-26.

Exhibit 10-26: A 5.25" floppy disk

10–58 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Later floppy disks were 3.5" in diameter and were protected by a hard outer case with a sliding metal door. Despite their hard outer case, these disks aren’t “hard disks”; that term refers to the high-capacity disk drive typically installed inside your PC’s case. Even though they’re physically smaller, the most popular 3.5" disks stored a lot more data than their larger predecessors. A 3.5" floppy disk is shown in Exhibit 10-27.

Exhibit 10-27: A 3.5" floppy disk Capacities Capacities of floppy drives vary by size and recording techniques. Information is recorded onto the floppy disk in a series of concentric circular tracks. Floppy disks use either 40 or 80 tracks. The density of a floppy disk refers to the number of sectors per track, as compared to the original floppies used in pre-PC computers. PC floppy densities vary from double density (9 sectors per track) to extended density (36 sectors per track). The storage capacities of the popular PC floppy disks are listed in the following table. Size

Tracks

Sectors per track

Density

Capacity

5.25"

40

9

Double density

360 KB

5.25"

80

15

High density

1.2 MB

3.5"

80

9

Double density

720 KB

3.5"

80

18

High density

1.44 MB

3.5"

80

36

Extended (or Extra-high) density

2.88 MB

Identifying a disk’s storage capacity Most modern diskettes are labeled with their maximum capacity. Some, however, lack such labeling. You can distinguish between 3.5" double-density and high-density disks by counting the holes in their corners. Double-density diskettes have a single hole (the write-protection hole described in the next section). High-density diskettes have two holes. Write protection You can prevent writing to floppies by engaging write protection. With 5.25" floppies, you must cover a notch in the plastic case with tape or a label designed specifically for that purpose. In the associated drives, a mechanical pin “feels” for the presence of this notch, and if present, writing is enabled.


10–59

With 3.5" disks, you slide open a small “door” to enable write protection. In the associated drives, if an LED light can shine through this door, then writing is disabled. Both of these write protection devices are shown in Exhibit 10-28.

Exhibit 10-28: Floppy disks: write-protected (left) and write-enabled (right) Do it!

D-2:

Examining floppy disks

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Examine the floppy disks supplied by your instructor 2 Examine the 3.5" diskette that your instructor has opened up 3 How much data can each disk store?

4 Enable write protection on a diskette 5 Disable write protection

So that you can view its flexible inner disk.

10–60 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Floppy drive cables and connectors The typical cable used to connect a floppy drive is a 34-pin ribbon cable with either three or five connectors. One connector is meant to be connected to the drive controller (typically on the motherboard), and the others are for connecting up to two floppy drives in the system. The 5.25" drives use a larger, edge-type connector, whereas 3.5" drives use a smaller pin-socket connector. A five-connector cable enables you to connect both edge- and pin-type drives, keeping in mind that you can have at most two drives connected, regardless of connector type. Depending on where you connect the drive on the cable, the drive is assigned drive letter A or B. Floppy cables have a twisted section, and the drive plugged into the connector after the twist is accessed as drive letter A. A typical floppy cable is shown in Exhibit 10-29. Drive A connector

Drive B connector

Motherboard connector

Exhibit 10-29: A floppy cable with pin-style connectors for 3.5” drives The typical floppy controller connector is a 34-pin male connector soldered to the motherboard. Such a connector, technically called a header, is shown in Exhibit 10-30.

Exhibit 10-30: A floppy controller header on a motherboard


D-3:

10–61

Installing a floppy drive

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open your PC’s case

Follow all electrical and ESD safety precautions.

2 Remove the front cover or the plate cover that closes the floppy drive bay

Many modern computers don’t include a floppy drive.

3 Install the drive into the bay

Secure the drive with at least four screws. This drive receives more pressure than other drives because users push floppies in or eject them.

4 Connect the floppy cable to the motherboard

Make sure you plug the correct connector into the correct socket on the motherboard.

5 Connect the cable to the floppy drive so that this drive is drive A 6 Connect an available power cable to the floppy drive’s power socket

Modern floppies use the small peripheral power connector; older drives use the large connector.

7 Close the system case and boot your PC Log on to Windows as

The password is !pass1234.

COMPADMIN##

8 Open Computer

To view the floppy drive in your system. You can’t access the drive because there’s no diskette in it.

10–62 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Floppy disk preparation Before you can store data on a floppy disk, you must format it. When you format a floppy, you record the sector structure on the disk. Formatting also defines the file allocation table, which stores information about which files are stored in which sectors. Formatting is destructive in that existing data is destroyed as new sector and file allocation information is written to the disk. Formatting Formatting is somewhat specific to operating systems. Windows PCs use a different format from that of Macintosh and Linux computers. Mac and Linux computers can usually read PC-formatted diskettes. Windows computers typically cannot read Mac- or Linux-formatted disks. Your operating system includes the utilities necessary for you to format floppy disks. Command-line aficionados can use the format command with various parameters, available since the days of MS-DOS. Perhaps more commonly, you use the graphical Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer) tools to format a floppy: 1 With a diskette in the drive, right-click the drive letter and choose Format. 2 Choose the capacity. 3 Choose the file system. 4 Choose the Allocation unit size (optional). 5 Enter a Volume label (optional). 6 Check any Format options you want to use (optional). 7 Click Start. You can also purchase preformatted floppies, which have been formatted by the manufacturer. Make sure you purchase floppies formatted to match your operating system (PC-formatted floppies for Windows and Macintosh-formatted floppies for a Mac). You can reformat preformatted floppies.


D-4:

10–63

Formatting a floppy disk

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Confirm that write protection isn’t enabled on the diskette supplied by your instructor 2 Insert the diskette into the floppy drive

With older 5.25" drives, you had to close a lever or door on the drive before you could access the diskette. This step is unnecessary with 3.5" drives.

3 In Windows Explorer or Computer, right-click A: and choose Format… 4 Click Start

To format the floppy according to the operating system’s defaults.

5 When formatting is done, click OK

Click Close 6 Display the contents of the floppy

In Windows Explorer, left-click the A drive. In Computer, double-click the A drive. The diskette should be empty.

7 Copy a file to the floppy

Drag a file onto the drive’s icon or into its window.

8 Close Windows Explorer or the Computer window 9 Remove the diskette from the drive

With older 5.25" drives, you opened the lever or door on the drive before sliding out the diskette. With 3.5" drives, you press the eject button to release the diskette.

10–64 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Tape drives Tape drives are used to create backups of data from a hard drive. The tapes are typically removed to an offsite location for storage. This way, if a disaster occurs in the building the computer is in, the tape is safe in another location. There are companies you can contract with for secure, fireproof storage of your tapes. You can also use a safety deposit box at a bank or a fireproof safe, if you don’t require more stringent storage of the tapes. Tape is a low-cost, high-capacity storage solution for data backups. Magnetic tapes are used to record information in burst mode, in which data is written in blocks. Burst mode results in faster data transfer. An interblock gap is a physical space between blocks on the tape. These gaps help prevent blocks of data from being overwritten. Tape drives are sequential-access devices. Instead of being able to go directly to a specific file when you need to restore it, you must wait while the drive advances the tape past all of the files before that file on the tape. Various types of compression are used to fit more data onto the tape at a faster rate. Most data backup algorithms use lossless compression so that reconstructed data is the same as the original. Most of these algorithms compress data at a 2:1 ratio or better.

Tape formats Backup tapes come in various cartridge formats. The original tapes were reel-to-reel tapes on mainframes; then came cassette tapes, and then DAT tapes. The tapes have gone from relatively slow devices with low capacity to the high speeds and capacities of the current tapes. QIC Historically, the quarter-inch cartridge, or QIC (pronounced “quick”), tapes were enormously popular. Developed in the early 1970s, the QIC cartridge and its descendents were still in active use in 2010. QIC tapes are belt-driven, rather than having the tape attached to the reels. Because of this setup, the tapes need to be retensioned periodically. Retensioning means winding the tape end to end and then rewinding it in a single operation. This process resets the belt to the proper equalized tension. The Travan version of QIC uses a miniature cartridge and was developed for the home market. This cartridge’s capacity ranges from 400 MB to 10 GB. The SLR (scalable linear recording) drive, developed by Tandberg Data, uses a QIC format in quarter-inch and 8mm versions. Capacities range as high as 200 GB per cartridge. Because it is the only type of drive still being manufactured that uses QIC-style cartridges, the term SLR has come to be used in place of QIC in many instances. DDS The digital audio tape (DAT) format was designed for audio recording. It has been adapted for data storage with the digital data storage (DDS) format. This format uses tape that’s 4 mm wide. DDS recorders contain two read heads and two write heads. The tape is read, and if errors are detected, the data is rewritten. The cartridges are expected to last for approximately 2000 passes and should be replaced after that. That should be good for about 100 backups. The cartridges are rated for a 10-year shelf life. However, the technology is rather old and the tape drives require frequent cleaning. A DDS2 tape is shown in Exhibit 10-31.


10–65

Exhibit 10-31: A DDS2 tape The capacities of DDS tapes range from 2 GB without compression for DDS-1, to 20 GB without compression for DDS-4. Compression can double the capacity of your tape. DLT and SDLT The DLT (digital linear tape) standard was created by DEC and was later sold to Quantum. It uses linear serpentine recording with multiple tracks on 12.6mm wide tape. With linear serpentine recording, data tracks are written in alternating bands from the beginning of the tape to the end and back again. A DLT cartridge contains a single reel, and it pulls the tape out of the cartridge, using a leader tape attached to a take-up reel inside the drive. You attach the drive leader tape to the cartridge leader during the load process. The reel motors control tape speed and tension. The tape is guided by 4 to 6 rollers that touch only the back side of the tape. After data is written across a single band from beginning to end, the write head drops down and writes another band of data in the opposite direction. This process continues until the tape has no more room for data bands. Super DLT (SDLT) is a higher-capacity version of DLT. Capacities range from 15 GB to 1200 GB. LTO The LTO (linear tape open) format was developed by HP, IBM, and Certance, and it’s an open format. Tapes created on one brand of drive can be used on drives from another manufacturer if they’re LTO-compatible. That isn’t the case with other tape formats. LTO comes in two formats: Accelis and Ultrium. Accelis uses an 8mm tape and a dualreel cartridge. However, licenses for Accelis are no longer available, so you won’t find Accelis drives and media available commercially. Ultrium uses a 0.5" tape and singlereel cartridge. Ultrium is the high-capacity version of LTO. The third generation of Ultrium, Ultrium format generation 3, has a data storage capacity of up to 800 GB and a maximum transfer rate of 80 to 160 MBps.

10–66 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One AIT and SAIT The AIT (advanced intelligent tape) format and its successor, SAIT (super AIT), were developed by Sony. AIT and SAIT use helical-scan recording, in which the head is tilted and data is recorded in diagonal stripes across the tape. AIT uses 8mm tape in a 3.5" drive. Its capacities range from 20 GB to 400 GB, depending on the specific tape. SAIT uses single-reel, 0.5" tape. Its capacities range from 500 GB, uncompressed, to 1 TB, compressed. Data transfer rates are 30 MBps, uncompressed, and 78 MBps, compressed. SAIT technology includes Memory-inCassette (MIC)—a 64 KB memory chip used to store the cartridge’s system log and file search information.

Tape head cleaning Regardless of type, the tape is in direct contact with the read/write heads during any read and write operations. Because of this, any dirt on the tape is quickly transferred to the heads. Also, small bits of magnetic material and tape substrate can rub off onto the tape heads. Tape drive manufacturers normally provide cleaning and maintenance recommendations with their products. You should follow these guidelines, cleaning the heads as often as recommended. Do it!

D-5:

Comparing types of tape drives

Questions and answers 1 Where should backup tapes be stored?

2 Tapes are accessed ___________, using _______ mode.

3 What are QIC drives also known as?

4 What’s the shelf life of a DDS tape?

5 What does DLT stand for? What capacities are offered by DLT?

6 What’s the advantage of LTO tape?


10–67

Topic E: Drive maintenance This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam objective. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Scheduling preventative maintenance – Defrag – ScanDisk – CheckDisk

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam objectives. #

Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  CHKDSK (/f /r)

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Disk management tools – DEFRAG – Check Disk

Hard drive maintenance Explanation

Computer hard disks, like automobiles, benefit from regularly scheduled maintenance. Windows operating systems include utilities you can use to keep your hard disk performance at an optimal level. These disk maintenance utilities can:  Remove unnecessary files from a hard disk.  Scan a disk for errors.  Defragment a disk.

10–68 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Disk Cleanup You can use the Disk Cleanup feature of Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition, and all editions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista to remove unnecessary files from your hard disk. Unnecessary files are grouped into the following categories:  Downloaded program files  Temporary Internet files  Offline Web pages in Windows 7 and operating systems before Windows Vista  Files in the Recycle Bin  Setup log files in Windows 7 and Windows Vista  Windows temporary files  Thumbnails of picture, video, and other documents in Windows 7 and Windows Vista  Error reporting files in Windows 7  Optional Windows components that you aren’t using  Installed programs that you no longer use  The hibernation file in Windows Vista  Archive files in Windows Vista To run Disk Cleanup: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Cleanup. (Or open Windows Explorer, right-click the disk you want to scan for unnecessary files, choose Properties, and click Disk Cleanup.) 2 Select “My files only” or “Files from all users on this computer.” Click Continue (in the Windows Vista UAC). 3 On the Disk Cleanup tab, check the categories of files you want to delete; uncheck the categories you want to skip cleaning. 4 If you want to see the files in each category, click View Files. 5 Click OK, and then click Yes. 6 To clean up Windows components or installed programs, activate the More Options tab and click Clean Up next to Windows Components or Installed Programs. The tool you selected will open. Use the Windows Component Wizard or the Add or Remove Programs utility to remove the desired component or program. 7 Close all open windows.


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In the editions of Windows XP and Windows 7 and Vista listed previously, you can also remove old system restore points. To do so: 1 Open Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer). 2 Right-click the disk you want to scan for unnecessary files, and choose Properties. 3 On the General tab, click Disk Cleanup. 4 Select “My files only” or “Files from all users on this computer.” Click Continue (in the Windows Vista UAC). 5 Activate the More Options tab. 6 Under System Restore and Shadow Copies, click Clean up. 7 Click Delete (or Yes in OSs before Windows Vista) to remove all system restore points except the most recent. 8 Click Delete Files (click OK and then Yes in OSs before Windows Vista). 9 Click OK.


E-1:

Using Disk Cleanup

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Computer

2 Under Hard Disk Drives, rightclick Local Disk (C:) and choose Properties

To open the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box.

3 Click Disk Cleanup

Disk Cleanup calculates how much space you can save on your C: drive.

4 Scroll to view the contents of the “Files to delete” list

Disk Cleanup might recommend deleting any of the following items:  Downloaded program files  Temporary Internet files  Offline Web pages  Files in the Recycle Bin  Setup log files  Temporary files  System-archived error reporting files

With Downloaded Program Files selected, click View Files

To display the downloaded program files that Disk Cleanup is recommending that you delete.

Close the Downloaded Program Files window 5 Click Clean up system files 6 Activate the More Options tab

You can use the Disk Cleanup utility to:  Access the Windows Components Wizard to disable Windows components you don’t use.  Access the Uninstall or change a program utility to uninstall programs you don’t use.  Remove all but the most recent restore point.


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7 Activate the Disk Cleanup tab Clear all items that will save space except one Click OK Click Delete Files

Leave the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box open for the next activity.

10–72 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Checking a disk for errors Viruses or poorly written programs can break the chain of clusters that make up a file. Such a rogue application might change or remove the marker in one cluster that points to the file’s next cluster. Manufacturing defects or sudden impacts (in which the read heads impact the platters) can lead to physical errors in sectors. Both logical and physical errors can result in unreadable files. Microsoft’s original tool for checking logical errors (but not physical errors) was a command-line tool called Chkdsk (for “check disk”). Starting with MS-DOS 6.2, Microsoft introduced a program named ScanDisk that you could use to check your hard disk for both physical and logical errors. ScanDisk didn’t support the NTFS file system. So, starting with Windows NT, Microsoft eliminated ScanDisk, moving its functionality into Chkdsk. You can run Chkdsk from either the command line (covered in the next section) or via the Windows GUI, in which case the tool is referred to as Check Disk. By default, Check Disk simply scans for logical errors. You have to specify whether you want to fix them, too, and whether to scan and fix physical errors. To check your disk for errors in Windows 2000 Professional or the Windows XP and Windows Vista and Windows 7 versions: 1 Click Start and choose Computer (My Computer in OSs before Windows Vista). 2 Right-click the drive you want to check for errors, and choose Properties. 3 Activate the Tools tab and click Check Now. 4 In the Windows Vista UAC, click Continue. 5 Check “Automatically fix file system errors” to fix logical errors and/or “Scan for and attempt recovery of bad sectors” to scan for and fix physical errors. 6 Click Start. When the scan is finished, click OK. Check Disk checks files and folders for invalid file names, dates, and times. It can also check for data fragments that don’t belong to any file. You’ll hear these data fragments called “lost file fragments,” “lost file allocation units,” or “lost clusters.” When it finds a data fragment, Check Disk can do any of the following:  Automatically delete the fragment.  Attempt to fix the fragment.  Convert the data to a file so you can view its contents. If Check Disk finds a physical disk error, it does the following:  Attempts to move any data stored on that area of the disk.  Marks the area as bad, so the operating system doesn’t store additional data in the damaged area.


E-2:

10–73

Scanning a disk for errors

Here’s how 1 Activate the Tools tab

Here’s why In the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box. In this activity, you’ll check your C: drive for errors by using the ScanDisk utility.

Under Error-checking, click 2 Clear Automatically fix file system errors

Check Scan for and attempt recovery of bad sectors

If you had chosen to automatically fix file system errors, ScanDisk would need to run before Windows booted all the way and the files were in use. You would be prompted to schedule the scan for the next time Windows restarts.

Click Start

To begin the scan.

3 When prompted with the scan report box, click Close

4 Close the Local Disk (C:) Properties dialog box and the Computer window

10–74 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The chkdsk command You use the chkdsk command to search FAT and NTFS disks for file system errors. All Microsoft client operating systems—from MS-DOS through Windows 7—ship with command-line versions of chkdsk. The version included with the operating systems that support NTFS is different from the DOS-based version used in operating systems that support only FAT. The syntax of the chkdsk command is chkdsk drive:

where drive is the drive letter of the volume you want to check for errors. Optional parameters and switches include those shown in Exhibit 10-32 below.

Exhibit 10-32: Command-line options for the chkdsk command Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 include a chkntfs command, which is similar to the chkdsk command. The chkntfs command is used at bootup on NTFS volumes. You can find out more about chkntfs at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/160963. Third-party utilities are sometimes better at determining which disconnected clusters belong to which files. You can use these utilities to scan your disk for errors and correct them.


E-3:

10–75

Running chkdsk.exe

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 What command would you use to check drive C: for file system errors (without fixing them) and to perform a scaled-down index check? 2 Click Start and right-click Command Prompt and choose Run as administrator Click Yes Enter the command

You should receive results like the following.

10–76 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 3 Run the same command in verbose mode

Observe the results.

What is the difference in the reports?

4 What happens if you run chkdsk with /f?

5 Schedule a check to occur during the next system restart Close Command Prompt 6 Restart the computer

7 Log on as COMPADMIN##

Type “exit” and press Enter. After the POST, Windows 7 begins its startup process. Chkdsk checks the file system on C: and then restarts the computer.


10–77

Disk Defragmenter Disk Defragmenter helps to improve hard disk performance by reorganizing the files on the disk. It is available with all current versions of Windows. A file that’s saved in one continuous block of space on the hard disk is called contiguous. A file that’s saved in multiple noncontiguous blocks of space is called fragmented. Files can be divided across multiple noncontiguous clusters on the disk. From a speed perspective, the optimal arrangement is to have all of a file’s clusters located contiguously on the disk. However, as you add, remove, and change the contents of files, they grow or shrink. Files can become fragmented into many clusters spread across noncontiguous portions of the disk. When a file is saved, it isn’t necessarily saved in one contiguous block of space on the hard disk. The computer starts saving the file in the first available block of space. If that space isn’t large enough for the entire file, the computer saves what it can in the first space, and then moves onto the second available block. This pattern continues until the entire file is saved. Noncontiguous blocks of space become available as files are deleted. When the computer needs to retrieve a fragmented file, it must gather the pieces from multiple areas of the disk. If you have a highly fragmented file, this can cause a noticeable decrease in data access and retrieval performance because the computer requires more time to gather all the pieces of the file from multiple locations on the disk. The operating system accesses fragmented files less efficiently than contiguous files. Fragmentation isn’t as much of a problem in newer operating systems such as Windows XP and Windows 7, as it was in earlier operating systems. However, you can still use a file defragmentation utility to move file clusters and return the disk to a less fragmented state. Using such a utility is sometimes called defragging the disk. Defragging When you defrag a hard drive, software reads all the clusters that make up your files. Then the software writes those clusters sequentially on the disk. Typically, the defragging utility must read and write files multiple times to arrange all of your various files in the most efficient physical locations on the disk. For maximum benefit, you often must run the utility multiple times also.

10–78 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The Disk Defragmenter utility is accessed from the System Tools submenu (under Accessories). In pre-Windows Vista OSs, the utility has two modes, Analyze and Defragment, as shown in Exhibit 10-33. (Windows Vista doesn’t present such graphs.) Analyze mode analyzes your hard disk and creates a report advising whether you should defragment the drive. Defragment mode analyzes the drive and then immediately begins defragmenting it.

Disk selection Runtime graphs Start Defragment mode Start Analyze mode

Legend

Exhibit 10-33: Disk Defragmenter in Windows XP To defrag your hard drive: 1 (Optional, but recommended) Check your drive for errors before defragging. 2 (Optional, but recommended) Free up space on your disk before defragging, so that you don’t have to wait while old or temporary files are defragmented. 3 From the Start menu, choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Defragmenter. Click Continue. Alternatively, in Computer (My Computer) or Windows Explorer, right-click the hard drive you want to defrag and choose Properties. Then, click the Tools tab. 4 Click Defragment now. Disk Defragmenter analyzes the disk first, and then begins defragging if it’s necessary. 5 Click OK.


E-4:

10–79

Defragmenting a disk

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Disk Defragmenter

2 Select (C:) Click Analyze disk

3 Click Defragment disk

4 Click Close

Disk Defragmenter analyzes your disk to see if you need to defragment it.

10–80 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Defrag.exe Defrag.exe is the command-line version of the Disk Defragmenter utility; this command can be used in scripts. The syntax of defrag is defrag drive:

where drive specifies the drive you want to defragment. Optional switches include those shown in Exhibit 10-34 below.

Exhibit 10-34: Command-line options for the defrag.exe command


E-5:

10–81

Running defrag.exe

Here’s how 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories

Here’s why You’ll open a Command Prompt window with administrator permissions.

Right-click Command Prompt and choose Run as administrator

Click Yes 2 What command would you use to determine if drive C: needs to be defragmented? 3 What command would you use to determine if drive C: needs to be defragmented and to view the report on screen? 4 What command would you use to defragment drive C:, even if it doesn’t need to be defragmented? 5 Analyze drive C: and then analyze it again in verbose mode Compare the information displayed by each command

In verbose mode, you can view the details of the full analysis report.


Topic F: Storage device troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam objective. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  Hardware-related symptoms – Noise

– Status light indicators

– Odors

– Alerts – Visible damage (e.g., cable, plastic)


Objective

1.2

Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components  Storage devices – HDD  SATA  PATA  Solid state – FDD – Optical drives  CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray – Removable – External

Recovering deleted files Explanation

Deleting files in Windows involves two steps: you move the files to the Recycle Bin, and then you actually delete the files. You can recover files from the Recycle Bin by selecting them and clicking Restore. This returns them to their former locations. When you delete a file in the Recycle Bin, the operating system doesn’t truly erase the file. Instead, Windows simply marks the file as deleted in the file allocation tables. The space used by the deleted file is now available for other uses. Using a third-party utility, you can sometimes recover these deleted files. The utility scans the file table for files that are candidates for recovery. Some utilities then scan each file’s chain of clusters to determine which files are fully recoverable. Then you select the files to recover, and the utility marks the file as not deleted. The name of the file is often altered in the process; typically the first letter of the name is changed or removed.


10–83

You should install the file-recovery utility before you need to restore deleted files. Otherwise, as you install the utility, its files will use up the disk space containing the files you’re trying to recover. Third-party diagnostic utilities Various vendors supply utilities you can use to diagnose disk troubles, recover data, and optimize the operations of your hard drives. Examples include Symantec’s Norton SystemWorks, Ontrack® Data Recovery’s Data Advisor, and Stellar Data Recovery’s Stellar Phoenix.

Troubleshooting data storage devices As a PC technician, you should be familiar with the most common symptoms, probable causes, and suggested “first try” solutions for problems with data storage devices. The following tables list problems, probable causes, and suggested solutions for various issues with data storage devices.

10–84 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Troubleshooting hard and floppy drives Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Can’t access drive at all

Cables disconnected or damaged; master/slave or SCSI ID conflict; dead drive; drive controller disabled in BIOS.

Confirm that all cables are connected fully and properly and show now visible signs of damage. Check the master/slave or SCSI settings. Try replacing the drive with a known good drive to see if that drive works in the system. Try the suspect drive in another system to see if it works there. These steps help you determine if the drive is good or bad. Confirm that the controller is enabled in the BIOS.

Can’t boot from the hard drive

BIOS drive order prevents booting from the hard drive; hard drive isn’t bootable; a partition on another drive is set to be active (bootable).

Confirm the boot drive order in the BIOS. Confirm that the drive is set to be bootable and is formatted as a bootable disk. Make sure you haven’t set the partition on another, higher-priority drive to be the boot partition. An active partition on the master drive or a higher-priority SCSI ID takes precedence.

Space on drive doesn’t match advertised space

Disk unit misunderstanding; file system limitations; space being used by system recovery programs; reserved space on drive; BIOS misconfiguration.

Sometimes the M in MB or the G in GB refers to a decimal measurement (multiples of 1000); other times, it’s a binary measurement (multiples of 1024 based on powers of 2). Perhaps you have misunderstood which units are being used. The FAT32 file system is less efficient with very large drives, compared to NTFS. You can also lose space when using some sector and cluster size combinations. Windows reserves 16 – 128 MB of your partition in case you change from a basic to a dynamic partition. With older drives, you must specify drive geometry in the PC’s BIOS. If you’ve done that incorrectly, some disk space could be inaccessible.

Files becoming corrupted

Drive failing; bad data cable; terminator missing.

Try replacing the data cable with a new high-quality cable. Make sure all connectors are seated fully. Confirm that the SCSI chain is terminated properly. Use a disk testing utility, such as Windows Check Disk (or the command-line version chkdsk), to determine if the drive is failing.

No status light indicator

Dead hard drive

Swap hard drives to determine if there’s been a hard drive failure. Replace drive if necessary.

System boots from hard drive when you do a warm restart, but doesn’t do a cold boot

System booting too quickly.

Sometimes the motherboard portions of the boot process can move too quickly for a slower hard drive, which isn’t ready when the CPU tries to access it. Use the BIOS setup utility to disable the Quick Boot option, and if available, enable the boot delay time option.

Drive letter incorrect

Cables connected incorrectly; master/slave setting different from intended setting; drive letters reassigned with Windows.

Confirm that the drive is installed in the correct location on the cable and that the master/slave settings are configured as you intend. Use Disk Management (in the Computer Management console) to change drive-letter assignments.


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Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Can’t use the full space of a very large hard drive

BIOS or operating system can’t support very large drives.

Install a BIOS update from your motherboard’s or drive controller’s manufacturer. Install the BIOS patch included with many extremely large drives. Upgrade to Windows XP, Windows Vista, or Windows 7 to use the full capacity of extremely large drives.

Drive not autodetected during boot process

BIOS settings incorrect; bad data cable connection; failing drive.

Confirm that the BIOS settings controlling disk drive detection are set correctly. Make sure the cables are connected properly and fully seated. Try using a different data cable. Use a diagnostic utility to test the drive and confirm that it’s functioning correctly.

Noise

Failing hard disk; failing floppy drive; defective floppy disk

Confirm hard disk operating properly in Disk Manager; confirm floppy disk operating properly in My Computer. Try another floppy disk. Swap floppy disk or hard disk drives to determine if noise abates. If necessary, replace hard drive or floppy drive.

Troubleshooting CD drives Problem

Probable cause

Suggested solutions

No audio plays from CD

Volume turned down; speakers disconnected; CD drive not connected to sound card; driver-related problems.

Check the volume on both the volume control (in the Windows system tray) and on the speakers. Make sure the speakers are plugged in and turned on. With older optical drives, make sure the CD-to-sound-card cable is connected. Check Device Manager to see if a resource conflict is preventing Windows from accessing the drive properly. Make sure you’re using the correct driver, as well as the latest version.

CD drive not found

Drive disabled in BIOS; driver problem; wrong drive letter.

Check BIOS settings to confirm that the drive is enabled. Make sure you’re using the newest drivers. CD drives often get assigned the last drive letter, but can be assigned other letters. Make sure that the drive is truly not being found, rather than being assigned an unexpected drive letter.

Disc can’t be read

Disc scratched or damaged; DVD inserted in a CD drive.

Treat all optical discs gently and store them in suitable cases or sleeves. If you must set one down without a case, lay it label side down. Make sure the disc type matches your drive type.


Failed CD drive

Swap CD drives to determine if there’s been a hard drive failure. Replace drive if necessary.

Buffer underrun

Buffer emptied before you finished recording.

Check the Buffer Underrun Protection checkbox in your software, if it’s available. Record from an image on disc, rather than directly from some other source. Don’t run anything else on the computer while recording. Disable antivirus, screensaver, or other software that might wake up and disrupt the CD burning process. Adjust virtual memory settings to prevent swapping.

10–86 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Problem

Probable cause

Suggested solutions

Write process fails several minutes after starting; on all media you insert, the write process stops at the same point

Writing at a speed higher than the CDs or drive can support; writing faster than files can be read from the hard drive; bad CDs.

Try recording at 1X, and write from a disc image by using disc-at-once writing mode. Try another package of CDs or another brand of CDs.

Files are corrupted when recorded on a SCSI CD-RW drive

Bad cable connection; incorrect termination; incorrect drive ID (master/slave or SCSI ID); bad memory.

Check the SCSI cable, connection, and termination for the drive for visible damage. Also check L2 cache and memory settings for potential problems.

Burned CD-RW disc can’t be read on another computer

Media incompatibility; older optical drive in other computer does not support recordable CDs; disc not finalized (fixed, fixated, or closed).

Check media compatibility. Some players and CD drives read only pressed CDs or CD-R discs, and not CD-RW discs. Use a CD burning application or disc utility to confirm disk session was finalized when recording.

Noise

Faulty CD drive

Confirm CD drive operating properly in My Computer. Insert a different CD. Swap CD drives to see if noise abates. Replace CD drive if necessary.

Troubleshooting DVD and Blu-ray drives Problem

Probable cause

Suggested solutions

Disc can’t be played when two displays are being used

On a laptop or other system with two displays, the overlay can’t be created to play on both devices.

Use only one display when playing video through Windows Media Player. For more information, refer to

support.microsoft.com/kb/306713.

UDF-formatted discs can’t be read; you can read only some files or none; the disc might not show up in Explorer

The latest Windows service pack has not been installed.

Apply the latest Windows service pack; make sure recording software is up-to-date.

Can’t play movie

No playback software installed, or decoders are missing.

You must have special software for playing movies on a PC. Make sure you have such a program installed. Movies are encoded in various formats and it’s possible that you won’t have the correct type installed. You might find a suitable decoder at www.free-codecs.com.

Noise

Faulty DVD or Blu-ray drive

Confirm DVD or Blu-ray drive operating properly in My Computer. Insert a different disc. Swap drives to see if noise abates. Replace drive if necessary.


Failed drive

Swap drives to determine if there’s been a hard drive failure. Replace drive if necessary.

For more symptoms, causes, workarounds, and other information, refer to support.microsoft.com/kb/321640.


10–87

Troubleshooting external drives and removable storage

Do it!

Problem

Probable cause

Suggested solutions

Device not recognized; no status light indicator

Device drivers not installed.

Manually install drivers for the device.

Port inaccessible.

Verify port functionality in Device Manager; enable the device; install or update drivers as necessary.

F-1:

Troubleshooting data storage devices

Here’s how 1 One or more drive-related problems have been introduced into your lab computer. Troubleshoot these problems to determine their cause(s). 2 Correct the problems you find in your PC to return it to a working state. Solving one problem might reveal the presence of another one. Troubleshoot and fix any other problems that arise. 3 Document the problem(s) you find here:



Unit summary: Data storage devices Topic A

In this topic, you learned that drive adapters are built into the motherboard or added via your PC’s expansion slot and that the interface is the communications standard between the controller and the hard drive. You learned about the various interface standards, including IDE/PATA, SATA, SCSI, USB, and IEEE 1394. You learned that you must configure IDE drives to designate one as master and one as slave. With SCSI drives, you learned that each drive must have a unique SCSI ID.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that there are two types of hard disks: magnetic and solidstate. You identified the components of magnetic hard drives, including the read/write heads, voice coil actuator, platters, motor, and spindle. You learned that hard disks are divided into partitions, also called volumes. You also learned that file systems, such as FAT32 and NTFS, define how operating systems access the data stored on a drive.

Topic C

In this topic, you identified features of CD, DVD, and Blu-ray discs. You also learned how to use an optical drive for reading data, listening to music, watching film clips, and writing data.

Topic D

In this topic, you examined different types of removable storage media. You identified USB flash drives and learned that digital cameras connected via USB or IEEE 1394 show up as additional drives on your computer. You learned that floppy drives store data on flexible media housed in a removable package with either a soft or hard casing. Floppy diskettes store between 360 KB and 2.88 MB. Floppy drives are slow and lowcapacity compared to hard drives and optical drives, and thus sometimes aren’t included with modern PCs. You also identified the different types of tape drives.

Topic E

In this topic, you learned how to perform basic disk maintenance tasks, such as checking your hard disk for errors and defragmenting the disk. You learned how to use tools such as chkdsk, Check Disk, Disk Defragmenter, and defrag.exe to perform these tasks.

Topic F

In this topic, you learned that drives and disks can fail for various reasons, and you learned how to troubleshoot these components. You also examined common symptoms of failures and the probable causes and suggested solutions.

Review questions 1 Which PC drive interface is a parallel system bus? A IEEE 1394 B SATA C SCSI D USB 2 The IDE interface is now more correctly called the ______________ interface? A PATA B IEEE 1394 C SCSI D SATA


10–89

3 The following graphic is a photo of which type of drive interface cables?

A High-speed PATA B SATA C SCSI D Standard PATA 4 Which PC drive interfaces don’t support a maximum of two drives per controller? [Choose all that apply.] A High-speed PATA B SATA C SCSI D Standard PATA 5 Which of the following SCSI standards has the highest bandwidth? A Fast SCSI B Fast-Wide SCSI C Ultra2 Wide/LVD D Ultra SCSI 6 True or false? SCSI devices with a lower SCSI ID have a higher priority on the SCSI bus. False. SCSI IDs begin at 0 and count upward, with higher IDs having a higher priority on the SCSI bus. For 16-bit SCSI buses, ID 7 has the highest priority, then counting downward from 15 for the remaining IDs.

7 True or false? True USB drives, which connect directly to the USB bus without any sort of PATA/SATA interface involved, are very common in today’s PCs. True. USB flash drives are extremely popular. Most are true USB drives and don’t use the PATA/SATA interface.

8 True or false? You can designate a master IDE drive on both the primary and secondary channels. True. Each channel can have one master and one slave drive.

9 A _______________ disk drive contains no moving parts. solid-state

10–90 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 10 Which disk drive component is made from a metal or plastic disk? A Platters B Read/write heads C Spindle D Voice coil actuator 11 True or false? Tracks are divided into clusters. False. Tracks are divided into sectors. Sectors are grouped into clusters.

12 Lower power consumption and less heat generation are advantages of a ______________ hard disk. solid-state

13 Lower cost and higher storage capacities are advantages of a _______________ hard disk. magnetic

14 You can configure an IDE drive to be _________, _________, or ________________ by using jumpers or switches on the drive. master; slave; cable-select

15 Partitioning divides a drive into one or more logical drives, also called ____________. volumes

16 True or false? Hard drive tracks are concentric regions on the platters, onto which the data is written via magnetism. True

17 True or false? You can format a volume as FAT32 in Windows Vista. True

18 Which file system has a maximum file size of 4 GB? A FAT16 B FAT32 C NTFS 19 Which file system supports file-level security? A FAT16 B FAT32 C NTFS

Data storage devices 20 The following graphic is illustrates which RAID level?

A Level 0 B Level 1 C Level 3 D Level 5 21 The following graphic illustrates two variations of which RAID level?

A Level 0 B Level 1 C Level 3 D Level 5

10–91

10–92 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 22 The following graphic is an example of which RAID level?

A Level 0 B Level 1 C Level 3 D Level 5 23 Commercially produced CDs are created through a process called what? A Burning B Lasering C Mastering D Pressing 24 Writable CDs are written through a process called what? A Burning B Lasering C Mastering D Pressing 25 The speed of a CD drive is expressed in #X, where # is the number of times faster than the rate at which a CD spins. This power of X is accurate up to approximately which value? A Two B Four C Eight D Twelve E Sixteen F Twenty-four 26 True or false? DVDs are the same diameter as CDs. True. Both are 120 mm, or 12 cm.


10–93

27 What is the capacity of a single-sided, double-layer DVD? A 4.7 GB B 8.5 GB C 9.4 GB D 17.1 GB 28 What is the capacity of a double-sided, double-layer (on both sides) DVD? A 4.7 GB B 8.5 GB C 9.4 GB D 17.1 GB 29 True or false? You can use Windows Media Player to play DVDs. True. Windows Media Player can be used to play DVD movies. However, it requires a compatible DVD decoder to be installed on the computer.

30 True or false? To safely remove a USB flash drive, you should shut down the PC. False. USB flash drives are hot-swappable. To safely remove the device, be sure that the drive has finished writing data, and then use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to stop the device.

31 The items in the following graphic are examples of which type of storage device?

A IEEE 1394 (FireWire) B Optical C SCSI D USB flash 32 What are the two sizes of floppy disks? A 3.0" B 3.25" C 3.5" D 5.0" E 5.25" F 5.5"

10–94 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 33 When you’re connecting a floppy drive, the drive connected to the floppy cable connector beyond the ______________ is identified as drive letter A. twist

34 Which tape format was belt-driven rather than having the tape attached to reels? A AIT and SAIT B DDS C DLT and SDLT D LTO E QIC 35 Which tape format uses helical-scan recording, in which the head is tilted and data is recorded in diagonal strips across the head? A AIT and SAIT B DDS C DLT and SDLT D LTO E QIC 36 In Windows Vista, which disk maintenance utility runs on a reboot? A The chkdsk command B Disk Cleanup C Disk Defragmenter D ScanDisk 37 Which disk maintenance utility identifies files that can be deleted to recover space on a hard disk? A The chkdsk command B Disk Cleanup C Disk Defragmenter D ScanDisk 38 Which disk maintenance utility arranges files to contiguous areas on the disk? A The chkdsk command B Disk Cleanup C Disk Defragmenter D ScanDisk


10–95

Independent practice activity The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 10\Unit summary. In this activity, you’ll practice installing, using, and maintaining drives on a PC. 1 Use Device Manager to determine the drive interface used by your computer. Sometimes it will be within the name of the drive. Sometimes you’ll need to refer to the manufacturer’s Web site. 2 Install a floppy disk drive in your system. Install it as drive A. 3 Restart your computer from the hard drive. 4 If you installed a second drive, and that drive is still installed, physically remove the additional drive from your computer. 5 Physically remove the floppy drive that you installed during this activity. 6 Insert a blank DVD-R disc into your DVD-RW drive. 7 From the Student Data folder for this unit, burn the video file to the disc. 8 Playback the video from the disc to verify that it burned correctly to the disc. 9 Create a new NTFS partition, using half of the free space available on your computer. 10 Copy the video file to your new partition. 11 Attach a USB flash drive to your computer. 12 Copy the video file to the flash drive. 13 When the drive has finished writing the file, safely remove the USB flash drive from your computer. 14 Run the Disk Cleanup utility and remove all recommended files. 15 Schedule and run a check of your NTFS volume at system boot. 16 Use the Disk Defragmenter to analyze your hard disk. If you completed the defragmentation activity in this unit, it should report back that defragmenting your drive is not recommended at this time.


11–1

Unit 11 Video output and image input devices Unit time: 60 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Explain how CRT and LCD display

devices produce images. B Install and configure digital cameras.

11–2


Topic A: Monitors This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.7

Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics  Projectors, CRT and LCD  LCD technologies – Resolution (e.g., XGA, SXGA+, UXGA, WUXGA) – Contrast ratio – Native resolution  Connector types – VGA – DVI pin compatibility  Settings – Refresh rate – Resolution – Multi-monitor – Degauss

1.8

Install and configure peripherals and input devices  Touch screen

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  EMI – Magnets  Electrical safety – CRT  Physical safety – Heavy devices

CRT monitors Explanation

Traditional television sets and computer monitors use the same technology to create images. A phosphorescent screen coating is struck by electron beams, and the coating then glows for a fraction of a second. The electron beam must strike the coating many times to keep the coating glowing. Color cathode ray terminals (CRTs), use three electron beams to produce images. Each beam is for a separate color—red, green, or blue. (This is why CRTs are also referred to as RGB monitors.) The beams pass through horizontal and vertical deflection coils and are focused by the magnetic yoke. Exhibit 11-1 shows a CRT monitor.


11–3

Exhibit 11-1: A CRT monitor The inside of a CRT is a vacuum with a few key components. The cathode is a heated element at the rear of the monitor. When the cathode is heated, negatively charged rays are emitted. These are attracted by a positively charged anode, which focuses the rays. Red, green, and blue light phosphors are arranged in a triad of dots or in strips. The three electron beams allow the dots to be illuminated simultaneously. The high-speed electron beam passes through a device that positions the electronic beams and strikes the phosphor-coated screen. To control the electronic beam, CRTs use one of three technologies: shadow mask, aperture grill, and slotted mask. A shadow mask is a sheet of metal with a hole for each pixel triad. A pixel triad is a grouping of the three color dots. The mask or grill prevents stray electrons from illuminating dots that shouldn’t be illuminated. An aperture grill is composed of thin, vertical, metal strips to block stray electrons. The slotted mask combines features of shadow mask and aperture grill technologies. Exhibit 11-2 illustrates how CRTs produce images.

Exhibit 11-2: How CRTs produce images

11–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Coils move the beam horizontally and vertically. Changing the voltages in the coils enables the electron beams to be aimed anywhere on the screen. A device called a flyback transformer, which produces high-voltage signals from a low-voltage power source, controls the horizontal motion of the beam. Because high voltages are present, you must take caution if attempting to repair a CRT. Some monitors have a degaussing button. Powerful magnets, such as those found in speakers or industrial motors, can magnetize the mask or grill, causing the focusing of dots to be misaligned. The degaussing button enables you to demagnetize the monitor. Most monitors automatically perform a degaussing process when you turn them on. Repeated degaussing can damage a CRT.

CRT monitor characteristics When you examine the specifications for a CRT, you’ll see several terms and values. These are useful for comparing image size, image clarity, and monitor performance. Screen size The screen size is the diagonal measurement, in inches, of the entire picture tube. This measurement can be misleading because it includes areas of the picture tube that are within the bezel (the plastic case that surrounds the viewable area of the screen). For this reason, you might also find another measurement, called the viewable area, which measures just the portion of the tube that’s visible. Most viewable areas are between 15 and 19 inches diagonal. If you work in an environment with older equipment, you might occasionally find a 12" or 14" monitor, but with the advent of graphical user interfaces for operating systems and applications, larger screens are far more useful. Some monitors are also available at 21 inches. Monitors larger than that are uncommon and expensive. Engineers, graphics artists, and other users with specialty applications typically have the larger monitors. Aspect ratio The aspect ratio of the screen is the relationship between width and the height of the screen. It is expressed as x:y, where x is the width and y is the height. When an image is measured in x units, y is always measured and displayed in the same units, usually pixels in computer terms, producing a standard image size of x:y pixels. Standard CRT monitors have a 4:3 ratio, the same as a standard-definition TV, which produces an almost square image. Current flat panel displays support a 4:3, 5:4, and 16:9 or 16:10 aspect ratios, the latter two producing the wide-screen image that’s typical of high-definition content. Resolution Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device. The resolution is expressed in rows and columns. A monitor with a 1280×1024 resolution has 1280 columns of dots and 1024 rows of dots. Resolution is affected by screen size. Both 15" and 21" monitors with a 1280×1024 resolution have the same number of pixels. They’re just closer together on the smaller monitor. Having the pixels closer together creates a sharper image.


11–5

Some applications, especially games and graphics applications, require that the resolution be set to a specific setting. Common Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional settings are 800×600, 1024×768, 1152×864, 1280×800, 1280×1024, and 1600×1200. Exactly which ones are available on your system depends on the resolutions your monitor and video adapter support. Refresh rate For an image to stay on the screen, it needs to be refreshed multiple times per second. The refresh rate is the number of times per second the screen is refreshed or redrawn. This rate is measured in Hertz (Hz). At 60 Hz, the monitor is refreshed 60 times per second. The image appears more stable, with less noticeable flickering, at higher refresh rates. The human eye usually doesn’t notice the redraw at 72 Hz or higher. A refresh rate of 85 Hz is recommended for a 1280×1024 resolution. If your monitor can’t support that combination, it drops back to the previous setting so it can show the screen image and prevent damage to the hardware. Dot pitch Dot pitch is the distance, measured in millimeters, between dots of the same color on the screen. Most monitors have a dot pitch between 0.15 and 0.30 mm. The smaller the dot pitch number, the better the image. An average-quality monitor usually has a dot pitch between 0.22 and 0.26. A television set usually has a dot pitch between 0.5 and 0.7. This is why the TV image is so much grainier than the image on a CRT monitor. Flat or curved screens Traditionally, televisions and monitors had curved screens. The edges of the display area were slightly distorted. Newer units are almost all flat screens, which are clear across the entire surface. A flat screen is different from a flat-panel monitor. Flat-screen CRTs still use the cathode ray tube, and the dimensions of the monitor are quite deep—usually as deep as they are high. These monitors are called "flat screen” because the CRT tube is flat on the front, rather than curved. Flat-screen monitors are more expensive than typical CRTs.

11–6 Do it!


A-1:

Choosing a CRT monitor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, boot your computer and log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234 2 Open your Web browser and access a computer hardware sales Web site

You’ll examine a store Web site to find a monitor with the best characteristics to examine when purchasing a monitor.

3 Display the CRT monitors that are for sale

You’ll compare the lowest-price monitor, a midpriced one, and the highest-price monitor.

4 Record the dot pitch for the following: The lowest-price monitor The mid-priced monitor The highest-price monitor 5 Record the highest resolution for the following: The lowest-price monitor The mid-priced monitor The highest-price monitor 6 Record the screen size for the following: The lowest-price monitor The mid-priced monitor The highest-price monitor 7 Which monitor would you recommend to a customer?


11–7

Video connectors The monitor connects to a video adapter. VGA and SVGA CRT monitors connect via a 15-pin D-subminiature (D-sub) connector. The monitor cable ends in a male connector, which plugs into a female port on the video adapter. If the computer uses color-coded ports that follow the color coding created by Microsoft, Intel, and Toshiba, this is a blue port. The video adapter converts digital information from the computer into analog information for transmission to the monitor, which then converts the information back to digital. Each pin in a video cable is responsible for carrying specific information. If one of the pins is bent or damaged, the monitor won’t display the image properly.

Display properties When you connect a monitor to a Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, or Windows 2000 Professional system, it automatically detects the monitor and installs either the Default Monitor driver or the PnP monitor driver for it. To get the full benefit of features available on your monitor, you can check for drivers that are specific to it. Through Display in Windows 7, Display Settings in Windows Vista, and Display Properties in previous versions of Windows, you can set the screen resolution, color quality, and monitor settings. To set the refresh rate, monitor type, and properties specific to your monitor, click the Advanced Settings button (Vista) in the Display Settings dialog box, or click the Advanced button (pre-Vista versions) on the Display tab in the Display Properties dialog box. In Windows 7, in Display, click "Change display settings,” then click Advanced Settings and select the Monitor tab. Color depth Color depth specifies how many bits are used to describe the color of a single pixel. VGA monitors use 16-bit color depth, known as High Color or HiColor, and can show 65,536 colors. SVGA monitors are capable of 24-bit color depth, using 8 bits for red, 8 bits for blue, and 8 bits for green. An SVGA monitor can show 16,777,216 colors; this setting is also known as True Color. The 32-bit color depth uses the additional bits for showing additional information in the image. This setting is useful for games and other graphics-intensive applications.

Display adjustments When you install a monitor, you might need to adjust the display a bit. Settings usually include brightness, contrast, and the position of the image on the screen. The method used to adjust these settings varies from monitor to monitor. Some monitors have separate buttons or knobs for each setting; others display a menu that’s accessed using buttons on the monitor. If the image isn’t visible, the brightness or contrast might be set too low. If the image is distorted, the brightness or contrast might be set too high. If the image is partway off the screen, adjust the image position. If these settings don’t improve the image, refer to your monitor documentation for additional suggestions on resolving the issue.

11–8


Safety Caution: Never open a monitor unless you’ve been specifically trained in internal monitor repair techniques, which aren’t covered in this course. Computer equipment can be heavy and bulky, especially laser printers, servers, and large CRT monitors. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake of the equipment, but also for your back and other muscles. When lifting equipment, take a balanced stance. If the equipment is on the floor, squat close to it and use your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight with your chin tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just your fingers, and bring it close to your body, keeping your elbow close to your body as well. Make sure that you can see where you’re going with the equipment. Crashing into another person, a wall, or other equipment can be hazardous. Interference Images can be distorted if a CRT monitor is placed near another CRT, a powerful magnet (such as those found in speakers), fluorescent lights, or heavy machinery (containing motors that generate large magnetic fields). Move the monitor as far away from the interference as possible to see if that’s the problem. Moving it away should reduce or eliminate the problem. The monitor might need to be degaussed. Do it!

A-2:

Using a CRT monitor

Here’s how 1 Shut down Windows 7

Here’s why You’ll disconnect your monitor, reconnect a CRT monitor, and examine the display settings.

Turn off your computer 2 Disconnect the power to the monitor

Monitors have very high voltages and need to be handled carefully.

3 Disconnect the video cable from the video adapter 4 Examine the connector and the port for the CRT monitor

The female port has 15 holes, and the male cable end has 15 pins.

5 Connect the video cable to the port

Be careful not to bend pins as you make the connection.

Plug the monitor into the power outlet 6 Turn on the computer Log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234

Monitors should be plugged into surge strips to help protect them. The monitor image should be clear and centered, with no distortions.

Video output and image input devices 7 Using the buttons on the front of the monitor, adjust the display

11–9

If necessary, to display a clear image centered on the screen.

8 Right-click the desktop Choose Personalize In the navigation pane, under See also, click Display

To open the Display dialog box.

9 In the navigation pane, click Adjust resolution

10 Raise the Screen resolution to the highest available setting

This varies based on the capabilities of your monitor.

11 Click Advanced settings Activate the Monitor tab Raise the Color quality to the highest available setting

This also varies based on the capabilities of your video card and monitor.

Click Apply

If you changed the settings.

Click Yes

If you like the new settings.

Click No

If you want to revert to the previous settings.

12 Click Cancel Close the Screen Resolution window

11–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Flat-panel monitors For many reasons, CRTs have been replaced by flat-panel monitor technologies. Flatpanel monitors used to be found only in laptops. Now, they’re the standard display option for desktop systems as well. These flat-panel monitors are liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors that use thin-film transistor (TFT) technology. Exhibit 11-3 shows an LCD monitor.

Exhibit 11-3: A flat-panel monitor Compared with CRT monitors, LCD monitors:  Use less power  Generate less heat  Require less desk space for the same size viewable area  Produce less glare  Emit less radiation Modern LCDs use an active-matrix TFT to control liquid crystals, chemicals whose molecules can be aligned by the presence of an electrical field. When aligned, the crystals let light pass through. An LCD display uses layers of liquid crystals, a fluorescent or LED light source, and polarizing filters. A transistor controls each pixel’s transparency by setting the electric field to adjust the liquid crystal’s alignment. Transparent pixels shine white, compared to the black or gray of reflective pixels. In a color LCD display, such as a computer monitor, each pixel is made up of three subpixels. Each subpixel is covered by a red, green, or blue filter. Because each subpixel can be turned on or off, a pixel can be made to glow in the various colors that make up an image. Each subpixel is controlled by its own transistor. Older LCD technologies, such as passive matrix, used fewer transistors than active matrix use. Such screens were less sharp or suffered from ghost images. Dual scan technology offered an improvement over passive matrix, but eventually gave way to the better images of TFT. Dual scan separated screens into two parts, refreshing both at the same time, thus providing faster refresh rates than passive matrix provided.

Flat-panel monitor characteristics In addition to the specifications used for CRTs, LCD monitors use other specifications to describe their performance. These are related to the way LCD monitors produce images.


11–11

Screen size LCD monitors are measured diagonally, just like CRT monitors. However, unlike the published dimensions of CRT monitors, those of an LCD monitor refer to the viewable area. Such measurements don’t include areas of the screen hidden by the bezel. Viewing angle The viewing angle can be an important factor to consider. When you’re viewing an LCD monitor straight on, as you do most of the time, the monitor should be fine. However, if you want to show other people what’s on your monitor, and they’re viewing it from an angle, the image might not be visible or might be distorted, or the colors might look wavy or incorrect. Angles are measured in degrees. The maximum angle at which the image isn’t distorted is listed as the viewing angle. Because various manufacturers measure this differently, you should check it yourself. Be sure to check from both sides of the screen, as well as from top and bottom angles, if you think people might need to see from those angles as well. Response rate The response rate measures how quickly the pixels can change colors. This number is important if you have moving images, such as in Web sites, videos, or gaming. The response rate is measured in milliseconds. A response rate should be a lower number for better performance. An 8 ms response time works very well for gaming. A 20 ms response time works fine for such tasks as word processing. Contrast ratio Contrast ratio is the ratio between the monitor’s brightest white and darkest black. The higher the contract ratio, the better the image, so 900:1 is better than 600:1. Today, it’s easy to find monitors with a contrast ratio of 40,000:1. Native resolutions The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix. Some of the common native resolutions found in LCD monitors are:  XGA — 1024×768 pixels  SXGA — 1280×1024 pixels  UXGA — 1600×1200 pixels Widescreen LCD resolutions include:  WXGA+ — 1440×900 pixels  WSXGA+ — 1680×1050 pixels  WUXGA — 1920×1200 pixels LCD monitors produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used. Although you can usually configure an LCD monitor for a lower resolution than the native resolution, the image will be somewhat blurry or distorted, because not all pixels will be illuminated. On a few LCD monitors, you can set a higher resolution than the native resolution, but again, the image might not be as clear as the image at the native resolution.

11–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Brightness Brightness or luminescence is the amount of light produced by an LCD monitor, measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2). A typical range is 250 to 500 cd/m2, though a range of 250 to 300 cd/m2 is adequate for most tasks. Brighter monitors are better for movies and games. Other features Other features you might find in the LCD monitor descriptions include:  Orientation — Some monitors can be pivoted so that you can view the image in portrait or landscape mode. This option is available only on widescreen monitors.  Built-in speakers — Speakers are incorporated in the LCD monitor.  USB hub — You can connect other USB devices to the computer through the monitor.  Anti-theft lock — The slot fits a standard locking device that, when locked, turns a metal bar perpendicular to the slot.  Wall mounting — This option allows multiple people to view the monitor, such as in conference rooms and classrooms.

Touch-screen monitors Some touch-screen monitors are CRT-style monitors. Other touch-screen monitors use LCD panels. Still others consist of a separate panel that fits over a monitor. Touch-screen monitors use several methods to receive input information:  Layers — Electrical current runs through a layer that’s placed over the monitor. When the layer is pressed, it touches another layer. This action indicates the screen position you’ve selected, and the software knows what’s on the screen at that location.  Capacitors — Capacitors are placed between layers over the screen. A touch changes the charge in the capacitors, and this change in charge is used by the controller to calculate the location of the touch.  Acoustic waves — A sending transducer and a receiving transducer are placed on the surface of the monitor. Reflectors on the monitor’s surface send the electrical signal between the transducers. A touch on the screen interrupts the flow, and the location can be calculated. Touch-screen monitors take the place of mice. The drivers for the monitor communicate with the operating system, and the information that would usually come from the mouse is instead interpreted from the information received from the monitor. Connections can be damaged by pressing the screen too hard or by using sharp objects on the surface. There are usually connections to the video adapter and to another port, such as a USB or mouse port. If these connections aren’t set up properly, the touch screen won’t work properly. If the touch panel is attached to a regular monitor but isn’t properly aligned, the touches won’t match up with the on-screen items. A touch screen usually requires calibration, which identifies the corners and the center of the surface. The drivers use this information to calculate where the user is touching the screen. You might need to recalibrate the monitor if it isn’t working properly.


11–13

Laptop monitors Laptop monitors are usually LCD monitors, although some are plasma monitors. The connections for a laptop monitor include a ribbon cable that connects the screen to the video card. The inverter regulates power to the fluorescent lamps in the LCD panel. The lamps provide the backlight in the monitor. Laptop computers can have integrated or separate graphics cards. Built-in cards use the main memory. Dedicated cards usually use their own memory, although some cards have some memory but also share main memory. Dedicated video cards require more power, so those notebooks have a shorter battery life. However, the tradeoff might be worth it for users who need faster response times.


A-3:

Choosing an LCD monitor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open your Web browser and go to a Web site that sells computer hardware

You’ll examine a store Web site to find a monitor with the best characteristics you should examine when purchasing a monitor.

2 Display the LCD monitors that are for sale

You’ll compare the lowest-price monitor, a midpriced monitor, and the highest-price monitor.

3 Select a standard size to compare

For example, compare 19" LCD monitors.

4 Record the following information for the lowest-price monitor: Brightness Contrast ratio Native resolution Response rate Viewing angle Record the following information for the mid-priced monitor: Brightness Contrast ratio Native resolution Response rate Viewing angle Record the following information for the highest-price monitor: Brightness Contrast ratio Native resolution Response rate Viewing angle

Video output and image input devices 5 Record any extra features included in the lowest-price monitor Record any extra features included in the mid-priced monitor Record any extra features included in the highest-price monitor 6 Which monitor would you recommend to a customer?

11–15

11–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Flat-panel monitor connections Flat-panel monitors are connected via either analog or digital connectors. Most monitors ship with a 15-pin VGA connection cable, even if they’re equipped to handle digital video interface (DVI) connections. Some monitors come with cables for both connection types. If you want to use the DVI connection, you can purchase a video card with a DVI connection or use a VGA-to-DVI converter. You also need to determine if the card uses a DVI-D or DVI-I connection. DVI-D DVI-D is a digital-only connection. A dual-link DVI-D connection contains 24 pins in three rows of eight, plus a grounding slot. A single-link DVI-D connection contains 18 pins. DVI-I DVI-I supports both digital and analog signals. The DVI-I connector contains four more pins than a DVI-D connector contains. These four pins carry analog signals. The analog signal pins are located above and below the grounding slot. TMDS Transition minimized differential signaling (TMDS) is the protocol used to transmit data to a digital monitor. The data remains in digital format with no need for analog conversion, as in analog CRTs. TMDS is a high-speed method of sending data. Single-link cables use one TDMS transmitter. Dual-link cables use two TDMS transmitters. A DVI-D single-link cable supports digital-only transmission with resolutions of up to 1920×1200. A dual-link cable supports resolutions of up to 2560×1600.

LCD monitor installation The first step in connecting an LCD monitor is determining which type of video connector your computer has. If it has only a 15-pin VGA connector, you’ll have to use an analog connector to the LCD monitor. If you have a DVI connector, you need to determine which type of DVI cable you need. Also, some LCD monitors come with a DVI cable, but others come with only an analog VGA cable. You can purchase a separate DVI cable if your monitor supports digital video and if you have a DVI video card installed in your system. If you want to take advantage of the digital connection and you don’t have a DVI connector in your computer, you can install a graphics adapter with DVI connectors on it. DVI-D is the most common connector type for PC-to-LCD-monitor connections. DVI-I is more common for connecting to other equipment, such as HDTV television sets.


11–17

Multiple monitors If you’re using an operating system that supports multiple monitors, such as Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, or Windows 98, you can use two or more monitors simultaneously. This arrangement is useful when you’re working with large spreadsheets, multiple related documents, and other large documents. Using dual monitors in Windows 7 gives you a larger space to display two windows than the Aero Snap feature does. Aero Snap displays each window in half of a single monitor. To use multiple monitors, you need two displays, two video cables, and either two video adapters or one video adapter with two ports. You can connect CRTs, LCD monitors, or a mix of each. The setup depends on which adapters your computer has and what types of monitors you have. The Microsoft Knowledge Base article "Hardware requirements for multiple-display support in Windows XP” (article 296538), Windows Vista article located at http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/device/display/multimonVista.mspx, or Windows 7 Help at http://support.microsoft.com/kb/976064. This contains information that can help you figure out what equipment you need to set up multiple monitors. Exhibit 11-4 shows an example of a connecting two monitors to a computer.

Exhibit 11-4: Connecting two monitors

11–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One To configure multiple monitors in Windows: 1 In Windows 7, right-click the desktop, choose Personalize, click Display and click Change display settings. Open Display Settings in Windows Vista, or Display Properties in Windows XP or 2000. 2 In Windows XP or 2000, select the Settings tab. 3 Select and drag the monitor boxes so they’re either side by side or one above the other. Side-by-side extends your desktop to the left or right. Top-and-bottom extends the desktop up and down. 4 Select each monitor box and set the appropriate screen resolution and color settings. 5 If necessary, select the box for your main monitor. In Windows 7 and Vista, check "This is my main monitor.” In Windows XP or 2000, check "Use this device as the primary monitor.” 6 Select the monitor box for the secondary monitor. In Windows 7, under Multiple displays, choose "Extend these displays.” In Windows Vista, check "Extend the desktop onto this monitor.” In Windows XP or 2000, check "Extend my Windows desktop onto this monitor.” Configuring multiple monitors in Windows 7 is shown in Exhibit 11-5. 7 Click OK.

Exhibit 11-5: Configuring dual monitors in Windows 7


11–19

Display projectors Display projectors enable you to show what’s on your screen to a room full of people. These projectors are useful for meetings and classes. The device connects to the computer’s VGA port. There’s usually a splitter so that the image is displayed on your monitor and is projected onto a whiteboard, wall, or movie screen.

DisplayPort technology The DisplayPort digital display interface is a new specification being developed by VESA members. It covers CRT, LCD, plasma, and projection displays. It also covers connections to PCs, game systems, DVD players, and other image sources. The cable can carry high-quality audio along with the video information. The specification defines a common interface for internal and external display connections. The high bandwidth in the specification supports higher-resolution monitors, higher refresh rates, and more colors. The DisplayPort connector is smaller than connectors meeting the current video standards. The smaller cable accommodates thin notebook computers and other devices, as well as desktop computers. Multiple ports fit on a single video card. More information can be found at vesa.org/press/displayportpr.htm.


A-4:

Using an LCD monitor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Shut down Windows 7 and turn off your computer’s power

You’ll disconnect your monitor, reconnect it, and examine the display properties.

2 Disconnect the power to the monitor

Monitors have very high voltages and need to be handled carefully.

3 Disconnect the video cable from the video adapter 4 Examine the connector and the port for the LCD monitor

The standard analog VGA female port has 15 holes, and the male cable end has 15 pins. If your system has a DVI port, it’s most likely the DVI-D port, with three rows of pins and a separate area of four more pins.

5 Connect the video cable from the LCD monitor to the port

Be careful not to bend pins as you make the connection.

Plug the monitor into the power outlet 6 Turn on the computer Log on to Windows 7 as

Monitors should be plugged into surge protector strips to help protect them. The monitor image should be clear and centered, with no distortions. The password is !pass1234.

COMPADMIN##

Adjust the display

If necessary, to display a clear image.

7 Right-click the desktop Choose Personalize Click Display Click Change display

To open the Screen Resolution window.

settings

8 Raise the Screen resolution to the highest available setting

This depends on the capabilities of your monitor.


11–21

9 Click Advanced settings Activate the Monitor tab Raise the Color quality to the highest available setting

This also depends on the capabilities of your video card and monitor.

Click Apply

If you changed the settings.

Click Yes

If you like the new settings.

Click No

If you want to revert to the previous settings.

10 Close the Screen Resolution window


Topic B: Cameras This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam version 2.0 objective. #

Objective

1.8

Install and configure peripheral and input devices  Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI, microphones)

Digital cameras Explanation

Digital cameras are very popular devices. The quality of the picture that a digital camera takes is expressed in megapixels, or millions of pixels contained in the image. Camera resolution capacities range from less than 1 megapixel to more than 8 megapixels. The following table describes the resolutions needed for typical uses. Higher-megapixel images are larger files. As the cost of digital technology comes down, you’ll find higher megapixel depths offered in Web cameras, phone cameras, and consumer-grade cameras than those listed in the following table. Megapixels (MP)

Good for…

Print size (max.)

Found in

Under 1 MP

Broadcasting over the Internet

1 to 2 MP

E-mailing pictures

4"×6"

Phone cameras; the still-shot feature on digital video cameras; older digital cameras.

3 to 4 MP

Printing, e-mailing, or using on the Web, if you resize or crop the image

5"×7"

High-end phone cameras; low-end consumer-grade digital cameras.

5 to 8 MP

Large prints

8"×10"

Mid-range consumer-grade cameras.

Over 8 MP

Professional use and very large prints

11"×14" and larger

"Prosumer” cameras that blend features typically found in consumer-grade and professional-grade digital cameras; professional-grade digital cameras.

Web cameras ("webcams”).

Memory cards Images in digital cameras are stored on memory cards. Some cameras also include internal memory, which is built into the camera and isn’t removable. The higher a picture’s resolution is, the larger the file is. Most cameras have settings for lower-quality pictures so that you can fit more pictures on a card, but the default setting is typically for the highest quality. An uncompressed picture from a 4 MP camera is around 6 MB per picture. An uncompressed picture from a 6 MP camera is about 7.5 MB per picture. Most cameras use compression, though, so the file is half the size of the uncompressed state.


11–23

Memory cards are removable, so having extra ones allows you to take more pictures without needing to delete some or transfer them to your computer before taking more pictures. This is useful if you’re going to be away from the computer for a while, such as on vacation or taking a full day’s worth of pictures before being able to upload them to the computer. There are several different types of memory cards. Check your camera documentation to see which one your camera uses. The following table describes the memory cards you’re likely to encounter. They all use solid-state circuitry with no moving parts. Exhibit 11-6 and Exhibit 11-7 show a few of the memory cards described in the table. Type

Description

CompactFlash

Comes in two versions: CF-I and CF-II. Controller: Built into the memory card. Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC (high-capacity) cards. See compactflash.org for additional details.

Memory Stick

Comes in two versions: MS and MS Duo. Duo is often sold with an adapter so that it can be read by or used in devices that use MS. Controller: Built into the memory card. Capacity: Up to 8 GB.

Secure Digital

Comes in SD and miniSD formats. An adapter is available to allow miniSD cards to be used in SD slots. MultiMedia Cards (MMCs) can be used in some devices interchangeably with SD cards. Check the documentation for your device to see if they can be used. Controller: Built into the memory card. Capacity: Up to 16 GB for HC cards. See sdcard.org for additional details.

SmartMedia

No controller built into the memory card. Capacity: Up to 128 MB.

xD-Picture Card

No controller built into the memory card. Capacity: Up to 2 GB.


Memory stick

SD card

Exhibit 11-6: Memory stick and SD flash memory cards

Exhibit 11-7: CompactFlash memory cards Printing images from digital cameras Digital cameras have become very popular because there are no film development costs. You can store the photos on your computer and view them there. You can also purchase special photographic paper to use in inkjet printers so you can print the pictures. Another alternative is to take the memory card to a photo store, which can print the photos by using traditional photo printing methods. Printing photos on standard copier or ink jet paper results in pictures that aren’t up to the standard of photographic quality. Most home-printed photos fade in a few months unless you use special archival-quality inks and papers. Digital camera connections Digital still cameras most often use USB connections. Digital video cameras use either a USB connection or an IEEE 1394 connection. Some cameras require drivers, but others just show up as another storage device on the computer when the connection is made. Digital cameras run on either rechargeable or disposable batteries. You should always select a battery that’s rated for digital devices because of the high power drain. Because the batteries are used up quickly, card readers are available so that you can remove the memory card from the camera and transfer the images to the computer without needing to use the camera and its batteries. These readers are sometimes built into the computer, and some are available as separate devices. Exhibit 11-8 shows a memory card reader that can read several types of cards.


11–25

Exhibit 11-8: Memory card reader Some cameras use a docking station to recharge the batteries and to transfer the images from the camera to the computer. Some docking stations also include a photo printer. Some docking stations can print the pictures without being connected to the computer; others require a computer connection. Do it!

B-1:

Connecting a digital camera

Here’s how 1 Insert the media card into the digital camera

Here’s why You’ll use a digital camera and then connect it to the computer to transfer the picture to the hard drive.

2 Take a picture with the digital camera 3 Determine what type of connection the camera uses to connect to the computer

It’s usually a USB connection, but it could be an IEEE 1394 connection, through a docking station, or via another port.

4 Connect the camera to your computer 5 If prompted, install software or drivers

Some cameras require drivers to be installed. Others, using the USB specification, show up automatically as storage devices in the Computer folder.

6 Access the camera through Computer or the camera’s software

The camera might show up as a removable drive or might be accessible only through the camera vendor’s software.

7 Copy the picture to Pictures 8 Display one of the pictures

Usually, you can double-click the image file to display it in a preview window or other application.

11–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Web cameras Web cameras (or webcams) are specialized cameras designed to record live video and transmit it across a network or the Internet. The video can be transmitted live, or recorded and saved for transmission at a later time. Many webcams include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture. Most consumer webcams provide VGAresolution video at 30 frames per second. They capture video at relatively low resolutions, typically one megapixel or less, which is fine for personal and low-end business video. Webcams must be connected to a desktop PC, usually via a USB connection. Many laptops now have Web cameras built into the lid above the display screen. The PC runs software to capture the video and package it for network-based distribution.

Exhibit 11-9: A webcam

Network cameras Network cameras (also called IP cameras), like webcams, are designed for Web-based video, and sometimes audio, distribution. Unlike webcams, network cameras don’t need to be connected to a PC. Instead, they include a network port supporting wired or wireless Ethernet network connections. Network cameras also include embedded software that captures the video and packages it for distribution. Often the embedded software includes a limited-functionality Web server that allows a limited number of users to connect and view the video stream.

Exhibit 11-10: A wireless network camera


11–27

Network cameras are used for live video feeds (and are often called "live webcams” when used this way). Some include software that enables their use as security cameras—the software detects motion, turns on the camera, begins saving video footage on an internal storage location or server, and sends an e-mail or text message to a designated address.

Headsets, microphones, and speakers Webcams and network cameras typically feature integrated microphones. Users rely on their computer’s speakers when using such cameras for video conferencing. Users seeking better call quality can use a headset, which combines speakers and a microphone into a wearable unit. Headsets help eliminate echo and feedback, in which the microphone picks up the output from the speaker, sends it through the speaker, picks it up again, and so forth. Headsets typically connect to the PC via wired USB connections or a wireless system, such as Bluetooth.

Exhibit 11-11: A headset with integrated microphone

Connection software In order to make a connection with a webcam or network camera that doesn’t have its own Web server software, you need to connect to a service provider, such as Skype, Vonage, or a plethora of other providers, which enable people across the globe to communicate with one another, often at no charge. The exact steps to install, configure, and connect vary by provider, so it’s best to use the instructions on your chosen provider’s Web site to get your webcam or network camera transmitting across the Web.


B-2:

Making a video call with Skype

Here’s how 1 Download Skype for Windows

Here’s why If you’re using a different operating system, download Skype for that platform instead.

Visit www.skype.com Click Download Skype Click Download Now

If necessary.

When prompted, click OK

To download SkypeSetup.exe to your computer.

Note the drive and folder to which the file is downloaded

Location: ______________________________

2 Open SkypeSetup Follow the program’s prompts to install Skype 3 When prompted, create a new Skype account

From the location to which you downloaded the file. Do not install the Google toolbar.

Enter your full name, a Skype user name (or accept the suggested name), and a password.

Click Next Enter your e-mail address and location Click Sign In Close the Getting Started window

Among other steps, the Getting Started window will prompt you to make a Skype test call, which you can skip during class.


11–29

4 Exchange Skype names with another student in the class 5 Click

To begin adding contacts to your contacts list.

Enter another student’s Skype name and click Find Click Add Skype Contact 6 Install the webcam supplied by your instructor If necessary, connect speakers and a microphone to your sound card

To add the contact. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to install the camera and its software. They might already be connected from the “Peripheral connection types” unit.

7 If the webcam software doesn’t automatically integrate with Skype: In the notification area, right-click the Skype icon and choose

If you’re not signed in already, sign in now.

Open Skype

Choose Tools, Options… On the left, select Video settings Check Enable Skype Video From the Select webcam list, select your webcam

Or select Default video device.

Click Test Webcam

A window showing the video from your webcam opens.

11–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 8 Click Close Click Save 9 Coordinate with your lab partner to decide who will place the call

To save your video settings. One of you will place the call; the other will answer it.

If you’re placing the call, select your contact and click

To place the call

If you’re receiving the call, click

To answer the call.

10 Both partners: click

Your webcam video is not automatically enabled during the call. This setting offers you a measure of privacy during calls from your contacts.

11 Have a brief videoconference with your lab partner 12 When you’re done, click 13 Close Skype

To end the call.


11–31

Unit summary: Video output and image input devices Topic A

In this topic, you learned about CRT monitors. You learned how CRTs produce images, and you learned about the terminology used to describe CRT monitors. Then, you identified advantages of LCD monitors over CRT monitors. You learned how images are produced on an LCD monitor. You also briefly examined using multiple monitors, display projectors, touch screens, and DisplayPort technologies.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned that you can use different types of cameras to input both static and live images to your computer. Network video hardware and software—including webcams, network cameras, headsets, microphones, and speakers—can transmit both live and previously recorded video, and sometimes audio, across the Web.

Review questions 1 What’s another name for a CRT monitor? A DVI monitor B Flat-panel monitor C LCD monitor D RGB monitor 2 What color dots are in a pixel triad? [Choose all that apply.] A Black B Blue C Green D Orange E Red F White G Yellow 3 True or false? Degaussing prevents stray electrons from illuminating dots that shouldn’t be illuminated. False. That’s the purpose of the shadow mask or aperture grill. Degaussing demagnetizes the mask or grill, thereby neutralizing it. Degaussing prevents beam scattering, which degrades the image display.

4 How is a CRT monitor’s size measured? A Diagonal measurement, edge to edge B Diagonal measurement, picture tube corner to corner C Total area, length × width D Width

11–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 5 True or false? The monitor that has a better image is one with a dot pitch of 0.15 compared to 0.30. True. The smaller the dot pitch number, the better the image.

6 True or false? "Resolution” refers to the relationship between the horizontal and vertical sizes of the screen. False. Resolution refers to the number of pixels on the display device.

7 True or false? "Contrast ratio” refers to the difference between the shades of each color on an LCD monitor. False. Contrast ratio is the ratio between the monitor’s brightest white and darkest black.

8 True or false? A response rate of 20 ms is better than a response rate of 8 ms. False. A response rate should be a lower number for better performance.

9 The 24-bit color depth shows how many shades for each of the three basic monitor colors? A 24 B 32 C 128 D 256 E 1,024 10 True or false? LCD monitors use thin film transistor technology. True

11 Laptop monitors are most often which type of monitor? A CRT B LCD C Plasma D Touch screen 12 What does the response rate on an LCD monitor refer to? A How quickly, in milliseconds, the pixels change colors B The ratio between the monitor’s brightest white and darkest black C The measurement, in candelas per square meter (cd/m²), of the light produced D The number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix 13 Why is an LCD monitor display somewhat blurry when configured below its native resolution? Because not all pixels are illuminated at the lower resolution.

14 True or false? An image from a 1 MP camera is smaller than that created by a 3 MP camera. True


11–33

15 If you wanted to create 8"×10" prints of digital photographs, what minimum megapixel range would your camera need to have? A 1 to 2 MP B 3 to 4 MP C 5 to 8 MP D Over 8 MP 16 Which types of removable memory cards come in the largest capacity? [Choose all that apply] A CompactFlash B MemoryStick C Secure Digital D SmartMedia E xD-Picture Card 17 True or false? All webcams include built-in microphones and software for video email, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture. False. Some webcams include built-in microphones, and most include software for video e-mail, video capture, videoconferencing, and still-image capture.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll install and configure dual monitors on your PC. 1 If your system supports two monitors, connect a second monitor to it. 2 Extend your Windows desktop onto the second monitor. 3 Open Notepad and drag it to the second monitor. 4 Open Windows Explorer and leave its window on the primary monitor. 5 Close all open windows. 6 Return your desktop to a single monitor. 7 Disconnect the second monitor.


12–1

Unit 12 Printers Unit time: 100 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Compare and contrast printing

technologies. B Install printers. C Optimize printing and perform routine

maintenance tasks for printers. D Troubleshoot printer problems.

12–2


Topic A: Printing technologies This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.11

Install and configure printers  Differentiate between printer types – Laser – Inkjet – Thermal – Impact

Dot-matrix printers Explanation

Dot-matrix printers have been around for as long as personal computers have been available. They are rather rare today, but they still have their place in some companies because multipart forms can be printed on them. These printers are noisy and slow compared to other printer types. The noise comes from the impact nature of the print method. Impact printers, such as dot-matrix printers, use a mechanical means to press ink from a ribbon onto the page. With a dot-matrix printer, small pins do the pushing. Each character is printed separately, leading to slower output than from other printers. Print quality on dot-matrix printers is comparable to that produced by a typewriter. One of the main uses of typewriters was typing letters. Thus, the top print quality of a dotmatrix printer is referred to as near letter quality (NLQ). Components A dot-matrix printer uses a print head that usually contains 9 or 24 pins. The pins are pushed forward in patterns to form letters, numbers, and other characters. The pins strike an inked ribbon, and the ribbon strikes the paper. Nine-pin printers produce low-quality images. Some printers print over the same area after moving the paper slightly to overprint the first set of dots, thus improving the print quality. Twenty-four-pin printers have smaller pins closer together, so they produce a finer image than 9-pin printers do. The paper is pulled through the printer by a tractor feed or friction. A tractor feed uses a sprocket to mesh with holes in the side of continuous-form paper. The sprockets turn, pulling the paper through the printer. Friction feed uses single sheets of paper. The roller is held tight against the print head, and the paper moves through. Typewriters use friction feed. Most printers have a lever for switching between tractor feed and friction feed. The continuous-form paper usually has perforations at 11-inch or 14-inch intervals so the paper can be separated into standard-sized pages. The paper is also perforated along the side so that the area with the tractor holes can be removed after printing. When you’re setting up the paper in the printer, align the top of the page with the print head so that pages don’t print across the perforations.

Printers

12–3

Banners are often printed on dot-matrix printers using continuous-feed paper. Banners can be printed on perforated paper, usually without worrying about whether the paper is at the top of the first page. You might also print banners on paper that has no perforations between sheets. Multipart forms are the main use of dot-matrix printers now that other printer types have become more affordable and easier to use. The forms can be preprinted or blank. Preprinted forms require careful alignment so that the print falls in the boxes or on the lines of the forms. Friction feed was primarily used for envelopes and single sheets of paper. Some dotmatrix printers include a paper tray from which single sheets are fed, but more often, you must insert the single sheet, set the lever for friction feed, and print each page, one at a time. Connections Dot-matrix printers usually have either a serial or parallel interface connection. These printers were the usual choice for users when personal computers were first introduced (before interfaces such as USB, infrared, and IEEE 1394 were introduced). It’s also rare to find a dot-matrix printer with a built-in network interface. Some printers have both serial and parallel interfaces so that users can choose. Options Dot-matrix printers don’t usually have a lot of optional features. However, some printers have slots for adding font cards, memory, or additional paper feeders for easy switching between single sheets and continuous-form paper.

Other impact printers Other types of printers also strike the paper with an inked ribbon to produce images. These printers include daisy-wheel printers, which could produce letters only in the font that was on the wheel (shown in Exhibit 12-1) installed the printer. To change the font, you had to remove the wheel and install another wheel with the desired font.

Exhibit 12-1: A daisy-wheel

12–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Band printers have the letters, numbers, and symbols repeated multiple times around on a band. The band moves at a high speed and strikes the ribbon when struck by hammers. There are hammers for each column of print on the page. Some band printers combine dot-matrix pins with the hammers for each print column. For more information, see www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/defineterm.jhtml?term=band+printer

Do it!

A-1:

Examining the dot-matrix printing process

Questions

Answers

1 Why do companies use dot-matrix printers? 2 How many pins are in most dotmatrix print heads? 3 Which paper feed mechanisms are typically used in dot-matrix printers? 4 In addition to dot-matrix printers, what other impact printers might you encounter?

Inkjet printers Inkjet printers, also known as ink dispersion printing technology, produce images by forcing ink through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Each nozzle is approximately 50 to 60 microns in diameter. The ink is forced through the nozzles through either of two basic methods: thermal bubble or piezoelectric bubble. Exhibit 12-2 shows an inkjet printer.

Exhibit 12-2: An inkjet printer Thermal bubble technology Thermal bubble technology heats the ink, which vaporizes it, creating a bubble. The bubble protrudes out through the nozzle and sprays onto the paper. When the bubble bursts, it creates a vacuum, which draws more ink from the cartridge into the print head, preparing it to create another dot.

Printers

12–5

Piezoelectric technology Piezoelectric technology creates a bubble with a piezo crystal behind each nozzle. An electrical current sent to the crystal causes it to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it releases ink onto the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from the cartridge. Ink cartridges Ink cartridges are the reservoirs that hold ink for inkjet printers. The number of cartridges used varies, but most printers have a black cartridge plus a color cartridge with compartments for yellow, cyan, and magenta. The entire color combination is often referred to as CYMK (cyan, yellow, magenta, and black). Some printers have separately replaceable cartridges for each of the colors. Some have more colors than these three basic ones. Some inexpensive printers don’t have a separate black cartridge. Instead, when black is required, they mix all three colors together to produce a dark color. Exhibit 12-3 shows two inkjet cartridges: one black, and one containing cyan, yellow, and magenta inks.

Exhibit 12-3: Inkjet cartridges Print heads The print head for an inkjet printer is usually part of the ink cartridge. Because this is the printer part that wears out the soonest, having it replaced each time you replace the ink means that you always have a good print head. It also makes the cartridges more expensive. If the print head is part of the printer rather than the cartridge, the cartridges are usually less expensive, but after a couple of years, you might notice that the print quality has degraded. Exhibit 12-4 shows the print head on an inkjet cartridge.

Exhibit 12-4: Print head on an inkjet cartridge

12–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A print head usually has between 300 and 600 nozzles, corresponding to 300 DPI and 600 DPI printers. These resolutions are standard for thermal bubble printers. Piezoelectric printers can print at 720×720 DPI. Enhancements through the software drivers can raise the DPI by having the print head move fractionally so that dots can be placed between dots previously placed on the page. Thus, a 600 DPI printer can produce 4800×1200 DPI images, and a 720 DPI printer can print images at 5760×1440. The print head moves across the page, printing columns of pixels. To increase the resolution, a second pass is made across the page to overwrite between the existing dots. On some printers, printing occurs on both passes across the page—left to right and right to left. On others, it prints in only one direction, and as the stepper motor advances the page, the print head moves back across the page to begin printing the next line. Visit www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artjan99/inkjet.html for close-up photos and information about inkjet cartridges and print heads. The page is a bit dated, but it still provides interesting and relevant information about how inkjet print heads work. Print quality Inkjet printers provide a major improvement over the quality offered by dot-matrix printers. The ink dots can be grouped much closer together than the pins in the dotmatrix printer. Originally, laser printer output was the standard that the print quality of inkjet printers was measured against. This is still true for text output. Now, however, with advances in inkjet technology, the print quality of graphics and photos is compared to the standard provided by traditional, analog, chemically produced darkroom photographs. In addition to printer resolution, your choice of paper affects the quality of the output. Regular copier paper doesn’t produce as clear an image as specially coated inkjet paper does. The ink bleeds out on regular paper, creating fuzzy edges to characters and images. Coated inkjet paper has a waxy layer that the ink sits on, thus preventing bleedout of the ink. You will probably find that the bleeding issue is more important for photographs than for text documents. Attempting to print on a shiny surface such as a transparency can also prove difficult if the wrong type of transparency plastic is used. The ink might not dry properly and could smudge on the kind of transparency plastic that’s used to write on with markers. Transparency sheets with a special textured coating allow the ink to adhere and dry properly. The ink in most inkjet cartridges is water-soluble. This can be a problem if your printouts get wet. Being caught in the rain with a poster containing images printed from an inkjet printer can result in the ink running down the page. You can purchase waterproof inks for some inkjet printers. Dithering Shades of each of the basic colors are often produced through dithering, which is also known as halftones. By varying the pattern of dots, as well as the density of the dots, you can make a color appear to be more saturated or darker. Newspapers use this method to print photos.

Printers

12–7

Paper path Some inkjet printers have a paper tray behind the printer and pull the paper through the printer on a straight-through path. This setup leads to fewer paper jams and is good for heavy paper stock. Exhibit 12-5 shows a straight-through paper path in an inkjet printer.

Exhibit 12-5: Straight-through paper path Other printers store the paper in a tray below and to the front of the printer and pull the paper up through rollers and under the print head. Printers using this technology pull the paper up through an S-curve or a U-curve. Exhibit 12-6 shows a curved paper path in an inkjet printer.

Exhibit 12-6: Curved paper path

Inkjet photo printers Most inkjet printers are designed to be everyday printers for a variety of document types, from text to graphics. Some printers are designed just for printing photos. These are often small printers that can print 4×6-inch or smaller photos on specialty paper. Good quality regular-size photo printers can print full page borderless photos. Printing photos on an inkjet printer can produce some very nice prints, but they don’t hold up as long as a traditional, chemically produced darkroom photos do. Special photo paper is required for printing high-quality images from a camera or photos that were scanned in. Printing them on regular paper or even coated inkjet paper results in lower-quality photos. Some printers also enable you to print on non-paper items, such as CDs. Exhibit 12-7 shows a photo printer printing on a CD.

12–8


Exhibit 12-7: Printing directly onto a CD Do it!

A-2:

Examining how inkjet printers work

Questions 1 What are the two basic methods of ink dispersion in inkjet printers? 2 List the colors found in a fourcolor inkjet printer. 3 True or false? The print head moves across the page and prints columns of pixels. 4 True or false? You can print photos on any paper, but some kinds of paper produce better images than others. 5 Describe the paper path for inkjet printers.

Answers

Printers

12–9

Laser printers Laser printers provide the standard level of quality by which other printers are measured. They can produce high-quality printouts in a high-volume printing environment. Many laser printers are black-and-white output devices, but color laser printers are dropping in price, to the point where they’re worth considering, even for home use, if you plan to do more printing than an inkjet printer can handle. Exhibit 12-8 shows a laser printer.

Exhibit 12-8: A laser printer Laser printers produce images by using an electrophotographic (EP) process. By combining electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light, the printer produces high-quality images or documents, one page at a time. The components in a laser printer include:  Toner cartridge  Laser scanning assembly  Power supplies  Paper control and transport assembly  Transfer corona assembly  Fusing assembly  Electronic control package Toner cartridge A toner cartridge is shown in Exhibit 12-9. A toner cartridge contains:  A hopper filled with toner. Toner is a fine powder composed of plastic, iron, and carbon particles.  An EP drum covered with a photosensitive coating that holds a static charge until exposed to light.  A blade for removing used toner from the drum.  A corona charging assembly, which applies a static charge to the drum after an image has been printed.


Exhibit 12-9: Toner cartridge, photographed from top and bottom The price on a laser printer is now nearing the price of a good inkjet printer. As with inkjet printers, the manufacturer can sell the printer itself at or below cost and make up the difference with the consumables. For example, one $100 laser printer requires a replacement toner cartridge that costs $90. A $300 color laser printer from this same manufacturer requires three color cartridges and a black cartridge that add up to almost $300. Output capacity varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but on average, you should be able to get at least 1000 to 1500 printouts from a toner cartridge. Check the specifications for the printer you’re considering to determine the lifespan of a toner cartridge for that printer. Laser scanning assembly The laser scanning assembly contains the components:  Laser — Shines on the drum and creates an electrostatic image of what’s to be printed. Creates areas of negative charge on the positively charged drum.  Mirror — Reflects the laser beam.  Lens — Focuses the laser beam. Multiple lenses might be used to focus the laser beam on the various areas of the drum: the areas closer to or farther away from the mirror and laser beam. Power supplies A high-voltage power supply (HVPS) converts standard 120 volt AC current into highvoltage electricity used by the electrophotographic process. A DC power supply (DCPS) is used to power components, such as the laser and fuser, that don’t require high voltages. The DC power supply provides +5V and -5V for the printer’s logic circuitry, and +24V for the paper transport motors. Paper control and transport assembly Paper is moved through the printer by a series of rollers. Some of the rollers simply guide the paper from one location to another, and some rollers apply pressure to the printed page in order to fuse the toner.

Printers

12–11

Transfer corona assembly The HVPS applies a high-voltage charge to the charging roller or, in older laser printers, to the corona wire. The primary charger roller, or corona wire, then charges the paper so that the toner from the drum can be transferred onto the paper as it passes under the drum. After the paper passes the drum, the static charge eliminator strip drains the charges from the paper so that it doesn’t adhere to the toner cartridge and create a paper jam. The charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone. Ozone is a triatomic molecule that, in the lower atmosphere, is an air pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness in humans. To keep the concentrations of ozone below the currently regulated standard, many newer laser printers employ ozone filters. The ozone filter is replaceable activated charcoal filter. You change the ozone filter after a specified number of pages have printed. The maintenance instructions for your printer specify how often you should replace the ozone filter. Fusing assembly The fusing assembly is composed of rollers and a heating lamp. It applies heat and pressure to adhere the toner permanently to the page. Electronic control package The electronic control package is also known as the printer control circuitry or the main logic assembly. This component is responsible for communicating with the internal printer memory, the control panel, and the computer that sent the print job.

The laser printing process All laser printers use basically the same process to produce images. Through the use of negative and positive electrostatic charges, a laser writes the image to be printed into the charges, and then negatively charged toner is attracted to the positively charged paper.

Exhibit 12-10: The printing process for a laser printer

12–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The following table describes the steps in the laser printing process. Stage

Description

Cleaning and erasing

A rubber blade clears the excess toner from the drum. Another roller or corona wire removes the charges from the drum.

Charging or conditioning

The primary charge roller (in newer laser printers) or primary corona wire (in older laser printers) applies a negative charge of approximately -600 volts to the EP drum.

Writing or exposing

The laser beam reduces the negative charge to about -100 volts on the EP drum in the areas that become the image to be printed.

Developing

Areas of the drum that were written to by the laser attract toner.

Transferring

A positive charge of about + 600 volts is applied to the paper by the transfer charging roller or corona wire. The ink is transferred to the paper due to the charge.

Fusing

Pressure and heat set the toner to the paper. A 350°F fusing roller melts the toner, and by squeezing the paper through a set of rollers, presses the toner into the paper.

Note: Some sources place the cleaning and erasing stage at the beginning of the process. Others place it at the end of the process. In either case, it prepares the drum for receiving and printing the next image. Do it!

A-3:

Examining how laser printers work

Question 1 Using your Web browser, compare the cost of a laser printer to the cost of the consumables. 2 What process do laser printers use to produce images? 3 List the components of a toner cartridge. 4 List the components of the laser scanning assembly. 5 True or false? The HVPS converts 120-volt current into high-voltage electricity used by the EP process. 6 List the steps in the laser printing process.

Answer

Printers

12–13

Other printers Most corporate and home users use either an inkjet or laser printer. A few people still use dot-matrix printers for special requirements or because they never upgraded as newer technologies became available and at lower prices. There are several other types of printers that you might encounter in your support career. Most of these are too expensive for the casual user, but as prices continue to drop on printer technologies, even these more expensive printer types might become more commonplace. Most of the printers mentioned in this topic are designed for high-quality production of graphics. They produce a higher-resolution image even if the DPI statistics listed are as the same as those of inkjet or laser printers. Printer resolution refers to addressable dots per inch. Each of these dots can be composed of over 25 dots, thereby enabling a 300 DPI image to look the same as a 4800 dpi inkjet printout.

Solid-ink printers Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. There are usually cyan, magenta, yellow, and black sticks. These are heated to a melting point. After being combined to form the various colors in the image, the ink is then sprayed onto the drum. The paper passes over the drum and under a roller, and the image is transferred onto the paper. Solid-ink printers are environmentally friendly, because they don’t produce ozone as laser printers do, and the ink is nontoxic. The process doesn’t use excessive heat, as laser printers do. The output from solid-ink printers is very high quality. The ink sticks last for approximately 3000 pages, compared to an average of 1500 pages for laser printers or 500 to 1000 pages for inkjet printers.

Dye sublimation printers Another high-quality printer is the dye sublimation printer, often referred to as a "dye sub” printer. The dye is a solid, contained on either a ribbon or a roll. The roll consists of consecutive pages of cyan, magenta, yellow, and sometimes black. The term "dye sublimation” can be a bit of a misnomer. The dye is a solid dye, so that part of the name fits fine. However, the scientific process of sublimation refers to a solid being converted to a gas without its becoming a liquid in between. Although this does happen in a few very high-end printers, most dye sub printers actually use a diffusion process. The dye diffusion thermal process is known as D2T. To transfer the dye from the ribbon or roll, the print head is pushed against the paper by weights or springs. The depth of color is regulated by varying the heat applied. This method enables printing without the use of either halftones or dithering, which are required for other printing methods. The transparent dyes are combined to create a wide variety of colors, with 256 possible shades of each color. Dye sub printers require special paper, which has a special layer to receive the dye. To protect the output from water, UV light, and fingerprints, a layer of lamination material is applied after the image has been created. Dye sub printers print square dots, with higher densities of color in the center of each dot and lower density at the edges. The density varies by the amount of power applied to the print head, thus changing the shade of the color.

12–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Thermal printers Thermal printers produce output with heat. The image can be created through several methods:  Thermal wax transfer  Direct thermal  Thermal autochrome Thermal wax transfer printers use ink in a wax base. The ink is melted from the transfer ribbon by a heating element in the print head. Separate cyan, yellow, magenta, and black transfer ribbons are used to create the image. The cooled wax becomes a permanent image on the paper. These printers don’t require special paper. Direct thermal printers use coated paper. A row of heating elements is used to burn dots directly onto the paper. These are monochrome printers. Thermal autochrome printers use special paper in which cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments are embedded. Each page passes three times under the thermal print head at varying temperatures. Each color is processed at a different temperature. UV light sets individual colors after each pass so that no more processing of that color occurs on the subsequent passes under the print head.

Plotters Plotters are pen-based output devices that produce line images. (Printers produce raster images.) Plotters are typically used for precise engineering documents from CAD applications. A pen in the printer moves side to side on an X-axis as the paper moves up and down on the Y-axis. A multi-color plotter uses multiple pens to create an image. Usually, the plotter is a carousel containing 4 to 12 pens, but in some plotters, you need to change the pen to each color as you need it. Plotters create lines with the pens. Other printers can create lines only by spacing the dots very close together. Curved lines produced with a pen are smoother than those produced with dots. Most plotters are used to create engineering documents. Some other industrial uses have replaced the pens with cutting devices. For example, in the garment industry, rather than printing from the application, you cut fabric. The sign industry also uses plotters with cutting devices to cut out signs; an application outputs the sign shape to the material to be cut.

Additional printer types Other printers you might encounter are variations on the printer types already discussed. Some of these are designed to create smaller than standard letter-sized output, and some printers produce very large output formats. Snapshot printers typically produce 4"×6" pictures or 5"×7" pictures. These printers typically use inkjet or dye sublimation printing technologies. They often require special paper to get photo-quality prints. Some of these printers accept media cards from digital cameras, allowing users to print directly from the card to the printer, instead of using a computer between the card and the printer.

Printers

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Some of these printers also include a pop-up screen that enables you to manipulate the picture before printing it. You can typically crop pictures and reduce red-eye effects with such printers. Large-format printers are typically inkjet-based printers. They are often used to create banners and large signs. Do it!

A-4:

Identifying other printer technologies

Questions 1 What’s the base in which solid-ink colors are held? 2 What features make solid-ink printers environmentally friendly? 3 What base is the ink for a dye sub printer held in? 4 What’s another name for the dye diffusion thermal process? 5 True or false? Dye sub printers require the use of halftones and dithering to create shades of colors. 6 List three types of thermal printers. 7 Why can a plotter make a smoother line than other types of printers?

Answers


Topic B: Printer installation This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.11

Install and configure printers  Local vs. network printers  Print drivers (compatibility)

2.3

Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting methods and tools for printers  Print spooler  Printer properties and settings  Print a test page

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Updates – Driver

The Windows printing process Explanation

The Windows print process can be divided into three major processes. Each of these processes is composed of several sub-processes involved in getting the print request from the user to the printer. The three main processes are:  Client  Spooler  Printer The client processes include the following: 1 A user sends a print job from within an application. 2 The application calls a graphics device interface (GDI). 3 The GDI sends the print job to the print spooler.

Printers

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The spooler processes include the following: 1 Winspool.drv issues an RPC (remote procedure call) to Spoolsv.exe. Winspool.drv is on the client side. Spoolsv.exe is on the server side. 2 Spoolsv.exe calls Spoolss.dll, the print router. 3 Spoolss.dll routes the print job to either the local print provider or the remote print server. 4 The local print provider finds a print processor capable of handling the job’s data type and then sends the job to the print processor. 5 The print processor makes any necessary modifications for printing the job. 6 The page-separator processor receives the print job from the print processor and, if necessary, adds a separator page. 7 The job is sent either directly to the appropriate port monitor or to a language monitor and then on to the port monitor. The port monitor is responsible for communications between the PC and the printer. A language monitor is responsible for translating the print job into code that the printer understands. For the printer process:  The print language is translated into information that the printer can print. Do it!

B-1:

Examining the Windows printing process

Questions and answers 1 List the three main processes of the Windows print process.

2 Which process does this step fall into: A graphics device interface (GDI) is called by the application?

3 Which process does this step fall into? The print language is translated into information that the printer can print.

4 Which process does this step fall into: The print processor makes any necessary modifications for printing the job?

12–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Inkjet printer installation Most local printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. Your printer likely comes with a CD-ROM, containing drivers and additional software to enhance the print quality. Exhibit 12-11 shows the bubble alerting you that new hardware was found on your computer. If Windows has the appropriate printer driver, it begins installing the driver. If Windows doesn’t have or can’t find the right driver, you need to install the driver software for your printer. Windows will guide you through the process as shown in Exhibit 12-12.

Exhibit 12-11: Identified new hardware notification in Windows 7

Exhibit 12-12: Notification that Windows 7 can’t automatically install the appropriate driver Some printers come with a utility for monitoring the ink levels in the cartridges, so you’ll know when ink supplies are getting low and need to be replaced. Exhibit 12-13 shows such a screen from such a utility. Notice that it includes information about the current print job and about the ink levels in the printer.

Exhibit 12-13: A utility for monitoring ink levels

Printers

12–19

Although you can purchase kits for refilling cartridges, using one usually voids the printer warranty. If you do refill a cartridge, make sure that you get the ink that’s right for your printer. Thermal inkjet printers need ink that can withstand high heat. Getting a water-soluble ink for a solvent-based ink printer or vice versa can result in improper application of the ink to the page and create a major mess. Because the print head is contained in most print cartridges, a cartridge should be refilled only two or three times. Printer interfaces Today, most inkjet printers are connected by USB interfaces. In supporting inkjet printers, you might encounter some that still use the parallel port interface. Even less likely, you might encounter some printers with SCSI or serial interfaces. Many inkjet printers are also being manufactured with wired or wireless Ethernet network connections so that they can be connected directly to your home or business network. Exhibit 12-14 shows the communications interfaces—a parallel port and a USB port—on an inkjet printer.

Exhibit 12-14: Communications interfaces on an inkjet printer In Windows, be sure to configure the printer so it uses the right connection type:  If it’s using SCSI, be sure to assign a unique device ID.  If it’s using parallel, be sure that you’ve specified the correct LPT port. The default of LPT1 is usually fine.  If it’s using serial, verify that you’ve specified the correct COM port. COM2 is preferred for printers. COM1 is generally reserved for modems. Exhibit 12-15 shows Device Manager information for a printer connected to a computer.

Exhibit 12-15: Port identified for the printer

12–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Installing an inkjet printer To install an inkjet printer: 1 Connect the printer to a computer, using the correct interface. 2 Plug the printer in. 3 Power it up. 4 If you’re connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably recognize that you’ve connected a new device and will install drivers for it. 5 If drivers aren’t installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the materials that shipped with the printer. If your printer is configured with an incorrect printer driver, Windows won’t be able to send documents to the printer. If you send a document to the printer and it doesn’t show up in the queue, check Device Manager to see if it’s reporting any driver problems. If it is, you should reinstall or upgrade the driver. Upgrading the device driver To upgrade a device driver, open Device Manager, right-click the printer, and choose Update Driver Software (in Windows 7 and Vista) or Update Driver (in Windows XP or 2000). Then complete the wizard to install the new driver. You can also use any installation program that comes from the printer’s manufacturer. After the printer is connected and working, you can configure options for best performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly and that it’s compatible with any programs or operating systems deployed. Also, take a few minutes to educate the user about basic printing functionality.

Laser printer installation When a printer is shipped to a store or to you, the toner cartridge is removed. (If the printer were shipped with the toner installed, it could get all over the insides of the printer and make a huge mess.) Therefore, the first step in installing a laser printer is to unpack the printer and the toner cartridge from their respective packaging. Laser printers usually come with chunks of Styrofoam in place of the toner cartridge. Other components might be taped down so that they don’t move during shipment. Be sure to remove all of the packing materials and tape before trying to use the printer. Follow the directions to remove any packing materials and tape that might be inside the printer. Check the documentation for the toner cartridge for installation procedures. Usually you start by gently rocking the cartridge from side to side; this distributes the toner, as it likely settled during shipment. According to the manufacturer’s directions, remove the tape insert from the toner cartridge and install the cartridge in the printer. On some printers, the drum and some other components are outside the cartridge. If this is the case, refer to your documentation for how and where to install them.

Printers

12–21

Interfaces Laser printers are used in a wide variety of situations. These printers have the most widely varied connection types of any printers. Most laser printers have two or more connection interfaces. These could include:  Parallel  SCSI  USB  Serial  IEEE 1394/FireWire  Wired or wireless Ethernet network connections Examples of the communications interfaces on a laser printer are shown in Exhibit 1216.

USB interface

Parallel interface

Exhibit 12-16: Communications interfaces on a laser printer Some interfaces also include network connections, infrared ports, and wireless connections.  An RJ-45 network connection enables the printer to be connected directly to the network.  Infrared and other wireless technologies, such as Bluetooth and IEEE 801.11x, enable users to send jobs to the printer without physically connecting the printer and computer with a cable. Installing a laser printer To install a laser printer: 1 Connect the printer to the network or a computer, using the correct interface. 2 Plug the printer in. 3 Power it up. 4 If you’re connecting the printer to a Windows computer, Windows will probably recognize that you’ve connected a new device and will install drivers for it. 5 If drivers aren’t installed automatically, you can do it manually, using the materials that shipped with the printer.

12–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One To upgrade a device driver: 1 In Device Manager, right-click the printer and choose Update Driver Software (in Windows Vista or 7) or Update Driver (in Windows XP or 2000). 2 Complete the wizard to install the new driver. Alternately, you can use any installation program that comes from the printer manufacturer. After the printer is connected and working, you can configure options for best performance. Then print a test page to verify that the printer is working properly. Installing a network printer in Windows 7 1 In Windows 7, open Devices and Printers. 2 Click Add a printer. 3 Click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer. Windows searches for available printers on the network. 4 Select the desired printer and click Next, or click The printer that I want isn’t listed. If the printer isn’t listed, you can use the wizard to browse for it, then enter its share name, TCP/IP address, or host name. 5 If the print drivers are available on the network, Windows prompts you to install them. Click Install driver. 6 Enter a name for the printer and click Next. 7 If desired, set as the default printer and print a test page. 8 Click Finish. Installing a network printer in Windows Vista, XP, and 2000 1 In Windows Vista and Windows 2000 Professional, open Printers. In Windows XP, open Printers and Other Hardware. 2 In Windows Vista and Windows XP, click Add a printer. In Windows 2000 Professional, double-click Add Printer. 3 In Windows Vista, click Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer. Windows searches for available printers on the network. In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, click Next. Select Network printer and click Next again. 4 In Windows Vista, select the desired printer and click Next, or click The printer that I want isn’t listed. If the printer isn’t listed, you can use the wizard to browse for it, then enter its share name, TCP/IP address, or host name. In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, enter the name of or the URL to the network printer, then click Next. You can also just click Next to browse for the printer. In Windows 2000 Professional, if desired, set as the default printer and click Next. 5 In Windows Vista, if the print drivers are available on the network, Windows prompts you to install them. Click Install driver. 6 In Windows Vista, enter a name for the printer and click Next. 7 In Windows Vista, if desired, set as the default printer and print a test page. 8 Click Finish.

Printers Do it!

B-2:

12–23

Installing a local printer

Here’s how 1 If necessary, log on to Windows 7 as COMPADMIN##

Here’s why The password is !pass1234.

2 Connect the power cord to the printer 3 Connect the interface cable to the printer

The interface cable varies based on the printer’s connection type. Most current printers are USB printers, but some also have parallel or serial ports, and some have SCSI ports.

4 Plug the power cord into an electrical outlet

If possible, this should be on a surge protector strip.

5 Connect the interface cable to the computer

The port varies based on the printer’s connection type.

6 Insert paper in the printer

If none is loaded.

Install print cartridges

If they aren’t already installed. Refer to the printer’s documentation for the procedure to install the cartridges.

Turn on the printer

Windows 7 recognizes that you’ve connected a device and attempts to install device drivers for it.

7 If Windows 7 reports that the device driver software was not successfully installed, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Manage

To open the Computer Management console, where you can access Device Manager.

12–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 8 In the console tree, select

To display the computer’s devices.

Device Manager

Find your printer in the list

It’s listed under “Other Devices.” Some printers require that you install software from the CD or from a download, rather than installing the driver through Device Manager. If this is the case with your particular printer, skip the next step.

9 If your instructor has the printer driver available, right-click the printer and choose Update

You can have Windows search for a new driver or you can manually select it from a location on your computer or the network.

Driver Software…

Click Browse my computer for driver software

Follow the prompts to finish installing the driver 10 If your printer requires you install the drivers from an executable file, close Computer Management Locate and run the printer installation executable file Follow the prompts to install the printer Don’t print a test page 11 Click Start and choose Devices and Printers

To open the Devices and Printers window. Your newly installed printer should be listed.

Printers

12–25

12 Right-click the printer and choose Printer Properties

Click Print Test Page

Close any notification page from the printer and click OK

To close the printer’s Properties dialog box. Observe that the test page prints successfully. If it doesn’t, click Troubleshoot and follow the steps to resolve the problem until you can successfully print a test page. If necessary, adjust the print-head alignment.

13 Close the Devices and Printers window 14 Open Notepad, enter some text, and print the page

Notepad is on the Start, Accessories menu.

15 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose

To open the Computer Management console, where you can access Device Manager.

Manage

16 In the console tree, select

To display the computer’s devices.

Device Manager

Find your printer in the list

It might be under “Imaging devices” in Windows 7 and Vista or “Other Devices” in Windows XP or 2000.

17 Right-click the printer and choose Update Driver Software…

Click Cancel 18 Close Computer Management

You would use this wizard to upgrade the device driver. You can have Windows search for a new driver or you can manually select it from a location on your computer or the network. To close the wizard.


Topic C: Printer optimization and maintenance This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.11

Install and configure printers  Consumables

2.3

Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting methods and tools for printers  Manage print jobs  Print spooler  Printer properties and settings

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  Electrical safety – Laser printers


Objective

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Specialty hardware / tools  Extension magnet

1.5

Given a scenario, detect and resolve common printer issues  Issue resolution – Install maintenance kit (reset page count) – Clean printer

Printer configuration Explanation

After installing a printer in Windows, you can configure how it prints. Configuration options include setting the defaults for orientation, number of pages, print quality, and printer language. Keep in mind that laser printers connected to a print server might require you or a server administrator to optimize the server’s print settings, which can override any settings you configure on a network client. An example of printer configuration settings is shown in Exhibit 12-17.

Printers

12–27

Exhibit 12-17: Printer configuration options for a Lexmark printer Some of the common configuration options are described in the following table. Option

Description

Orientation

Portrait (narrow dimension is the top of page) or landscape (wide dimension is the top of the page).

Collation

The way individual pages in a multipage document are printed when you print more than one copy. Collated means that entire copies of the document are printed together. Uncollated means that all copies of page 1 are printed, then all copies of page 2, and so forth.

Copies

Number of copies to print.

Quality

Options for draft, normal, or high quality on some printers. Others offer varying resolutions.

Color

Full color or black-and-white. There might also be options for color matching software to be used if such software is installed with your printer.

Order

The order the pages are printed in—from last page to first, or from first page to last—on multipage print jobs.

Paper tray switching One simple way to optimize output is to configure paper tray switching. If the printer has multiple trays, you might be able to configure the printer to change printer trays when one is empty. This feature isn’t always available on inkjet printers. More likely, you can configure this setting on large laser printers. You might also need to load different types of paper, such as letterhead or photographic paper, in one or more of the trays.

12–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Print spool optimization Another way to optimize printing is to reconfigure print spool settings. The print spool is a temporary file that collects print jobs before they’re sent to the actual print device. The pages you’re printing are collected in the spool file and are gradually sent to the printer. This feature allows you to continue using the application you’re printing from, and it allows a printer to handle large jobs that it might not normally be suited for. To configure the print spooler: 1 In Windows 2000 Professional, click Start and choose Settings, Printers. In Windows XP, click Start and choose Printers and Faxes. In Windows Vista, click Start and choose Control Panel; then, under Hardware and Sound, click Printer. In Windows 7, click Start and choose Devices and Printers. 2 Right-click the printer you want to configure and choose Printer Properties (in Windows 7) or Properties (in previous versions). Select the Advanced tab and select the desired options, shown in Exhibit 12-18. By default, documents are spooled, and printing is started immediately. Usually, this is sufficient. But if you have users who often print large documents with many graphics, you might be able to optimize performance by selecting "Start printing after last page has spooled.” Sometimes a print job will stall as it is spooling, preventing it or any documents behind it in the queue from printing. In the print queue, you’ll see the job listed as "Spooling.” Unfortunately, there typically isn’t any error message that tells you the print job has stalled. It simply sits in the print queue listed as spooling. If this happens, right-click the job that’s stalled and choose Cancel Printing. Try reprinting the job. Remember that documents with graphics take longer to print than text documents, so make sure the document is stalled and not just processing the graphics. Windows Vista, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows XP all allow you to bypass the spooler and print directly to the printer, thus decreasing printing time: 1 Open the desired printer’s Properties dialog box. 2 Select the Advanced tab. 3 Select Print directly to the printer. 4 Click OK. This feature is a useful option for applications that use their own spooling process. When an application uses its own spooler, but the Print directly to the printer option is not enabled, a copy of the print job resides in both the application’s spooler folder and in the Windows spooler. Depending on the print jobs, this can use up a significant amount of disk space. Microsoft states that you should use this option only for a printer that isn’t shared.

Exhibit 12-18: Windows printer spooling options

Printers

12–29

Printer configuration on the printer Some printers have buttons or menus you can use to configure them. Some of the configuration options include setting the defaults for orientation, number of pages, print quality, and printer language. If your printer connects directly to the network, you have to configure the printer with a network address. If the printer has multiple ports, you might need to configure the printer to specify which port is used. Managing print queues After users have sent print jobs to a printer from an application, these jobs are queued while waiting to be output on the printer. The most common way for a user to view the print queue for a printer is to double-click that printer’s icon in the Printers utility. When a print job has been queued, users with Print permissions can pause, resume, restart, or cancel the printing of their own documents by selecting the desired document and choosing a command from the Documents menu. Users can’t pause, resume, restart, or cancel print jobs belonging to other users unless they have the Manage Documents permission for that printer. Problems can occur that will make jobs back up in the queue. A printer might be offline, the Print Spooler service might be stalled, or the printer might have run out of paper. You can stop and restart the printer spooler service by accessing the Services applet in Control Panel, Administrative Tools or in the Computer Management MMC. Scroll to locate the Print Spooler service. Right-click the service and choose "Restart” or "Stop.” If you chose Stop, right-click the service again and choose Start. Separator pages You can configure your printer to print a separator page at the beginning of each print job. You can use one of the four separator pages included with Windows 7, and Vista, Windows 2000 Professional, and Windows XP, or you can create a custom page. A separator page typically states the user who sent the print job to the printer, along with the print date and time. Separator files have a .sep extension and are located in the %systemroot%\System32 folder. The following table describes the available files: File name

Printer language

Description

pcl.sep

Printer control language (PCL)

Switches the printer to PCL printing and prints a separator page at the beginning of each print job.

pscript.sep

PostScript

Switches the printer to PostScript printing but doesn’t print a separator page at the beginning of each print job.

sysprint.sep

PostScript

Switches the printer to Postscript printing and prints a separator page at the beginning of each print job.

sysprtj.sep

PostScript

A variation of the sysprint.sep file but using Japanese fonts, if they are available.

For steps on creating a custom separator page using a text editor such as Notepad, go to www.microsoft.com and search for "create custom separator page.” There are several articles about this process on Microsoft’s support site.

12–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Printer priorities Windows allows you to configure printer priorities for different groups of users. Print priorities are useful in cases where you want different groups of users to have different levels of priority to a limited number of print devices. For example, you might want to configure your print environment to give precedence to any printouts from the CEO of the company, even if there are other documents already ahead of it in the print queue. To configure print priorities: 1 Use the Add Printer wizard to install two printers on the Windows print server, connecting both printers to the same physical print device. 2 Open each printer’s Properties dialog box and select the Advanced tab. 3 Configure the priority of each printer to a number between 1 and 99, with 1 being the lowest priority and 99 being the highest priority. 4 Click Apply. Continue in Windows 7 and Vista and Windows 2000 Professional (not available in Windows XP): 5 Select the Security tab. 6 Restrict the higher priority printer to the users or groups you want to have priority access to the printer. 7 Click OK. Do it!

C-1:

Optimizing printing

Here’s how 1 Open Notepad 2 Type some text in Notepad 3 Choose File, Print…

Here’s why You’ll examine the options available for your printer.

Printers 4 Click Preferences

12–31

The options vary based on your printer.

Scroll through the settings available for your printer 5 Close all open windows and dialog boxes

Don’t save changes in your Notepad document.

6 Click Start and choose Devices and Printers

7 Right-click your printer and choose Printer properties

To open the printer’s Properties dialog box.

Select the Advanced tab 8 Select Start printing after last page is spooled

To configure the printer to print only after the entire document has been spooled. This setting can optimize printing when a user frequently prints large documents with many graphics.

9 Click OK 10 Close the Devices and Printers window

12–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Printer options The options and upgrades available for printers vary widely. Some options are specific to a certain type of printer, and some apply to all printers. Usually, you need to purchase options and upgrades from the printer’s manufacturer because they’re integrated into the printer mechanism. Some options and upgrades are basic, and others turn a printer into a multifunction device. Options and upgrades for dot-matrix printers Dot-matrix printers with both friction feed and tractor feed might have an option called paper park or something similar. This option enables you to switch between sheet-feed single-page paper and tractor-feed paper without having to unload either from the printer. Other options on dot-matrix printers are input and output trays. An input tray with multiple sheets of paper can often be purchased separately or can be removed if it was included with the printer. Many dot-matrix printers don’t have an output tray; the printed pages just pile up on the table or floor in front of it or behind it. Some dot-matrix printers include a slot in which font cartridges can be installed. This was useful before print jobs included font details, as with DOS applications and early Windows applications. Documents were printed with the default font on the printer. For printers that use continuous-roll paper, rather than perforated sheet paper, some manufacturers offer a paper cutter. You can use it to tear off the printout cleanly at the end of the document. Options and upgrades for inkjet printers Options for inkjet printers vary by manufacturer. Most printers come bundled with software to enhance the printer’s output. Many inkjet manufacturers offer a combination printer-scanner-copier-fax device. These multifunction devices are popular for home users and home offices. Exhibit 1219 shows a multifunction printer.

Exhibit 12-19: A multifunction printer Some printers have options for additional paper trays. These allow you to leave the paper in the paper tray and then select a tray when you want to print. Other printers enable you to leave the paper in the paper tray and hand-feed a single sheet of paper or an envelope or postcard through an alternate paper path.

Printers

12–33

Some printers come with holders for printing on smaller media or on unconventional media, such as CDs. The sensors often detect a paper jam if you try to feed envelopes or small media through the normal paper path, so these holders enable the sensor to see a full-size sheet going through. Upgrades for inkjet printers include auto-duplexers. Usually, to print two-sided pages with an inkjet printer, you have to determine how the sheet feeds through the printer, and then turn the paper over so that the second side doesn’t print upside down or on top of the first page. The duplexer takes care of positioning the pages correctly for printing on the backside. A PostScript upgrade kit is available for some printers. This kit enables the user to send PostScript output to the inkjet printer. Most printers don’t use such sophisticated language for creating printer output. Mobile inkjet printers include batteries. This variation on the inkjet printer is popular with users who do a lot of traveling and need to print documents. Options for mobile printers include car adapters that plug into the cigarette lighter, additional batteries, and carrying cases. A Bluetooth adapter can be plugged into the USB port on the printer. This adapter enables any Bluetooth-compatible device to print wirelessly. Most inkjet printers aren’t designed for high-volume printing. However, if you want to share your printer on a network, and you want to connect it directly to the network, some printers have the option of installing an Ethernet card or a print server card. Some other interfaces you might be able to add include IEEE 1394b and serial ports.

12–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Options and upgrades for laser printers Laser printers have the most robust selection of options and variations. Most laser printers have one or more page description languages—usually PCL and PostScript. Some have proprietary languages instead of or in addition to these. Laser printers usually have at least one input tray and one output tray. Additional input and output trays are common options that users request as upgrades. An offset stacker is a device that makes it easier for users to identify a complete set of multiple-page and multiple-copy print jobs. This device stacks each set of output either to the left or to the right of the output tray. Laser printers are often connected directly to the network. For this, a network card must be installed in the printer, or a network adapter must be connected to one of the printer ports. Laser printers often include USB, serial, and parallel ports and might also include infrared, Ethernet, or wireless Ethernet ports. To speed up the printing of large jobs, you can add an internal hard drive to some laser printers. The jobs are spooled to the printer and are read directly from the internal hard drive. Large jobs with a lot of graphics consume large amounts of printer memory. You might need to upgrade the memory, if large jobs start out fine but end in gobbledygook or are missing sections or if you receive out-of-memory error messages when attempting to print. Duplexers might be built into the laser printer or added as an upgrade. Duplexers are useful in creating long documents if both sides of the paper can be used. Some duplexers also include collators and stapling options. Some copiers can be connected to the network and used as printers, with all of the features of the copier available as printer options. Options and upgrades for other types of printers For large-format printers that print on continuous-roll paper, an automatic take-up reel is very useful. Rather than letting the paper pile up on the floor, this device rolls the paper onto a spool as it’s printed. Another option for some of these printers is a refillable ink tank, used instead of ink cartridges. A network card or other interface card can be installed in some large-format printers so they can connect to a network directly or via other connection types. Do it!

C-2:

Installing printer add-ons and upgrades

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Obtain the option or upgrade for your printer from your instructor 2 Obtain the manufacturer’s documentation for the printer

You’ll need it for the installation.

3 Install the option or upgrade

According to the manufacturer’s instructions.

4 Verify that the option or upgrade is working

Print a test page, if necessary.

Printers

12–35

Maintenance Sometimes simple maintenance is all that’s needed to keep a printer running smoothly. Check the manufacturer’s documentation for each device you’re supporting. The documentation will list any requirements for scheduled maintenance tasks, especially on laser printers. Also check the device’s log and service history to see which maintenance tasks or repairs other technicians have performed.

Exhibit 12-20: Cleaning cloths Common maintenance tools to have with you when performing routine maintenance include:  Cleaning solutions and sprays, including isopropyl alcohol and denatured alcohol  Cleaning equipment, including soft cloths, such as those shown in Exhibit 12-20, and cotton swabs  Lubricants  Compressed air  Toner vacuums and toner rags, or extension magnet brushes  Screwdrivers (to open compartments)  Chip puller, for removing memory chips if they need to be reseated or replaced Safety When working with any type of printer, remember to take certain safety precautions. These include following ESD safe practices, keeping dangling jewelry, neckties, and long hair away from the printer, and handling components so as not to damage so as not to damage them. Also, if you’re clearing a paper jam, be careful about not damaging the printer, the cartridges, or yourself. And remember the main rule for printer maintenance: Always follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. When maintenance is complete, document the steps you took in the device’s service log.

Dot-matrix printers Keeping the printer clean helps it last a long time. Paper bits, dust, and other debris can easily get into a printer and cause problems. You can spray compressed air into the printer to help remove such contaminants. You can use mild household cleaners on the exterior case to keep it clean. The roller can become sticky, especially if it gets printed on without any paper on it. Rubbing alcohol is useful for cleaning the roller. Oil the print head or guide only if the printer documentation instructs you to. Otherwise, doing so can clog the workings of the printer.

12–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One As with any electronic devices, you should always take care when you’re working around printers. With dot-matrix printers, make sure you don’t become entangled with the print-feed mechanism. Secure or remove neckties, watches, or hanging jewelry and pull back and secure long hair before leaning over the printer and operating the mechanism.

Inkjet printer maintenance The main thing you need to do to keep an inkjet printer working properly is to replace consumables, such as paper and ink cartridges, whenever necessary. Keeping an eye on the paper tray ensures that there’s always a ready supply of paper. When an ink cartridge gets low, you usually have a visual warning—from lights on the printer, a software utility, or just poor output. Always use recommended cartridges when replacing ink supplies. You can tell when one of the colors is low; often the output doesn’t even remotely match the colors on the screen. For example, the output might have a pink cast if the blue or yellow ink is low, but the red is still going strong. When replacing a cartridge, remember to calibrate the print heads, as described in the following paragraph, to ensure good output. Sometimes you might have to clean the print nozzles and recalibrate the printer. You can do this by following the manufacturer’s instructions, which typically have you use the printer’s control panel or a software utility. Then print a test page to verify functionality. You should also clean the small well that holds the ink that’s dispersed during a cleaning cycle. The well might have a sponge or absorbent pad that needs to be replaced periodically. Color matching Color matching is one area that printer manufacturers continue to improve on. The colors used on a monitor are based on a color scheme (RGB) that’s different from that of the printer’s (CYMK). The results are usually close to what you see on screen, but they might need to be adjusted a bit after you see the actual output. Some printers come with utilities to adjust the calibration of ink output to match your desired output more closely. Environment Keeping the inkjet printer’s environment properly ventilated helps the printer last longer. Adequate ventilation prevents the printer from overheating. Another environmental concern is keeping dust out of the printer. Most inkjet printers have a very open design, which allows dust to gather inside. The accumulation of dust can result in the following:  Stray marks on the paper if the dust gets caught on the print cartridge  Overheating of elements if dust blocks airflow around them  Other such problems You can use a dry cloth to remove dust or paper dander, or if it’s recommended by the manufacturer, use a vacuum cleaner designed for electronics. Clean the outside of the unit with a damp cloth or with any recommended cleaning solution.

Printers

12–37

Laser printers Laser printers require more maintenance than inkjet printers, and the maintenance is more involved. However, regular maintenance can prevent service calls for poor print output and paper jams. Generally, there are two times when you should perform preventive maintenance on laser printers:  Scheduled maintenance — Clean, lubricate, and perform adjustments based on the manufacturer’s recommended schedules.  Unscheduled service calls — During service calls, check the counters, such as the one shown in Exhibit 12-21. Check the manufacturer’s recommendations for maintenance, and clean, lubricate, and adjust components, or replace components as needed. Before you complete the service call, examine the printer for any potential future problems, and resolve those before you leave.

Exhibit 12-21: The counter on a laser printer Laser printer maintenance routines might include the following tasks:  Replacing toner cartridges.  Cleaning internal components. (Be sure to follow safety procedures, as well as the manufacturer’s guidelines for cleaning components.) For example, clean rollers are less likely to slip and cause paper jams.  Replacing components—such as the ozone filter, fuser assembly, or transfer roller—as recommended by the manufacturer. Often the components come in a special maintenance kit that you can get from the manufacturer. To keep a printer operating smoothly, some manufacturers recommend installing maintenance kits after a specified duration of use or a specified number of printed pages, tracked by counters. (Other printers have their counters displayed on a control panel or an on-board monitor.) After installing the maintenance kit, you might have to reset the page count. Check the documentation.  Check the printer’s firmware version and the manufacturer’s Web site to see if there’s a newer version available. Newer firmware can improve print quality and provide better interoperability with newer operating systems. Check the printer’s documentation to find out how to access the firmware utility (usually through the printer’s administrative software or by connecting to the printer through a Web browser). Depending on your company’s financial and service contracts with the manufacturer, you might receive toner and maintenance kits automatically. Some newer, large laser printers can contact the manufacturer directly to report page counts.

12–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One This contact, generally for financial purposes, can then trigger the automatic shipment of maintenance kits and replacement parts. Your company or client might have a similar arrangement; ask about it before you order any supplies. When replacing components, take some time to clean out any accumulated toner and paper dust inside the printer. Doing so prevents the debris from hindering printer operations, and it keeps a clean printing environment. Manufacturers’ maintenance kits often include cleaning materials. When removing toner, don’t use a regular vacuum cleaner or even an antistatic vacuum cleaner. Use only a special toner-certified vacuum, which has a filter designed to catch the super-fine toner particles. Be sure the printer is well ventilated and is situated securely on a flat surface, and keep the printer trays full. Use only recommended supplies. Remember to follow appropriate safety precautions when working with the laser printer. After you’ve completed maintenance, print a few test pages to verify functionality. You don’t want to leave an inoperable printer after you’ve completed your service routine. Safety issues There are some environmental and safety issues you should be aware of with laser printers. The toner can be toxic if inhaled at high levels. Spilled toner is very messy and easily stains skin, clothing, and various plastic or other materials. You should use latex or rubber gloves, and perhaps wear a mask over your mouth and nose, when working with toner. Don’t use compressed air to clear out toner. Doing so can spread the particles into the air and onto other surfaces. If you get toner on your hands or clothes, use cold water and soap to remove it. Hot water can set the toner. Printers contain high-voltage power supplies, so you need to take special care when working around them. The fusing assembly also becomes very hot, so if you’re working inside the printer, you need to let it cool down a bit so that you don’t burn yourself. Consumables You should always keep a sufficient supply of consumables—paper, ink cartridges, and toner cartridges—on hand. If you must order these supplies from another person who’s in charge of ordering supplies for the company, ensure that your requests are submitted in a timely fashion and that you follow up on their status. All consumables should be kept in their original packaging; in a cool, dry location, out of direct sunlight; and in a room with low humidity. If paper is too moist because of high humidity, the toner might not adhere properly. Conversely, dry paper can create static electricity, which can cause the paper to stick together, resulting in paper jams. Toner cartridges stored out of their packaging in a humid environment can cause the toner to clump. Do it!

C-3:

Performing inkjet and laser printer maintenance tasks

Here’s how 1 Turn off and unplug your inkjet printer

Here’s why You’re going to perform some routine maintenance tasks on an inkjet printer.

Printers

12–39

2 Obtain the appropriate manufacturer’s documentation Find the maintenance recommendations 3 Follow electrical and ESD safety procedures to prepare to open the printer 4 Open the printer and remove the ink cartridges Remove any dust or debris in the compartment and on the outside of the printer

Use recommended cleaning solutions.

5 Follow the manufacturer’s instructions to clean the print heads If necessary, reinstall the ink cartridges and download and install printer software

Plug in the printer, if you’re using a Windowsbased utility. Connect to your computer, if necessary.

6 Make sure there’s enough paper Print a test page, and recalibrate the printer as needed

Follow the instructions to print a page and adjust settings.

7 Obtain a laser printer and its documentation Follow electrical and ESD safety procedures to prepare to open the printer 8 Follow the manufacturer’s cleaning and maintenance instructions

(Check the counters.) This step can include removing accumulated toner and dust and cleaning internal components. This step might also include replacing the ozone filter, which is important to prevent damage to printer components and to prevent the release of ozone into the environment around the printer.

9 Close the printer and plug it in If necessary, connect it to your computer 10 Ensure that the printer has enough paper 11 Print a test page

To verify that the printer is working properly.


Topic D: Printer troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009) Edition version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  OS-related symptoms – Windows-specific printing problems  Print spool stalled  Incorrect / incompatible driver  Hardware-related symptoms – Noise – Status light indicators – Alerts – Visible damage (e.g. cable, plastic)


Objective

1.5

Given a scenario, detect and resolve common printer issues  Symptoms – Paper jams – Blank paper – Error codes – Out-of-memory error – Lines and smearing – Garbage printout – Ghosted image – No connectivity  Issue resolution – Replace fuser – Replace drum – Clear paper jam – Power cycle – Install maintenance kit (reset page count) – Set IP on printer – Clean printer

Printers #

Objective

2.4

Evaluate and resolve common issues

12–41

 Operational problems – Windows-specific printing problems  Print spool stalled  Incorrect / incompatible driver / form printing

Resolving printer problems Explanation

When troubleshooting printer problems, which can include failed, distorted, and defective print jobs, you can follow some general troubleshooting steps to isolate the problem to one of the following areas:  The application trying to print  The printer  The operating system and drivers  The connection (either a printer cable or the network adapter, the network cable, and the part of the network that’s between the computer and the printer) The application To troubleshoot the application, first close down and restart it. If that doesn’t solve the problem, try printing other files from the same application.  If you can print other files from the same application, troubleshoot the file that wouldn’t print.  If the other files won’t print either, try printing from another application, especially a simple text editor, such as Notepad.  If you can print from another application, troubleshoot the application that’s causing problems, using the manufacturer’s documentation or Web site.  If you can’t print from any applications, move on to testing the printer. The printer To verify that the printer is online and working, check its control panel or on-board screen. Cycle the power off and on to see if that resolves the problem. Look for any service error messages, which can indicate critical operational failures. Service messages might also appear on the user’s screen if the printer or print server is configured to display messages to users.

12–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One If the printer displays a service or error and alert code, refer to the manufacturer’s documentation or Web site for a description of the error and the recommended solutions. Some common error and informational messages include:  "Add media,” which indicates empty paper trays or cassettes, or if the paper supplies are full, a possible sensor problem.  "Add supplies” or "Add toner,” which can indicate a low toner supply or a sensor problem.  "Regular maintenance,” which can indicate that a part’s life counter has reached a number that means it’s time for regular maintenance of a specific component, such as the drum.  "Paper jam,” which indicates an obstructed paper path or a problem with a sensor.  "Incorrect media,” which can indicate a problem with the media in the trays or a problem with driver and option settings. HP laser printers use numerical error and alert codes such as:  13.2 Paper Jam Open Input Trays — Paper-stopped jam at the paper-feed area.  20 Insufficient Memory — The printer received more data than can fit in available memory.  51.1 Printer Error — A loss-of-beam-detect error occurred. At the time of this writing, Rhinotek published a helpful PDF document containing common HP Laser Jet error codes. You can find this at document at: http://www.rhinotek.com/PDFs/HP%20Error%20Codes.pdf. If there are no error or alert codes, print an engine test page by using the printer’s control panel or touch screen, or an engine-test button located somewhere on the printer (refer to the manufacturer’s documentation). If the test is successful, assume that the printer is working properly. Then, on the computer, troubleshoot the operating system and drivers and the connection. Finally, you can also print a user settings list, which details all of the settings you can modify directly on the printer (not through the operating system). You might want to check to see if these settings are correct before troubleshooting the operating system and drivers.

Printers

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The operating system and drivers If the printer is online, and you can print a test page from the printer’s Properties dialog box in Windows.  If the test page prints from the Properties dialog box, you can stop troubleshooting the printer, the connection, the operating system, and the drivers. Go back and troubleshoot the application and verify that the application settings aren’t conflicting with the driver settings.  If the test page doesn’t print from the Properties dialog box, try these options: – In the Printers window, verify that the printer status is Ready. If it’s Offline, put the printer into the Ready state. – Use the printer’s Properties dialog box to verify that the most current version of the correct driver is installed. If necessary, update the driver, or uninstall and then reinstall the drivers. This will resolve problems with incorrect drivers. – Verify the driver port settings, using the printer’s Properties dialog box. – Verify that the printer driver supports any accessories and options, such as duplex printing, that are configured for the print job. – Check the Windows event logs for any error messages related to printing. Verify that the print spool isn’t stalled. The connection To test a network connection, verify that you can access the Internet or intranet or access another network server. You can also use TCP/IP utilities to verify that the computer is connected to the network and can communicate with other devices. You might need to work with a network technician. To test a local connection, verify that the cable is securely connected at both ends, and then try printing a test page. If the test page won’t print, try printing from the computer with a different cable:  If the test page prints, the problem was probably with the cable.  If the test page won’t print, try printing from another computer, using the original cable: – If you can print the test page, the problem is with the original system and the drivers. – If you still can’t print a test page, using another printer with the same connection, the problem is likely with the printer, the cable, or the drivers. Connectivity issues might be indicated by slow printing, intermittent activity, communications errors, unexpected output, or no output at all. To detect the source of the problem, you might need to consult with a network administrator or technician, or check the manufacturer’s documentation for error codes and messages, not just for printers but for any network devices, such as hubs, switches, routers, or print servers.

12–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When troubleshooting connectivity problems, look for the following:  Loose, broken, damaged, or improperly wired cables. You can probably check the printer cable and network cable attached to the computer and printer, but you might need assistance to check cables elsewhere in the network or to check the cable attached to a printer server locked in a server room.  Broken or malfunctioning network devices. To verify network activity, check for blinking LEDs or link lights on network devices such as routers or hubs. This step is likely to involve a network technician.  Incorrect protocol, network settings, or TCP/IP settings on the computer that’s experiencing problems, and on network devices, such as print servers or the network printer itself.  A bad network card on the problem computer, the network printer, or the print server. To verify network activity, check for a blinking LED light on the network card.  Outdated firmware on network printers and other network devices, such as routers.  Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or other interference from nearby electrical devices. Although EMI isn’t usually a big problem, sometimes network cables that are too close to electrical devices can cause intermittent connectivity problems.  Wireless connection problems, including obstacles within the line of sight of a wireless device and wireless access point. Obstacles can include walls and other structural components, and devices that can cause interference with radio waves, including other wireless devices. Power supply An error message such as the "HP 57.x Fan Failure Call Service” message, might lead you to suspect a power problem. If you suspect a printer power issue, you should use a multimeter to check the J210 power supply. The test should show the following values:  Pin 1: +5V  Pin 5: -5V  Pin 9: +24V

Printer issues When you’ve ruled out the application, the operating system, the drivers, and the connection, you’ve isolated the problem to the printer. Use the following sections to find a cause and solution for the specific print issue. If you aren’t able to resolve the problem yourself, or you believe the solution requires a repair beyond your ability, contact a qualified printer technician.

Printers

12–45

Dark images Cause

Solutions

Application settings; printer settings

Adjust settings to lighten the text and graphics.

Light or weak images Cause

Solutions

Low toner

Remove the toner cartridge and shake it horizontally (or according to the manufacturer’s instructions) to redistribute toner. Replace the toner cartridge as needed.

Laser failing

Test and replace the laser assembly.

Incorrect paper

Replace paper according to manufacturer’s specification.

Repetitive image defects Cause

Solutions

Drum defect

Clean the drum, if possible. Replace the drum.

Faulty registration rollers

Clean or repair rollers and gears. Replace as needed.

Debris on heated fusing roller

Unplug the printer and allow the heated roller to cool for at least 15 minutes. Clean the roller, following the manufacturer’s instructions. Replace the roller or fuser assembly if necessary.

Ghosting and shadows Cause

Solutions

Residual toner on drum

Repair or replace the cleaning blade and discharge lamps. Replace the drum if necessary.

Drum not discharging properly

Repair or replace the drum.

Primary corona not putting adequate conditioning charge on drum

Repair or replace the primary corona.

12–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Smearing Cause

Solutions

Dirty or worn registration rollers

Clean debris from rollers. Clean rollers. Clean and replace damaged gears.

Dirty or worn registration assembly

Clean, reinstall, or replace the registration assembly.

Dirt or debris on polygon mirror

Clean the mirror and optical components, or contact a qualified printer technician.

Damp or moist paper

Replace the paper supply with fresh paper. Store all consumables in a dry, cool location.

Incorrect paper

Replace paper with paper recommended by the manufacturer.

Fuser not at correct temperature

Inspect the thermistor and thermistor cable. Test and replace the fuser assembly. Replace worn or missing cleaning pads in the fuser assembly.

Banding or unusual noise Cause

Solutions

Paper feed problem

Inspect the paper path and remove any obstructions or paper scraps.

Specially coated paper


Registration roller worn or dirty

Clean rollers. Clean and replace damaged gears.

HVPS ground loose (heavy banding)

Check that the HPVS (high-voltage power supply) harness isn’t crimped or shorted by other assemblies.

Laser/scanner assembly failure (white horizontal lines)

Check connectors on the main logic board and mechanical control boards. Replace the boards. Replace the laser assembly.

Printers

12–47

Focus Cause

Solutions

Not enough toner on drum

Remove the toner cartridge and shake it to redistribute the toner. Replace an empty toner cartridge.

Loose or improperly mounted laser assembly

Remount the laser assembly.

Incorrect paper


Fusing temperature or pressure too low

Replace worn or missing pads in the fuser assembly. Adjust roller pressure.

HVPS failing

Troubleshoot and replace the HVPS.

Voided areas Cause

Solutions

Paper entering printer too early

Check the registration rollers and registration roller clutch. If the clutch is jammed in an on position, repair or replace it.

Damaged drum

Examine the drum surface; replace the drum if necessary.

Limited memory

Try printing simpler print jobs to see if they’re successful. Install more memory, if possible.

Slipping gear; failing motor drive

Repair or replace gears or the motor drive assembly.

12–48 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Registration, jitters, unusual noise, or skewing Cause

Solutions

Problems with pickup roller or separation pad

Verify that the pickup roller is operating properly. Clean and remove any obstructions. Replace components as needed.

Faulty rollers or roller assembly

Replace worn rollers or roller assemblies.

Drive train worn or clogged

Check for proper operation of gears in the drive train; remove debris, if necessary.

Paper path obstructions

Check for and remove obstructions in the paper path.

Damaged paper tray

Verify that the paper tray isn’t worn or defective. Check paper guide tabs.

Special paper

If heavy or other nonstandard paper is used, try printing with plain 20lb paper or the paper recommended by the manufacturer.

Paper in paper path at wrong angle

Check for loose or bent paper guide tabs. Check for obstructions or debris buildup in the paper path.

Misaligned color registration Cause

Solutions

Misaligned print heads on inkjet printers

Print a color registration test page and recalibrate print heads, following manufacturer’s instructions.

Misaligned or worn transfer belt

Recalibrate or replace the transfer belt.

Weak or missing color Cause

Solutions

Low toner supply (laser printer)

Remove the toner cartridge and shake it horizontally to redistribute toner. Replace the cartridge as needed.

Low ink supply (inkjet printer)

Replace ink cartridges

Dried ink in nozzles (inkjet printer)

Follow the manufacturer’s directions to clean the print head manually or by using the printer’s software.

Incorrect paper


Printers

12–49

Vertical or horizontal black or white lines Cause

Solutions

Misaligned beam detector (horizontal black lines)

Remount the beam detector. Remount the laser assembly. Replace the beam detector. Replace the laser assembly.

Dirty transfer corona (vertical white lines)

Clean the transfer corona.

Blocked laser beam or LED (vertical white lines)

Remove dust and debris from the laser aperture, LEDs, or other optical components.

Failed or failing beam sensor (horizontal white lines)

Reseat or replace cables from the beam sensor. Replace the laser assembly.

Debris in toner cartridge (vertical white lines)

Check for debris (tape, staples, etc.) in the cartridge where the magnetic roller lifts the toner out of its trough. Remove debris.

Black or blank pages Cause

Solutions

Damaged primary corona (black pages)

Replace the primary corona.

Faulty drum (blank pages)

Replace the drum.

Defective logic board (black pages, banding)

Replace the logic board.

Defective toner cartridge

Replace the toner cartridge.

Transport/feed issues Transport and feed issues, some of which have already been described, include the following:  Media jamming  Skewing  Creasing, wrinkling, folding, and tearing  Multiple sheets feeding in at one time (multifeeding) and misdirected media (misfeeding)  Burning

12–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One To troubleshoot any of these issues, look for and correct the following causes:  Foreign objects — Check for foreign objects, such as staples, paper clips, and tape. Clear away any jammed paper, paper scraps, or other debris.  Damaged media — Verify that all media conform to the manufacturer’s recommendations and aren’t damaged, warped, wet, or too dry. Damaged or incorrect paper can cause burning or scorching when it reaches the fuser assembly.  Media-feed problems — Check for problems with the pickup roller, separation pad, and registration assembly. Check any roller that’s involved in moving the paper through the printer or multifunction device, including the rollers in any automatic document feeder. Make sure the paper is fresh and matches the manufacturer’s specifications.  Poor media-feed timing — Check the pickup rollers and registration assembly.  Separation problems — Ensure that the transfer corona is working properly so the paper doesn’t stick to the drum. Check the heated fusing roller to ensure that the paper isn’t sticking to it.  Duplex printing problems — Check the duplex assembly if a duplex print job is causing problems in the printer.  Fusing problems — Make sure the paper is properly separating from the heated roller in the fusing assembly. Make sure the fuser is at the proper temperature. To prevent burning and scorching, check that the assembly doesn’t contain any debris.  Media exit and delivery problems — Make sure the exit rollers aren’t blocked or jammed with any debris or foreign objects, and ensure that they’re working properly. Check any finishing assemblies, such as staplers or collators, for wear or malfunction.  Faulty sensors — If there are no foreign objects or debris in the paper path, and you can’t find any other problems, check for malfunctioning sensors that could be giving false paper-jam errors. You can also perform a paper path test by using the printer’s control panel or on-board screen. This test pulls paper through the printer. If the printer ejects the paper, there’s no paper path obstruction. If the paper jams, the printer informs you of the specific location in the paper path. You can then examine that location for paper, debris, foreign objects, or failed sensors. If the printer has multiple paper trays, you can perform the test on each tray to isolate the problem to a specific tray.

Printers Do it!

D-1:

12–51

Troubleshooting printer problems

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Determine whether you can print a document from within Notepad

One or more problems were introduced into your system. You need to resolve them.

2 Determine whether you can successfully print a test page

From the printer’s Properties dialog box.

If possible, print an engine test page or a user settings list

Follow the instructions in the documentation.

3 Determine whether the print quality of the page is acceptable

You might need to perform some printer maintenance to resolve print quality problems.

4 Document the problem(s) you find 5 Use the concepts in this topic to take the appropriate steps to resolve the problem(s) you encountered 6 Document the steps you took to resolve the problem(s): 7 Test the system

To verify that the problems were completely resolved.


Unit summary: Printers Topic A

In this topic, you learned about dot-matrix printers, which are slow, noisy impact printers good for printing multipart forms. You learned that dot-matrix print heads typically have 9 or 24 pins and that the paper can be moved through the printer by tractor-feed or friction-feed mechanisms. You learned about inkjet printers and how they force ink through nozzles by using thermal bubble or piezoelectric technology. You learned that cyan, yellow, magenta, and black (CYMK) inks are commonly used in color inkjet printers. Next, you learned about laser printers, which are becoming quite affordable, although the consumables sometimes cost as much as the printer. You learned that laser printers use the electrophotographic process to produce images. You identified the components of a laser printer, and you listed the stages involved in the laser printing process. Finally, you learned about other types of printers, including solid-ink, thermal, and dye sublimation printers. You also examined the use of plotters, snapshot printers, and large-format printers.

Topic B

In this topic, you examined the Windows printing process and its components, including the spooler. Then you installed a printer and learned how to upgrade printer drivers. You installed printer add-ons and upgrades.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned how to maintain printers. You learned the steps you should take during routine maintenance of inkjet and laser printers, including replacing consumables, removing accumulated dust and toner, replacing parts based on parts-life counters, and ensuring a well-ventilated environment.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot printers. You learned how to isolate problems in printers and how to troubleshoot problems with image quality.

Review questions 1 What’s the print quality of dot-matrix printers compared to? A Darkroom photographs B Laser printer output C Thermal printer output D Typewriter output 2 How many pins does the print head of a dot matrix printer contain? [Choose all that apply.] A 6 B 9 C 12 D 24 E 36 3 A __________-wheel printer is an impact printer that could produce letters using only the font that was on the wheel installed in the printer. daisy

Printers

12–53

4 Which printing technology uses an electrical current sent to a crystal, which causes it to vibrate and release ink onto the paper? A Inkjet B Laser C Piezoelectric bubble D Thermal bubble 5 True or false? The print head for inkjet printers is usually part of the ink cartridge. True

6 What’s inkjet output quality compared to? [Choose all that apply.] A Darkroom photographs B Laser printer output C Thermal printer output D Typewriter output 7 A(n) _____________ paper path stores paper in a tray below and in front of the printer, and the printer pulls the paper up through rollers and under the print head. curved

8 True or false? Laser printers combine electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light to produce high-quality images one page at time. True

9 What is the laser printing step in which "areas of the drum that were written to by the laser attract toner”? A Exposing B Fusing C Developing D Transferring 10 Which laser printer component is made up of rollers and a heating lamp? A Electronic control package B Fusing assembly C Transfer corona assembly D Toner cartridge 11 Which laser printer component is used to focus the laser beam? A Corona wire B HVPS C Mirror D Lens

12–54 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 12 True or false? Solid-ink printers need the ink changed about every 500 pages. False. Solid-ink printers use sticks of wax that are melted to create the ink for printing. The ink sticks last approximately 3000 pages.

13 Which thermal printer uses paper with colors embedded in it? A Direct thermal B Thermal autochrome C Thermal wax transfer D Dye sub 14 True or false? In order to install a printer, you need the manufacturer’s disc that came with the printer. False. Most printers connect via USB today, so when you connect the printer, Windows automatically detects it and attempts to install the driver for you. However, your printer likely comes with a CD-ROM containing drivers and additional software that will enhance the print quality or provide additional features.

15 For dot-matrix printers, what is the option that allows you to switch between sheetfeed, single-page paper and tractor-feed paper without having to unload either from the printer? A Additional paper trays B Auto-duplexers C Offset stacker D Paper park 16 For inkjet printers, what is the option that allows printing on both sides of a single sheet of paper? A Additional paper trays B Auto-duplexers C Offset stacker D Paper park 17 True or false? Inkjet printers can’t print PostScript. False. Some can be upgraded with a PostScript upgrade kit.

18 If you have users who print large documents with many graphics, you can optimize performance by configuring the printer _________ setting. spool

19 True or false? Low toner is a likely cause of repetitive image defects. False

20 Why might improperly stored paper cause smearing? The toner won’t adhere to the paper properly.

Printers

12–55

21 Which of the following is the most likely cause of ghosting or shadows on printed page? A Accumulated toner on the transfer corona B Broken paper guides C A faulty sensor in the registration assembly D Residual toner on the drum 22 Which of the following are possible causes of smudged print? [Choose all that apply.] A Low toner B Damp paper C Debris on the laser scanning mirror D Limited memory E Fuser problems 23 What problems might you see if the temperature of the fuser is too low? Smearing; unfocused text and graphics.

24 What’s the likely culprit when printouts are skewed or misaligned? A problem in the paper path, including rollers and the registration assembly.

25 What problem should you suspect if you have weak or missing color on printouts? The color toner supply or incorrect paper.

26 List some likely problems you’d see on pages printed in a laser printer with a faulty drum. Repetitive image defects, blank pages, light or weak text and graphics, voided areas, and ghosts or shadows.

27 How can a paper path test help you isolate a problem in a laser printer? It can show you where there’s a problem in the paper path, from the paper tray to the exit rollers.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll research printers. 1 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7–compatible 24-pin dot-matrix printer available for sale. Determine:  The connections provided  The type of paper it accepts  The fonts supported  Other included options  User reviews  The purchase price

12–56 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 2 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7–compatible inkjet printer with four separate cartridges for black, cyan, yellow, and magenta. Determine:  The connections provided  The speed for printing black and white  The speed for printing color  Other included options, such as memory or additional paper trays  User reviews  The purchase price 3 Using your Web browser, find a Windows 7–compatible color laser printer available for sale. Determine:  The connections provided  The speed for printing black and white  The speed for printing color  Other included options, such as memory or additional paper trays  User reviews  The purchase price 4 Obtain the manufacturer and model of a laser printer in your classroom, training center, or school, or at your place of business. Go to the manufacturer’s Web site and find the documentation for the printer. 5 How often does the manufacturer recommend service? Detail the maintenance steps recommended at each different page-count threshold. Answers will vary by manufacturer.

6 What kind of maintenance kits are available and what do they contain? Answers will vary by manufacturer.

7 Are there updated firmware or drivers available for download? Answers will vary by manufacturer.

8 Work with another student to introduce a problem into a printer. 9 Try to print a test page from the printer. 10 Examine the output, if any, to determine if it’s acceptable quality. 11 Document any problems you encountered, along with the steps you took to resolve the problem.

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Unit 13 Connecting computers Unit time: 100 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe the basic components of a

network. B Compare wired network connections. C Differentiate between basic

internetworking devices.

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Topic A: Networking concepts This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Bandwidth and latency  Full-duplex, half-duplex  Basics of workgroups and domains  LAN/WAN  Identify Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

4.2

Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations  Cables – Plenum/PVC – UTP (e.g., CAT3, CAT5/5e, CAT6) – STP – Fiber – Coaxial cable

4.3

Compare and contrast the different network types  Broadband – DSL – Cable – Satellite – Fiber  Dial-up  Wireless  Cellular

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  EMI – Network interference


13–3


Objective

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Connection types – Dial-up – Broadband  DSL  Cable  Satellite  ISDN – Wireless – Routers / Access Points – LAN (10/100/1000BaseT, Speeds) – Cellular – Basic VoIP (consumer applications)  Physical installation – Wireless router placement – Cable length

Networking models Explanation

Nowadays, networks make the world go ’round. From the small home network to the larger networks at your doctor’s office or your bank to the world-wide Internet, networks are involved in some way in almost all of the business activities and a good part of the leisure activities in the world today.

Local area networks A local area network (LAN) is a specifically designed configuration of computers and other devices located within a confined area, such as a home or office building, and connected by wires or radio waves that permit the devices to communicate with one another to share data and services. Computers and other devices connected on a LAN can send information to and receive information from one another. Each device with an address that can be used to send or receive information is a node. A node can be a computer, a router, a printer, a video camera, a controller, or any number of other electronic devices. The network directs the communication passing through it and acts as a sort of electronic traffic cop to prevent collisions or mixing of data. We will refer to a computer node as a host. A host requires an operating system to manage its applications, hardware, and connection to the network. The operating system is also responsible for enabling the computers on the LAN to share their resources. The term resource refers to any files, databases, or printers installed on or attached to a host.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A LAN can be connected to the Internet, either through a direct cable connection or by a telephone link through a modem, so that workstations on the LAN have access to all of the networks and sites linked to the global Web. Exhibit 13-1 shows the components of a sample LAN. While this example includes a server on the middle right, it’s important to note that a server isn’t required for a LAN. The computers are workstations on the LAN, and three of them are connected with a cable of some type. The second laptop is also a workstation on the LAN, but it’s connected through a wireless access point. The printer is a shared network printer available to clients on the LAN.

Exhibit 13-1: A LAN

Network topologies Networks are defined by a combination of their logical and physical topologies. A logical network topology describes the path that data takes between nodes. It is generally determined by the communication protocols used. The physical network topology describes the material layout of network wiring and the locations of nodes.

Logical network topologies There are two basic logical LAN network topologies that you’ll encounter:  Peer-to-peer  Client/server A logical network topology that extends your LAN to users at remote locations is a virtual private network (VPN).


13–5

The peer-to-peer model A peer-to-peer logical network usually consists of several client computers that are connected to a network for simple file and printer sharing in a small office or home office. Microsoft refers to this model as a workgroup. Each computer has a network card, which is connected to the network by a network cable or wireless network medium. The computers run a client operating system that allows network connectivity. Client operating systems that provide networking features and support include: all versions of Windows 7, Vista, and XP; Windows 2000 Professional; versions of Apple Macintosh OS X, such as Snow Leopard, and Macintosh OS 9; and Linux Ubuntu and RedHat. All communication occurs between the client computers. There are often fewer than a dozen hosts on this type of network. Client operating systems can have connection limits that make them impractical for larger networks. In the peer-to-peer networking model, each host on the LAN has the same authority as other hosts. Each computer user is the administrator of his or her own computer and decides whether to share a resource (such as a file, database, or printer). The user is responsible for backing up data, installing software, sharing resources, enforcing security policies, and performing many other administrative tasks. You might also hear a peer-to-peer network described as a decentralized networking model. You must administer each user account and computer on the network individually. In a peer-to-peer model, several hosts using different operating systems can be connected to form a small LAN in a small business or home office, as shown in Exhibit 13-2. In this example, the hosts and other devices are physically connected by network cabling, but you can also create a small LAN with only wireless connections or a mix of physical and wireless connections.

Exhibit 13-2: A peer-to-peer LAN

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A peer-to-peer network can also include an Internet connection. Many times small peerto-peer networks will share a single network connection by connecting through a router. If you don’t have a router acting as a gateway, Microsoft client operating systems can use a feature called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS). ICS allows one computer in peer-to-peer network to share its Internet connection and act as a gateway allowing all computers access the Internet through the single connection. The computers can also be connected to an Internet gateway similar to the one shown in Exhibit 13-3. Peer-to-peer authentication A user account is a collection of all the information that pertains to a user, such as his user name, password, access rights, and permissions. In a peer-to-peer network, user accounts reside on individual computers. Each user must enter a user ID and password combination that resides on a particular computer to be able to use it. The process of entering a correct user ID and password to gain access to a computer is called authentication, validation, or logging on. In the peer-to-peer model, the local client operating system authenticates the user ID and password. User IDs and passwords allow users to access only their own computers. Their user accounts exist only on their own computers, so they can’t be authenticated on and gain access to someone else’s computer. In order to access shared resources on another computer, a user must have a user account on that local machine or know a valid username and password of an account on that computer. These accounts are referred to as local user accounts. It’s important to understand that while you can create identical user accounts with the same user name and password on multiple computers in a peer-to-peer network, the user accounts are unique—changes in one computer’s user account has no effect on the other accounts with the same name.

The client/server model In a client/server network, computers called servers hold data and provide services that users can share. Most of the communication on this type of network occurs between the client computers, referred to as workstations, and the servers. Client/server networks can be much larger than peer-to-peer networks. A network operating system (NOS)—such as Windows Server 2008 or 2003, Windows 2000 Server, UNIX, or Novell Open Enterprise Server or NetWare—can be installed on a server and used to manage network resources, including user accounts, printers, and file sharing. There are some significant differences between an NOS and a networkaware client operating system. For example, an NOS can provide:  Unlimited connections  Network directory services  Network security, monitoring, and auditing features  The architectural framework (APIs) to support server-based applications A sample client/server network is illustrated in Exhibit 13-3.


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Exhibit 13-3: A client/server LAN Client/server authentication In the client/server networking model, user accounts are created centrally and stored on a server. A trained system administrator is usually responsible for maintaining the server and NOS while managing resources to meet user needs. Each user can be authenticated on the network and gain access to any resource on it by entering his or her network user ID and password. The local client operating system isn’t responsible for authenticating user IDs and passwords. Instead, the client OS uses its network client software to send this information to the NOS on the server. The directory service verifies the user ID and password based on the information stored in its database. The logon process goes something like this: 1 The network client on the client computer displays a logon screen. 2 The user enters his or her user ID and password and clicks OK. 3 The network client sends this information to the NOS for authentication. 4 After the user ID and password have been authenticated, the user can gain access to the computer and to the network resources. The server uses a database to store user account information, user permissions, security policies, and other configuration settings. This information is used to control which resources on the network are shared and who can access them. The system administrator assigns user permissions that specify which resources users can access on the network. Software, files, printers, and other resources can be accessed by users on the network only when the system administrator has granted specific permission to a user account.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One You might also hear a client/server network described as a centralized networking model, because it enables you to administer computers and users as a group instead of individually.

Virtual private networks A virtual private network (VPN) is a private communications network transmitted across a public, typically insecure, network connection. With a VPN, a company can extend a LAN segment to employees working from home by transmitting data securely across the Internet. A VPN, illustrated in Exhibit 13-4, is a means of providing secure communications across the extranet zone. A Point of Presence (POP) is an access point from one place to the rest of the Internet.

Exhibit 13-4: A typical VPN using Point of Presence (POP) To create a VPN, you need to select and set up two categories of components:  Remote access communication options  VPN hardware and software Communication options Remote-access VPNs are most often implemented via the Internet nowadays. This means that users need a way to connect to the Internet, such as DSL, cable, or even dialup. They need an ISP account and the equipment required by the ISP for their connection—a cable modem or DSL router or an analog POTS/PSTN modem. Site-to-site VPNs are also most often implemented via the Internet. Few other shared public networks remain since access to the Internet became widespread. Thus, your remote offices need a communications line to the Internet. Most often, this would be provided through an always-on connection. DSL, cable, ISDN, and T/E dedicated circuits are all common ways that companies provide Internet connectivity, though dialup access is doable.


13–9

VPN hardware and software VPN solutions are offered by many vendors. Some require dedicated access hardware, most commonly on the corporate LAN side of the connection. Many require special software to be installed on the client workstation. Microsoft’s VPN solution uses standard Windows components on the client side and Microsoft’s version of a remote access service (RAS). In Windows Server 2008, you can install the Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS) components of the Network Protection Services (NPS) to create the server to which clients connect. Cisco, Juniper Networks, and OpenVPN provide commercial or open-source VPN solutions to businesses and end-users. Some solutions are software only, while others require specialized hardware components, such as a VPN concentrator. Tunneling (illustrated in Exhibit 13-5) is used by third-party service providers who carry traffic of multiple customers across their networks. Third-party service providers offer VPN solutions that work like this: The business creates a secure connection to the VPN provider’s systems; the client connects to the provider’s network via the Internet or dialup; data packets are created using a VPN protocol format; these data packets are encapsulated within some other base or carrier protocol and transmitted between VPN client and server; and the packets are then de-encapsulated on the receiving side. The VPN encapsulation within a base or carrier protocol is what creates the tunnel. Such solutions eliminate the need to purchase, install, and maintain VPN systems. However, communications from the client to provider are not secure (though communications over the provider’s network are secure).

Exhibit 13-5: Service provider tunneling


A-1:

Describing networking models

Questions and answers 1 How are client/server networks different from peer-to-peer networks?

2 Why would a company want to implement a client/server network?

3 What kind of company would implement a peer-to-peer network?

Do it!

A-2:

Identifying the basic components of a network

Here’s how 1 Identify the server computer in your classroom

Here’s why You’ll identify components of your classroom network. There might not be a server in your classroom configuration.

2 Identify the client workstations on your classroom network 3 Identify nodes on your classroom network 4 Determine whether you’re using a wired or radio communication channel in your classroom

A node can be a computer, a router, a printer, a video camera, a controller, or some other electronic device.


13–11

Network wiring The computers in the network need a pathway to connect each other. This pathway can be a physical connection, using cabling. The connection can also be made through radio waves, infrared light, or other wireless methods. Wiring is the heart of a network. It’s also the part most vulnerable to performance problems caused by poor installation practices. Installing wiring in new construction is generally a straightforward process. Installing wiring in existing structures, whether within the walls or on the surface, can be a frustrating experience. No network is better than the quality of the wiring it runs on.

Fiber optic cable Fiber optic cabling, which carries light-based data through strands of glass or plastic no thicker than a human hair, is currently the fastest and most expensive network transmission medium. Fiber optic cables are composed of a glass or plastic strand, called a core, through which light is transmitted. The core is encased in a glass tube, called cladding, designed to reflect the light back into the core as the light bounces while moving through the fiber core. The glass cladding is coated by a buffer to protect it from moisture and other damaging elements. An outer insulating, rubberized jacket covers the entire cable to protect it. Exhibit 13-6 shows a single-strand fiber optic cable.

Exhibit 13-6: A single-strand fiber optic cable Fiber optic cables are classified based on the diameter of their core:  Single-mode fiber (SMF) optic cable has a diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns, and light travels down the cable in a single ray. SMF supports only a single transmission path.  Multi-mode fiber (MMF) optic cables are common in diameters of 50 to 100 microns. In U.S. LAN network applications, the most common size is 62.5 microns. The outside diameter of the cable is also expressed in microns, such as 125 microns. You’ll see fiber optic cable with a light fiber diameter of 62.5 and an outside diameter of 125 expressed as “62.5/125” fiber. Multi-mode fiber works with LED light sources of different wavelengths depending on the speed required. MMF supports many transmission (propagation) paths. Fiber optic cable is used by the telephone and cable companies to deliver information across long distances. It’s also used as the backbone for networks. Fiber optic cabling has many benefits over metal-based wiring such as coaxial or twisted-pair, which uses electrical impulses to transmit data.

13–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The advantages are:  Thinner and lighter weight — It’s possible to manufacture optical fibers that have smaller diameters and weigh less than the comparable copper wire cable.  Higher carrying capacity — Optical fibers are thinner than copper wires, so more fibers can be bundled together into a cable jacket. Fiber optic cable supports data rates up to 10 Gbps, over distances ranging from 2 meters to 40 kilometers, depending on the media standard used (10GBase-SR/SW, 10GBaseLR/LW, 10GBase-ER/EW). Some manufacturers have shown that 40 Gbps speeds are possible and are working on achieving a speed of 1 terabit per second (Tbps).  More secure — Wiretapping fiber optic cabling is more difficult compared to wiretapping cables using electrical connections. There are concentric dual-core fibers that are advertised as tap-proof.  Use of digital signals — Optical fibers are ideal for carrying digital information, which makes them useful in computer networks. Both multi-mode and singlemode fibers are used in communications.  Less signal degradation — The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in copper wire, because the copper cables interact with the environment around them. Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, you can use lower-power transmitters instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters you need for copper wires. The fibers used in long-distance communications are always glass because it has lower optical attenuation. – Multi-mode fiber is used mostly for short distances (up to 500 m), and single-mode fiber is used for longer distances. – Single-mode fiber has a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times more potential distance than multi-mode fiber, but it costs more. Because of the tighter tolerances required to couple light in single-mode fibers, singlemode transmitters, receivers, amplifiers, and other components are typically more expensive than multi-mode components.  Less interference — Because optic fiber is resistant to electrical interference, it prevents crosstalk between signals in different cables and the pickup of environmental noise. Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one optical fiber don’t interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable.  Non-flammable — You can run fiber optic cabling in hazardous, high-voltage environments because it doesn’t carry electricity. You can also use fiber optic cables where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition, because no electricity passes through optical fibers. The bulk of the expense of fiber optic cabling systems can be attributed to the interface devices that convert computer signals to and from light pulses. For end-users to use fiber optics, they must purchase conversion equipment that changes electrical impulses into photons. At present, these devices are costly, but the cost is certain to decline as the technology matures, making their widespread use more likely in the future.


13–13

Twisted-pair cable Twisted-pair cable is commonly used in many business applications to deliver both voice and data information from one location to another. Selection of the proper cable type is based on the cable’s electrical characteristics, conductor size, and ability to resist electromagnetic interference (called crosstalk or noise). Until recently, most networks have used either unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) or shielded twisted-pair (STP) cabling to connect the nodes in the network. The twistedpair cable used for networking has four pairs of wires. The wires in each pair are twisted around each other, and the pairs are twisted together and bundled within a covering, as shown in Exhibit 13-7. The two wires (two halves of a single circuit) are wound together to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. The pairs are twisted together to prevent crosstalk. Crosstalk occurs because alternating electrical current flowing through a wire creates an electromagnetic field around the wire. This field then affects the current flow in any adjacent cables. When you place two wires in an electrical circuit close together, as is done in each of the twisted wire pairs, their electromagnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. The magnetic field in one wire cancels out the other wire’s field. The more twists you have in a cable, the better it is at reducing crosstalk. However, there is a drawback. When you increase the number of twists, you also increase the distance that signals must travel down the cable, thus increasing attenuation. Attenuation is a decrease in the strength of the electrical signal as it travels farther down the cable.

Exhibit 13-7: UTP cable

13–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One UTP cable comes in various categories. Each category has a specific use, number of twists per foot, and speed. The following table lists the commonly used categories of twisted-pair cabling. Category

Speed and frequency

Typical use

CAT 3

10 Mbps; 16 MHz

Voice in newer telephone systems. The minimum category you can use for data networks. Most often found in 10BASE-T networks. Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring all support CAT3.

CAT 5

100 Mbps; 100 MHz 155 Mbps ATM

Used for data and voice in Ethernet networks running at 10 or 100 Mbps. Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, and ATM all support CAT5.

CAT 5e

100 Mbps; 100 MHz 155 Mbps ATM

Used for data and voice in Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet networks. Has better transmission performance characteristics than CAT 5. Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, and ATM all support CAT5e.

CAT 6

1 Gbps; 250 MHz

Used for data in Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet networks.

155 Mbps ATM

Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, and ATM all support CAT6.

For networking, CAT 3 cable used to be acceptable. However, CAT 3 operates at up to only 10 Mbps with about two or three twists per foot. Most networks now use at least CAT 5 cable, which operates at up to 100 Mbps, or CAT 5e, which operates at up to 1 Gbps. CAT 5 and CAT 5e cables have 20 twists per foot. CAT 6 cables use better materials and can operate at up to 2.5 Gbps. The number of twists in CAT 6 cable can vary. All twisted-pair cabling has a maximum LAN run length of approximately 100 meters; however you will find it used elsewhere without such a limitation—for example, the phone line coming into your house.


13–15

There are other categories of twisted-pair cabling, which the following table describes. Category

Speed and frequency

Typical use

CAT 1

Up to 1 Mbps; 1 MHz

Analog telephone networks. Not suitable for data networks.

CAT 2

4 Mbps; 4 MHz

Voice and low-speed data transmission. Mainly found in IBM Token Ring networks.

CAT 4

16 Mbps; 20 MHz

Data and voice in Token Ring networks. Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Token Ring all support CAT4. The CAT4 standard wasn’t widely implemented.

CAT 6a

10 Gbps; 550 MHz

Used in Gigabit Ethernet networks. This standard was published in Feb. 2008. Cabling can be shielded (STP, ScTP, S/FTP) or unshielded (UTP).

CAT 7

10 Gbps; 600 MHz

Used for full-motion video, teleradiology, and government and manufacturing environments. CAT 7 is an emerging standard. You’ll also hear this category referred to as ISO Class F.

CAT 7a

40 Gbps at 50 meters, 100 Gbps at 15 meters; 1000 MHz

CAT 7a is Amendment 1 and 2 of ISO/IEC 11801 Class F, which defines CAT7. It can be used for multiple applications across a single cable similar to CAT 7.

Currently, when you go to purchase CAT twisted-pair cabling, you’ll find two categories: solid and stranded. Solid cabling has a thicker, more protective covering, making it less flexible. It’s best for longer network runs and for fixed wiring applications. Stranded cabling has a thinner protective covering, making it more pliable and useful for shorter distances and for movable wiring applications such patch cables. Current TP telephone wire typically contains two pairs of wires: pair 1 is blue and blue/white; pair 2 is orange and orange/white. The oldest style of residential twistedpair wiring consisted of just two wires, typically wrapped in brown insulation.

13–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Composite cable For the best wiring value and expansion capability, use composite cable (shown in Exhibit 13-8), which combines Cat5 or Cat6 and other transmission cables within a single PVC jacket. It makes multiple-wire installation easier and saves on the cost of future wiring. Some of these cables contain two Cat5 or Cat6 wires for the network and two shielded RG-6 coaxial cables for cable and satellite television. The top-of-the-line, “future-proof” version of this type of cable contains Cat5 or Cat6 and RG-6 wires and a fiber optic line—the fastest transmission medium.

Exhibit 13-8: A composite cable

Coaxial cable Twisted-pair and fiber optic cabling are used most often in today’s networks, but if you’re supporting older networks, you might run into some coaxial cable. Coaxial cables (“coax” for short) contain a layer of braided wire or foil between the core and the outside insulating layer. The shielding provided by this layer helps protect the data from EMI problems. Another layer of plastic or rubberized material separates the central core from the shielding layer, because if these two layers touch, the data signal will be damaged or lost. A coaxial cable is shown in Exhibit 13-9.


13–17

Exhibit 13-9: Common components of a coaxial cable Coax comes in many variations. The type used for Ethernet networks is marked RG-8 or RG-58A/U. The RG stands for “Radio Guide,” which was based on now-obsolete military specifications. RG cable might also have letters after the number to indicate the cable’s impedance (specified in ohms, Ω) and whether the inner conductor is solid or stranded. Just like twisted-pair cable, stranded coax is more flexible. The design of coax cable restricts the electromagnetic waves used to transmit data to the area between the center conductor and the shield, thus allowing the cable to bend and be attached to conduit supports without affecting the signal. Thick Ethernet (Thicknet) cables are RG-8 cables. Shown in Exhibit 13-10, these are 50ohm stranded-core cables. RG-8 doesn’t bend easily because it is 10 mm in diameter (four-tenths of an inch). These cables can carry signals up to about 500 meters, so they were typically used for Ethernet network backbones rather than for drops to network nodes.


Exhibit 13-10: Thicknet cable Thin Ethernet (Thinnet) designs, wired with RG58A/U coaxial cable, are limited by the attenuation of signals in the cable. Thinnet cables can support network segments up to only 185 meters long. Thick Ethernet designs, wired with 50-ohm RG8/U coaxial, are more resistant to attenuation and can span up to 500 meters. Neither of these is being widely used now, because more advanced cable types can span distances of up to several kilometers with less attenuation of network signals.

Exhibit 13-11: Thinnet cable The various RG standards are described in the following table. Standard

Impedance

Core size

Uses

RG-6/U

75 Ω

1.0 mm

Cable and satellite television; cable modems.

RG-6/UQ

75 Ω

1.0 mm

Q stands for quad: four layers of shielding, compared to RG-6/U, which has two.

RG-8/U

50 Ω

2.17 mm

Thicknet network backbones; amateur radio.

RG-9/U

51 Ω

2.17 mm

Thicknet network backbones.

RG-11/U

75 Ω

1.63 mm

Cable and satellite television; video surveillance. Thicker than RG-6. Used underground or for outdoor antennae drops.

RG-58A/U

50 Ω

0.9 mm

Thin Ethernet; radio; amateur radio.

RG-59/U

75 Ω

0.81 mm

Baseband video in closed-circuit television; cable television.

Another coax cable you might encounter is marked RG-62/U. This cable is used for the older network technology called ARCnet. This cable has 93 Ω impedance and uses AWG 22 gauge wire with a .64 mm core.


13–19

When you’re working with coax for networking applications, it’s important that you don’t mistake RG-59 cable for RG-58, the stranded copper defined for 10Base2 thinnet. RG-59 coaxial cable is used for low-power video and RF signal connections. You’ll find it shipped with consumer electronic equipment, such as VCRs or digital cable and satellite receivers. The impedance between these two cables is different—50 Ω versus 75 Ω. Network equipment is designed to expect particular cable impedance. If you use a cable with incorrect impedance, power is lost during data transfer, resulting in low signal reception. Such low reception causes the network link performance to suffer or to fail completely. In recent years, RG-6 cables have become the standard for cable TV, replacing the smaller RG-59. RG-6 cables have less attenuation of data signals and better shielding than RG-59. RG-6 cable handles signals sent in the higher GigaHz frequencies better than RG-59 cable does; the latter was designed to handle MegaHz range signals. RG-6 cables are most commonly used to deliver cable television signals to and within homes, and they aren’t suitable for networking.

Duplex data transmission Data transmission can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex, data is transmitted in a single direction. In half-duplex, data is transmitted across the medium in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. In full-duplex, data can be transmitted across the medium in both directions at the same time. Network transmissions can be either half-duplex or full-duplex, but the majority are half-duplex.


A-3:

Identifying cable types

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 What speeds do fiber optic cables support?

2 How long can fiber optic cables be?

3 Locate a twisted pair cable What category is the cable? 4 Locate a network coaxial cable Locate a cable television coaxial cable What’s the difference between the two cables?

5 What are some other coax cable types that won’t work for Ethernet networking? 6 What is thicknet coax cable typically used for? 7 Examine the cable used to connect your computer to the network Identify its type

Cable type: ______________________________________

8 Record the backbone cabling used

Your instructor will describe the backbone cable used to connect network segments. ______________________________________


13–21

Plenum wiring A plenum is an enclosure that’s used to move air for heating, cooling, or humidity control in a building. A plenum might be created by a false ceiling, a false floor, metal duct work, or a variety of other construction methods, but its main purpose is to move air that’s environmentally controlled in some manner. A secondary purpose of a plenum might be to contain high- or low-voltage wiring. Because plenums often connect rooms in a building, they provide convenient paths through which to run wiring.

Exhibit 13-12: Examples of plenum spaces in an office Cables that run in plenums must meet applicable fire protection and environmental requirements. These are important because the plenum-run cables might be subjected to temperature and humidity extremes not encountered in normal wiring paths. Plenum wiring also poses a greater hazard than wiring run inside walls because if a fire occurs in the plenum-run wiring, smoke and heat are carried by the moving air in the plenum to other parts of the building, thus spreading the fire faster than it would otherwise spread. Protecting plenum-run cables might mean enclosing them in conduit (inside the plenum) or using cables with jackets and other components made of materials that are resistant to open flame and are nontoxic at high temperatures. Plenum-rated cabling is often covered with Teflon and is more expensive than ordinary cabling. The outer material of plenum-rated cabling is more resistant to flames, and when burning, produces less smoke and fewer noxious fumes than ordinary cabling. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable are both made in plenum-rated versions.


A-4:

Researching plenum wiring

Here’s how 1 If necessary, boot your computer and log on to Windows 7 as: User name: COMPADMIN## Password: !pass1234 2 Open Internet Explorer 3 Use your preferred search engine to determine which categories of network cable are available in plenum grade 4 What is the price difference between plenum-grade cabling and general-purpose cabling? 5 What is a typical temperature rating for plenum-grade CAT cable?

6 Close Internet Explorer

Here’s why Where ## is your assigned student number.


13–23

Ethernet Ethernet is the most popular media access method in use today. It’s popular because it strikes a good balance between ease of setup and use, speed, and cost. Four types of Ethernet architecture are available now. Each is distinguished primarily by the speed at which it operates. This is referred to as the network’s data rate or bandwidth and is measured in bits per second (bps). The four types are:  10-Gigabit Ethernet (also called 10GbE) — The fastest of the Ethernet standards. With a data rate of 10 Gbps (gigabits per second), it is 10 times faster than Gigabit Ethernet.  1000-Mbps Ethernet (or Gigabit Ethernet) — Operates at a speed of 1000 Mbps (1000 megabits per second = 1 gigabit per second). It’s used for large, high-speed LANs and heavy-traffic server connections. Few, if any, home networks require Gigabit Ethernet.  100-Mbps Ethernet (or Fast Ethernet) — Operates at a speed of 100 Mbps.  10-Mbps Ethernet — Operates at a speed of 10 Mbps. The first Ethernet version was developed by the Xerox Corporation in the 1970s and later became known as Ethernet IEEE 802.3. All subsequent Ethernet architectures conform to IEEE 802.3. Ethernet can be set up with various types of wire or cable. However, the different speeds of the versions and the conditions in which they operate usually dictate what type of connecting wires you need to use. “BASE” refers to baseband signaling, which means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the wire or cable. The bandwidth for each network type is a theoretical maximum value. A network’s actual bandwidth can be reduced by network data processing delays. These delays are collectively called latency. Latency can be caused by a variety of factors, such as when a network device that operates at a slower data rate than other network components, or a device becomes overloaded with data and can’t process it all in a timely manner. The impact of latency on a network’s bandwidth can last just a few seconds or can be persistent depending on the source of the delays. Designations for the different Ethernet standards are based on the medium that each standard uses:  BASE-R standards — Run over fiber optic cable.  BASE-W standards — Run over fiber optic cables; referred to as Wide Area Network Physical Layer (WAN PHY). BASE-W standards use the same types of fiber and support the same distances as 10GBASE-R standards; however, with BASE-W, Ethernet frames are encapsulated in SONET frames.  BASE-T standards — Run over twisted-pair cable, either shielded or unshielded.  BASE-C standards — Run over shielded copper twisted-pair cable. Most current Ethernet installations use unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable or fiber optic cable. Older Ethernet installations used either 50-ohm RG58A/U coaxial cable (also known as thin Ethernet and 10Base2) or 50-ohm RG8/U coaxial (known as thick Ethernet and 10Base5). However, these are both obsolete now. In the names of these standards, F typically identifies fiber optic cabling. R refers to LAN technologies, and W refers to WAN encodings. S, L, and E designate wavelength.

13–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 10-Gigabit Ethernet standards The following table lists the 10-Gigabit Ethernet standards and their specifications. Standard

Medium

Distance

10GBASE-T

Copper twistedpair, shielded or unshielded

100 meters with CAT6a; up to 55 meters with CAT6

10GBASE-SR 10GBASE-SW

Multi-mode fiber

26 or 82 meters, depending on the diameter of the cable used

Notes

Preferred choice for optical cabling within buildings.

300 meters over 50 microns at 2000 MHz per km with OM3 multi-mode fiber 10GBASE-LR, 10GBASE-LW

Single-mode fiber

10 km

10GBASE-ER, 10GBASE-EW

Single-mode fiber

40 km

Used to connect transceivers.

Gigabit Ethernet standards The following table lists the Gigabit Ethernet standards and their specifications. Standard

Medium

Distance

Notes

1000BASE-T

Unshielded twistedpair: CAT5, CAT5e, or CAT6

100 meters per network segment

Requires all four wire pairs.

1000BASE-CX

Balanced copper shielded twisted-pair

25 meters

An initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet connections.

1000BASE-LX

Single-mode optic fiber

5 km*

See the notes below this table.

1000BASE-LX10

Single-mode optic fiber

10 km

Wavelength of 1270 to 1355 nm.

1000BASE-BX10

Single-mode fiber, over single-strand fiber

10 km

Different wavelength going in each direction—1490 nm downstream, 1310 nm upstream.

1000BASE-SX

Multi-mode optic fiber

500 meters


13–25

* The 1000BASE-LX standard specifies transmission over a single-mode optic fiber, at distances of up to 5 km over 9 µm (micron or micrometer). In practice, it often operates correctly over a much greater distance. Many manufacturers guarantee operation at 10 to 20 km, provided that their equipment is used at both ends of the link. 1000BASE-LX can also run over multi-mode fiber with a maximum segment length of 550 meters. Link distances greater than 300 meters might require a special launch conditioning patch cord, which launches the laser at a precise offset from the center of the fiber. This spreads the laser across the diameter of the fiber core, reducing differential mode delay. Differential mode delay occurs when the laser couples onto a limited number of available modes in the multi-mode fiber.

Fast Ethernet standards The following table lists the Fast Ethernet standards and their specifications. Standard

Medium

Distance

Notes

100BASE-TX

Twisted-pair copper, CAT5 or above

100 meters per network segment

Runs over two pairs: one pair of twisted wires in each direction.

Single- or multi-mode fiber

400 meters for half-duplex

Uses two strands: one for receiving and one for transmitting.

2 km for fullduplex over MMF

Not compatible with 10BASE-FL.

100BASE-FX

The most common Fast Ethernet.

10BASE-T The 10BASE-T standard has a peak transmission speed of 10 Mbps, using copper twisted-pair cable. It can operate up to 100 meters. This standard was widely deployed in the 1980s, using inexpensive and flexible twisted-pair cabling. It was easier to install than previous Ethernet implementations that used coaxial cable. Ethernet bonding Ethernet bonding combines the bandwidth of two network interface cards as a costeffective way to increase the bandwidth available for data transfers for critical servers, such as firewalls and production servers. Ethernet bonding can also provide fault tolerance so that when one NIC fails, you can replace it without disabling client access to the server.


A-5:

Describing Ethernet standards

Questions 1 Which is the fastest Ethernet standard?

2 Which Ethernet standards run over fiber optic cables? 3 What type of cabling do most current Ethernet networks use? 4 Which 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard can run the longest distance? 5 What type of cabling would you use for a 1000BASE-T Ethernet network? 6 What’s the difference between 100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T cabling?

Answers


13–27

Wireless LANs Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology uses radio waves or infrared light instead of cables to connect network nodes. Connections are made through a wireless NIC, which includes an antenna to send and receive signals. WLANs are popular in places where networking cables are difficult to install, such as outdoors or in historic buildings with wiring restrictions, or where there are many mobile users, such as on a college campus.

Wireless devices can communicate directly (for example, a handheld device communicating with a computer via an infrared connection), or they can connect to a LAN by way of a wireless access point (WAP). Access points are placed so that nodes can access at least one access point from anywhere in the covered area. When devices use an access point, they communicate through it instead of communicating directly with each other. Exhibit 13-13 illustrates a wired network with wireless segments.

Exhibit 13-13: Wired network with wireless segments

13–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Benefits and drawbacks of wireless networks The benefits of WLAN technology are many. The most obvious benefit is the increased flexibility and mobility they provide. Employees can move freely around the organization without disconnecting from the network. Examples of how wireless networking can benefit an organization include the following:  Taking inventory is more convenient when employees can freely walk around the warehouse or organization.  Portable devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and tablet PCs can be used in hospital wards to track patients and doctor visits.  Mobile workers moving between offices, and telecommuters coming into the office, can easily connect to the LAN from almost anywhere.  Online information is always available for research or retrieval.  Production on manufacturing shop floors can be readily evaluated.  A wireless network infrastructure can be moved to a new building more easily.  The cost of providing network access to buildings is substantially lowered. Although WLANs have some obvious advantages in places where running cables would be difficult or expensive, WLANs tend to be slower than wired networks, especially when they’re busy. Another problem with WLANs is security. Companies are reluctant to use them when it’s possible for an unauthorized person with a receiving device to intercept wireless LAN transmissions. Security on a WLAN can be achieved by filtering the MAC addresses of wireless NICs that are allowed to use the access point and by encrypting data sent over the WLAN. Do it!

A-6:

Describing wireless networking

Question 1 In wireless communications, what replaces the wire? 2 What should you consider when determining which wireless technology to use?

Answer


13–29

WAN bandwidth technologies A wide area network (WAN) spans larger geographical distances and connects multiple LANs together with high-speed communication lines, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-14. Wide area networks expand the basic LAN model by linking LANs so they can communicate with one another. By traditional definition, a LAN becomes a WAN when you expand the network configuration beyond your own premises and (often) must lease data communication lines from a public carrier. WANs support data transmissions across public carriers by using facilities such as dial-up lines, dedicated lines, or packet switching.

Exhibit 13-14: A wide area network (WAN) Packet-switching vs. circuit-switching networks In a packet-switching network, data are grouped into packets before being sent over a shared network. The packets can contain a variety of data types, which are transmitted together. During transmission, packets can be buffered and queued by network devices such as network adapters, switches, and routers. This buffering and queuing can result in transmission delays as the packet’s data travel from source to destination. LANs and the Internet are examples of packet-switching networks. In a circuit-switching network, a dedicated path is allocated for the transmission of data between two network nodes. There is no buffering with circuit switching, so the transfer moves at a non-stop rate. The path is unavailable for other data traffic until it is released. PSTN and ISDN are examples of circuit-switching networks. Circuit switching is the best choice when data needs to be transmitted quickly and must arrive in the same order in which it’s sent, as with most real-time data (live audio and video streams). Packet switching is more efficient for data that can withstand delays in transmission, such as e-mail messages and Web pages.

13–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One WAN connections There are several ways to create WAN connections, depending on location and available hardware. WAN connection

Description

Dial-up networking (DUN)

Connections made by modem through regular, analog phone lines.

Virtual private network (VPN)

A network connection that uses encryption and security protocols to create a private network over a public network.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

High-speed connections made over regular analog phone lines.

Cable

Connections made over the same lines that carry cable television signals.

Satellite

Connections made by sending signals to and receiving signals from satellites in orbit around the earth.

Wireless

Connections made through infrared light or radio waves. Wireless networks are often used to connect users in hotspots, where wireless Internet service is provided by an employer, business, or governmental unit, such as a city. Wireless connections can also be made over cellular telephone networks or via satellite.

Cellular

Connections made through a cell phone or laptop’s cellular network PC Card on a cellular phone network.

Faster WAN technologies are used to connect a small ISP or large business to a regional ISP, and to connect a regional ISP to an Internet backbone. These technologies include the following:  T lines and E lines  X.25 and frame relay  ATM POTS/PSTN The slowest but least expensive Internet connection to an ISP is affectionately known as plain old telephone service (POTS). Also referred to as the public switched telephone network (PSTN), it’s the network of the world’s public circuit-switched telephone networks. Use of this network used to be a common method of home connection, and it uses a dial-up system each time the connection to the ISP is made over the telephone line, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-15. As the Exhibit illustrates, digital data are converted to analog by the modem, then sent over the telephone system. At the receiving end, the modem converts the data from analog back to digital. The connection isn’t continuous, and when the line isn’t connected to an ISP, it can be used for regular telephone service or any other telecommunications function. The maximum data speed on a regular telephone line is 33.6 Kbps for uploading and 56 Kbps for downloading. A technology called modem bonding allows multiple dial-up links over POTS to be combined for redundancy or increased throughput.


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Exhibit 13-15: Communication via POTS/PSTN ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) technology also uses a telephone line to transmit data, but unlike with POTS, the data isn’t converted to analog form. Instead of using a modem, as with POTS/PSTN, ISDN uses a terminal adapter. An ISDN line is digital and consists of two data channels, both carried on one pair of wires, along with a slower, third channel used for control signals. Each data channel can transmit data at up to 64 Kbps, and the two channels can be combined to move data at a speed of 128 Kbps. This configuration of an ISDN line is known as the basic rate interface (BRI) and is intended for home and small-business users. Another, higher-cost ISDN level of service is called primary rate interface (PRI) and is intended for larger organizations. It has 23 data channels and a control channel over a T1 line. The following table describes the different ISDN channels: Channel

Description

B channel

(Bearer channel) The primary data or voice communication channel that can transmit data at 64 Kbps in full duplex.

D channel

Channel for signaling and control information.

H channel

A high-speed data channel formed by bonding together multiple B channels in a PRI.

DSL A Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a high-speed data and voice transmission line that still uses telephone wires for data transmission but carries the digital data at frequencies well above those used for voice transmission. DSL uses a DSL transceiver (commonly referred to as a DSL modem by laymen), a standard phone line coming into the transceiver, and a USB or Ethernet RJ-45 connection to the computer. Voice and digital data can be transmitted on the same line at the same time. The regular voice telephone line must be dialed for each use, but the DSL part of the line is always connected to the computer. A typical DSL can transmit data at speeds up to 1.5 Mbps in both directions, or it can be set up as an asymmetric line (ADSL), which can transmit up to 800 Kbps upstream (to the ISP) and 8 Mbps downstream (from the ISP). Other variations of DSL include Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL), with speeds up to 2.3 Mbps in both directions; High-bit-rate DSL (HDSL), with speeds up to 1.5 Mbps in both directions; and Very high-bit-rate DSL (VDSL), with speeds up to 52 Mbps downstream and 16

13–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Mbps upstream. DSL Lite or G.Lite is a less expensive version of DSL for home and business use. Using a DSL transceiver, it achieves speeds of up to 384 Kbps upstream and 6 Mbps downstream. Higher bandwidth can be achieved by bonding multiple DSL lines, similar to the modem bonding technology described for POTS. Cable A cable modem connects to the cable television line that’s already installed or available in many homes. These devices are actually transceivers (transmitter/receivers), rather than modems, but they are commonly known as cable modems. With a cable modem, digital data is converted to analog signals and placed on the cable at the same time as the incoming television signal. The modem converts incoming analog data signals into digital data for the computer. The data frequencies differ from the television signal frequencies, and the two signals don’t interfere with one another on the cable. Depending on the individual configuration, a cable modem can transmit data at speeds of 500 Kbps to 50 Mbps. It’s important to note that you share the cable’s bandwidth with others on your network segment. This segment is established by the cable company and is typically neighborhood-sized. As the number of people accessing the Internet for your network segment increases, the bandwidth available to you decreases. Also, because the transmission medium is shared across a group of individuals, data that isn’t sent using a secure transmission method could be intercepted and read, posing a security risk. Cable connections are illustrated in Exhibit 13-16.

Exhibit 13-16: Cable connections When a modem isn’t a modem The term modem is sometimes used in inappropriate ways. The term is an abbreviation of modulate/demodulate, which is a digital-to-analog (or vice-versa) conversion process. Modems for use over telephone lines do just that. However, the term is sometimes applied to cable and DSL (digital subscriber line) Internet connectivity devices. Cable and DSL are digital media. There is no need to modulate and demodulate signals sent over those lines.


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Thus, the connectivity devices you use with those media should not be called modems. Technically, such devices are transceivers. However, most people still call them modems, as in cable modem or DSL modem. Satellite A satellite-link Internet connection to an ISP is available nationwide. It’s especially attractive in rural areas where telephone-based services might be limited and cable sometimes isn’t available. A satellite communication link uses a dish, similar to a satellite television dish, mounted on the building to communicate with a stationary satellite in orbit. The server is connected to the dish antenna. Incoming Internet data travels from the ISP to the satellite in orbit, and then down to the dish and into the LAN server. The connection speed varies according to the ISP but can go up to 1.5 Mbps. The uplink connection from the LAN to the ISP is sometimes made by a telephone line/modem connection and isn’t as fast as the satellite downlink. A digital radio signal from the LAN up to the satellite—which in turn sends the signal to the ISP—is also available. However, it costs much more than the telephone connection, which is usually adequate for sent data. Exhibit 13-17 illustrates how a satellite ISP sends data at high speed to LANs via a stationary satellite and receives data from the LAN over a slower telephone/modem line.

Exhibit 13-17: Satellite ISP configuration

13–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Wireless The term “wireless” refers to several technologies and systems that don’t use cables for communication, including public radio, cellular telephones, one-way paging, satellites, infrared light, and private, proprietary radio. Because of the expense and the concern that increasing the use of wireless technology might affect our health, airplane control systems, pacemakers, and other similar items, wireless isn’t as popular as wired data transmission. However, wireless implementation is increasing considerably and is an important technology for mobile devices and for Internet access in remote locations where other methods aren’t an option. For Internet access, two popular applications of wireless are:  Fixed-point wireless, sometimes called Wireless Local Loop (WLL)  Mobile wireless

Exhibit 13-18: A Wireless WAN Cellular All of the major cellular phone companies now provide Internet connection service for their customers. Wherever you have cell phone reception, you can connect to the Internet through your Internet-capable phone or laptop by using a cellular network PC card. Cell phone companies typically charge an additional monthly fee for this service. The connection speed for cellular Internet service is faster than dial-up, but slower than DSL or cable. There are currently three connection technologies in use: Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), and HighSpeed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). Connection technology

Exhibit 13-19: Cellular Internet access through EDGE


13–35

At the time this course was written, many cellular providers were promoting their 3G and 4G networks. The 3G networks are wide-area cellular telephone networks that evolved to incorporate high-speed Internet access and video telephony. The 3G standard is based on the ITU’s IMT-2000 standard and doesn’t specify a standard data rate. It typically provides a minimum speed of 2 Mbps and a maximum of 14.4 Mbps for stationary users, and 348 Kbps in a moving vehicle. The 3G networks use EV-DO technology. The 4G networks are capable of speeds of 100 Mbps while moving and 1 Gbps stationary. The 4G standard is still in development, with the following goals:  More simultaneous users per cell, thus increasing network capacity  A minimum data rate of 100 Mbps between any two points in the world  Connectivity and roaming across multiple networks  High QoS (quality of service) for multimedia support: Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, and Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)  Interoperability with existing wireless standards  Implementation as an all IP-packet-switched network Access to 4G networks will be provided by such schemes as the following: Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA); Multi-carrier code division multiple access (MCCDMA); and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) schemes, such as Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), and Interleaved FDMA. T lines and E lines The first successful system that supported digitized voice transmission was introduced in the 1960s and was called a T-carrier. A T-carrier works with a leased digital communications line provided through a common carrier, such as BellSouth or AT&T. Although it was originally intended for voice, the line also works with data. The system has become a popular choice for Internet access for larger companies. The leased lines are permanent connections that use multiplexing, a process of dividing a single channel into multiple channels that can be used to carry voice, data, video, or other signals. Several variations of T-carrier lines are available; the most popular are T1 and T3 lines.  Multiplexing allows a T1 line to carry 24 channels, and each channel can transmit at 64 Kbps. A 24-channel T1 line can transmit a total of 1.544 Mbps. If a T1 line is used for voice only, it can support 24 separate telephone lines, one for each channel.  A T3 line can carry 672 channels, giving it a throughput of 44.736 Mbps. T1 and T3 lines can be used by a business to support both voice and data, with some channels allocated to each. The E-carrier is the European equivalent of the American T-carrier. The E-carrier is a digital transmission format devised by ITU. (See the ITU Web site at www.itu.int.) An E1 line can transmit data at a rate of 2.048 Mbps, and an E3 line can work at speeds of 34.368 Mbps. Both T-carriers and E-carriers use four wires: two for receiving and two for sending. Originally, copper wires were used (telephone wiring), but digital signals require a clearer connection.

13–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Thus, other cabling, such as shielded twisted-pair wiring and fiber optic cabling, became the preferred wire. The carriers on shielded twisted-pair wiring need repeaters that can regenerate the signal every 6000 feet. Businesses with multiple T1 lines generally use coaxial, fiber optic, or microwave cabling (a high-end, high-performance cable that can support microwave frequencies). T3 lines require microwave or fiber optic cabling. A fractional T1 line is an option for organizations that don’t need a full T1 line. The fractional T1 allows businesses to lease some of the channels of a T1 line rather than leasing all 24 channels. This arrangement is also good for businesses that expect to grow into a T1 line eventually. Each T1 channel has a throughput of 64 Kbps, so a fractional T1 can be leased in 64-Kbps increments. Organizations can also choose to implement a fractional T3 line. The fractional T3 line enables businesses to lease some of the channels of a T3 line in order to support higher speeds. Each T3 channel has a throughput of 1.544 Mbps, so a fractional T3 line can be leased in 1.544 Mbps increments. X.25 and frame relay Both X.25 and frame relay are packet-switching communication protocols designed for long-distance data transmission, rather than the circuit-switching technology used by the telephone system. Packet-switching technology divides data into packets and sends each packet separately; it’s the technology used by the Internet. Each packet might be sent on a different path. This technology works well because it can use the bandwidth more efficiently. Frame relay is based on X.25, but it’s a digital version, whereas X.25 is an analog technology. Frame relay can run on T1 or T3 lines, thus giving it speeds of anywhere from 64 Kbps to 44.736 Mbps, compared with X.25, which supports up to 56 Kbps. X.25 was popular for about 20 years and was the most common packet-switching technology used on WANs. Frame relay, which was standardized in 1984, has largely replaced X.25. Both X.25 and frame relay use a permanent virtual circuit (PVC). A PVC is a logical connection between two nodes. PVCs aren’t dedicated lines, as the T-carriers are. Rather, when you lease a PVC, you specify the nodes (two endpoints) and the amount of bandwidth required, and the carrier reserves the right to send the data along any number of paths between the two stationary endpoints. You then share the bandwidth with other users who lease the X.25 or frame relay circuit. The biggest advantage of X.25 and frame relay is that you have to pay for only the amount of bandwidth you need. Frame relay is less expensive than newer technologies, and it has worldwide standards already established. Both X.25 and frame relay use shared lines, so throughput decreases as traffic increases. Circuits for X.25 aren’t readily available in North America, but frame relay circuits can be found easily. International businesses that communicate overseas might use frame relay to connect offices.


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ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a very fast network technology that can be used with LANs as well as WANs. It uses fixed-length packets, called cells, to transmit data, voice, video, and frame relay traffic. Each cell is 53 bytes: 48 bytes of data plus a 5-byte header. The header contains the information needed to route the packet. All packets used by ATM are 53 bytes, so it’s easy to determine the number of packets and the traffic flow, and this helps utilize bandwidth efficiently. ATMs also use virtual circuits, meaning that the two endpoints are stationary but the paths between them can change. ATMs can use either PVCs or switched virtual circuits (SVCs). SVCs are logical, point-to-point connections that depend on the ATM to decide the best path along which to send the data. The routes are determined before the data is even sent. In contrast, an Ethernet network transmits the data before determining the route it takes; the routers and switches are responsible for deciding the paths. ATMs achieve a throughput of 622 Mbps. This makes them popular for large LANs, because they’re faster than Ethernet at 100 Mbps. An ATM network works best with fiber optic cable, so it can attain high throughput. However, it also works with coaxial or twisted-pair cable.

13–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The following table compares a number of communication bandwidth technologies, their common uses, and their speeds. Technology

Maximum throughput speed

Common uses and connection type

POTS

Up to 56 Kbps

Home and small business access to an ISP. Uses a modem and a standard phone line.

ISDN

64 Kbps to 128 Kbps

Medium-level home and business access to an ISP. Uses a Network Terminal Interface (NT1), terminal equipment (TE), and terminal adapter (TA).

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Up to 1.5 Mbps

Home and business access to an ISP. Uses a DSL transceiver, a standard phone line coming into the transceiver, and a USB or Ethernet RJ-45 connection to the computer.

DSL Lite or G.Lite

Up to 384 Kbps upstream; up to 6 Mbps downstream

Less expensive version of DSL for home and business access. Uses a DSL transceiver.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

8 Kbps upstream; up to 6.1 Mbps downstream

Home/business access, with the most bandwidth from the ISP to the user. Uses an ADSL transceiver.

Symmetric DSL (SDSL)

1.544 Mbps

Home/business access, with equal bandwidth in both directions. Uses a single line, separate from your standard phone line.

High-bit-rate DSL (HDSL)

1.5 Mbps

Home/business access. Uses two separate lines in addition to your standard phone line.

Very high-bit-rate DSL (VDSL)

Up to 52 Mbps downstream and 16 Mbps upstream

Home/business access. Uses a VDSL transceiver in your home, and a VDSL gateway in the junction box.

Cable modem

512 Kbps to 5 Mbps

Home/business access to an ISP. Uses a cable modem, an RG-59 cable going in, and an Ethernet RJ-45, coax RG-58, or USB connection to the computer or a router.

802.11a wireless

Up to 54 Mbps

Home/business access. Uses a wireless router or wireless access point.

802.11b wireless

11 Mbps

Home/business LANs. Uses a wireless router or wireless access point.

802.11g wireless

Up to 54 Mbps


802.11n wireless

Up to 300 Mbps in either the 5 GHz or 2.4 GHz band


Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

200 Kbps

Used by cellular phone companies that use Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).

Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO)

300 to 400 Kbps upstream; 400 to 700 Kbps downstream

Used by cellular phone companies that use Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).


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Technology

Maximum throughput speed

Common uses and connection type

High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)

384 Kbps upstream; 3.6 Mbps or higher downstream

Is not in widespread use by cellular phone companies.

T1

1.544 Mbps

Shared leased-line access for businesses. Supports both voice and data.

T3

44.736 Mbps

Shared leased-line access for businesses. Supports both voice and data.

E1

2.048 Mbps

European equivalent of T1.

E3

34.368 Mbps

European equivalent of T3.

X.25

Up to 56 Kbps

Packet-switching communication designed for long-distance data transmission.

Frame relay

Up to 1.544 Mbps

Digital version of X.25.

ATM

622 Mbps

Popular for WANs and LANs. Works with fiber optic, twisted-pair, or coaxial cabling.

SONET Synchronous Optical NETwork (SONET) is an ANSI-standard protocol for signal transmission on optical networks. SONET was originally designed to transport data traffic in circuit-switching networks, such as T1 and T3. It evolved to transport ATM traffic. SONET can carry nearly any higher-level protocol (including IP). Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is the European counterpart to SONET. The SONET standard is divided into categories based on a base signal (Synchronous Transport Signal, or STS) and an optical carrier (OC) level. The following table lists the various categories of SONET. Signal

Rate

STS-1, OC-1

51.8 Mbps

STS-3, OC-3

155.5 Mbps

STS-12, OC-12

622.0 Mbps

STS-48, OC-48

2.48 Gbps

STS-192, OC-192

9.95 Gbps

STS-768, OC-768

39.81 Gbps

13–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Voice over IP Many cable companies now offer Voice over IP (VoIP) service, also known as digital phone service, to their users. With VoIP, you can make telephone calls over a data network such as the Internet. VoIP converts the analog signals from digital back to voice at the other end so you can speak to anyone with a regular phone number. Do it!

A-7:

Discussing WAN bandwidth technologies

Questions and answers 1 What’s the difference between a T line and an E line?

2 How often is a repeater needed on a T line?

3 What’s a fractional T1 line?

4 What’s packet-switching technology?

5 Name two packet-switching technologies.

6 What’s ATM?

7 What’s a benefit of ATM?


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Small-office/home-office (SOHO) In this day and age, you can assume that all small-office/home-office (SOHO) networks are going to connect to the Internet in one way or another. The connection might be used to browse the Web, communicate with customers through e-mail, or connect to a private network at an office or school to check e-mail or transfer files. A SOHO can connect to the Internet through an Internet service provider (ISP) and private networks using any of the following methods:  POTS/PSTN  ISDN  DSL  Cable  Satellite  Wireless  Cellular  Bluetooth


A-8:

Selecting a SOHO connection technology

Exercises 1 For each user, select the appropriate connection technology. Susan is a salesperson who travels extensively. She needs to send and receive communication with the home office and clients while in transit. What’s Susan’s best choice for connection technology?

James is an architect who works out of his home in a mountainous region. James must send and receive large CAD drawings to and from clients and builders. What is James’s best choice for connection technology?

Grace lives next to James in the Adirondack mountains. She is retired and uses e-mail to communicate with her children and grandchildren all over the country. Sometimes they send her digital pictures attached to the messages so she can see the grandchildren. She occasionally uses her Web browser to look up information. What is Grace’s best choice for connection technology?

Outlander Spices currently spends thousands of dollars a month for local and long distance telephone service. Like most companies, they have high-speed Internet connections to most locations. What connection technology could they use to support their telephone needs and save money?

2 Describe the ways that the cellular telephone system can be used to make Internet connections.


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Topic B: Wired network connections This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features  I/O interfaces – NIC – Modem

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Communications – NIC – Modem

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Status indicators

4.2

Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations  Cables – UTP (e.g., CAT3, CAT5/5e, CAT6) – STP – Fiber – Coaxial cable  Connectors – RJ45 – RJ11

4.3

Compare and contrast the different network types  Dial-up


Objective

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Connection types – Dial-up – LAN (10/100/1000BaseT, Speeds)  Physical installation – Cable length

13–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Fiber optic connectors Explanation

Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable. The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then spliced together either mechanically or by fusing them together with an electric arc. A ferrule is a cap placed over the end of an object to prevent splitting. For optical fiber, the ferrule is a component of the connector. The purpose of a cable connector (ferrule) is to terminate the end of the cable and allow for ease in connecting and disconnecting the cable from network devices to avoid splicing. In addition to preventing splitting, it aligns the fiber with the socket. Ferrules can be ceramic, plastic, or stainless steel. Fiber optic connectors must be designed to connect and align the fibers’ cores so that light can pass through correctly. The most common fiber optic connectors include:  ST (straight tip) connectors are the most popular connection type for fiber optic cables. These come in a few varieties. One is a slotted bayonet with a 2.5 mm cylindrical ferule that screws on to the cable. The drawback of this is that it can cause scratches on the fiber. Another ST type is a feed-through mechanism in which the cable passes through the connector.  SC (standard connector) connectors use a 2.5 mm ferrule that snaps into a network device with a simple push/pull motion. It’s standardized in TIA-568-A. You might also hear SC connectors referred to as subscriber connectors or square connectors.  LC (local connector) connectors are half the size of SC connectors with a 1.25 mm snap-in type ferrule. You might hear LC connectors referred to as Lucent connectors. Other less common fiber optic connectors include:  FC (fixed connection) connectors have been mostly replaced with SC and LC connectors. The FC connector uses a 2.5 mm ferrule that is keyed to align in the connection slot and then screw tightened.  MT-RJ (mechanical transfer registered jack) connectors are duplex connectors with both fibers in a single ferrule. It has male and female (plug and jack) connections, snaps in to connect, and uses pins for alignment. You may hear these connectors incorrectly referred to as RJ-45.  FDDI connectors have two 2.5 mm ferrules with a fixed shroud covering the ferrules. FDDI connectors snap-in and are generally used to connect network to a wall connection.  Opti-jack connectors have two ST-type ferrules in a fixed shroud the size of a twisted-pair RJ-45 connector. Like the MT-RJ connector, the Opti-jack connector snaps-in and has both male and female connections.  MU connectors are snap-in connectors similar to SC connectors but with a 1.25 mm ferrule.  Volition connectors are made by 3M. They don’t use a ferrule. Instead you align fibers in a V-groove like a splice. It connects using a snap-in and comes in both male and female connections.  LX-5 connectors use the same ferrule as the LC connector, but it includes a shutter over the end of the fiber. It also connects using a snap-in.

Connecting computers Examples of the fiber optic connectors are shown in Exhibit 13-20.

Exhibit 13-20: Examples of some common fiber optic connectors Do it!

B-1:

Discussing fiber optic connectors

Questions and answers

1 What are the most common fiber optic connectors you might encounter?

2 Which connector type has been replaced by the SC and LC connectors?

3 Which connector has been incorrectly referred to as an RJ-45 connector?

4 Which connector is standardized in TIA-568-A?

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13–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Twisted pair connectors There are two common types of connectors used on unshielded twisted pair cabling— RJ-11 and RJ-45. The “RJ” in the jack’s designation simply means “Registered Jack,” and the number refers to the specific wiring pattern used for jacks and connectors. You’ll find RJ-11 connectors used for telephone and dial-up modem connections. Twisted pair network cables use RJ-45 connectors, which look a lot like the RJ-11 snapin connectors except they’re larger. Examples of RJ-45 and RJ-11 cables are shown in Exhibit 13-21.

Exhibit 13-21: RJ-45 connector at left and RJ-11 at right The RJ-11 connector has a total of 6 connector pins. However, in an RJ-11 connector, also referred to as a 6P2C connector, only 2 of the wires in the twisted pair cable are actually used, thus the 6P (6 pins) 2C (2 wires) designation. They are connected to pins 3 and 4. The RJ-45 connector attaches to eight wires. The jacks, with which the two types of connectors mate, have corresponding conductor counts and are also different sizes. An RJ-45 connector won’t fit into an RJ-11 jack. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard defines two wiring patterns for Ethernet CAT cabling: T568A and T568B. These standards specify the pattern in which the color-coded wires in a twisted pair cable are connected to the pins of the RJ-45 connector or the jack. Both are electrically identical, as long as you use the same color pattern to connect both ends of a given cable. If you’re consistent in this, pin 1 at one end of the cable is always connected to pin 1 at the other end, and pin 2 on one end is connected to pin 2 on the other end, and so on, regardless of which of the two color patterns you use. If you hold an RJ-45 connector in your hand with the tab side down and the cable opening towards you, the pins are numbered, from left to right, 1 through 8, as shown in Exhibit 13-22. The pin numbers connect to the following colored wires in the cable for T568A or T568B.


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Exhibit 13-22: The pin numbering of an RJ-45 connector For the network you’re working on, pick one standard and use it for all the wiring. It doesn’t matter which you choose. If you were to buy a pre-made CAT6 patch cable that has been made to the other standard, it still works on the network because both ends of the cable are wired to the same standard. The RJ-48 connector provides the connection for shielded twisted-pair cabling. RJ-48 is an 8P8C connector. You’ll find it providing connections for T1 and ISDN services. Straight-through, cross-over, and rollover cables A straight-through cable is a TP cable where both ends follow either 568A or 568B wiring standard. You use straight-through cables to connect computers to a hub or a switch. This is in contrast to a cross-over TP cable where one end is wired using 568A and the other using 568B. A cross-over cable lets you directly connect two computers together. A rollover TP cable is used to connect a computer’s serial port to the console port of a router or managed switch. Rollover cables are wired with the ends the reverse of one another other:

13–48 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One End 1

End 2

Pin 1

Pin 8

Pin 2

Pin 7

Pin 3

Pin 6

Pin 4

Pin 5

Pin 5

Pin 4

Pin 6

Pin 3

Pin 7

Pin 2

Pin 8

Pin 1

Terminating CatX to RJ-45 connectors To terminate CAT6 or similar cable to an RJ-45 connector, you must use an RJ-45 stripper/crimping tool, which can be purchased in a wide range of qualities and prices from $10 to $90. To terminate a CAT6 or similar cable: 1 Remove about 1-1/2 inches of jacket from the cable. If you aren’t using a feedthru connector, you need to trim the exposed wire pairs down to only 3/8 - 1/2 inch of un-twisted wire required by the connector. 2 Untwist the full length of the exposed wire pairs. 3 Place the cable end on to the connector and arrange the wires into the slots on the connector using the color code for T568A or T568B. The jacketed portion of the cable must go all the way up into the connector. Don’t leave any of the twisted wires in the cable exposed without a jacket covering them. 4 Using the stripper/crimper tool, press the tool’s bit down on to the terminal with the side of the bit that cuts the wire pointed to the outside of the connector. 5 Press down on the tool to compress the spring until the tool hammers down the wire into the terminals slot. At the same time, the hammer action drives down the cutting edge of the bit to terminate and cut the wires.


Exhibit 13-23: Terminating cable to an RJ-45 plug

13–49


B-2:

Examining twisted-pair connectors

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Locate a segment of twisted-pair cabling 2 Verify that it has an RJ-45 connector 3 If the connector is clear, examine the color of each wire to the pins What T568 standard is being used?

RJ-45 has eight wires, whereas RJ-11 has only six.


13–51

Coaxial connections Thinnet (RG-58) cables connect to the computer with a BNC barrel connector. The standard BNC is considered a 2-pin connector—pin 1 is the center conductor which carries the data signal, and pin 2 is the tinned copper braid which provides the ground. Segments of coax cable for networks are connected with T-connectors. The end of the line ends in a terminator, which is needed to keep the signal from reflecting back down the cable and corrupting data. Examples of these connectors are shown in Exhibit 13-24.

Exhibit 13-24: Coax cable connectors RG-6 and RG-59 cables are typically fitted with F-connectors. The F-connector uses the solid conductor (center wire) of the coaxial cable as the pin of the male connector, as shown in Exhibit 13-25. The male connector can be crimped or screwed onto the coax cable’s outer braid.

Exhibit 13-25: An F-connector

13–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Terminating coax to BNC connectors To terminate coaxial thinnet cable to a BNC connector, you should have a cable stripper and a BNC crimper. You’ll use the BNC crimper twice in the connection process. The first time is to crimp the BNC pin to the main conductor. The second time is to crimp the collar over the outer insulation. Some people try to make the crimp using a pair of pliers, but it works best if you use an actual crimping tool. Getting a good quality crimp can be the difference between a connector that works and one that doesn’t.

Exhibit 13-26: A BNC cable connector Thicknet cables connect to computers through a vampire tap. The name comes from the fact that the tap contains metal spikes, which penetrate the cable to make the connection within the layers. A transceiver device is then connected to the cable and to the computer or other network device via an Attachment Unit Interface (AUI) port or a DIX connector. A Thicknet vampire tap connector is shown in Exhibit 13-27. AUI is a 15-pin connector.

Exhibit 13-27: Thicknet vampire tap Do it!

B-3:

Examining coaxial connectors

Here’s how 1 Locate a network coaxial cable Locate a cable television coaxial cable 2 What type of connector is attached to each cable?

Here’s why


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Network adapter A network adapter, also referred to as a network board or Network Interface Card (NIC), provides a communication channel between your computer’s motherboard and the network. The function of a NIC is to send and receive information from the system bus in parallel and to send and receive information from the network in series. The NIC also converts the data that it receives from the system into a signal that’s appropriate to the network. For an Ethernet card, this means converting the data from the 5-volt signal used on the computer’s motherboard into the voltage used by UTP cables. The component on the NIC that makes this conversion is a transceiver. In most cases, the NIC is an adapter card that plugs into one of the expansion slots that most PCs have on their motherboards or attaches to the computer through an external port, such as a USB 2.0 or IEEE 1394 (sometimes referred to as FireWire) port. The NIC has one or more ports built into it that are used to connect the NIC and its computer to a network using a cable that plugs into the port or wireless radio waves. The type of connector on the card varies with the type of network medium being used, as shown in Exhibit 13-28.

Exhibit 13-28: Examples of NICs for different network media

13–54 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Most new network adapter cards you’ll install will be PCI or PCIe Ethernet cards with an RJ-45 port to connect to unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cabling. A NIC might have ports that can accept more than one type of cable connection. For example, on the ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) Ethernet card pictured in Exhibit 13-29, it has two transceivers—one to convert data into the appropriate voltage for UTP and a second to convert data for thinnet coaxial cable.

Exhibit 13-29: An Ethernet combo NIC Notebook computers Network adapters are standard equipment on notebook computers now. They used to be PC Cards that you added to a computer. Now they’re typically built into the notebook computer. 10/100BASE-T Ethernet or 10/100/1000 Gigabit Ethernet cards are the network adapters found in most cases, along with a wireless n or g adapter. For notebooks without a built-in network adapter, PCMCIA adapters, also called PC Card adapters, are most common. These cards are relatively simple to install. Usually when a PC Card NIC is inserted in the slot, the system recognizes it and loads the appropriate drivers, or the OS prompts you for the driver location. Most PC Cards are hot swappable—meaning you don’t need to power down the computer to insert or remove them.

NIC selection When selecting a NIC, it’s critical to match it with the following:  The network architecture to which it connects  If wired, the specific type of cable connection it uses; if wireless, the standard it uses (802.11a/b/g/n)  The type of slot in the computer (PCI or ISA) in which it’s installed All internal cards for desktop systems are PCI cards at this point. If you’re supporting older equipment, you might encounter some ISA or EISA cards in which you need to configure the IRQ, DMA, and I/O addresses. A utility from the manufacturer is used to configure the settings on those cards.


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Status indicators Most networking devices, including NICs, have status indicator lights that you can observe to see if the device is working. Typically, there is a solid link light if the device “sees” a compatible networking device. An activity light flashes when data is being sent or received. Some NICs have a single light that indicates both. If these lights aren’t illuminating, you should check the configuration of the card to see if that’s the problem. You can do so through Device Manager. The network card should be listed in Device Manager without any error or warning icons. In Exhibit 13-30, the LAN network card is reported as functioning, but the wireless adapter is reported as disabled.

Exhibit 13-30: Device Manager displaying the status of NICs The General tab of the NIC card’s Properties dialog box also displays the device’s status. As shown in Exhibit 13-31, the status should be, “This device is working properly.”

Exhibit 13-31: Device status in a NIC’s Properties dialog box


B-4:

Examining your NIC

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Examine the ports on your computer’s NIC What types of ports are there?

Most network adapter cards will be PCI Ethernet cards with an RJ-45 port to connect to UTP cabling.

2 If the computer is not turned on, boot it and log in as your COMPADMIN## user As you boot the computer and Windows loads, observe the status indicator lights on your NIC 3 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose

The lights will flash when data is being sent or received. You’ll also probably see a green light indicating that there’s a working connection to the network. To open Computer Management.

Manage

Click Continue 4 In the navigation pane, under System Tools, select Device Manager

5 Expand Network Adapters Your network card should be listed in Device Manager without any error or warning icons.

6 Right-click your network adapter card and choose Properties

The dialog box should state that the device is working properly.

7 Click Cancel Close Computer Management

To close the Properties dialog box.


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Modems As you learned previously, modems are devices that enable you to connect your computer to another computer through a phone line. A modem can be an external device (Exhibit 13-32) connected to a USB or serial port. It can also be a modem card (Exhibit 13-33) using PCI slot, or in older computers, an ISA slot. The modem in the sending computer must convert the digital signals within the computer to analog signals that are compatible with the phone system. The receiving modem must convert analog signals to digital signals.

Exhibit 13-32: Actiontec USB/Serial 56K External Modem

Exhibit 13-33: A Mach2 56K PCI modem card

13–58 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Modulation and demodulation Computers are digital, and regular phone lines are analog. Data stored inside a PC is communicated to a modem as binary, or digital, data (0s and 1s). A modem converts this data into an analog signal, in a process called modulation, which can travel over a phone line. The modem at the receiving end converts the signal back to digital data, in a process called demodulation, before passing it on to the receiving PC. The two processes of MOdulation/DEModulation lead to the name of the device: modem.

Exhibit 13-34: Modems convert digital signals to analog and then back to digital Sound traveling over regular phone lines is transmitted as analog signals. PC data must be converted from two simple states or measurements, 0 and 1, or off and on, to waves, like sound waves, that have a potentially infinite number of states or measurements. Modems use different characteristics of waves to correspond to the zeros and ones of digital communication. On a PC, the modem provides a connection for a regular phone line—an RJ-11 connection—which is the same type of connection that you see for a regular phone wall outlet (Exhibit 13-35). In addition to a line-in connection from the wall outlet, a modem usually has an RJ-11 connection for a telephone.

Exhibit 13-35: RJ-11 connection on a modem Modems must perform some basic core functions. These include modulating and demodulating the signal, as well as interfacing with the operating system. This latter function includes things like error correction, compression, command set interpretation, and so forth. This can be done strictly through hardware or can be accomplished using software installed on the computer. A modem must be able to both receive and transmit data. Communication in which transmission can occur in only one direction at a time is called half-duplex; an example of this type of communication is a CB radio. A modem that can communicate in only one direction at a time is called a half-duplex modem. Communication that allows transmission in both directions at the same time is called full-duplex, a regular voice phone conversation is an example of full-duplex communication. If a modem can communicate in both directions at the same time, it is a full-duplex modem. Most modems today are full-duplex.

Connecting computers Do it!

B-5:

13–59

Examining your modem

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Examine the ports on your computer’s modem card What types of ports are available?

2 Does your modem include status indicator lights similar to those on your NIC?

Your modem provides a connection for a regular phone line—an RJ-11 connection—which is the same type of connection used in a regular phone wall outlet. The modem might also have an RJ11 connection for a telephone. Some modems include a status indicator light.

3 Open Device Manager and view your modem It should be listed in Device Manager without any error or warning icons.

4 View the device’s status

It should show that the device is working properly.

5 Click Cancel Close Computer Management


Topic C: Basic internetworking devices This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Hub, switch, router

5.2

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Software firewall


Objective

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Connection types – Routers / Access Points  Firewall  Basics of hardware and software firewall configuration  Physical installation

Internetworking devices Internetworking can be defined as the technology and devices by which computers can communicate across networks. To connect computers together in a network, you need connection devices, in addition to network interface cards or modems and cabling. In this topic, you’ll look at three common internetworking devices: the hub, the switch, and the router.

Common physical network topologies The design of a network’s wiring or radio wave connections is called its physical topology. It’s helpful to think of a topology as a shape. Common network topologies include the star, bus, ring, and mesh. The computers in a physical topology are connected using various internetworking devices, such as hubs, switches, and routers. The star topology In a star topology, each node is connected to a central network connectivity device, such as a hub or a switch. This device then distributes the information packets it receives to the star’s nodes. As shown in Exhibit 13-36, in a star topology, each node has its own wired or wireless connection to the hub.


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The benefit of the star design is that because each node has its own connection to the central network connectivity device, when a single connection fails, it doesn’t affect the communication ability of other nodes connected to the same central device. However, if the central device fails, all of the nodes connected to it will no longer be able to communicate on the network. Currently the star design is the most popular LAN physical topology.

Exhibit 13-36: A star topology The bus topology In a bus topology, each node is connected to the next by a direct line so that a continuous line is formed, as shown in Exhibit 13-37. There’s no central point in this arrangement. Each node is simply connected to the next one on either side of it. The bus design incorporates coaxial cable and T connectors to connect the individual computers to the bus. When the end of the line is reached and there are no further nodes to be connected, the bus is closed off with a terminator device specific to the cabling used. In an Ethernet bus, data is sent on the network line in both directions from the source node. The data passes from one node to the next until it reaches the terminator at the end of the network. The terminator absorbs the data signal, so it can’t reflect back on the network line and head back to the node it just came from. All information on the network passes through each node but does so only once. There’s no replication or broadcasting of data as in a star topology. Each node determines whether data it receives is addressed to it. If it is, the data is read and receipt is confirmed. The benefit of a bus topology is that it’s simple and inexpensive to set up. However, if there’s a break in the line anywhere, all communication on that segment stops. The technology used is also not very scalable. Currently the bus design isn’t used much in LAN physical topologies.


Exhibit 13-37: A bus topology The ring topology In a ring topology, each node is connected to two nodes on either side of it so that all nodes form a continuous loop, as shown in Exhibit 13-38. Communication is enabled by passing a token around the ring to each node—if a node has the token, it can transmit data. The token packet is always present somewhere on the network. An FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) network is an example of a dual-ring topology. The nodes are physically connected by two rings for redundancy. FDDI networks send data in a clockwise direction on one physical ring and in a counterclockwise direction on the other ring so that a cable problem doesn’t stop all communication to the nodes.

Exhibit 13-38: A ring topology Token Ring networks are physically set up in a physical star topology, but they use a networking device called a multistation access unit (MSAU) to create a ring electrically for data. (The MSAU is sometimes referred to as a MAU.) Each node is connected to the MSAU by two pairs of wires. The token packet travels from the MSAU up one connecting wire to a node and back to the MSAU through the other wire, and then up one wire to the next node and back through the other wire. The token packet passes through the MSAU after each node, and after passing through all of them and returning to the MSAU, it travels through the main ring cable back to its starting point at the other end of the central device. The token packet travels in a circle or ring on the network in a single direction, even though the nodes are physically arranged as a star.


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The mesh topology In a mesh topology, all nodes in the mesh have independent connections to all other nodes in the mesh. This configuration makes it very fault tolerant and scalable. Mesh topologies require computers to have multiple network cards, and are rarely used for user computers due to the complexity of wiring and support. You’ll most often find the mesh topology connecting wide-area or campus links, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-39.

Exhibit 13-39: A mesh topology Most mesh topologies aren’t fully meshed due to the cost. More common is a partial mesh topology with some redundant links, but not all nodes are directly connected to all other nodes.

13–64 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The hybrid topology In a hybrid network topology, two or more types of network topologies are combined into one network. For example, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-40, a campus-wide network might use a combination mesh topology between the buildings and use a star topology with nodes connected to hubs within the buildings.

Exhibit 13-40: Combined mesh and star Ethernet design Do it!

C-1:

Describing physical network topologies

Questions and answers 1 Which physical network topologies make use of a central networking device?

2 Which physical network topology has the benefit that it’s simple and inexpensive to set up?

3 In which physical network topology does all communication on that segment stop if there’s a break in the line anywhere?

4 Which physical network topology is most fault-tolerant and scalable?

5 What’s the benefit of the hybrid network physical topology?


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Ethernet hubs To connect computers together in a network, in addition to cabling, connection devices are also necessary. These vary depending on the transport protocol used. When wiring Ethernet in a star topology, it is necessary to use a device that will take the signal transmitted from one computer and propagate it to all the other computers on the network. This device is called an Ethernet hub. A hub is a network device that can be used to connect network devices. An example of a hub is shown in Exhibit 13-41. A hub is generally inexpensive and is best suited for a small, simple network. These devices can include computers, servers, or printers.

Exhibit 13-41: A hub

13–66 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When a computer transmits a packet on the network in Exhibit 13-42, the packet is received by the hub. When a hub receives the packet, it regenerates it, and sends it out to every port except the one on which it was received. Each computer receives the packet and looks at the destination MAC address. If the destination MAC address does not match the MAC address of the receiving network card, the packet is ignored. If the destination MAC address does match the MAC address of the network card, the packet is passed up to the protocol stack, usually to the IP protocol.

Exhibit 13-42: Data traffic through a hub A hub operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model. The Physical layer of the OSI model is responsible for media characteristics and electrical signaling. A hub looks at each electrical signal as it is received and regenerates it. Regenerating each signal allows it to travel the full distance allowed by the media type. For instance, twisted-pair cabling is capable of carrying an electrical signal 100 m before the signal attenuates so much that it cannot be understood by the receiving computer. If a hub is used at 100m, then the signal can travel another 100 m before becoming unreadable. Because a hub deals only with electrical signals, it cannot perform tasks that require an understanding of an entire packet of information. Consequently it cannot direct packets to a particular location because it does not understand MAC addresses or IP addresses. Hubs are easy to configure because they broadcast data packets to every device at once. Think of a hub as just a pass-through and distribution point for every device connected to it. The hub does not pay attention to the kind of data passing through it, nor to where the data might be going. For this reason, a hub can generate a lot of unnecessary traffic on a LAN, which can result in slow performance when a lot of nodes are connected to a hub. All of the computers connected to a hub, or a series of hubs, belong to the same collision domain. In a large network, this results in a significant degradation of network throughput due to many collisions.


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When a signal passes through a hub, it takes a small amount of time for the signal to be regenerated. The time lag, or delay, between receiving the signal and sending it out again is called latency. When many hubs are linked, a high level of latency is introduced for packets traveling from one end of the collision domain to the other, and the carrier sense portion of CSMA/CD becomes unreliable. When the latency is too high, the number of collisions will increase because a computer at one end of the collision domain can begin sending a packet while another computer at the other end is sending a packet at the same time. A collision is the result. There are several types of hubs on the market, of which the important ones are of four types. Each has features of its own, but just about any combination of these feature sets can be found in a single hybrid device. When purchasing a hub, make sure to perform sufficient research to get a combination of necessary features.  Passive hubs—A passive hub takes incoming electrical signals on one port and passes them down the cable on its other ports  Active hubs—Active hubs repair weak signals by actually retransmitting the data with proper transmission voltage and current. This essentially resets the cable length limitations for each port on the hub.  Switching hubs—A switching hub takes an incoming packet of data and actually looks inside at the destination hardware address. Then instead of rebroadcasting this packet on all the ports, the hub sends the packet out to only the port connected to the destination machine. Switching hubs can also make changes in transmission speeds.  Intelligent hubs—An intelligent hub might have management features that help it to report on traffic statistics, retransmission errors, or port connects/disconnects. These hubs might have advanced features, such as built-in routing or bridging functions.

Layer 2 switches The term Layer 2 switch (also known as an Ethernet switch or simply switch) is generally a more modern term for multiport bridge. Switches operate at the data link layer of the OSI model. This means that they are capable of performing tasks that deal with full packets of data and MAC addresses. A switch connects devices like a hub, but learns MAC addresses and uses them to make forwarding and filtering decisions. When a switch is first turned on, it’s not configured with any information about which computers are connected to what ports. When a switch doesn’t know where to deliver a packet, it is delivered to all ports. Therefore, in the first few moments of operation, it functions very much like a hub, in that it will forward each packet received to every port except the one from which the packet came. Broadcast packets are always forwarded to all ports. As each packet is processed by the switch, the switch tracks the source MAC address of the packet and the port on which it was received. In this way, the switch eventually builds a list that contains the location of each computer on the network. Based on this list, the switch forwards packets only to the relevant port. This enhances network throughput by reducing traffic on the overall network.

13–68 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A major limitation of hubs is their lack of scalability at higher speeds. When only one or two hubs can be linked together then the network must remain quite small. Switches expand the network by creating separate collision domains on each port. When a switch receives a packet, it is buffered in the memory of the switch. This allows the switch to resend the packet if there is a collision. Many switches can be linked, or many hubs can be linked to a single switch, as shown in Exhibit 13-43. Switches are also capable of connecting dissimilar network architectures, such as Ethernet and wireless.

Exhibit 13-43: Configurations for switched networks Switches can operate at full-duplex. The internal speed of a switch is much faster than the individual ports. For instance, a switch with 24 100 Mbps ports will have a backplane speed of 2 Gbps or faster. This allows multiple computers to communicate through the switch at their full link speed. When you link multiple switches, ensure that there are not any segments that will act as bottlenecks. To do this, make sure that all segments of your backbone run at a faster speed than links to the individual workstations or servers. Exhibit 13-44 shows a switched network with bottlenecks.


Exhibit 13-44: Switched network with bottlenecks Exhibit 13-45 shows a switched network without bottlenecks.

Exhibit 13-45: Switched network without bottlenecks

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13–70 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A switch has several benefits over a hub:  Each port on a switch is a separate collision domain allowing the division of large networks and a reduction in the number of collisions.  In addition, a switch is capable of directing traffic only to the port to which the destination computer is attached, which reduces overall levels of network traffic.  Switches are also capable of connecting dissimilar network architectures, such as Ethernet and wireless.  Switches are capable of port-based authentication, which restricts unauthorized clients from connecting to a LAN through publicly accessible ports.

Routers As networks become more complex, you need an internetworking device that provides control of the flow of traffic. Routers open the MAC (Media Access Control) layer envelope and looks at the contents of the packet delivered at the MAC layer. The contents of the MAC layer envelope are used to make routing decisions. The router provides a port of entry that can control entrance and exit of traffic to and from the subnet. This segmentation is vital in organizations that rely on department-level network management. It also improves security and reduces congestion across the internetwork. As shown in Exhibit 13-46, you can segment an extended internetwork into manageable, logical subnets by using routers.

Exhibit 13-46: Routing between network segments


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When a router receives a packet, it will generally forward it to the appropriate network based on a table maintained in the router. There are two types of tables:  A static table is maintained by a system manager and is updated manually as the network is modified.  A dynamic table is updated automatically as routers converse among themselves, by using a common routing protocol. The additional intelligence of routers provides for multiple (redundant) paths between locations, which provide both backup and the ability to do load balancing, and makes full use of available bandwidth. Some key points to know about routers include:  A router connects two or more subnetworks.  A router might be configured to support a single protocol or multiple protocols.  A router will only process packets contained in frames specifically addressing it as a destination.  Packets destined for a locally connected subnetwork are passed to that network.  Packets destined for a remote subnetwork are passed to the next router in the path.  A router that exists in the same subnet as a host can be configured as a default gateway. Note: The term “gateway” is also used to refer to a network device used to connect dissimilar systems or protocols.

Network address translation Network address translation (NAT) devices correlate internal (usually private addresses) and external addresses (usually public addresses). A SOHO network might have just a single IP address on the Internet, but dozens of private (internal) IP addresses. All Internet communications will appear to come from that single public IP address. The NAT router makes sure that inbound and outbound packets arrive at the correct destination. Unless an internal system has initiated a communication session, it’s more difficult for external devices to find or communicate with internal devices due to the translated network addressing scheme, but it’s not entirely hack-proof. There are a couple of good reasons to use NAT:  Availability of addresses — The American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) regulates and assigns IP addresses that can be used directly on the Internet. Companies must apply and pay for the use of address ranges, and typically must justify the addresses they request. Rather than going through the trouble for every new block of network devices they add, companies use a private range of addresses within their network.  Security — By using private addresses within the company, network administrators make it more difficult for hackers and automated malware on the Internet to discover and compromise internal systems. In the SOHO environment, a cable or DSL modem or router might provides NAT functionality to map internal addresses to one or more IP addresses assigned by the Internet service provider. In a corporate environment, routers, firewalls, or other devices provide large-scale address translation services.

13–72 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Firewalls and proxy servers A firewall is software or hardware used to control information that’s sent and received from outside the network. The firewall resides on the network’s gateway, which is the connection point between the internal network and outside communication. Firewalls examine the contents of network traffic and permit or block transmission based on access control list (ACL) rules. The firewall ensures that all communication received from outside users and computers is legitimate. A firewall can be installed on several types of gateways, including routers, servers, computers, and standalone appliances. A good firewall solution is a hardware firewall that stands between a LAN and the Internet, as illustrated in Exhibit 13-47. A hardware firewall is ideal for a home network consisting of two or more computers because it protects the entire network. For most home and small-office LANs that connect to the Internet through a single cable modem or DSL converter, a broadband router is used as a hardware firewall. You can buy a broadband router with enough ports to connect several computers and perhaps a network printer to it. Some broadband routers also serve double duty as wireless access points for the network, DHCP server, and proxy server. The broadband router connects directly to the cable modem or DSL converter. Note that some DSL devices are also broadband routers and include embedded firewall firmware.

Exhibit 13-47: A hardware firewall Starting with Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, Microsoft includes Windows Enhanced Firewall with its client operating systems. Unlike most firewalls, Windows Firewall can be configured to block only incoming network traffic on your computer. All outgoing network traffic is allowed to travel, unrestricted, from your computer to its destination. Windows Firewall offers new features, such as allowing incoming network connections based on software or services running on a user’s computer, and blocking network connections based on the source (the Internet, your local area network, or a specific range of IP addresses). By default, Windows Firewall is turned on.


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Software firewalls include those bundled with Windows 7, Vista and XP, as well as third-party applications, such as Zone Alarm. A software firewall on a local PC can also prevent the spread of worms that transmit themselves to open ports on other PCs. At their core, all firewalls protect networks by using some combination of the following techniques:  NAT (network address translation)  Basic packet filtering  Stateful packet inspection (SPI) Basic firewalls use only one technique, usually NAT, but firewalls that are more comprehensive use all of the techniques combined. Of course, as you add features, complexity and cost increase. Stateless packet filters examine IP addresses and ports to determine whether a packet should be passed on or forwarded. Stateful packet filters monitor outbound and inbound traffic by watching addresses, ports, and connection data. Each time an internal client makes an external request, its IP address is placed in a connection table. When the stateful packet filter receives a communication from an external source, it attempts to match the communication with the entries in the connection table. If the packet is part of an existing communication stream initiated by an internal client, the packet is allowed through. If not, the packet is dropped. Some more advanced firewalls “understand” the data contained in packets and thus can enforce more complex rules. For example, a firewall might determine that an inbound packet is carrying an HTTP (Web) request and is going to a permitted address and port. Such a packet would be transmitted. Packets carrying other protocols or going to other addresses might be blocked.

13–74 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Proxy servers A proxy server is a type of server that services requests on behalf of clients. With a proxy server, a client’s request is not actually sent to the remote host. Instead, it goes to the proxy server, which then sends the request to the remote node on behalf of the client as shown in Exhibit 13-48. Before sending the packet, the proxy server replaces the original sender’s address and other identifying information with its own. When the response arrives, the proxy server looks up the original sending computer’s information, updates the incoming packet, and forwards it to the client.

Exhibit 13-48: A proxy server used as a firewall By these actions, a proxy server masks internal IP addresses, as a NAT device does. It also blocks unwanted inbound traffic—there will be no corresponding outbound connection data in its tables, so the packets will be dropped. Many proxy servers also provide caching functions. The contents of popular Web pages, for example, could be saved on the proxy server and served from there, rather than by sending requests out across a WAN link, thus reducing WAN traffic.

Connecting computers Do it!

C-2:

13–75

Differentiating between basic internetworking devices

Questions and answers 1 You have a large Ethernet network that uses hubs. Data traffic is slowing the network down. What might be a better connection option?

2 You want to reduces congestion across the your network. Which internetwork device would you use?

3 Hubs are used for what type of network?


Unit summary: Connecting computers Topic A

In this topic, you described the basic components of a network. You identified the components that are required for a local area network, and learned about the difference between a node and a host. You also learned about peer-to-peer and client/server networks, and how each model works. You then identified the various types of cables—fiber optic, UTP, STP, and coaxial—used in LANs. You also learned how computers are networked together in the most common network architecture, Ethernet. You then examined how computers can be added to a network through wireless connections. Finally, you learned about WAN technologies.

Topic B

In this topic, you compared the various wired network connections, the features of each cable type, their data speed ratings, and the connectors they use. You also learned about the special characteristics needed for plenum wiring. You then examined the different types of NICs and how they differ between desktop and notebook computers. In addition, you learned about modems and how they work.

Topic C

In this topic, you differentiated between three basic internetworking devices: Ethernet hubs, routers, and switches. You learned that Ethernet hubs are used to wire network devices into a star topology. Routers are used to connect network segments and to create smaller, more manageable subnetworks out of a large network. Switches are used to connect two networks and make them function as one.

Review questions 1 Which type of network is defined as a specifically designed configuration of computers and other devices located within a confined area? A Peer-to-peer network B Local area network C Client/server network D Wide area network 2 In which type of network does each host on the LAN have the same authority as the other hosts? A Peer-to-peer network B Local area network C Client/server network D Wide area network 3 Which type of network requires a network operating system (NOS)? A Peer-to-peer network B Local area network C Client/server network D Wide area network


13–77

4 A network device with an address that can be accessed to send or receive information is called a __________. A LAN B Node C Workstation 5 Which network medium carries light-based data through strands of glass or plastic no thicker than a human hair? A Coaxial B Twisted pair C Fiber optic D Wireless 6 Which network medium is composed of four pairs of wires, where the pairs are twisted together and bundled within a covering? A Coaxial B Twisted pair C Fiber optic D Wireless 7 Which network medium contains a layer of braided wire or foil between the core and the outside insulating layer, plus another layer of plastic or rubberized material that separates the central core from the shielding layer? A Coaxial B Twisted pair C Fiber optic D Wireless 8 Which network medium is a popular choice for outdoors or in historic buildings? A Coaxial B Twisted pair C Fiber optic D Wireless 9 Fiber optic cabling is often used as the ____________ for networks. Backbone

10 _____________ cable has the best wiring value and expansion capability. Composite

13–78 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 11 Which type of coaxial cable is used for low-power video and RF signal connections? A RG-6 B RG-8 C RG-11 D RG-58 E RG-59 12 Which of the following are Thicknet cables? [Choose all that apply.] A RG-6 B RG-8 C RG-11 D RG-58 E RG-59 13 Which connectors can be used with fiber optic network cabling? [Choose all that apply.] A FDDI B ST C RJ-45 D BNC 14 Which Ethernet standard is the fastest? A Twisted Pair Ethernet B Fast Ethernet C Gigabyte Ethernet D 10GbE 15 Which Ethernet standards designate fiber optic cabling as the required medium? [Choose all that apply.] A BASE-CX B BASE-R C BASE-T D BASE-W E BASE-X 16 In a WLAN, the wireless NIC allows nodes to communicate over ____________ distances, using radio waves, which it sends to and receives from the hub. Short

17 True or false? A LAN becomes a WAN when you expand the network configuration beyond your own premises and must lease data communication lines from a public carrier. True


13–79

18 Which WAN connection technology uses encryption and security protocols to create a private network over a public network? A Cable B Cellular C DSL D DUN E Satellite F VPN G Wireless 19 Which WAN connection technology uses high-speed connections made over regular analog phone lines? A Cable B Cellular C DSL D DUN E Satellite F VPN G Wireless 20 Which WAN connection technology is shown in the following graphic?

A Cellular B DSL C ISDN D POTS/PSTN

13–80 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 21 Which WAN connection technology currently uses Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), or High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)? A Cable B Cellular C DSL D DUN E Satellite F VPN G Wireless 22 Which WAN technology is used to connect a small ISP or large business to a regional ISP, and connect a regional ISP to an Internet backbone, and uses fixedlength packets to transmit data, voice, video, and frame relay traffic? A ATM B E1/E3 C Frame relay D T1/T3 E X.25 23 Which categories of UTP cabling can be used in Gigabit Ethernet networks? [Choose all that apply.] A CAT 1 B CAT 2 C CAT 3 D CAT 4 E CAT 6e F CAT 7 G CAT7a 24 The diameter of fiber optic cable is expressed in which measurement? A Centimeters B Microns C Millimeters D Ohms 25 ________-mode fiber optic cable is used mostly for short distances (up to 500 m). Multi

Connecting computers 26 Which of the following Radio Guide cable categories are used for Ethernet networking? [Choose all that apply.] A RG-6 B RG-8 C RG-9 D RG-11 E RG-58 F RG-59 27 Which of the following fiber optic cable connectors is an ST connector?

A

B

C

D

13–81

13–82 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 28 Twisted-pair network cable uses which RJ connector? A RJ-11 B RJ-14 C RJ-25 D RJ-45 29 An RJ-11 connector is which type? A 6P2C B 6P4C C 6P6C D 8P8C 30 What are the pinout differences between the T568A and T568B standards? [Choose all that apply.] A The wire color attached to pin 1 B The wire color attached to pin 2 C The wire color attached to pin 3 D The wire color attached to pin 4 E The wire color attached to pin 5 F The wire color attached to pin 6 G The wire color attached to pin 7 H The wire color attached to pin 8 31 Cables that run in _______________ must meet applicable fire protection and environmental requirements. Plenums

32 The device on a NIC card that converts the data it receives from the system into a signal that’s appropriate to the network is called a ______________. A Port B PROM chip C Receiver D Transceiver 33 True or false? On the majority of today’s laptop computers, the network adapters are PC Cards. False. Network adapters are standard equipment on notebook computers now.


13–83

34 True or false? The purpose of a modem is to convert digital data signals from the computer into analog signals for transmission over the phone line. True. It also converts analog signals received from the phone line back into digital signals for the computer.

35 Modems use which RJ connector? A RJ-11 B RJ-14 C RJ-25 D RJ-45 36 Which internetworking device makes computers that are connected to separate segments appear and behave as if they’re on the same segment? A Bridge B Hub C Router D Switch 37 You’re wiring Ethernet in a star topology. What is the internetworking device you use to take the signal transmitted from one computer and propagate it to all the other computers in the network? A Bridge B Hub C Repeater D Switch

13–84 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll identify components used to connect your computer to the network. 1 What hardware device does your PC use to make your Internet connection? In class, it is a NIC. Outside of class, it could be a modem or a NIC.

2 You’ve just purchased a laptop computer and want to connect it to your network, which supports 802.11b wireless LAN. Research the cost of a wireless LAN card to insert in your laptop’s PC Card slot. Compare the data transfer rates of the cards you’ve researched. Answers will vary.

3 Answer the following questions regarding your computer’s network connection. a What type of NIC is installed in your computer—an expansion card, a wireless LAN card, or an embedded NIC? Answers will vary.

b Use the status of your Local Area Connection object to determine the speed of your network adapter. Answers will vary.

c What type of network cable is used to connect your NIC to the LAN? What are its properties in terms of connectors and maximum length? Answers will vary.

d What’s the speed of your LAN? Answers will vary.

e Is your network using the peer-to-peer model or the client/server model? Answers will vary.

f If your computer is using the client/server model, is your computer part of a Windows domain? If so, what’s the name of the domain? Answers will vary.

14–1

Unit 14 Networking computers Unit time: 105 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Describe how various types of addresses

are used to identify devices on a network. B Create client network connections through

wired, wireless, and dial-up methods.

14–2


Topic A: Addressing This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces  Command prompt utilities – telnet – ping – ipconfig  Run line utilities – Cmd

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS)  Protocols (TCP/IP, NETBIOS)  Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTPS  Basic class identification  IPv6 vs. IPv4 – Address length differences – Address conventions

4.3

Compare and contrast the different network types  Wireless – All 802.11 types  Bluetooth

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  RFI – Cordless phone interference – Microwaves


14–3


Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  IPCONFIG (/all /release /renew)  PING (-t –l)

3.1

Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools  TCP/IP settings – Gateway – Subnet mask – DNS – DHCP (dynamic vs. static)  Characteristics of TCP/IP – Loopback addresses – Automatic IP addressing  Mail protocol settings – SMTP – IMAP – POP  FTP settings – Ports – IP addresses – Exceptions – Programs  Tools (use and interpret results) – Ping – Ipconfig – telnet – SSH  Secure connection protocols – SSH – HTTPS

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Bluetooth (1.0 vs. 2.0)

14–4


Network protocols Explanation

Computers and devices that are connected via network media require a method for communicating with other computers and devices on the network. In order for communication to occur, there must be a set of rules or protocols. Network communication protocols establish the rules and formats that must be followed for effective communication between networks, as well as from one network node to another. A network communication protocol formats information into packages of information called packets. The media access method, such as Ethernet, is then used to send these packets onto the medium itself. The following table describes some common network LAN protocols that you can use in Windows networks. Protocol

Description

TCP/IP

(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) A routable, non-proprietary protocol that’s the predominant Windows network protocol. It’s supported by all versions of Windows and most other non-Microsoft operating systems. TCP/IP is also the protocol of the Internet.

IPX/SPX

(Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange) A routable, proprietary protocol that was the native protocol in early versions of Novell NetWare. Later versions of NetWare supported TCP/IP as the native protocol. Windows computers can connect to IPX/SPX networks and NetWare servers by using Microsoft’s version of IPX/SPX, called NWLink. To share files and printers on a NetWare server, you must install the Microsoft Client for NetWare.

AppleTalk

A routable network protocol supported by Apple Macintosh computers. Windows NT and Windows 2000 support AppleTalk. Mac OS X (10.2 and later) supports TCP/IP and can connect to Windows networks without requiring AppleTalk support. AppleTalk computers are called nodes and can be configured as parts of zones for sharing resources. As with other networks, each node on an AppleTalk network must be configured with a unique network address.

NetBEUI

(NetBIOS Extended User Interface) A non-routable, proprietary Microsoft protocol that’s supported in Windows 9x/Me, Windows NT, and Windows 2000. NetBEUI uses NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) services to communicate with other computers on a network. (NetBIOS helps with computer names and some basic communication services.) Although it isn’t technically supported in Windows XP, you can install it by manually copying files from the installation CD-ROM. What’s nice about NetBEUI is that it has no settings to configure. You install the protocol, connect the computer to the network, and it just works. The drawback is that it isn’t routable, so it can’t pass data from one network segment to another. This means that it can’t be used for remote access or any communication outside a single segment.


14–5

Addressing Every device on a network must have a unique address. On a network, different methods are used to identify devices and programs, as shown in Exhibit 14-1. These methods are:  Media Access Control (MAC) address — A unique address permanently embedded in a NIC by the manufacturer.  IPv4 address — A 32-bit address consisting of a series of four 8-bit numbers separated by periods.  IPv6 address — A 128-bit address, which can support a much bigger pool of available addresses than IPv4.  Character-based names — Host names, and NetBIOS names used to identify a computer on a network with easy-to-remember letters rather than numbers.

Exhibit 14-1: Identifying addresses

MAC addresses A MAC address, also referred to as a physical address, adapter address, or Ethernet address, identifies a device on a LAN. It’s a unique value expressed as six pairs of hexadecimal numbers, often separated by hyphens or colons, as shown in Exhibit 14-2. (In a hexadecimal number, a base of 16 rather than 10 is used to represent numbers. Hexadecimal numbers consist of a combination of numerals and letters.) Part of the address contains the manufacturer identifier, and the rest is a unique number. No two NICs have the same identifying code. MAC addresses are absolute—a MAC address on a host normally doesn’t change as long as the NIC doesn’t change.

Exhibit 14-2: A MAC address

14–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The MAC address is used only by devices inside the LAN and isn’t used outside the LAN. This address functions at the lowest (Data Link) networking level. If a host doesn’t know the MAC address of another host on a LAN, it uses the address resolution protocol (ARP) to discover the MAC address. Computers on different networks can’t use their MAC addresses to enable communication because the hardware protocol (for example, Ethernet) controls traffic on only its own network. For the host to communicate with a host on another LAN across the corporate intranet or Internet, it must know the IP address of the host.

IP addresses An IP address identifies a computer, printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network, such as the Internet or an intranet. When you install a network interface card in a device, you can configure it to use an IP address to communicate. The exact steps to do this vary by device and operating system. You should refer to the appropriate manufacturer documentation to configure IP addressing on your device. There are two types of IP addressing schemes: IPv4 and IPv6. All protocols in the TCP/IP suite identify a device on the Internet or an intranet by its IP address. IPv4 An IPv4 address is 32 bits long and is made up of 4 bytes separated by periods. For example, a decimal version of an IP address might be 190.180.40.120. The largest possible 8-bit number, in binary form, is 11111111, which is equal to 255 in decimal. The largest possible decimal IPv4 address is 255.255.255.255. In binary, it’s 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111. Within an IPv4 address, each of the four numbers separated by periods is called an octet (for 8 bits). This number, in decimal form, can be any number from 0 to 255, making for a total of 4.3 billion potential IP addresses (256 × 256 × 256 × 256). With the allocation scheme used to assign these addresses, not all IP addresses are available for use. All IP addresses are composed of two parts: the network ID and the host ID. The first part of an IP address identifies the network, and the last part identifies the host. The network ID represents the network on which the computer is located, whereas the host ID represents a single computer on that network. No two computers on the same network can have the same host ID; however, two computers on different networks can have the same host ID. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) implemented classful IPv4 addresses in order to differentiate between the portion of the IP address that identifies a particular network and the portion that identifies a specific host on that network. These classes of IP addresses are shown in the following table.


14–7

Class

Addresses

Description

A

1.0.0.0 – 126.0.0.0

First octet: network ID. Last three octets: host ID. Default subnet mask: 255.0.0.0.

B

128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0

First two octets: network ID. Last two octets: host ID. Default subnet mask: 255.255.0.0.

C

192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0

First three octets: network ID. Last octet: host ID. Default subnet mask: 255.255.255.0.

D

224.0.0.0 – 239.0.0.0

Multicasting addresses.

E

240.0.0.0 – 255.0.0.0

Experimental use.

APIPA The network 169.254.0.0 is reserved for Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Windows operating systems (Windows 2000 and later) automatically generate an address in this range if they are configured to obtain an IPv4 address from a DHCP server and are unable to contact one. These addresses are not routable on the Internet. IPv6 IP version 6 uses 128-bit addresses. These addresses are written and displayed in the hexadecimal-equivalent values for each of their 16 bytes. In hexadecimal, you represent the first four bits in a byte (which means there are 16 possible values for those four bits) by using the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A through F. You then represent the remaining four bits in a byte with their hexadecimal equivalent value. Thus, for each byte, you see two numbers, with the first number identifying the first four bits and the second number identifying the remaining four bits. Like IPv4 addresses, IPv6 are also composed of two parts: the network ID and the host ID. You write an IPv6 IP address by grouping the address in hexadecimal, two bytes at a time, and separating these groups by colons (:). For example, you might see an IPv6 address of 3FFE:FFFF:0000:2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A. You can remove any leading zeroes in an IPv6 address. If a 2-byte block of an IPv6 address consists of all zeroes, you can "compress” the address by using double colons (::) to indicate those bytes. The double colons (::) can be used only once in an IPv6 address. This means that with the address in our previous example, we could rewrite it in the format 3FFE:FFFF::2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A.

14–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One In IPv4, the first octet of the address denotes the network’s class. However, classes are no longer formally part of the IP addressing architecture, and they have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), which allows you to create additional addresses beyond those allowed by the IPv4 classes using a variable-length subnet mask (VLSM). With IPv6, there are three broadly defined classes of addresses:  Unicast — A single address that identifies a single interface. This IPv6 address type includes two local-use address types (link-local and site-local) and a globally routable address type (global).  Link-local — The IPv6 version of IPv4’s APIPA. Link-local addresses are self-assigned using the Neighbor Discovery process. You can identify them by using the ipconfig command. If the IPv6 address displayed for your computer starts with FE8, FE9, FEA, or FEB, then it’s a self-assigned linklocal address.  Site-local — Site-local addresses begin with FE and use C to F for the third hex digit—FEC, FED, FEE, or FEF.  Unique local address — The IPv6 version of an IPv4 private address. Begins with FC or FD.  Global unicast — The IPv6 version of an IPv4 public address. A global unicast address is identified for a single interface. Global unicast addresses are routable and reachable on the IPv6 Internet. All IPv6 addresses that start with the binary values 001 (2000::/3) are global addresses, with the exception of FF00::/8, which are addresses reserved for multicasts. Those bits are followed by 45 bits that designate the global routing prefix—the network ID used for routing. The next 16 bits designate the subnet ID. The last 64 bits identify the individual network node.  Multicast — An address that identifies a multicast group. Just as with IPv4, an IPv6 multicast sends information or services to all interfaces that are defined as members of the multicast group. If the first 8 bits of an IPv6 address are FF, the address is a multicast address.  Anycast — A new, unique type of address in IPv6. An anycast address—a cross between unicast and multicast addressing—identifies a group of interfaces, typically on separate nodes. Packets sent to an anycast address are delivered to the nearest interface, as identified by the routing protocol’s distance measurement. Multicast addresses also identify a group of interfaces on separate nodes. However, the packet is delivered to all interfaces identified by the multicast address, instead of to a single interface, as with anycast addresses. IPv6 doesn’t use broadcast addresses; that functionality is included in multicast and anycast addresses. The all-hosts group is a multicast address used in place of a broadcast address.


14–9

Subnet mask Subnet masks are used to identify the network-ID portion of an IP address. You can use it to infer the host-ID portion of the IP address. Subnet masks allow additional addresses to be implemented within a given address space. The default mask for each class is listed in the previous table. The following table shows two examples of how the network ID and host ID of an IPv4 address can be calculated by using the subnet mask. IP address

Subnet mask

Network ID

Host ID

192.168.100.33

255.255.255.0

192.168.100.0

0.0.0.33

172.16.43.207

255.255.0.0

172.16.0.0

0.0.43.207

No matter how many octets are included in the network ID, they are always contiguous and start on the left. If the first and third octets are part of the network ID, the second must be as well. The following table shows examples of valid and invalid subnet masks. Valid subnet masks

Invalid subnet masks

255.0.0.0

0.255.255.255

255.255.0.0

255.0.255.0

255.255.255.0

255.255.0.255

When data is routed over interconnected networks, the network portion of the IP address is used to locate the right network. After the data arrives at the LAN, the host portion of the IP address identifies the one computer on the network that’s to receive the data. Finally, the IP address of the host must be used to identify its MAC address so the data can travel on the host’s LAN to that host. The default gateway In TCP/IP jargon, "default gateway” is another term for "router.” If a computer doesn’t know how to deliver a packet, it gives the packet to the default gateway to deliver. This happens every time a computer needs to deliver a packet to a network other than its own.

14–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One A router has an IP address on every network to which it is attached. Remember that routers keep track of networks, not computers. When a computer sends a packet to the default gateway for further delivery, the router’s address must be on the same network as the computer, because computers can talk directly to only the devices on their own network. Exhibit 14-3 illustrates a computer using a default gateway to communicate with another computer on a different network; the example uses IPv4 addresses.

Exhibit 14-3: A routed network DHCP and DHCPv6 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is an automated mechanism that assigns IP addresses to clients. There are two versions: the original DHCP, which is used for IPv4 addressing, and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6 (DHCPv6), which is used for IPv6 addressing.


14–11

A computer configured to obtain its IP configuration through DHCP or DHCPv6 will contact a DHCP or DHCPv6 server on the local network and get the needed information from it. Other TCP/IP configuration settings, such as the local router or default gateway, can also be handed out by a DHCP or DHCPv6 server. DHCPv6 can assign stateful IPv6 addresses or stateless configuration settings to its IPv6 clients. The DHCP Client service in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2008 supports both the original DHCP and DHCPv6.

Character-based names Computers use numeric network addresses to communicate with each other. People prefer to use names, such as fully qualified domain names (FQDNs) or NetBIOS names, to describe the computers on the network. Most likely, when you direct your computer to connect to a remote host, you provide a name for that remote host. Fully qualified domain names FQDNs (fully qualified domain names) are hierarchical names, conforming to a hierarchical naming scheme called the DNS (Domain Name System) namespace or BIND (Berkeley Internet Name Domain) because it was originally developed at the University of California at Berkeley. FQDNs are typically composed of three parts: a host name, a domain name, and a top-level domain name. For example, in the name www.microsoft.com, "www” is the host’s name (or at least an alias for the actual name), "microsoft” is the domain, and "com” is the top-level domain. It’s also possible to use subdomains. For example, in server1.corporate.microsoft.com, "corporate” is a domain within the microsoft

domain. Four-part names such as this aren’t rare, but you probably won’t see further divisions beyond that. RFC 1123 specifies that the name can contain:  ASCII letters a through z (not case-sensitive)  Numbers 0 through 9  Hyphens The entire FQDN has a maximum of 255 characters. When your computer’s FQDN matches another computer’s FQDN with the exception of the host name, many times you don’t need to enter the full FQDN to connect. For example, on a Windows network, when you enter a host name without an FQDN, the operating system automatically uses your computer’s domain information with the host name you’ve entered to find the computer you want to connect to. DNS The most common use for the Domain Name System (DNS) is resolving host names to IP addresses. When you visit a Web site, you normally specify a fully qualified domain name (FQDN), such as www.yahoo.com, in a Web browser. DNS servers match host names to IP addresses. These specialized servers maintain databases of IP addresses and their corresponding domain names. For example, you could use DNS to determine that the name www.yahoo.com corresponds to the IP address 69.147.76.151.

14–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One NetBIOS A NetBIOS name is 16 characters, with the first 15 characters available for the name and the 16th character reserved to describe a particular service or functionality. A NetBIOS name can consist of letters, numbers, and the following special characters: !@#$%^&()-_‘{}.~ NetBIOS host names must be unique and can’t contain spaces or any of the following special characters: \*+=|:;"?, NetBIOS names aren’t case-sensitive, so "A” is equivalent to "a.” Some examples of valid NetBIOS names are SUPERCORP, SERVER01, and INSTRUCTOR. In a NetBIOS name, the reserved 16th character is typically expressed as a hexadecimal number surrounded by angle brackets at the end of the name. For example, the NetBIOS name SUPERCORP would represent a request for the SUPERCORP domain controllers. When you try to access a given service, you don’t have to append a NetBIOS suffix manually; the operating system does it automatically. When you’re setting the NetBIOS name on a domain or computer, you enter it without the 16th character because a single NetBIOS name can be used to represent many different services on the same system. NetBIOS names exist at the same level—a concept referred to as a flat namespace— even if the computers to which they’re assigned are arranged in a network hierarchy. All NetBIOS names are in one big pool, without anything that identifies what part of the network the names belong to. For example, SERVER01 and SERVER02 are both valid NetBIOS names. By looking at the names, however, you can’t tell that SERVER01 is a member of the domain CHILD01, and SERVER02 is a member of CHILD02. With the flat-namespace structure, managing a large network environment becomes much more difficult. Do it!

A-1:

Examining addresses

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Which protocol was used in early versions of Novell NetWare? A

TCP/IP

B

NetBEUI

C

IPX/SPX

D

AppleTalk

2 What is the predominant protocol in Windows networks? A

TCP/IP

B

NetBEUI

C

IPX/SPX

D

AppleTalk


14–13

3 Which protocol requires no configuration? A

TCP/IP

B

NetBEUI

C

IPX/SPX

D

AppleTalk

4 On your Windows 7 computer, click Start and right-click Computer

Choose Properties

To open the System window.

5 Examine the "Computer name” and "Full computer name” lines

This information relates to the character-based name your computer is using.

6 Close the System window 7 In the system tray, click Click Open Network and Sharing Center

To open the Network and Sharing Center. This utility gives you a summary of your computer’s network connectivity.

8 Examine the "View your active networks” section It shows that you have one network connection enabled, and it has Internet access.

Examine the graphic at the top of the window It shows that you have a connection to both the internal network and the Internet.

9 Click Local Area Connection

To view the status of the connection.

Click Details 10 Examine the Physical Address line

This is your network card’s MAC address.

14–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 11 Examine the DHCP Enabled line This value is Yes, so your computer gets its IP address from a central server. If this value were No, a computer administrator would manually assign your computer an IP address.

12 Examine the IPv4 Address line This is the IP address your computer is using. The IP address can be manually assigned to your computer, or it can be assigned dynamically.

13 Examine the IPv4 Subnet Mask line

14 Examine the IPv4 Default Gateway

15 Examine the IPv4 DHCP Server address

This number works with the IP address to separate the network portion of the address from the host portion.

This is the router your computer uses to send data to computers that aren’t on the same network.

This is the server where your computer is leasing its IPv4 addressing information from.

16 Examine the IPv4 DNS Server line This is the IP address of the server your computer is using to resolve DNS characterbased names to IP addresses. There might be more than one.

17 Examine the IPv4 WINS Server line It’s empty. In the classroom, your computer is using broadcasts on the local subnet to resolve NetBIOS names. Your computer isn’t configured to use a WINS server.

18 Examine the "NetBIOS over Tcpip Enabled” line

It is set to Yes. NetBIOS is an older application programming interface. Examples of Windows applications and services that use NetBIOS are file and printer sharing and the Computer Browser service.


14–15

19 Examine the IPv6 address The address begins with fe80:, indicating that it is a self-assigned address. Note the difference between the IPv4 and IPv6 address in length and convention.

20 Click Close twice Close the Network and Sharing Center window 21 Open Internet Explorer and verify that you have Internet connectivity

Your computer can connect to other computers on the Internet because it is using a routable protocol and has the appropriate physical connections to internetworking devices.

14–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One IPCONFIG You can use the command-line utility IPCONFIG to retrieve a computer’s IP configuration. The IPCONFIG utility can display and modify the current TCP/IP stack. There are several switches you can add to the ipconfig command. The command ipconfig /all displays the current IP configuration information, as shown in Exhibit 14-4.

Exhibit 14-4: Current IP configuration information for both wireless and wired network connections on a computer This command can also be used with switches to complete tasks related to IP configuration. For example, ipconfig /release releases a DHCP leased address, and ipconfig /renew requests a new address lease. For a complete list of ipconfig switches and their meanings, type ipconfig /? at the command prompt. When you are having network problems, the first thing you should do is to check the TCP/IP settings on the computer. Check to see if the IP address and subnet mask are correct, and verify the default gateway and DNS server address. When you verify this information, you might find that the computer has no IP address configured or has configured itself with an APIPA address.

Networking computers Do it!

A-2:

14–17

Using IPCONFIG to view IP configuration

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start, and in the Start Search box, type cmd Press e 2 Type ipconfig /all

To display your IP configuration settings.

Press e 3 Compare the IP configuration information reported to the information you viewed in the previous activity

The same IP configuration information is reported by the IPCONFIG utility.

4 Record your IPv4 address

IPv4 address: ___________________________

14–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Ping and basic TCP/IP connectivity Ping (Packet Internet Groper) is a simple program that allows one computer to send a test packet to another computer and then receive a reply. While you’re in the MS-DOS Prompt or Command Prompt window, you can use ping to determine whether another computer is available for communication on a TCP/IP network. The ping utility uses ICMP packets to test connectivity between hosts. Internet Control Messaging Protocol (ICMP) and the newer ICMPv6 are used to send IP error and control messages between routers and hosts. When you use ping to communicate with a host, your computer sends an ICMP Echo Request packet. The host that you are pinging sends an ICMP Echo Response packet back. If there is a response, you can be sure that the host you have pinged is up and functional. However, if a host does not respond, that does not guarantee that it’s nonfunctional. Many firewalls are configured to block ICMP packets. After you have verified that the computer has a valid IP address, you can use the ping command to see if you can communicate with another computer on the network. You’ll need to know the NetBIOS name, DNS name, or IP address of the other computer— perhaps a router or server that you know is operational. At the MS-DOS or command prompt, enter ping computer

where computer is the other computer’s name or IP address. A successful result looks similar to Exhibit 14-5.

Exhibit 14-5: Successful ping results


14–19

If you can’t use ping successfully, try the following:  If you used ping with a domain name, use the IP address of the remote host instead. If that works, the problem is with name resolution.  Try to ping a different computer. Can you communicate with any other computer on the network?  If you can’t communicate with any other computer on the network, use IPCONFIG to verify that your computer has been assigned an IP address.  Verify all configuration settings in the Network window.  Check the physical connections. Is the network cable plugged in or is there a telephone connection? Do you get a dial tone?  Reboot the computer to verify that TCP/IP has been loaded.  Try removing TCP/IP and reinstalling it. Perhaps the initial installation was corrupted. If all of these methods fail to produce results, you might need to turn to a network technician to solve the problem. Any IPv4 address with 127 as the first octet can’t be assigned to a host. These addresses are referred to as local loopback addresses. The most commonly used loopback address 127.0.0.1. All of the addresses starting with 127 actually represent the local host. You can use these addresses to test the IP stack software. To help determine where the network problem is, ping the loopback address, and then ping the computer you’re troubleshooting, ping a computer on the local subnet, the computer configured as the default gateway, a computer on another subnet, and a computer on the Internet. If you can’t ping yourself, consider the computer’s network adapter as the problem. If you can’t ping another computer, the problem is a network error somewhere between the computer you’re on and the destination you tried to contact. You can then report network problems to the network administrator.


A-3:

Testing TCP/IP connectivity

Here’s how 1 At the command prompt, type ping 127.0.0.1

and press e

Here’s why This is the loopback address, which verifies that TCP/IP is working on this computer. Pinging the loopback address tests a computer’s own basic network setup. You should receive four successful responses.

2 Type ipconfig /all and press e

(Or scroll back to read the information from the last activity.) Record your IP address and your default gateway address. IP address: _____________________________ Default gateway address: __________________

3 Ping your IPv4 address

To verify that TCP/IP communication can be sent out onto the network cable from your NIC and back in again. You should receive four successful responses.

4 Share your address with your partner

My partner’s IP address:

5 Ping your partner’s IPv4 address

This computer is on the same local subnet as your computer. This step confirms that you have connectivity to other computers on your local subnet.

_____________________________

You should receive four successful responses.

6 Ping the IP address of your classroom’s gateway

To verify that you can reach the gateway that connects you to other subnets. You should receive four successful responses.

7 Ping 72.14.204.99

This is the IP address of www.google.com. It’s located on the other side of your gateway. This step confirms that you have connectivity through the gateway to other networks. You should receive four successful responses.

8 Ping www.google.com

To confirm that DNS is working correctly to translate DNS names to IP addresses. You should see the IP address in brackets and then receive four successful responses.


14–21

The TCP/IP suite The most common communication protocol used today is actually a suite of protocols called TCP/IP, which stands for two of the primary protocols it uses: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. A four-layer reference model is used to describe the TCP/IP protocol architecture. This model can be compared to the OSI model. The four architectural layers in the TCP/IP model are:  Application  Transport  Internet  Network Interface The Application, Transport, and Internet architectural layers contain the TCP/IP protocols that make up the TCP/IP protocol suite. The TCP/IP model is also referred to as the TCP/IP stack. Exhibit 14-6 shows the protocols in each of the four layers in the TCP/IP model and how they relate to the OSI model. You’ll examine these protocols in more detail later in the unit.

Exhibit 14-6: TCP/IP architecture In the TCP/IP architecture, the Application layer provides access to network resources. It defines the rules, commands, and procedures that client software uses to talk to a service running on a server. This layer also contains a series of protocols that are useful on TCP/IP networks such as the Internet. For example, HTTP is an Application-layer protocol that defines how Web browsers and Web servers communicate. The Transport layer prepares data to be transported across the network. This layer breaks large messages into smaller packets of information and tracks whether they arrived at their final destinations. It is also responsible for establishing the connection, error checking, and guaranteed delivery (with TCP only).

14–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The Internet layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing. IP addresses are logical addresses. The Network Interface layer consists of the network card driver and the circuitry on the network card itself. Do it!

A-4:

Discussing the TCP/IP architecture

Questions and answers 1 On which layer of the TCP/IP model does the network card operate? A

Application

B

Transport

C

Internet

D

Network Interface

2 Which layer of the TCP/IP model breaks large messages into smaller packets of information and tracks whether they arrived at their final destinations? A

Application

B

Transport

C

Internet

D

Network Interface


14–23

Application-layer protocols The TCP/IP architecture’s Application layer accepts information from applications on the computer and sends this information to the requested service provider. In addition, Application-layer protocols are available only on TCP/IP networks, and each of these protocols is associated with a client application and service. For example, FTP clients use the FTP protocol, and Telnet clients use the Telnet protocol. However, some client software can use more than one protocol. For example, Web browsers can use HTTP to communicate with Web servers and use FTP to communicate with FTP servers. HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the most common protocol used on the Internet today. This is the protocol used by Web browsers and Web servers. HTTP defines the commands that Web browsers can send and the way Web servers can respond. For example, when requesting a Web page, a Web browser sends a GET command. The server then responds by sending the requested Web page. Many commands are defined as part of the protocol. HTTP can also be used to upload information. Submitting a survey form on a Web page is an example of moving information from a Web browser to a Web server. You can extend the capabilities of a Web server by using a variety of mechanisms that allow it to pass data from forms to applications or scripts for processing. These are some of the common mechanisms for passing data from a Web server to an application:  Common Gateway Interface (CGI)  Internet Server Application Programmer Interface (ISAPI)  Netscape Server Application Programmer Interface (NSAPI) The World Wide Web consortium (W3C) is the standards body responsible for defining the commands that are part of HTTP. To read more about the standards definition process, visit the W3C Web site: www.w3c.org. HTTPS connections Secure Web servers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security) to enable an encrypted communication channel between themselves and users’ Web browsers. SSL is a public-key/private-key encryption protocol used to transmit data securely over the Internet, using TCP/IP. The URLs of Web sites that require SSL begin with https:// instead of http://. When you connect through SSL, the connection itself is secure, and so is any data transferred across it. Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) is another protocol used to secure Internet transmissions. Whereas SSL secures a connection between two computers, S-HTTP secures the individual data packets themselves. FTP File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a simple file-sharing protocol. It includes commands for uploading and downloading files, as well as for requesting directory listings from remote servers. This protocol has been around the Internet for a long time and was originally implemented in UNIX during the 1980s. The first industry-distributed document, or Request for Comment (RFC), describing FTP was created in 1985.

14–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Web servers (using HTTP) and e-mail software (using SMTP, or Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) must encode data so it appears as text when it travels over the Internet. FTP, however, offers an alternative. FTP can transfer binary files over the Internet without the encoding and decoding overhead, making it a popular protocol for moving files over the Internet. Although there are still FTP servers running on the Internet, there are fewer than in previous years. FTP is slowly becoming obsolete because of its inherent lack of security and because HTTP can upload and download files. FTP is implemented in standalone FTP clients as well as in Web browsers. It is safe to say that most FTP users today are using Web browsers. TFTP Another protocol similar to FTP is Trivial File Transfer Protocol (Trivial FTP or TFTP). TFTP has fewer commands than FTP and can be used only to send and receive files. It can be used for multicasting, in which a file is sent to more than one client at the same time, using the UDP Transport-layer protocol. Telnet Telnet is a terminal emulation protocol that is primarily used to remotely connect to networking devices. All of the administrative tasks for these systems can be done through a character-based interface. This feature is important because Telnet does not support a graphical user interface (GUI); it supports only text. The Telnet protocol specifies how Telnet servers and Telnet clients communicate. The way Telnet works is similar to the concept of a mainframe and dumb terminal. The Telnet server controls the entire user environment, processes the keyboard input, and sends display commands back to the client. A Telnet client is responsible only for displaying information on the screen and passing input to the server. Many Telnet clients can be connected to a single server at one time. Each client that is connected receives its own operating environment; however, these clients are not aware that other users are logged into the system. SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to send and receive e-mail messages between e-mail servers. It is also used by e-mail client software, such as Outlook, to send messages to the server. SMTP is never used by a client computer to retrieve e-mail from a server. Other protocols control the retrieval of e-mail messages. POP3 Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is the most common protocol used for retrieving e-mail messages. This protocol has commands to download and delete messages from the mail server. POP3 does not support sending messages. By default, most e-mail client software using POP3 copies all messages onto the local hard drive and then erases them from the server. However, you can change the configuration so that messages can be left on the server. POP3 supports only a single inbox and does not support multiple folders for storage on the server.


14–25

IMAP4 Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) is another common protocol used to retrieve e-mail messages. The capabilities of IMAP4 are beyond those of POP3. For example, IMAP can download message headers, which you can use to choose which messages you want to download. In addition, IMAP4 allows the use of multiple folders to store messages on the server side.

Transport-layer protocols TCP/IP architecture Transport-layer protocols are responsible for getting data ready to move across the network. The most common task performed by Transport-layer protocols is breaking messages down into smaller pieces, called segments, that can move more easily across the network. The two Transport-layer protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). One of the defining characteristics of Transport-layer protocols is the use of port numbers. A port number is a 16-bit integer ranging from 0 to 65535. There are three types of port numbers, described in the following table. Port type

Description

Well-known ports

Port numbers 0 to 1023 are reserved for privileged services.

Registered ports

These port numbers range from 1024 through 49151. Port 1024 is reserved for TCP and UDP and shouldn’t be used. A list of registered ports can be found on the IANA Web site: www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers

Dynamic ports

A short-lived (dynamic) port is a Transport-protocol port for IP communications. It is allocated automatically by the TCP/IP stack software from the IANA-suggested range of 49152 to 65535. Dynamic ports are typically used by TCP, UDP, or the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).

Each network service running on a server listens at a port number. Each Transport-layer protocol has its own set of ports. When a packet is addressed to a particular port, the Transport-layer protocol knows which service to deliver the packet to. The combination of an IP address and port number is referred to as a socket. A port number is like an apartment number for the delivery of mail. The network ID of the IP address ensures that the packet is delivered to the correct street (network). The host ID ensures that the packet is delivered to the correct building (host). The Transportlayer protocol and port number ensure that the packet is delivered to the proper apartment (service).

14–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The following table shows well-known services and the ports they use:

Do it!

Service

TCP and UDP port

FTP

TCP 21, 20 20 is used for FTP data; 21 is used for FTP control

SSH

TCP 22

Telnet

TCP 23

SMTP

TCP 25

DNS

TCP and UDP 53

BOOTP and DHCP

UDP 67, 68

Trivial FTP (TFTP)

UDP 69

HTTP

TCP 80

POP3

TCP 110

NTP

UDP 123

IMAP

TCP 143

SNMP

UDP 161 & 162

Secure HTTP

TCP 443

A-5:

Using port numbers

Here’s how 1 Switch to Internet Explorer and observe the address bar

Here’s why http://www.msn.com displays. The Web browser automatically connects you to port 80 on this server.

2 In the address bar, type http://www.msn.com:21

Press e

The Web browser can’t connect because port 21 isn’t used for HTTP.

3 In the address bar, type http://www.msn.com:80

Press e

The Web browser connects and gives you the same Web page as in step 1.


14–27

4 In the address bar, type ftp://ftp.microsoft.com

Press e

The Web browser automatically connects you to port 21 when you use FTP.

5 In the address bar, type ftp://ftp.microsoft.com:80

Press e

The Web browser can’t connect because port 80 isn’t used for FTP.

6 In the address bar, type ftp://ftp.microsoft.com:21

Press e

The Web browser connects and gives you the same information as in step 4.

Close Internet Explorer 7 Switch back to the Command Prompt window 8 At the command prompt, type

netstat –an |find /i "listening”

Press e

The first column shows the service, and the second column shows the port the service is listening on.

9 At the command prompt, type exit

Press e

To close the Command Prompt window.

14–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One The 802.1x standard Since the first wireless transmissions took place over a century ago, there has been a push to manage the public airwaves responsibly. During that time, frequency bands have been divided up to accommodate various user categories, such as the military, broadcasters, and amateur radio operators. One of the problems with the current wireless technology is that it’s a broadcast signal. This means that a wireless device advertises its presence, making it easy for an intruder to pick up and monitor. To prevent this from happening, standards were developed and implemented. The 802.1x standard is a port-based authentication framework for access to Ethernet networks. Although this standard is designed for wired Ethernet networks, it applies to 802.11 WLANs. This port-based network access control uses the physical characteristics of the switched LAN infrastructure to authenticate devices attached to a LAN port. It requires three roles in the authentication process:  A device requesting access  An authenticator  An authentication server The 802.1x standard allows scalability in wireless LANs by incorporating centralized authentication of wireless users or stations. The standard allows multiple authentication algorithms and is an open standard.

Wireless networking standards The 802.11 standard is the most widely used wireless technology at present. The IEEE 802.11 standard specifies a technology that operates in the 2.4–2.5 GHz band. Wireless networks operate according to the specifications of the IEEE 802.11 standards. The IEEE 802.11 standards are defined at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. In this standard, there are two ways to configure a network: ad-hoc and infrastructure. In the ad-hoc network, computers are brought together to form a network on the fly. The 802.11 standard also places specifications on the parameters of both the Physical and Media Access Control (MAC) layers of the network. The 802.11 standard defines an access point (AP) as a device that functions as a transparent bridge between the wireless clients and the wired network. The access point contains the following: at least one interface to connect to the wired network; transmitting equipment to connect with the wireless clients; and IEEE 802.1D bridging software to act as a bridge between wireless and wired Data Link layers. Major wireless standards include:  802.11a  802.11b  802.11g  802.11n  802.16


14–29

802.11b Devices supporting 802.11b transmit data at up to 11 Mbps and use a frequency range of 2.4 GHz in the radio band. The speed decreases as the client gets farther away from the wireless access point, moving closer to the maximum distance of about 50 meters indoors and 300 meters outdoors. The maximum range depends on many factors, including product quality, antenna strength, the type of obstructions the signal encounters, and the presence a clear line of sight between transmitter and receiver. The 802.11b standard was a popular and inexpensive network solution for home and office. Unfortunately, many cordless phones, microwave ovens, and Bluetooth devices also use the 2.4 GHz frequency range and interfere with an 802.11b wireless network. The 802.11b standard extends the Ethernet protocol to wireless communication. It can handle many kinds of data. It’s primarily used for TCP/IP, but it can also handle other forms of networking traffic, such as AppleTalk or PC file-sharing standards. 802.11a Devices supporting 802.11a can transmit data at speeds up to 54 Mbps in the 5 GHz band. It isn’t compatible with 802.11b. It allows for a shorter range between a wireless device and an access point (15 meters indoors and 30 meters outdoors, compared with 45 and 90 meters, respectively, for 802.11b). However, it is much faster than 802.11b and doesn’t encounter interference from cordless phones, microwave ovens, or Bluetooth devices, as 802.11b does. If its higher cost is acceptable, 802.11a could be an option for a wireless home LAN easily capable of broadcasting high-definition DVD movies to TVs located throughout the house, without your worrying about bandwidth or cables. Devices supporting 802.11a aren’t compatible with those supporting 802.11b or g. 802.11g The 802.11g standard is another IEEE wireless standard that uses the 2.4 GHz band and has become widely available. It’s backward-compatible with 802.11b but has higher throughput at 20+ Mbps. You will often see 802.11g devices advertised with speeds of up to 54 Mbps. Devices supporting 802.11g have a transmission range of up to 45 meters indoors and 90 meters outdoors. Note that 802.11g devices can experience interference from other common household devices, such as microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors, and cordless telephones that also operate in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11n The 802.11n standard was ratified in September 2009 by the IEEE. Devices supporting 802.11n can transmit data at up to 600 Mbps in either the 5 GHz or 2.4 GHz band. The transmission range is up to 70 meters indoors and 250 meters outdoors. Devices supporting 80211n can coexist with 802.11g, 802.11b, and 802.11a devices.

14–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard) WiMAX, which stands for Worldwide Interoperability of Microwave Access, provides wireless DSL and T1-level service. It’s an emerging point-to-multipoint broadband wireless access standard that services wide area and metropolitan area networks, allowing wireless users with 802.16e devices to roam between wireless hotspots. WiMAX operates in the frequency ranges of 10–66 GHz for licensed communications, and 2–11 GHz for unlicensed communications, providing a bandwidth in excess of 70 Mbps, which is shared among the network’s users. It has a theoretical maximum of 31 miles with no obstructions. However, the average range for most WiMAX networks is 4-5 miles and up to 10 miles in line-of-sight applications. It’s important to note that WiMAX doesn’t rely on a line of sight for connection. As a comparison, WiMAX wireless coverage is measured in square miles, while 802.11x technologies are measured in square yards. WiMAX can be deployed in areas where physical limitations, such as a lack of DSL or T1 cabling, prevent broadband access. 802.11 device compatibility Although devices that support the 802.11a standard are generally incompatible with those that support 802.11b, some devices are equipped to support either 802.11a or 802.11b. The newest approved standard, 802.11n, allows 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n devices to operate together on the same network. Many modern APs support multiple standards. For example, one AP might offer concurrent support for 802.11a, b, g, and n clients in addition to 100 Mbps wired network clients.

Bluetooth Bluetooth is a standard for short-range wireless communication and data synchronization between devices. This standard was developed by a group of electronics manufacturers, including Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba, and it’s overseen by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group. The transmitters and receivers are applicationspecific integrated circuits (ASICs); they can transmit data at rates in excess of 1 Mbps, with up to three voice channels also available. Bluetooth works in the 2.4-GHz frequency range, is easy to configure, and is useful for short-range connections, such as connecting a PDA to a cell phone so that the PDA can connect to a remote network. Bluetooth’s limited range—10 meters for a class 2 device—generally confines it to connecting nodes within a single room or adjacent rooms. It operates at low speeds compared to other wireless technologies. Version 1.2 has a data rate of 1 Mbits/sec and version 2.0 + EDR (Enhanced Data Rate) transfers at a rate of 3 Mbits/sec. Bluetooth technology allows you to create wireless connections between computers, printers, fax machines, and other peripherals, but it doesn’t have the range to serve as a wireless connection between an access point and laptops dispersed throughout a home and yard. Some vendors have developed Bluetooth devices with higher transmitting power, increasing the range of the technology to 100 meters, but these higher-power devices haven’t yet gained wide acceptance.


A-6:

Comparing wireless network protocols

Questions and answers 1 In wireless communications, what replaces the wire? 2 List the major wireless protocols. 3 Are 802.11b products compatible with 802.11a products? 4 Which wireless standard is currently used in airports and coffee shops? 5 What’s the range of the original Bluetooth technology? 6 What should you consider when determining which wireless technology to use?

14–31


Topic B: Client configuration This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.10

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features  Communication connections – Infrared – Ethernet – Modem

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS)

4.3

Compare and contrast the different network types  Dial-up  Wireless – WEP – WPA – SSID – MAC filtering – DHCP settings

5.2

Summarize the following security features  Wireless encryption – WEPx and WPAx – Client configuration (SSID)


14–33


Objective

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Connection types – Wireless  WEP  WPA  SSID  MAC filtering  DHCP settings – Routers / Access Points  Disable DHCP  Use static IP  Change SSID from default  Disable SSID broadcast  Change default username and password  Update firmware  Basics of hardware and software firewall configuration – Port assignment / setting up rules (exceptions) – Port forwarding / port triggering  Physical installation – Wireless router placement

Static TCP/IP parameters Explanation

All IP configuration information can be manually entered on each workstation; this process is called static IP configuration. Unfortunately, configuring IP information manually is not efficient and is sometimes problematic. With each manual entry there is a risk of a typographical error. In addition, if the IP configuration needs to be changed, doing so on each workstation can be an overwhelming task in a large organization. However, some computers, such as DNS servers, require static IP addresses so that their unique addresses never change and clients can always find them on the network. Each network card in a computer gets assigned a unique IP address. The process for configuring TCP/IP parameters is the same for desktop and notebook computers.


B-1:

Configuring TCP/IP parameters

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In the system tray, click Click Open Network and Sharing Center

2 Click Local Area Connection 3 Click Properties

To open the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box.

This box shows the protocols and services your network card is using.

4 Select Internet Protocol

Select the item; don’t clear the checkbox.

Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)

Click Properties

To open the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog box.

5 Select Use the following IP address

In the IP address box, enter the IPv4 address provided by your instructor

This IPv4 address will be on the classroom subnet, will be unique for your computer, and won’t overlap with any IPv4 addresses the DHCP server is handing out.

Click in the Subnet mask box

It’s automatically filled in with the default subnet mask for the class of the IPv4 address you entered.

In the Default gateway box, enter the IPv4 address of the classroom’s gateway

The default gateway used for Internet access in your classroom.

In the Preferred DNS server box, enter the IPv4 address of your classroom’s DNS server

The DNS server used for name resolution services in your classroom.


14–35

6 Click Advanced

To open the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog box.

7 Observe the information on the IP Settings tab

It displays the data you entered on the Properties page.

8 Select the DNS tab 9 Observe the information on the DNS tab

It displays the data you entered on the Properties page, along with other options for DNS suffixes.

10 Click OK

To close the Advanced TCP/IP Settings dialog box.

11 Click OK

To close the Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) Properties dialog box.

12 Click Close

To close the Local Area Connection Properties dialog box.

13 Close all open windows 14 Open Internet Explorer and verify that you have Internet connectivity 15 Close Internet Explorer

14–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One DHCP and DHCPv6 Using DHCP to assign IP configuration to client computers on your network simplifies administration and avoids the problem of IP information being entered incorrectly. Take, for example, a 200-workstation network. If you were to manually change the IP addresses on all of these workstations, it might take several days. With DHCP, the DHCP server can be updated with the new IP addresses, and on the next reboot, all workstations will receive the new information. DHCP allocates an IP address to a client computer for a fixed period of time. This temporary allocation is called a lease. If the client still needs the IP address, the client must renegotiate the lease before it expires. The IPv4 lease process The overall process to lease an address is composed of four UDP messages (also called packets) exchanged during the client computer’s boot process: 1 DHCPDISCOVER 2 DHCPOFFER 3 DHCPREQUEST 4 DHCPACK Microsoft refers to this set of messages as “DORA” (Discover, Offer, Request, and Acknowledgement). All four of these messages are broadcast messages because there are no target IP addresses involved in the communication until the client computer receives an IP address. Exhibit 14-7 shows the four messages transmitted as part of the DHCP process.

Exhibit 14-7: The four messages in the DHCP lease process The DHCPDISCOVER message is sent from the client computer to the broadcast IP address, 255.255.255.255. A broadcast address must be used because the client is not configured with the address of a DHCP server. The source IP address in the message is 0.0.0.0 because the client does not have an IP address yet. The MAC address of the client is included in the message as an identifier. Any DHCP server that receives the DHCPDISCOVER message responds with a DHCPOFFER message. The DHCPOFFER message contains DHCP configuration information, such as an IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and lease length. The destination IP address for the message is the broadcast address, 255.255.255.255. This destination IP address ensures that the client can receive the message even though it does not yet have an IP address assigned. The MAC address of the client is included in the data portion of the message as an identifier.


14–37

The DHCP client responds to the DHCPOFFER message it receives with a DHCPREQUEST message. If multiple DHCP servers send a DHCPOFFER message, the client responds to only the first one. The DHCPREQUEST message contains the lease information that has been chosen by the client. This message tells the servers that their lease offer to the client has, or has not, been chosen. The DHCPREQUEST message is addressed to the broadcast IP address, 255.255.255.255, allowing all of the DHCP servers to see the DHCPREQUEST. The servers that were not chosen see this message and place their offered addresses back into their pool of available addresses. The chosen DHCP server sends back a DHCPACK message, acknowledging that the lease has been chosen and that the client is now allowed to use the lease. This message is still being sent to the broadcast IP address, 255.255.255.255, because the client has not yet initialized IP with the new address. After the client receives the DHCPACK message, the client starts using the IP address and options that were in the lease. The IPv6 lease process One of the benefits of IPv6 is that network devices can configure themselves automatically when you connect them to a routed IPv6 network. This ability is called stateless autoconfiguration. When you first connect an IPv6 device to a network, the device performs stateless address autoconfiguration, and then sends a link-local multicast router solicitation request for its configuration parameters. The router responds to the device request with a router advertisement packet, which contains network configuration parameters. The router advertisement message contains flags that tell the device how to configure itself:  Managed Address Configuration Flag (also known as the M flag) — When set to 1, this flag tells the device to use a configuration protocol such as DHCPv6 to obtain a stateful IPv6 address.  Other Stateful Configuration Flag (also known as the O flag) — When set to 1, this flag instructs the host to use a configuration protocol such as DHCPv6 to obtain other TCP/IP configuration settings.

14–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When the M and O flag values are combined, a device is instructed to be configured as follows:  Both M and O flags are 0 — The network doesn’t have a DHCPv6 server. A device uses the router advertisement to obtain a non-link-local address, and uses other methods, such as manual configuration, to configure other IPv6 configuration parameters. This stateless autoconfiguration is suitable for small organizations and individuals.  Both M and O flags are 1 — The devices should obtain both an IPv6 address and other configuration parameters from a DHCPv6 server. This process is known as DHCPv6 stateful addressing.  The M flag is 0 and the O flag is 1 — The device should continue to use its stateless autoconfiguration IPv6 address, but should retrieve other configuration parameters from the DHCPv6 server. The DHCPv6 server isn’t assigning stateful addresses to IPv6 hosts, but is assigning stateless configuration settings. This process is known as DHCPv6 stateless addressing.  The M flag is 1 and the O flag is 0 — The device should obtain an IPv6 address, but no other configuration parameters, from a DHCPv6 server. This combination is rarely used because IPv6 hosts usually need to be configured with other settings, such as the IPv6 addresses of a DNS server. A DHCPv6 client listens for DHCP messages on UDP port 546. DHCPv6 servers and relay agents listen for DHCPv6 messages on UDP port 547.


B-2:

14–39

Discussing the DHCP lease process

Questions and answers 1 What type of message is used during the DHCP leasing process? A

Unicast

B

Multicast

C

Broadcast

D

None; it is all performed internally on the client

2 What message is first in the DHCP lease process? A

DHCPACK

B

DHCPOFFER

C

DHCPDISCOVER

D

DHCPREQUEST

3 From an IPv6 router advertisement packet, how does the IPv6 device know where to get its IPv6 address?

4 From an IPv6 router advertisement packet, how does the IPv6 device know where to get its IPv6 configuration parameters?

5 When an IPv6 device automatically configures its IPv6 address, is it referred to as a stateful or stateless address?

Wireless nodes on a network Wireless communication is very popular these days. Some devices, such as laptops, have infrared transceivers (IRs). These enable other computers or devices that conform to the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) standards to communicate using IR. Laptops are also often equipped with a wireless network adapter so they can connect to wireless networks. This feature can be useful if you have mobile employees who need to print when they’re in the office. If a laptop IR port is within the range of a printer with an IR port available, whether it’s connected to the network or not, the user can print without logging onto the network or physically connecting the laptop to the printer. The range of an IR port is usually under 10 feet and within about a 45º angle of the port. Straight on is usually the most reliable position for an IR connection. If you want to share information between two computers equipped with IR ports, you can do that as well, without connecting any wires. If necessary, you can use the "Set up a home or small office network” wizard to configure the two computers to communicate through the IR ports.

14–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Most often, however, when people are referring to wireless networks, they’re referring to the wireless access points found in coffee shops, homes, and many other locations. The most widely used wireless technology at present are 802.11g and 802.11n.

Wireless LAN connection components To establish a wireless LAN, you need a network card in the computer and a wireless router or wireless access point device on the network. The router or WAP broadcasts radio signals, and the wireless network cards pick up the broadcasts. Wireless NICs LAN network adapters of all current types (PCI, PC card, and USB, shown in Exhibit 14-8) come in wireless versions. Wireless capability is built into most newer laptops as standard equipment and can easily be added to laptops via wireless PC Cards or USB NICs. Desktops are also easily outfitted with wireless capabilities via PCI Cards or USB wireless NICs. If wireless access is available, these cards can communicate with a wireless access point—examples are shown in Exhibit 14-9—allowing you to access the network without using cables. This is especially useful in places like libraries, where wandering around with a laptop while maintaining network access can be very convenient.

Exhibit 14-8: Wireless NICs Wireless access points A WAP connects a WLAN to a wired Ethernet network. The access point (AP) contains the following: at least one interface for connecting to the wired network (this interface is typically called the "WAN port”); and transmitting equipment for connecting with the wireless clients. For home users, this connection is often to a broadband router or transceiver. APs often integrate other networking functions. Many include Ethernet networking ports for connecting wired devices and thus function as switches. Many APs include routing capabilities, and such devices most often also include firewall functions. The popular Linksys Wireless-G family of wireless routers is one such example of multifunction APs. Two brands of wireless access points are shown in Exhibit 14-9.


14–41

Exhibit 14-9: Wireless access points Manufacturers of wireless LAN equipment will often promote access ranges of 550 meters. As shown in the following table, as you move farther away from an access point, the data speed drops. It’s important for you to realize that interference from your building’s structure and environmental noise affects data throughput as well. IEEE speed

Data speed

Distance from AP

High

4.3 Mbps

40 to 125 meters

Medium

2.6 Mbps

55 to 200 meters

Standard

1.4 Mbps

90 to 400 meters

Standard low

0.8 Mbps

115 to 550 meters

If the signal from your WAP or wireless router isn’t strong enough with the built-in antennas, you can add a more powerful antenna and sometimes add a signal booster. The WAP or wireless router should be placed in a central location within 60 to 90 meters of users who’ll be accessing it. As shown in the previous table, the closer the users are to the device, the stronger the signal and the better the network speed.

14–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One When determining the number and placement of WAPs, you need to account for obstructions in the floor plan. For example, in a large room with no walls, you could centrally place one WAP to service up to 200 devices. There are two methods for determining correct WAP placement: an informal site survey and a formal site survey.  In an informal site survey, you temporarily set up the WAPs at the locations you’re considering for permanent placement. Then you use a wireless client to test the signal strength of connections within the range that WAP will service, preferably testing from actual client desk locations. If the connection signals are strong where you need them to be, you go back and permanently mount and install the WAPs. If not, you move the WAPs and retest.  In a formal site survey, you use field-strength measuring equipment. You install a test antenna in each estimated WAP location and then use the field-strength measuring equipment to determine the exact strength of a test signal at various points within the WAP’s range. You move the test antenna to obtain the best possible signal for the wireless coverage area. Once you’ve determined the exact locations for the WAPs, you can permanently mount and install them. Do it!

B-3:

Examining wireless devices

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In wireless communications, what replaces the wire? 2 Does your classroom have a wireless access point visible? 3 If so, where is it placed in relation to client computers? 4 Walk around the classroom with a wireless client (such as a notebook computer) and observe the signal strength reported by Windows Vista

(If the equipment is available.) An icon in the system tray reports the signal strength for the wireless connection.


14–43

Wireless networking security Wireless devices present a whole new set of threats that network administrators might be unaware of. The most obvious risks concerning wireless networks are theft and rogue devices. Most cell phones, text pagers, PDAs, and wireless NICs are small enough that they can easily be lost or stolen. Because they are easy to conceal and contain valuable information about a company, they have become favorite targets of intruders. Wireless LANs can be subject to session hijacking and man-in-the-middle attacks. Additional risks remain because anyone can purchase an access point and set it up. Wireless access points, when set up right out of the box, have no security configured. They broadcast their presence—in essence saying, “Hey, my name is xxx, here I am!” The free availability of 802.11 network audit tools, such as AirSnort and NetStumbler, and even some PDAs, means that breaking into wireless networks configured with weak security is quite easy. These tools can be used to check wireless security by identifying unauthorized clients or access points and verifying encryption usage. There are other tools, however, in the form of management software. To eliminate 802.11 shortcomings and to help improve the image of wireless technology on the market, the Institute of Electronic and Electric Engineers (IEEE) and the Wi-Fi Alliance proposed standards for significantly improved user authentication and media access control mechanisms. Additional risks associated with wireless networks include the following:  The 802.1x transmissions generate detectable radio-frequency traffic in all directions. Persons wanting to intercept the data transmitted over the network might use many solutions to increase the distance over which detection is possible, including the use of metal tubes such as a Pringles can or a large tomato juice can.  Without the use of an encryption standard of some type, data is passed in clear text form. Even though technologies such as Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encrypt the data, they still lack good security. A determined listener can easily obtain enough traffic data to calculate the encryption key in use.  The authentication mechanism is one-way, so it’s easy for an intruder to wait until authentication is completed and then generate a signal to the client to trick it into thinking it has been disconnected from the access point. Meanwhile, the intruder, pretending to be the original client, begins to send data traffic to the server.  The client connection request is a one-way open broadcast. This gives an intruder the opportunity to act as an access point to the client, and act as a client to the real network access point. An intruder can watch all data transactions between the client and access point, and then modify, insert, or delete packets at will.  A popular pastime is war driving, which involves driving around with a laptop system configured to listen for open wireless access points. Several Web sites provide detailed information locating unsecured networks. These sites provide locations, sometimes on city maps, for the convenience of others looking for open access links to the Internet. This is an attractive method not only to capture data from networks, but also to connect to someone else’s network, use their bandwidth, and pay nothing for it.  War chalking is the process of marking buildings, curbs, and other landmarks to indicate the presence of an available access point and its connection details by utilizing a set of symbols and shorthand.

14–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One WLAN security components There are four components to security on a wireless network:  Access control  Encryption  Authentication  Isolation For each security method you implement on the AP, you must also configure your clients to match. Access control You can use various techniques to control which clients can access your AP. The simplest, and least effective, is to simply turn off SSID broadcasts. Doing this hides the presence your AP. You then configure your clients to connect to the appropriate AP by manually entering its SSID. However, the SSID is also included in routine client-to-AP traffic. Thus, it’s easy for appropriately configured devices to detect SSIDs that aren’t explicitly broadcast. A stronger means of access control is to enable a MAC filter on your AP. The MAC address is the hardware-level address of a client’s network adapter. On most APs, you can enter a list of permitted MACs, or blocked MACs, to limit connections. As with the SSID, valid MAC addresses are transmitted across the wireless network. Thus, a malicious user could detect a valid MAC address and then configure his computer to impersonate that MAC address and thus gain access to your AP. Encryption You can encrypt communications between your AP and clients. Various techniques exist, with some more secure than others. To make a connection, clients must use the same encryption scheme and possess the appropriate encryption key. After the connection is made, a static or dynamically changing key provides ongoing encryption. In theory, encryption blocks unapproved connections to your AP. Additionally, as long as the encryption scheme is sufficiently strong, your data streams are kept private from eavesdroppers. As you will see, however, not all wireless encryption systems are sufficiently robust to actually provide these protections. Authentication Through RADIUS or other systems, you can enable client authentication over your wireless network. Using a system essentially like the user name and password you use when you log on, your AP could authenticate the identity of wireless networking clients. Authentication provides much stronger access-control protection than does SSID hiding or MAC and IP address filtering. You should still use encryption with authentication. Without it, eavesdroppers could access the data that legitimate clients transmit once those clients have connected to the AP. Authentication typically requires the use of additional software or hardware devices, such as a RADIUS server.


14–45

Isolation Isolation is a means of segregating network traffic. There are two types: wireless client isolation and network isolation. With wireless client isolation, also called AP isolation, wireless clients are put onto individual VLANs so that they cannot access each other. This method is commonly used in public wireless networks to prevent one user from accessing another user’s computer. Imagine the risk you face in a library or coffee shop, where another user might attempt to access your shared folders or even mount brute-force attacks on your PC over the Wi-Fi (802.11 wireless) hotspot network. You might also want to provide network isolation. For example, you might want to permit wireless clients to access the Internet and your corporate mail server, which is on your wired network. However, you might also want to prevent wireless clients from accessing other wired nodes, such as your file servers. Some APs offer network isolation through custom routing configurations. You can also enable such isolation through your general network design and firewall configuration.

Transmission encryption You should enable transmission encryption on your wireless routers unless you have a very good reason not to. Transmission encryption both limits which clients can connect to your AP and protects data from eavesdropping during transmission. Products certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance as Wi-Fi compatible must support at least the WPA Personal level of encryption. As of this writing, products don’t have to support the 802.11i standard, but this requirement will soon take effect.

14–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Encryption method

Description

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)

Was built into the 802.11 wireless connectivity standards that govern how data can be encrypted while in transit on the wireless network. WEP uses a 64-bit or 128-bit symmetric encryption cipher. For WEP to work, a key is configured on both the WAP and the client. This key is used to encrypt the data transmitted between the WAP and the client. There are no standards for how the WEP key is to be placed on the clients and the WAP. Most implementations require you to type in the key manually on each client and the WAP. Although WEP is an easy way to prevent casual hackers from viewing the traffic transmitted on your wireless LAN, this method is the least secure encryption technique. WEP has known design flaws that make it relatively easy to crack. However, it is the only viable option for 802.11b and other older wireless clients.

WPA Personal (Wi-Fi Protected Access Personal) and WPA2 Personal

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was developed to overcome the weaknesses in WEP. It uses the RC4 symmetric cipher with a 128-bit key. WPA Personal uses a “pre-shared key” (PSK), which simply means that you must enter the same passphrase on both the AP and the clients. The actual encryption key is built from this passphrase and various other data, such as the sending node’s MAC address. With the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) option, the full encryption key changes for each packet. WPA authorizes and identifies users based on a secret key that changes automatically at regular intervals. WPA uses TKIP to change the temporal key every 10,000 packets. This ensures much greater security than does the standard WEP.

WPA2

Builds on WPA by adding more features from the 802.11i standard. Notably, WPA2 uses the Advanced Encryption System (AES) cipher for stronger encryption (equivalent to IEEE 802.11i).

WPA/WPA2 Enterprise

Works in conjunction with an 802.1X authentication server (RADIUS or TACACS), which autenticates unique keys to each individual’s username/password combination or digital certificate. Communications between the client and AP are encrypted using the individual’s key.

RADIUS

Uses a specialized server for authentication and uses WEP for data encryption, as illustrated in Exhibit 14-10. The authentication server can include keys as part of the accept message that’s sent back to the WAP. In addition, clients can usually request a key change. This feature ensures that keys are changed regularly to limit the ability of hackers to view information on the wireless network.

802.11i

Defines security mechanisms for wireless networks (equivalent to WPA2). As of this writing, 802.11i-compatible devices are relatively rare. However, the popularity of this new technology will grow as more people use wireless technology as their primary means of connecting to a network.


Exhibit 14-10: The 802.1x standard protocol authentication process

14–47


B-4:

Identifying the technology used to implement WLANs

Questions and answers 1 What are the two technologies you can use to secure your wireless networks?

2 You’ve recently been hired as a consultant to evaluate Outlander Spices’ wireless network security. What items should you check in evaluating their security practices?


14–49

Configuring a wireless access point After you’ve connected your wireless access point to your wired network, you need to configure it and your clients. When setting up your AP, you assign a service set identifier (SSID), which is essentially a name for your wireless network. The default name is usually the name of the router or WAP manufacturer. You should change this name as part of the device configuration to make your WLAN more secure. However, changing the name isn’t really a method of securing the network, because the SSID is sent in plain text over the network and can be found by anyone with the ability to read network packets. It’s possible, and sometimes likely, that multiple wireless networks are accessible from a given location. In such cases, clients use the SSID to distinguish between WLANs and connect to a particular network. An AP typically broadcasts the SSID. In this way, clients can discover the presence of a nearby AP. Such broadcasts identify the security mechanisms in place to enable clients to auto-configure their connections. Exhibit 14-11 shows an example of the wireless channel and SSID for a wireless router.

Exhibit 14-11: Channel and SSID settings for a wireless router The SSID can be up to 32 characters long. All of the devices that need to connect to a specific WLAN need to have the same SSID. If you want to establish separate WLANs, each WLAN needs a unique SSID.

14–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Securing your AP Out of the box, your wireless access point isn’t secure. To make your AP more secure, you should complete the following configuration tasks:  Set the most secure transmission encryption method compatible with your clients — Options might include WEP, WPA Personal, WPA2, WPA Enterprise, RADIUS, and 802.11i.  Update the access point’s firmware version — Access the manufacturer’s Web site and search for firmware updates for your access point. You can also access third-party vendor sites and download open-source replacement firmware. Download both the software and the installation (sometimes referred to as “flash”) instructions. Be careful to select the appropriate firmware for your particular AP model. Installing an incorrect firmware version can “brick” your access point—making it nonfunctional. If a problem occurs during installation of the new firmware, it can also brick the access point. You can prevent problems by:  Making sure that the power to the access point and uploading computer will remain on during the installation process. You can use a universal power supply, if you have one.  Upgrading only through a wired connection, not through a wireless one.  On the computer that will upload the firmware update to the access point, manually configuring an IP address instead of using DHCP.  Disabling any firewall software, such as Windows Firewall.  Following the installation instructions exactly.  Change default administrator accounts and passwords for the access point — Many devices don’t have a default password set on the Administrator account. Programs like AirSnort identify the manufacturer based on the MAC address, so if you only change the SSID, an informed hacker can still easily gain access. Also, changing the name of the widely available administrator accounts presents an added barrier to anyone trying to connect to the AP.  Change the default SSIDs — When you change the SSID, don’t use anything that reflects your company’s main names, divisions, products, or address. Doing so would make your organization an easy target. If an SSID name is enticing enough, it might attract hackers.  Disable SSID broadcasts — SSID broadcasting is enabled by default. When you disable this feature, an SSID must be configured in the client to match the SSID of the access point.  Separate the wireless network from the wired network — Consider using an additional level of authentication, such as RADIUS, before you permit an association with your access points. RADIUS is an authentication, authorization, and accounting protocol for network access. The wireless clients can be separated so the connections not only use RADIUS authentication, but are also logged.  Put the wireless network in an Internet-access-only zone or a demilitarized zone (DMZ) — Place your wireless access points in a DMZ, and have your wireless users tunnel into your network through a VPN (virtual private network). Setting up a VLAN for your DMZ requires extra effort on your part, but this solution adds a layer of encryption and authentication that makes your wireless network secure enough for sensitive data.


14–51

 Disable DHCP within the WLAN to keep a tighter control over users — Assign static IP addresses to your wireless clients. Doing this creates more administrative overhead to manage, but makes it harder to access your network.  Enable MAC address filtering on access points to limit unauthorized wireless NICs — Many access points allow you to control access based on the MAC address of the NIC attempting to associate with it. If the MAC address of the wireless client’s NIC isn’t in the access point’s table, access is denied. Although there are ways of spoofing a MAC address, it takes an additional level of sophistication.  Enable 802.1x — This is the recommended method of authentication and encryption for enhanced security on computers running versions of Windows later than Windows XP. The use of 802.1x offers an effective solution for authenticating and controlling user traffic to a protected network, as well as dynamically varying encryption keys. The 802.1x standard ties EAP to both the wired and wireless LAN media and supports multiple authentication methods, such as token cards, Kerberos, one-time passwords, certificates, and public key authentication. You configure 802.1x encryption from the IEEE 802.1x tab of the policy setting’s Properties dialog box. A network administrator should periodically survey the site, by using a tool such as NetStumbler or AirSnort, to see if any rogue access points are installed on the network. In addition, the administrator can take a notebook equipped with a wireless sniffer and an external antenna outside the office building to see what information inside the building can be accessed by someone parked in the parking lot or across the street.


B-5:

Configuring a wireless access point (instructor demo)

Here’s how 1 Open Internet Explorer and enter the IP address of your WAP

Here’s why You are prompted for administrator credentials on the WAP.

2 Enter the appropriate user name and password for your WAP, and click OK 3 Select the Wireless Settings tab Edit the SSID box to read 123ABC567

Remember, one of the guidelines for creating a more secure SSID is that it not reflect your company’s primary names, divisions, products, or address.

For SSID broadcast, select Disabled

For Security, select WEP and record the WEP key

WEP key: ______________________________

Check Apply

The device restarts itself.

4 Select the Tools tab In the New password and Confirm password boxes, enter !pass4321

Check Apply 5 Select the Advanced tab Select MAC filters Choose Only allow computers with MAC address listed below to access the network

In the Name box, enter your computer’s name In the MAC address box, enter your computer’s MAC address Check Apply 6 Close Internet Explorer


14–53

Wireless client configuration The operating system that a client is running determines how you configure its connection to a wireless network. Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP use the Wireless Zero Configuration and Wireless Auto Configuration technologies to make the connection process easier for end-users. You must configure Windows 2000 Professional clients manually. Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP wireless clients Wireless Auto Configuration dynamically selects the wireless network to which a connection attempt is made, based on configured preferences or default settings. Computers running Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP support Wireless Zero Configuration, which enables computers to automatically connect to available wireless networks. By default, Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP client computers can choose from available wireless networks and connect automatically without user action. Wireless Zero Configuration automatically configures items such as TCP/IP settings and DNS server addresses. The default settings used by Wireless Zero Configuration include:  "Infrastructure before ad hoc mode, and computer authentication before user authentication.” Infrastructure mode uses an access point to connect the wireless network to the wired network. It typically requires authentication in which the computer identifies itself to the authenticating server before the user credentials are sent. Ad hoc mode allows all wireless devices within range to discover and communicate with one another without a central access point.  "WEP authentication attempts to perform an IEEE 802.11 shared key authentication if the network adapter has been preconfigured with a WEP shared key; otherwise, the network adapter reverts to the open system authentication.” Although the IEEE 802.1x security enhancements are available in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, the network adapters and access points must also be compatible with this standard for deployment. You can change the default settings to allow guest access, which isn’t enabled by default. You shouldn’t turn on guest access on a laptop using Wireless Zero Configuration. An unauthorized user could establish an ad hoc connection to the laptop and gain access to confidential information on it. Windows 2000 Professional wireless clients Computers running Windows 2000 Professional don’t support Wireless Zero Configuration. You can configure a wireless network card for connection by using EAP-TLS or PEAP authentication, just as you can when configuring Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP computers. Only Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP computers natively support IEEE 802.1x authentication. Microsoft provides an 802.1x Authentication Client download, which allows Windows 2000 computers to use the 802.1x standard. This download can be found at: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/313664.

14–54 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Windows CE wireless clients Palmtop computers running Windows CE .NET include Wireless Zero Configuration and manual configuration options similar to those in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP. They support 802.11a and Native Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi). You can configure older Windows CE palmtop computers for wireless networking. The settings are similar to those for Windows 2000 Professional.

RADIUS servers When you implement an authenticating server, such as RADIUS, the wireless client must submit its credentials to the authenticating server before wireless network access is established. When the client computer is in range of the wireless AP, it tries to connect to the WLAN that is active on the wireless AP. If the wireless AP is configured to allow only secured or 802.1x-authenticated connections, it issues a challenge to the client. The wireless AP then sets up a restricted channel that allows the client to communicate with only the RADIUS server. The RADIUS server accepts a connection only from only two sources: a trusted wireless AP; or a WAP that has been configured as a RADIUS client on the Microsoft Internet Authentication Service (IAS) server and that provides the shared secret key for that RADIUS client. The RADIUS server validates the client credentials against the directory. If the client is successfully authenticated, the RADIUS server decides whether to authorize the client to use the WLAN. If the client is granted access, the RADIUS server transmits the client master key to the wireless AP. The client and wireless AP now share common key information they can use to encrypt and decrypt the WLAN traffic passing between them. How you configure clients to participate in this process depends on the operating system.

Wireless network problems For wireless connections, you need to determine the name of the network to which you’re trying to connect. The View Available Wireless Networks command on the adapter’s context-sensitive menu lists all of the networks that the adapter can detect. Remember that, if you disable SSID broadcasts, Windows clients can’t detect the wireless network and display it in this list. If you try to connect to the network and are denied access, you need to determine whether it requires specific security configurations, such as WEP or WPA. The administrator supporting the wireless access point or wireless router can give you the information you need or let you know if you aren’t authorized to access that wireless network. Some notebook computers have a switch or software setting to turn off the power to the wireless network adapter. This switch can be a toggle switch on the case of the notebook, a touch button around the keyboard, or even a key on the keyboard. This option is there so you don’t consume extra power when you’re using battery power and are not connected to a wireless network. Be sure to turn this setting back on when you do want to connect to a WLAN. If you’ve determined that the network is accessible and that you’ve configured your security settings appropriately for that WLAN, you should check whether your wireless adapter’s antenna is up and pointing toward the signal. On Windows XP computers, you can check the strength of the wireless signal by placing your mouse over the wirelessconnection icon in the system tray. A pop-up window displays a summary of your wireless connection.


14–55

If you click the icon, it opens the Wireless Connection Properties box (shown in Exhibit 14-12), which also gives you the summary information for your connection.

Exhibit 14-12: Wireless-connection summary information in Windows XP On Windows 7 and Windows Vista computers, you can get this information by viewing details of the connection in the Network and Sharing Center, as shown in Exhibit 14-13. If the signal is nonexistent or weak, try moving closer to the WAP or router, if possible. Some cards don’t have an external antenna.

Exhibit 14-13: Wireless-connection details in Windows Vista On laptops, network card functions are often on a chip on the motherboard. If this chip has been damaged, you can get the same functionality by installing a PC Card or miniPCI card, whichever is appropriate for your laptop. On desktop systems, wireless access is obtained either through a PCI card installed in the system or via an external USB device. If you determine that one of these devices has failed, replace it with another working component.


B-6:

Configuring a wireless client (instructor demo)

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If the computer with the wireless NIC is also connected to the network through a wired NIC, unplug the cable from the NIC 2 On the computer with a wireless NIC, click

You’ll configure the client to connect by using the settings on the wireless access point.

Click Open Network and Sharing Center

Under Tasks, click Manage wireless networks

3 Click Add Click Manually create a network profile

Because you disabled the broadcast of the SSID, you must manually configure the connection.

4 In the Network name box, enter 123ABC567

In the Security type list, select WEP 5 In the Security Key/Passphrase box, enter the WEP key you recorded in the previous activity 6 Check Connect even if the network is not broadcasting

Click Next 7 Click Connect to… Select 123ABC567

This item must match the SSID of the WAP you want to connect to.

Click Connect 8 In the SSID name box, enter 123ABC567

9 In the Security key or passphrase box, enter the WEP key you recorded in the previous activity 10 Click Connect 11 Close all open windows

If necessary.

Networking computers 12 Open the Network and Sharing Center

14–57

Under Connections, the new wireless connection is listed, and the connection’s signal strength is shown.

13 Close all open windows 14 Open Internet Explorer and verify that you have Internet connectivity

By default, the WAP is handing out DHCP addresses to its clients, so this wireless connection has valid IP addressing information assigned to it automatically.

15 Close Internet Explorer 16 Disconnect the wireless connection

In the Network and Sharing Center, next to Signal strength, click Disconnect.

Dial-up connection creation Many home users use a dial-up networking (DUN) connection to connect to their Internet service provider (ISP). Once you’ve installed a modem on your computer, you can establish a connection to an ISP’s dial-up server by using the "Set up a connection or network” wizard. To create a dial-up connection in Windows 7: 1 Open the Network and Sharing Center. 2 Under Change your networking settings, click the "Set up a new connection or network” link to start the "Set up a connection or network” wizard. (You find this setting in the Tasks list in the left pane of the Network and Sharing Center in Windows Vista.) 3 On the “Choose a connection option” page, select “Set up a dial-up connection.” Click Next. 4 On the “Type the information from your Internet service provider (ISP)” page, enter the telephone number, your user name and password, and a name for the dial-up networking connection so that you can easily identify it in the Network Connections window. 5 You can use the “Show characters” checkbox, shown in Exhibit 14-14, to show the characters of your password as you enter it. 6 You can use the “Remember this password” checkbox to have the connection remember your password so you don’t have to enter it each time you connect. 7 If you want to make this connection object available to all users of the computer, check “Allow other people to use this connection.” Then click Continue. 8 Click Connect. 9 If you don’t want to immediately connect to the remote access server after you define this connection, click Skip. 10 Click Create to create the dial-up connection object. Then click Close.


Exhibit 14-14: Creating a dial-up connection in Windows 7 After you create a dial-up connection object, you can establish a connection with the dial-up server by double-clicking the object in the Network Connections window. Connecting to a remote access server Some organizations require users to connect to remote access servers via dial-up networking connections in order to increase the security of their communications. You can establish a dial-up networking connection to a company’s remote access server by using the “Set up a connection or network” wizard. The steps for creating a dial-up networking connection and connecting to a remote server are the same for both a desktop computer with a modem and a notebook computer. You can also create a VPN to your company’s remote access server through your existing Internet connection. In the "How do you want to connect?” page, instead of choosing Dial directly, choose Use my Internet connection (VPN). You enter the FQDN or IP address of your company’s remote access server. This server must have a valid, externally routable IP address. All other options are the same as for creating a dial-up networking connection to a remote server.


B-7:

14–59

Creating a dial-up connection

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open the Network and Sharing Center 2 Click Set up a connection or network

3 Select Set up a dial-up connection

Click Next

To go to the "Type the information from your Internet service provider (ISP)” page.

4 In the "Dial-up phone number” box, type 555-555-5555

The classroom doesn’t have a dial-up server configured to accept connections from the students’ modems. You’ll create the connection, but won’t actually connect.

5 Click Dialing Rules

This is where you set the Location Information for all modem connections.

6 Click Edit

14–60 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 7 Observe the other settings

You can change your country/region, specify a carrier code, and specify a number to dial to get an outside line (such as 9). You can switch between tone and pulse dialing.

Click OK twice 8 In the User name box, type MyUserName

9 In the Password box, type MyPassword

10 Check Show characters and Remember this password

"Show characters” allows you to verify that you entered your password correctly. "Remember this password” is handy for users, but isn’t especially secure.

11 In the Connection name box, type Office Dial-up Connection

12 Leave “Allow other people to use this connection” unchecked

Anyone who can log onto this computer won’t be able to connect to the dial-up server by using this connection.

13 Click Connect

Windows uses your modem to dial the phone number you entered. Because the modem isn’t plugged into a phone line and the phone number you entered isn’t for a real dial-up server, the connection fails.

14 Click Skip Click Close 15 In the Network and Sharing Center, click Change adapter settings

The dial-up connection you just created is listed.


14–61

Managing dial-up connection objects After you define a dial-up connection, whether on a desktop or notebook computer, you can use the connection’s Properties dialog box to change its properties. To do so, rightclick the dial-up connection in the Network Connections window and choose Properties. The following table describes the key properties you might configure for a dial-up connection, along with the tabs containing them. Tab

Property

Use to…

General

Phone number

Specify the phone number of the remote access server.

Dialing rules

Set and enable dialing rules for the connection.

Dialing options

Specify prompts and display items for the connection.

Redial attempts

Configure the dial-up connection to retry connecting to the dial-up server if the first connection attempt fails.

Security

Advanced (custom settings)

Define the security protocols necessary for connecting to the remote access server. By default, Windows Vista configures the dial-up connection to use encryption only if the remote access server requires it and to support three authentication protocols. You’ll need to change the authentication protocol only if the remote access server requires the use of the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).

Networking

Protocols and services

Specify and configure the protocols and services the connection uses.

Sharing

Internet connection sharing

Allow other network users to connect to the Internet through this computer’s dial-up connection.

Options


B-8:

Examining a dial-up connection object’s properties

Here’s how 1 Right-click Office Dial-up Connection and choose

Here’s why In the Network Connections window.

Properties

Click Continue

To open the connection’s Properties dialog box.

2 On the General tab, observe the Phone number box

If the phone number for the remote access server changes, use the Phone number box to change the phone number stored in the dial-up connection object.

3 Check Use dialing rules

The options for editing the dialing rules become available.

4 Select the Options tab 5 Observe the Dialing options that are checked by default

Windows will display its progress while making the connection. Before making the connection, it will display the Connection dialog box, where you can enter user credentials and a different phone number if you’d like.

6 Observe the Redial attempts box

By default, Windows 7 configures the dial-up connection to redial three times.

7 Select the Security tab


14–63

8 In the Authentication box, observe the default selected option

By default, Windows 7 configures a dial-up connection to send the user’s password in plain text (unencrypted). This setting is used because it’s much more difficult for a hacker to eavesdrop on a telephone connection than on a VPN connection over the Internet.

9 Select the Networking tab

This connection is set up to use the IPv4 and IPv6 protocols.

10 Active the Sharing tab

This computer is not sharing its dial-up connection with other network computers.

11 Click Cancel

To close the Office Dial-up Connection Properties dialog box.

12 Double-click Office Dial-up Connection

These are the prompts that were checked on the Options tab of the connection’s Properties dialog box. To open it, you can click Properties in the dialog box shown above.

13 Click Cancel 14 Select Office Dial-up Connection and click Delete this connection

Click Yes Click Continue 15 Close all open windows

To close the dialog box.


Unit summary: Networking computers Topic A

In this topic, you learned how various types of addresses—MAC addresses, IP addresses and character-based names—are used to identify computers on a network. You learned how the DNS service resolves character-based host names to IP addresses, and how WINS resolves NetBIOS names to IP addresses. You also learned how port addresses identify services.

Topic B

In this topic, you created wired and wireless network connections, including dial-up networking (DUN) with a modem. You also learned how to secure wireless client connections to your LAN.

Review questions 1 Which protocols used in Windows are routable? [Choose all that apply.] A AppleTalk B IPX/SPX C NetBEUI D TCP/IP 2 Which unique address is permanently embedded in a NIC by the manufacturer? A Character-based B IPv4 C IPv6 D MAC E Port 3 Which unique address is a 128-bit address written in hexadecimal? A Character-based B IPv4 C IPv6 D MAC E Port 4 Which address is a number between 0 and 65,535 that identifies a program running on a computer? A Character-based B IPv4 C IPv6 D MAC E Port


14–65

5 How many addresses can IPv6 provide? A 232 B 264 C 2128 D 2256 6 Which IPv6 address type is similar to an IPv4 APIPA address? A Anycast B Global unicast C Link-local D Multicast E Site-local 7 Which IPv6 address type is similar to an IPv4 private address? A Anycast B Global unicast C Link-local D Multicast E Site-local 8 What scheme enables many computers to be called "www” without causing naming conflicts? A DHCP B DNS C TCP/IP D WINS 9 True or false? NetBIOS names can’t contain spaces. True. NetBIOS names can’t contain spaces or any of the following special characters: \*+=|:;"?,

10 Which TCP/IP architecture layer defines the rules, commands, and procedures that client software uses to talk to a service running on a server? A Application B Internet C Network D Transport

14–66 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One 11 Which Application-layer protocol is the most common protocol used on the Internet today? A FTP B HTTP C SMTP D Telnet 12 Which mail protocol is used to send and receive e-mail messages between e-mail servers? A IMAP4 B POP3 C SMTP 13 What service allows you to automatically assign IP addresses and configuration information to clients? A DHCP B DNS C TCP/IP D WINS 14 How many UDP messages make up the DHCP lease exchange? A One B Two C Four D Eight 15 When you first connect an IPv6 device to a network, the device automatically performs stateless address autoconfiguration and then sends what type of message for its configuration parameters? A Link-local multicast router solicitation request B Managed Address Configuration Flag C Other Stateful Configuration Flag D Router advertisement packet 16 True or false? If your notebook computer doesn’t have an integrated wireless NIC, you can’t connect to a wireless network. False. Wireless capability can easily be added to a laptop by using a wireless PC Card or USB NIC.

17 True or false? The distance you are from the wireless access point doesn’t affect the speed of your data transfers. False. As you move farther away from an access point, the data speed drops.


14–67

18 The name of a wireless network is referred to as which of the following? A Domain name B SSID C WEP D WLAN 19 What authentication method does Microsoft recommend for wireless networks? A 802.1x B MAC filtering C WEP D WPA 20 True or false? All Windows clients support Wireless Zero Configuration, which enables computers to automatically connect to available wireless networks. False. Only Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP client computers can choose from available wireless networks and connect automatically without user action.

21 True or false? It’s possible in Windows Vista to create a dial-up connection accessible to only a single user of a computer. True.

22 On what page of the dial-up connection’s Properties dialog box would you specify the protocols you want to use to connect to a remote access server? A General B Networking C Options D Security

14–68 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume One Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice identifying the unique addresses used by a computer. 1 Switch computers with another student. Identify the following information for the computer: MAC address: IP version(s): IP address(es): Character-based names (type and name): Gateway address: DNS server address: 2 Go back to your computer and answer the following questions about its configuration. a What operating system are you running on your computer? Windows 7.

b How does your computer connect to the Internet (for example, telephone line to ISP, company LAN to ISP, cable modem)? In the classroom, it will probably be a company LAN.

c If you use a telephone line to connect to the Internet, what’s the telephone number you dial to your ISP? Answers will vary.

d Does your computer use a NIC to connect to the Internet? If so, what’s the MAC address of the NIC? Answers will vary.

e What is your current IP address and subnet mask? Answers will vary.

f What class of IP address does the computer use? Answers will vary.

g Does your computer use static or dynamic IP addressing to connect to the Internet? List the steps you used to determine this answer. Answers will vary.

CompTIAA+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Student Manual Volume Two

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two President, Axzo Press:

Jon Winder

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Charles G. Blum

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COPYRIGHT © 2010 Axzo Press. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, transcribed, or used in any form or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systemswithout the prior written permission of the publisher. For more information, go to www.axzopress.com.

Trademarks ILT Series is a trademark of Axzo Press. Some of the product names and company names used in this book have been used for identification purposes only and may be trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective manufacturers and sellers.

Disclaimers We reserve the right to revise this publication and make changes from time to time in its content without notice. The logo of the CompTIA Authorized Quality Curriculum (CAQC) program and the status of this or other training material as “Authorized” under the CompTIA Authorized Quality Curriculum program signifies that, in CompTIA’s opinion, such training material covers the content of CompTIA’s related certification exam. The contents of this training material were created for the CompTIA A+ Essentials exam, 2009 Edition (220-701), and the CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam, 2009 Edition (220-702), covering CompTIA certification objectives that were current as of August 2009. ISBN 10: 1-4260-2178-X ISBN 13: 978-1-4260-2178-7 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 GL 06 05 04 03

15–1

Unit 15 Network troubleshooting Unit time: 60 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Prepare toolkits for troubleshooting. B Troubleshoot client-side connectivity

issues.

15–2

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two

Topic A: Troubleshooting basics This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Specialty hardware / tools  Cable testers

The troubleshooting toolkit Explanation

Support technicians need tools that perform a wide variety of functions. Repair toolkits are available for amateurs and for professionals. These specialty hardware toolkits contain versions of the tools appropriate for working with networking components. You can also assemble your own toolkit with the following items:  A variety of screwdrivers — You should have large and small versions of flatblade, Phillips, and Torx screwdrivers.  Small and large needle-nose pliers — These are useful for grasping objects.  Tweezers — Also used for grasping objects.  Three-pronged "grabber” — For picking up screws or other objects in areas too small to get your fingers into.  Extension magnet — For retrieving metal screws or other small metal objects from areas too small to get your fingers into.  A small flashlight — A small penlight or a light that can be clamped to the computer case can prove quite useful.  Small containers — For holding screws and small components that are easily lost.  Antistatic bags — To protect components that are sensitive to static electricity. Never lay a component on the outside of an antistatic bag. The bag is designed to collect static charges on the outside of it, so if you place a component on the bag, the collected static charges might discharge onto the component.  Grounding wrist straps and ESD antistatic mats — To protect the equipment from any static you might be carrying on your body. A grounding wrist strap should never be worn when you’re working on the interior of a monitor, but in all other cases, this is a highly recommended ESD protection tool.  Antistatic sprays — Useful if your clothes are likely to generate static.  Compressed air — For blowing dust and debris off of components.  Computer vacuum — Designed with static protection features to clean electronic components; some also have special filters designed to clean up toner spills.


15–3

The following additional items are important for every toolkit. Tool

Used to…

Multimeter

Test equipment with readings of ohms, amps, and volts. Comparing the readings with the appropriate values for a component helps you determine if there’s a problem with the component.

Nut driver

Remove hex-head nuts.

Cable stripper

Remove the outer insulation from network cables and expose the wires inside them. Usually, this tool also includes wire cutters to cut the cable or wire. You can also purchase a single cable tool that strips, cuts, and crimps all in one.

Snips

Cut or trim cables.

Punchdown tool

Connect wires to a punchdown block.

Crimper

Crimp a connector onto a network cable. It comes in varieties for RJ-11, RJ45, and coaxial cable.

Butt set

Test and verify telephone lines.

Time-domain reflectometer (TDR)

Locate problems in metallic wires, such as coaxial cable and twisted-pair network cables.

Optical timedomain reflectometer (OTDR)

Locate faults in optical fiber.

Certifier

Test and verify network cable speeds by sending data packets across the network. You can use certifiers to verify that network segments are operating at optimal levels.

Temperature monitor

Monitor temperature in various environments, especially in rooms containing networking devices. High temperatures can damage some network devices, including servers. Monitors can be configured to warn you when the temperature has exceeded a specific limit, so you can take corrective action.

Voltage event recorder

Measure electrical properties to determine whether there’s an adequate power supply and what the quality of that power supply is.

Toner probe

Locate hard-to-find cables, such as those hidden in floors, ceilings, and walls and in bundles. Detect telephone and Ethernet service, indicate polarity and active line numbers on voice circuits, and indicate active pair numbers on Ethernet circuits. Available in both digital and analog versions.

Loopback plug

A connector used to diagnose port transmission problems. A loopback plug tests outgoing signals by crossing over the transmit line to the receive line, redirecting the signal. There are different types of loopback plugs, such as serial, parallel, and network.

15–4


The software toolkit Most people think of hardware tools when you speak of assembling a toolkit for a network technician. However, there are several software tools you’ll need for a complete troubleshooting toolkit, especially when you’re troubleshooting clients and servers and their network connections. Tool

Description

Disc containing common drivers

If your company has standardized a specific set of equipment with common drivers, having a disk with you can make it easy to install the drivers quickly if you have to remove them to fix a problem or if they become corrupted. Many companies place the files on a central server location, but if you can’t access the server due to the problem you’re trying to fix, having the drivers on the server won’t do you any good.

Antivirus software

You should include a boot disc from which you can boot a system that has been infected with a boot virus. Norton and McAfee are examples of companies that make antivirus software you can use to create such a disk. Follow the manufacturer’s directions to clean the virus from the system. Sometimes you need to boot from the antivirus software CD when you need to clean a system, so configure CMOS to be able to boot from CD.

Boot disc

A boot CD-ROM or bootable floppy disk is useful if you can no longer boot from the hard drive. On this CD or floppy disk, you should have basic commands that enable you to perform simple tasks.

Operating system CD or DVD

Having a copy of the operating system CD enables you to get to the CAB files that you might need when installing or repairing some piece of hardware. It’s also useful if you need to boot from the CD or if files or drivers have been corrupted and need to be replaced.

Documentation about common problems

If you encounter a set of common problems and need documentation on how to fix them, a CD or flash drive with that information can prove valuable. If the documentation is in a searchable format, then you can easily find the information you need to fix a problem you’ve encountered in the past.

Web sites for the manufacturers of the equipment you support should be included somewhere in your toolkit. A bookmark list, a paper list, or a document containing the URLs is useful. Being able to access the support sites directly is beneficial when you need to obtain updated drivers or look for solutions to problems. Another useful site is drivers.com. You can download drivers for many components, including some from companies no longer in operation. A CD binder is useful for carrying these tools with you. CD binders come in a variety of sizes. You can also copy the files to a USB flash drive instead of to a CD if you prefer.

Network troubleshooting Do it!

A-1:

15–5

Identifying common toolkit components

Here’s how 1 Open a Web browser and go to a search site

Here’s why You’ll examine the components of a hardware technician’s toolkit.

2 Search for computer maintenance toolkit

3 Compare your results with those of other students 4 Which tools would you include in your toolkit for your job?

5 When would you use a crimper? When would you use a punchdown tool? 6 What software tools would you include in your troubleshooting kit? 7 When would you use a certifier? When would you use a temperature monitor? 8 Search for diagnostic software. What are some examples you find? 9 In addition to the software mentioned in the text, are there any other tools you would include?

Options range from small kits with a few tools for a modest price, to comprehensive kits for a facility specializing just in hardware repairs.

15–6


Topic B: Troubleshooting the network This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials exam version 2.0 objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces  Command prompt utilities – telnet – ping – ipconfig

4.1

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols  Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTPS

5.2

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Software firewall – Port security – Exceptions

6.1

Outline the appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  EMI – Network interference

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application exam version 2.0 objectives. #

Objective

1.4

Given a scenario, select and use the following tools  Specialty hardware / tools  Cable testers

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  IPCONFIG (/all /release /renew)  PING (-t –l)  TRACERT  NSLOOKUP

Network troubleshooting #

Objective

3.1

Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools  TCP/IP settings – Gateway – Subnet mask – DNS – DHCP (dynamic vs. static) – NAT (private and public)  Characteristics of TCP/IP – Loopback addresses – Automatic IP addressing  Mail protocol settings – SMTP – IMAP – POP  FTP settings – Ports – IP addresses – Exceptions – Programs  Proxy settings – Ports – IP addresses – Exceptions – Programs Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools (continued)  Tools (use and interpret results) – Ping – Tracert – Nslookup – Netstat – Ipconfig – telnet – SSH  Secure connection protocols – SSH – HTTPS  Firewall settings – Open and closed ports – Program filters

15–7

15–8


Troubleshooting wired connections Explanation

Problems with wired connections can have many sources. Some are physically based, such as a bad network cable, and some are software-based, such as an invalid TCP/IP address. Electrical interference Electrical interference is a common problem that occurs on networks and degrades data signals. Network noise is any electrical signal on the network cable that isn’t part of the sender’s original signal. Noise is generated both internally and externally. Internally, twisted-pair cables produce relatively little electrical interference—the twists cancel each other out. Any variation in the thickness of the wire, the cable insulation, or the capacitance of wires or insulation causes a mismatch and creates noise between the pairs. Good cables minimize the internally produced noise, but don’t remove it altogether. Electrical interference can also come from many external sources. You should always install cables in separate conduits, away from items such as electric motors (like those in elevators), fluorescent lights, and air conditioners. In areas where there’s an abundance of electrical noise, you can use shielded cables or other technologies, such as fiber optic cables, to avoid interference. When a data signal travels down a conductor, it creates an electrical field, which interferes with any wires close by. This kind of interference is called crosstalk. Crosstalk increases at higher frequencies and with parallel wires. The twists in twistedpair cables cancel this effect; however, it’s important that the twists are symmetrical and that adjacent pairs have different twists. Other physical issues In addition to crosstalk and interference, you should be aware of the additional issues described in the following table. Issue

Description

Attenuation

Attenuation is the decrease in signal strength along the length of a network wire. The longer the wire, the greater the degree of attenuation. You can solve this problem by shortening the cable or by inserting a device such as a repeater. Attenuation is expressed in negative decibels (dB).

Collisions

On Ethernet networks, collisions are the result of multiple network hosts transmitting data simultaneously. Some collisions are expected in any network, but too many collisions can cause a bottleneck and prevent the transmission of data.

Open impedance mismatch (echo)

Line echo is typically the result of impedance mismatch, which is caused by the termination or wiring conversion from four-wire telephone circuits to two wires.


15–9

Cable testing devices You can use a cable testing device, like the one shown in Exhibit 15-1, to test the physical cables and network functions. For example, you can determine how a network handles varying loads of data and whether the network throughput matches the cable and device ratings. You can purchase cable testing devices for your particular LAN or purchase one that’s compatible with multiple network types. For example, testing devices are available for 10- and 100Base-T networks.

Exhibit 15-1: A cable testing device Your cable testing device might be able to perform the following physical cable tests:  Locating incorrectly wired cables, open cables, and shorts  Locating missing cables  Locating cables that don’t support your network type (for example, 100Base-T)  Testing hub connections  Testing PC connections  Testing installed cables  Testing patch cables  Locating and tracing inactive cables Network function tests that your cable testing device might be able to perform include:  Verifying that a PC or switch is powered on  Specifying whether a device is a network PC or a switch  Displaying the maximum network connection speed to the device  Verifying PC-to-switch speed, and data transmission and port speed or duplex mismatch  Verifying switch-to-switch data transmission  Determining if a straight-through or crossover patch cable is required  Finding speed bottlenecks on LANs  Monitoring a LAN link between two devices

15–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two You can also install software on computers in your network to test for load and throughput bottlenecks on the network. Some software is freely downloadable, and some is available for purchase. Network analyzers A network analyzer, sometimes called a protocol analyzer, is a portable device that can be hand-carried to a network location and set up to monitor and diagnose problems with a network. A network analyzer, shown in Exhibit 15-2, can help you troubleshoot difficulties that can occur because of problems with the hardware or software. A network analyzer can identify problems with:  Cabling  Jacks  Network cards  Hubs  Other hardware that works at the lower levels of the OSI model A network analyzer can also diagnose problems with TCP/IP, including TCP/IP packet errors. It can analyze where a packet is coming from or going to, and whether the protocols within the packet are used correctly. The packets can be captured and analyzed at any point on the network, such as when the cabling is connected to a wall jack. The analyzer can be attached between the cable and the jack, and can read and analyze packets as they pass.

Exhibit 15-2: A portable network analyzer One problem you might encounter when using a network analyzer is that it can capture too much data, making it difficult to find the data that applies to the problem at hand. Fortunately, you can specify filters that weed out data that isn’t involved in the problem.


15–11

A network analyzer can be a laptop computer with a proprietary operating system and other software specifically designed to capture and analyze packets on a network. Network optimization Fixing network problems can be as easy as replacing a worn cable, but sometimes network problems require bigger fixes. For example, some network communication problems require a reconfiguration of the entire network, either for all network communication or for specific types.  Many networks have servers that contain highly sensitive data that must be available around the clock. To increase the amount of uptime for these servers and provide a high level of availability, a network administrator must build in a level of fault tolerance, which simply means that there’s a way to recover quickly from a server or network problem. For example, a server farm provides a high level of fault tolerance by spreading sensitive data and applications across a number of servers. If one server were to fail, the remaining servers would still provide services to network users.  To decrease response times for Internet users and to reduce the load on gateway servers, you can deploy proxy servers that use a caching engine to store frequently requested Web addresses. These servers can store Web content that users access frequently, and return that content to the users faster than they could retrieve the content directly from the Web.  Many applications, such as Voice over IP (VoIP) and video applications, are particularly prone to latency sensitivity, which is caused when the network breaks the data into different-size packets that might be transmitted out of sequence. The latency sensitivity can cause jitters in the video or voice transmissions, severely reducing their quality and potentially rendering them useless. Quality of Service (QoS) mechanisms and policies on the network can be used to prioritize video and VoIP transmission to ensure that the packets receive priority over other types of network traffic. The QoS mechanisms can help reduce and eliminate jitters and other types of interference. When troubleshooting network problems, you should be aware of these issues and escalate them if necessary. Duplex and speed mismatches Traffic can travel in one direction at a time (half-duplex) or in both directions (fullduplex) on an Ethernet network. When the protocol fails to negotiate the traffic flow of the connection, you have a duplex mismatch. This problem can cause the connection to work at low speed and drop packets at high speed. Common mismatches occur in switch-to switch or switch-to-computer connections. Most often, a mismatch is caused by a configuration error with one port being set to auto-negotiate, half- or full-duplex, and the other end not configured to the same setting. As the level of traffic increases, you’ll notice errors, such as collisions, on the slower end of the link.

15–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Do it!

B-1:

Testing the physical network

Here’s how 1 Follow your instructor’s directions to attach your cable tester to your computer’s network cable

Here’s why You’re going to test the section of cable between your computer and the classroom hub.

2 Follow your instructor’s directions to attach your cable tester to the network cable ending at the classroom hub 3 Follow your instructor’s directions to test the section of cable and read the tester’s display 4 Follow your instructor’s directions to remove the cable tester and reattach the cables 5 Follow your instructor’s directions to connect the network analyzer to the network 6 Follow your instructor’s directions to conduct load testing and throughput testing 7 Follow your instructor’s directions to remove the network analyzer

You’re going to conduct load and throughput testing.


15–13

Troubleshooting wireless network connections As with other types of troubleshooting, troubleshooting wireless network connections begins with identifying the components that make up the wireless communication process. These components include:  The Windows operating system and the network adapter’s driver  The wireless network adapter  The wireless radio frequency signal  The wireless access point Isolating problems Your task is to isolate the problem by asking various questions. Questions you should ask include:  Is the wireless network adapter listed in Device Manager? If so, does Device Manager report that the adapter is working properly? If it doesn’t, you should suspect a problem with the network adapter driver or even the card itself. You should also verify whether the wireless network adapter’s radio has been turned off. If Device Manager reports that the network adapter is working properly, you should suspect a problem with its configuration or the wireless access point.  Is the computer’s wireless network connection configured to use the appropriate encryption method for the wireless access point? All wireless clients must be configured with the same encryption method that you’ve set on the AP. If a client doesn’t have the correct encryption method selected and configured, it won’t be able to connect to the AP. If it isn’t, change the configuration of the wireless network connection to use the correct security settings.  Are you using MAC filtering on the wireless access point? If so, is it configured to allow access by the desired clients?  Is the computer detecting the wireless access point? If so, what is the strength of the wireless signal? (You can determine the strength of the wireless signal by using the "Connect to a wireless network” wizard.) If the wireless signal is weak, this is an indication that the computer might be too far from the wireless access point. As the distance between the AP and the client increases, the signal strength decreases. Signal strength can also be affected negatively by obstructions or building materials, such as metals or concrete, between the client and the AP. The WAP might also be experiencing interference from the environment (such as metal file cabinets). As you learned in the section on wireless standards, some standards operate at 2.4 MHz, the same frequency as devices such as cordless phones and microwaves. Using these devices near the client or AP can cause performance or the entire connection to drop. If you’re deploying 802.11b networks, you can tune access points to channels that avoid the frequencies of interfering signals. You might also try installing equipment designed to boost the signal strength of the WAP.

15–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two  Is the wireless access point configured correctly? Specifically, is it configured to use the appropriate encryption algorithm for the network cards used in your environment? For WAPs configured to use WPA or WPA2 with a pre-shared key, has anyone changed this key on the wireless access point? If so, you must enter the new key in your profile for connecting to the network.  Are both the clients and the WAP configured to use the same channel and frequency? In the U.S., IEEE 802.11 g and b wireless nodes communicate with each other by using RF signals in the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical band of 2.4–2.5 GHz with 11 channels, 5 MHz apart. Most wireless routers default to channel 6. This can cause two closely located wireless networks, using the same or adjacent channels, to interfere with each other. You can change the default channel on your wireless AP to decrease interference from other devices using the 2.4 MHz band or from other APs using the same or an adjacent channel. If you alter the channel information, make sure you apply it to both the AP and its clients so they can communicate.  Are you using compatible standards for all your wireless components? You must use the same or compatible 802.11 device standards for all of your wireless devices. For example, you can’t use an 802.11g wireless NIC to connect to an 802.11a wireless AP. The following table describes some common problems you might encounter with wireless connections. Symptom

Probable cause

Suggested solution

Unable to connect to infrared wireless device

Out of range; obstructions blocking ports; infrared serial port disabled in BIOS or operating system.

Move closer to the device. Remove obstructions and gently clean the infrared port windows. Use the BIOS setup utility and Device Manager to confirm that the infrared port is enabled.

Unable to connect to radio wireless device

Out of range; interference from electrical motors or equipment; drivers not installed; wireless router turned off; security settings prevent connections.

Move closer to the device, and move away from sources of interference. Use Device Manager to confirm that the wireless device is installed and that there are no conflicts. Confirm that your router is turned on. Confirm that you have sufficient permissions to connect to the wireless device.

Unable to connect to Bluetooth wireless device

Out of range; interference from electrical motors or equipment; drivers not installed; security settings prevent connections.

Move closer to the device, and move away from sources of interference. Use Device Manager to confirm that the wireless device is installed and that there are no conflicts. Confirm that you have sufficient permissions to connect to the wireless device.


B-2:

15–15

Troubleshooting wireless networking

Questions and answers 1 A user reports that she doesn’t see any wireless networks when she runs the “Connect to a wireless network” wizard. What are some things you should check on her computer?

2 Several users report this morning that they cannot connect to the network. These users connect wirelessly via a wireless access point. What are two things you should check to troubleshoot this problem?

3 Users report that they are intermittently losing their connections to the wireless network. What should you check?

15–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Troubleshooting TCP/IP One of the most common complaints you’ll hear from users is that they can’t get to something on the network, or "the Internet is down.” When you hear a complaint about network connectivity, your first step should be to check the user’s network connection and TCP/IP settings. If you find a problem on the client computer, it’s your job to fix it, usually by correcting TCP/IP properties. If you suspect a problem with the network as a whole or with a particular server on the network, you’ll need to contact the appropriate individual, typically the network administrator, to escalate the problem. TCP/IP utilities TCP/IP includes a group of utilities that can be used to troubleshoot problems with TCP/IP. The following table lists the utilities and their purposes. Utility

Purpose

IPCONFIG

Displays the host’s IP address and other configuration information.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

Transfers files over a network.

NBTSTAT

Displays NetBIOS over TCP/IP statistics, NetBIOS name tables, and the NetBIOS name cache. You can use this utility with switches to remove or correct NetBIOS name cache entries.

NETSTAT

Displays a list of a computer’s active incoming and outgoing connections.

NSLOOKUP

Reports the IP address of an entered host name, or the host name of an entered IP address.

Ping

Verifies a connection to a network between two hosts, using Internet Control Message Protocol echo requests.

ROUTE

Allows you to manually control network routing tables.

Telnet

Allows you to communicate with another computer on the network remotely, entering commands on the local computer that control the remote computer.

TRACERT (Trace Route)

Traces and displays the route taken from the host to a remote destination; TRACERT is one example of a trace-routing utility.

Most of these commands are entered from a command prompt. To open a Command Prompt window in any version of Windows, run the cmd command. From the Command Prompt, you can enter a Windows or DOS command, including any of those in the previous table. Each of the commands includes switches and parameters. To view the available switches and parameters, along with their descriptions, at the command prompt, enter the desired command follow by a space and then /?.


B-3:

15–17

Identifying TCP/IP utilities used for troubleshooting

Questions and answers 1 A user opens a browser window and tries to contact your intranet server at www.domain.class. The user receives a message that the site can’t be found. What’s the first TCP/IP utility you should try?

2 Users in one location have complained that load time for the company’s intranet site is slow. No one in any other location is reporting a problem. What TCP/IP utility can you use to diagnose the problem?

15–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two IPCONFIG When a user complains of network problems, you should first check the TCP/IP settings on the user’s computer. In any version of Windows, use IPCONFIG, as shown in Exhibit 15-3, to display and modify the current TCP/IP configuration, including the IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server address. Several switches can be added to the ipconfig command to display the current IP. The following table describes some common switches. Additional switches, parameters and their descriptions can be viewed by entering ipconfig /? at the command prompt. Switch

Use to…

/all

Displays all information about the connection.

/release [adapter name] /release6 [adapter name]

Release a leased IPv4 or IPv6 address (respectively) so that it returns to the pool of available addresses on the DHCP server. You can specify the name of the network connection for which you want to release the leased address. If you don’t specify a connection name, Windows 7 and Windows Vista release the leased IP addresses for all network connections. You might use this option when a computer cannot obtain an address from a DHCP server (typically when the server is unavailable) or if you want to force the computer to obtain a new lease (because the DHCP server’s IP addressing parameters have changed).

/renew [adapter name] /renew6 [adapter name]

Renew a leased IPv4 or IPv6 address. As with the

/release parameter, you can specify the name of the

network connection for which you want to renew the IP address lease. If you don’t specify a network connection name, Windows 7 and Windows Vista attempt to renew all leased IP addresses for all network connections configured to use DHCP. Use this option to try to renew a computer’s IP address lease. If the computer can’t communicate with the DHCP server from which it obtained its IP address, or you have disabled the scope (pool) of IP addresses from which the computer obtained its IP address, the DHCP server will deny the computer’s lease renewal request. At this point, the computer will start over with the IP address leasing process by broadcasting a DHCP request packet.

/flushdns

Delete all name resolution information (host names and their IP addresses) from the client’s DNS Resolver cache. For example, you might use this parameter to troubleshoot name resolution problems that occur after you change a server’s IP address. If computers still have the server’s name and old IP address in the DNS Resolver cache, they won’t be able to communicate with the server until this cache is deleted.

/displaydns

Display the contents of the DNS Resolver cache.

/registerdns

Renew all IP address leases from DHCP servers, and reregister the computer’s host name and IP address on your network’s DNS servers.


15–19

Check to see if the IP address and subnet mask are correct, and verify the default gateway and DNS server addresses. When you do this, you might find that the computer has no IP address configured or has configured itself with an automatic private address. (Remember that IPv4 APIPA addresses are within the 169.254.x.x range, and that IPv6 link-local addresses begin with FE8, FE9, FEA, or FEB.) If so, this gives you a couple of options:  If IP addressing information is assigned by a DHCP server, suspect a problem with a DHCP server itself or with the network between the user’s computer and the DHCP server. First, verify that the network card is working correctly and is attached to the network cable, which is in turn plugged into the appropriate network port on the wall or floor. Try to release and then renew the IP address from the DHCP server. If you can verify these things, and you can’t get an IP address from the DHCP server, then escalate the call to the appropriate network administrator.  If IP addressing is assigned manually, then assign the correct information, such as IP address, default gateway, subnet mask, or DNS server address, and test to see if connectivity is restored.

15–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two

Exhibit 15-3: IPCONFIG on a Windows 7 computer with two NICs


B-4:

15–21

Using IPCONFIG to troubleshoot TCP/IP settings

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and enter cmd

To open a Command Prompt window. You’re going to use IPCONFIG to view your IP address settings.

2 At the command prompt, enter

To display your current IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway, as shown here.

ipconfig

This is a quick way to find a computer’s basic IP address information.

15–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 3 At the command prompt, enter ipconfig /all

To display extended IP addressing information, as shown here.

It can be easier to view this information at the Command Prompt than to click through a few dialog boxes to find the same information in the Windows GUI.


15–23

Ping and basic TCP/IP connectivity While you’re in the MS-DOS Prompt or Command Prompt window, you can use another tool to verify basic TCP/IP connectivity. Ping is a simple program that allows one computer to send a test packet to another computer and then receive a reply. You use ping to determine whether another computer is available for communication on a TCP/IP network. After you have verified that the computer has a valid IP address, you can use the ping command to see if you can communicate with another computer on the network. You need to know the NetBIOS name, DNS name, or IP address of the other computer— perhaps a router or server that you know is operational. At the MS-DOS or command prompt, enter ping computer

where computer is the other computer’s name or IP address. When you issue the ping command from the command prompt, followed by an IP address or a domain name, ping communicates over a TCP/IP network to another node on the network. It sends an Internet Control Message Packet (ICMP) Echo Request and expects to receive an ICMP Echo Reply in return. Packets are exchanged and then reported on screen to verify connectivity on the network. ICMP is a software component of the Network layer of the OSI model. If the ping is successful, you know that the two nodes are communicating at the Network layer. If communication is happening at this layer, you also know that all layers underneath the Network layer are working. You can add the switches and parameters shown in Exhibit 15-4 to the ping command.

Exhibit 15-4: Ping switches and parameters

15–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two If you can’t use ping successfully, try the following:  If you used ping with a domain name, use the IP address of the remote host instead. If that works, the problem is with name resolution.  Try to ping a different computer. Can you communicate with any other computer on the network? Ping the loopback address, 127.0.0.1, to see if you have any connectivity on the network.  If you can’t communicate with any other computer on the network, use IPCONFIG to verify that the computer has been assigned an IP address.  Verify all network configuration settings, including IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway.  Reboot the computer to verify that TCP/IP has been loaded.  Try removing TCP/IP and reinstalling it. Perhaps the initial installation was corrupted.  In Windows XP or later, use NETSH to reset TCP/IP.  Check the physical connections. Is the network cable plugged in or is there a telephone connection? Do you get a dial tone? If all of these methods fail to produce results, you might need to escalate the issue.


B-5:

15–25

Testing TCP/IP connectivity

Here’s how 1 In the Command Prompt window, type ping 127.0.0.1 and press e

Here’s why (The window should still be open from the previous activity.) This is the loopback address, which verifies that TCP/IP is working on this computer. Pinging the loopback address tests a computer’s own basic network setup. You should receive four successful responses.

2 Type ipconfig /all and press e

Record your IP address and your default gateway address. IP address: ____________________________ Default gateway address: _________________

3 Ping your IP address

To verify that TCP/IP communication can be sent out on the network cable from your NIC card and back in again. You should receive four successful responses.

4 Ping the instructor’s computer

To verify that you have connectivity to other computers on your local subnet. You should receive four successful responses.

5 Ping the IP address of your classroom’s gateway

To verify that you can reach the gateway that connects you to other subnets. You should receive four successful responses.

6 How does being able to successfully ping the IP address of your default gateway help you when troubleshooting?

7 Users are complaining that they are unable to access one of your organization’s file and print servers (even though they had just been using this server). You discover that another person in Desktop Support moved the server to a new subnet. What might be the cause of users not being able to access this server? How can you resolve the problem?

15–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two NSLOOKUP When two computers communicate with each other by using TCP/IP across the network, the Domain Name System (DNS) server is responsible for resolving the names you specify to their associated IP addresses. Active Directory domains also use DNS to provide users and computers with access to the network’s resources. To verify that your computer can communicate with its DNS server(s), enter nslookup [host or FQDN]. Your computer succeeds in communicating with the DNS server if the server responds with the IP address of one or more computers. You’ll sometimes see multiple IP addresses for a given fully qualified domain name (FQDN), such as www.cnn.com. In this example, the Web site administrators have configured multiple Web servers to host its content. DNS servers then use a technique referred to as "round robin” to balance the workload across those servers.

TRACERT If a user is telling you that he or she can’t access resources on the network, you should verify that the user’s client software is configured properly. You should also verify that File and Printer Sharing is installed and enabled on the computer the user is trying to access. You can perform an additional test on the network by using the tracert command to check the network path between two computers. At an MS-DOS or command prompt, enter tracert computer where computer is the name or IP address of a destination.


B-6:

15–27

Using NSLOOKUP and TRACERT

Here’s how 1 At the command prompt, enter nslookup

To test your DNS configuration. In class, the classroom DNS server’s IP address will be returned. In other environments, depending on the configuration, you might see a DNS server name and IP address returned, or you might see just an IP address and an error message telling you that NSLookup can’t find the server name. This is a DNS server configuration issue.

2 Enter nslookup followed by a Web address

Try www.yahoo.com. You should see DNS addressing information for that domain.

3 Enter exit

To exit NSLookup.

4 Enter tracert [IP_address of a classroom server] To trace the path to a server in your network. This is a short path, so the results are returned promptly.

5 Enter tracert www.yahoo.com

6 Close the Command Prompt window

To trace the route to Yahoo’s Web server. This takes a while longer.

15–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Troubleshooting other client connection issues Beyond the basic networking functionality of TCP/IP, there are other networking settings you will likely have to troubleshoot. Before checking specific connection issues such as those that follow, always verify basic network connectivity. Secure connection protocols HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the most common protocol used on the Internet today. This is the protocol used by Web browsers and Web servers. HTTP defines the commands that Web browsers can send and the way Web servers can respond. Secure Web servers use SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to enable an encrypted communication channel between themselves and users’ Web browsers. SSL is a publickey/private-key encryption protocol used to transmit data securely over the Internet, using TCP/IP. The URLs of Web sites that require SSL begin with https:// instead of http://. When you connect using SSL, the connection itself is secure, and so is any data transferred across it. Secure Shell (SSH) exchanges data between two network nodes over a secure channel. It operates at the OSI Network layer. SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet and other insecure remote shells, which sent data (including passwords) in plain text. This left the data open for interception. SSH encryption provides data confidentiality and integrity over an insecure network, such as the Internet. Its primary use is to access shell accounts on Linux and UNIX systems. Other uses include:  Executing a command on a remote host  Transferring files securely  Back up, copy and mirror files in conjunction (with rsync)  Forwarding or tunneling a port  Creating an encrypted VPN (only OpenSSH server and client)  Mounting a directory securely on a remote server (using SSHFS)  Automating remote monitoring and management of servers When you’re troubleshooting these connection protocols, verify that server addresses are correct, and that the client computers support the version of the protocol that the server requires. FTP File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a simple file-sharing protocol. It includes commands for uploading and downloading files, as well as for requesting directory listings from remote servers. This protocol has been around the Internet for a long time and was originally implemented in UNIX during the 1980s. The first industry-distributed document, or Request for Comment (RFC), describing FTP was created in 1985. Web servers (using HTTP) and e-mail software (using SMTP) must encode data so it appears as text when it travels over the Internet. FTP, however, offers an alternative. FTP can transfer binary files over the Internet without the encoding-and-decoding overhead, making it a popular protocol for moving files over the Internet. Note: Although there are still FTP servers running on the Internet, there are fewer than in previous years. FTP is slowly becoming obsolete because of its inherent lack of security and because HTTP can upload and download files.


15–29

FTP is implemented in standalone FTP clients as well as in Web browsers. It is safe to say that most FTP users today are using Web browsers. When troubleshooting FTP connections:  Verify that the IP address of the FTP server is correct and that the FTP client is trying to access the correct port.  Make sure the user is entering ftp://ftp. in the address bar of the browser.  Verify that firewalls on both the client and server sides have port exceptions for FTP traffic.  The client software should have an exception in any software firewall on the client computer.  Some ftp sites are secured; some are not. Verify that the user is entering any required logon correctly. Logon might be as simple as entering a valid e-mail address for the username and a password or a blank password. The site could require the user to have a user account and password for the site. E-mail settings Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to send and receive e-mail messages between e-mail servers. It is also used by e-mail client software, such as Outlook, to send messages to the server. SMTP is never used by a client computer to retrieve e-mail from a server. Other protocols control the retrieval of e-mail messages. Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is the most common protocol used for retrieving e-mail messages. This protocol has commands to download and delete messages from the mail server. POP3 does not support sending messages. By default, most e-mail client software using POP3 copies all messages onto the local hard drive and then erases them from the server. However, you can change the configuration so that messages can be left on the server. POP3 supports only a single inbox and does not support multiple folders for storage on the server. Internet Message Access Protocol version 4 (IMAP4) is another common protocol used to retrieve e-mail messages. The capabilities of IMAP4 are beyond those of POP3. For example, IMAP can download message headers, which you can use to choose which messages you want to download. In addition, IMAP4 allows the use of multiple folders to store messages on the server side. When you’re troubleshooting SMTP, POP3, and IMAP in any e-mail client, be sure you have the correct e-mail server addresses and the correct ports and security authentication protocols and passwords. If there’s a mismatch in any of this information, e-mail transmission will fail. Firewall ports Programs use open ports to communicate with other computers on the Internet. For example, Windows Internet Information Services opens three ports automatically—port 21 for FTP traffic, port 25 for SMTP traffic, and port 80 for HTTP traffic. Sometimes your firewall either blocks communication through a particular port or allows communication through a port that isn’t what you want to happen. Using the configuration settings for your firewall, you can manually open or close desired ports to resolve this problem.

15–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two If Windows Firewall in Windows 7 or Vista is blocking a program from communicating through the firewall, you can add the program to the Allowed programs and features list in Windows 7’s software firewall and the Exceptions tab in Windows Vista’s software firewall: In Windows 7: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Open System and Security, Windows Firewall. 3 Click Allow a program or feature through Windows Firewall. 4 Click Change settings. 5 Check to allow, or clear to deny, a program or feature the ability to communicate through Windows Firewall, as shown in Exhibit 15-5. 6 If your program isn’t listed, you can click Allow another program for a list of additional programs you can add to the list. Select the desired program and click Add. 7 Click OK.

Exhibit 15-5: Windows Firewall exceptions in Windows 7


15–31

In Windows Vista: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Open Security, Windows Firewall. 3 Click Allow a program through Windows Firewall. Click Continue. 4 On the Exceptions tab, check a program or port in the list to allow communication; clear the checkbox to block communication. 5 If your program isn’t listed on the Exceptions tab, you can click Add Program for a list of additional programs you can add to the Exceptions tab. Select the desired program. If desired, click Change scope. Using the dialog box, shown in Exhibit 15-6, you can allow communication through the open port by all Internet computers, only computers on your IP subnet, or specific computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6 address. Select your desired configuration and click OK. Click OK. 6 Click OK.

Exhibit 15-6: The Change Scope dialog box

15–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows XP with SP2 or later uses Internet Connection Firewall (ICF). To add a program to the Exceptions list in ICF: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Click Security Center. 3 Under Manage security settings for, click Windows Firewall. 4 On the Exceptions tab, check a program or port in the list to allow communication; clear the checkbox to block communication. 5 If your program isn’t listed on the Exceptions tab, you can click "Add Program” for a list of additional programs you can add to the Exceptions tab. Select the desired program. If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open port by all Internet computers, only computers on your IP subnet, or specific computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6 address and click OK. 6 Click OK. 7 Close Security Center and Control Panel. Windows 2000 Professional doesn’t have a firewall application built into the operating system. However, if the program isn’t listed on the Exceptions tab or in the available programs list, you might need to add a port. For example, if you want to allow communication for a multiplayer game with other Internet users, you can open a port for the game. It’s important to note that, when you allow a program to communicate through Windows Firewall, the program opens the port to communicate and then closes the port when it’s finished communicating. When you open a port in Windows Firewall, it remains open until you manually close it. To open a port in Windows Firewall: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Open Security, Windows Firewall. 3 Click Allow a program through Windows Firewall. Click Continue. 4 On the Exceptions tab, click Add port. 5 Enter a name for the port, a port number, and specify whether the protocol used will be TCP or UDP. 6 If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open port by all Internet computers, only computers on your IP subnet, or specific computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6 address and click OK. 7 Click OK twice. 8 Close Windows Firewall and Control Panel


15–33

To open a port manually in Internet Connection Firewall: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Click Security Center. 3 Under Manage security settings for, click Windows Firewall. 4 On the Exceptions tab, click Add port. 5 Enter a name for the port and a port number, then specify whether the protocol used will be TCP or UDP. 6 If desired, click Change scope. Select to allow communication through the open port by all Internet computers, only computers on your IP subnet, or specific computers designated by IPv4 or IPv6 address and click OK. 7 Click OK twice. 8 Close Security Center and Control Panel. NAT and proxy servers Most NAT devices consistently work well and don’t require much maintenance or troubleshooting. Typically, you will need to ensure that the device is powered on and the TCP/IP settings are correct. Verify that it has Internet and local network connectivity. Sometimes powering down the device will cause it to reset its connections. Also verify that network clients using NAT have the correct TCP/IP configuration, including the default gateway. You can troubleshoot proxy servers in the same way as NAT devices. In addition, verify that any software (including Web browsers) on the client computer has the correct proxy server address and port number, and any authentication settings are correct. Verify that the necessary firewall exceptions are in place to allow communication with the proxy server. Also verify that the proxy server is configured to allow communication from the requested port.


B-7:

Troubleshooting client-side connectivity issues

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 A user reports that she’s not able to send or receive e-mail. What steps should you take?

2 If the user still reports problems after you’ve checked the settings on her computer, what’s a likely next step?

3 What are some reasons a user could have problems accessing an FTP server?

4 A user reports that he’s having trouble accessing the Web. You’ve verified that he has local network connectivity. What other issues might be causing this problem?


15–35

Windows Network Diagnostics One of the tools built into Windows 7 and Windows Vista for troubleshooting network problems is Windows Network Diagnostics. This utility automates many of the steps for troubleshooting TCP/IP and network connectivity. You can access Windows Network Diagnostics by using a number of methods. For example, Exhibit 15-7 shows the Network and Sharing Center of a computer that can’t connect to the Internet. You could launch Windows Network Diagnostics on this computer by clicking the “Troubleshoot problems” link on Windows 7 or the “Diagnose and repair” link in the Tasks pane on Windows Vista, or clicking the red “X” displayed on the Internet connection. Other methods for launching Windows Network Diagnostics include the following:  Right-click the Network icon in the system tray and choose “Troubleshoot problems” in Windows 7, “Diagnose and repair” in Windows Vista.  In the Network Connections window, right-click the appropriate network connection and choose Diagnose.

Exhibit 15-7: The Network and Sharing Center provides access to Windows Network Diagnostics

15–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows Network Diagnostics tasks When you run Windows Network Diagnostics, it attempts to diagnose many of the common problems encountered on TCP/IP networks. For example, it can typically identify problems such as an incorrect subnet mask or default gateway address, a DNS server that is down, a disabled network adapter, or a network adapter that you need to reset, as shown in Exhibit 15-8. Click one of the options displayed to see if it solves the problem.

Exhibit 15-8: Windows Network Diagnostics helps you resolve many common TCP/IP problems Wireless networks Windows Network Diagnostics can help you resolve problems with wireless networks, too. The utility will attempt to identify the cause of the problem you’re experiencing, and then walk you through the steps to correct the problem. In addition, information about the problems the utility detects is recorded in the System log, with the Event ID of 6100. You can review these events to help identify the cause of the problem with the wireless network.


B-8:

15–37

Troubleshooting with Windows Network Diagnostics

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click the network icon in the system tray Click Open Network and Sharing Center

2 In the Tasks pane, click Change adapter settings

3 In the Network Connections window, right-click Local Area Connection and choose

To open the Properties dialog box for the local area connection.

Properties

4 On the Networking tab, select

(Don’t clear the checkbox.)

Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)

Click Properties 5 Enter an invalid DNS server address Click OK

To open the Properties dialog box for the TCP/IP protocol. To deliberately misconfigure your computer so that it cannot connect to the Internet. You will troubleshoot the “problem” in upcoming steps. To save your changes.

Click Close Close the Network Connections window 6 Open Network and Sharing Center 7 In the Network and Sharing Center, click Troubleshoot

To open Windows Network Diagnostics so that you can diagnose why your computer can’t access the Internet.

8 Click Internet Connections

Windows may or may not be able to identify the problem or repair the problem automatically.

problems

Click Next Click Troubleshoot my connection to the Internet

9 Read the message box

Click Close

Windows cannot communicate with the Primary DNS Server. It can’t repair the problem automatically.

15–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 10 In the Network Connections window, right-click Local Area Connection and choose Properties

On the Networking tab, select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)

Click Properties 11 Enter a valid DNS server address Click OK and Close

To open the Properties dialog box for the TCP/IP protocol. So that your computer can connect to the Internet. To save your changes.

12 Close Network Connections 13 Verify that you can connect to the Internet

Use Internet Explorer or observe the connection information reported in the Network and Sharing Center.

14 Close all open windows 15 You have just run Windows Network Diagnostics to identify a problem with a computer’s wireless connection. You want to view the information reported by the utility in the computer’s event logs. Which event log should you check?


15–39

Unit summary: Network troubleshooting Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to build hardware and software toolkits to help in your troubleshooting practice.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned to troubleshoot the network. You learned to troubleshoot the physical network by troubleshooting cables and wireless devices. Then you learned how to troubleshoot the logical network by troubleshooting TCP/IP and client connectivity issues.

Review questions 1 Which utility enables you to reset a computer’s network adapter? A Network Map B Windows Network Diagnostics C IPCONFIG D Local Area Connection 2 What steps can you take to minimize electrical interference on a wired LAN? Install cables in separate conduits, away from items such as electric motors, fluorescent lights, and air conditioners. In areas where there’s an abundance of electrical noise, use shielded cables or other technologies such as fiber optic cables to avoid interference.

3 What might be the cause if you cannot connect to a radio wireless device? Answers include:

 Out of range  Interference from electrical motors or equipment  Drivers not installed  Wireless router turned off  Security settings preventing connections 4 Which command displays the IP address of the host and other configuration information? A getmac B ipconfig C nslookup D ping

15–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 5 List four physical cable tests you can perform with a cable testing device. Answers include:

 Locating miswired cables  Locating missing cables  Locating cables that don’t support your network type (for example, 100 Base-T)  Testing hub connections  Testing PC connections  Testing installed cables  Testing patch cables  Locating and tracing inactive cables 6 A network analyzer can detect problems with what four pieces of hardware?

 Cabling  Jacks  Network cards  Hubs 7 What information does the ipconfig command report?

 Connection-specific DNS suffix  IP address  Subnet mask  Default gateway 8 What command should you enter to view the Host Name and DNS Server address? ipconfig /all

9 Which command would you use to verify name resolution (DNS) settings? A ipconfig B ping C nslookup D tracert 10 What is the difference between SMTP and POP3? SMTP is used primarily for sending e-mail, and POP3 is used for retrieving e-mail.

11 _________ is the decrease in signal strength along the length of a network wire. Attenuation

12 True or false? QoS can be used to prioritize video and VoIP transmission to reduce jitters. True

13 Which ipconfig switch is used to delete all name resolution information from the client’s DNS Resolver cache? /flushdns


15–41

Independent practice activity In this activity, you will discuss and apply various troubleshooting techniques. Note: Form teams and discuss the following questions. There are no definite answers for these questions. 1 A user is unable to access the network from his or her workstation. Role-play troubleshooting this user’s problem. 2 On an IP network that’s connected to the Internet through a router providing network address translation, Jim reports that he can’t browse the Internet. List the steps to resolve the problem. a Launch your Web browser and verify that you can browse. b Ping Jim’s computer. c If you receive a response that indicates that his host adapter is active, verify that the appropriate name servers are defined. d If they are, verify that the default gateway is specified to be the router’s LAN IP address. e If it isn’t set, set the gateway address. Then reboot. f

If you can browse the Web, inform Jim about the nature of the problem.

g Document the problem, the symptoms, and the resolution.


16–1

Unit 16 Portable computers Unit time: 120 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Identify and install notebook components. B Configure your mobile computer. C Replace components in notebook

computers and handheld devices. D Troubleshoot and maintain notebook

components.

16–2


Topic A: Notebook computers This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.3

Classify power supplies, types and characteristics  AC adapter

1.10

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features  Communication connections – Bluetooth – Infrared – Cellular WAN – Ethernet – Modem  Power and electrical input devices – Auto-switching – Fixed input power supplies – Batteries  Input devices – Stylus / digitizer – Function keys – Point devices (e.g., touchpad, point stick / track point)

Notebook computer components Explanation

Notebook computers are small computers with all the necessary input and output components contained in a portable unit. They typically weigh less than five pounds, although some of the more powerful notebooks weigh closer to eight pounds. Notebooks use standard client operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, or Linux. They contain all of the components a desktop computer needs to be a functional computing device, although most components are modified to some extent from their desktop versions. Exhibit 16-1 shows a notebook computer.

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Monitor

Keyboard

Touchpad (pointing device)

Exhibit 16-1: A notebook computer A typical notebook computer contains the following components:  CPU  Memory  Hard drive  CD or DVD drive  Keyboard  Monitor  Pointing device  Peripheral ports  Network adapter  Modem  One or more slots for expansion cards (However, the cards aren’t the same as those used with desktop computers.) Although notebook computers contain the same components as their desktop counterparts, due to their smaller size and decreased capacity to dissipate the heat generated by more powerful internal components, you’ll find that notebooks typically aren’t as powerful or fast as desktop models. Notebook computers aren’t nearly as easy to upgrade as their desktop counterparts. There’s little compatibility between notebook computers within a manufacturer’s line, and even less between notebooks from other companies. There aren’t extra slots and bays awaiting the latest additions. Typically, notebooks are more expensive to begin with because the components are specifically made for each model or line. When pricing a notebook computer that contains components with comparable performance as a desktop computer, you’ll pay more for the notebook computer. Designers try to create notebooks that are as small, lightweight, and portable as possible. This small size makes them prone to being stolen. For this reason, a security cable slot is included somewhere on the outside of the case. The security cable has a small plate that turns perpendicular to the slot when it’s locked, so if someone tries to pull it out, it breaks the case. Locks come with either a key or a combination.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Netbooks There’s a class of notebook computers called subcompact notebooks or netbooks. These notebooks are much smaller than their regular counterparts, but also have an integrated monitor. Netbooks can be as small as 5" across and weigh as little as two pounds. A Sony Vaio P-class "Lifestyle PC” is shown in Exhibit 16-2. Netbooks are designed for wireless Internet use—Web browsing, e-mail, and cloud computing (accessing remote-based applications). Therefore, they don’t have the processing power or storage capacity of a regular notebook computer running local applications. A big advantage, however, is that netbooks are very easy to travel with because of their small size. Currently, netbooks are available with these operating systems: Linux, Mac OS X, Windows CE, Windows XP, Windows Vista Home Premium or Business, and Windows 7 Starter and Home Premium. Microsoft has made Windows 7 Home Premium, Windows 7 Professional, and Windows 7 Ultimate netbook upgrades available for download from their online store.

Exhibit 16-2: Sony Vaio P class subcompact notebook

Power sources Notebook computers contain a battery that provides anywhere from 30 minutes to 8 hours of power. Notebook batteries come in a variety of sizes and shapes. They’re designed to fit in around other notebook components, so they might be oddly shaped. Usually, they’re rectangular or square with a connector on one edge. Exhibit 16-3 shows a notebook battery.

Exhibit 16-3: A notebook battery

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There are three basic types of batteries: nickel cadmium (NiCad), nickel metal-hydride (NiMH), and lithium ion (Li-Ion). Most notebooks have Li-Ion batteries. Older systems might still use Ni-Cad or NiMH batteries.  NiCad batteries often have a problem called memory effect. A NiCad battery remembers how full it was during the last charge and doesn’t charge past that point.  Nickel metal-hydride batteries have two to three times the capacity of a similar size NiCad battery. They also suffer from memory effect, but not as great as NiCad batteries. However, NiMH batteries have a higher self-discharge rate than both NiCad and Li-Ion batteries. NiMH batteries use hydrogen instead of cadmium lead, making them a more environmentally friendly choice.  Li-Ion batteries are lightweight and have a long battery life. The liquid electrolyte is contained within a steel structure to prevent leakage. Another alternative is lithium polymer, which uses a jellied substance rather than a liquid for the electrolyte material. Zinc Air batteries are a new technology that uses a carbon membrane to absorb oxygen. They also contain a zinc plate and use potassium hydroxide for the electrolyte. However, this type of battery is not rechargeable and needs to be used quickly before the chemicals dry out. Fuel cells are predicted to be a popular battery choice in the future. These are still in development, but they show great potential, not only for notebook computers, but also for cars and other devices all around us. Power adapters Notebook computers also come with an external power cord and transformer (often referred to as an "AC adapter” or "fixed-input power supply”), which you can use to power the notebook when you aren’t mobile. Notebook computers automatically switch power from the power outlet to the battery when you unplug them from the wall, and they automatically switch power from the battery to the power outlet when plugged back into the wall outlet. You also use the power cord to recharge the battery. The power cord has a transformer between the outlet and the computer. It’s a square or rectangular box, so it’s often referred to as the power brick. Exhibit 16-4 shows a notebook power cord. The power cord’s size and shape vary from notebook to notebook but are similar to the one shown. If you need to replace either the power cord or the battery, make sure you purchase one specifically designed for your notebook computer.

Transformer Outlet plug Computer plug

Exhibit 16-4: A notebook power cord

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two You can purchase a 12-volt power adapter that connects to the auxiliary power socket in a vehicle or on an airplane. These adapters are available from the manufacturer or from a third party with adapters to fit your notebook model. The 12-volt power adapters also work in the cigarette-lighter socket of older automobiles. Power states The power button is usually located on the interior surface near the keyboard. This location prevents the computer from accidentally turning on when you’re transporting it in a case or under your arm. In addition, there might be a switch that puts the notebook in hibernation mode if you close the lid. Opening the lid is usually not enough to wake the computer up from this mode; you need to press the power button to bring the computer back to life. The power light’s color and state indicate how power is being supplied and used.  A solid light, typically green or blue, indicates that the notebook is being powered from the outlet, and its battery is fully charged.  A solid alternate-color light, such as orange or yellow, indicates that the notebook is being powered from the outlet, and its battery is being recharged.  A blinking light indicates that the notebook is in power-saving sleep mode. You can press the power button to wake it up. The color of light varies. On some models, it’s the same green or blue that indicates that the notebook is powered from the outlet. On other models, the blinking light is orange, yellow, or another color. Check the documentation for your notebook to determine which colors and steadiness modes it uses to indicate power use. Auto-switching Notebook computers have the ability to switch between the battery and the AC power supply automatically. When the AC power supply is connected to the notebook and an external power supply, the notebook computer runs on the power supplied by the external source. When you unplug the AC power supply from the notebook computer or from the external power source, the notebook computer automatically switches to battery power. The notebook continues to run on battery power until the battery is fully discharged or you reconnect the notebook to an external power supply. The operating system on the notebook monitors the power remaining in the battery and displays warnings as the power reaches low levels. This allows you either to save your work and shut down the computer or to connect the notebook to an external power supply.

Processors Notebook computers often use special CPUs that are engineered specifically to use less power and generate less heat than typical desktop CPUs. Intel, AMD, and other manufacturers are continually improving and updating their processors. For the most upto-date specifications, you should refer to the manufacturers’ Web sites.  AMD notebook processors: http://www.amd.com/us/products/notebook/processors/Pages/no tebook-processors.aspx

 Intel notebook processors: http://www.intel.com/products/laptop/processors/index.htm

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The website "NOTEBOOKCHECK” maintains a comparison of CPU benchmarks for mobile processors. You can find the searchable list at: http://www.notebookcheck.net/Mobile-ProcessorsBenchmarklist.2436.0.html

Heat dissipation As processors work at faster speeds, they produce additional heat. Typically, desktop computers dissipate this heat with a heat sink. Most notebook computers also use a heat sink, but it’s not as large as that of a desktop computer. Notebook computers employ a feature called thermal throttling, in which the processor senses that it’s getting too hot and automatically reduces the clock speed to consume less power and produce less heat. Thermal throttling reduces the notebook’s power consumption enough to prevent heat damage to the processor and other internal components. Power management Notebook computers also use power management features to help keep overheating in check and manage battery usage. The processor runs at a low speed until it detects that you have requested processor-intensive tasks. The processor speed increases to accomplish the tasks. If you do a lot of processor-intensive tasks, you might get better performance by manually setting the power management options. You can set them in the system BIOS or, in newer operating systems such as Windows Vista and Windows 7, from within the GUI. You can use the power management options to set your own custom balance among heat, performance, and battery life or to choose one of the operating system’s preset power schemes. Most notebook computers now incorporate the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) to control the amount of power drawn from the battery when the notebook is not in use. ACPI is an open industry specification that was co-developed by Compaq, Intel, Microsoft, Phoenix, and Toshiba to establish standard interfaces for operating system configuration and power management on laptops, desktops, and servers. In order to fully use all ACPI features, the computer’s hardware, system BIOS, and operating system must support ACPI. You’re likely to encounter three power states on notebook computers—Sleep, Hibernate, and Standby. Newer notebook computers that are designed specifically for mobile computing integrate wireless network adapters onto their motherboards to seamlessly connect to Wi-Fi networks. Manufacturers use this integration to apply power management options to network connectivity.

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Memory Memory modules for notebook computers are different from those found in desktop computers. Notebook memory chips have a smaller form factor than desktop memory chips in order to fit into the notebook memory sockets. Notebooks typically use lowprofile SODIMM chips. The SODIMM, which stands for "small outline dual inline memory module" has become a standard for many notebook computers. The SODIMM is approximately half the size of a regular DIMM, measuring 6.76 cm x 3.015 cm. SODIMMs have 72, 100, 144, 200, or 204 pins. Other notebooks might use MicroDIMM memory, which uses CSP architecture, grid ball array, or other such technologies. MicroDIMM memory chips are smaller than SODIMM chips, measuring 4.25 cm x 2.5 cm or 5.4 cm x 3.0 cm, and are typically used in subnotebooks. Micro DIMM modules can have 144, 172 or 214 pins. The type of memory your particular notebook uses depends on the motherboard installed. Exhibit 16-5 shows a notebook memory chip.

Exhibit 16-5: A notebook SODIMM

Drives Notebook computers are equipped with a hard drive and a DVD or CD drive. It’s unusual to find a modern notebook with a floppy drive. The DVD or CD drive might or might not be an RW drive. Hard drives in notebooks typically have a smaller capacity than hard drives in desktop computers. A common drive size for a notebook computer, at the time this course was written, was 320 GB. The notebook hard drive has a small form factor; it’s usually a 2.5" drive. The hard drive is designed to use less power than typical desktop drives. It’s often slower than the desktop hard drive as well.

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Keyboards The keyboard on a notebook computer is smaller than a standard desktop keyboard. Several of the keys contain functions usually found on separate keys on a desktop keyboard. To access the alternate functions, you press a function key, labeled "Fn,” along with the other key. As shown in Exhibit 16-6, the alternate functions are usually written in smaller, light type, or in a different color, on the edge of the key. Function keys have alternate functions as well. These are usually functions that, for a desktop computer, would have separate physical buttons on the monitor or the computer. Functions include adjusting the volume, switching between the built-in monitor and an external monitor, changing the display’s brightness, and using Num Lock. Refer to your documentation for additional information on other alternate functions that might be included on your keyboard. The keys are placed close together on a notebook keyboard. For people with large fingers, this can make it more difficult to type. Some notebooks have a PS2 port to which you can connect an external keyboard. If your notebook doesn’t, and you want an external keyboard, you’ll need to find one that can be connected via a USB port. Fn function

Exhibit 16-6: Notebook keyboards combine functions on keys

Monitors The monitor is an integrated component of a notebook computer, just as the keyboard is. The monitor forms the hinged cover for the laptop. Most notebook monitors are very thin LCD devices. LCD technology is used in notebook computers because:  Less power is used.  Less heat is created.  Less space is used for an equivalent size viewable area compared to other technologies.  The user experiences less glare.

16–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two LCD technologies There are three types of LCD technologies used in notebooks:  Transmissive — Illuminated by fluorescent backlighting; renders the greatest color depth, sharpest text, and highest resolutions of the three LCD technologies. However, it uses the most power from your notebook’s battery, and the screen image can be overpowered by external bright lighting.  Reflective — Uses a mirror to reflect ambient light and illuminate the display. This technology uses the least amount of power from your notebook’s battery. Reflective technology screens are ideal for use in bright sunlight, but are dim when you view them indoors.  Transflective — A hybrid between transmissive and reflective screen technologies. When you use them indoors, transflective screens use backlighting to render images. When you use them outdoors, transflective screens absorb the sun’s rays to produce a brighter image. This technology is more expensive and is typically reserved for specialty portable devices or laptops for specialty markets, such as law enforcement. Native resolutions The native resolution is the number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix. The common conventional 4:3 resolutions found in notebook monitors include:  XGA — 1024×768 pixels; 12.1" to 15" viewable area  SXGA — 1280×1024 pixels; 14.1" viewable area  SXGA+ — 1400×1050 pixels; 12.1" to 15" viewable area  UXGA — 1600×1200 pixels; 15" viewable area Widescreen 16:10 resolutions found in newer notebook monitors include:  WXGA — 1280×800 pixels; 12.1" to 17" widescreen viewable area  WXGA+ — 1440×900 pixels; 14.1" to 17" widescreen viewable area  WSXGA+ — 1680×1050 pixels; 15.4" to 20.1" widescreen viewable area  WUXGA — 1920×1200 pixels; 15.4" to 17" widescreen viewable area Netbooks have smaller screens than notebook computers. Netbooks with a larger screen size of approximately 10 inches, tend to use the WSVGA widescreen resolution of 1024×600 pixels. Those with the smaller 7" screen use a VGA resolution of 800×480 pixels. LCD monitors produce the clearest picture when all pixels are used. Although you can usually configure an LCD monitor for a lower resolution than the native resolution, the image will be somewhat blurry because not all pixels will be illuminated. On a few LCD monitors, you can set a higher resolution than the native resolution, but again, the image might not be as clear as the image at the native resolution. Active matrix technology Modern notebook monitors are active matrix monitors that use TFT (thin-film transistor) technology to provide the highest resolution available. The TFT layer of the active matrix monitor stores the electrical state of each pixel as all of the pixels are updated. This arrangement provides an exceptionally clear display. Older monitors use passive matrix technology, in which the pixel states aren’t maintained as other pixels are refreshed. These monitors are less expensive than active matrix monitors, but the images are not as clear or bright.

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Contrast ratio The contrast ratio of a monitor is the ratio between its brightest white and darkest black. A minimum ratio for comfortable viewing is in the range of 400:1 to 600:1. Higher-end, large LCD monitors can have contrast ratios of 80,000:1 to 100,000:1.

Pointing devices Notebook computers have integrated pointing devices built into the middle of the keyboard or below the keys. Some notebooks have a small pointer, much like a joystick, that’s located between the center keys of the keyboard; you push this pointer up, down, left, and right to move the mouse. Separate buttons below the Spacebar are used as the left and right mouse buttons. Trackballs You might encounter some notebook computers with an integrated trackball. Integrated trackballs work like standard trackballs, except that you can’t reposition them next to the computer. Touchpads Other computers have a touch surface, also known as a glide pad or touchpad, below the spacebar. You can tap the pad for a mouse click, or use the buttons below or beside the pad as the left and right mouse buttons. Slide your finger in the direction you want the mouse pointer to move, and then tap the touchpad or the button next to it to make selections. Some notebook cases aren’t very substantial, and resting your hands on the surface next to the touchpad can result in the sensors perceiving that you’ve chosen to move the mouse pointer. This can be bothersome, so advise users only to rest their hands lightly on the surface to avoid this problem. An integrated touchpad is shown in Exhibit 16-7.

Glide surface Right button Left button

Exhibit 16-7: Touchpad integrated into a notebook computer Handwriting technology Technology has allowed manufacturers to incorporate the handwriting techniques used on handheld devices into notebooks. With this technology, you can use a stylus to write letters and numbers on the screen, and a program on the notebook interprets them for use in applications, just as if you’d used the keyboard. Tablet PCs incorporate this technology.

16–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Peripheral ports Most notebook computers include one or more USB and IEEE 1394 ports. Some also include a VGA or DVI port to connect an external monitor, and even an HDMI port for connecting to an HD TV. An S-video port might also be included. Many notebook computers include memory card readers to read flash memory cards. Flash memory cards are used in consumer electronics, such as digital cameras, MP3 players, and cell phones. You remove the memory card from your electronic device, slide the card into the appropriate card reader port on the notebook, and then you can transfer information between the card and the notebook. Many people like to connect their notebooks to external peripherals while they aren’t mobile. The notebook might or might not include a PS/2 port. If it does, you can connect an external keyboard to it. If not, then you need a USB keyboard or a PS/2-toUSB adapter if you want to use an external keyboard. If your notebook has a single PS/2 port, you can purchase a special adapter so that you can plug in both an external mouse and a keyboard. The keyboard and mouse ports on the adapter are labeled. With such Y-adapters, be sure to connect the keyboard and mouse to the proper ports, or they won’t work. Line-in, line-out, and mic ports might be included as well. Speakers are usually built into the notebook, with the speaker grilles located on the surface. Exhibit 16-8 shows built-in line-out and mic ports, along with volume control buttons, on a notebook computer.

Microphone port Line out

Volume controls Mute button

Exhibit 16-8: Built-in sound functions

Portable computers Do it!

A-1:

16–13

Identifying the components and integrated peripherals in a notebook

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, turn off your computer 2 Locate the battery compartment

It’s on the bottom of the computer.

Press the battery release

This is located near the battery compartment in most cases.

Remove the battery

You might need to remove an access cover first.

Replace the battery

If necessary, lock the battery compartment.

3 Locate the power cord

It should have a transformer box either on a separate segment of power cord or integrated into a single power cord.

Plug the power cord into the computer and an electrical outlet 4 Open the cover of the notebook 5 Locate the power button

Be sure you identify the power button and not a Suspend or Sleep mode button.

Turn on the computer 6 Examine the keyboard

Locate the Fn key and see if you can figure out what the symbols on the keyboard indicate. Check your answers against the documentation for the notebook computer.

7 Identify the peripheral ports on your notebook

Check your answers against the documentation for your notebook computer. There are usually USB, VGA, and parallel ports. Other ports might also be included.

8 Determine if your notebook has built-in Ethernet, wireless network, and/or modem features

Check your answers against the documentation for your notebook computer.

If these features aren’t present, how can you add these functions? 9 Log on to Windows 7

16–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 10 Run an application Place your computer in Hibernate mode Wake your computer back up Close the application

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Wireless communications Wireless connections are a popular means of linking devices, such as PCs, handheld computers, music players, and more. Wireless connections generally use one of the following:  Infrared light  Radio waves  Bluetooth Infrared Infrared wireless technology uses pulses of invisible infrared light to transmit signals between devices. It offers relatively low-speed, line-of-site connections between devices. Infrared light can’t pass through obstructions or around corners. Connection speeds can be up to 16 Mbps, with a typical range of one meter. To make connections, devices must aim their transceivers almost directly at each other. Devices that are more than 30 degrees off to the side of a receiver are generally unable to connect. Devices that use infrared include handheld computers, such as PDAs, and some wireless keyboards, mice, and printers. Infrared connection technology standards are set forth by the Infrared Data Association (IrDA).

Exhibit 16-9: An IrDA infrared port on a laptop Radio waves Radio-based wireless communications use signals sent over electromagnetic radio waves to transmit data between devices. Radio transmissions can pass through most nonmetallic obstructions and around corners. Thus, it isn’t a line-of-site technology. Radio offers moderate- to high-speed local and wide area connections. Various radio networking technologies have been developed. Currently, the most common of these include 802.11g and 802.11n. The 802.11n standard offers a theoretical maximum of 300 Mbps for business or home networking and Internet connectivity over modest distances. Intel is seeing real-world speeds of 100–140 Mbps. This range is in comparison with the 802.11g standard’s theoretical maximum speed of 54 Mbps, with real-world speeds of 22–24 Mbps.

16–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Radio networking technologies are sometimes called "RF technologies,” where "RF” stands for "radio frequency.” RF devices have antennae, which are sometimes hidden inside the devices. For example, a laptop’s 802.11n wireless network adapter antenna is typically hidden within the laptop’s case. A Linksys WRT160N 802.11n wireless router, with additional wired Ethernet ports, is shown in Exhibit 16-10. The wireless antennas are hidden inside the case.

Exhibit 16-10: An 802.11n wireless router Bluetooth Bluetooth is a short-distance (up to 10 meters) radio communications technology, developed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which includes over a thousand companies. Chief among these are Siemens, Intel, Toshiba, Motorola, and Ericsson. Bluetooth is designed to enable devices—such as cellular telephones, PDAs, personal audio players, PC peripherals, and PCs—to discover the presence of other Bluetooth devices within range. Once detected, these devices self-configure and begin communicating. With Bluetooth devices, you shouldn’t have to configure any communications parameters, such as network addresses. Bluetooth devices have antennae, which are usually hidden inside the devices. A cell phone that supports Bluetooth probably has an external antenna for both cellular telephone communications and Bluetooth connectivity.

Network connections Most notebooks now include both a LAN interface and a wireless one. The LAN interface is typically an RJ-45 port for an Ethernet network. Many notebook computers also include a modem port. Wireless technology for network connectivity is becoming increasingly popular for LANs, especially in buildings where it might be difficult to install new wiring.

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Ethernet Ethernet is the most popular form of LAN in use today. It’s popular mainly because it strikes a good balance between ease of setup and use, speed, and cost. Three types of Ethernet architecture are available now. Each is distinguished primarily by the speed at which it operates. Each version can be set up with various types of wire or cable, but each version’s speed and operating conditions might dictate what type of connecting wire is used. Most current Ethernet installations use shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable, or fiber optic cable. Wireless networks As their name suggests, wireless LANs don’t use wires to connect the nodes of the network. The nodes aren’t physically connected to one another or to a central device. Instead, they communicate with an access point or wireless hub by using a wireless network interface card (NIC), which includes a transceiver and an antenna. The wireless NIC allows the node to communicate over relatively short distances by using radio waves, which it sends to the nearest hub and receives from the hub. The major wireless technologies include:  Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) — The marketing name for IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g and IEEE 802.11n technologies. You find Wi-Fi in public places, such as airports and coffee shops, that offer Internet access.  WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard) — In wireless metropolitan area networks.  Cellular WAN — Uses cellular phone technology and equipment to link a handheld PC to the Internet or another network.  Bluetooth — Short-range wireless technology used to connect nodes in a single room or in adjacent rooms.  802.11a — Developed at the same time as 802.11b. Due to its higher cost, it was used in business networks, while 802.11b dominated the home market.

16–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Most notebook computers include a toggle switch to turn the wireless antenna on and off. This switch can be electrical or mechanical, as shown in Exhibit 16-11. With mechanical switches, many manufacturers also use an LED somewhere on the case around the keyboard to indicate that wireless is turned on. One of the reasons you might turn off the wireless antenna is to save power. Also, if you’re in a wireless hotspot but aren’t using the network connection, when you turn off the wireless, it removes your computer from the public network, thus preventing hackers from accessing it remotely. Electrical switch Mechanical switch

Exhibit 16-11: Electrical and mechanical switches Do it!

A-2:

Comparing wireless networking standards

Questions 1 In wireless communications, what replaces the wire? 2 List the major wireless technologies 3 Which wireless standard is typically used in airports and coffee shops? 4 What’s the range of the Bluetooth technology? 5 Which wireless technology connects mobile users to the Internet, using a well-established network, but is relatively slow, at speeds equivalent to dial-up (56 Kbps)?

Answers

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Topic B: Configuration This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.10

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features  Power and electrical input devices – Fixed input power supplies – Batteries

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Configure power management – Suspend – Hibernate – Standby

Explanation

As with any Windows computer, there are many features you can configure on a notebook computer to optimize it for the way you use it every day. The Windows Mobility Center provides a central location for a variety of settings, including power and display options, that you can access with just a few clicks, instead of opening multiple windows in the Control Panel. In addition, optimizing power settings to maximize usage and battery life is an important consideration on all notebook computers.

The Windows Mobility Center Both Windows 7 and Windows Vista provide a built-in utility for mobile computers called Windows Mobility Center. As shown in Exhibit 16-12, this utility contains tiles that link to different utilities, providing a central location from which you can configure your mobile computer. You will find the Windows Mobility Center only on mobile computers (which include tablet PCs), and the tiles might vary by computer manufacturer. Not all computers display all of the same tiles.


Exhibit 16-12: The Windows Mobility Center on a notebook computer running Windows 7 To open the Windows Mobility Center: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 In Windows 7, under Hardware and Sound, click Adjust commonly used mobility settings. In Windows Vista, click Mobile PC, and then click Windows Mobility Center. You can also right-click the battery icon in the notification area in Windows 7 or click the battery icon in Windows Vista and choose Windows Mobility Center. Typically, Windows Mobility Center will contain tiles for the following:  Display brightness  Volume  Battery status  Wireless networking status  Screen orientation (important for tablet PCs)  External display  Sync Center  Presentation settings


B-1:

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Using the Windows Mobility Center

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Follow your instructor’s directions to log on to the notebook computer 2 Open the Control Panel Click Adjust commonly used mobility settings

3 Adjust the brightness of the display 4 Adjust sound volume 5 Observe the battery status

You can see how much battery power you have remaining. You can also select a different power plan from the list.

6 Observe the Wireless Network status

You may or may not be connected to a wireless network at this point.

7 If you are using a tablet PC, observe the orientation setting

You can switch between portrait and landscape orientation.

8 Observe the External Display setting

If you don’t have an external display connected, this tile will be grayed out and you’ll be given the option to connect an external display.

9 Observe the Sync Center tile

You can use the Sync Center to synchronize files between your notebook and other mobile devices, such as PDAs, and between your notebook and client computers and servers on the network.

10 Observe the Presentation Settings tile

You can use this tile to quickly set up your computer for a presentation for which you’ll be using a projector or other external display device.

11 Close Windows Mobility Center

Leave the Control Panel open.

16–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Power-saving modes Computers use electricity as their source of power. They can use a considerable amount of power even when they sit unused and idle. Power consumption, although a bit expensive, is less of a concern with desktop computers than with portable computers that get their power from rechargeable batteries. Modern computers include support for power-saving measures, such as shutting off unused components. Windows includes the software components required to take advantage of these power management features. A Windows computer can be in one of the following three power-saving modes:  Standby — Standby is a user-configurable, power-saving mode that’s activated in order to conserve the battery. Some components are turned off or switched to a power-saving mode. For example, you might configure the hard disk to turn off, the display to turn down or off completely, and the processor to throttle down to a lower-power mode. Programs continue to run while your computer is in standby mode. Standby is a sleep power state that must be supported by a computer’s hardware and operating system. Computers enter standby mode on their own after a configurable interval of no user interaction. Typically, to take a computer out of standby, you move the mouse, press any key on the keyboard, or press the power button. Unlike Suspend and Hibernate, nothing is saved in memory or on the hard disk. Restoring full operations from Standby is faster than restoring from a shutdown or from Hibernation or Sleep mode.  Sleep — In ACPI sleep mode, the system enters a low-power state. System configuration information, open applications, and files are stored in RAM, but the screen and hard disk and most of the other notebook components are turned off. The computer draws just enough power to preserve the contents of RAM. Most components in the computer are turned off. Computers typically enter sleep mode on their own after a configurable interval with no user interaction. On many desktops, you can press a special sleep key on the keyboard to put the computer to sleep. On many notebooks, closing the lid puts the computer to sleep. Typically, you must press the power button, press the sleep key, or open the laptop’s cover to wake the computer from sleep mode. In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, notebooks enter this mode automatically when you lower the notebook cover or press the Sleep or Suspend key. Lifting the cover or pressing the Sleep or Suspend key again “wakes up” the computer, and the battery refreshes the information stored in RAM.  Hibernation — The computer takes all current applications running in RAM, saves them in the swap partition on the hard disk, and then turns the notebook’s power off. All components of the computer are turned off. As a result, the Hibernate power state requires zero power. When you wake the computer, information stored on the hard disk is loaded back into RAM and appears in the same state as before the hibernation. The contents of the temporary file are read into memory, and programs are reactivated. The OS is restored faster from this state than from a shutdown, but more slowly than from the Sleep power state. Your computer might hibernate after a configurable period of inactivity. Sometimes pressing the power button hibernates a computer, as is often the case with notebook computers. You must press the power button to wake the computer from hibernation.

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Your notebook might or might not be configured to support sleep and hibernate modes the way you want. Many people find it most convenient to have their laptop go to sleep when they close the cover, and have the computer hibernate when they press the power button. You can configure these actions by following these steps in Windows Vista and Windows 7: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click Hardware and Sound. 3 Under Power Options, click "Change what the power buttons do.” 4 Using the lists, select the action you want taken when you close the lid or press the power button. You can specify different actions depending on whether the computer is running from the battery or is plugged in. 5 Click Save changes.

Power options You can configure which components are powered down and when with standby mode. You can configure whether your computer goes to sleep and the interval after which it will do so. You can also configure whether your computer supports hibernation and how you hibernate your computer. You do all this through the Power Options window in the Control Panel, shown in Exhibit 16-13.

Exhibit 16-13: Selecting a power plan in Windows 7

16–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Power plans By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista offers three power plans, each of which represents a set of power-saving options. You can customize the default plans or create your own. The standard plans are:  Balanced — Balances energy savings and performance. This plan is typically used on desktop computers.  Power saver — Favors energy savings over responsiveness. You might have to wait while components power up, or wake your computer more often than with another plan. This plan is typically used on notebook computers.  High performance — Favors performance over energy savings. Fewer components are turned off, so the computer is more responsive. This plan is typically used with servers and computers that share their resources. Your computer manufacturer might create power plans optimized for its specific hardware and include them in the OEM version of Windows installed on your computer. Do it!

B-2:

Putting a notebook into hibernate and sleep modes

Here’s how 1 Configure your notebook computer to go to sleep when you close the lid, and hibernate when you press the power button. Put your computer to sleep. Move the mouse or press a key to wake your computer. Hibernate your computer. Wake your computer by pressing its power button again. 2 Which is the faster power-saving mode to enter and resume from: sleep or hibernate?

3 Close Power Options.

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16–25

Topic C: Component replacement This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.2

Explain motherboard components, type and features  Bus slots – PCMCIA

1.9

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards  Communication – NIC – Modem

1.10

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features  Expansion devices – PCMCIA cards – PCI Express cards – Docking station  Communication connections – Bluetooth – Infrared – Cellular WAN – Ethernet – Modem  Input devices – Point devices (e.g., touchpad, point stick / track point)

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Demonstrate safe removal of peripherals

16–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.3

Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop components  Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and video card  Hard drive and memory  Disassembly processes for proper reassembly – Document and label cable and screw locations – Organize parts – Refer to manufacturer documentation – Use appropriate hand tools  Recognize internal laptop expansion slot types  Upgrade wireless cards and video card  Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices, heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS battery, speakers

Replacing components in notebooks Explanation

When an internal component of a notebook computer needs replacing, most often you’ll need to purchase the replacement from the manufacturer because most notebooks contain custom devices. However, PC Cards, mini PCI cards, and some other components, such as memory, are standardized so that you can purchase them from any manufacturer. Some third-party manufacturers make replacement components so that you have an alternative to the original equipment manufacturer. Sometimes you can use a PC Card to replace a function that no longer works on the built-in component. If you do this, you might need to disable the built-in component to prevent a conflict between the two components. When you need to replace an internal component, follow these general guidelines for the disassembly process to ensure proper reassembly:  Refer to the manufacturer’s documentation to locate panels or slots through which you can access internal components.  Document and label screw locations to ensure that the correct screws are reinserted in their proper locations.  Organize and separate new parts and any parts you remove from inside the case.  Use hand tools appropriate for working with laptop computers.

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Hot-swappable components Hot-swappable components are those components that you can add or remove without turning the computer off. Technologies that support hot-swapping include:  PCMCIA  USB  IEEE 1394 (commonly referred to as the brand name FireWire)  Fibre Channel (used for enterprise storage)  Serial ATA (SATA) Some computer components, such as the PC Card, require a simple hot-swap. In a simple hot-swap, you shut down the component before removing it. In the Windows operating systems, you accomplish this by clicking the Safely Remove Hardware icon in the system tray and stopping the device.

PC Card cards The expansion cards used in notebook computers are PC Cards. These are roughly the size of a credit card, with varying thicknesses based on the type of card. There are three types of PC Cards. They all have a 68-pin female connector that plugs into a connector in the PC Card slot on the side of the computer. The Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) developed the standards for PC Card adapters. However, the PCMCIA Association has been dissolved. The standards going forward will be managed by the USB Implementer’s Forum. PC Card types The three types of PC Card adapters are:  Type I — 3.3 mm thick  Type II — 5 mm thick  Type III — 10.5 mm thick Most often, you’ll encounter Type II PC Card adapters. These are typically used for network adapters and modems, for adding ports such as FireWire and SCSI, and sometimes for memory. Some of the cards use a dongle to attach to a network cable or to other cables. Other cards use a pop-out port for the connector to plug into. A Type II PC Card is shown in Exhibit 16-14.

Exhibit 16-14: A Type II PC Card

16–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Type I cards are typically used for memory, but aren’t very common because most notebook computers use SODIMMs instead. Type III cards are typically used for additional storage, such as for small hard drives. These aren’t very common, either. There is also a Type IV PC card, which was introduced by Toshiba. However, this type isn’t part of the PCMCIA standards. These cards are 16 mm thick. There are three types of bus connections that PC Cards might use. They’re described in the following table. Bus type

Description

CardBus

Provides 32-bit bus mastering, which allows direct communication between the card and other cards, without requiring access to the computer CPU. Automatically uses Card and Socket Services to allocate resources required by the add-on.

Zoomed Video (ZV)

Communicates directly between the PC card and the video controller without accessing the system bus.

eXecute In Place (XIP)

Runs commands directly from code stored on the PC Card without using system RAM.

The conventional PCI bus is a parallel bus. Depending on the version, the PCI bus transfers either 32 or 64 bits of parallel data. A newer version of the PCI bus, called the ExpressCard, is designed for notebooks. ExpressCard uses a differential serial bus instead of a parallel bus. Compared to conventional PCI buses, the ExpressCard has both a reduced cost and a higher bus speed. The ExpressCard is the same size as a parallel PCI card; however, the ExpressCard isn’t compatible with the parallel PCI bus. Its connectors, signal voltage levels, and format are different from those of a parallel PCI bus. Inserting and removing PC Cards You insert the PC Card straight into the slot, and it connects to the pins in the back of the slot. Before removing a PC Card, you should stop its services by using the Safely Remove Hardware icon in the system tray. Then you press the Eject button on the case to pop the card out of the slot.

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Card and socket services The PC Card specification includes specifications for software support of the physical cards. This is a three-layer structure that provides plug-and-play functionality. The following table describes the software layers. Layer

Description

Metaformat, also known as Card Information Structure (CIS)

Composed of the Basic Compatibility, Data Recording, Data Organization, and System-Specific layers. The purpose of CIS is to provide a method of data organization and data-recording-format compatibility for a variety of PC Cards.

Card Services

An API that enables the sharing of device drivers and other software by PC Cards and sockets. Card Services is designed to provide support for PC Card devices to share device drivers, configuration utilities, and applications. It’s also designed to provide a single resource for functions shared by the software.

Socket Services

Provides a common interface to the hardware that controls the socket in which PC Cards are connected. This layer provides the upper layers with information about the socket, including the number of sockets, the number of windows, and the power needed for the PC Card.

16–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Installing PC Cards To install a PC Card, you simply slide it into the PC Card slot on the side of the notebook. Be sure to install it with the correct side up so that you don’t bend any of the pins. There’s often an arrow or other indicator showing which way the card should be inserted. Install any device drivers or software if you’re prompted to do so. In Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7, after you’ve installed a removable device, such as a PC Card, an icon appears in the notification area. You can use the Safely Remove Hardware icon to open the Safely Remove Hardware dialog box, which lists the removable hardware devices that are installed. You can view the properties of a device or stop a device from this dialog box. Exhibit 16-15 shows the icon and dialog box.

Exhibit 16-15: The Safely Remove Hardware icon and dialog box Before removing a device, you should always stop the service first. This ensures that the device isn’t being accessed by any programs or services. If it’s a storage device, stopping it ensures that it isn’t in the middle of writing information. Data can become corrupted if you remove the storage device while it’s being written to. In Windows 7, when you click the Safely Remove Hardware icon, you receive a list of hot-swappable devices as shown in Exhibit 16-16. Select the device, and Windows 7 automatically stops the services and prepares the device for removal.

Exhibit 16-16: Safely Remove Hardware menu After stopping the device, you can press the eject button on the computer to release the PC Card from the slot. The button is usually located next to the slot.


C-1:

16–31

Adding and removing hot-swappable components

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, log on to the notebook computer, using the administrative credentials provided by your instructor 2 Attach the USB device provided by your instructor

Windows detects the device and places an icon in the notification area.

If necessary, turn on power to the device If prompted, install any drivers for the device

3 Test the device

Windows Vista doesn’t ship with drivers for all devices. Although it detects the device, you might need to install manufacturer-provided drivers for it to function correctly. To verify that it is installed correctly and functioning as expected.

4 In the notification area, click Safely Remove Hardware and Eject Media

Select your device 5 Detach the USB device

When it is safe to remove the device, Windows 7 displays a message in the notifications area.

16–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Non-hot-swappable components A component that isn’t hot-swappable requires that you shut down the computer before you add or remove the component. You might hear this process referred to as coldplug. In notebook computers, internal components, such as the hard disk and memory, are often coldplug devices. If you’re adding or removing a coldplug component in a notebook computer, you should remove the battery in addition to unplugging the AC power. The battery continues to supply power to the notebook even when the notebook is off. Replacing components while the battery is still in the notebook might permanently damage the unit. Always remember to follow proper ESD guidelines. Notebook computers vary in how they are disassembled. The following sections provide the general steps for replacing each type of internal component. Before attempting to remove or replace any component, always refer to the manufacturer’s documentation for your specific model. Mini PCI cards Another expansion card you might find in notebooks and other portable computer equipment is the mini PCI card. This type of card has the same functionality as a standard PCI card used in desktop computers, but in a smaller format. It’s typically used for communications that are integrated into the notebook, including modems, wired and wireless network cards, and video cards. These cards are installed inside the notebook case, rather than being installed externally like PCI Cards. Exhibit 16-17 shows a builtin modem and network adapter provided by a mini PCI card.

Exhibit 16-17: Built-in modem and network provided by mini PCI cards Mini PCIe cards The Mini PCIe card, shown in Exhibit 16-18, is replacing the Mini PCI card found on many Mini-ITX system boards. It’s smaller than the Mini PCI card by about half—with the Mini PCIe measuring 30 mm x 51 mm, and it has a 52-pin edge connector. The Mini PCIe technology is essentially the same as ExpressCard. The Mini PCIe slot on the system board must support both ExpressCard and USB 2.0, as the Mini PCIe card can use both technologies for connectivity.

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Exhibit 16-18: Mini PCIe card Memory The location of notebook memory modules varies greatly. In some notebooks, you install memory by unscrewing a cover from a compartment on the underside of the case. In others, you need to remove the keyboard from the case to access the memory area. Memory has become more standardized for notebook computers than it was in the past. Previously, each notebook used its own version of memory. Now, it’s easier to find a notebook that uses a standard SODIMM or something similar. When you’re determining the amount of memory to put in a notebook computer, you should be aware of a standard process called shared video memory. In this process, the graphics card uses a portion of the computer’s RAM in addition to any on-board memory of its own. Most often this happens when the graphics card is set to one of the higher display modes. Shared video memory can leave you with less memory than you expected for your applications. For example, if you buy a notebook with 2 GB of memory and 512 MB of shared video memory, and you set your display to a high pixel depth with a 32-bit color palette or you use graphics-intensive applications, you might find that you have only 1.5 GB of available memory (2048-512=1536). To configure shared memory in the BIOS: 1 Enter the computer’s BIOS setup utility. 2 Access the Integrated Peripherals menu. 3 Select the AGP aperture size option. 4 Specify the amount of RAM to be used for shared video memory. Depending on your computer, you can specify from 8 MB up to 128 MB. 5 Save changes and exit the BIOS setup utility. To install additional memory in your computer, refer to the notebook’s documentation for instructions. As with all internal components, you shouldn’t install memory until you shut down the computer, unplug the power cord, and remove the battery. You don’t want to turn on the computer accidentally while you’re installing or replacing the memory.

16–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Drives The hard drive can be accessed from the bottom of the notebook computer. By unscrewing one or more screws, you can remove an access cover and then slide out the hard drive. Removing it might be necessary if the drive fails or if you want to replace it with a higher-capacity drive. Exhibit 16-19 shows a notebook hard drive. Text Hard drive

Screws

Exhibit 16-19: Removing the hard drive from a notebook computer Some notebook computers enable the user to exchange the CD or DVD drive with a floppy or other drive. If the computer is equipped in this manner, you press a release lever or button to eject the drive, and then insert the other drive in its space. If you need to use both drives simultaneously, there might be an adapter you can use to connect the floppy drive externally. If your notebook doesn’t include such a feature, and you really need a floppy drive, you can purchase a floppy drive that connects via the USB port of any computer. Keyboard The general steps to replace a notebook keyboard are as follows: 1 Remove any screws holding the bottom cover in place. 2 Remove the cover. 3 Disconnect the connectors that connect the keyboard cables to the system board. With a ZIF connector, first pull up on the connector, then remove the cable. 4 The keyboard might be held in place by plastic snaps or by screws. If held in by screws, remove the screws. If held in by plastic snaps, gently pry up the edge of the keyboard using a flat-head screwdriver. Lift the keyboard up and out. 5 Gently lift the keyboard out. 6 Gently place the new keyboard in the place of the old one. 7 Connect the keyboard cables to the system board. 8 Replace the bottom cover and reinsert any screws. 9 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source.

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LCD panel and video inverter card LCD panels are fragile and can be easily damaged by mishandling. If the LCD display is dim, you probably need to replace the video inverter card. The video inverter card is the interface between the LCD panel and the system board. If the LCD is entirely black, connect an external display to the notebook. If the external display works, but the LCD does not, you need to replace the LCD panel assembly. If the external display doesn’t work either, you probably need to replace the video adapter card. Replacing a video adapter card or video inverter card is a much less expensive repair than replacing the LCD panel. In fact, sometimes the cost of a new LCD panel can exceed the price of a new notebook. For some models, you replace the entire assembly, which includes the LCD front bezel, hinges, LCD panel, video inverter card, interface cables, and rear cover. In other cases, you replace only the LCD panel and video inverter card. The general steps to disassemble the LCD panel assembly are: 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 If necessary for your notebook, remove the keyboard. 3 If necessary for your notebook, remove screws in the back of the notebook to release the hinge assembly. 4 Remove the hinge covers. These are typically plastic, so be careful not to snap them. 5 Lift the cover off the notebook. As you do so, disconnect any wires or cables that connect the LCD panel to the system board. Be sure to note how these are connected, so you can reconnect them later! 6 Remove the screws that hold the LCD panel in the notebook’s top cover. 7 Remove the front bezel and rear cover from the LCD panel. 8 Remove the video inverter card. 9 Reverse the steps to reassemble and reattach the top with a new LCD panel, video inverter card, or both. 10 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source. Other components Other components you might need to replace on a notebook computer include:  The processor  Heat sink  Fan  The system board  The CMOS battery  Touchpad or other pointing device  Speakers  Web camera  Plastic components, such as internal brackets, wire harnesses, memory covers, and support assemblies

16–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Refer to the notebook’s documentation to determine which parts can be replaced and how to access them. In general, to access these components, you need to disassemble the bottom of the case. Web cameras, and sometimes speakers, are found in the top cover of the notebook and are accessed by disassembling a portion of the top cover. Processor, heat sink, fan The general steps to replace the processor, heat sink, or system fan are: 1 If replacing the processor, update the BIOS. Manufacturers often update their firmware to support newer processors. 2 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 3 Follow the manufacturer’s directions to remove the hinges, bottom cover plate, and keyboard. 4 Detach the LCD assembly from the bottom. 5 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components. This is also referred to as the motherboard cover. 6 In some notebook computers, you might need to remove another component, such as the graphics card assembly, to gain access to the processor underneath. 7 Remove the heat sink. (Sometimes the fan and the heat sink are part of the same cooling assembly.) 8 Unplug and detach the fan. 9 Following the manufacturer’s directions, remove the processor. Some processors have a locking screw, some a locking bar. 10 Remove any thermal compound residue from the bottom of the heat sink and processor (if not replacing the processor). 11 Apply a thin layer of thermal compound and insert the new processor. 12 Reattach and plug in the original or a new system fan. 13 Reattach the original or a new heat sink (if not part of the same cooling assembly as the fan.) 14 Reassemble the notebook reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this point. 15 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source. System board In order to replace the system board, you must disconnect all components from it. The following are general steps to replacing a system board in a notebook: 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 Remove the hard drive, optical drive, and memory. 3 Follow the manufacturer’s directions to remove the hinges, bottom cover plate, and keyboard. 4 Detach the LCD display assembly from the bottom. 5 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components. 6 Carefully remove the internal components attached to the system board. Components to remove might include the heat sink, fan, wireless networking adapter, modem, touchpad or other pointing device, and processor.

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7 Carefully remove the system board from the notebook. It might be held in place by plastic clips or screws. 8 Place the new system board into the computer, carefully lining up the cutouts for side ports, such as USB. 9 Replace the processor, remembering to remove any old thermal compound and to add new. 10 Replace the internal components that were attached to the system board. 11 Reassemble the notebook, reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this point. 12 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source. CMOS battery The CMOS battery in notebook computers is typically located underneath the keyboard. The general steps to replace a notebook CMOS battery are as follows: 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 Follow the steps to remove the keyboard. 3 Remove the plate or shell covering the internal components. 4 Locate the CMOS battery on the system board. 5 Remove the battery. In some notebook computers, it is held in place with clips. In others, the battery is encased in plastic, connected to wires and a connector, and then plugged into the motherboard. In the latter case, you would replace the entire battery assembly, not just the battery itself. 6 Reassemble the notebook. 7 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source. 8 Turn on the computer and enter the CMOS utility. 9 Enter the BIOS settings. 10 Save settings and restart. Pointing device Most notebook computers sold today use a touchpad. In general, the replacement steps to follow are: 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 Follow the steps to disassemble the bottom of the notebook where the system board is located. 3 Disconnect the pointing device’s cables. Make sure to label the cables, so you know where to reattach cables for the right and left mouse buttons. 4 Carefully remove the old pointing device. 5 Insert a new pointing device in its place. 6 Reattach the cables. 7 Reassemble the notebook, reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this point. 8 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source.

16–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Speakers What you must disassemble to replace the speakers depends on where they are mounted in your notebook computer. Most speakers are located on the inside bottom of the notebook, but some might be located in the frame around the LCD screen. 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 Follow the steps to disassemble either the top cover of the notebook, where the LCD screen is located, or the bottom of the notebook, where the system board is located. 3 Locate the speakers (in newer laptops that play stereo sound, there is typically a right and a left speaker) and gently lift them out, disconnecting the cables. 4 Connect the cables for the new speakers and place the speakers in their proper location. 5 Reassemble the notebook, reversing the steps you took to disassemble it to this point. 6 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source. Web camera Web cameras are typically mounted inside the display panel above the LCD screen. In order to replace the Web camera, you follow these general steps: 1 Disconnect the notebook from any external power source and remove the battery. 2 Remove the front bezel from the display panel. Refer to the manufacturer’s documentation for the exact steps to do this. 3 Carefully remove the Web camera, disconnecting its cable. 4 Insert a new camera and connect its cable. 5 Replace the front bezel. 6 Replace the battery and, if desired, reconnect the notebook to an external power source.


C-2:

16–39

Replacing an internal component in a notebook

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Shut down the notebook computer Unplug the computer

From the electrical outlet.

Remove the battery

From the battery compartment.

2 Using the appropriate tools, access the internal component you’ll replace

Refer to your notebook’s documentation for instructions to access the given component.

3 Remove the old component from the computer

Follow the directions in the documentation.

4 Install the new component

Again, refer to the documentation for your notebook.

5 Using the appropriate tools, close the compartment containing the internal component you replaced 6 Start the computer and log on as COMPADMIN##

To verify that the computer successfully boots and finds the new component.

16–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Peripherals Most notebook computers include one or more USB ports. Other notebooks might include parallel ports and a VGA port. Many people like to connect their notebooks to external peripherals while they aren’t mobile. The notebook might or might not include a PS/2 port. If it does, you can connect an external keyboard to it. If not, you’ll need a USB keyboard if you want to use an external keyboard. An S-Video port might also be included. If your notebook features a single PS/2 port, you can purchase a Y-adapter so that you can plug in both an external mouse and a keyboard. The keyboard and mouse ports on the adapter are labeled. Take care to connect the keyboard and mouse to the proper ports, or they won’t work. Do it!

C-3:

Adding peripherals

Here’s how 1 Identify the peripheral ports on your notebook 2 Determine which port should be used to connect the given peripheral device 3 Connect the device If necessary, connect power to the device If necessary, turn the device on 4 Verify that the device works

Here’s why Check your answers against the notebook’s documentation. There are typically USB, VGA, and parallel ports, but there might be others.

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Desktop features for notebooks Notebook computers are convenient for people whose jobs require them to travel often. However, if you’re using a notebook full time, it can be a strain on your hands, arms, and eyes always to have to use the built-in peripherals. Also, you might enjoy being able to use a full-size keyboard, a separate mouse or other pointing device, and a larger screen. Notebook manufacturers offer a solution to enable you to enjoy these desktop peripherals. For one thing, there’s usually at least a monitor port on the notebook so that you can connect it to a desktop monitor or a display projector. USB or PS/2 ports enable you to connect keyboards or pointing devices. However, if you use the ports on the notebook, then each time you want to become mobile again, you’ll have to disconnect each of the peripherals. An easier solution is to use a port replicator or a docking station. Port replicators Each notebook has a specific solution for leaving desktop peripherals connected to a device and then connecting the notebook to the device. Some of these devices are just ports to which you connect the peripherals and the notebook. These are known as port replicators because they simply replicate the ports. Exhibit 16-20 shows the front and rear views of a port replicator. The top picture shows the proprietary connection on the front that connects with the notebook. The bottom picture shows the ports on the back of the port replicator. The peripherals can stay connected to the port replicator, and you can undock the notebook from the connection when you want to use the notebook elsewhere.

Front view Notebook connector

Rear view Peripheral ports

Exhibit 16-20: A port replicator Docking stations A more robust solution, known as a docking station, provides the same ports that a replicator does. In addition, it has slots for full-size desktop PCI cards and might have additional media/accessory bays, floppy drives, and CD drives. It can also act as a platform stand for a desktop monitor. You slide the notebook into the docking station, or the notebook might be automatically pulled in and connected when you place it in the guides.


C-4:

Docking and undocking a notebook

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Locate the connector on your notebook that connects it to the docking device

You’ll connect your notebook to the port replicator or docking station that’s compatible with your laptop.

2 Determine how to connect your notebook to your docking device

If it isn’t obvious how to connect the notebook, refer to the documentation.

3 Connect a monitor, keyboard, and mouse to the docking device 4 Turn on the notebook Use the external peripherals 5 Turn off your notebook Eject the notebook from the docking device

To interact with your notebook. You should always turn it off before removing it from the docking station or port replicator. If it isn’t obvious how to undock the notebook, refer to the documentation.

Portable computers

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Topic D: Notebook issues This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  Hardware-related symptoms – Excessive heat – Status light indicators

2.4

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common laptop issues and determine the appropriate basic troubleshooting method  Issues – Power conditions – Video – Keyboard – Pointer – Stylus – Wireless card issues  Methods – Verify power (e.g. LEDs, swap AC adapter) – Remove unneeded peripherals – Plug in external monitor – Toggle Fn keys or hardware switches – Check LCD cutoff switch – Verify backlight functionality and pixilation – Check switch for built-in WIFI antennas or external antennas

16–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.3

Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop components  Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and video card  Hard drive and memory  Disassembly processes for proper reassembly – Document and label cable and screw locations – Organize parts – Refer to manufacturer documentation – Use appropriate hand tools  Recognize internal laptop expansion slot types  Upgrade wireless cards and video card  Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices, heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS battery, speakers

Notebook computer problems Explanation

Although notebook computers are designed to be rugged enough to endure the bumps and tumbles that can occur during travel, they’re still electronic devices that can be damaged relatively easily. You might encounter power-related problems, components might be jarred loose, or components might be damaged and need to be replaced. Some college dorm rooms tend to be a bit on the messy side, and a notebook computer that’s left under piles of papers and clothes and gets stepped on might end up with a cracked screen, a damaged keyboard, or any other number of problems. Offices with cups of coffee, birthday cakes, and lunches can lead to spills into the keyboard. The keyboard on a notebook computer often covers other components, so a user won’t be damaging just the keyboard if things are spilled on it. These are just some of the problems you might encounter when providing support to mobile users. And as you troubleshoot notebook problems, remember than unexpected noises from the notebook can indicate problems with the same components as desktop computer: hard drive, floppy drive, cooling fan, and optical drives. Keyboards The keyboard on a notebook computer is smaller than a standard desktop keyboard. Typically, notebook keyboards include the alphanumeric keys, function keys, and the most important "system” keys, such as Enter, Backspace, and so forth. Unlike desktop keyboards, notebooks rarely contain dedicated numeric keypads, and some keys serve dual purposes. To access the alternate purpose of a dual-purpose key, you press the key while holding down the Fn key. For example, to increase the brightness of your laptop’s screen, you might press the F2 function key while holding down the Fn key. The alternate actions of these dual-purpose keys are usually written in small, light type, or in an alternate color, on the edge of the keys.

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Sometimes the function keys work as a toggle. If a user is typing and getting unexpected results, such as trying to type a "j” and getting the number "1” instead, perhaps a function key was activated. Pointing devices Notebook computers have integrated pointing devices built into the middle of the keyboard or placed below the keys. Some notebook keyboards have a small pointer, much like a joystick, which can be pushed up, down, left, and right to move the mouse. Separate buttons below the Spacebar are used as the left and right mouse buttons. The cases of some notebook computers aren’t very substantial, and resting your hands on the surface next to the touchpad can result in the sensors perceiving that you’ve moved the mouse pointer. This can be bothersome, so you’ll want to advise users to rest their hands lightly on the surface to avoid this problem. The stylus On tablet PCs, you access applications through the touch screen. Using a stylus or sometimes your finger, you tap the application you want to use. You can then interact with the computer through menus, handwriting recognition software, an external or onscreen keyboard, or icons within the application. If a user is having problems entering or selecting information with the stylus, you might need to recalibrate it through the operating system. To tell the tablet PC where the boundaries of its screen are, you’re prompted to tap the screen at the center and the four corners. This gives the operating system the boundaries of the screen, and the OS can then calculate where you’re pointing when you tap the screen with the stylus. If recalibration doesn’t fix the problem, the screen might need to be replaced. External peripherals not working If a notebook’s peripherals aren’t working, it’s possible that a port was damaged. However, a more likely cause is that the function-key combination for using the internal or external component was engaged. This happens easily on cramped notebook keyboards. The Fn key is often located near the Ctrl and Alt keys and can easily be pressed accidentally when users are trying to press Alt+F4, for example. On one notebook computer, Fn+F4 switches the monitor output to laptop display only, external monitor only, or both on at once. Overheating Although the components in a notebook computer are designed to run cooler than their desktop counterparts, overheating can still be a big problem for notebook computers. Some computers shut down when they detect that they’re running too hot. Others go into Hibernation mode. Notebook computers are often referred to as "laptop” computers, but it’s better to place them on a hard surface, such as a desk or table, rather than on your lap. The hard surface allows proper air circulation around the computer to help prevent overheating. Special cooling pads can be purchased and placed under a notebook computer. Some of these are just louvered platforms that let air pass through. Others connect to the USB port and have small fans to help cool the notebook. Some notebook computers include built-in fans on the underside to help dissipate the heat buildup.

16–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Added components not recognized When you insert a PC Card or a memory module, it should be recognized by the system. PC Cards might require that you install device drivers, but other than that, you shouldn’t need to do anything for them to be recognized. Memory modules should be recognized automatically as well. If either of these components isn’t found, or if the system doesn’t boot after they’re installed, chances are that they aren’t fully installed. Try removing the component and reinstalling it. PC Cards are hot-swappable and can be inserted while the notebook is running. Memory modules, however, should be installed only while the system is turned off. In fact, on some systems, the memory is installed under the keyboard so that you have to have the computer turned off to install it. Sometimes it’s helpful to remove any unnecessary peripheral devices. If removing another peripheral device solves the problem, there’s probably a system resource conflict between the two devices. Most of the time, the operating system automatically assigns appropriate system resources to devices. However, some older devices might require specific I/O addresses that conflict with other devices on the system. In this situation, you need to either manually assign the resources to avoid the conflict or upgrade the component. The display The monitor is an integrated component of a notebook computer, just as the keyboard is. The monitor forms the hinged cover for the laptop. The monitor is a very thin LCD device. Modern notebook monitors are active-matrix monitors that use TFT technology to provide the highest resolution available. The TFT layer of the active-matrix monitor stores the electrical state of each pixel as all of the pixels are updated. This technology provides an exceptionally clear display. The video adapter in the computer converts data into the signals required to produce the image you see on your screen. Today’s video adapters create the signals needed to display full-color images and video. In LCD monitors, manufacturers use backlights to illuminate the LCD from the side or back and to increase visibility in low-light situations. Backlight sources can be an incandescent light bulb, one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs), an electroluminescent panel (ELP), or a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL).  Incandescent backlighting might be used in notebook computers for which high screen brightness is needed. However, incandescent bulbs have a limited life. They also generate a large amount of heat, which requires the bulbs to be mounted a certain distance from the screen.  LED backlighting is used in small, inexpensive LCD notebook monitors.  ELP backlighting is used in larger notebook displays. An inverter provides the ELP with the relatively high-voltage AC it needs to function.  CCFL backlighting is also used in large displays. CCFLs use an inverter and a diffuser.

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Many laptop display problems are caused by the Fn key’s being set to the wrong monitor setting—for example, it’s set to use an external monitor when one isn’t connected. If you’re experiencing display problems, you should: 1 Press the monitor Fn key to switch between the settings. 2 Connect a known working external monitor if one isn’t connected, or disconnect it if it is. 3 Adjust the backlight or brightness setting of the display. 4 Verify that the LCD cutoff switch isn’t stuck. It turns the display off when the notebook lid is closed. 5 Reboot the computer in Safe mode, which loads standard VGA drivers. If the display loads in Safe mode, you need to reset the display settings for a normal boot. Additional monitor problems can be caused by the user’s choosing incorrect resolution settings. A monitor’s resolution is the number of pixels across and down that a video adapter can create. Sometimes users select settings that are incompatible with their monitor. You’ll need to correct the settings, and you might need to boot into Safe mode to do this. More complex monitor problems can be caused by a faulty LCD backlight bulb, LCD inverter cable, LCD inverter, or motherboard. The wireless antenna In some laptops, the wireless antenna is in the lid. If the lid is tipped below or beyond a 90º angle, it can adversely affect the bandwidth available for the network connection. Sometimes the connection is lost entirely. To correct the problem, you need to reposition the notebook cover. Some notebook computers have a hardware switch you can use to turn the wireless antenna on and off. You should verify that the switch is in the correct position. If it’s a push-button switch, instead of a mechanical toggle switch, there’s usually an LED indicator light to tell you if the wireless is on or off. Wireless ports In addition to the network problems you might have with wireless devices, if a wireless device is not responding the batteries might be run down. If the device uses alkaline batteries, replace them. If the device uses rechargeable batteries, place the device or batteries in the charger. (A mouse with rechargeable batteries is placed in the charger; other devices might require the batteries to be removed and placed in a charger.)


D-1:

Troubleshooting notebook problems

Here’s how 1 One or more problems were introduced into your system, and you need to resolve them. To start, determine whether you can use the built-in keyboard, monitor, and pointing device. 2 Determine whether you can use the external keyboard, monitor, and pointing device. These can be connected directly to ports on the notebook or to a port replicator or docking station. 3 Determine whether the notebook can be used from battery power. 4 Document the problems you found:

5 Take the appropriate steps to resolve any problems you encountered. 6 Document the solution to the problems:

7 Test the system to verify that the problems were completely resolved.

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Power problems Even rechargeable notebook batteries eventually wear out. Most batteries can be recharged about 500 times and still hold a charge. This duration usually works out to about two or three years of life expectancy for battery power. When the battery no longer takes or holds a charge, you need to replace it. Most often, you need to obtain one from the notebook’s manufacturer, although there are some third-party manufacturers of replacement batteries. If you replace the battery with one that isn’t specifically designed for your laptop or isn’t from a reputable manufacturer, be careful—batteries have been known to overheat, becoming a fire hazard. The system tray usually contains a battery indicator that indicates how much battery power remains. If you point to this icon, it displays the percentage of battery power remaining and the estimated time it will last. Usually, if you right-click or double-click the icon, you can configure settings to extend battery life by turning off components after a period of inactivity. There might also be predefined settings for specific needs, such as watching DVDs under battery power or getting the most performance even if it means using up battery power faster. Exhibit 16-21 shows an example of a notebook power management utility.

Exhibit 16-21: The power management utility for a Toshiba notebook There are three power-related measurements you should know for the laptop you are working on:  Voltage — The rate at which power is drawn by the laptop’s power adapter  Amperage rating — The strength of the current  Polarity — Positive or negative This information is often stamped on the transformer case of the laptop’s power cord. It’s also documented in the laptop’s operating manual. Remember this formula: volts × amps = watts. You’ll find that many laptops run on fewer than 100 watts of power.

16–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The power connector in your laptop has two possible positions: the positive lead is on either the inside pin or the outside connector. You need to match it up correctly with the adapter; otherwise, you can burn out the laptop’s circuits. If a laptop arrives for service and doesn’t have its original power cord, you can substitute one—just make sure you use one that has the correct power settings. Replacing the battery You can remove the battery from the battery compartment to insert a new one. Replacement is necessary if you’re mobile for long periods of time and must replace a discharged battery with a fully charged one to continue working. Also, if the battery has reached the end of its useful life, you’ll need to replace it. The battery compartment is typically located on the bottom of the notebook. The compartment has a slider or button that you press to eject the battery. Because manufacturers expect this component to be changed by users, it isn’t held in place with screws or other holders that require tools. Power issues with notebook computers To determine how power is being supplied and used on a notebook computer, you examine the color and state of the power light. Check the documentation for your notebook to determine the colors and steadiness modes it uses to indicate power use. Even rechargeable notebook batteries eventually wear out. Most batteries can be recharged about 500 times and still hold a charge. This duration usually works out to about two or three years of life expectancy for battery power. When the battery no longer takes or holds a charge, you need to replace the battery. Most often, you need to obtain one from the notebook’s manufacturer, although there are some third-party manufacturers of replacement batteries. Be careful if you replace the battery with one that isn’t specifically designed for your laptop or isn’t from a reputable manufacturer. Batteries have been known to overheat, becoming a fire hazard. The notification area usually contains an icon that indicates how much battery power remains. If you point to this icon, it displays the percentage of battery power remaining and the estimated time it will last. Usually, if you right-click or double-click the icon, you can configure settings to extend battery life by turning off components after a period of inactivity. There might also be predefined settings for specific needs, such as watching DVDs under battery power, or getting the most performance even if it means using up battery power faster. Some notebook computers don’t work at all, even from AC power, if the battery is depleted. If you remove the battery completely from these systems, you can power on the system. Other systems require that you have the battery installed, even if it won’t hold a charge, because it’s used to complete the electrical circuit in the notebook. When troubleshooting power problems in a laptop, you want to verify power. To do so:  Look at the notebook’s power lights for an indication of its power source.  Use a multimeter to test whether the power cord is delivering power from the wall outlet.  Try swapping the AC adapter with another that’s known to work.  Try replacing the battery with another one.

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Power issues with handheld computers Because handheld devices are battery-operated, the batteries need to be replaced or recharged to keep the devices functioning properly. Most handheld devices have a flat, round battery that helps prevent data loss if the main batteries are fully discharged. However, if the handheld device is left uncharged long enough, even this battery can’t maintain your data forever. Data can be lost if the device isn’t recharged or the battery isn’t replaced in a timely manner. Therefore, backing up your PDA’s data to your desktop computer is a good practice. Typically, you’ll have a backup from when you synchronized the data between the PDA and the computer. If you lose power, you might also lose device settings. If this happens, you’ll need to reset all of the calibrations and any other customized settings. Do it!

D-2:

Identifying power problems

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Try to power on your notebook, using just battery power What do the power indicator lights show? 2 Identify the polarity of your notebook’s power cord 3 Connect the power cord to the notebook Connect the power cord to the wall outlet 4 Try to power on your notebook, using power from the wall outlet What do the power indicator lights show?

5 If the notebook doesn’t power up, test the power from the power cord by using a multimeter 6 If your test shows that power through the power cord is good, what could the power problem be? How might you solve that problem?

7 Test your solution

16–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Maintenance The best defense against problems is preventative maintenance. This can be more difficult for laptops and other portable computers than for desktop computers, because they’re moved around so much and subjected to varying conditions that might not be optimal for operation. Here are some of the things you should do to maintain the notebook computers in your organization: 1 Clean the exterior case with a water-dampened cotton cloth. Stubborn stains can be spot-cleaned with alcohol. 2 If the notebook has a touchpad, use a water-dampened cotton cloth to clean it as well. 3 Keep the fan openings and ventilation holes clear to help airflow and prevent the notebook from overheating. If you use compressed air to blow out the fans, place a toothpick or similar device between the fan blades to keep them from spinning—spraying air into the fan can cause it to overspin and get damaged. You can purchase special notebook cooling units to rest the notebook on. 4 Use compressed-air canisters or computer-equipment vacuums to blow out dust and other materials from sensitive components, such as component connections and contacts. USB ports are especially susceptible to gathering dust and foreign materials. 5 Clean the monitor with a soft dry cloth. An LCD or plastic screen requires special care. Wipes designed for glass CRT screens shouldn’t be used on these surfaces; nor should you use a paper towel, which can scratch the screen. 6 Remove accumulated dust, crumbs, and dirt from between the keyboard keys. Use a small paintbrush to move the debris to the end of a row of keys; then use tweezers to remove it. 7 Use a video cleaning kit to clean the CD or DVD-ROM drive. A dirty optical drive can cause read/write errors. Operating environment To provide the best operating environment for your notebooks, keep the humidity to about 50%. Using the notebook in low-humidity environments (under 40%) can lead to static electricity and potential ESD damage. High-humidity environments (over 60%) can lead to moisture and condensation buildup on components. Don’t operate the notebook in very warm areas because the fan will have a hard time keeping the internal components cool. If you must operate in warm environments, you should invest in a cooling unit to place your laptop on when in use. It can be very difficult to remove dust from the inside of a notebook computer, so it’s best if you operate the unit in an environment that doesn’t have an abnormal amount of dust. For example, a construction site wouldn’t have the best air quality to operate your notebook in. Transporting a notebook Users should use a padded carrier designed for notebooks when transporting them from location to location. These specially designed bags provide cushioning to absorb bumps to the notebook. They also include adjustable straps to keep the notebook secured and prevent it from sliding around in the bag. Users can purchase these bags in many styles, including over-the-shoulder, backpack, and rolling.

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To ship a notebook, properly pack it. If you don’t have the original packing material from you manufacturer, you can follow these packing steps to help it arrive at its destination undamaged: 1 Place bubble wrap around your laptop. 2 Choose a box with at least a 2" air gap between the laptop and the box on the top, bottom, and sides. 3 Fill the air gap with packing popcorn, bubble wrap, or other protective material. The packing material should fill the entire air gap. 4 Use strapping tape to secure the flaps on the box closed. 5 Ship through a carrier that offers insurance and delivery confirmation.


D-3:

Maintaining a notebook

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Clean the outside case of your laptop

Use a water-dampened cotton cloth. For stubborn stains, you can use a small amount of rubbing alcohol.

2 If your laptop has a touchpad, clean the touchpad

Use a water-dampened cloth.

3 Blow out the fans

Use compressed air. Place a toothpick or similar device between the fan blades to prevent them from spinning.

4 Remove dust and other materials from component connections and contacts

Use compressed air.

5 Clean the monitor

Use a soft dry cloth.

6 Remove accumulated dust, crumbs, and dirt from between the keyboard keys

Use a small paintbrush to move the debris to the end of a row of keys; then use tweezers to remove it.

7 Clean the CD or DVD-ROM drive

Use a commercial video cleaning kit.

8 Determine if the current environment is a good operating environment

Measure humidity and air temperature. Observe the air quality for dust.

9 Place the notebook and its components in a good carrier Observe how your particular carrier protects the notebook Remove the notebook and its components from the carrier 10 Pack the notebook for shipping Remove the notebook from the shipping package

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Unit summary: Portable computers Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to identify notebook components. You also compared the wireless networking standards used by notebook computers.

Topic B

In this topic, you configured a mobile computer. You examined the Windows Mobility Center, and you learned how to configure power settings.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned how to replace the internal components of a notebook computer. Internal components are categorized into hot-swappable and coldplug devices. You also learned how to connect peripheral devices to a notebook computer to add functionality.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot and maintain notebook components. Notebooks take more bumps and abuse than desktops, so knowing how to support and maintain them and their components is critical in today’s business environment.

Review questions 1 Which of the following components are typically built into a notebook computer? [Choose all that apply.] A Monitor B Printer C Scanner D Pointing device 2 Which of these battery types isn’t typically used to power a notebook computer? A Lithium ion (Li-Ion) B Alkaline C Nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) D Nickel cadmium (NiCad) 3 Which type of battery is used most often in notebook computers? A Lithium ion (Li-Ion) B Nickel cadmium (NiCad) C Nickel metal-hydride (NiMH) D Zinc Air 4 True or false? The power cord for a notebook is a standard cord, such as that used for a desktop computer. False. The power cord for a notebook computer has a transformer between the outlet and the computer. It’s a square or rectangular box, so it’s often called a "power brick.”

5 True or false? Notebooks can be powered from a car’s cigarette-lighter socket. True, with the appropriate power adapter.

16–56 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 6 Which power light indicator shows that the notebook is being powered from the outlet and its battery is fully charged? A Blinking green or blue light B Blinking orange or yellow light C Solid green or blue light D Solid orange or yellow light 7 True or false? Notebook computers always use the same CPUs as desktop computers. False. Notebook computers often use special CPUs that are engineered specifically to use less power and generate less heat than typical desktop CPUs.

8 In which power state does the computer take all current applications running in RAM, save them to the system’s swap partition on the hard disk, and turn the notebook’s power off? A Hibernate B Sleep C Shut down D Standby 9 Which type of memory module package is typically used in notebook computers? A DIMM B MicroDIMM C SIMM D SODIMM 10 True or false? If your notebook doesn’t support swapping a CD or DVD drive with a floppy drive, you won’t be able to use a floppy drive with the computer. False. You can purchase an external floppy drive and connect it to the computer through one of the peripheral ports, such as a USB port.

11 Which LCD technology uses the least amount of power from your notebook’s battery? A Active matrix B Passive matrix C Reflective D Transflective E Transmissive 12 Which wireless connection technology uses pulses of invisible light to transmit signals between devices? A Bluetooth B Infrared C Radio D WiMAX

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13 Which wireless connection technology is limited by line-of-sight? A Bluetooth B Infrared C Radio D WiMAX 14 Which PC Card type is typically used for network adapters and modems and for adding FireWire and SCSI ports? A Type I B Type II C Type III D All types 15 Which type of bus communicates directly between the PC Card and the video controller? A CardBus B ZV C XIP D Card and Socket Services 16 True or false? The PCI Express card is the same size as a parallel PCI card, and its connectors, signal voltage levels, and format are identical. False. The PCI Express card is the same size as a parallel PCI card; however, the PCI Express card isn’t compatible with the parallel PCI bus. Its connectors, signal voltage levels, and format are different from those of the parallel PCI bus.

17 Which card and socket layer service is designed to provide support for PC Card devices so they can share device drivers, configuration utilities, and application programs? A Card Services B Metaformat C Socket Services 18 True or false? A port replicator is a more robust solution than a docking station for using a notebook computer while at the office. False. The docking station is a more robust solution than a port replicator. A docking station provides the same ports as a replicator, but it also has slots for full-size desktop PCI cards. It might also have additional media/accessory bays, floppy drives, and CD drives. It acts as a platform stand for a desktop monitor.

19 To access the alternate purpose of a dual-purpose key, you press the desired key while holding down which key? A Alt B Ctrl C Fn D Shift

16–58 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 20 With which pointing device technology can resting your hands on the surface next to it result in the sensors perceiving that you’ve chosen to move the mouse pointer? A External PS/2 or USB mouse B Joystick C Trackball D Touchpad 21 True or false? If a notebook’s peripherals aren’t working, it’s likely that the port was damaged. False. Although it’s possible that the port is damaged, a more likely cause is that the function-key combination for using the internal or external component was engaged.

22 True or false? To install PC Cards, you must shut down the computer first. False. PC Cards are hot-swappable and can be inserted while the notebook is running.

23 If you incorrectly set the display’s ______________ settings, the monitor might not display information properly. resolution

24 Some laptops have their wireless antenna in the lid. If the lid is tipped below or beyond a __________-degree angle, it can adversely affect the bandwidth available for the network connection. 90

25 Most notebook batteries can be recharged approximately how many times before they’ll no longer hold a charge and need to be replaced? A 100 B 300 C 500 D 1000 26 Why can the wireless network adapter be turned off on some notebooks? Usually, if you’re mobile, you don’t have access to a wireless network, so you can save the power needed for the card to keep the notebook powered longer. You can also turn it off for security purposes. If you’re at a wireless hotspot and suspect suspicious activity, you can switch off the wireless network card.

27 Which power-related measurement is the rate at which power is drawn? A Amperage B Polarity C Voltage 28 If you use compressed air to blow out the fans in your notebook computer, what should you place between the fan blades to keep them from spinning? A Nozzle of the compressed air can B Paper C Toothpick D Nothing; you want the blades to spin

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Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice working with the components of a notebook computer. 1 Connect an external monitor to a notebook computer. Set the display to the external monitor only. 2 Use the external monitor to view output from the notebook. 3 Unplug the notebook computer from the AC power source. 4 Click the battery icon in the system tray. 5 View the battery’s current charge status. 6 Modify the power settings to conserve battery power. 7 Add a hot-swappable device to your system. 8 Verify that the hot-swappable device is functional. 9 Properly remove the hot-swappable device from your system. 10 Plug in the notebook so that it’s no longer running on battery power.


17–1

Unit 17 Windows management Unit time: 125 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Manage the operating system. B Configure Task Scheduler. C Manage resources on your computer. D Participate in a Remote Assistance session,

and connect to another computer using Remote Desktop.

17–2


Topic A: System management This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.1

Compare and contrast the different Windows operating systems and their features Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit  Sidebar, Aero  User interface, start bar layout

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Configure power management – Suspend – Wake on LAN – Sleep timers – Hibernate – Standby


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Regional and language settings

2.4

Evaluate and resolve common issues  Error messages and conditions – System performance and optimization  Aero settings  Indexing settings  Sidebar settings

Regional and language settings Explanation

Although regional and language settings are typically configured during Windows installation and then never touched again, you can reconfigure the settings at any time in the Control Panel. To access the settings in Windows 7 or Windows Vista, open the Control Panel, click Clock, Language, and Region, and then click Region and Language in Windows 7 or Regional and Language Options in Windows Vista. In Windows XP, open the Control Panel and click Date, Time, Language, and Regional Options. Then click Regional and Language Options. In Windows 2000 Professional, open the Control Panel and double-click Regional Options.

Windows management

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The following table describes the settings you can configure on each tab of the Windows 7 and Windows Vista Regional and Language Options dialog box. Tab

Settings

Formats

The display of numbers, currency, dates, and times. All formats have default groups of settings, but all are customizable.

Location

Your computer’s location, which can affect some applications that provide location-specific content.

Keyboards and Languages

Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; language settings.

Administrative

The language for non-Unicode applications, and user settings.

The following table describes the settings you can configure on each tab of the Windows XP Regional and Language Options dialog box. Tab

Settings

Regional Options

Your computer’s standards and formats to control the display of numbers, currency, dates, and times; your computer’s location, which can affect some applications that provide location-specific content.

Languages

Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; supplemental language support options.

Advanced

The language for non-Unicode applications; user settings.

The following table describes the settings you can configure on each tab of the Windows 2000 Professional Regional Options dialog box. Tab

Settings

General

Your computer’s location, which can affect some applications that provide location-specific content; your computer’s language settings.

Numbers

The display of numbers.

Currency

The display of currency.

Time

The display of time.

Date

The display of dates.

Input Locales

Keyboard input configuration based on language and region; hot keys.

17–4 Do it!


A-1:

Exploring regional and language settings

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open the Control Panel and click Clock, Language, and Region

Click Region and Language

To open the Regional and Language Options dialog box.

2 Observe the Formats tab

You can use these settings to control the display of currency, numbers, and dates and times. The current format was set during the Windows installation.

3 Open each of the dropdown lists and observe the settings on the various format settings

You can configure very specific display settings, including decimal displays, currency formats, hour and minute displays, and long and short dates.

4 Activate and observe the Location tab

Again, the location was set during installation.

Display the Current location list

You can select any country in this list to specify your current location.

Press g

To close the list.

5 Activate Keyboards and Languages tab Click Change keyboards and click Add

You can change your keyboard input settings and the language Windows uses. You can install additional language packs to customize menus and dialog boxes.

Click Cancel twice 6 Activate and observe the Administrative tab

You can configure the language for nonUnicode programs, and you can copy regional settings to new user accounts and specific system accounts.

7 Click Cancel

To close the Regional and Language Options dialog box.

Close the Control Panel window

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Indexing Because it’s faster to search through an index than it is to search through every file on a computer, Windows builds an index of files from specific folders in the directory structure. The Indexing Service performs a comprehensive search operation during indexing. It goes through each file, creating a catalog of detailed information on each file. The service has filters for HTML files, text files, and all types of Microsoft Office files. The Indexing Service is designed to perform its work when the computer is idle. The service pauses whenever it senses activity from the keyboard or mouse. If you regularly search for specific content in data files on large volumes, the Indexing Service can save you a considerable amount of time. Some estimates state that searching for content with the Indexing Service returns results hundreds of times faster than using a standard search engine. Windows 7 In Windows 7, the indexing service isn’t installed by default. Windows Search has taken over the tasks performed by the indexing service in previous versions of Windows. Windows Search creates a system-level index for over 200 common types of files. The system creates an initial scan of your computer, then as new files are created and new emails received, they’re indexed during the computer’s idle time. By default, Windows Search indexes the contents of all users’ Documents and Favorites folders, the Public folders, and default mail stores. On Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise computers, you can modify these settings using user- and computer-based group policies. Windows Vista In Windows Vista, by default the index is built from the Offline Files, the Start Menu folder, and the Users folder. Because most users will store their files in their Documents or Pictures folders, the Users folder is a prime location for indexing. If users complain that their files aren’t showing up when they search or that the search is slow, check to see if the correct folders are being indexed. If necessary, reconfigure the index by adding new folders, and then rebuild it. To reconfigure or troubleshoot indexing in Windows Vista: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click System and Maintenance. 3 Click Indexing Options. You can add or remove folders in the index list, and you can control index settings such as the index location and whether encrypted files are indexed. You can also rebuild the index or restore index settings to their defaults.

17–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional In Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional, the Indexing Service default setting searches through all files on your entire hard disk. You can make it more efficient by customizing which types of files to search for and how to search them. To customize the directories or file properties that are indexed, you use the Indexing Service MMC: 1 Click Start and choose Run. 2 Enter ciadv.msc. 3 Double-click System. 4 Display the contents of the Directories folder. You can add new directories to this list by choosing Action, New Directory and entering the required information in the Add Directory dialog box. You can delete directories from this list by choosing Action, Delete. If you don’t use the built-in search function often, you can speed up your computer by disabling indexing. To turn off indexing on individual volumes: 1 Open My Computer and right-click the volume that you don’t want Windows to index. 2 Clear “Allow Indexing Service to index this disk for fast file searching” and click OK. You can also disable the indexing service: 1 Click Start and choose Run. 2 Enter service.msc. 3 Scroll to view Indexing Service and double-click it. 4 Click Stop and change the Startup Type to Disabled. 5 Click OK. Windows Search continues to work, but more slowly than if indexing were enabled.

Windows management Do it!

A-2:

17–7

Modifying indexing settings

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start In the Search box, type gpedit.msc and press e

To open the Local Group Policy Editor

2 Navigate to Computer Configuration, Administrative Templates, Windows Components and select Search Observe the settings in the details pane

These are the settings you can enable and configure for the Search service that will apply to the computer no matter what user logs on.

3 Navigate to User Configuration, Administrative Templates, Windows Components and select Search

Observe the settings in the details pane 4 Close Local Group Policy Editor

These are the settings you can enable and configure for the Search service that will apply to individual users.

17–8


Windows Aero Windows Aero is the name of the new graphical user interface (GUI) that Microsoft introduced with Windows Vista. The Windows GUI had remained much the same from the introduction of Windows 95 up through Windows XP in 2001. This new GUI includes the following features:  Translucent windows, taskbar, and Start menu  Taskbar thumbnails, which provide a preview of the windows they represent  Three-dimensional Windows Flip, shown in Exhibit 17-1, which allows you to flip between open windows while seeing what’s in each window (Available in Windows Vista)

Exhibit 17-1: 3D Windows Flip in the Windows Vista Aero interface In Windows 7, Microsoft added several features to the desktop of the Aero interface. They’re described in the following table. Desktop feature

Description

Aero Peek

Aero Peek works in two different ways:  When you place your mouse over an open application’s Taskbar icon, Windows displays a thumbnail of the window. Place your mouse pointer on that thumbnail, and Windows 7 makes all open windows transparent except the one you’re pointing to.  By placing your mouse pointer over the small translucent rectangle at the right edge of your task bar (shown in Exhibit 17-2), it makes all open windows transparent, allowing you to view your desktop. If you click the rectangle, you’re able to access items on the desktop with your mouse. This is similar to the Show Desktop feature in previous versions of Windows. Click the rectangle again, and the transparent windows are restored.

Aero Shake

When you have multiple windows open on your desktop, you can press and hold your mouse pointer on the title bar of a single window, then shake the mouse back and forth. This minimizes all other open windows, leaving just the one you “shook” on the desktop.

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Desktop feature

Description

Aero Snap

Drag the title bar of a window to the top of the screen and the window automatically maximizes. Drag the title bar back down and the window goes back to its original size and position. Drag the title bar to the left or right of your screen, and it snaps to one side and takes up half the desktop.

Jump lists

When you right-click a taskbar icon (either an open application or a pinned application), Windows 7 displays a pop-up menu that you can use to select common tasks quickly for the application. Jump lists are coded by the application developers, and if available, vary from application to application. An example of the jump list for Internet Explorer is shown in Exhibit 17-3.

Exhibit 17-2: Showing the desktop with Aero Peek

Exhibit 17-3: Internet Explorer jump list

17–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Aero technical requirements Windows Aero is available in Windows 7 and Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista Business, Windows 7 Professional, Windows 7 and Vista Enterprise, and Windows 7 and Vista Ultimate. The Windows Aero GUI has several technical requirements:  1 GHz 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor  1 GB of system memory  Windows Aero-compatible graphics card:  Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) driver support  Pixel Shader 2.0 in hardware  32 bits per pixel  128 MB of graphics memory Although you can install and use Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer with a slower processor, less memory, and a non-compatible graphics card and processor, you won’t be able to use the Windows Aero interface. Personalizing the appearance of Windows You can customize the appearance of Windows to suit your preferences by using the Personalization settings in the Control Panel. To access these settings, right-click the desktop and choose Personalize.

Exhibit 17-4: Personalization settings in Windows 7

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The following table describes some of what you can do with the various settings. Category

Use settings to…

Window Color and Appearance

Enable window transparency, and change the colors used for various window components.

Desktop Background

Add wallpaper, a background pattern, or a color to the desktop.

Screen Saver

Activate and control screen savers.

Sounds

Choose sound effects you hear when working with Windows.

Mouse Pointers

Choose the shape and size of the mouse pointers.

Theme

Change the overall design of your system by using predefined combinations of backgrounds, sounds, colors, and icons.

Display Settings

Set your monitor’s resolution, color depth, and refresh rate.

Changing the desktop background You can modify the desktop background, setting it to a color, pattern, or wallpaper of your choice. Wallpaper is a picture that appears on the desktop background. To change the desktop background: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. 2 Click Appearance and Personalization. You can also right-click an empty area of the desktop and choose Personalize to get to this step. 3 Click Desktop Background. 4 Select a picture category from the list, and then select the picture you want. You can also browse to a picture file you have saved elsewhere.


Exhibit 17-5: Choosing a background in Windows 7 Do it!

A-3:

Personalizing the appearance of Windows

Here’s how 1 Click Start and choose

Here’s why To open the Documents folder.

Documents

Click Start 2 Observe the Start menu, the edges of the Documents folder window, and the taskbar

To display the Start menu. The right side of the Start menu, the edges of the window, and most of the taskbar are translucent, showing features and objects beneath them. This is the Windows Aero interface.

3 Close Documents 4 Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize

To open the Personalization window.

5 Click Window Color Observe the settings

You can change the colors of the window and configure window transparency.

Windows management 6 Select a new color and observe the window Experiment with the Color intensity slider bar 7 Clear Enable transparency Click Save changes 8 Click Desktop Background From the Picture location list, select Pictures Library

17–13

You can see what the color would look like.

To lighten or darken the color you selected.

To see what the effect would be if window transparency were disabled. To save your settings. To choose a new desktop background. You can choose wallpaper images from your Pictures folder, sample wallpapers included with Windows, images from the Public Pictures folder, or images from elsewhere.

9 From the Picture location list, select Windows Desktop Backgrounds

Select a new background

The desktop changes right away, so you can see how it will look.

After you find a background you like, click Save changes

To accept the new background and return to the Appearance and Personalization settings.

10 Close the Personalization window

17–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Troubleshooting Windows Aero If you install the correct version of Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a computer that meets the technical requirements, Windows Aero is the default GUI. If Windows Aero isn’t displayed, or if you’re not seeing all of its effects, you can troubleshoot the problem by using the suggestions in the following table. Possible cause

Solution

Running Windows 7 Starter or Windows Vista Home Basic, which don’t support Windows Aero

Install, or upgrade to, Windows 7 Home Premium, Professional, Enterprise or Ultimate, or Windows Vista Home Premium, Business, Enterprise, or Ultimate.

Hardware doesn’t support Windows Aero

Check the computer’s hardware against the published requirements, and install new hardware as necessary.

Video card driver out-of-date

Install a new driver for the video card.

Incorrect display settings

Verify that the color setting is 32-bit and the refresh rate is set to at least 10 Hz.

Incorrect desktop theme

Set the desktop theme to Windows 7 or Windows Vista. In Windows Vista, set the color scheme to Windows Aero. Verify that Windows frame transparency is enabled.

Windows frame transparency not enabled; power settings on a mobile computer disable transparency

Enable transparency. On a mobile computer, select a power plan other than the power saver plan, and verify that Windows frame transparency is enabled.

Application doesn’t support Windows Aero

Upgrade to a new version of the application, if possible.

Update not applied to Windows Vista

Install the latest Windows updates.

If Windows Aero is displayed when you start the computer but turns off very shortly after Windows starts, you might need to update your computer’s system BIOS software. Do it!

A-4:

Troubleshooting Windows Aero settings

Here’s how 1 True or false? All applications support Windows Aero 2 If a computer doesn’t display the Windows Aero UI, what’s the first thing you should check? What’s the second?

Here’s why

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Windows Desktop Gadgets and Windows Sidebar The Windows Desktop Gadgets in Windows 7, shown in Exhibit 17-6, runs small programs that Microsoft calls gadgets. Essentially, gadgets perform small, simple functions that you might commonly need but that don’t need your full attention. Examples include a clock, a calculator, sticky notes, news feeds, and small games and slide shows. This feature is called Windows Sidebar in Windows Vista.

Exhibit 17-6: Gadgets in the Windows Sidebar in Windows 7 In Windows 7, gadgets can be pinned anywhere on the desktop. In Windows Vista, gadgets must be placed in the Sidebar. Gadgets can be added to, moved in, and removed from as you wish. A few gadgets are present by default, but you can change these easily. To move a gadget, click its handle and drag it to where you want it. Gadgets in the Windows Sidebar will automatically rearrange themselves when you move one of them. When you drag a gadget, you need to grab its handle, because with some gadgets, clicking directly on them means that you want to do something like write a new reminder note or open a news article.

17–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two You add new gadgets from the Gadget Gallery, shown in Exhibit 17-7. To open it, click the plus button at the top of the Sidebar. In Windows 7, right-click the Desktop and choose Gadgets; in Windows Vista, right-click the Sidebar and choose Add Gadgets. You can then right-click the gadget you want and choose Add, or just double-click the gadget to add it. The gallery also has a link for getting gadgets online.

Exhibit 17-7: The Gadget Gallery in Windows 7 Configuring gadget settings Many gadgets have properties you can set. For instance, you can choose different faces for the clock or different colors for the sticky notes. When you hold the mouse pointer over a gadget, its control buttons appear to the right. Click the button that looks like a wrench to open the gadget’s settings; Exhibit 17-8 shows an example. You can also right-click the gadget and choose Options.

Exhibit 17-8: Changing the clock gadget’s settings

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Setting the Windows Sidebar properties In Windows Vista, to open the Windows Sidebar Properties dialog box, shown in Exhibit 17-9, right-click a blank area of the Windows Sidebar and choose Properties. Here you can adjust whether the Windows Sidebar is always on top, when it starts, and what side of the screen it starts on. For instance, to prevent the Sidebar from opening when Windows starts, do this: 1 Right-click a blank area of the Sidebar and choose Properties. 2 Clear the “Start Sidebar when Windows starts” checkbox. 3 Click OK.

Exhibit 17-9: The Windows Sidebar Properties dialog box in Windows Vista Removing gadgets To remove a gadget, click the Close button (the X button) to the right of it. You can also right-click the gadget and choose Close Gadget. Hiding and exiting the Windows Sidebar In Windows Vista, to hide the Windows Sidebar, right-click it and choose Close Sidebar to minimize it to an icon in the notification area. When you hide Windows Sidebar, the gadgets continue to run even though they are not visible. To display the Windows Sidebar again, click its icon in the notification area. To exit the Windows Sidebar, right-click the Sidebar’s icon in the notification area and choose Exit. When you exit Windows Sidebar, the gadgets are closed, too. Displaying the Windows Sidebar If you’ve hidden the Windows Sidebar and want to display it again, click the Windows Sidebar icon in the system tray. If you’ve closed the Windows Sidebar and it doesn’t reopen when Windows restarts, you can open it by clicking Start and choosing All Programs, Accessories, and Windows Sidebar.


A-5:

Configuring Windows Desktop Gadgets

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Right-click the Desktop and choose Gadgets

To open the Gadget gallery.

2 Observe the gadgets available

A default selection of gadgets is loaded, including a clock and a slideshow. There’s also a link to get more gadgets online.

3 Drag the clock to your desktop

You can click and hold anywhere on the clock face. Notice how the other gadgets move when you drop the clock at its new location.

4 Point to the clock and then, to its right, click

The button that looks like a wrench will open the clock’s settings, shown in Error! Reference source not found..

5 Change the clock face to one of your choosing

Use the arrow buttons under the face in the settings dialog box.

6 Click OK

To close the settings and change the clock.

7 Click Get more gadgets

This page shows you the featured gadgets, the top downloaded gadgets, and the top-rated gadgets.

online

8 Click Get more desktop gadgets

9 Browse the gadgets available 10 When you find a free gadget that interests you, click Download 11 Click Install 12 Click Open Follow any additional prompts to install your chosen gadget 13 Close Internet Explorer and the Gadget Gallery 14 If your new gadget requires configuration, click

This page allows you to browse gadgets by category. You can sort by rating, title, publish date, author, download frequency, and price. Not all gadgets are free.

Windows management 15 Point to the Clock gadget Click

(The red X.) To close the gadget.

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17–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Power management Computers use electricity as their source of power. Computers, particularly notebooks, can use a considerable amount of power even when they sit unused and idle. Modern computers include support for power-saving measures, such as shutting off unused components. As you learned in the portable computers unit, the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) is an open industry specification that was co-developed by Compaq, Intel, Microsoft, Phoenix, and Toshiba to establish standard interfaces for operating system configuration and power management on laptops, desktops, and servers. In order to use all ACPI features fully, the computer’s hardware, system BIOS, and operating system must support ACPI. The three common ACPI defined states are: sleep, hibernation, and standby. Windows includes the software components required to take advantage of ACPI power management features. Your Windows 7 or Windows Vista desktop computer can be in one of the following two power-saving modes: sleep or hybrid sleep. Hybrid sleep depends on motherboard compatibility. If your motherboard isn’t compatible with Windows 7/Vista hybrid sleep, this power state isn’t available. Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional support sleep and hibernation states. Configuring power options in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Windows 7 and Windows Vista’s power management settings are focused on sleep state configuration settings. You can specify whether your computer goes to sleep and the interval after which it would do so. You can specify which components are powered down and when. You do all this through the Power Options page (shown in Exhibit 1710) in the Hardware and Sound component of the Control Panel.

Exhibit 17-10: Setting a power plan in Windows 7 Both Windows 7 and Windows Vista offer three power plans, each of which represents

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a set of power-saving options. You can customize the default plans or create your own. The sleep timer values include: 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 45 minutes, or 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 hours. The standard plans are:  Balanced — Balances energy savings and performance. This plan is typically used with desktop computers.  Power saver — Favors energy savings over responsiveness, meaning that you may have to wait while components power up or wake your computer more often than with another plan. This plan is typically used by notebook computers.  High performance — Favors performance over energy savings. Fewer components are turned off so that your computer is more responsive. This plan is typically used with servers and computers that share their resources. Advanced power settings To access the advanced power settings for any of the predefined plans or a custom plan you’ve created, under the desired power plan, click Change plan settings. In Windows 7, click “Change advanced power settings.” In Windows Vista, click “Change advanced settings” to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 17-11.

Exhibit 17-11: The Advanced settings tab for a Windows 7 power plan If your desktop motherboard supports the hybrid sleep option, it appears on the Advanced settings tab as shown in Exhibit 17-12.

Exhibit 17-12: The hybrid sleep option

17–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Configuring power options in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional To configure power options in Windows XP, open Control Panel, Performance and Maintenance, Power Options. In Windows 2000, open Control Panel, Power Options. In the Power Options Properties dialog box, shown in Exhibit 17-13, the Power Schemes tab allows you to choose a power scheme. The Advanced tab allows you to display a power icon in the system tray and specify what the power button does. The Hibernate tab allows you to enable hibernation. If you have a UPS attached to the computer, you can use the UPS tab to configure options.

Exhibit 17-13: The Power Option Properties dialog box in Windows 2000 Professional


A-6:

17–23

Configuring power settings

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open the Control Panel 2 Click Hardware and Sound 3 Click Power Options 4 Select Power saver

This plan favors power savings over performance and responsiveness.

5 Under Power saver, click

To configure power options for this plan.

Change plan settings

6 Next to “Turn off the display,” select 1 minute Click Save changes

To set an extremely short delay before the monitor is turned off.

7 What color is your monitor’s power indicator light?

With the monitor turned on, it is most likely a solid green or blue.

8 Wait one minute

The monitor turns off.

9 What color is your monitor’s power indicator light?

With the monitor turned off, it is most likely a solid yellow or orange.

10 Move the mouse or press s

To turn the monitor back on.

11 What power-saving mode was your computer in while the monitor was off? 12 Under Power saver, click Change plan settings 13 Click Restore default settings for this plan Click Yes

To reset the Power saver plan settings to their defaults.

14 Click Cancel

To exit the Edit Plan Settings box.

15 Expand Show additional plans

If necessary.

Select High performance 16 Close the Power Options window

This plan favors performance over power savings.

17–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Sleep and Hibernate modes The Sleep and Hibernate modes offer great opportunities for saving electricity when you’re not using your computer. These modes can be used for both desktop and notebook computers. For mobile users, putting your laptop to sleep during that walk to the conference room (and the inevitable wait while the previous group takes their time leaving the room) will preserve your battery so that it can keep your computer active during your entire presentation. For longer trips—say, between clients’ business locations—you’ll want to hibernate your computer. Sleeping and hibernating notebook computers Your notebook might or might not be configured to support Sleep and Hibernate modes the way you want. Many people find it most convenient that their notebook go to sleep when they close the cover, and that the computer hibernates when they press the power button. You can configure these actions by following these steps: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click Hardware and Sound. 3 Under Power Options, click “Choose what the power buttons do.” 4 Using the lists shown in Exhibit 17-14, select the action to be taken when you close the lid or press the power button. You can specify different actions depending on whether your computer is running off the battery or is plugged in. The action options are: Do nothing, Sleep, Hibernate, or Shut down. 5 Click Save changes.

Exhibit 17-14: Power options on a notebook computer running Windows 7

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Sleeping and hibernating desktop computers You have fewer power options with a desktop computer than with a notebook. You can specify what happens when you press the power button, but you don’t have lid or battery-dependent options. 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click Hardware and Sound. 3 Under Power Options, click “Choose what the power button does.” 4 From the “When I press the power button” list shown in Exhibit 17-15, select the action you want taken. Depending on your computer hardware and BIOS, your choices could include: Do nothing, Sleep, Hibernate, or Shut down. 5 Click Save changes.

Exhibit 17-15: Power options on a desktop computer running Windows 7


A-7:

Putting a desktop computer into Hibernate and Sleep modes

Here’s how 1 On your desktop computer, configure it to hibernate when you press the power button. If your computer’s keyboard has a Sleep button, press it to put your computer to sleep. Then move the mouse or press a key to wake your computer. Hibernate your computer. Wake your computer by pressing its power button again. 2 If you have a notebook computer available, configure it to go to sleep when you close the lid, and hibernate when you press the power button. Put your computer to sleep. Move the mouse or press a key to wake your computer. Hibernate your computer. Wake your computer by pressing its power button again. 3 Which is the faster power-saving mode to enter and resume from: Sleep or Hibernate?

4 Close all open windows.

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Wake on LAN If you have a computer that you or other users connect to via the network, such as a print server, you can configure the computer in a power saving mode and then specify that it “wakes up” when the network card receives a connection request. 1 In the Control Panel, click Network and Internet, and then Network and Sharing Center. 2 Click “Change adapter settings” in Windows 7 or “Manage network connections” in Windows Vista. 3 Right-click your Local Area Connection and choose Properties. 4 In Windows Vista, click Continue. 5 Under “Connect using,” click Configure. 6 Select the Power Management tab. (On some computers, the power management information might be on the Advanced tab.) 7 Check “Allow the computer to turn off this device to save power” and “Allow the device to wake the computer,” or check the appropriate boxes under “Wake on LAN.” The options vary based on the NIC and the manufacturer. An example is shown in Exhibit 17-16. 8 Click OK. The computer can go into a power-saving mode, but awaken at a network request.

Exhibit 17-16: Power Saver and Wake on LAN options


A-8:

Configuring Wake on LAN

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open the Control Panel Click Network and Internet, and then Network and Sharing Center

2 Click Change adapter settings

3 Right-click Local Area Connection and choose Properties

4 Under Connect using, click Configure

5 Activate the Power Management tab 6 Follow your instructor’s directions to select the appropriate Wake on LAN options for your specific NIC 7 Click OK 8 Close all open windows

By default, in Windows 7, it should be configured.

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Topic B: Task Scheduler This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Task Scheduler

Using Task Scheduler Explanation

Task Scheduler, shown in Exhibit 17-17, is a utility you can use to schedule routine maintenance tasks or to act on the occurrence of a specific event. Task Scheduler can run behind the scenes with no user intervention, or it can accept input from the loggedon user.

Exhibit 17-17: Task Scheduler To create a task manually: 1 Open Computer Management, and expand Task Scheduler in the tree pane. 2 Right-click Task Scheduler Library and choose Create Task. 3 Using the five tabs in the dialog box, configure general properties, triggers, actions, conditions, and settings. (We’ll cover each of these tabs in the following sections.) If you want help with creating a task, you can have a wizard walk you through these five tabs, but you won’t have the same range of options. To start the wizard, right-click Task Scheduler Library and choose Create Basic Task.

17–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two General properties On this tab, you assign a name to the task, and you can enter an optional description. You can also configure security options, including which user credentials the task uses to run. By default, the task will run as the currently logged-on user. You can choose to have the task run only when the user is logged on or run whether the user is logged on or not. You can also choose to run the task with the highest privileges assigned to that user account. Triggers The trigger is the event that prompts the task to run. Triggers include a scheduled start time, a logon, startup, idle time, an event, and workstation locking and unlocking. To configure a trigger: 1 On the Triggers tab, click New. 2 In the New Trigger dialog box, select a trigger type from the “Begin the task list.” 3 Configure the settings for the trigger type, whether it’s a date and time or an event from an event log. 4 Configure advanced settings, including delay and repeat intervals, timeouts, and expiration dates. Actions The action is the task that’s performed in response to the trigger. You can configure one of three actions: start a program, send an e-mail message, or display a message. To create an action: 1 On the Actions tab, click New. 2 From the Action list, select one of the three actions:  If the action is “Start a program,” select the program and add any additional configuration parameters.  If the action is “Send an e-mail,” enter the sender and recipient e-mail addresses, a subject line, the message text, any attachments, and an address for a Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) server for the outgoing e-mail message.  If the action is “Display a message,” type the title and body of the message. Conditions You can choose the conditions under which the task will run, in addition to any trigger settings. The options are:  Idle — You can choose to start or stop the task depending on whether the computer is idle and how long the computer is idle.  Power — You can configure the task to run only if the computer is connected to an AC power source, and to stop if the computer switches to battery power. You can also specify that the computer should wake up to run the task.  Network — You can choose to run the task only if a specified network connection is available or if any connection at all is available.

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Settings You can configure additional settings that will control the task’s behavior. These settings include whether the task can be run on demand, when and how often to restart the task if it fails, when to stop the task, and when to delete the task if it’s not run. Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional To create a task in Windows XP or Windows 2000 Professional, you use the Scheduled Task Wizard. To start the wizard: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs (Programs in Windows 2000), Accessories, System Tools, Scheduled Tasks. 2 Double-click Add Scheduled Task. The Scheduled Task Wizard starts. 3 Click Next. 4 Select the program you want Windows to run and click Next. You can select one from the list or use the Browse button to find one that isn’t listed. 5 Enter a name for the task and choose when to run the task. Choices include:  Daily  Weekly  Monthly  One time only  When my computer starts  When I log on 6 Click Next. 7 Depending on the choice you made, you’re prompted to enter details about when to run the task as shown in the following graphics.

Exhibit 17-18: Daily task settings


Exhibit 17-19: Weekly task settings

Exhibit 17-20: Monthly task settings

Exhibit 17-21: One time only task settings

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Exhibit 17-22: When computer starts task and When I log on task 8 Click Next. Your task is created. 9 If you want to configure Advanced options for the task, check “Open advanced properties for this task when I click Finish.” 10 Click Finish.


B-1:

Creating a basic task

Here’s how 1 Open Computer Management

Here’s why You’re going to create two tasks. In this activity, you’ll create a weekly reminder. In the next activity, you’ll create a task to run Windows Defender when you lock your computer.

2 Expand Task Scheduler and select Task Scheduler Library

In the Actions panel, click Create Basic Task

3 Name the task Weekly Invoice Reminder and click Next 4 Select Weekly and click Next On the Weekly page, select Friday, and change the time to 9:00:00 AM

Click Next 5 On the Action page, select Display a message and click Next

In the Title box, type REMINDER In the Message box, type REMEMBER THE WEEKLY INVOICES

Click Next 6 On the Summary page, observe the “Open the Properties dialog for this task when I click Finish” checkbox

You can access all of the options on the General, Triggers, Alerts, Conditions, and Settings tabs in the Properties dialog box.

7 Click Finish Observe the new task in the library list, and the five tabs from its Properties dialog box displayed below 8 Observe the History tab

You can select a task in the list and view its settings on the five tabs. But to edit the task’s settings, you need to open its Properties dialog box. The task was successfully registered.

Windows management 9 Right-click the task in the list and choose Run If necessary, select

10 Click OK

17–35

To test the task.

The REMINDER taskbar button. To display the message box. To close the message box.

11 Right-click the task in the list and choose Properties Select each tab and observe its contents

You can reconfigure the task by changing just about any setting.

12 On the Triggers tab, select the trigger and click Edit Clear Friday and check Monday instead

To reconfigure the task to run every Monday morning.

Click OK 13 On the Actions tab, select the action and click Edit Edit the message to read REMEMBER THIS WEEK’S INVOICES

Click OK 14 On the Conditions tab, check Wake the computer to run this task

15 On the Settings tab, check Run task as soon as possible after a scheduled start is missed

Click OK

To close the dialog box and apply the new settings.


B-2:

Creating a task manually

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Right-click Task Scheduler Library and choose Create Task…

2 On the General tab, name the task Windows Defender on Lock

3 On the Triggers tab, click New From the “Begin the task” list, select On workstation lock Under Advanced settings, check Delay task for, and change the time to 30 seconds Click OK 4 On the Actions tab, click New In the Action list, verify that Start a program is selected Click Browse and browse to C:\Program Files\Windows Defender Select MpCmdRun and click Open

This is the command-line version of Windows Defender.

5 In the Add arguments box, type scan -1 To perform a quick scan.

Click OK 6 In the Create Task dialog box, click OK

To create the task.

7 Lock your computer and wait at least one minute

To trigger the action. You might see or hear the hard disk as the Windows Defender scan is started.

8 Log back on and observe the task list

The Windows Defender on Lock task ran when you locked your computer.

9 Close Computer Management

Windows management

17–37

Topic C: Resource management This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.2

Give a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Run line utilities – REGEDIT  Administrative tools – Services


Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  NET

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Administrative Tools – Services

3.1

Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools  Tools ( use and interpret results) – Net use – Net /?

The net command Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 include a commandline utility that you can use to manage and monitor the operating system. The net command provides a quick way to access specific information and perform several functions at the command line. You can obtain the syntax of the net command, as shown in Exhibit 17-23, by entering net /? at the command line.

Exhibit 17-23: Syntax of the net command

17–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The following table describes some of the parameters that are available for this command. Parameter

Description

continue

Restarts a paused service.

pause

Pauses a service.

print

Displays print jobs and queues. (Not available in Windows 7.)

session

Lists or disconnects sessions between the computer and other computers.

share

Lists shares on the local computer, and shares local resources.

start

Lists running services, and starts a service.

stop

Stops services. The net command can’t stop all services. Refer to www.microsoft.com/resources/documentation/windows/ xp/all/proddocs/en-us/net_stop.mspx?mfr=true for a list of stoppable services.

use

Connects and disconnects the computer from a network share.

view

Displays a list of computers in the workgroup, and lists shared resources on a specific computer when used with a computer name.

Administrative command prompt Some net command operations, such as starting and stopping services, require you to use an administrative command prompt. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, to open an administrative command prompt, click Start, All Programs, Accessories, right-click Command Prompt, and choose “Run as administrator.” In Windows XP, click Start, All Programs, Accessories, and right-click Command Prompt. Choose Run as. You can then run the program as the current user, or you can enter the credentials of a different user. In Windows 2000 Professional, click Start, All Programs, and Accessories. Hold down the shift key as you right-click Command Prompt. Holding down the shift key displays the Run as command on the menu. Choose Run as. Similar to Windows XP, you can then run the program as the current user, or you can enter the credentials of a different user.


C-1:

17–39

Using the net command

Here’s how 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories

Here’s why If Command Prompt is pinned to the Start menu, you can right-click it from there instead of navigating down to the Accessories menu.

Right-click Command Prompt Choose Run as administrator and click Yes

To open the Command Prompt window with administrative privileges.

2 Enter net view

To see a list of computers on the network.

3 Enter net share

To see a list of shared folders on your computer.

Do you have any shared folders? 4 Enter net share Marketing=C:\Marketing To share the Marketing folder.

5 Enter net share

To confirm that you’ve shared the folder and the share name is Marketing.

6 Enter net use \\computername\Marketing To connect to the shared Users folder on another computer in the classroom.

Enter a user name when prompted Enter a password when prompted 7 Enter net use

To confirm that you’ve connected to the shared folder.

8 Enter net use \\computername\Marketing /delete To remove the connection.

9 Enter net use

To confirm that you’ve removed the connection to the shared Marketing folder on the other computer.

10 Enter net share marketing /delete To stop sharing the Marketing folder.

11 Enter net share

To verify that the folder is no longer shared.

17–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 12 Enter net start

To display the list of services running on your computer.

13 Enter net stop spooler

To stop the Print Spooler service.

Enter net start spooler 14 Enter exit

To start the service again. To close the Command Prompt window.

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17–41

Services and Applications Services and Applications is a Computer Management utility. It contains several tools you can use to manage the services and applications running on the local computer or a remote computer. These tools—Services, WMI Control, and Indexing Services—are described in the following table. Tool

Description

Services

A computer administrator can stop and start services and change the startup properties of those services.

WMI Control

Use this tool to configure and manage the Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) Control. A computer administrator can view and change system properties on the local computer or a remote computer.

Indexing Service

Use the Indexing Service to get fast and easy access to system information through the Windows Search function. The Directories feature allows you to view items that are being indexed in the Directories folder.

Services When it comes to optimizing and securing a computer, one of the first things you can do is disable any unnecessary components, such as services. When a service is unnecessarily installed or is no longer used, you should disable it. Running unnecessary services consumes resources, such as memory and the CPU, and adds overhead to the system. If you’re having a problem with a component on a computer, see if the service is running.

17–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The Services console You use the Services console (part of the Microsoft Management Console, or MMC) is shown in Exhibit 17-24. You can use it to configure a variety of settings related to how services function and respond to potential problems.

Exhibit 17-24: The Services console in Windows 7 Professional The properties of a service are set on four dialog-box tabs, as follows:  General — Displays the service’s name and description, the path to the executable file, the startup parameters, and buttons you can click to start, stop, pause, and resume a service.  Log On — Allows you to specify the user name that a service runs as, along with the hardware profiles for which the service is enabled.  Recovery — Allows you to configure the computer’s response when a service fails, including various actions depending on the number of failures. You can specify a program that the operating system should run when a service failure occurs.  Dependencies — Specifies the services that a service depends on to function correctly, as well as the services that depend on this service in order to function. Before you stop or disable a service, check to see if you’re running any necessary services that depend on the service you want to disable. To do this, you use the Dependencies tab in the service’s Properties dialog box. Exhibit 17-25 shows the Dependencies tab for the DHCP Client service.

Windows management

Exhibit 17-25: Dependencies for the DHCP Client service

17–43


C-2:

Managing services

Here’s how

Here’s why


Choose Manage

The Computer Management console opens. It’s showing system information about the local computer.

2 In the console tree, expand Services and Applications

3 Select Services

(You can also access the Services console through Control Panel, System and Security, Administrative Tools.) This utility shows the services that are installed on your computer, along with brief descriptions of the services. It also indicates if the service is running (Started). When you’re troubleshooting, the startup type can be helpful to know. The four types are Disabled, Manual, Automatic, and Automatic (Delayed Start).

4 Double-click Computer Browser

This service maintains an updated list of computers on the network and supplies this list to computers.

5 Observe the information on the General page

This page displays the service’s name, a description, the path to the executable file, startup parameters, and buttons used to start, stop, pause, and resume a service.

6 Activate the Log On tab

Use this page to specify the user name that a service runs as, along with the hardware profiles for which the service is enabled.

7 Activate the Recovery tab

This is where you configure the computer’s response when a service fails.

8 Activate the Dependencies tab

This page shows you the services that this service depends upon to function correctly, as well as the services that depend on this service.

9 Close Computer Browser Properties


C-3:

17–45

Configuring Windows 7 services

Here’s how 1 Right-click WLAN AutoConfig

Here’s why In the Services console.

Choose Properties

This service manages the autoconfiguration feature of the WLAN adapters and connections. The service stopped and won’t start unless you manually start it.

2 From the Startup type list, select Automatic

This sets the WLAN AutoConfig service to start automatically the next time the computer restarts.

3 Click Apply Click Start

This manually starts the WLAN AutoConfig service.

4 Activate the Log On tab

This tab displays the properties of the account under which the WLAN AutoConfig service runs.

5 Activate the Recovery tab

17–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 6 In the First failure list, verify that “Restart the Service” is selected From the Second failure list, select Run a Program In the Program box, enter cmd.exe

This setting causes the Command Prompt program to start if the WLAN AutoConfig service fails for a second time.

7 Activate the Dependencies tab 8 Observe the list of services that the WLAN AutoConfig service depends on

One of the components that the WLAN AutoConfig service depends on is the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) service. A problem with RPC could cause problems with this service.

9 Observe the list of system components that depend on this service

No components depend on the WLAN AutoConfig service, so the box is grayed out.

10 Click OK

To close the dialog box. The WLAN AutoConfig service is now listed as Started.

Windows management 11 Right-click WLAN AutoConfig and choose Stop

12 Set the WLAN AutoConfig service’s Startup type back to Manual


17–47

To manually stop the WLAN AutoConfig service. Remember that the startup type is set to Automatic, so the service automatically starts again the next time the computer restarts.

17–48 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The Registry The Registry is a hierarchical database created during the installation of Windows. The Registry contains binary files that hold system configuration information about all aspects of a Windows computer, including security settings, user profiles, installed applications, attached hardware, and system properties. In all versions of Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, and in Windows 2000 Professional, the Registry is stored in files called hives in the \%systemroot%\System32\Config folder. (The \%systemroot%\ folder is the folder in which Windows is installed. In Windows 2000 Professional, by default, this folder is C:\Winnt. In Windows 7, Windows Vista and Windows XP, the folder is C:\Windows.) Registry keys The Registry is divided into sections called keys. Each key contains subkeys, which in turn contain other subkeys and specific values, which define specific Windows settings. The following table describes each Registry key. Registry key

Description

HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT

Contains file association data that Windows uses to start the correct program when you open a file from within Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer).

HKEY_CURRENT_USER

Holds the user data for the user who’s logged onto the computer.

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

Contains all non-user-specific configuration information.

HKEY_USERS

Holds user-specific configuration information for the user accounts on the computer.

HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG

Maintains hardware profile data.

Registry editors Registry files are binary files, so you can’t edit them directly in a text editor, such as Notepad. You can edit Registry files indirectly by using the Control Panel applets or Device Manager. Changes made there, and in other Properties dialog boxes in Windows, are kept in the Registry. You can also edit the Registry directly by using one of the Registry editors: regedit.exe or regedt32.exe. (Both tools are called “Registry Editor.”) Windows 9x/Me uses the regedit.exe utility. Windows 2000 Professional provides both regedit.exe, for its superior search capabilities, and regedt32.exe, a more powerful editing tool. All versions of Windows 7, Windows Vista and Windows XP, combine the two tools into one, shown in Exhibit 17-26, so you get Regedit whether you start Regedit or Regedt32. If, for some reason, you have to edit the Registry in an operating system other than Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP, you might find yourself using Regedit to find a particular key or value, and using Regedt32 to actually edit the settings.

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17–49

Exhibit 17-26: Registry Editor in Windows 7 Professional To open Regedit or Regedt32 in Windows 7 or Vista: 1 Click Start. 2 In the Search box, type regedit or regedt32. 3 Press Enter. 4 Click Continue. In Windows XP or Windows 2000 Professional: 1 Click Start. 2 Choose Run. 3 Type regedit or regedt32. 4 Click OK. In the left pane of the Registry Editor, you can select specific keys or subkeys to display their contents in the right pane. Although you can edit the Registry directly, you probably shouldn’t, since it has no save prompt or undo feature. If you make a mistake while editing the Registry, you could find yourself with a computer that doesn’t work the way you expect it to, or worse, a computer that doesn’t work at all. When you’re configuring Windows operating systems, you’ll find that there’s very little reason to edit the Registry directly.


C-4:

Viewing Registry information

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start In the Search box, type regedit and press e Click Yes

To open the Registry Editor. Although you probably won’t need to directly edit the Registry very often, it’s important to know what the Registry files look like and how the data is arranged.

2 Observe the keys in the left pane

The five Registry keys are listed.

3 Expand HKEY_CURRENT_USER

To display its subkeys.

4 Expand Control Panel and select Desktop Observe the settings in the right pane

These are the same settings you could configure by using the GUI utilities.

5 In the right pane, double-click Wallpaper

To display the configuration data. If you have to edit this setting manually, you can do it in this dialog box.

6 Click Cancel


7 In the navigation pane, select Mouse

8 In the right pane, double-click ActiveWindowTracking

To see another type of data. This value is a hexadecimal value. The field is set to zero, which means that this feature is turned off.

9 Click Cancel


Windows management

17–51

Registry searches To search for Registry entries, open the Registry Editor (Regedit.exe in Windows 2000 Professional) and choose Edit, Find. This opens the Find dialog box, shown in Exhibit 17-27. In the “Find what” box, enter the text string you want to search for. Then, under “Look at,” check Keys, Values, Data, or any combination of the three. (All three are selected by default.) To start the search, click Find Next.

Exhibit 17-27: The Registry Editor’s Find dialog box Do it!

C-5:

Searching the Registry

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In the Registry Editor, choose Edit, Find…

To open the Find dialog box. When you have to edit the Registry directly, it can be difficult to find the settings you need. You can use the Find feature to easily find settings by using full setting names or just keywords.

2 In the Find what box, type mouse

To search for all occurrences of the keyword “mouse.”

Leave the other options checked

To search through keys, values, and data.

3 Click Find Next

To find the first occurrence of “mouse.”

4 Press #

To find the next occurrence.

5 Continue pressing #

To find each occurrence of “mouse.” You’ll see this keyword appear in many different keys in the Registry. You don’t need to view all instances.

17–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Registry corruption and backups Registry corruption is an uncommon but very real problem that can render a computer inoperable. Registry corruption can happen for a number of reasons, including power failures, corrupted Registry files, hard disk errors, or mistakes made while editing the Registry directly. When the Registry is corrupted, you’ll usually see an error message telling you that Windows can’t start, and the message will point to one or more of the files associated with the Registry. For example: Windows XP could not start because the following file is missing or corrupt: \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\CONFIG\SYSTEM A corrupted Registry usually means that you have to reinstall the operating system, unless you’ve made a backup of the Registry or the Last Known Good startup option can recover the system. Last Known Good is an advanced startup option that uses the boot settings stored in the Registry from the last boot. If the previous system boot was successful, you can use this option to reverse all system setting changes made after the last successful boot. If the previous boot wasn’t successful, Last Known Good won’t be able to recover the system settings for you. (Advanced startup options are discussed in the Operating system troubleshooting unit.)

Exhibit 17-28: Exporting a Registry value

Windows management

17–53

One of the fastest and easiest ways to create a backup of a single subkey or value is to export it from the Registry Editor. (If you have to back up a full Registry key, it’s better to back up the entire Registry.) To export a portion of the Registry or the entire Registry: 1 Open the Registry Editor. 2 Choose File, Export to open the Export Registry File dialog box, shown in Exhibit 17-28. 3 Under “Export range,” select either All (to back up all keys) or Selected branch. 4 Save the file with a suitable name, in a secure location. Keep in mind that a full backup can run several megabytes. To restore the Registry or the portion you backed up, double-click the .reg file you created. This installs the information in the correct location in the Registry. Recovery discs In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, you can use system recovery utilities to create a system recovery disc that includes a copy of the entire Registry. In Windows 2000 Professional, the system recovery disc is called an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD). The ERD contains basic system configuration files that you can use to restore your computer to a bootable state if your Registry is damaged or if the operating system is on an NTFS partition that isn’t booting. When you create an ERD, basic system configuration information from the Registry is placed on the disk and in the %systemroot%\Repair folder on the hard disk. In Windows Vista and Windows XP, the system recovery is called Automated System Recovery (ASR). The Automated System Recovery Wizard creates a backup of your system partition and makes a floppy disk containing critical system settings. In Windows 7, you create a system repair disc from Control Panel, Backup and Restore. You can then use ASR to recover from a system failure caused by problems with the system/boot volume, such as Registry corruption. Additional details of the Emergency Repair Disk and Automated System Recovery utilities are provided in the operating system troubleshooting unit.


C-6:

Backing up Registry files

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In the Registry Editor, under HKEY_CURRENT_USER, Control Panel, select Desktop

To prepare to export these settings. You can use the Export feature to back up Registry settings before you make any changes. You can then restore the settings if you make any mistakes or decide to undo your changes.

2 Choose File, Export…

To open the Export Registry File dialog box.

3 In the File name box, enter

To name the backup file.

Desktop backup

4 Click Save

The file is saved in your Documents folder.

5 Click Start and choose Documents

Change the View to Tiles

To verify that the backup file was created.

6 Close the Documents window and the Registry Editor

Windows management

17–55

Topic D: Remote management This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Remote Desktop Protocol (Remote Desktop / Remote Assistance)

Remote Assistance Explanation

Remote Assistance provides a way for a user to ask someone at another computer for help with a computer problem. Remote Assistance allows the helping user to see the other user’s desktop and, when permitted, to take control of that system temporarily to resolve problems. Some organizations might have a network configuration that prevents a second user from taking control of the first computer’s keyboard and mouse; this will depend on your specific network setup. Theoretically, depending on network configuration, you can ask for and receive help on just about any Windows 7 and Windows Vista computer in the world. The Remote Assistance session works like this: 1 You invite someone to help you by creating and making available an invitation. You can send an e-mail message to the person you’re asking for help, or you can create an invitation file that you can put in a shared location, attach to an e-mail message, or send through an instant messaging program. You must also give the helper the password associated with the invitation. 2 The helper accepts your invitation and enters the password. 3 You show the helper the problems you’re experiencing. He or she can then answer your question or take control of your computer (if permitted) to fix the problem. 4 Either you or the helper then ends the session. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, Remote Assistance is enabled by default. To configure Remote Assistance settings, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties. Under Tasks, click Remote settings, and enter a password if prompted. On the Remote tab, you can enable or disable Remote Assistance. Click Advanced to enable or disable remote control of your computer and to set time limits for invitations. To create an invitation, open Windows Help and Support, click Ask, and then click the Windows Remote Assistance link. Click “Invite someone you trust to help you”; choose to use e-mail to invite the friend or create an invitation; and then complete the wizard.


D-1:

Requesting Remote Assistance

Here’s how 1 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose

Here’s why You’re going to configure Remote Assistance and then request assistance from the instructor.

Properties

In the tasks list, click Remote settings

2 Observe the Remote Assistance section

Remote Assistance is currently enabled. You can clear the checkbox to disable Remote Assistance.

3 Click Advanced Observe the Remote control section

You can disable remote control by clearing this checkbox. Currently it’s enabled, but your friend will still need to request permission before taking control.

Observe the Invitations section

You can set a time limit on invitations you create.

4 In the number list, select 1 To set the time limit to 1 hour. After that time, invitations will expire.

5 Click OK twice, and close the System window 6 Open Windows Help and Support

You’re going to request help from your instructor.

Click Under Ask a person for help, click Windows Remote Assistance

7 Click Invite someone you

You can then send an e-mail message or save the invitation as a file.

8 Click Save this invitation as a file

If you had an open invitation that you’d already created, you could use that one by clicking it.

Navigate to select the Public Documents folder

(C:\Users\Public\Public Documents.) This is an easy location to put an invitation in.

trust to help you

Windows management 9 In the File name box, type

17–57

Where firstname is your first name.

firstname’s Invitation

Click Save 10 Observe the Windows Remote Assistance window

You need to give this password to your helper so he or she can accept the invitation. Remote Assistance indicates that it’s waiting for an incoming connection. At this point, you’d notify your helper that you’ve created an invitation and put it in the Public Documents folder on your computer. You’d also tell your helper what the password is.

Do it!

D-2:

Participating in a Remote Assistance session

Here’s how 1 Wait for your instructor to accept your invitation. Click Yes when asked whether to accept the connection. Instructor: You need to access the Public Documents folder on the students’ computers. 2 Click Chat and explain to your instructor what the problem is. Open your personal folder and Sticky Notes. 3 Instructor: Click Request control. Allow your instructor to take control of your session. Watch as your instructor opens and closes folder windows and programs. 4 End the session. 5 Access the remote settings and disable Remote Assistance.

17–58 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Remote Desktop You can use Remote Desktop and the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) to connect to remote Windows 7 and Windows Vista computers—“remote” meaning a computer that is on another desk, in another building, across a campus, on a different floor in the same building, or almost anywhere in the world. Using Remote Desktop, you can access any program or folder, the Control Panel, network configuration tools, and just about any other feature on the remote computer.

Exhibit 17-29: A remote connection To enable Remote Desktop in Windows Vista, click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties. Click Remote settings. In Windows Vista, enter an administrative password or click Continue. In both Windows 7 and Windows Vista, select one of the “Allow connections…” options. Not every user can connect remotely with Remote Desktop. By default, computer administrators already have permission, but you can select other users and allow them to make remote connections. To allow users to connect, open the System Properties dialog box, select the Remote tab, and click Select Users. Click Add, type the name of the user account, and click OK.

Comparing Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop There is a design difference between the Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop features. Remote Assistance allows you to display your computer to a remote user. If you want the remote user to be able to work with your computer, you must grant control. With Remote Desktop, once you allow a remote connection, the remote user has the ability to work with your computer. You don’t have to grant control.


D-3:

17–59

Enabling Remote Desktop

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties

2 Click Remote settings

You will enable Remote Desktop.

3 In the Remote Desktop section, verify that “Allow connections from computer running any version of Remote Desktop (less secure)” is selected

Only users with administrative privileges can enable this feature.

4 Click Select Users and observe the Remote Desktop Users dialog box

Except for your COMPADMIN## account, no users are permitted to access the computer through Remote Desktop. You can add any users to this list.

5 Click Cancel

To close the Remote Desktop Users dialog box.

6 Click OK

To close the System Properties dialog box.

Close the System window

17–60 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Connecting remotely You can connect to a a Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows XP computer that has Remote Desktop enabled from any Windows computer with Remote Desktop Connection, unless the remote computer is in sleep mode or hibernation. When you connect to the remote computer, its console is locked, preventing anyone from working on it while the remote connection is established. Although the Remote Desktop feature redirects output to the remote computer, all programs and utilities run locally on the remote computer. To access Remote Desktop Connection in Windows 7 or Windows Vista, click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Remote Desktop Connection.


D-4:

17–61

Making a Remote Desktop connection

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 At one partner’s computer, click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, Remote Desktop Connection 2 In the Computer box, enter the name of your partner’s computer

Get this information from your partner.

Click Options

To display more of the dialog box.

Observe the tabs

You can use the settings on these tabs to configure the remote connection. You will be prompted for a user name and password when you connect.

3 In the User name box, type your partner’s COMPADMIN## user name 4 Click Connect In the Password box, type

Or whatever your partner’s password is.

!pass1234

5 Click OK Click Yes

To connect to your partner’s remote computer. To acknowledge the identity of the remote computer can’t be verified.

6 Experiment with opening programs and folders on the remote computer 7 Observe the title bar

You can see the name of the computer you’re connected to, and there are Minimize, Restore Down, and Close buttons.

8 Experiment with the Control menu buttons

To see what it’s like to minimize, maximize, and restore the Remote Desktop Connection window.

9 Click Start and log off

To close the remote connection to your partner’s computer.

On the remote computer, log back on 10 Switch roles with your partner and repeat the activity


Unit summary: Windows management Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to configure regional and language settings, and you configured indexing, Windows Aero, and the Windows Sidebar. You then learned how to configure the power management options in Windows Vista to conserve energy on both desktop and notebook computers.

Topic B

In this topic, you leaned how to use Task Scheduler to create and configure scheduled tasks. You learned how to create a basic task by using a wizard, and how to create a task manually.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned how to manage resources using the net command. You learned how to control Windows services by using the Services console. You learned how to start, stop, and change startup options for some services. You learned the purpose of the Windows Registry. You learned about the differences between the two Registry management tools—regedit.exe and regedt32.exe. You learned how to use regedit.exe to manage the Registry. You learned how to search the Registry to find information. In addition, you learned how to back up the Registry files in order to recover from a Registry problem.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned how to manage and troubleshoot problems remotely by using the Remote Desktop and Remote Assistance features.

Review questions 1 Which Registry key contains file association data for application startup? A HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT B HKEY_CURRENT_USER C HKEY_DYN_DATA D HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG 2 Which Registry key isn’t found in Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP? A HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT B HKEY_CURRENT_USER C HKEY_DYN_DATA D HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG 3 In Task Scheduler, a(n) __________ causes an action to be performed. trigger

4 True or false? You can configure a pop-up message, a text message, and an e-mail message as actions in Task Scheduler. False. You can’t configure a text message.

5 Which tab of a service’s Properties dialog box do you use to configure the operating system response when the service fails? A Dependencies B General C Log On D Recovery

Windows management

17–63

6 True or false? Power management features are beneficial for notebook computers only. False. Desktop computers use electricity and can use a considerable amount of power even when they sit idle. Configuring power management features in desktops can decrease the power consumption of a computer and its components when idle.

7 Which power plan is typically used with mobile computers? A Balanced B High performance C Power saver 8 True or false? The Sleep and Hibernation options are the same in notebook and desktop computers. False. You have fewer power options with a desktop computer than with a notebook. You can specify what happens when you press the power button, but you don’t have lid or batterydependent options.

9 Which utility enables you to connect to a remote computer and work as if you were sitting at that computer? Remote Desktop

10 True or false? Remote Assistance is enabled by default. True

11 True or false? By default, any user can offer assistance to another user by using the Remote Assistance utility. False

12 True or false? By default, any user can make a Remote Desktop connection. False

17–64 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice managing your Windows computer. 1 Add an application such as Notepad to your Startup group. 2 Log off and log back on to verify that your chosen application runs on startup. 3 Remove the application from the Startup group. 4 Log off and log back on to verify that your chosen application no longer runs on startup. 5 Configure Windows Aero with a new, personalized look. 6 Use Registry Editor to create backups of each of the five keys in the Registry. Save the files in the Documents folder. 7 Create a custom power plan called My Power Plan. Set the sleep timer for the display to 10 minutes. Set the sleep timer for the computer to Never. 8 Work with another student in a Remote Assistance session. Choose who will be the helper and who will ask for help. Create a scenario that your student partner can help you answer. 9 Create a task to start Windows Calendar every weekday morning at 9:00 so you can check your appointments for the day. 10 Run the new task to ensure that it works correctly.

18–1

Unit 18 Windows monitoring Unit time: 90 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Monitor the operating system. B Monitor system performance. C Backup and restore operating system files

and data.

18–2


Topic A: System monitoring This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Run line utilities – Msinfo32 – Dxdiag  Administrative tools – Event Viewer, Services, Computer Management  Task Manager

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Device Manager – Driver signing


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Administrative Tools – Event Viewer  Task Manager – Process list – Resource usage – Process priority – Termination  System Information

2.4

Evaluate and resolve common issues  Error Messages and Conditions – Event Viewer (errors in the event log)

Tools for monitoring your system Explanation

Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, include tools that you can use to monitor a computer system. You can use the information that you gather with these tools to optimize components or troubleshoot problems with the operating system.

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Windows Diagnostics Windows Diagnostics is a utility that collects information about the configuration of a specified computer and displays it in the System Information window, shown in Exhibit 18-1. In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional you can open System Information by clicking Start and choosing All Programs (or Programs), Accessories, System Tools. You can also enter msinfo32 at the command prompt or in the Search or Run dialog box. The System Information window displays system summary information, plus detailed information in several categories, including:  Hardware Resources  Components  Software Environment  Internet Settings (not in Windows 7 or Windows Vista)

Exhibit 18-1: The System Information window in Windows 7 Professional

18–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two System information for remote computers To display the statistics of a remote computer, choose View, Remote Computer and enter the name of the computer. For you to run msinfo32 to report on a remote computer, the remote computer must have Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) installed. This is a Windows component that’s installed by default. You must also have appropriate privileges to view system information on the remote computer.

Do it!

A-1:

Running Windows Diagnostics

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 If necessary, log on to Windows 7 as: User: COMPADMIN## Password: !pass1234 2 Click Start and in the Search box, type

To open the System Information window.

msinfo32

Press e Maximize the System Information window Observe the Summary information

The details pane shows general information about the configuration of your computer.

3 Expand Hardware Resources

To display the categories listed.

Select each subcategory and observe the information it reports

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4 Expand Components


Select each subcategory and observe the information it reports

If necessary, expand any subcategories that contain additional categories.

5 Expand Software Environment


Select each subcategory and observe the information it reports 6 Close the System Information window

18–6


Command-line system information To run msinfo32 at the command prompt or from the Run dialog box, enter: path\msinfo32

To retain command-line functionality, you must enter the full path of the msinfo32 command. If you don’t, it simply opens the default System Information window. The following table describes the parameters and switches available for running msinfo32 from the command line in Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Parameter/switch

Description

/nfo Path

Exports the system information to an .nfo file (“nfo” stands for “information”). Path includes the drive letter, folder name, file name, and file extension. If you don’t specify the .nfo file extension, Windows adds it to the file name automatically. You can view .nfo files with a text editor such as Notepad or a dedicated NFO viewer.

/report Path

Sends the system information to the file specified in the path. You must specify the extension as .txt. The .txt extension is not added automatically to the file name, as it is with the /nfo switch.

/computer ComputerName

Reports on the specified remote computer. You can specify the remote computer by UNC name, IP address, or FQDN (fully qualified domain name). Requires administrative rights.

The following table describes the additional parameters and switches available for running msinfo32 from the command line in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional. Parameter/switch

Description

/pch

Opens System Information in History view.

/report:filename.txt

Sends the system information to the file specified in the current directory. You must specify the extension as .txt.

/computer:computername

Reports on the specified remote computer. You can specify the remote computer by UNC name, IP address, or FQDN (fully qualified domain name). Requires administrative rights.

/category:categoryname

Launches System Information with the specified category selected.

/categories:categorylist

Displays information in only the specified category list.

/showcategories

Displays the list of categories.

/?

Shows command line options (Windows XP).

Windows monitoring Do it!

A-2:

18–7

Running msinfo32 from a command line

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 What msinfo32 command would you use to send a report to a file called COMPADMIN##.txt, at the root of C:\? 2 Click Start Right-click Command Prompt and choose Run as administrator

You need the proper administrative rights to have the utility complete all of the tasks to create the report.

Click Yes 3 Enter the command you recorded in Step 1

Where ## is your student number.

The utility gathers the information it needs and then writes it to a file. The System Information window does not open.

4 Open Windows Explorer Navigate to C:\ 5 Open COMPADMIN##.txt

The command saved the file in the current directory in the Command Prompt window. It might take a minute or two for msinfo32 to scan the system and create the file.

6 Choose Edit, Find… In the Find what box, enter Protocol

Click Find Next Click Find Next until all instances of “Protocol” are found; then click OK Click Cancel and close all open windows

You can use the Search feature to find information within the file.

18–8


DirectX Diagnostic In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, DirectX Diagnostic (dxdiag.exe) is a utility you can use to see the status of your DirectX installation. In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, the DirectX Diagnostic tool is more robust and can be used to test and troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems. In Windows Vista, however, DxDiag only displays information; you can no longer use it to test hardware and other DirectX components. To run DirectX Diagnostic in Windows 7 or Windows Vista: 1 Click Start. 2 In the Search box, type dxdiag. 3 Press Enter. 4 Click Yes to allow DxDiag to check whether your drivers are digitally signed, or click No if you don’t want the drivers checked. The DirectX Diagnostic Tool window opens, as shown in Exhibit 18-2. In Windows XP, you can also open DirectX Diagnostic from the Tools menu in Msinfo32.

Exhibit 18-2: The DirectX Diagnostic Tool in Windows Vista Business To run DirectX Diagnostic in Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP: 1 Click Start and choose Run. 2 In the Open box, type dxdiag. 3 Click OK.

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The following table describes the pages of the DirectX Diagnostic Tool. All pages will display a warning if the tool detects a problem with a file, driver, device, or setting. Page

Description

System

Reports the following system information about your computer: Current Date/Time

System Manufacturer

Memory

Computer Name

System Model

Page file

Operating System

BIOS

DirectX Version

Language

Processor

DirectX Files

(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Lists the file name and version number for each DirectX file installed on your computer. It also lists the file name and version number of the common files used by games that run under DirectX.

Display

Displays your current video settings and your device’s available memory. Dxdiag.exe can’t report memory that is in use when you start the utility, however, so it’s not uncommon for the utility to report less memory than your video card actually has. This page also reports whether your video driver has passed Microsoft's Windows Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) test. WHQL Logo’d is set to Yes if your driver passed. In Windows XP and 2000, you can disable DirectDraw, Direct3D, and AGP Texture Acceleration from this page. You can also test DirectDraw and Direct3D. If your computer passes these tests, it tells you that the DirectX Graphics runtime files are installed and functioning correctly.

Sound

Displays your current sound settings. Similar to Display, the utility reports whether your audio driver is signed, again indicating that it passed Microsoft’s Windows Hardware Quality Labs tests. In Windows XP and 2000, you can test DirectSound. Use the Hardware Sound Acceleration Level slider to correct audio glitches that can be caused by some audio drivers. The best way to troubleshoot DirectSound audio problems is to reduce the acceleration by one notch and then retest. Be aware that if you lower the Hardware Sound Acceleration Level from the default setting of full acceleration, you can disable advanced audio processing techniques such as 3D spatialization.

Music

(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Displays your current MIDI settings. You can test DirectMusic, which is a component of DirectX 6.1 and later.

Input

Lists the input devices currently connected to your computer and the drivers installed on your computer for those devices.

Network

(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Lists the registered DirectPlay Service Providers, which are the connection methods DirectPlay operates across. If a Registry problem is reported here, you can usually resolve it by reinstalling DirectX. The DirectPlay test uses a chat window over DirectPlay to test a connection between two computers. If your computer can’t successfully chat with another computer in this test, it probably won’t be able to establish a network connection within games.

More Help

(Windows XP and 2000 only.) Contains additional tools for troubleshooting any DirectX issues you couldn’t resolve by using the other pages in the utility.


A-3:

Running the DirectX Diagnostic tool

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start In the Search box, type dxdiag and press e

To run the DirectX Diagnostic Tool.

Click Yes

To allow the utility to connect to the Internet and check for digital signatures on the driver files.

2 Observe the information reported on the System page

“Check for WHQL digital signatures” is enabled. You can disable it by clearing the checkbox. You can navigate by activating another tab (page) or clicking the Next Page button.

3 Click Next Page

To go to the next page.

4 Observe the information reported on the Display page

Your DirectX features are listed as enabled, and there should be no problems found.

5 Click Next Page 6 Observe the information reported on the Sound page 7 Click Next Page 8 Observe the information reported on the Input page Under Input Related Devices, expand each category

Windows monitoring 9 Click Save All Information 10 Click Save 11 Click Exit

18–11

You can save the information to either a .txt file or an .xml file. To save the information in a text file on your desktop.

18–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Task Manager Task Manager is a Windows GUI utility that provides information about the applications, processes, and services that are running on your computer. In Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, Task Manager has three tabs you can use to troubleshoot problems and monitor your system; they’re described in the following table. Tab

Description

Application

Displays the status of applications running on your computer. You can end an application, switch to a running application, or start an application.

Processes

Displays information about the processes that are running on your computer. Each process entry shows the name of the executable file, the name of the account running the application (it might be a system service account), the process’s percentage of CPU usage, and the amount of memory the process is using. You can end processes from this tab.

Performance

Displays a dynamic representation of the most common performance indicators for your computer. You’ll see graphs for CPU and page file usage; summary totals for the number of handles, threads, and processes running; and totals for physical, kernel, and commit-charge memory. (The Performance tab is covered in the “Memory systems” unit.)

In Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP, Task Manager has two additional tabs, described in the following table. Tab

Description

Networking

Displays a dynamic graphical representation of your current network utilization. For each network adapter installed, Task Manager lists the percentage of network utilization, the link speed of the connection, and the state of the connection.

Users

Displays the names and status of any users currently logged on. You can log users off or disconnect them by using this tab. The Users tab is available on Windows XP computers that aren’t members of a domain and that have Fast User Switching enabled.

Windows 7 and Windows Vista also includes a Services tab. You can use it to view running services quickly. Exhibit 18-3 shows all of the Task Manager tabs in Windows 7 and Windows Vista. To open Task Manager:  Right-click the taskbar and choose Task Manager.  Press Ctrl+Shift+Esc.  Press Ctrl+Alt+Del and click Task Manager or Start Task Manager.

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Exhibit 18-3: Task Manager in Windows Vista Business

The Applications tab You can use the Applications tab in Task Manager to end a running application. This is helpful when a general protection fault (GPF) occurs, indicated either by a pop-up window or the immediate termination and closure of an application. To end a running application: 1 In Task Manager, on the Applications tab, select the application you want to end. 2 Click End Task. 3 If the application still isn’t responding, Windows will display a dialog box telling you that the application isn’t responding. Click End Task. You can also use the Applications tab to switch to another application. For example, if an application is running, but is running in the background or doesn’t have a taskbar button displayed, you can use Task Manager to switch to the application. 1 On the Applications tab, select the application you want to switch to. 2 Click Switch To. This step minimizes Task Manager and places the selected application on top of the desktop.

18–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two You can start a new instance of an application from within Task Manager. This is helpful if the explorer.exe process has stopped and you have lost your Start menu, taskbar, and desktop items. Creating a new task to start explorer.exe will fix the problem. To do so: 1 On the Applications tab, click New Task. 2 In the Open box, type the desired executable file (or browse to navigate to it). 3 Click OK. Do it!

A-4:

Monitoring applications

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Documents and a Command Prompt Minimize both windows 2 Right-click an empty section of the taskbar and choose Start

To open Task Manager.

Task Manager

3 If necessary, select the Applications tab 4 Select Documents and click Switch To

Task Manager minimizes to the taskbar, and the Windows Explorer window, displaying the Documents folder, is now active.

5 On the taskbar, click

The icon for Task Manager.

6 Select Command Prompt

If this application had experienced a GPF, its status would be “Not responding.”

7 Click End Task

To end the Command Prompt application.

8 Click New Task In the Open box, type notepad and then click OK

An instance of Notepad runs, and it’s listed on the Applications tab.

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18–15

The Processes tab The Processes tab is helpful when you need to determine if a running process is overwhelming the processor and slowing the system down. Here’s how you do that: 1 In Windows Task Manager, select the Processes tab. 2 As you complete tasks on the computer, observe the CPU column. You should see the number spike as each process takes processor time, and then the number should return to normal. If a process has a high percentage of CPU usage that doesn’t return to normal, you might have to end the process. 3 Select the name of the executable file for the process that’s overwhelming the CPU. 4 Click End Process. 5 A warning box states that terminating the process can cause undesirable results. To end the process, click End Process (in Windows 7 and Windows Vista) or Yes (in Windows 2000 and XP). You can also use the Processes tab to end an application that won’t end when you try to do so on the Applications tab. Just find the application’s process, and click End Process. Do it!

A-5:

Ending a process

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Select the Processes tab

In Task Manager.

2 Click Memory

(The column heading.) To sort the list of processes by memory consumption.

3 Click Image Name

(The column heading.) To sort the list of processes by name.

4 Select notepad.exe Click End Process Click End Process

The selected instance of Notepad closes, and its executable file is removed from the list of processes.

18–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The Services tab A unique feature on the Services tab is its tie to the Processes tab. When you right-click a running service and select Go to Process, Task Manager switches to the Processes tab and highlights the associated process. If there isn’t a process highlighted, the process isn’t running under your user account. Click “Show processes from all users” on the Processes tab. This process also works in reverse. You can right-click a process and choose Go to Services, and Task Manager will switch to the Services tab and highlight the associated services. Do it!

A-6:

Monitoring services

Here’s how 1 On the Processes tab, click Show

Here’s why In Task Manager.

processes from all users

2 Select the Services tab

This tab shows the services on your computer and their status: Stopped or Running.

3 Observe the information reported for each service 4 Right-click LanmanWorkstation and choose Go to Process

Task Manager switches to the Processes tab and highlights the appropriate svchost.exe process.

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The Networking tab You can use the data displayed on the Networking tab in Task Manager to quickly see how much of your computer’s network bandwidth you’re using. If you have multiple network interface cards (NICs) installed on the computer, the chart displays a combination of the network traffic for all NICs. The bottom of the tab displays information about multiple NICs individually, allowing you to compare the traffic on each one. You can change the columns displayed in the summary area for each NIC by choosing View, Select Columns. Exhibit 18-4 shows the choices available.

Exhibit 18-4: Data types that can be displayed under the Networking graph.


A-7:

Monitoring network utilization

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Select the Networking tab

In Task Manager.

2 Move Task Manager to the lowerright corner of your screen

You will view network utilization data as you work with Internet Explorer.

3 Open Internet Explorer Switch to Task Manager

(If necessary.) Click its icon on the taskbar.

4 In Task Manager, observe the Local Area Connection graph

There were small spikes in network traffic as you accessed the Internet through the local network.

5 Observe the box below the graph

It shows details about your NIC.

6 Close all open windows except Task Manager

Right-click each button on the taskbar and choose Close Window.

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The Users tab You can use the Users tab in Task Manager to monitor the users logged on to the computer and to disconnect them, log them off, or send them a message. The columns on the Users tab include the items in the following table. Item

Description

User

Lists the user names of people logged on to this computer.

ID

Shows a numeric ID assigned to identify the user session on the computer.

Status

Indicates the current status of the user session: Active or Disconnected.

Client Name

If applicable, indicates the name of the computer using the session.

Session

Displays the session name. (You’ll need to scroll to the right to see this column.)


A-8:

Monitoring users

Here’s how 1 Select the Users tab

Here’s why It shows that you’re the only user logged onto your computer.

2 Click Start and choose Switch user

3 Log on as COMPUSER## with a password of !pass1234 4 Open Notepad 5 Switch back to your COMPADMIN## account

(Click Start and choose Switch User.) Don’t log off your COMPUSER## account.

6 Observe the data on the Users tab

The user account you just switched from is listed as Disconnected.

Select COMPUSER##

You can log off this user or send him a message. Logging the user off could cause data to be lost in files the user is working on but hasn’t saved.

7 Click Send Message In the Message box, enter Please don’t leave applications running when you leave the computer.

Click OK 8 Switch to COMPUSER## Click OK

The message from COMPADMIN## is displayed. To clear the message box.

9 Close Notepad 10 Log off COMPUSER## and then log on as COMPADMIN## 11 Close Windows Task Manager

COMPUSER## is no longer listed on the Users tab.

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Computer Management The Computer Management tool enables you to manage the local computer or a remote computer. Administrative tasks you can complete from the Computer Management console include:  Monitoring system events, such as application errors  Creating and managing shared resources  Determining which users are connected to the computer you’re managing  Starting and stopping system services  Setting properties for storage devices  Viewing device configurations  Adding or changing device drivers  Managing applications and services You can use Computer Management to determine the source of problems with a computer. The Computer Management console contains three categories: System Tools; Storage; and Services and Applications. To open the Computer Management console, do either of the following:  Click Start; right-click Computer (or My Computer), and choose Manage. In Windows Vista, click Continue.  Open the Control Panel: – In Windows 7, click System and Security – In Windows Vista, click System and Maintenance – In Windows 2000 and Windows XP, click Performance and Maintenance Click Administrative Tools; and double-click Computer Management. In Windows Vista, click Continue.

Event monitoring Event Viewer is a Windows utility that enables you to monitor events that occur on your system. The events that are recorded can help you determine the cause of problems you’re having with a particular application, a component of the operating system, or a suspected security breach.


Console tree Scope pane

Actions pane

Exhibit 18-5: Event Viewer in Windows 7 On workstation computers, Event Viewer events are divided into the following categories (referred to as logs):  Application — Events logged by individual applications. The types of errors an application logs in Event Viewer are determined by the application’s developers and might vary considerably among applications and vendors.  Security — Events relating to the security of your Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional computer. For security events to be logged by Windows 2000 or Windows XP, you must establish an audit policy.  System — Events reported by Windows system components. The operating system determines which components report errors to the Event Viewer log. Windows 7 and Windows Vista has two additional categories:  Setup — Events relating to the installation of each new application.  Forwarded Events — Event IDs from other computers. You specify which events to collect by using Subscriptions. Additional categories are available in Microsoft’s Server operating systems. Event Viewer is available in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional. You can access it through the Administrative Tools in the Control Panel. Event Viewer is also a System Tools component of the Computer Management console.

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Event information Each of the three event categories displays certain header information for each recorded event. This information is described in the following table. Item

Description

Level (7/Vista); Type (XP/2000)

The type of event that’s recorded: Error, Warning, Information, Success Audit (Security Log only), or Failure Audit (Security Log only).

Date

The date the event was recorded.

Time

The time the event was recorded. Date and Time are combined in a single column in Windows 7 and Windows Vista.

Source

The program, system component, or individual component of a large program that recorded the event.

Task Category (7/Vista); Category (XP/2000)

Additional information about the component that logged the event.

Event ID (7/Vista); Event (XP/2000)

An ID that identifies the type of event. Event IDs are coded into the operating system and individual applications and can be used by product support personnel to troubleshoot problems.

Computer

The name of the computer where the event occurred. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the User and Computer information isn’t listed in a column. You must look at the General tab of the event details.

User

The name of the user who was logged on when the event was recorded. Many components run under a system account, so you might see SYSTEM in this column, even if a user was logged on when the event occurred.

OpCode

The point at which the event was recorded. . In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the OpCode information isn’t listed in a column. You must look at the General tab of the event details.

Logged

The date and time the event was logged. In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the Logged information isn’t listed in a column. You must look at the General tab of the event details.

Keywords

Words that you can use to search for more information about the event. .In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the Keywords information isn’t listed in a column. You must look at the General tab of the event details.

18–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Event types There are five types of events; they are described in the following table. Event type

Description

Error

A significant problem; for example, a service fails to start.

Warning

An event that isn’t a significant or immediate problem but could become a significant problem in the future. For example, disk space is running low.

Information

The successful operation of a task; for example, a network driver loads successfully.

Success Audit (Security Log only)

A successful security event; for example, a user logs on successfully.

Failure Audit (Security Log only)

An unsuccessful security event; for example, a user attempts to log on but fails to submit proper credentials.

Double-clicking an individual event opens an Event Properties dialog box, as shown in Exhibit 18-6, with a description of the event. You can use the arrow buttons to view information about the previous (up arrow) or next (down arrow) event.

Exhibit 18-6: An Event Properties dialog box in Windows Vista Business


A-9:

Viewing the event logs

Here’s how

Here’s why


Choose Manage

Event Viewer is part of the Computer Management console.

2 Under System Tools, expand Event Viewer

Click the

.

Expand Windows Logs

The five categories are listed.

18–25

18–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 3 Select Application Observe the Level, Date and Time, Source, Event ID, and Task Category columns

The events are listed, by default, from the most recent to the oldest. The first event is selected.

Observe the information listed on the General tab for the event

The user and computer information is listed here, along with the details from the columns above.

4 Select the Details tab Select Friendly View

(If necessary.) Microsoft technicians can use this information to diagnose a problem.

Select XML View

To display the event information in an XML view.

5 Select Security

Events related to system security are recorded in this log.

6 Select Setup

If there haven’t been any problems installing applications, you won’t have any events listed here.

7 Select System

To view the events recorded by the operating system and its components.

8 Select Forwarded Events

You haven’t set up any subscriptions yet, so there aren’t any events listed.

9 Observe Subscriptions

This area is where you set up subscriptions to events on other computers.


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Changing the event display Using the View menu, you can sort and filter the display of events in each event log, and you can search for events that meet particular criteria. These features are helpful in quickly narrowing down a full event log to only certain events. Sorting events By default, events are listed from the newest to the oldest, by date and time, but you can easily change the sort order by clicking any column heading. A single click on the column heading sorts the events in ascending order (an up-arrow appears in the column heading, as shown in Exhibit 18-7). A second click sorts events in descending order (a down-arrow appears in the column heading). You can also use the View, Sort By command to sort by column heading. To return the view to the default, choose View, Remove Sorting. Up arrow shows that the log is sorted in ascending order by Level

Exhibit 18-7: An Application log sorted by Level Grouping events In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can group events in a log by column heading. Choose View, Group By, and choose a column heading by which to group the events. You can then choose View, Collapse All Groups to see just the groups, and then expand each group as necessary. Exhibit 18-8 shows the Application log grouped by Level. To remove the grouping, choose View, Remove grouping of events.

Exhibit 18-8: Grouped events

18–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Filtering events To display only certain events in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can apply a filter to the view. Here’s how: 1 In the console tree, select the log where you want to filter events. 2 In the Actions pane, click Filter Current Log. (To show or hide the Actions pane, click the Show/Hide Action Pane button on the toolbar.) 3 Check and clear event types as needed. 4 Select filter criteria as needed from each of the following areas:  Logged  Level (in Windows Vista)  Event sources or Source  Event ID  Task category  Keywords  User  Computer 5 Click OK. To remove the filter, click Clear Filter in the Actions pane. If you filter events instead of sorting them, you can use the Event Properties dialog box to navigate between the details of only the events that meet your filtering criteria.

Exhibit 18-9: An Application log with a filter applied

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Managing event logs Event logs can fill up pretty quickly, especially on computers that are used with great frequency and on computers on which you’ve configured the security log to track security events. Event logs in Windows Vista have a default size limit of 20,480 KB. Logs in Windows XP and Windows 2000 have a default limit of 512 KB. You can modify event log size by right-clicking the log, choosing properties, and increasing or decreasing the size in KB. When an event log is full, by default, it begins to overwrite events beginning with the oldest event. You can configure the logs to overwrite events, never to overwrite events, or to archive the logs when they reach capacity. To configure these settings, right-click a log and choose Properties. To clear a log manually, right-click it and choose Clear Log (Windows Vista) or Clear All Events (Windows XP/2000). You’re prompted to save the log contents. You can save the contents as an Event Log file, an XML file (Windows Vista only), a tabdelimited text file, or a comma-delimited file. You can always save a log without clearing it by right-clicking and choosing Save Events As (Windows Vista) or Save Log File As (Windows XP/2000).


A-10: Controlling the display of an event log Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Level

To sort the list of events in the Application log alphabetically by level. The arrow in the column heading is pointing up.

Click Level again

To reverse the sort order. The arrow is pointing down.

2 Sort by the Source column heading 3 Choose View,

To return the log to the default view.

4 In the Actions pane, click

To open the Filter Current Log dialog box, with the Filter tab active.

Remove sorting Filter Current Log…

Under Event level, check Error and Warning

5 Open the Event sources list

To display only warning and error messages.

You can choose to display events from just one source.

Check Application Click in a blank area of the dialog box 6 Open the Task category list

To close the list.

With an event source selected, you can further refine your filter to show events from specific categories.

Close the Category list Observe the Event ID, Keywords, User, and Computer(s) boxes

You can enter values in these boxes to further refine your filter.

At the top of the dialog box, open and observe the Logged list

You can show only events that occur within a specified date range.

7 Click OK

To apply the filter.

Windows monitoring 8 Do any events match the filter criteria? 9 Observe the top of the event list

10 In the Actions pane, click Clear Filter

11 Close all open windows

The filter criteria are displayed.

To remove the filter.

18–31


Topic B: System performance This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.2

Give a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Administrative tools – Performance Monitor


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  System Monitor  Administrative Tools – Performance Monitor

Reliability Monitor Explanation

In addition to knowing how well your system components are operating, you’ll also want to know the overall reliability of your system, including the hardware components, applications, and the Windows Vista operating system itself. Reliability Monitor is one tool you can use to assess the stability of a system over a period of time and pinpoint any components that might be causing system problems. Reliability Monitor tracks the following events that affect system stability:  Software installs and uninstalls  Application failures  Hardware failures  Windows failures  Miscellaneous failures

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Exhibit 18-10: Reliability Monitor in Windows Vista Reliability Monitor, shown in Exhibit 18-10, provides two features you can use to track and troubleshoot system health:  System Stability Chart — A calendar-based chart that tracks reliability and the events that affect it over a 28-day period. Each day Reliability Monitor assigns a number, called the Stability Index, to system stability. The Index ranges from 1.0 (least stable) to 10.0 (most stable). You can track the rise and fall of the index and match that number to the logged events to help determine what exactly is affecting system stability. You can display specific date ranges and see a current average index. In Exhibit 18-10, you can see that several events began to affect the index and brought it down from 10.0 to 6.76. Resolving the problems that caused those events will increase system stability.  System Stability Report — A report that provides details for the day you select in the System Stability Chart. You can use the report to see details about the events that affected the Stability Index that day. To open Reliability Monitor, open the Control Panel, click System and Maintenance, and click Performance Information and Tools. In the left pane, click Advanced tools, and then click Open Reliability and Performance Monitor. In the tree pane, select Reliability Monitor. You can also open Reliability Monitor in Computer Management.


B-1:

Determining a system’s Stability Index

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Control Panel, System and Security, Action Center Expand Maintenance 2 Click View reliability history

3 Observe the System Stability Chart

The Stability Index is represented by a blue line that rates your system stability on a scale of 1 to 10. 10 being the most stable and 1 being the least stable. If there have been any events, they’re logged as icons to indicate an informational event, a warning, or an error.

4 If possible, select a day with an icon and observe the Reliability details

To see the event details for that day. Only event categories that logged events will open in the report. You can use this information to track problems and increase system stability.

5 Select any other days with icons

To view the events on those days.

6 What’s your current Stability Index? Is it trending up or down? Why? 7 How might you increase the Stability Index? 8 Close all open windows

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Resource Overview In Windows Vista, Reliability and Performance Monitor contains an important tool called Resource Overview, which you can use to assess and maintain the health of your system. As shown in Exhibit 18-11, Resource Overview is the first tool you see when you open Reliability and Performance Monitor. It provides real-time graphs and detailed information about four key components:  CPU — Displays CPU utilization.  Hard disk — Displays the disk input/output statistics.  Network — Details network traffic.  Memory — Displays memory statistics, including the percent of memory used and the number of hard page faults.

Exhibit 18-11: Resource Overview Under the graphs are corresponding sections that you can expand to see more detailed information. Just click the associated graph to display the detailed information about that component’s current performance, as shown in Exhibit 18-12.

Exhibit 18-12: Detail view of the CPU resource

18–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To open Reliability and Performance Monitor and display Resource Overview: 1 In the Control Panel, click System and Maintenance. 2 Click Performance Information and Tools. 3 In the left pane, click Advanced tools. 4 Click “Open Reliability and Performance Monitor.” 5 Click Continue. Or you can view Reliability and Performance information in the Computer Management console. Do it!

B-2:

Viewing real-time performance data in Resource Overview (optional Instructor demonstration on Windows Vista)

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Computer Management

If your instructor has a Windows Vista computer available, he or she might choose to demonstrate this activity.)

2 Under System Tools, select

To display the Resource Overview.

Reliability and Performance

3 Observe the four graphs

Each graph is scrolling to the left, showing you the level of activity for each component.

4 Click the CPU graph

To display the details. You can see which applications and processes are accessing the CPU.

5 Click the CPU graph again

To close its details section.

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Performance Monitor You use Performance Monitor (known also as System Monitor in Windows XP), shown in Exhibit 18-13, to monitor computer performance in real time (in one-second intervals), or in the form of saved reports of real-time data. Hundreds of computer performance variables called counters are available for you to measure and assess a computer’s performance. For example, you can:  Create a baseline to compare system performance over time.  Monitor system resource use.  Locate performance problems.  Identify performance bottlenecks.

Exhibit 18-13: A real-time graph in Performance Monitor in Windows Vista

18–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The counters are categorized by performance object, which is any resource that you can measure. Here are some of the commonly used performance objects:  Battery Status  Cache  Memory  Network Interface  Objects  Paging File  PhysicalDisk  Process  Processor  System  Thread Bottlenecks A bottleneck occurs when a shortage of a particular system resource causes a performance problem. You can identify some common system-resource shortages by using the following counters: Counter

Description

Processor: % Processor Time

Monitors how hard your processor is working. A number consistently exceeding 75% indicates that your processor is being overworked. If purchasing a new system with a more powerful processor is not an option, you can try to take some of the burden off the processor by:



Adding more RAM to the system



Reducing the number of programs that run simultaneously

 Verifying that an individual program is not taking control of the processor and then not releasing it Process: Thread Count

Displays the numbers of threads active in a process. Threads are pieces of software code that are loaded into memory. When an application opens, it can take control of multiple memory threads to accomplish its tasks. When the application closes, it should release the threads, thereby freeing them up for other applications. When an application opens threads in memory but fails to close them, this situation is called a memory leak. (It’s typically caused by poor application programming.) Monitoring the Thread Count can help you identify memory leaks in applications.

Memory: Pages/sec

Monitors the rate at which pages are read from or written to disk. This counter can point to page faults that cause system delays. You might need to add RAM if this number is increasing consistently or higher than your baseline.

PhysicalDisk: Disk Transfers/sec

Records the rate of read and write operations on your disk. If the value recorded exceeds 25 disk I/Os per second, you have poor disk-response time. This can cause a bottleneck that affects response time for applications running on your system. It might be time to upgrade your hardware to use faster disks or scale out your application to better handle the load. (Scaling out an application means adding one or more servers to your distributed software application.)

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Counter

Description

Network Interface

Monitors network traffic. You can use counters to measure bandwidth and packet errors to determine if slow performance is due to network problems rather than local system issues.

Exhibit 18-14: Adding counters Real-time monitoring To monitor resources in real time, you add counters to the Performance Monitor graph. Right-click the graph and choose Add Counters to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 18-14. You can also click the Add button on the toolbar—it’s a green plus sign. Then, in the Add Counters dialog box: 1 Specify whether you want to monitor resources on the local computer or a remote computer. 2 In the list of performance objects, expand the performance object that contains the counter you want to add. 3 Select the desired counter. 4 Select an instance of the counter. Instances are unique copies of a performance object (for example, a network card or hard disk). 5 Click Add. 6 When you’ve added all the counters you want, click OK. To open Performance Monitor in Windows XP and Windows 2000, click Start, choose Run, and enter perfmon.


B-3:

Monitoring performance with Performance Monitor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Control Panel, System and Security, Administrative Tools 2 Double-click Performance Monitor

3 Under Monitoring Tools, select Performance Monitor

4 Observe the graph

After you add counters, this is where the realtime data will be displayed. Under the graph is a list of the counters it displays. By default, the %ProcessorTime counter is displayed.

5 Right-click the empty graph and choose Add Counters… 6 Scroll the Available counters list until you see Process 7 Click the down-arrow next to Process

To expand that performance object and display its associated counters.

8 Scroll through the Process list Select Thread Count and observe the list of instances

You can see a list of all the process threads. If you need to monitor a specific thread, you can select it from the list.

Verify that _Total is selected, and click Add 9 Add Memory: Pages/sec and PhysicalDisk: Disk Transfers/sec to the Added

counters list

10 After you’ve added all three counters, click OK

Repeat the procedure of expanding the performance object, selecting the counter, and clicking Add.

Windows monitoring 11 Observe the graph

Observe the list of counters

12 Open Internet Explorer, and then open the Control Panel and the Documents folder

18–41

The real-time monitoring has begun. In a moment, you’ll generate some activity to see how the graph spikes when you use the computer. You can see the three counters you added, plus the default %ProcessorTime. Each counter has been assigned a different color. You can uncheck one of the checkboxes to remove the counter’s display on the graph. The counter will be temporarily hidden, but not deleted. To generate activity on the computer.

Switch to Computer Management and observe the graph

The activity has generated some data, so you might see counters you didn’t see just a few minutes ago.

13 Switch to Internet Explorer and browse to a couple different Web pages

To generate more activity and some network traffic.

Switch to Computer Management and observe the graph

14 Close all open windows except for Performance Monitor

You can use this data to help determine where there might be some performance bottlenecks on your computer. Depending on the information you’re trying to find, you can add or remove dozens of counters to measure a computer’s performance.

18–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Performance Monitor configuration As with other Windows utilities, you can customize Performance Monitor to suit your needs. The following table describes some of the more useful buttons on the toolbar above the graph. Button

Use to… Open saved log files and display them in Performance Monitor. Change the Performance Monitor display from a line graph to a histogram to a text-based report. Add and delete counters. Highlight counters so you can see their lines on the graph more easily. Open the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box. Pause and restart the real-time display. Update data, one click at a time.

You can also use the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box to configure Performance Monitor and the display of data. The following table describes the tabs and the settings you can configure on them. Tab

Use to configure…

General

The display of components, such as the legend and the toolbar; how much data is displayed in the histogram and report views; whether Performance Monitor should collect samples automatically; how often samples should be collected; and how long the samples should be displayed.

Source

Whether the data source to be displayed is real-time data or comes from a saved log file.

Data

How data is displayed, including which counters should be displayed, and the color, scale, width, and style of the line displayed for each counter.

Graph

Graph elements, such as the view, scroll style, title and vertical axis labels, and scale.

Appearance

General appearance values, including colors and font.


B-4:

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Customizing Performance Monitor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 On the Performance Monitor toolbar, click

To open the Performance Monitor Properties dialog box.

2 Observe settings on the General page

You can configure some display options and the performance sample interval.

3 Change Sample every to 2, and the Duration to 30

The data will now be updated every two seconds, and the graph will display 30 seconds’ worth of data.

Click OK and observe the changes in the line graph

It updates more slowly and doesn’t contain as much data as it did before.

4 Open the Properties dialog box Change the Sample every and Duration settings back to 1 and 100, respectively 5 Select the Data tab Select the Disk Transfer/sec counter and change the line width to the thickest setting Select the %Processor Time counter and change it to a dark color Change the counter’s line style to the dash style, as shown 6 Select the Graph tab Change the scroll style to Scroll Change the vertical scale maximum to 50 7 Click OK and observe the changes

More of the data is displayed, some of the lines are different, and the data is scrolling right to left.

18–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 8 On the Performance Monitor toolbar, click Click

again

To change the line graph to a histogram. A histogram is another way to display the data graphically. To change the histogram to a text-based report. The data is still presented in real time, but it’s text-based rather than graphical.

Return the display to a line graph 9 In the list of counters, select the Disk Transfers/sec counter, and then click Click the button again

To turn off highlighting. To freeze the display.

10 Click Click

To highlight the counter.

a few times

Click 11 In the list of counters, select the Thread Count counter and click 12 Delete the Pages/sec and Disk Transfer/sec counters 13 Close Performance Monitor

To update the data manually. To unfreeze the display. To delete the counter.

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Performance Logs and Alerts Another tool available within the Performance console in Windows XP/2000 is Performance Logs and Alerts. This tool allows you to collect data automatically, on the local computer or from another computer on the network, and then view it using System Monitor. The Performance Logs and Alerts tool allows you to perform the following tasks:  Collect data in a binary, comma-separated, tab-separated, or SQL Server database format. The binary versions of the log files can be read with System Monitor, but comma- and tab-separated data can easily be imported into another program for analysis.  View data while it is being collected and after it has been collected.  Configure parameters, such as start and stop times for log generation, file names, and file size.  Configure and manage multiple logging sessions from a single console window.  Set up alerts so a message is sent, a program is run, or a log file is started when a specific operating system or hardware counter exceeds or drops below a configured value. You can access Performance Logs and Alerts through the Performance console. There are three options available:  Counter Logs. Take the information that you view using System Monitor and save it to a log file. One of the main advantages of using counter logs is that you can configure logging to start and stop at different intervals.  Trace Logs. Similar to counter logs but are triggered to start when an event occurs.  Alerts. Allow you to configure an event to occur when a counter meets a predefined value. For example, you can choose to run a specific program or utility automatically when an operating system or hardware threshold is reached or to send a message to a network administrator. Configuring Alerts Logging does increase overhead on a computer, so it is generally not something you want to have running all the time. Rather than running logs all the time, alerts can be set up to notify you of a potential problem. For example, you can configure an alert to monitor hardware, such the LogicalDisk object for %FreeDiskSpace < 20%. If free disk space is below 20%, an alert notifies you of the problem.

18–46 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The following table summarizes the options that can be set for generating alerts. Action

Description

Log an entry in the application event log

An entry is added to the application log when the event is triggered.

Send a network message to

Messenger service sends a message to the specified computer when the alert is triggered.

Start performance data log

Counter log is run when the alert is triggered.

Run this program

Specified program is run when the alert is triggered. For example, a paging program or e-mail utility.

Command Line Arguments

Specified command line arguments are copied when the Run this program option is used.

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Topic C: Backup and restore This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Backup procedures

3.4

Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and startup utilities  Boot options – Boot to restore point


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Disk management tools – NTBACKUP  System Restore

Backups Explanation

Microsoft operating systems include a backup utility you can use to create copies of your files so you can recover your data if a system failure occurs. On a bootable computer, you should back up any critical data before you attempt to troubleshoot any problems. The archive bit Files on a Windows system include a special attribute, called an archive bit, that is used during backups, with the exception of daily backups. The archive bit is set to 1 when the file needs to be backed up. Files need to be backed up if they’re new or if they have changed since the last backup. In most cases, the bit is reset to 0 when the file is backed up, and the bit remains that way until you or an application changes the file. Copy and differential backups leave this bit at 1.

18–48 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows Backup The Backup utility is installed with Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional. You can use Windows Backup to:  Create automatic backups of your personal files.  Restore files that you previously backed up.  Create a Complete PC Backup.  Archive selected files and folders on your hard disk in another location, including on removable storage devices.  Restore the archived files and folders to your hard disk.  Make a copy of your computer’s system state, which includes: – Registry – Boot files – COM+ class registration database – IIS metadirectory – Windows File Protection system files  Copy your computer’s system partition, the boot partition, and the files needed to start up the system. The most common use of the Backup utility is to back up critical data and operating system files to ensure that recovery is possible if files are accidentally deleted or a disaster occurs. In Windows 7, you access the Backup and Restore utility through Control Panel, System and Security. You access the Windows Backup utility through System Tools. The utility can be used in two modes: Wizard mode and Advanced mode. Wizard mode walks you step-by-step through the process of creating a backup or restoring files. Advanced mode gives you complete control over the file and folder selection process.

Windows Backup in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Backups can be saved on any removable media, on a directory on your hard disk, in a shared folder on the network, or on another computer on the network. Because Windows 7 and Windows Vista has CD and DVD writing built in, you can even back up your files directly to one of those discs. To perform any backup actions, you must be logged on as an administrator. You cannot provide administrative credentials on demand to back up files with Windows Backup. You can restore files as a standard user, but only to your personal folder or the Public Documents folder. Automatic backups You can schedule automatic backups of your files by using Windows Backup. This option is designed to make copies of your photos, documents, video files, and music files. It does not back up system settings or installed programs. You can also manually choose which files and folders are backed up. In Windows 7, when you choose the files, you can select whether or not to include a system image of your drive in the backup. If your computer stops working, you can use this image to restore Windows.

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Exhibit 18-15: Backup and Restore utility in Windows 7 Professional To configure and enable automatic backups in Windows 7: 1 Log on as an administrator. 2 Click Start and choose All Program, Maintenance, Backup and Restore. If you can’t find it on your Start menu, you can start Backup and Restore from Control Panel, System and Security. 3 The first time you use Windows Backup, click Set up backup. 4 Choose whether to have Windows select the files to back up or whether to choose the files yourself. Click Next. 5 As needed, check or clear the options for each type of file you want the utility to back up. Click Next. 6 Select a location for your backed-up files. (You can back up to any recordable CD or DVD drives installed in your PC or to a network location.) Click Next. 7 Click Change schedule. Using the How Often, When, and What time lists, specify when you want automatic backups to be run. Click OK. 8 Click Save settings and start backup to save your backup schedule and to begin backing up your files now. If you’ve selected an optical disc drive for your backup files, Windows prompts you to insert a disc when it’s ready to write your files.

18–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To configure and enable automatic backups in Windows Vista: 1 Log on as an administrative user. 2 Choose Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Backup Status and Configuration. 3 The first time you use Windows Backup, click “Set up automatic file backup.” Click Continue to acknowledge that you’re performing a system modification. 4 As needed, check or clear the options for each type of file you want the utility to back up. Click Next. 5 Select a location for your backed-up files. Click Next. 6 Using the How Often, When, and What time lists, specify when you want automatic backups to be run. Click Finish. 7 Click OK to save your backup schedule and to begin backing up your files now. If you selected an optical disc drive for your backup files, Windows will prompt you to insert a disc when it is ready to write your files. The Windows XP backup utility Windows XP includes a backup utility called NTBackup. You can use the GUI version or the command-line version of the Windows XP backup utility. Here are the basics steps to create a backup in the GUI version: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Backup. 2 Click Advanced Mode and select the Backup tab. 3 Choose Job, New. Check the folders you want to back up. 4 In the “Backup media or file name” box, specify where you want to save the backup. 5 If you’re using a tape, specify which tape to use. 6 Click Start Backup twice. 7 When the backup is finished, you can click Report to view a report of the backup. 8 Click Close.

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Windows XP backup types The Windows Backup utility supports five types of backups, described in the following table. Type

Backs up…

Normal

All selected files. Clears the archive attribute. With a normal backup, you need only the most recent copy of the backup file to restore from backup.

Copy

Selected files. Doesn’t clear the archive attribute, which shows that the file has been backed up.

Daily

All selected files that were modified the day of the daily backup. Doesn’t clear the archive attribute.

Differential

Selected files that have been created or modified since the last normal or incremental backup. Doesn’t clear the archive attribute. Differential backups require that you have the most recent normal backup in addition to the differential backup, if you want to restore files.

Incremental

Selected files that have been created or modified since the last normal or incremental backup. Clears the archive attribute. Incremental backups require that you have the most recent normal backup in addition to the incremental backup, if you want to restore files.

Developing a backup strategy There are several backup strategies you can employ. The most common is known as the Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) strategy, which is described below. Backup strategies usually consist of some combination of full, incremental, and differential backups. Developing a backup strategy involves not only determining when to perform backups, but also testing the data with random and scheduled verification to make sure that tape devices and other media are functioning properly. While most backup strategies apply to servers, you can adapt them for desktops and laptops depending on the needs of your organization.

18–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The Grandfather-Father-Son backup strategy There are several generally accepted backup strategies. Many of them are based on the popular Grandfather-Father-Son (GFS) backup strategy (also known as the ChildParent-Grandparent method), illustrated in Exhibit 18-16. This strategy uses three sets of media for daily, weekly, and monthly backup sets, and you implement it as follows: 1 Back up the “Son” — Label four media as “Monday” through “Thursday.” These Son media are used for daily incremental backups during the week. For subsequent weeks, reuse these same media. 2 Back up the “Father” — Label five media as “Week 1” through “Week 5.” These Father media are used for weekly full backups on Friday, the day you don’t perform a Son backup. Once you make the backup, store the media locally. Reuse each media when its week arrives. Depending on your backup policy, periodically duplicate a Father media for off-site storage. You can use another drive to perform a simultaneous backup or use backup software that offers a copy feature. 3 Back up the “Grandfather” — No standard labeling scheme is stated, but consider labeling three media as “Month 1” through “Month 3.” The Grandfather media are used for full backups performed on the last business day of the month. The media are valid for three months and are reused every quarter. At a minimum, the GFS strategy requires 12 media, assuming that no single backup exceeds the capacity of a single medium. Of course, you can modify this scheme as it suits your backup policy, but the GFS strategy is a logical, reliable place to start. For example, if you want to keep a year’s data archived at all times, instead of only a quarter’s, then for the Grandfather media you would label 12 media “Month 1” through “Month 12” and reuse the media every year.

Exhibit 18-16: The GFS rotation strategy


C-1:

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Scheduling a backup

The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 18\Topic C.

Here’s how 1 From the Student Data folder for this topic, copy the Files folder to your Documents folder

Here’s why You’ll use these for the backup and restore activities.

Close any open windows 2 Click Start and choose All Programs,

To open the Backup and Restore window.

Maintenance, Backup and Restore

3 Click Set up backup

Windows searches for a suitable backup device.

4 Follow your instructor’s directions to select your computer’s optical drive or a network location

For the network location, you might need to enter credentials.

Click Next 5 Click Let me choose

To choose which files you want to back up.

Click Next 6 Clear Backup data for newly created users Expand COMPADMIN##’s Libraries 7 Clear checkboxes for all types except Documents Library and Pictures Library Clear Include a system image of drives: (C:)

Click Next 8 Click Change schedule

If you’re backing up to an optical drive, you won’t need to clear this box. Optical drive backup doesn’t support the creation of system images. You are prompted to set the schedule for future backups.

18–54 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 9 Configure the backup schedule as shown

Click OK 10 Click Save settings and run backup

11 If you’re backing up to a CD or DVD, you’re prompted to insert a blank CD or DVD into your computer Click OK, and when prompted to format the disc, click Format

You’ll be prompted to format the CD.

The backup begins. You could click Close now and continue using your PC. The backup would continue running.

If prompted, insert additional discs and observe as the backup progresses 12 If you’re backing up to a network location, observe the Backup status box as the backup begins 13 Observe as the files are backed up

14 Leave Windows Backup open

Once you have enabled automatic backups, you can perform subsequent backups by clicking “Backup now.” Or you can wait, and Windows Backup will run automatically on the schedule you specified.

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Restoring files Files can be restored to their original locations or to alternate locations. For example, if you want to restore an earlier version of a file for comparison with the latest version, you can restore the old version to a different location so that the newer version doesn’t get overwritten. You can either restore all of the files and folders that were backed up or restore selected files from the backup. Typically, you just need to restore specific files. Usually, you need to perform a full restore only when a catastrophe has occurred, such as a hard drive crash, the loss of a computer that’s being replaced, or some other major problem. Restoring files in Windows 7 To restore files from a backup in Windows 7: 1 Open Backup and Restore. 2 Click Restore my files. 3 Backup automatically restores all files from the latest backup, unless you specify individual files and folders using the Browse for files and Browse for folders buttons. 4 Click Next. 5 Specify the location to restore the files to. This can be the original location or a new one. 6 Click Restore. 7 Click Finish. Restoring files in Windows Vista To restore files from a backup in Windows Vista: 1 Open Backup Status and Configuration. 2 Click Restore Files. 3 Select either “Files from the latest backup” or “Files from an older backup.” Click Next. 4 Browse to locate the files you want to restore, or specify to restore all of the files. Click Next. 5 Click Start Restore. 6 Click Finish. The length of time it takes to restore data from a backup depends on the amount of data and on the backup method used. For example, an incremental backup requires a full backup plus every incremental tape applied in order, making it slower to restore than a differential backup, which requires a full backup plus the most recent differential backup.

18–56 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Restoring files in Windows XP To restore files from a Windows XP backup: 1 In the Backup Utility window, select the Restore and Manage Media tab. 2 Check the backup you want to restore from. 3 Under “Restore files to,” select the desired restore location. You can restore to the original location or to an alternate one. 4 Click Start Restore. 5 Click OK. 6 If desired, click Report to view a report of the restore. 7 Click Close. Do it!

C-2:

Restoring files from backup

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Delete the Files folder from your Documents folder 2 Minimize the Documents window 3 In the Backup and Restore window, click Restore my files

4 Click Browse for files 5 Double-click Backup of C:, Users, COMPADMIN##, Documents and Files Select your two text files and click Add files

6 Click Next

You are prompted to choose whether to restore the files to their original location or to a new location.

Click Restore

To restore the files to their original location. The restore will take a few seconds.

Click Finish

To close the Restore Files Wizard.

7 Switch to the Documents window and observe the folder’s contents 8 Close Backup and Restore and the Documents window

The folder you deleted is back, along with the files inside the folder.

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System Restore The System Restore utility in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP creates snapshots of your computer’s configuration. There are three types of snapshots:  System checkpoints — Created automatically when Windows Vista or XP detects the beginning of a request to make a system configuration change.  Manual restore points — Manually created by a user, using the System Restore utility.  Installation restore points — Created automatically when certain programs are installed. Using the System Restore utility, you can restore your computer to a previous configuration with the settings recorded in a system checkpoint, a manual restore point, or an installation restore point. This is helpful in recovering a system that’s not functioning properly due to newly installed hardware or software or updated configuration settings. The restore process might also help you recover from a virus or worm that has infected your computer. Before you begin troubleshooting, you can create a system restore point, so you can return the computer to its original state if your troubleshooting solutions cause larger or additional problems. System Restore does not affect user data files. You must back up those files and restore them using the Backup utility. Windows Vista automatically creates restore points every day and just before you make certain system changes, such as installing new software. You can also manually create a restore point at any time. To manually create a restore point in Windows 7 or Windows Vista: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click System and Maintenance, and then click System. 3 On the left, click System Protection. 4 In Windows Vista, click Continue, or enter the administrator’s password. The System Protection tab of the System Properties dialog box is displayed, as shown in Exhibit 18-17. 5 Click Create. 6 Type a brief description of the restore point in the text box. 7 Click Create.


Exhibit 18-17: The System Protection tab in Windows Vista In Windows XP, to create a system restore point: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, System Restore. 2 Select “Create a restore point” and click Next. 3 In the “Restore point description” box, enter a name for your restore point. Click Create. 4 Close the System Restore utility.


C-3:

18–59

Creating a restore point

Here’s how 1 Click Start, right-click Computer, and choose Properties

Here’s why You’ll create a restore point. It’s a good idea to create a restore point before you begin making changes to troubleshoot a problem. If you implement a change that makes the problem worse, you can use System Restore to return the computer to its pre-troubleshooting state.

2 Under Tasks, click System Protection

3 Click Create 4 In the “Create a restore point” box, enter My Restore Point

System Restore tags restore points with the date and time, so you need to type only a brief description.

5 Click Create

To create the restore point.

6 When the restore point has been created, click Close

The restore point is created.

7 Click OK 8 Close the System window

To close the System Properties dialog box.

18–60 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Restoring the system Before you use System Restore to undo a change, if the change involved a hardware device, first try using Driver Rollback. It reverses fewer system changes. If Driver Rollback doesn’t solve the problem, then revert the system to a restore point. Using Driver Rollback Using Driver Rollback, you can replace a newly installed driver that isn’t working with a previously installed one that was working. To do so: 1 Open Device Manager. 2 Open the Properties dialog box for the device that’s no longer working correctly. 3 Select the Driver tab. 4 Click Rollback Driver (or Roll Back Driver in Windows Vista). 5 Click Yes to confirm. Driver Rollback is available in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional. Using restore points To use System Restore to restore data in Windows 7 and Windows Vista: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, System Restore. 2 In Windows 7, click Next. In Windows Vista, click Continue. 3 In Windows Vista, select “Recommended restore,” which is the most recent system restore point, or “Choose a different restore point.” Click Next. 4 In Windows 7, or in Windows Vista if you selected “Choose a different restore point,” select the desired restore point from the list and click Next. In Windows 7, you can display restore points older than five days by checking “Show more restore points,” as shown in Error! Reference source not found.. In Windows Vista, check “Show restore points older than 5 days.” 5 In Windows 7, click Next. 6 Click Finish to confirm your choice.

Exhibit 18-18: Additional restore points in Windows 7

Windows monitoring

18–61

Windows reboots and restores the system state to the settings saved in the restore point. Changes in user data aren’t affected, but any installation or configuration changes made after the restore point are lost. System Restore doesn’t replace the process of uninstalling a program. To completely remove the files installed by a program, Microsoft recommends that you remove the program by using the Add or Remove Programs utility or the program’s own uninstall utility. Windows 7 includes a feature that allows you to scan for programs and drivers that have been changed since the selected restore point. Simply select a restore point and click Scan for affected programs. Windows returns a report similar to the one shown in Exhibit 18-19.

Exhibit 18-19: Affected programs and drivers In Windows XP, to restore the system from a restore point: 1 Click Start and choose All Programs, Accessories, System Tools, System Restore. 2 If necessary, select “Restore my computer to an earlier time.” Click Next. 3 Select the date and time and the specific restore point. When selecting a restore point, select a point as close to the present as possible, so as few changes as possible are lost. 4 Click Next twice. Windows XP reboots and restores the system state to the settings saved in the restore point. Changes in user data aren’t affected, but any installation or configuration changes made after the restore point are lost.

18–62 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Be aware that System Restore doesn’t replace the process of uninstalling a program. To remove the files installed by a program completely, Microsoft recommends that you remove the program by using the Add or Remove Programs utility or the program’s own uninstall program. Do it!

C-4:

Restoring a computer to a previous state

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose All Programs

2 Choose Accessories, System Tools, System Restore

To open System Restore.

Click Next 3 Check Show more restore points

4 In the list, select

(If necessary.) You’ll restore to this point.

Manual: My Restore Point

Click Next 5 Click Finish

To begin the system restore. This process will take a few minutes.

Click Yes

To confirm your intent to restore to the restore point. System Restore begins restoring your computer; it will restart your computer during the process.

6 Log on to Windows 7 Click Close

To close the System Restore message box that tells you your system has been restored.

Windows monitoring

18–63

Unit summary: Windows monitoring Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to use the Windows Diagnostics, DirectX Diagnostic, Task Manager, and Event Viewer utilities to monitor your computer. You used Windows Diagnostics to collect and display information about the configuration of your computer. You ran Windows Diagnostics from both the GUI and command-line interfaces. With DirectX Diagnostic, you viewed the status of your DirectX installation. You used Task Manager to identify the applications, processes, and services running on your computer, monitor network utilization, and manage logged-on users. You used Event Viewer to view recorded problems.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned how to use Reliability and Performance Monitor to monitor the performance of your computer’s components. You used the Resource Overview to assess the health of your system and make decisions about its maintenance. You used Performance Monitor to monitor your computer performance in one-second intervals, and then save reports of the data you collected.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned how to back up and restore data, creating a system restore point, and restoring to a restore point.

Review questions 1 Which of the following Windows Diagnostics categories isn’t available in Windows Vista? A Components B Hardware Resources C Internet Settings D Software Environment 2 Which of the following command-line switches for Windows Diagnostics isn’t available in Windows 7 and Windows Vista? A /computer ComputerName B /nfo Path C /report Path D /showcategories 3 True or false? In Windows 7, you can use DirectX Diagnostic to test and troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems. False. In Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP, DirectX Diagnostic can be used to test and troubleshoot video- or sound-related hardware problems. In Windows Vista, however, DxDiag only displays information.

4 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab when an application has crashed and isn’t responding to keyboard or mouse input. Applications

5 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab to determine if a running process is overwhelming the processor and slowing the system down. Processes

18–64 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 6 In Task Manager, you use the _______________ tab to monitor the users logged on to the computer and to disconnect them, log them off, or send them a message. Users

7 If you believed that an unauthorized person might be accessing a computer after hours, you would monitor the Event Viewer _______________ log. Security

8 Which event types are used only in the Security log? [Choose all that apply.] A Error B Warning C Information D Success Audit E Failure Audit 9 Which graph in the Resource Overview utility will show you the number of hard page faults? A CPU B Hard disk C Memory D Network 10 In Performance Monitor, hundreds of computer performance variables, called _______________, are available for measuring and assessing a computer’s performance. counters

11 If you wanted to identify a memory leak, which performance variable would you monitor? A Memory: Pages/sec B PhysicalDisk: Disk Transfers/sec C Process: Thread Count D Processor: % Processor Time 12 Which of the following display types can you use to display data in Performance Monitor? [Choose all that apply.] A Line graph B Pie chart C Histogram D Pictogram

Windows monitoring

18–65

13 When you use Windows Backup to back up the system state, which files are backed up?

 Registry  Boot files  COM+ class registration database  IIS metadirectory  Windows File Protection system files 14 What are the two modes you can run Windows Backup in? Wizard mode and Advanced (manual) mode.

15 Which backup type requires that you have the most recent normal backup in addition to this backup if you want to restore files? [Choose all that apply.] A Copy B Daily C Differential D Incremental E Normal 16 For what intervals can you schedule backups?

 Daily  Weekly  Monthly  At predefined times  On predefined days 17 When Windows detects the beginning of a request to make a system configuration change, what type of restore point is created? A System checkpoint B Manual restore point C Installation restore point D Automatic checkpoint

18–66 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice monitoring your Windows 7 computer. 1 Choose a partner. What msinfo32 command would you use to open the System Information window, showing the information for your partner’s computer? “C:\Program Files\Common Files\Microsoft Shared\Msinfo|msinfo32.exe” /computer partner_computer_name

2 Can anyone enter the command and access a remote computer? No; you must have administrative rights on the target computer.

3 Run Windows Diagnostics. 4 Export the computer configuration data to a text file. Close Windows Diagnostics when finished. 5 Open the text file and review the information. Use the Search feature to find Kernel Driver information. 6 View events recorded on your computer by the operating system. 7 Sort the events by type. 8 Create a filter to display just Warning and Error system events. 9 Return the display to all system events. 10 Run Notepad and Internet Explorer. 11 Open Task Manager. 12 Use the Applications tab to end Notepad. 13 Find the process for Internet Explorer and end it. 14 End the explorer.exe process. 15 Use the Applications tab to start a new task for explorer.exe. 16 Close Task Manager. 17 Create a system restore point.

19–1

Unit 19 Operating system troubleshooting Unit time: 60 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Identify the stages of the Windows startup

process. B Identify operating system problems.

19–2


Topic A: Windows startup This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.4

Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and startup utilities

Startup files Explanation

Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional computers use a set of files to start up. They are described in the following table and are listed in the order in which they are used during the startup process. In the table, “Windows” refers to all Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professionalversions, unless otherwise noted. File

Description

BOOTMGR

A program in Windows 7 and Vista that displays the Microsoft Windows startup menu, reads the BDC file, presents the boot menu, and loads ntoskrnl.exe, hal.dll, and boot-start device drivers. (Replaces ntldr [or boot.ini] from Windows XP and Windows 2000.)

NTLDR

A program in Windows XP and Windows 2000 that displays the Microsoft Windows startup menu, reads the boot.ini file, presents the boot menu, and loads ntoskrnl.exe, hal.dll, and boot-start device drivers.

Boot Configuration Data (BCD)

A file in Windows 7 and Vista that contains options for starting different versions of Windows installed on the computer.

Boot.ini

A file in Windows XP and Windows 2000 that contains options for starting different versions of Windows installed on the computer.

Bootsect.dos

A file that contains information about the boot sector of the operating system that was on the hard drive before Windows was installed (for dualboot computers). NTLDR uses this file to boot to an operating system, such as Windows 9x or DOS.

Ntdetect.com

A 16-bit real-mode program that queries the computer for basic device and configuration information, such as:     

Time and date information stored in CMOS System bus types and device identifiers attached to the buses Number, size, and types of disk drives Types of mouse input devices Number and types of parallel ports

Ntbootdd.sys

A copy of a storage-controller device driver. If either the boot or system drive is SCSI-based, NTLDR loads this file and uses it instead of the bootcode functions for disk access.

Ntoskrnl.exe

A program that contains the majority of operating system instructions for Windows.


19–3

File

Description

Hal.dll

An interface between a computer’s hardware and software. Hal.dll provides a consistent hardware platform on which applications are run. Applications don’t access hardware directly but access the Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL). This setup allows applications to be device-independent and creates a more stable operating system.

System Registry hive

A Registry hive that controls the drivers and services loaded during startup for Windows.

Smss.exe

A program responsible for handling sessions on your computer. This program is initiated by the system thread and starts the user session, including launching the Winlogon and Win32 (Csrss.exe) processes and setting system variables.

Pagefile.sys

A file that contains memory data that Windows can’t fit into physical RAM. During startup, the Virtual Memory Manager moves data in and out of the paging file to optimize the amount of physical memory available to the operating system and applications.

Winlogon.exe

The Windows login manager, which is responsible for managing user logon and logoff. Winlogon is needed for user authorization.

Lsass.exe

A program that handles local security and login policies; it authenticates users for the Winlogon service. If the user credentials submitted are successfully authenticated, lsass.exe generates the user’s access token, which is used to launch the user shell.

The startup process On x86-based computers, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 all follow the same general startup process. The operating systems’ startup processes might have slight variations, but they aren’t significant. (The process varies slightly for RISC-based computers.) Here’s the general process: 1 The startup process begins with the ROM BIOS bootstrap process: a POST (power-on self-test) routines run. b The computer reads the master boot record (MBR) and partition table. c The MBR reads the partition table to locate the boot partition. d The MBR passes control to the boot sector in the boot partition. e The boot sector loads NTLDR from the root directory into memory.

19–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 2 The process continues with the boot phase, using NTLDR: a NTLDR switches the processor from real mode to 32-bit flat memory mode (protected mode), supporting up to 4 GB of RAM (physically installed). The page file is enabled. b NTLDR starts the minimal file system drivers: either FAT, FAT32 (Windows 2000 Professional only), or NTFS. c NTLDR reads boot.ini and displays the Boot Loader Menu. d If you have a dual-boot system and you choose an OS other than Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, then NTLDR loads bootsect.dos and passes control to it for booting. e If you select Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, NTLDR runs ntdetect.com. This program scans the computer’s hardware and passes this information back to NTLDR. (The keyboard lights and modem lights flash as various ports are scanned.) f NTLDR loads ntoskrnl.exe and passes the hardware information to it. This step technically ends the boot phase and begins the load phase. 3 The process continues with the load phase: a NTLDR loads hal.dll (the Hardware Abstraction Layer), which hides the physical hardware from applications. b NTLDR loads the SYSTEM hive from the Registry and then scans it for device drivers and services that need to be loaded. These are organized into groups under the ServiceGroupOrder subkey of the Registry. They’re loaded into memory but aren’t initialized yet. 4 The kernel-initialization phase begins: a The screen display turns blue, and the kernel and the drivers that were loaded during the kernel-load phase are initialized. b The SYSTEM hive of the Registry is scanned again to determine which drivers should be loaded, and they’re initialized. c The registry’s CurrentControlSet is saved. d The Clone control set is created but not saved. e The Registry’s hardware list is created from the information gathered during the boot phase. 5 The services-load phase begins: a The Session Manager, smss.exe, is started. b Ssms.exe starts the required subsystems and runs the programs listed in the following Registry entry: HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\► Session Manager: BootExecute

c Session Manager sets up the page file(s). d The Clone control set is written to the Registry. 6 The Win32 subsystem start phase begins: a The Win32 subsystem starts winlogon.exe. b Winlogon.exe starts the Local Security Authority, lsass.exe. c Lsass.exe displays either the Welcome screen or the Ctrl+Alt+Delete logon dialog. d The Service Controller (screg.exe) checks the Registry for services set to load automatically and then loads them.


19–5

7 The user logs on. A boot isn’t considered good until a user successfully logs on to the operating system. 8 The Clone control set is copied to the Last Known Good control set. Do it!

A-1:

Identifying phases in the startup process

Questions and Answers 1 At what point during the startup process is the Last Known Good control set built?

2 During what phase is the Hardware Abstraction Layer loaded? By which file?

3 Which phases of the startup process use the Registry?

4 What’s the purpose of bootsect.dos in the boot process for Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP?

5 Which file contains the majority of operating system instructions for Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP?

19–6


Topic B: System troubleshooting This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes  OS related symptoms – Bluescreen – System lock-up – Input/output device – Application install – Start or load

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Scheduling preventative maintenance – Startup programs

3.2

Given a scenario, demonstrate the proper use of user interfaces  Run line utilities – Msconfig

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  Installation methods – Recover CD – Factory recovery partition  Operating system installation options – Repair install

3.4

Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and startup utilities  Boot options – Safe mode – Boot to restore point – Recovery options  Automated System Recovery (ASR)  Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)  Recovery console


19–7


Objective

2.1

Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  MSCONFIG  SFC

2.4

Evaluate and resolve common issues  Operational Problems – Auto-restart errors – Bluescreen error – System lockup – Device drivers failure (input / output devices) – Application install, start or load failure – Service fails to start  Error Messages and Conditions – Boot  Invalid boot disk  Inaccessible boot drive  Missing NTLDR – Startup  Device / service failed to start  Device / program in registry not found  System Performance and Optimization – Startup file maintenance – Background processes

Computer startup problems Explanation

There are operating-system problems you’ll need to troubleshoot that manifest themselves as symptoms during computer startup. These errors can be grouped into three categories:  Boot errors — The computer system doesn’t boot successfully.  Operating system startup errors — The computer system boots successfully, but reports an error message when loading the operating system.  Operating system load errors — The computer successfully boots, but the operating system interface doesn’t load properly.

19–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Boot errors To resolve boot errors, you need to have access to your computer’s system BIOS or CMOS, a boot disk, and disk-based utilities. To identify and resolve boot errors, use the troubleshooting techniques described in the following table. Boot error

Cause

Resolution

Invalid boot or non-system disk error

A floppy or CD-ROM that isn’t bootable is in a bootable drive.

Check that there isn’t a disk in the floppy or CD-ROM drive.

The system BIOS or CMOS isn’t configured properly to boot to the hard disk.

Verify that system BIOS or CMOS boot-order settings are correct.

The hard disk drive doesn’t have the Windows boot files on it.

Depending on the OS, boot from your emergency repair disk, your Windows installation CD-ROM, or your restore CD.

The hard disk drive isn’t connected properly.

If the computer was moved recently or if the hard drive was just installed, check that the hard disk is properly connected to the computer.

The hard disk is bad.

If the previous solutions fail to resolve the problem, the hard disk might be bad and might need to be replaced.





The motherboard was recently changed, or you moved the Windows system disk to another computer with a different motherboard.

Reinstall Windows to fix the Registry entries and drivers for the mass storage controller hardware. You might be able to use a Microsoft generic driver until you can find the proper driver.



Inaccessible boot device


19–9

Boot error

Cause

Resolution

NTLDR is missing, or Couldn’t find NTLDR

The boot.ini file is configured incorrectly.

View the contents of boot.ini. Edit, if necessary.

The Ntldr file is missing or corrupt.

Copy the Ntldr file from the Windows installation CD-ROM, a Windows boot disk, or another computer. If other Windows files are missing or corrupt, you might have to reinstall the operating system to resolve the problem.







There’s a corrupt boot sector or MBR.

There might be a virus. Use your virus removal software.

You’re trying to upgrade from FAT32 to a Windows version that doesn’t support FAT32.

Boot into the previous version of the operating system, back up data, and complete a fresh installation of the new operating system.







The command.com, msdos.sys, io.sys, or drvspace file was deleted, was renamed, or has become corrupt.

Boot the computer by using a boot disk. Replace the missing or corrupt file.



Bad or missing Command interpreter

19–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Startup errors To identify and resolve startup errors, you can use troubleshooting techniques described in the following table. Startup message

Cause

Resolution

Himem.sys not loaded

The himem.sys file is missing or corrupt.

Copy a new version of himem.sys to the hard disk. Verify that the reference to himem.sys is correct in config.sys.

There’s a problem with physical memory.

If the previous solution fails to solve the problem, the physical memory might be bad and might need to be replaced. Himem.sys runs a check on RAM and can’t do so if a RAM chip is bad.

The himem.sys file is missing or corrupt.

Copy a new version of himem.sys to the hard disk. Verify that the reference to himem.sys is correct in config.sys.

There’s a problem with physical memory.

If the previous solution fails to solve the problem, the physical memory might be bad and might need to be replaced. Himem.sys runs a check on RAM and can’t do so if a RAM chip is bad.

Windows is trying to load a device or service that won’t load properly.

Check the Event Viewer logs to determine which device or service failed to load. Check the installation or configuration of the device (by using Device Manager) or service (by using the Services console). Reinstall the device or service if necessary.

Missing or corrupt Himem.sys

Device/service has failed to start; Device/program in Registry not found

Operating system load errors Common operating system load errors and troubleshooting techniques are listed in the following table. Error

Cause

Resolution

Failure to start GUI

Explorer.exe is missing or corrupt.

Copy Explorer.exe from the Windows installation CD-ROM, a Windows boot disk, or another computer. If other Windows files are missing or corrupt, you might have to reinstall the operating system to resolve the problem.

Windows Protection Error—illegal operation

An application asks the operating system to process an operation that the OS doesn’t recognize.

Illegal-operation messages typically have an error code or something else you can use to research the exact cause and resolution of the specific error.

Operating system troubleshooting Error

19–11

Cause

Resolution

Outdated device drivers need to be updated.

If the device driver is being loaded by the operating system at Startup, try to boot into Safe mode and roll back or update the driver. If the illegal operation causes a GPF, you might need to reboot the computer. If a Blue-screen error, you will need to reboot the computer. An incorrect or corrupt device driver can cause an auto-restart error (the computer reboots automatically when it tries to load the driver). After you identify the driver causing the problem, you need to replace it.

User-modified settings cause improper operation at startup

The user has changed a system setting that causes the computer to hang at startup.

If available, boot using one of the safe modes to reverse the changes. On Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP computers, roll back to a system restore point.

Application install, start, or load failure

Someone tries to install or start an application that isn’t compatible with the operating system.

Reboot the computer and restart the application.

Delete and reinstall the application. Research the application to see if a patch is available that allows it to run on your operating system. You might need to upgrade the application to one whose coding functions according to the application rules of your OS.

19–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two After Windows Vista encounters a shutdown error, and you successfully boot up, the operating system displays information about the error. A sample blue-screen error report is shown in Exhibit 19-1. Sometimes you will be able to use this information to troubleshoot a problem on your own. Many times, however, the information is useful only to Microsoft Support Engineers.

Exhibit 19-1: A blue-screen error reported in Windows Vista Business

Startup messages The first error messages you see when starting a computer are boot and startup messages. These can give you good information about what might be wrong with a computer. With startup messages, the computer system boots successfully, but reports an error message when loading the operating system. One of the more common messages you’ll encounter is “Device/service has failed to start.” This message indicates that Windows is trying to load a device or service, but it won’t load properly. To resolve this issue: 1 Check the Event Viewer logs to determine which device or service failed to load. 2 Check the installation or configuration of the device by using Device Manager, or check the service by using the Services console. 3 Reinstall the device or service, if necessary. Do it!

B-1:

Troubleshooting Windows startup errors

Questions and answers 1 A user calls the Help desk and tells you that when she boots the computer, Windows 7 won’t start, and the screen goes blue and displays text she doesn’t understand. What do you suspect is the problem?


19–13

2 You’re configuring a Windows 7 computer for a user. When you start Windows 7, an error message tells you that a device or service has failed to start. The GUI loads and everything appears okay. What should you check?

3 You recently installed a new hard disk in a user’s computer. You installed Windows 7 Professional and the needed applications, and then copied the user’s data to the new drive. The computer was functioning just fine in your office. You delivered it to the user’s office, and when you started it up, you received the message “NTLDR is missing.” What is the likely cause?

4 If your first solution doesn’t resolve the problem, what is another likely cause of the “Missing NTLDR” message?

5 You’re installing Windows 7 on a computer for a user. When you start Windows 7, it loads the desktop, but then you receive a “Windows Protection Error—illegal operation” message. Each time you restart the computer, the same thing happens. What do you think the problem is, and how can you resolve it?

19–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Advanced startup options Each Windows operating system includes alternative startup modes that you can use to diagnose and fix problems startup problems. To access the menu for the startup modes, boot the computer and press F8 after you hear your computer’s startup beep. You should press F8 during the first few moments of the boot process—before the Windows logo/splash screen appears. The following table describes the various startup modes. Startup mode

Description

Repair Your Computer

Available in Windows 7. This option presents a list of system recovery tools that you can use to repair startup problems, run computer diagnostics, or restore your system. In Windows Vista, this choice isn’t available on the advanced startup menu unless the system recovery tools have been installed on your hard disk. If the tools haven’t been installed on your hard disk, this utility is available from the Windows installation disc.

Safe Mode

Boots the computer with a minimum configuration, such as mouse, keyboard, and standard VGA device drivers. Can be used to solve problems with a new hardware installation or problems caused by user settings.

Safe Mode with Networking

Boots the computer with a minimum configuration, plus networking devices and drivers. Use this mode when the files you need for resolving problems, such as your installation or driver files, are stored on the network.

Safe Mode with Command Prompt

Boots to the command prompt. If Safe mode doesn’t load the operating system, you can try this startup mode. You can then use your MS-DOS-based utilities to troubleshoot and resolve startup problems.

Enable Boot Logging

Loads the operating system normally. All files used during the boot process are recorded in a file called Ntbtlog.txt. If you’re having a problem with a device, check Ntbtlog.txt to see which devices loaded successfully and which didn’t.

Enable low-resolution video (640×480) (Windows 7/Vista); or Enable VGA mode (Windows XP/2000

Boots the operating system, using a generic VGA display driver. You can use this mode to correct improper video or display settings or to fix a nonfunctioning video driver.

Last Known Good Configuration

Uses the boot settings stored in the Registry from the last successful boot. If the system was configured incorrectly, you can use this option to reverse all system setting changes made after the last successful boot.

Directory Services Restore Mode

(Windows 7, Vista, and Server products) Restarts the domain controller and takes it offline so that it isn’t providing directory services to the domain. Once the domain controller is offline, you can repair or recover the Active Directory. Works with Windows 7 and Vista products running Remote Server Administration Tools (RSAT).

Debugging Mode

Allows you to move system boot logs via a serial port from a failing computer to another computer for evaluation. This option sends the boot information to the serial port.

Disable automatic restart on system failure

(Windows 7/Vista) Disables the automatic restart that the computer, by default, attempts after a system failure.


19–15

Startup mode

Description

Disable Driver Signature Enforcement

(Windows 7/Vista) Disables the enforced validation of driver signatures that prohibits unsigned drivers from being installed. Microsoft tests and approves device drivers for the Windows 7 and Vista operating systems, and then assigns each approved driver a signature. By default, Windows 7 and Windows Vista verifies that all drivers being installed on the system have a signature, and unsigned drivers are not allowed to be installed.

Start Windows Normally

Boots the computer as if you hadn’t entered the Advanced Boot Options menu.

Exhibit 19-2: The Advanced Boot Options menu in Windows 7 Professional Although Safe mode is a good tool to help you figure out if the computer can start at all, most of the other advanced startup options are available for experienced computer administrators. Be careful when you’re using advanced startup options to troubleshoot operating system errors. Sometimes you should call for additional help from experienced personnel.


B-2:

Booting the computer in various startup modes

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 A user has changed display settings, and now the screen is blank. How can you fix the problem? 2 Click Start and then click

Choose Restart

3 After the Windows shutdown screen disappears and the black startup screen appears, press *

You boot the computer into Safe mode for troubleshooting problems like a bad display setting. Make sure you watch the computer screen carefully, so you know when to press F8 in the next step. You might need to press it more than once to get the correct timing to display the operating system start menu.

If necessary, press * again

To display the Advanced Boot Options menu.

Observe the menu choices

Repair Your Computer is selected.

Arrow down to select Safe Mode and press e

The system loads with a minimum configuration, such as mouse, keyboard, and standard VGA device drivers.

4 Click COMPADMIN## In the Type your password box, enter !pass1234 and press e 5 Observe the desktop

It appears with a plain black background with white Safe-mode text in all four corners. Windows Help and Support is open, displaying “What is safe mode?”

Close Windows Help and Support 6 Open Computer

You have access to local disks in Safe mode.

7 Select Network

You’re unable to browse the network because Safe Mode doesn’t load networking drivers. If you need to access files on the network, you need to boot into Safe Mode with Networking.

8 Close the Network window

You can make any changes on the local system to solve your problem. If there were a display problem, you could right-click the desktop, choose Personalize, click Display Settings, make the desired changes, and then reboot the computer normally.

Operating system troubleshooting 9 Restart the computer in Safe Mode with Command Prompt

19–17

If booting the computer into Safe mode didn’t load the GUI, you can use the Safe Mode with Command Prompt and use command-line tools to fix the problem.

Log on as COMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234

In this startup mode, you have access to a Command Prompt window only.

Enter shutdown –s

To shut down the computer from the command prompt. You receive a message that the system is shutting down. The computer powers off.

10 Click Close 11 Turn the computer on, boot Windows 7 normally, and log on as COMPADMIN##

Where ## is your assigned user number.

19–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The System Configuration utility Using the System Configuration utility, also called Msconfig, you can view, disable, and enable services and software that run at startup. Msconfig.exe is included with Windows 7, Vista and XP. (You can also use the Windows XP version of the utility on a Windows 2000 Professional computer.) To start the System Configuration utility, click Start, choose Run, type msconfig, and click OK. The System Configuration utility, shown in Exhibit 19-3, makes it easier to resolve startup issues with your operating system and identify issues with background processes. In this utility, you check and clear boxes to enable or disable startup configuration options, as opposed to using a text editor to edit startup files manually. Using the checkboxes, you can quickly make configuration changes to test solutions to a startup or background process problem. Using the Startup page, you can troubleshoot problems with programs that are configured to start when Windows starts up. You can disable a program, reboot, and see if the problem is resolved. If it is, you can then uninstall the program or look for updates. The options for Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP are similar.

Exhibit 19-3: The Services tab in the System Configuration utility in Windows 7 Professional Startup modes for troubleshooting The General tab in the System Configuration utility allows you to start the computer in any of three modes when troubleshooting:  Normal Startup — Loads all device drivers and services.  Diagnostic Startup — Loads only basic devices and services.  Selective Startup — Loads only the files and services selected. The options are:

Operating system troubleshooting In Windows 7 and Vista

In Windows XP

–Load system services

–

System.ini

–Load startup items

–

Win.ini

–Use original boot configuration

–

System services

–

Startup items

–

Choice of boot.ini file

19–19

To prevent individual lines or items in a specific configuration file from loading, select the tab for the desired configuration file and clear the checkbox next to the line or item that you don’t want to load. When you’re done troubleshooting, you need to verify that all of the configuration files and all of the items that are listed in those files are loaded. Then select the General tab and select Normal Startup. Note: If you’ve installed a Windows Vista Service Pack, you’ll find that the behaviors of the startup modes will have changed from their initial behaviors. At the time of this writing, there were no Microsoft Knowledge Base articles explaining this discrepancy.


B-3:

Using the System Configuration utility

Here’s how 1 Click Start

In the Search box, type msconfig and press e

Here’s why You’ll see how you can use the System Configuration utility to troubleshoot startup problems with Windows 7. To start the System Configuration utility.

2 Observe the General tab

You can use this tab to boot into a diagnostic mode without pressing F8 during startup.

Select Diagnostic startup

To load just basic devices and services.

Click OK 3 Click Restart Log on as COMPADMIN##

The computer boots directly into a diagnostic mode. Where ## is your assigned student number.

4 Observe the taskbar and system tray The Aero theme is not running, and many of your startup programs are inactive or disabled.

5 Click Start In the Search box, type msconfig and press e Click Yes

You’ll return to normal startup mode.

Operating system troubleshooting 6 Select Normal startup

19–21

To load all device drivers and services.

Click OK When prompted, restart the computer and log on as

(Where ## is your assigned student number.) The desktop is normal.

COMPADMIN##

7 Run msconfig 8 Activate the Boot tab

You use this tab to enable boot options such as Safe boot.

9 Activate the Services tab

Here you can enable and disable individual services. The status of each service is listed, so you can see which services are running or stopped, as shown here.

19–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 10 Activate the Startup tab

11 Close System Configuration

You can disable items in your Startup group.


19–23

System File Checker When you install some programs, they attempt to overwrite Windows system files, which can cause problems down the line when the operating system or other programs try to access those system files. Protecting system files prevents problems with applications and the operating system. Fortunately, a feature called Windows File Protection (WFP) prevents application installations from replacing critical Windows system files. To verify that you have the original protected system files, you can use the commandline tool called System File Checker to scan all protected files. If System File Checker discovers that a protected file has been overwritten, it retrieves the correct version of the file from the cache folder (the folder that holds needed system files) or the Windows CD-ROM and replaces the incorrect file. To use the System File Checker to scan all protected system files, open a Command Prompt window and enter sfc /scannow. If prompted, insert the Windows CD-ROM and complete the scan. In Windows XP, you can also use the /scanonce switch to scan once at the next reboot, and use the /scanboot switch to scan at every boot. For help with the System File Checker syntax, enter sfc /? at the command prompt. Do it!

B-4:

Using System File Checker

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open an administrative Command Prompt window

Click Start, choose Accessories, right-click Command Prompt, and choose Run as administrator.

2 Enter sfc /scannow

To verify that the protected operating system files are the originals. You might be prompted for the Windows installation files if the service pack and hotfixes you’ve installed have replaced some of the original operating system files.

3 Exit the Command Prompt window

19–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The Recovery Console The Recovery Console can help you recover when your Windows XP Professional or Windows 2000 Professional computer doesn’t start properly or won’t start at all. Using the Recovery Console, you can access FAT, FAT32, and NTFS volumes from a command line without the Windows GUI. You can then:  Repair the boot sector.  Replace missing or corrupt operating system files.  Create and format partitions.  Enable or disable services or devices. When you’re working with the command line in the Recovery Console, you have access to only these folders:  The root folder  The %systemroot% folder and the subfolders of the Windows XP Professional or Windows 2000 Professional installation you selected when loading the Recovery Console  The Cmdcons folder  Removable media drives, such as CD-ROM and DVD drives Windows 2000 Professional To run the Recovery Console in Windows 2000 Professional: 1 Boot your computer, using your Windows 2000 Professional installation CD-ROM. 2 When prompted to install Windows 2000 Professional, press Enter. 3 Press R and then press C. 4 Select the desired Windows 2000 installation. 5 Enter the administrator recovery password. 6 Use the command prompt to implement recovery solutions. (You can type Help at the command prompt to display the available commands.) 7 When finished, remove the Windows 2000 Professional CD-ROM. 8 Type exit and press Enter. The system reboots normally. Windows XP Professional To run the Recovery Console in Windows XP Professional: 1 Boot your computer, using your Windows XP Professional installation CD-ROM. 2 On the Welcome to Setup screen, press R. 3 If necessary, select the desired Windows installation. 4 Enter the administrator recovery password. 5 Use the command prompt to implement recovery solutions. (You can type help at the command prompt to display the available commands.) 6 When finished, remove the Windows XP Professional CD-ROM. 7 Type exit and press Enter. The system reboots normally.


19–25

System Recovery Options menu In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, the Recovery Console has been replaced with several recovery tools, accessible from the Systems Recovery Options menu on the Windows 7 or Windows Vista installation disc, or using the Restore Your Computer choice off the Advanced Startup Menu. Using these tools, you can repair startup problems, restore your system files from a restore point, test your computer’s RAM, and in some editions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista, restore your entire computer and system files from backups. The following table describes the utilities on the System Recovery Options menu. Utility

Use to…

Startup Repair

Scan your computer for missing or damaged system files that might be preventing Windows from starting correctly, and replace any missing or damaged files with the originals from the installation disc.

System Restore

Restore your computer’s system files to an earlier point in time as designated by a restore point.

Windows Complete PC Restore

Restore the contents of your hard disk from a backup. The Windows Complete PC Backup and Restore utility is not available in Windows Vista Starter, Windows Vista Home Basic, or Windows Vista Home Premium.

Windows Memory Diagnostic Tool

Scan your computer for memory errors.

Command Prompt

Perform recovery-related operations and run command-line utilities to diagnose and troubleshoot problems. Command Prompt replaces the Recovery Console from earlier versions of Windows, giving you access to all command-line utilities instead of the limited set available through the Recovery Console.

Note: If any of the system files have been updated by Microsoft through a patch or Service Pack, the system recovery options won’t be providing you with the most recent files. After you’ve done a system repair, you should reapply any patches and Service Packs. To use the System Recovery Options menu in Windows 7 or Windows Vista: 1 Insert the Windows installation disc. 2 Restart your computer. 3 When prompted, press any key to start Windows from the installation disc. 4 Choose your language settings and click Next. 5 Click Repair your computer. 6 Select the operating system you want to repair and click Next. 7 On the System Recovery Options menu, select the desired option. If available you can also choose Restore Your Computer from the Advanced Startup Menu.

19–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Emergency Repair Disk In Windows 2000, an Emergency Repair Disk (ERD) contains basic system configuration files that you can use to restore your computer to a bootable state if your Registry is damaged or if the operating system is on an NTFS partition that isn’t booting. When you create an ERD, basic system configuration information from the Registry is placed on the disk and in the %systemroot%\Repair folder on the hard disk. An ERD isn’t bootable, but when it’s used with the Windows installation CD-ROM, it allows you to boot a nonfunctioning computer and restore critical system files and information from the Registry. An ERD can help you to:  Inspect and repair the boot sector.  Inspect and repair the startup environment.  Verify Windows 2000 Professional system files and replace missing or damaged files. Whenever you make configuration changes on your computer—such as installing new software, changing software configurations, changing the network configuration, changing hardware, or installing operating system updates—you should update your ERD and repair information. Note that the ERD is not a substitute for a full Registry backup. The ERD feature is available in Windows 2000 Professional Backup. (In Windows XP Professional, the emergency repair feature is called Automated System Recovery, or ASR.) The Windows 2000 Professional ERD includes the following files:  Autoexec.nt — Initializes the MS-DOS environment.  Config.nt — Initializes the MS-DOS environment.  Setup.log — Contains cyclical redundancy check information for core Windows 2000 Professional files. The Windows 2000 Professional ERD doesn’t include Registry information. If you choose to back up the Registry also, the ERD creation process creates a %systemroot%\Repair\RegBack directory on your hard disk and places the Registry files there. To use the Emergency Repair process: 1 Boot your computer, using your Windows 2000 Professional installation CD-ROM. 2 When prompted to install Windows 2000 Professional, press Enter. 3 Press R twice. 4 Select the desired repair option: Fast or Manual. The Fast option repairs system files, boot sector problems, and Registry hives and does not involve user interaction. The Manual option allows you to choose any of the following:  Inspect Setup Environment  Verify Windows 2000 System Files  Inspect Boot Sector 5 Press Enter to use the Emergency Repair Disk. 6 Insert the Emergency Repair Disk and press Enter. 7 If prompted, insert the Windows 2000 Professional installation CD-ROM.


19–27

8 When prompted, remove the ERD. 9 After the files have been repaired, reboot the operating system.

Automated System Recovery In Windows XP Professional, you can use the Automated System Recovery Wizard to create a backup of your system partition and make a floppy disk containing critical system settings. You can then use ASR to recover from a system failure caused by problems with the system/boot volume, such as Registry corruption. If you don’t have an internal floppy disk drive in your computer, you might be able to use an external USB floppy drive; however, not all external USB floppy drives are compatible with the ASR process. Automated System Recovery isn’t available in Windows XP Home Edition or Windows XP Media Center Edition. The ASR feature differs in Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP. In Windows 7 and Windows XP, it is a component of Windows Backup (NTBACKUP). In Windows Vista Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate, it uses the Volume Shadow Copy Service (VSS) and an ASR writer. This feature isn’t available in Windows Vista Home or Windows Vista Home Premium. Windows Vista SP1 introduced additional features, such as support for Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) partitions, tracing tool integration, and a change in the way dynamic disks are treated when there is no change in the disk layout since the last backup. When you recover from a system failure by using ASR, it does the following: 1 Restores the disk configurations. 2 Formats your system and boot volumes. 3 Installs a bare-bones version of Windows. 4 Runs Backup to rebuild your system and boot volumes from your ASR backup set. ASR should be used as your last attempt to recover a system, after you try other recovery methods, such as the Last Known Good Configuration. ASR formats your system and boot volumes and doesn’t restore user data. In Windows Vista, you’ll use the backup you created with VSS and the ASR writer, along with the System Recovery Options menu, to resolve a system failure. In Windows XP, to use your ASR recovery set to resolve a system failure: 1 Boot the computer, using your Windows XP installation CD-ROM. 2 If you have a third-party driver for the backup storage device, press F6 to install the driver. 3 When prompted to perform an ASR, press F2. (Watch the screen carefully for this prompt; it doesn’t stay on the screen very long.) 4 When prompted, insert the ASR floppy disk. 5 When prompted, specify the location of your ASR backup set. 6 When the ASR is complete, log on.


B-5:

Explaining recovery option basics

Questions and answers 1 In which operating systems is the Recovery Console available?

2 When would you use the Recovery Console?

3 In which operating systems is the System Recovery Options menu available?

4 When would you use the System Recovery Options menu?

5 What is the difference between ERD and ASR?


19–29

Unit summary: Operating system troubleshooting Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to identify the stages of the Windows startup process. When you can identify each of the stages, you can troubleshoot problems that occur during startup.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned how to troubleshoot problems with Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 computers. You identified common startup problems, and you learned how to use various tools—such as the System Configuration Utility, the Recovery Console, the System Recovery Options menu, System File Checker, Emergency Repair Disks, and Automated System Recovery—to recover from these problems.

Review questions 1 Which file contains the majority of operating system instructions for Windows 2000 Professional or any version of Windows 7, Vista, or XP? A Ntbootdd.sys B Ntoskrnl.exe C NTLDR D Ntdetect.com 2 Which file controls the boot phase of the startup process for Windows 2000 Professional or any version of Windows 7, Vista or XP? A Ntbootdd.sys B Ntoskrnl.exe C NTLDR D SYSTEM Registry hive 3 If a computer successfully boots, but the operating system interface doesn’t load properly, what type of error has occurred? A Startup error B Boot error C Operating system load error 4 What Windows 7 or Vista utility should you use if user-modified settings cause improper operation at startup? A Driver Rollback B Recovery console C System Configuration Utility D System Recovery Options menu E System Restore

19–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 5 Which type of error presents as the computer system booting successfully, but reports an error message when loading the operating system? A Boot error B Operating system startup error C Operating system load error D Hardware error 6 A floppy or CD-ROM that isn’t bootable in a bootable drive can cause which boot errors? [Choose all that apply.] A Invalid boot or non-system disk error B Inaccessible boot device C NTLDR is missing, or Couldn’t find NTLDR D Bad or missing Command interpreter 7 A problem with physical memory can cause which operating system startup errors? [Choose all that apply.] A Error in CONFIG.SYS line ## B Himem.sys not loaded C Missing or corrupt Himem.sys D Device/service has failed to start 8 An outdated device driver that needs to be updated can cause which operating system load error? A Failure to start GUI B Windows Protection Error—illegal operation C User-modified settings cause improper operation at startup D Application install, start, or load failure 9 If you’re having problems with a device, which startup mode can you use to record all files used during the boot process in a file called ntbtlog.txt? Enable boot logging

10 In the System Configuration utility, which mode can you use to load only basic devices and services while troubleshooting a problem? A Normal B Diagnostic C Selective D Debug 11 You’re troubleshooting a device driver failure on a Windows 7 computer, and the failure is preventing the operating system from loading properly. Current drivers are stored in a network share. What startup mode should you use to resolve the problem? Safe Mode with Networking


19–31

12 A user has installed a mobile-device docking station on her Windows 2000 Professional computer. When the user rebooted the computer, it wouldn’t load Windows 2000 Professional. What startup mode can you use to resolve the problem in the simplest manner? The user hasn’t successfully booted and logged onto Windows 2000 Professional since she made the change, so you can attempt to use the Last Known Good Configuration option.

13 Which Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP GUI utility allows you to view, disable, and enable software and services that run at startup? A ASR B Boot.ini C ERD D Msconfig E Recovery Console F System Recovery Options menu 14 What are the four tasks performed by the ASR? a Restores the disk configurations. b Formats your system and boot volumes. c Installs a bare-bones version of Windows. d Runs Backup to rebuild your system and boot volumes from your ASR backup set.

Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice using startup options on your Windows 7 computer. 1 Restart the computer and use the advanced startup options to enable boot logging. Log on and open the log file. Verify that there were no errors. 2 Boot the computer, using a diagnostic startup. 3 Reboot normally. 4 Boot the computer into Safe Mode with Networking. Verify you have network connectivity. 5 Reboot normally.


20–1

Unit 20 Security Unit time: 120 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Configure basic Windows user

authentication. B Use Windows file encryption. C Discuss biometric and other security

devices. D Recognize and mitigate common security

threats. E Manage the human aspects of computer

security.

20–2


Topic A: Operating system security This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.1

Compare and contrast the different Windows operating systems and their features Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs 64 bit  UAC

5.1

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Authentication technologies – Username – Password

5.2

Summarize the following security features  Password management / password complexity  Operating system


Objective

2.4

Evaluate and resolve common issues  Error Messages and Conditions – System Performance and Optimization  UAC

4.2

Implement security and troubleshoot common issues  Operating systems – Local users and groups: Administrator, Power Users, Guest, Users – Vista/Windows 7 User Access Control (UAC) – NTFS vs. Share permissions  Allow vs. deny  Difference between moving and copying folders and files  File attributes – Shared files and folders  Administrative shares vs. local shares  Permission propagation  Inheritance  System files and folders  User authentication

Security

20–3

Authentication technologies Explanation

Operating system security begins with determining who’s using a computer. There are various ways to authenticate users. Some authentication methods are identity-based, for example, the Windows security framework is based on user accounts. Others are resource-based, where a service uses a fixed identity or impersonates a client’s identify to access services or resources. Others might be role-based, where roles are created for various job functions and then permissions to perform certain actions are assigned to those roles. In Windows, once the user is identified, you can employ operating system features to permit or deny access to resources. This basic authentication is enabled by user and group accounts.

Windows user accounts Like its predecessors, Windows 7 and Windows Vista include features that support shared use of a single PC. More than one person can use a single PC while maintaining separate sets of privileges (resources, such as files and folders, to which access is permitted). Windows stores these settings in a user account.

User accounts A user account is a collection of settings and privileges associated with a person (or persons, if multiple people choose to share the same account). When you log on to Windows Vista (even if it logs you on automatically without prompting you for a username and password), the operating system loads the settings and privileges defined in your user account. The information might include a first and last name, password, group membership information, and other data. Your experience with the PC is tailored to you, thanks to the user account. Any person who needs to use the computer needs a user account. By creating user accounts, you can administer and maintain the security of the computer. Through accounts you can:  Require authentication for users connecting to the computer.  Control access to resources, such as shared folders and printers.  Monitor access to resources by auditing the actions performed by a user. Usernames and passwords Your username uniquely identifies you to a computer or network system when you log in. The username you are given is often very simple and might even be based on your name; other times, it is a complex string of characters that you need to memorize. When you provide a valid username and password, the computer can authenticate you. Your password is your secret code. In some cases, it can be very simple, but this is not a good practice because someone else could easily guess your password. Usually, you will be required to create a complex password that consists of letters, numbers, and possibly special characters. A minimum password length is also typically specified. Most of us need passwords to many different locations, such as our computer, servers, and various Web sites. There is a strong temptation to use the same password for all of the locations, but doing so would leave you vulnerable to having your password stolen and used in any or all of the locations.

20–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Both the username and password should be kept confidential. If someone knows your username, a potential hacker has half of the information needed to impersonate you and make use of the rights you have been granted to resources. When you’re creating user accounts, it’s important that your organization set standards for the various elements of a user object. For example, you might want to establish a user-account naming convention or a password complexity requirement:  Naming convention examples — first initial with last name (TSmith), last name with hire date (Smith103109), last name with department or department code (Smith_HR).  Password complexity requirement examples — mix of upper and lower case letters, one or more numerical characters, at least X number of characters. You can also establish other security conventions. For example, you might require users to have password-protected screen savers: to wake an idle computer, the user has to enter the password. User account types Windows supports multiple levels of user accounts that grant certain privileges on the computer to the user. Windows 7 and Windows Vista supports two general types of user accounts: computer administrator and standard user. Administrators have full control of the computer, while standard user accounts can use programs but cannot make system changes that affect other user accounts. The following table summarizes some of the privileges allowed for each account type. Administrator

User





Use programs.





Change account picture, and add, change, and delete account password.

 

Privilege

Change account name or account type. 

Add, delete, and change files in personal Documents and Public Documents folders.



Add and delete files other than those in personal Documents and Public Documents.



Add and delete user accounts and change other users’ passwords.



Add programs.



Add hardware (other than printers).





Add a local printer.





Add a network printer.



Change system settings.

Security

20–5

These are the default privileges allowed. However, Administrators can delegate tasks to normal user accounts as needed. A Guest account is built in but is not active by default. The Guest account can use installed programs, but has limited privileges and cannot even change the account picture or password. Windows XP and Windows 2000 also have Guest, Administrator, and Power User accounts. Despite the name, Power Users don’t really have any more administrative control over the computer than standard users. However, they might have sufficient permissions to run some applications that standard users can’t.

Creating user accounts Only an administrator account (or a standard user providing administrator credentials) can create a user account. User accounts are managed through the Control Panel. For Windows 7: 1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts and Family Safety. 2 Click “Add or remove user accounts.” 3 Enter administrator credentials. 4 Click “Create a new account.” 5 Enter a name for the new user. 6 Select an account type. 7 Click Create Account. For Windows Vista: 1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts. 2 Click “Add or remove user accounts.” 3 If prompted, enter administrative-level credentials (password, or username and password). In Windows Vista, you might be prompted to click Continue. 4 Click “Create a new account.” 5 Enter a name for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of the following characters: /\ [ ] “ ; : < > + - , ? * 6 Select the account type: Standard user or Administrator. 7 Click Create Account.

20–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two For Windows XP: 1 In the Control Panel, click User Accounts. 2 Click “Create a new account.” 3 Enter a name for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of the following characters: /\ [ ] “ ; : < > + - , ? * 4 Click Next. 5 Select the account type: Computer administrator or Limited. 6 Click Create Account. For Windows 2000 Professional: 1 In the Control Panel, double-click Users and Passwords. 2 Verify “Users must enter a username and password to use this computer” is checked. 3 Click Add. 4 Enter a username for the new user. The name can contain spaces, but not any of the following characters: /\ [ ] “ ; : < > + - , ? * 5 If desired, enter the user’s full name and a description. 6 Click Next. 7 Enter a password in the Password and Confirm password boxes. 8 Click Next. 9 Select the account type: Standard user, Restricted user, or Other. If you choose Other, select the type: Administrators, Backup Operators, Guests, Power Users, Replicator, or Users. 10 Click Finish. 11 Click OK.

Groups Trying to configure permissions or rights for multiple users within their individual accounts can quickly become unmanageable, especially in large environments. For this reason, operating systems, including Windows Vista Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000, include the ability to aggregate user accounts into entities known as groups. When you use groups, you assign permissions to groups rather than to individual user accounts. (Although you can still assign permissions to individual users when appropriate, Microsoft recommends against it.) When you want to assign a certain set of permissions to a user, you simply add his or her account to the appropriate group. For example, you might add a new user to the West Coast Sales group in order to grant him or her access to printers, storage, and other resources used by that team. Windows supports multiple levels of groups and typically includes the following:  Users — The standard group for regular users.  Administrators — A group to which administrator users belong.  Power Users — A group used to assign elevated permissions to a select set of individuals.

Security Do it!

A-1:

20–7

Creating local user accounts

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Control Panel

View the Control Panel by Category

(If necessary.)

2 Under User Accounts and Family Safety, click Add or remove user accounts

3 Click Create a new account 4 Enter Anne for the user name

A user name can contain spaces, but cannot contain any of the following characters: /\[]“;:+-,?*

5 Observe the types of user account

You can create a standard user or administrator account from this window. The default is standard user.

6 Click Create Account

To create a standard user account named Anne.

Observe the Manage Accounts window 7 Create a standard user account named Robert

The new account is listed with the other accounts on your computer. Use the same settings you did for the user account Anne.

20–8


Passwords You can easily improve security by requiring logon passwords. Windows provides tools you can use to enable passwords, as well as set, change, and delete passwords. Passwords require a user to enter a secret word—actually, any string of letters, numbers, and characters—before he or she can log on or switch to another account. Standard users can set and change their own passwords, and an administrator can set and change passwords for any user on the system. You can add a password hint to remind yourself of your password, but if a password is forgotten, an administrator must change the password for you. Passwords are set in the User Accounts window. Password rules When using passwords, you must adhere to these Windows rules:  A password can contain letters, numbers, and characters, but it cannot start or end with a space.  Passwords are case sensitive.  Passwords must be between 1 and 127 characters long.  In a business environment, the system or network administrator might have implemented more restrictive rules. Check with him or her to determine the complete set of rules that apply to you. Password recommendations Weak passwords are a major problem. Users need to create strong passwords and protect them diligently in order to keep resources from being accessed or used by unauthorized users. Although the preceding rules explain the limits, you should follow these general guidelines when setting your passwords:  Match the strength of your password to your needs for security. For example, home computer users can often use very simple passwords (or no password) because there is little risk or potential for loss from unauthorized access to the PC. (However, if that PC is connected to the Internet, it’s essential that you use a strong password to help protect the computer from attack.) User accounts in a business environment should be password-protected, but are likely to need less secure passwords for standard users than for administrative users.  Set a password that is easy to remember, but hard to guess. It is not secure to use your spouse’s name, kids’ names, pets’ names, and so forth as your password.  Create a password at least eight characters long. Longer passwords are more secure than shorter passwords, with those more than 15 characters being the most secure. Try using a phrase, such as DigitalPhotographyFan, to create an easily remembered long password.  Use a mix of upper- and lowercase letters, numbers, and characters in your password. Avoid common substitution schemes, such as replacing Os with zeros, Es with threes, and so forth.  Memorize passwords rather than writing them down. Some security experts suggest that writing down passwords is okay if you can store the written copy in a secure place, such as a locked cabinet. Check with your corporate security officer for the policy set by your company in this matter.  Use a different password for every account that requires a password.

Security

20–9

 Change passwords frequently. Some organizations have security policies that specify how often to change your password. A general rule of thumb is to change it every 30 to 60 days.  Avoid using the same password again within a year. You can create a system security policy that doesn’t allow users to use a password more than once. Strong passwords When you create a password, you need to balance your ability to remember it with the complexity of the password. If the password is so complex that the only way to remember it is to write it down, then you are sacrificing security, because someone could find the password you recorded. Some people take the first letter of each word in a song title, book title, or phrase and use it as the basis of a password. This kind of password is often referred to as a pass phrase. Users make some of the letters uppercase and some lowercase, and then add numbers and special characters to make the password more secure. This method has the benefit of giving you something that is easily remembered, along with the more secure password created with numbers and special characters. Again, be sure not to include any personal information, such as your name or your pet’s name. Also, you shouldn’t use any word that can be found in the dictionary, because hackers routinely perform dictionary-based attacks. If you choose to substitute numbers for some of the letters, be aware that hackers check substitutions such as “2” for “to,” “4” for “four,” “$” for “s,” “!” for the letter “I,” and the number 0 for the letter O. Multiple passwords If you have multiple passwords for different systems and Web sites, it can be difficult to remember all of the username and password combinations. It is very tempting to write them down somewhere so that you’ll have them, especially for the ones you use infrequently. Avoid this temptation if at all possible. One way you can record them is to use a password management tool—a program that stores your passwords in an encrypted format. Password Director by LastBit Software and AnyPassword by RomanLab Company are two examples of software-based password management tools. You just need to remember a single password to access the file. Some password management tools will create complex passwords for you, using rules that you define. Creating a user password In Windows 7 or Vista, to create a user password for an account that doesn’t have one: 1 In the Manage Accounts window, click the user account for which you want to set a password. If prompted, enter the administrator’s password. 2 Click “Create a password” to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 20-1. 3 Type the password twice. 4 Enter a password hint. The hint is visible to all users, so it should be something to remind the user of his or her password without giving it away to others. 5 Click Create password. 6 Close all open windows.


Exhibit 20-1: Creating a password In Windows XP, to create a user password for an account that doesn’t have one: 1 In Control Panel, User Accounts, click the account to which you want to add a password. 2 Click Create a password. (Once a password is created for an account, this choice changes to Change the password.) 3 In the “Type a new password” box, enter the desired password. 4 In the “Type the new password again to confirm” box, enter the desired password again. 5 If desired, in the “Type a word or phrase to use as a password hint” box, enter a hint to help the user remember the password. 6 Click Create Password. (If you are changing an existing password, this choice changes to Change Password.) 7 Close all open windows. In Windows 2000 Professional, to create a user password for an account that doesn’t have one or to change the current password: 1 In the Users and Passwords dialog box, on the Users tab, select the user for whom you want to set the password. 2 Click Set Password. 3 In the New password and Confirm password boxes, enter the password. 4 Click OK twice. 5 Close all open windows.

Security Do it!

A-2:

20–11

Creating a password

Here’s how 1 Click Anne

Here’s why In the Manage Accounts window. You’ll add a password to this account.

2 Click Create a password 3 In the New password box, enter p@ssword

Passwords are case sensitive and should include non-alphabetic characters.

4 In the Confirm new password box, enter p@ssword

To confirm the password and guard against typos.

5 In the “Type a word or phrase to use as a password hint” box, enter

Remember that hints are visible to anyone. It should jog your memory, but not be useful to anyone else.

This is too easy!

6 Click Create password Click

To return to the Manage Accounts window.

Observe the Anne user account

It shows that the account is password-protected.

7 Close the Manage Accounts window 8 Log off your account and log on as Anne 9 Log off Anne and log back on as COMPADMIN##

10 Create a password of p@ssword for the user account Robert 11 Test the new password for Robert by logging on with that account 12 Log back on as COMPADMIN##

To test the account. Use the password you just created.

20–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Requiring a new password When you create a user account for someone who will use your computer, you know the user’s password. She might not like the password you have chosen. Additionally, she might not want you to know her password. You can configure an account to require the user to change the password the first time the user logs on. As you’ll see in the Account Policies section, you can set passwords to expire and require periodic changing that follow password policies.

Exhibit 20-2: Requiring a user to supply a new password

Security Do it!

A-3:

20–13

Requiring a new password

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start Right-click Computer and choose Manage

To open Computer Management.

2 In the navigation pane, expand Local Users and Groups

Select the Users folder 3 Right-click Anne and choose Properties

4 Clear Password never expires

A list of user accounts on your computer is displayed in the details pane. To open the Properties dialog box for this user account. To make available the option to require a new password. It’s currently grayed out.

5 Check User must change password at next logon

6 Click OK 7 Close Computer Management Log off your account and log on as Anne Change the password to Pa$$321

8 Log off Anne and log back on as COMPADMIN##

To fulfill the change password requirement you just implemented for user Anne.

20–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Authentication Authentication is the process by which your identity is validated against a database that contains your account. That validation is subsequently used to grant or deny access to resources. The authentication process can be handled in several ways to produce various results, depending on how the environment is structured. A workgroup environment is managed differently than a domain environment, and authentication uses different methods and produces different results in each environment. Interactive authentication Interactive authentication is the process by which a user enters his or her username and password in the Log On to Windows dialog box. There are two types of logons:  Domain — The username and password are compared to information stored on a domain controller in its Active Directory database. Active Directory is a management framework for networks of Windows computers under the management of one or more Windows 2008, 2003, or 2000 servers. By using Active Directory, administrators can manage all of the computers and peripherals in an enterprise. Active Directory is built on a centralized database of security settings and other information. Barring other restrictions, a user can log onto any computer in the domain, because each computer can reference the central database.  Local — The username and password are validated by the SAM (Security Accounts Manager) database located on the local computer, rather than by an Active Directory domain controller. The user must have an account that resides on the computer he or she is logging onto. Network authentication Network authentication is the process by which a network resource or service confirms the identity of a user. For example, when you attempt to access the contents of a shared folder on the network, your credentials must be validated. The manner in which network authentication occurs is different if you logged onto a domain rather than onto a local computer account. Authentication protocol Kerberos v5 is the primary authentication protocol used in Active Directory domain environments. Microsoft operating systems that support Kerberos v5 include:  Windows 7  Windows Server 2008  Windows Vista  Windows Server 2003  Windows XP  Windows 2000

Security Do it!

A-4:

Understanding authentication technologies

Questions 1 Logging on to a domain from the console of a Windows 7 system is which type of authentication?

Answers A Interactive B Network C Domain D Local

2 What is network authentication? 3 Authentication is vital to maintaining the ________ of network resources. 4 Which authentication protocol do Windows NT 4.0 clients not configured with the Active Directory Client Extensions software use when logging onto a Windows Server 2008 domain?

A NTLM B Kerberos C RADIUS

20–15

20–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Security policies Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional support configurable security settings within Group Policy editor. With Group Policy editor, you can define settings to secure the operating system and monitor security events.

Account policies Account policies control how user accounts interact with the computer (or the domain). Locally, the two security areas you can configure in account policies are Password and Account Lockout. Password policies Password policies control the complexity and lifetime settings for passwords so that users are forced to create more secure passwords. Your organization’s security policy should include the requirement to set password policies to reduce the likelihood of a successful password attack. Here are the local password policies you can configure on Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional computers:  Enforce password history — Specifies the number of unique new user account passwords a user must create before reusing an old password. Note: If you specify a low number for this setting, users can use the same passwords repeatedly, thereby increasing the chances that an attacker can determine the password.  Minimum password age — Specifies the number of days that a user must keep a password before being allowed to change it. The minimum password age value must be less than the maximum password age value. Note: Setting the number of days to “0” allows immediate password changes, and this isn’t recommended. For a strong security policy, you need to configure the “Minimum password age” policy setting in conjunction with the “Enforce password history” policy setting to prevent users from changing their passwords as many times in a row as necessary in order to reuse their original passwords. Be aware, however, that the security risk associated with implementing a strong “Enforce password history” and “Minimum password age” policy is an increased risk of encountering users who write down their passwords so they don’t forget them.  Maximum password age — Specifies the number of days users can keep a password before the system requires them to change it. Note: Requiring that users change their passwords frequently might reduce the risk of passwords being cracked and the risk of stolen passwords being used. However, just as with a strong “Enforce password history” and “Minimum password age” account policy, if you set the “Maximum password age” value too low, your users have to change their passwords often, and you introduce the security risk of users’ writing down their passwords to avoid forgetting them. A reasonable length of time for a maximum password age in most corporate environments is every 60 or 90 days (2 or 3 months).

Security

20–17

 Minimum password length — Specifies the lowest number of characters that can be used in a user account password. Note: In most environments, a six- to eight-character password is recommended because it’s long enough to provide adequate security and short enough for users to easily remember. In most business environments, this setting provides adequate defense against a brute-force attack.  Passwords must meet complexity requirements — Forces users’ passwords to meet the following set of guidelines: – The password doesn’t contain all or part of the user’s account name. – The password is at least six characters long. – The password contains characters from three of the following four categories: English uppercase characters (A-Z); English lowercase characters (a-z); Base 10 digits (0-9); and Non-alphanumeric (for example: !, $, #, or %).  Store password using reverse encryption for all users in the domain — Specifies whether Microsoft Windows 7 and Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional computers store passwords using reverse encryption. Note: If you enable this policy, it makes your overall password security less secure. Reversible encryption is essentially the same as storing the passwords in plain text. You shouldn’t enable this setting unless business requirements outweigh the need to protect password information. The following table lists each password policy setting, its default value, and its possible and recommended values. Setting

Default

Possible and recommended values

Enforce password history

0 passwords remembered

0 to 24. Set to 24 to limit password reuse.

Maximum password age

42 days

0 to 999. Set to either 30 or 60 days.

Minimum password age

0 days

0 to 998. Set to 2 days; this disallows immediate changes.

Minimum password length

0 characters

0 to 14. Set to at least 6 to 8.

Password must meet complexity requirements

Disabled

Enabled or disabled. Set to enabled.

Store password using reverse encryption

Disabled

Enabled or disabled. Set to disabled.

20–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Account lockout policy You use the account lockout policy to secure the system against attacks by disabling any user account after a certain number of failed logon attempts occur within a specified period of time. Setting

Default

Possible and recommended values

Account lockout duration

Not Applicable

0 to 99,999 minutes. A value of 0 indicates the account is locked out until an administrator unlocks it.

30 minutes when Account lockout threshold is set

Set to at least 30 minutes. If you attempt to set this value to less than the “Reset account lockout after” value, Windows presents a message indicating it is changing the “Reset account lockout counter after” value to be the same. Account lockout threshold

0 invalid logon attempts

0 to 999 logon attempts. Set to at least 3 to allow for typing mistakes or the Cap Locks key being engaged.

Reset account lockout counter after

Not Applicable

1 to 99,999 minutes. If you attempt to set this value more than the Account lockout duration value, Windows presents a message indicating it is changing the “Account lockout duration” value to be the same.

30 minutes when Account lockout threshold is set

Set to at least 30 minutes.

Note: If you set the “Reset account lockout counter after” setting to a high value, it presents an opportunity for a denial-of-service (DoS) attack. The purpose of a DoS attack is to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. If you set the “Reset account lockout counter after” setting to a low value, it opens up the computer to brute-force attacks. A brute-force attack occurs when an attacker attempts to identify a password by trying a large number of possibilities. You need to evaluate your risk and select a value that creates a balance of risk for the two possibilities. If you don’t want user accounts to be locked out, set the Account lockout duration and the Account lockout threshold policy settings to zero. The zero values in both policies will prevent a DoS attack by locking out all or some accounts. Zero values in both of these policies can help reduce help desk calls because users can’t accidentally lock themselves out of their accounts.

Computer vs. domain If your computer participates in a domain, it might inherit security policy settings from the domain. Settings at the domain level override those made at the local computer level. There are additional policy settings you can apply to domain controller computers, which override the other policies.

Security Do it!

A-5:

20–19

Using local security policies to set password restrictions

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Control Panel

Click System and Security

Click Administrative Tools Double-click Local Security Policy

2 Expand Account Policies 3 Select Password Policy

The policies are displayed in the right pane.

4 Double-click Minimum

The current value is zero, indicating that no minimum length is specified.

password length

5 In the characters box, enter 8

To specify that passwords must be at least eight characters long.

Click OK

20–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 6 Switch to the Control Panel and open User Accounts

You have to back up one level from System and Security to Control Panel. Click User Accounts and Family Safety to get to User Accounts. You’ll try to change a user’s password to test your new password policy.

7 Click Manage another account

8 Click Anne 9 Click Change the password 10 In the New password and Confirmation boxes, type secret Click Change password

A dialog box tells you that the password you entered doesn’t meet password policy requirements.

11 Click OK 12 Click Cancel and close the User Accounts window 13 In Local Security Policy, restore the minimum password length to zero Click OK 14 Close all open windows

Security

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Disabling user accounts If you aren’t using an account but don’t want to delete it, you can disable it to prevent anyone else from logging on with that account. Windows preserves all of the settings, files, and permissions associated with a disabled account. Later, you can enable the account, and its settings will be intact. You disable and enable accounts by using the Computer Management console.

Exhibit 20-3: Disabling an account Deleting accounts When you no longer need a user account, you can delete it. You must be logged in as an administrator. You can delete administrator and standard user accounts, except for the account you used to log on. When you delete an account, Windows will prompt you to delete all files associated with the account. Doing so is optional. You can keep the files associated with the account. Administrators will have access to those files, but standard users won’t.


A-6:

Disabling local user accounts

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Computer Management Expand Local Users and Groups, and then select the Users folder 2 Right-click Anne and choose Properties

3 Check Account is disabled 4 Click OK The down-pointing arrow on the account’s icon indicates that it’s disabled.


Security

20–23

User Account Control Microsoft has recommended for years that administrative users log on and work with a standard user-level account unless they actually need special administrative privileges for certain tasks. This security scheme protects a computer in a number of ways, including the following:  Administrators can’t inadvertently change system settings, delete important files, or do other system harm as they could if they logged on regularly as an administrative user.  Unauthorized users can’t walk up to an unattended administrator computer and make system changes on it or on other computers on the network. However, pre-Windows Vista versions have not made such a work style convenient. System administrators had to frequently log off as the standard user and log back on as an administrator to perform many duties. This meant closing applications, saving work in progress, and interrupting their workflow. User Account Control (UAC) in Windows 7 and Windows Vista is designed to make it convenient to follow Microsoft’s security recommendation. You are permitted to make more system changes than you could before when logged on as a standard user. More important, whenever you attempt an action that requires administrative privileges, you are prompted for credentials; this step helps protect against malware being installed or making changes without your permission. If you supply appropriate administrative credentials, you are permitted to perform the action. You don’t need to log out and log back in as an administrator. Elevation prompts Windows 7 and Windows Vista display different elevation prompts based on the privileges of the user account that is logged on when an application needs administrative privileges. When you are logged on to Windows Vista as a local administrator, it displays a consent prompt, as shown in Exhibit 20-4, whenever a program needs elevated privileges to accomplish a task. In Windows 7, when you’re logged on as an administrator, this prompt isn’t displayed. You can identify the Windows Vista commands or programs that need administrative privileges by looking for the shield icon. For example, in Exhibit 20-4, you can see that Windows Vista requires administrative privileges when you want to open one or more ports in Windows Firewall to enable an application to communicate through the firewall.

Exhibit 20-4: The User Account Control consent prompt in Windows Vista

20–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two If you’re logged on as a standard user and attempt to perform a task that requires administrative privileges, you’ll see a credential prompt, as shown in Exhibit 20-5. This prompt requires you to enter the username and password for a local or domain administrator account before Windows 7 or Windows Vista will grant the necessary privileges for the application to run.

Exhibit 20-5: The User Account Control credential prompt in Windows Vista When elevated permissions are required in Windows Vista, UAC will present one of the alerts in the following table. You’ll need to provide the appropriate administrative credentials or speak to a computer administrator to continue. Alert

You’ll see this alert when…

Windows needs your permission to continue

The operating system wants to perform a function that will modify the computer or operating system settings.

A program needs your permission to continue

A program with a valid digital signature wants to start.

An unidentified program wants access to your computer

A program without a valid digital signature wants to start. A program without a valid digital signature is not necessarily a malicious program.

This program has been blocked

The computer administrator has blocked you from starting the program you’re trying to start.

In Windows 7, the UAC prompts you receive are more descriptive. You see a prompts such as “Do you want to allow the following program to make changes to this computer?” with the name of the program and the publisher listed, as shown in Exhibit 20-6. If you’re logged in as a standard user, the prompt includes fields for you to enter administrative credentials to continue.

Security

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Exhibit 20-6: The User Account Control consent prompt in Windows 7

Tasks that require administrative privileges in Windows 7 and Windows Vista include:  Running an application as an Administrator  Installing and removing applications  Installing a device driver, Windows updates, or an ActiveX control  Configuring Windows Update  Configuring Windows Firewall  Creating, modifying, and deleting local user accounts  Configuring Parental Controls  Scheduling tasks  Restoring backups  Modifying the configuration of User Account Control (by editing the local group policy)  Changing system-wide settings or files in %SystemRoot% or %ProgramFiles%  Viewing or changing another user’s folders and files  Running Disk Defragmenter Administrator accounts Even though UAC is helpful, you or your system administrator might still assign administrator accounts to you and others who use your PC. Having separate accounts for each administrator helps track system changes. Also, when an administrator-level user no longer needs access to the PC, you can simply delete his or her user and administrator accounts. You won’t have to change and distribute passwords to all of the other administrative-level users of the PC.

20–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Run as administrator You can also run an application as an administrator by right-clicking the shortcut or program and choosing “Run as administrator.” In Windows 7, you’re prompted for credentials if you aren’t already logged in as an administrative level user. In Windows Vista, you’re then prompted to provide your credentials to log in as an administrator. If you are logged in as an administrator and want to run a program as a standard user, you can do that as well. To do this, open a Command Prompt window and enter runas /username where username is the standard user account you want to log in with. If you are logged in as a standard user, you can also use the Run as administrator command to run the selected program as another standard user. When prompted for your credentials, just enter the credentials of the desired user account.

UAC configuration You can configure the behavior of UAC by using the Local Security Policy console (part of the Microsoft Management Console, or MMC). This console, like Computer Management, is a tool that administrators use to configure a Windows 7 and Windows Vista computer. This console is used to modify the local security policy, which is a collection of settings that cover all aspects of a computer’s security.

Exhibit 20-7: The Local Security Policy console You must be very careful when making changes in the Local Security Policy console because you could negatively affect the security of the computer. You must also consult with the network administrator to determine which network-wide security policies are in effect. Although you can configure UAC through the Local Security Policy console, chances are, in many organizations you won’t need to make any changes, and you might even be prohibited from changing the local security policy.

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You can configure the following UAC settings in the Local Security Policy console. To open it, click Start and type secpol.msc. UAC policy settings

Description

Default settings

Admin Approval Mode for the Built-in Administrator account

Determines how Admin Approval mode operates for the built-in Administrator user account.

Disabled

Allow UIAccess applications to prompt for elevation without using the secure desktop (Windows 7)

Determines whether UIA programs, such as Remote Assistance, can disable the secure desktop for elevation prompts.

Disabled

Behavior of the elevation prompt for administrators in Admin Approval Mode

Determines how the elevation prompt behaves for computer administrators.

Prompt for consent

Behavior of the elevation prompt for standard users

Determines how the elevation prompt behaves for standard user accounts.

Prompt for credentials

Detect application installations and prompt for elevation

Dictates how approval works for program installations.

Enabled

Only elevate executables that are signed and validated

Requires a security key check on certain applications.

Disabled

Only elevate UIAccess applications that are installed in secure locations

Requires installation of certain programs in specific secure locations.

Disabled

Run all administrators in Admin Approval Mode

Determines system-wide UAC security policy behavior.

Enabled

Switch to the secure desktop when prompting for elevation

Determines which type of desktop a user will see during an elevation request.

Enabled

Virtualize file and registry write failures to per-user locations

Configures security on older applications.

Enabled

20–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows 7 notification levels In Windows 7, you can set the notification level for UAC, as shown in Exhibit 20-8. To access User Account Control Settings: 1 Open Control Panel, User Accounts and Family Safety, User Accounts. 2 Click Change User Account Control settings. This setting applies to the computer, not to individual users.

Exhibit 20-8: The UAC levels in Windows 7 The levels from most restrictive to least restrictive are:  Level 4 — The UAC always notifies you when programs attempt to install software or make system or Windows setting changes.  Level 3 — The UAC notifies you when programs attempt to make system or Windows setting changes.  Level 2 — The UAC notifies you when programs attempt to make system changes.  Level 1 — The UAC doesn’t notify when programs attempt to install software or make system or Windows setting changes. This level doesn’t turn off UAC, it simply stops the pop-up notifications. Level 3 is the default setting for the UAC in Windows 7. The UAC displays notifications for program-initiated changes but not changes that are user-initiated.

Security

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Disabling UAC You can disable UAC altogether, but doing so would leave your computer exposed to a variety of security threats. To disable UAC, in User Accounts, click “Turn User Account Control on or off.” Provide the necessary administrative credentials or click Continue. Clear the “Use User Account Control (UAC) to help protect your computer” checkbox, and click OK. Do it!

A-7:

Configuring UAC

Here’s how 1 Click Start and enter secpol.msc

Here’s why To open the Local Security Policy console. You’re going to examine the UAC settings in the local security policy.

If necessary, maximize the window 2 In the navigation pane, doubleclick Local Policies Select Security Options

To expand it.

To display the settings in the details pane.

3 Scroll to the bottom of the list Observe the User Account Control settings

The settings described previously are listed in order.

4 Double-click Admin Approval Mode for the Built-in Administrator account

5 Observe the settings

You can choose between Enabled or Disabled to turn this security setting on or off.

6 Select the Explain tab

To display an explanation of this policy setting and the effects of the Enabled and the Disabled settings. Sometimes configuring policies can be confusing, so it helps to have the effects of each setting explained explicitly.

7 Click Cancel

To close the dialog box without making any changes.

20–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 8 Double-click Behavior of the elevation prompt for standard users

Click the drop-down arrow and observe the settings

9 Select the Explain tab 10 Click Cancel

11 Close the Local Security Policy console 12 Open Control Panel, User Accounts and Family Safety, User Accounts 13 Click Change User Account Control settings

14 Drag the slider up Observe the changes in the notification description

15 Drag the slider to the other levels and observe the notification descriptions 16 Click Cancel Close the User Accounts window

They are different from the Enabled and Disabled settings you saw in the last dialog box.

To read the explanation for each setting. To close the dialog box without making changes. Always check with your network administrator or other administrator before configuring local security policy settings.

Security

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File system security The access control list (ACL) for a folder allows or denies various permissions for users. All of the permissions granted to the user either directly or through groups are combined for the effective permissions the user has for the file or folder. Permissions flow down through the file structure, with the file or folder inheriting the permissions from the folders above. Implicit denial causes privileges to be denied unless there are explicit permissions granted. For example, without having been explicitly granted permission to open a file, a user can’t open it. For files in Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional, you can specify the permissions described in the following table. Permission

When set to Allow

Full control

Users can view folder and file contents, modify files and folders, create files and folders, and run programs. This permission applies to the current folder and all folders below it unless another permission is set to prohibit inheritance of the permission into subfolders.

Modify

Users can modify files and folders, but cannot create them.

Read & execute

Users can view the contents of files and folders. They can also run programs located in the folder.

Read

Users can view folder contents, and open files and folders.

Write

Users can create and modify files and folders.

Special permissions

Users can perform management tasks, such as managing documents. (Not available in Windows 2000 Professional.)

Folders have an additional permission—List Folder Contents, which allows users to view the contents of the folder. To allow or deny various permissions on a file or folder, in Windows Explorer, rightclick the file or folder and choose Properties, then select the Security tab. On Windows XP computers that aren’t part of a domain, in order to view the Security tab, you need to clear the “Use simple file sharing” checkbox on the View tab of the Folder Options dialog box. You should always grant a user the least privileges necessary. In other words, if someone needs only to read a file, grant the Read permission, not Write, Modify, and so forth. This approach ensures that users won’t make inadvertent or forbidden changes in your data.

20–32 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Moving versus copying When troubleshooting folder access, you need to keep in mind some basic rules about NTFS permissions and copying and moving files and folders.  Copied files inherit the permissions from the new location.  Moved files keep their original permissions, if they are moved to the same NTFS partition.  Moved files inherit the permissions from the new location, if they are moved to a different NTFS partition.  Copied or moved files lose their permissions, if the new location is a non-NTFS partition. The Effective Permissions tool One of the tools you can use to troubleshoot an access-denied error is the Effective Permissions tool. You use it to determine a given user’s effective NTFS permissions for a particular folder or file. Note, however, that the Effective Permissions tool does not consider share permissions when performing its calculations; it considers only NTFS permissions. Therefore, after using this tool, you’ll have additional footwork to do if you want to determine the user’s effective share permissions. The nice thing about the Effective Permissions tool is that it considers all inherited permissions as well as NTFS permissions explicitly assigned to groups of which the user is a member. So it does give you an accurate picture of a user’s NTFS permissions. To determine a user’s NTFS permissions: 1 Access the computer that contains the shared file or folder the user is attempting to access. Open Windows Explorer. 2 Right-click the file or folder and choose Properties. 3 Select the Security tab and click Advanced to open the Advanced Security Settings dialog box. 4 Select the Effective Permissions tab. 5 Next to the “Group or username” box, click Select. Use the Select User, Computer, or Group dialog box to define the user or group for which you want to determine effective permissions. Click OK when you’re done. 6 Review the selected checkboxes in the Effective permissions list, as shown in Exhibit 20-9. These checkboxes represent the user’s effective NTFS permissions for the folder or file. 7 Write down the user’s effective permissions. If the user does not have any effective permissions, you must determine how the user is being denied access; to do so, examine the NTFS permissions assignments on that folder or file.

Security

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Exhibit 20-9: The Effective Permissions tool in Windows Vista Shared Folders in Computer Management The Shared Folders node in Computer Management enables you to view a list of shares and their permissions on the selected computer, including both local shares and administrative shares. (Administrative shares are folders that are shared by default by the operating system when it’s installed.) By examining the share permissions, you can determine whether a user is being denied access as a result of NTFS permissions, share permissions, or both.

20–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To use Computer Management to review the share permissions for a shared folder, follow these steps: 1 Click Start. Right-click Computer and choose Manage. In Windows Vista, click Continue. 2 In the console tree, under System Tools, expand Shared Folders, and then select the Shares folder. You now see a list of all shares on the computer, including the hidden administrative shares. (You can hide any share by adding $ at the end of the share name.) 3 Right-click the folder you want to examine and choose Properties. 4 Select the Share Permissions tab. Review the permissions assignments, as shown in Exhibit 20-10. Keep in mind that you might see permissions assigned directly to the user or to a group of which the user is a member.

Exhibit 20-10: Reviewing the share permissions for a folder Calculating effective permissions As you just saw, you can use the Effective Permissions tool to determine a user’s effective NTFS permissions, and use Computer Management to access the Share Permissions tab for a shared folder. You need the information you gain from both of these tools to determine the user’s true effective permissions. By “true effective permissions,” we mean what exactly the user can do when accessing the shared folder across the network.

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Here are the steps to determine a user’s total effective permissions: 1 Use the Effective Permissions tool to determine the user’s effective NTFS permissions for a folder. Keep in mind that these permissions represent the combination of:  NTFS permissions assigned directly to the user (if any).  NTFS permissions assigned to a group of which the user is a member.  Inherited permissions, which occur when the user has NTFS permissions granted—either directly or to a group the user belongs to—for a folder that is higher in the folder hierarchy. The only situation in which permissions are not cumulative occurs when an administrator explicitly denies the user (or a group the user belongs to) access to the folder. In this scenario, the Deny permission overrides all other permission assignments, and the user is denied access. 2 Review the share permissions for the folder. As with NTFS permissions, share permissions represent the combination of:  Share permissions assigned directly to the user (if any).  Share permissions assigned to a group of which the user is a member.  Inherited permissions, which occur when the user has share permissions granted—either directly or to a group the user belongs to—for a folder that is higher in the folder hierarchy. And just as with NTFS permissions, the only time that share permissions are not cumulative occurs when an administrator explicitly denies the user (or a group the user belongs to) share permissions for the folder. 3 Calculate the user’s effective permissions by comparing the user’s effective NTFS permissions to the user’s share permissions. When the user connects to the share, Windows grants the user whichever permissions are the most restrictive. 4 If you calculate the user’s effective permissions and determine that the user should be able to modify a file but is getting the “Access Denied” message, your next step is to check the file’s attributes. Let’s look at an example. Say that you have a folder named AcctgData on your server. You assign the NTFS permission of Allow Modify to the Accounting security group, of which user FSmith is a member. You remove all other default permission assignments from the folder, except for the Allow Full Control permission assignment to the built-in Administrators group. At this point, user FSmith’s effective NTFS permissions are Allow Modify, which means that he can create, modify, and delete files in the folder. Next, you share this folder as AcctgData without changing its default share permissions. The key default share permissions are:  Administrators: Allow Full Control  Users: Allow Read Because FSmith is a member of the Users group by default, he gets the share permission of Allow Read. Now that we know that FSmith’s NTFS permissions are Allow Modify and his share permissions are Allow Read, Smith’s effective permissions when he connects to the AcctgData share are Allow Read. This is because the share permissions assignment is more restrictive than the NTFS permissions.

20–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two At this point, you can see that this user will get an “Access Denied” error if he tries to create or modify files in the AcctgData share. FSmith would be able to create or modify the folder and its contents if he were sitting at the local computer. As a desktop support technician, you need to know how to troubleshoot such errors by determining a user’s true effective permissions. “Access Denied” errors One of the problems you can expect to troubleshoot as a desktop support technician occurs when a user is denied access to a resource. Troubleshooting this problem involves asking a typical series of questions, such as:  Is everyone denied access to the resource, or is only that user denied access? Use this question to determine if the problem lies with the shared resource or the configuration of a single user account.  If only one user is denied access, can this user access any shared resources on the network? Use this question to determine if there’s a problem with the user’s networking components (network adapter, cabling, or configuration). If your isolating questions lead you to determine that the problem is with only one user and it isn’t the user’s networking components, then you start troubleshooting the user’s resource access to determine why the user is being denied access. If a user’s inability to access a shared resource is due to the user’s configuration, there are a number of factors that can cause this problem. For example:  The user doesn’t have the necessary share permissions.  If the shared resource is a folder or file, the user might have NTFS permissions that prevent access. (Remember, users receive the most restrictive permissions when both NTFS and share permissions are applied to a folder.)  If the problem occurs when a user attempts to save a file he has modified, someone has configured the file with the Read Only attribute. There are a number of techniques you can use to research the potential causes of a user being denied access. File attributes Files can have various attributes assigned to them. File attributes tell the operating system and applications how files should be used. You can assign the attributes described in the following table. Attribute

Description

Read-only

Prevents inadvertent changes in a file. MS-DOS commands don’t allow you to change a read-only file. Some Windows applications allow it, although they might prompt you first, letting you know that you’re changing a read-only file.

Hidden

Hides the file from view in the default list display of the MS-DOS dir command and in Windows Explorer.

System

Indicates that the file is used by the operating system and shouldn’t be altered or removed.

Archive

Indicates whether the file has been modified since a backup.

System files and folders are hidden by default in Windows, but you can use Folder Options to display them.

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20–37

Determining effective permissions

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 On your C: drive, create a folder named SalesData 2 Right-click SalesData and select Properties

To open the folder’s Properties dialog box.

Select the Sharing tab 3 Click Share Click Share Click Done

To share the folder with the default share permissions.

4 Click Advanced Sharing Click Permissions 5 What are the default share permissions?

Both the Administrators and Everyone groups have full control.

6 With Everyone selected, clear the Allow box under Full Control and Change Click OK twice 7 What are the Share permissions now? Select the Security tab 8 What are the default NTFS permissions assigned to the Users group for the C:\SalesData folder? 9 What are the default NTFS permissions assigned to the Administrators group for the SalesData folder?

Members of the Administrators group still have full control. Members of the Everyone group can only read the contents of the folder. To view the default NTFS permissions assigned to the folder.

20–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 10 Your user, COMPADMIN##, is a member of the Administrators group. What will your true effective permissions be when you access the SalesData share from another computer?

11 On the Security tab, click Advanced

To open the Advanced Security Settings dialog box.

Select the Effective Permissions tab 12 Next to the “Group or user name” box, click Select Type Robert and click OK 13 Observe the list 14 Determine the effective permissions for your COMPADMIN## account 15 What set of permissions do you have? Why? 16 Close all open windows

To determine Robert’s effective permissions. Robert has a no permissions for the folder.

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Topic B: Windows Encrypting File System This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

5.1

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Encryption technologies

5.2

Summarize the following security features  BIOS Security – TPM


Objective

4.2

Implement security and troubleshoot common issues  Operating systems – Encryption (BitLocker, EFS)  System – BIOS security  TPM

Encryption Explanation

Encryption is the scrambling of data so that only permitted people can unscramble and read it. Encryption prevents data from being altered or replaced during transmission or in storage. Public key cryptography Currently, the most powerful form of encryption is public key encryption. In public key encryption, two keys are used to encrypt and decrypt data. These keys work in pairs: the public key, which is typically used by the sender to encrypt data, and the private key, which is used to decrypt it. For example, with e-mail transmission, public key encryption works like this: Someone wanting to send encrypted data to a user obtains the recipient’s public key, encrypts the information, and sends it. By using the private key, the user can decrypt the message. The public key can’t be used to decrypt the message, so the message cannot be decrypted by anyone other than the holder of the private key.

20–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Encrypting File System You can use the Encrypting File System (EFS) to protect files. Using EFS enhances the security provided by NTFS permissions on files and folders. If an intruder gains access to your computer, he or she’ll be unable to open any encrypted files or folders. Windows 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise; Windows XP Professional; and Windows 2000 Professional support file encryption. Encryption is transparent, meaning that you don’t have to decrypt files before using them. You can open and use them in your applications as you would use any unencrypted file. Windows manages file decryption in the background. In Windows, you can encrypt non-compressed folders or files. (Encryption and compression are mutually exclusive.) You see encrypted folders and files displayed in green text in Windows Explorer. If a non-administrative user attempts to access one of your encrypted folders or files, that user receives an access denied message. There are some rules regarding encryption:  If a folder is encrypted, all the files you create in, or copy to, the folder are encrypted automatically.  An encrypted file remains encrypted if you move it from an encrypted folder to an unencrypted folder on the same or another NTFS drive.  An encrypted folder remains encrypted if you move it to the same or another NTFS drive.  If an encrypted folder or file is moved or copied to a FAT drive, the encryption property is removed.  An administrative user can decrypt folders or files, if a user forgets the password or is no longer with the company. EFS isn’t fully supported in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Starter, Home Basic, or Home Premium. In these versions, you are limited to the following EFS tasks, if you have the encryption key or certificate:  Decrypt files by running Cipher.exe in the Command Prompt window (advanced users)  Modify an encrypted file  Copy an encrypted file as decrypted to a hard disk on your computer  Import EFS certificates and keys  Back up EFS certificates and keys by running Cipher.exe in the Command prompt window (advanced users) Microsoft designed EFS to give organizations an extra tool for protecting the hard disks in laptops. In the past, if a laptop was stolen, a hacker could gain access to the user’s files by booting the computer with another operating system or even installing an additional operating system on the computer. EFS enables users to protect their files even if their computers are stolen.

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Folder encryption You encrypt a folder or an individual file in Windows Explorer. To enable encryption: 1 Right-click the folder or file you want to encrypt and choose Properties. 2 On the General tab, click Advanced. 3 In the Advanced Attributes dialog box, check “Encrypt contents to secure data,” as shown in Exhibit 20-11. 4 Click OK to close the Advanced Attributes dialog box, and then click OK to close the folder or file Properties dialog box. 5 If you enabled encryption on a folder: In the Confirm Attribute Changes dialog box, specify whether you want to encrypt only the files in the folder, or the folder, its subfolders, and all files contained in them. Click OK. If you enabled encryption on a file: In the Encryption Warning dialog box, specify whether you want to encrypt the file and its parent folder, or only the file. Microsoft recommends that you always encrypt the folder and not just the file because it’s possible that Windows Vista might store an unencrypted temporary version of the file when you open it. Click OK. You can identify encrypted folders and files by color. Windows Explorer displays the encrypted files and folders in green instead of the default black.

Exhibit 20-11: Encrypting a folder in Windows 7

BitLocker Drive Encryption Whole-disk encryption is offered in Windows 7 and Windows Vista Ultimate and Enterprise through BitLocker Drive Encryption. With BitLocker, the entire system drive is encrypted. This protects your system from hackers who want to access the system files in an attempt to figure out your password. BitLocker works only on the drive on which Windows is installed. For other drives, you will need to use EFS. Files added to a drive that has BitLocker enabled are automatically encrypted. If a file is copied from this drive to another drive, the files are decrypted.

20–42 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two At boot time, if BitLocker detects a potential security risk, it locks the drive. To unlock the drive, you need a special BitLocker recovery password, which is set when you turn on BitLocker for the first time. Conditions that might cause BitLocker to lock the drive include disk errors, BIOS changes, or startup file changes. Differences between BitLocker and EFS include the following:  You can use BitLocker to encrypt the entire system drive, including all user data and settings, along with the operating system files themselves. You can’t use EFS to encrypt the Windows 7 and Windows Vista system files.  BitLocker is designed to protect the computer, not an individual user. As a result, you might find that you need to use EFS in addition to BitLocker in order to protect specific files for individual users of the computer.  BitLocker protects the operating system from the moment you turn the computer on. This strategy helps prevent attackers from installing malware such as rootkits.  In Windows Vista, you can use BitLocker on only the system drive. If you have other drives (or partitions or volumes), you can’t use BitLocker in Windows Vista to protect them. You’ll have to use EFS instead. The newer version of BitLocker included with Windows 7 does support encrypting multiple volumes.  If BitLocker detects a problem that could indicate a security problem, it locks the computer’s drive. To resume normal operation of the computer, you must enter the BitLocker recovery password. Hardware requirements for BitLocker The optimal configuration of BitLocker requires computers to have Trusted Platform Module (TPM) chips because BitLocker stores its encryption keys on each computer’s TPM chip. A TPM chip supports advanced security features. If your computer has a TPM chip, it must also have a Trusted Computing Group (TCG)-compliant BIOS. If your computer doesn’t have a version 1.2 or higher TPM chip, the key must be stored on the flash drive and doesn’t require a TCG-compliant BIOS. If your computer has TPM, a TPM administration link appears in the left pane of the BitLocker window. If you know your computer has TPM but the link doesn’t show up, check whether TPM is disabled in the computer’s BIOS settings. If your organization’s computers don’t have TPM chips, you can still implement BitLocker by configuring it to store its keys on a USB flash drive (UFD). The disadvantage of using a UFD instead of a TPM chip is that you must make sure the drive is inserted each time you boot the computer. In addition, BitLocker requires access to the UFD, with its keys, each time the computer resumes after hibernation, standby mode, or sleep mode. Finally, if a user loses the UFD that contains the BitLocker keys (or the UFD fails), the user won’t be able to access the C drive on his computer. The advantage of implementing BitLocker in conjunction with TPM is that doing so makes BitLocker and the encryption of the C drive completely transparent to users. BitLocker requires at least two partitions. The first partition must be the drive on which Windows is installed; this is the partition that BitLocker encrypts. The second partition is the active partition, at least 1.5 GB in size, and it must be unencrypted in order for the computer to start up. The drive must be formatted as NTFS. The BIOS must support TPM or support USB devices during startup.

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You can also enable BitLocker from an administrative command prompt. Using this command, you can specify that the encryption key be stored on a separate disk. The command is: cscript c:\Windows\System32\manage-bde.wsf –on {volume}: -rp ► –rk {drive}: Parameter

Description

-on

Encrypts the specified volume and turns on BitLocker encryption.

{volume}:

The volume to be encrypted.

-rp

Or –RecoveryPassword. Adds a numerical password. If used without specifying a password of exactly 48 digits, the system generates a random password.

-rk

Or –RecoveryKey. Creates a recover key and saves it on the specified drive.

{drive}:

Drive where recovery key is stored. Can be a floppy drive, USB drive, hard drive, or network drive.

How BitLocker works When you log on to a computer on which BitLocker is enabled, BitLocker retrieves its keys from the TPM chip and then unlocks the computer’s hard drive (drive C). You might find that a computer contains a TPM chip that isn’t enabled in the computer’s BIOS. Before you can enable BitLocker, you must enable the TPM chip by using the computer’s CMOS setup utility. BitLocker automatically initializes the TPM chip for you. If you later want to administer the TPM chip, you can do so by opening an MMC and adding the TPM Management snap-in. Note: After you enable the TPM chip and BitLocker initializes it, you can disable the chip only by using the TPM Management snap-in. You can circumvent the TPM requirement in BitLocker through a group policy. To do so, select the Computer Configuration\Administrative Templates\Windows Components\BitLocker Drive Encryption node in the MMC. Then double-click the “Control Panel Setup: Enable advanced startup options” policy setting. Select Enabled and leave all other settings configured with their default values. If you want to enforce this setting immediately, force a group policy refresh. In Windows 7, you can also use Group Policy to enforce a passphrase length and not allow files to be saved to removable disks that aren’t BitLocker protected. In Windows 7, the BitLocker To Go feature can be used with removable drives. It doesn’t require a TPM. You can use a passphrase or a smart card for encryption. Windows 7 provides you with a 40-digit recovery key in case the passphrase or smart card is forgotten or lost. The BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool To configure your hard drive to use BitLocker, you can use the BitLocker Drive Preparation Tool. You can download this tool from Microsoft. For the tool to work, the drive must be formatted as a basic disk, with simple volumes formatted as NTFS.

20–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Authentication modes Depending on the hardware in the computer and the preferred security level, BitLocker uses one of four authentication modes in the boot sequence. These are:  TPM without any additional authentication factors  TPM with a PIN  TPM with a USB startup key  A USB startup key and no TPM When the operating system starts up and BitLocker is enabled, the boot code goes through several steps. The exact steps in the process depend on the volume protections that were configured. The steps might include system integrity checking or additional authentication steps, such as entering a PIN or inserting a USB key before the volume is unlocked. The BitLocker life cycle The four stages in a BitLocker life cycle are described in the following table. Stage

Description

Installation

Windows Vista Enterprise and Ultimate install BitLocker during the operating system installation. For Windows Server 2008, BitLocker needs to be installed as an option.

Initialization

If the computer contains a TPM, it must be initialized through the TPM Initialization Wizard, through the BitLocker control panel, or through a script. A member of the Administrators group must perform the BitLocker and TPM initialization.

Daily use

Computers using only TPM authentication log on normally to the Windows operating system. If additional authentication factors are used, the user will need to enter a PIN or insert a USB startup key to start Windows.

Computer decommissioned and recycled or redeployed

You can leave the data encrypted and remove the keys to reduce the risk of data being available after the computer has been decommissioned or redeployed. The keys can be removed by formatting the encrypted volume. The updated Format command supports this operation.

Recovery A recovery key is created and stored on a USB drive when the disk is first encrypted with BitLocker. This key is needed when certain actions necessitate the recovery process. To recover data from an encrypted volume on a damaged hard disk, you use the BitLocker Repair Tool, versions of which Microsoft has available on its download site for both x86-based and x64-based Windows Vista systems. During recovery, the user is prompted to insert the flash drive containing the recovery key. These actions include moving the protected drive to a different computer, installing a replacement motherboard containing a new TPM, turning off or clearing the TPM, updating the BIOS, performing boot component updates that cause integrity validation to fail, forgetting a PIN, or losing the USB drive that holds the startup key. The recovery key is a randomly generated 48-digit number created during BitLocker setup. During recovery, the user must enter this password, using the F0 to F9 function keys.

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Domain administrators can create a Group Policy that automatically generates recovery passwords that are transparently backed up to an Active Directory domain server when BitLocker is enabled. The administrator can also configure BitLocker to prevent it from encrypting a drive if the computer isn’t connected to the network and the Active Directory backup wasn’t successful. Recovery can also be used as an access control device when a computer is decommissioned or redeployed. The drive can be locked down in this manner. The user would then have to contact an administrator to get the BitLocker recovery information needed to unlock the drive. During recovery, the volume master key is decrypted via a cryptographic key created from a recovery password or via a recovery key stored on a USB flash drive. Because the TPM isn’t used in the recovery, the recovery can still take place even if the TPM is removed, no longer works properly, or fails validation during bootup. Windows 7 BitLocker adds Data Recovery Agent (DRA) support for all protected volumes. The Microsoft knowledge base article, “How to use the BitLocker Repair tool to help recover data from an encrypted volume in Windows Vista or Windows Server 2008” at support.microsoft.com/kb/928201, describes the preparation and steps you follow to use the BitLocker Recovery Tool.

Other whole-disk encryption products In addition to BitLocker, there are other third-party products available for whole-disk encryption. One example is the PGP Whole Disk Encryption product from PGP (now part of Symantec.) This can be used in conjunction with PGP Universal Server for management of policies, users, keys, and configurations. It can also be used with other PGP encryption products to offer additional layers of security. Other software products include SecureStar’s DriveCrypt and free software such as Truecrypt. Whole-disk encryption is also available in a hardware-based solution. This can be implemented within the hard disk drive. The encryption and the associated key are maintained separately from the CPU, preventing the computer’s memory from being a route for potential attacks.


B-1:

Encrypting a file

The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 20\Topic B.

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 From the Student Data folder for this unit, copy the Encryption folder to C: 2 Open the C:\Encryption folder Right-click Encryption File and choose Properties On the General tab, click Advanced

Under “Compress or Encrypt attributes,” check Encrypt contents to secure data

Click OK twice 3 In the Encryption Warning box, select Encrypt the file only

Click OK 4 Observe the file name

It is green, indicating that the file is encrypted.

Security Do it!

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Testing encryption

Here’s how 1 Open Encryption File

Here’s why To verify that you can open this file and read its contents.

Close Notepad 2 Log off and log back on as Robert with a password of p@ssword

3 Open the C:\Encryption folder

The encrypted file is displayed with green text.

Double-click Encryption File

Access to the encrypted file is denied for Robert because this user doesn’t have the correct encryption key.

4 Click OK Close Notepad and Windows Explorer


B-3:

Encrypting a folder

Here’s how 1 Log back on as your COMPADMIN## user, and encrypt the Encryption folder, subfolders, and files. 2 From the Student Data folder for this unit, copy the file Encryption Copy Test.txt to C:\Encryption. 3 Is the file encrypted or not?

4 Switch to Robert 5 As Robert, can you view the contents of the encrypted Encryption folder?

6 Close all open windows. 7 Log off as Robert and switch to COMPADMIN##. 8 Unencrypt the encrypted file. 9 Close all open windows.

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Topic C: Security hardware This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

1.8

Install and configure peripherals and input devices  Biometric devices

5.1

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Authentication technologies – Biometrics – Smart cards

5.2

Summarize the following security features  BIOS Security – Drive lock – Passwords – Intrusion detection  Biometrics – Fingerprint scanner


Objective

4.2

Implement security and troubleshoot common issues  System – BIOS security

Hardware-based security Explanation

In some applications, usernames and passwords provide insufficient security or are unmanageable. For example, an ATM card provides a greater level of security than a username and password—you must both possess the physical card and know the secret PIN code. Biometric devices can provide an additional layer of security over and above the authentication methods already discussed. You can also use the computer itself to provide security by enabling BIOS security measures.

20–50 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Biometrics A biometric device authenticates (identifies) a user through the examination of a biological trait, such as a fingerprint or a retinal vein pattern, and voice or facial recognition. Fingerprint scanners, shown in Exhibit 20-12, are the most common biometric device. With these devices, you place a finger over a sensor window. The device scans your fingerprint and compares it to a user database. If a match is found, you’re logged into the computer, Web page, or application. With some scanners, you’re required to enter a PIN after the scan.

Exhibit 20-12: A fingerprint scanner Microsoft, APC, and other vendors sell fingerprint scanners. Most are USB devices and come with software for gathering, verifying, and storing fingerprints. The devices are usually used in lieu of usernames and passwords that users enter on their keyboards. Sometimes the devices are used instead of having users enter usernames and passwords. Hand geometry scanners Another biometric device is the hand geometry scanner, which scans the entire hand of the user. This device measures the length and width of the fingers and hand. The information scanned is compared to the data stored in a database. If it matches, the user is granted access to the secured resource. Eye scanners A retina scanner scans the surface of the retina to obtain the blood vessel patterns found there. This information is stored in a database, and when the user needs to gain access to the secured resource, her retina is scanned and compared to the database. If a match is found, then access is granted. An iris scanner uses the same idea to capture and compare the color, shape, and texture of the user’s iris. This information includes the rings and furrows found in the iris, along with variations in the coloring.

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Voice verification A user’s speech patterns can also be used for authentication. A phrase is spoken by the user and recorded, and it is archived in a database. The user’s intonation, pitch, and inflection are used to identify him to the system. If the user has a cold that affects his voice, he might not be granted access. If you foresee such problems, you might want to provide an alternate access method. Signature verification Signature cards have long been used by banks when their customers open accounts. You sign a card, which the bank stores in a file cabinet. When you come in to make a transaction, a teller can pull out your signature card to compare the signature to the one you signed for the transaction. This process can be moved to the digital arena by storing user signatures in a database and having the user sign in by using a stylus to write her signature on a pad connected to the computer. The software needs to account for the variations in a person’s signature because people often do not use the exact same strokes when signing their names. Instead, the software looks for general characteristics in the way a name is signed. DNA scan DNA scanning is a promising biometric authentication method. A DNA sample’s analysis is stored in a database. The user requesting access provides another DNA sample for comparison. Each person has a unique DNA structure. Pros and cons Biometrics can provide strong authentication because they are unique to an individual. However, these devices have been prone to producing both false negatives and false positives. They have gotten better over time, but as soon as they are strengthened, attackers come up with ways of thwarting the systems. Biometric access is being included on portable devices. When the biometric device is enabled, if someone steals the device, such as a laptop or a removable drive, the data cannot be accessed without the biometric authentication. However, if alternate access is allowed through a username and password, the attacker could still access the secured information. Most biometric systems store the data as clear text because encryption would result in the stored data not being identical to the original scan. The lack of encryption leaves the database vulnerable. One method created by Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories solves this problem by transforming the data into a binary vector, which is then multiplied by the parity-check matrix of a publicly known parity-check code. Mitsubishi refers to this data as the biometric’s syndrome, which is compressed and scrambled. The syndrome doesn’t contain all of the information from the original scan, so if just the syndrome is stolen (without the original scan), the original biometric scan can’t be recovered. One way that fingerprint and hand scanners are deceived is through the use of clear tape or gel-filled devices that can mimic a fingerprint. Just as a paper check can be forged, so can a digital signature. If someone obtains a DNA sample from a valid user, that sample can be presented to fool the system into giving the attacker access to the secured resource.

20–52 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Card readers Smart cards are credit-card-sized plastic cards with embedded microprocessors. Smart cards typically have RAM to store up to 8 KB of data. Additionally, these cards have a small amount of ROM for storing programming code, which, among other things, controls the encryption of data on the card. When inserted into a reader, the card draws power from the reader and boots up its embedded operating system. Then the card’s processor establishes communication with the PC. Typically, card readers interface with the PC over a USB or PC Card (PCMCIA) interface. A card reader and smart card are shown in Exhibit 20-13.

Exhibit 20-13: A card reader and smart cards A credit card or ATM card simply stores a unique identifier number on a magnetic strip. All processing and intelligence must be built into the host PC and applications. In comparison, smart cards can store data and code, such as health insurance records, bank account data, security certificates, and so forth. Smart cards are more popular in Europe than in the United States. These cards are most commonly used in banking applications instead of the ATM cards used in the U.S. According to HowStuffWorks.com, every person insured through the German healthcare system has a smart card used for health insurance. Components To enable smart card–based security, you need a card reader, a card, and a software host application. Given the current state of the market for these devices, you typically have to purchase each component separately. SCM Microsystems, RSA Security, and CryptoCard all make smart-card readers. Oberthur Card Systems, RSA Security, and Sharp Electronics make smart cards. Software solutions range from the Java platform programming environments, such as the Java Card Framework, to prepackaged security solutions, like the IdentiPHI Stand Alone Client from IdentiPHI LLC.

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20–53

Smart card use Smart cards are a form of two-factor authentication. Such authentication methods combine something you have with something you know. With smart cards, you have the card. You also need to supply a PIN or password. With the IdentiPHI software, your PIN can be any alphanumeric password with four to eight characters. To log on with a smart card and the IdentiPHI software, simply insert your card into the reader and enter your PIN when prompted. To lock your workstation, simply remove your smart card from the reader. You have to insert your card and re-enter your PIN or enter your username and password to log back on.

Fobs The typical fob is a key-chain-sized device, shown on the left in Exhibit 20-14, that creates a continually changing, seemingly random number, which is called a rolling code. Sometimes the user must log on with a username and password and then enter the number created by the fob. Sometimes the user simply uses the fob to unlock a secure area. For example, a car’s keyless entry system, shown on the right in Exhibit 20-14, and garage door openers use fobs with rolling number generators. The generated number isn’t random, but instead follows a secret progression started with a random seed number. Both the fob and the secure system know the sequence of numbers, or know how to generate the next valid number in the sequence. As long as the receiver receives the code it expects, it opens your car, garage door, and so forth.

Exhibit 20-14: Examples of security fobs Visit http://auto.howstuffworks.com/remote-entry2.htm for more information about the way keyless entry systems work.


C-1:

Identifying biometric authentication systems

Questions and answers 1 What is different about using biometric authentication as compared to using other authentication methods?

2 What is a benefit of a fingerprint scanner over a hand geometry scanner?

3 What types of scans can be used on eyes? What features do the scans measure and record?

4 What voice features are analyzed in voice verification?

5 What vulnerabilities can be found in signature authentication?

6 Each person’s DNA is unique, so why is DNA authentication vulnerable?

7 What type of memory is used to control the encryption of data on a smart card?

8 What components are necessary to enable smart card–based security?

9 How does a fob work?

Security

20–55

BIOS security Many computer manufacturers build security features into their BIOS software. These features can be helpful in securing the computer’s configuration data. For example, if you are concerned about malicious software being introduced though a drive that accepts external disks, you could use the BIOS to lock the drive or disable booting from that drive. However, if the BIOS isn’t secured with a password, anyone can simply boot to the BIOS program and enable booting from the drive. Some common BIOS security settings include:  Admin password — Used to secure BIOS configuration settings. Without this password, the computer’s BIOS settings can’t be changed.  System password — Used to prevent unauthorized users from booting the computer.  Password changes — Used to prevent the system password from being changed without the correct administrative password. The BIOS manufacturer for your specific computer might have provided additional security settings. Many BIOS programs will alert you when an unsuccessful attempt is made to access the BIOS. The next time the computer is booted, a warning is displayed. Other systems will alert you if the cover was removed from the system. In order to clear the warning messages, you must log into the BIOS as the administrator. You must remember the administration password you set on a computer’s BIOS, or you won’t be able to make any changes, either. There are some ways to get around BIOS security. One is to determine if the BIOS manufacturer has a backdoor password that you can use to access the system. The second method is to remove the CMOS battery until the power is drained and the BIOS settings reset to the manufacturer’s default settings. Older systems sometimes have a set of physical jumpers on the motherboard that you can move to reset the BIOS settings to the default.


C-2:

Examining BIOS security measures

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Restart Watch the screen carefully and when you’re prompted, press the appropriate key to enter setup 2 Use the arrow keys to navigate to the Security category

For example, F2.

The mouse driver isn’t loaded, so you’ll need to use your keyboard to navigate in the system BIOS.

3 Expand the Security category 4 What settings are available from your manufacture? 5 Press g Use the arrow keys to select Exit 6 Log in as COMPADMIN##

(Do not save your settings.) To exit the BIOS and boot the computer to Windows 7.

Security

20–57

Topic D: Common security threats This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

5.2

Summarize the following security features  Malicious software protection – Viruses – Trojans – Worms – Spam – Spyware – Adware – Grayware


Objective

4.1

Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and remove viruses and malware  Use antivirus software  Identify malware symptoms  Quarantine infected systems  Research malware types, symptoms, and solutions (virus encyclopedias)  Remediate infected systems  Update antivirus software – Signature and engine updates – Automatic vs. manual  Schedule scans  Repair boot blocks  Scan and removal techniques – Safe mode – Boot environment  Educate end user

Overview of security threats Explanation

The goals of security are integrity, confidentiality, and availability. Threats to even the most secure systems’ data challenge administrators and users every day. The cost of lost assets must be balanced against the cost of securing the network; your company must decide how much risk it is willing to take.

20–58 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two When data integrity is compromised, an organization must typically spend a lot of time and money to correct the consequences of the attack. If data confidentiality is compromised, the consequences aren’t always immediate, but they are usually costly. Application availability can be compromised by network outages, causing organizations to lose millions of dollars in just a few hours. There are four primary causes of compromised security:  Technology weaknesses  Configuration weaknesses  Policy weaknesses  Human error or malice Technology weaknesses Computer and network technologies have intrinsic security weaknesses in the following areas:  TCP/IP — This protocol suite was designed as an open standard to facilitate communications. Due to its wide usage, there are plenty of experts and expert tools that can compromise this open technology. It cannot guard a network against message-modification attacks or protect connections against unauthorized-access attacks.  Operating systems — UNIX, Linux, and Microsoft Windows, for example, need the latest patches, updates, and upgrades applied to protect users.  Network equipment — Routers, firewalls, and switches must be protected through the use of passwords, authentication, routing protocols, and firewalls. Configuration weaknesses Poor configuration of even the most secure technology is often caused by one of the following weaknesses:  Unsecured accounts — User account information transmitted unsecurely across the network exposes usernames and passwords to programs used to monitor network activity. These programs, such as packet sniffers, can capture and analyze the data within IP packets on an Ethernet network or dial-up connection.  System accounts with weak passwords — If no strong password policies are defined on the network, users can create passwords that can be easily guessed or cracked.  Poorly configured Internet services — If Java and JavaScript are enabled in Web browsers, attacks can be made using hostile Java applets. High-security data should not be stored on a Web server; you should store data such as Social Security numbers and credit card numbers behind a firewall that can be accessed only through user authentication and authorization.  Unsecured default settings — Many products have default settings that contain security holes.  Poorly configured network equipment — Incorrect configuration of network devices can cause significant security problems. For example, incorrectly configured access control lists, routing protocols, or Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) community strings can open up large security holes. A common example is using the default settings on a wireless router or wireless access point.

Security

20–59

Human error and malice Human error and malice constitute a significant percentage of breaches in network security. Even well-trained and conscientious users can cause great harm to security systems, often without knowing it. Users can unwittingly contribute to security breaches in several ways:  Accident — The mistaken destruction, modification, disclosure, or incorrect classification of information.  Ignorance — Inadequate security awareness, lack of security guidelines, lack of proper documentation, lack of knowledge. Users might inadvertently give information on security weaknesses to attackers. This includes employees who are trying to be helpful and unwittingly give out information.  Workload — Too many or too few system administrators. Conversely, ill-willed employees or professional hackers and criminals can access valuable assets through:  Dishonesty — Dishonesty encompasses fraud, theft, embezzlement, and the selling of confidential corporate information.  Impersonation — Attackers might impersonate employees over the phone in an attempt to persuade users or administrators to give out usernames, passwords, and so on.  Disgruntled employees — Employees who were fired, laid off, or given a reprimand might infect the network with a virus or delete files. These people know the network and the value of the information on it and thus are often a huge security threat.  Snoops — Individuals take part in corporate espionage by gaining unauthorized access to confidential data and providing this information to competitors.  Trojan horses — These programs contain destructive code but appear to be harmless; they are enemies in disguise. They can delete data, mail copies of themselves to e-mail address lists, steal personal information, and open up other computers for attack.  Viruses — Viruses have become possibly the single largest threat to network security. They replicate themselves and infect computers when triggered by a specific event. The effect can be minimal and only an inconvenience or more destructive and cause major problems, such as deleting or corrupting files, stealing personal information, or slowing down entire systems.  Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks — These attacks swamp network equipment such as Web servers or routers with useless service requests, causing the systems to become sluggish in responding to valid requests or even to crash.  Identity theft — An attacker gains access to someone’s personal information and uses it to commit fraud. Identity theft often takes the form of financial abuse, but it can also be used to obtain accounts that are then used to attack networks.


D-1:

Identifying common security threats

Questions and answers 1 Which of the following computer and network technologies have intrinsic security weaknesses? A

TCP/IP

B

Operating systems

C

Network equipment

D

All of the above

2 What is a crime called in which one person masquerades under the identity of another? A

Identity theft

B

Confidentiality

C

Integrity

D

All of the above

3 Which of the following is not a primary cause of network security threats? A

Encryption algorithm

B

Technology weaknesses

C

Policy weaknesses

D

Configuration weaknesses

E

Human error

4 True or false? Trojan horses are destructive programs that masquerade as benign applications.

5 Which of the following is not considered a configuration weakness? A

Unsecured accounts

B

Poorly configured Internet services

C

Viruses

D

Human ignorance

Security

20–61

Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses Viruses constitute one of the biggest threats to network security. Network administrators need to keep a constant lookout for them and prevent their spread. They are designed to replicate and infect computers when triggered by a specific event. The effect of some viruses is minimal and only an inconvenience, but others are more destructive and cause major problems, such as stealing personal information, deleting files, or slowing down entire systems. Worms Worms are programs that replicate themselves over the network. The replication is done without a user’s intervention. A worm attaches itself to a file or a packet on the network and travels of its own accord. It can copy itself to multiple computers, bringing the entire network down. One method worms use to spread themselves is to send themselves to everyone in a user’s e-mail address book. The intent of a worm infiltration is to cause a malicious attack. Such an attack often uses up computer resources to the point that the system, or even the entire network, can no longer function or is shut down. Trojan horses Trojan horses are delivery vehicles for destructive code. They appear to be harmless programs but are enemies in disguise. They can delete data, mail copies of themselves to e-mail address lists, steal personal information, and open up other computers for attack. Trojan horses are often distributed via spam—a great reason to block spam—or through compromised Web sites. A logic bomb is code that is hidden within a program and designed to run when some condition is met. For example, the code might run on a particular date. Or perhaps the bomb’s author sets some sort of condition that would be met after he or she is fired, at which time the code would run. Because a logic bomb is contained within another, presumably useful, program, you could consider it a type of Trojan horse.

20–62 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Malicious software In addition to viruses, worms, and Trojan horses, you might have to deal with other types of malicious software. Additional common types of malicious software are described in the following table. Type

Description

Propagation method

Spam

Junk e-mail, officially known as unsolicited commercial e-mail (UCE).

E-mail.

Spyware

Software that monitors and gathers information without the user’s knowledge. For example, spyware might log your Web surfing history and send the data to an advertiser who then targets you with junk e-mail.

E-mail attachments, Web page downloads, or automatic ActiveX component installation when you visit a Web page or open an e-mail message.

Adware

Software that displays advertisements, which might or might not be targeted to your interests.

E-mail attachments, Web page downloads, or automatic ActiveX component installation when you visit a Web page or open an e-mail message.

Grayware

A general name for software that has annoying, undisclosed, or undesirable behaviors. Trojan horses are a specific type of grayware.

E-mail attachments or Web page downloads.

Antivirus software To stop viruses and worms, you should install antivirus software on individual computers, servers, and other network devices, such as firewalls. Most antivirus software runs a real-time antivirus scanner. A real-time antivirus scanner is software that’s designed to scan every file accessed on a computer and thereby catch viruses and worms before they can infect the computer. This software runs each time a computer is turned on. The real-time scanner helps antivirus software stop infections from different sources, including Web browsers, e-mail attachments, storage media, or local area networks. You can also boot into Safe mode to gain access to files that might normally be locked during normal Windows operation. Most antivirus software works by using a checksum, a value that is calculated by applying a mathematical formula to data. When the data is transmitted, the checksum is recalculated. If the checksums don’t match, the data has been altered, possibly by a virus or worm. The process of calculating and recording checksums to protect against viruses and worms is called inoculation. Definition files Antivirus software must be updated to keep up with new viruses and worms. The software can find only those threats that it knows to look for; therefore, the manufacturer constantly provides software updates, called virus definitions, as new viruses and worms are discovered. It’s important to use antivirus software that automatically checks and updates its virus definitions, as well as the software engine itself, from the manufacturer’s Web site. Having outdated virus definitions is the number-one cause of virus or worm infection. Most programs allow you to configure automatic downloads of new definition files on a schedule.

Security

20–63

You can also check for and retrieve any updates manually. It’s important to note that antivirus software is reactive. It can’t catch a virus or worm until the latter is discovered and then its code added to the software’s definition files. Antivirus products The following table lists several antivirus software products and their manufacturers’ Web sites. Most of these sites offer detailed information about common viruses and worms. The sites even offer removal tools you can download for free and use to remove worms and viruses from infected computers. One of the best ways to protect your computers against viruses and worms is to stay informed. Web sites like www.datafellows.com and www.symantec.com provide descriptions of the latest threats. Software

Web address

Norton AntiVirus by Symantec, Inc.

www.symantec.com

ESET Smart Security

www.eset.com

McAfee AntiVirus for consumers and McAfee Active Virus Defense for small businesses by McAfee Associates, Inc.

www.mcafee.com

ESafe by Aladdin Knowledge Systems, Ltd

www.aladdin.com

F-Prot by FRISK Software International

www.f-prot.com

AntiVirus + AntiSpyware by Trend Micro (for home use); Worry-Free™ Business Security Services by Trend Micro (for networks)

www.trendmicro.com

avast! by ALWIL Software

www.avast.com

E-mail servers should also have antivirus software installed to protect computers on your local area network. Microsoft Forefront is an example of network antivirus software that scans all inbound and outbound e-mail, filters e-mail based on attachment type, and blocks spam. Protecting systems from malicious software Most large companies mandate the use of antivirus software on employee computers, including home computers that connect to the company network. Typically, these companies centrally manage updates to this software. Security policies typically prohibit tampering with or disabling this software. Small companies should follow this practice to safeguard their systems.

20–64 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To protect your computers from malicious software, you should have your users follow these guidelines:  Never open e-mail attachments, even from known sources, without scanning the attachment with antivirus software first. Some antivirus software can be configured to scan e-mail as it’s downloaded to the local computer from the mail server.  Don’t click Web links in e-mail messages. The link address you see and the actual address behind the link could be different. Users might believe they are accessing a legitimate Web site—and the site might look very convincing—but they could be directed to a site that includes scripts designed to harm their computers.

Security Do it!

D-2:

20–65

Installing antivirus software

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Use Internet Explorer to download the free version of avast! from the avast.com Web site If prompted, select Ask me later and click OK 2 Install the avast! antivirus software

(In the Phishing Filter dialog box.) To delay setting the Phishing filter. Follow the prompts to complete a default installation of the software.

3 In the system tray, click the avast! Antivirus icon Schedule a normal boot-time scan of all hard disks 4 Restart your computer Note the name and location of the report file

Your computer scans when you reboot. When the scan is complete, avast! briefly displays a summary report of files scanned and infections found.

5 Log on to Windows 6 Open the avast! report file

Observe its contents

The Program Data folder is hidden. If you aren’t displaying hidden files and folders, you need to change the view. If no infections were found, it displays the same summary report shown at the end of the boot scan. If problems were found, more details are provided in this file.

Close the file and any open windows 7 Click the avast! On-Access Scanner icon in the system tray Click Show Details Close the avast! window 8 Compare and contrast Trojan horses and logic bombs

It’s the orange icon with an “a” on it. The status should show your system is secure. To view the details of the avast! program.

20–66 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Spyware Spyware is software that gets installed on your system without your knowledge. It can cause a lot of problems for the user, including gathering personal or other sensitive information. Spyware can also change the computer’s configuration. For example, it might change the home page in your browser. In addition, it often displays advertisements, earning this type of spyware the name adware. All of this can slow down your computer’s performance, and the pop-ups can be so frequent that you can’t really do any work. Spyware is often installed when you are installing another application, especially free applications that you download from the Internet. For this reason, you need to be sure that you know exactly what you are installing. Sometimes the license agreement and privacy statement state that a particular program will be installed, but most people tend not to read those documents very closely or don’t recognize the program as spyware. Spyware is often found on peer-to-peer and file-sharing networks. Spyware can also integrate itself into Internet Explorer, causing frequent browser crashes. One way to reduce the amount of spyware on your system is to use a good pop-up blocker. Windows 7 and Windows Vista include pop-up blocker and anti-spyware software called Windows Defender. This real-time protection software makes recommendations to the user when it detects spyware. You can also schedule the software to perform scans. When Windows Defender detects spyware on a computer, it displays information about the threat, including the location on the computer, a rating of the risk it poses to you and your information, and its recommendation as to what action you should take. The alert levels are described in the following table. Alert level

Description

Severe

Especially malicious programs that will affect the privacy and security of your computer and can damage your system. Windows Defender recommends that you remove such software immediately.

High

Spyware programs that might affect the privacy and security of your computer and could damage your system. The changes the program makes on your computer are usually done without your consent. Windows Defender recommends that you remove such software immediately.

Medium

Spyware programs that could potentially gather personal information or make system changes and have a negative impact on your computer’s performance. The software will not be automatically deleted. You will need to evaluate the way the software operates and determine whether it poses a threat to your system. If the publisher of the software is unfamiliar to you or is an untrusted publisher, you should block or remove the software.

Low

This software was typically installed with your knowledge and according to the licensing terms you agreed to, but it still might collect information or change the configuration of the computer. If the software was installed without your knowledge, review the alert details and determine whether you want to remove it.

Not yet classified

These programs typically do no harm unless they were installed without your knowledge. If a program is something you recognize and trust, go ahead and allow it to be run. If you don’t recognize the publisher or the software, evaluate the alert details to determine your course of action.

Security

20–67

If clients are running Windows XP with SP2, you can download Windows Defender from Microsoft and install it on those systems to protect them. Windows Defender is integrated into Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Microsoft no longer supports Windows Defender on Windows 2000 Professional, as the company ended mainstream support of Windows 2000 Professional in June 2005. Another free product that is available for spyware removal is Spybot Search & Destroy. It is available from www.safer-networking.org. Each time you want to scan and remove spyware from your system with Spybot, you need to update the spyware definitions first. You might want to consider running both Spybot and Windows Defender; what one program might miss, the other might catch. It is often difficult for a single product to find all of the spyware on a system.


D-3:

Scanning your system for spyware

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Control Panel From the View by list, select Small icons

2 Click Windows Defender 3 Click Tools Click Options 4 Verify that “Automatically scan my computer (recommended)” is checked Verify that “Check for updated definitions before scanning” is checked Verify that “Apply default actions to items detected during a scan” is checked 5 Click Default actions Open and observe the various alert items lists

The default setting is to perform the action based on the definition for the items detected.

Close the lists 6 Click Cancel 7 Click Scan

To perform a quick scan. If you want to do a full scan, you need to click the button next to Scan and choose Full scan.

8 After the scan is complete, click

The Help button.

Scroll to the bottom of the window and click Understanding Windows Defender alert levels

9 Review the alert levels 10 Close Windows Help and Support, and leave Windows Defender open

The chart indicates the actions that are taken when items for each alert level are detected.

Security

20–69

Operating and configuring Windows Defender With any spyware protection software, you must regularly update signatures, which identify spyware programs. Windows Defender is integrated with Windows, which means that new signatures will be downloaded and installed automatically by Windows Update (assuming you have Windows Update enabled). Windows Defender configuration The default configuration of Windows Defender is sufficient for most users. Depending on how you use your computer, you might want to increase or decrease the frequency at which Windows Defender scans it for spyware. You should scan your computer for spyware regularly. Just how often you scan depends on your Internet usage: heavily used computers are much more likely to gather spyware than are infrequently used PCs. You should probably scan at least once a week. History The History list displays actions that Windows Defender has taken in the past. This information can include the dates and times of system scans, the spyware programs detected, and the actions taken with those programs. Quarantined programs Windows Defender disables or removes spyware programs from your computers. Disabled programs are said to be “quarantined.” Like an infectious person who is kept apart from other people, quarantined programs are rendered inactive so they cannot infect or further harm your computer. The Quarantined programs list in Windows Defender displays the names of any programs that have been quarantined.

Blocking, disabling, and removing malware Windows Defender will automatically stop some forms of malware from running when your PC starts. For example, a virus might install itself onto your computer and try to run when you turn on your PC. Windows Defender will block programs like that, particularly those that attempt some action that would typically require you to enter the administrator’s password. After your computer has started up, Windows Defender will display a list of blocked programs—you will see an icon in the notification area of the taskbar. Right-click the Windows Defender icon and choose “Blocked startup programs” to see the list.

20–70 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Running a blocked program In Windows 7, when you receive a Windows Defender Alert, as shown in Exhibit 2015, you can choose to allow the blocked program to run. From the Action list, select Allow.

Exhibit 20-15: A Windows Defender Alert in Windows 7 If later you decide that you want the program to be scanned by Windows Defender, you can remove it from the Allowed list. In Windows Defender, click Tools, Allowed items. Select the desired program and remove it from the list. In Windows Vista, if Windows Defender has blocked a program that you think should have run, you can run it from the blocked-programs list. Point to “Run blocked program” and click the program you want to run. You might need to enter the administrator’s password to proceed. Disabling a blocked program In Windows Vista, you can disable a program so that it cannot run at startup. You might do this if you think a program is a virus but it has not been removed by your antivirus software. To disable a program: 1 Open Windows Defender. 2 On the toolbar, click Tools. 3 Click Software Explorer. 4 From the Category list, select Startup Programs (if necessary). 5 Locate and select the program you want to disable. 6 Click Disable. Removing a blocked program In Windows Vista, you can remove a program entirely. This is the surest way to prevent a program from running on your computer at startup. To remove a program: 1 On the Windows Defender toolbar, click Tools. 2 Click Software Explorer. 3 From the Category list, select Startup Programs (if necessary). 4 Locate and select the program you want to remove. 5 Click Remove.

Security Do it!

D-4:

20–71

Working with software in Windows Defender

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Observe the status section of the Windows Defender window

It displays the date and time of the last scan and last update, and indicates whether real-time protection is enabled.

2 Click

To display the list of spyware programs detected on your computer and the actions taken with them.

3 Click Quarantined items

To display the list of programs that Windows Defender has disabled on your PC.

4 Click

To open the Tools and Settings page. You can access the list of quarantined programs from this page or configure program options.

5 Click Allowed items

Windows Defender displays a list of programs that Windows Defender has flagged, but you have specifically allowed to run.

6 Close all open windows


Topic E: The human aspects of security This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

5.1

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies  Data wiping / hard drive destruction / hard drive recycling  Software firewall – Port security – Exceptions  Basics of data sensitivity and data security – Compliance – Classification – Social engineering

This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Practical Application (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

3.2

Install and configure a small office / home (SOHO) network  Basics of hardware and software firewall configuration  Port assignment / setting up rules (exceptions)  Port forwarding / port triggering

4.1

Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and remove viruses and malware  Educate end user

Reducing security risks Explanation

Security experts agree that the best approach to protecting computers is to apply security measures in layers. To reduce some of the security risk, you can do the following:  Restrict physical access to sensitive systems and data.  Physically secure hardware.  Establish a firewall.  Manage data destruction.  Create a corporate security policy.  Manage social engineering attacks.

Security

20–73

Physical access restrictions An inexperienced user could inadvertently shut down your main corporate server if it were simply sitting in a cubicle where anybody could access it. A determined attacker could reboot your server by using a floppy disk or CD-ROM in order to attempt to bypass operating system–based security. He or she might simply steal the entire server or external storage device in order to gain access to your corporate data. Someone bent on sabotage could simply damage your servers and equipment to hurt your company. By restricting physical access to a computer, you eliminate a very large potential for security breach. Restrictions you might consider include:  Lock server rooms with key or key card locks. Use separate rooms for lowsecurity computers and high-security systems, and carefully manage who has keys to the various locations.  Lock PC cases (available with some models) to limit access to the systems to those who have the keys.  Install a physical locking mechanism, similar to the one shown in Exhibit 20-16, so the computer can’t be moved from the desk.  Lock the operating system by logging off or using the “Lock” choice in Windows. You can also set Windows so that when the screen saver starts after a set time of inactivity, Windows requires the user to enter their credentials to gain access to the system.  Use cameras or motion-sensor alarms to monitor spaces during non-business hours.  Station guards near ultra-sensitive systems.

Exhibit 20-16: Laptop lock with cable


E-1:

Discussing physical access restrictions

Questions and answers 1 Describe the physical access restrictions in place at your company or companies where you’ve worked

2 Were those access restrictions effective? If not, why not?

3 What physical access restrictions that you’ve seen in spy movies would be practical for a real business environment (if they weren’t too expensive)?

Security

20–75

Firewalls If your computer has an Internet connection, it is vulnerable to hackers, viruses, worms, and other destructive intrusions. One of the most important things to do when setting up a computer, server, or LAN is to install a firewall. A firewall is software, hardware, or a combination of both, used to control information that’s sent and received from outside the network. The firewall resides on the network’s gateway, which is the connection point between the internal network and outside communication. The firewall ensures that all communication received from outside users and computers is legitimate. A firewall can be installed on several types of gateways, including routers, servers, and computers. Firewalls can be used to help prevent denial-of-service (DoS) attacks and to prevent infections from viruses, worms, or Trojan horses. Various types of firewalls can function in several ways:  Firewalls can filter data packets, examining the destination IP address or source IP address, or the type of protocol used by the packet, such as TCP or UDP.  Firewalls can filter ports so that outside clients can’t communicate with inside services listening at these ports.  Firewalls can filter applications, such as FTP, so that users inside the firewall can’t use this service over the Internet.  Some firewalls can filter information, such as inappropriate Web content for children or employees. Several variations of firewalls are available, from personal firewalls to protect a single computer to expensive firewall solutions for large corporations. Windows Vista provides a firewall to help protect your computer from these problems. When you’re selecting a firewall, know what’s being filtered, how it’s filtered, and what options the firewall offers. Your company should run firewalls in two locations to block attacks. At the network level, where your network connects to the Internet or WAN, a firewall blocks outside attackers. At the PC level, software firewalls block internal attacks. You can configure some firewalls to trigger alarms when suspicious activities happen and to track this activity in log files. Other firewalls allow you more control and can shut down traffic to stop an attack.

20–76 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Hardware firewalls A good firewall solution is a hardware firewall that stands between a LAN and the Internet, as illustrated in Exhibit 20-17. A hardware firewall is ideal for a home network consisting of two or more computers because it protects the entire network. For most home and small-office LANs that connect to the Internet through a single cable modem or DSL converter, a broadband router is used as a hardware firewall. You can buy a broadband router with enough ports to connect several computers and perhaps a network printer to it. Some broadband routers also serve double duty as wireless access points for the network, DHCP server, and proxy server. The broadband router connects directly to the cable modem or DSL converter. Note that some DSL devices are also broadband routers and include embedded firewall firmware.

Exhibit 20-17: A hardware firewall Software firewalls When a home or business computer has an “always on” connection to the Internet, as with a cable modem or DSL, it’s a good idea to install a software firewall in addition to a hardware firewall. Firewall software can be installed on a computer connected directly to the Internet. For a LAN, you can install firewall software on each computer on the LAN. The firewall also requests permission from the user before allowing any programs to access the Internet. All open ports are blocked, as are any probes from Web sites. Starting with Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, Microsoft includes Windows Firewall with its client operating systems. Unlike most firewalls, Windows Firewall can be configured to block only incoming network traffic on your computer. All outgoing network traffic is allowed to travel, unrestricted, from your computer to its destination. Windows Firewall offers new features, such as allowing incoming network connections based on software or services running on a user’s computer, and blocking network connections based on the source (the Internet, your local area network, or a specific range of IP addresses). By default, Windows Firewall is turned on. Software firewalls include those bundled with Windows Vista and XP, as well as thirdparty applications, such as Zone Alarm. A software firewall on a local PC can also prevent the spread of worms that transmit themselves to open ports on other PCs.

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Proxy servers A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between computers on a network and the Internet. In the corporate environment, the main purpose of a proxy server is to provide Web access for computers that are located behind a corporate firewall, as illustrated in Exhibit 20-18.

Exhibit 20-18: A proxy server used as a firewall When a proxy server is acting as a firewall, it can filter traffic in both directions. It can filter traffic that’s coming into the network from outside computers, and it can filter traffic that’s leaving the network. One way to filter incoming traffic is to limit communication from the outside to specific ports on the inside of the private network. Some firewalls maintain a list of ports to which they prevent access. Firewalls filter outgoing traffic through a variety of methods. One method is to compare the IP address of the destination Web site against an access control list (ACL) of either allowed addresses or forbidden addresses. Port and packet filters A popular form of attack is port scanning. Ports are communication channels used by TCP/IP applications that are appended to a computer’s network address. Attackers set up computers to scan the ports available at random network addresses, hoping to find unguarded ports. Once these are found, operating system vulnerabilities can be exploited, permitting the attackers to gain access to the PC or network. When a firewall filters ports, it prevents software on the inside or outside from using certain ports on the network, even though those ports have services listening to them. For example, if you have an intranet Web site that’s to be used only by your employees inside the network, you can set your firewall to filter the HTTP port 80. Those on the intranet can access your Web server, using port 80 as usual, but those outside can’t reach your Web server.

20–78 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Port forwarding With port forwarding, when your firewall receives a request for communication from the Internet for a specific port (for example 80 for HTTP traffic), the firewall forwards the communication to a specified computer. This allows remote computers to connect to a specific computer within your private LAN, for example, a Web server set up on your LAN to which you want to allow public connections to. The internal computer must have a static IP address, as the firewall uses the computer’s IP address to forward communication. Port triggering With port triggering, when an internal client makes an outgoing communication request to a specified port on a server, it triggers a port to open, allowing inbound communication back to the client. Port triggering is more secure than port forwarding, as the incoming ports aren’t open all the time. They are open only when the client has an application actively using the trigger port. An advantage of port triggering is that it doesn’t require service-providing computers to have static IP addresses if they are behind a network address translation (NAT)-enabled router.

The Windows Security Center and Action Center In Windows Vista, the Windows Security Center, shown in Exhibit 20-19, is a collection of utilities designed to help you view your computer’s security settings in one convenient location. To configure the individual security components displayed in the Security Center, you must use the Control Panel Links within the Windows Security Center. The Security Center provides access to the following utilities:  Firewall  Automatic updates  Malware protection  Other security settings

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Exhibit 20-19: The Windows Security Center in Windows Vista Business To open the Security Center in Windows Vista, click Start, choose Control Panel, click Security, and click Security Center. If you’re working in Windows XP, click Start and choose Security Center.

20–80 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two In Windows 7, the Action Center, shown in Exhibit 20-20, provides an interface where you can view the status of security and maintenance utilities on your computer. If there’s a problem with your computer, the Action Center displays a message, along with a link to resolve the problem. In Exhibit 20-21, Windows has found a security problem where Windows Update isn’t enabled. A link is provided so that you can easily fix the problem. You’ll find the Action Center in Control Panel, System and Security.

Exhibit 20-20: The Windows 7 Action Center displaying Security status information

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Exhibit 20-21: The Windows 7 Action Center indicating a problem with security in the Windows Update utility

20–82 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows Firewall Windows Firewall, shown in Exhibit 20-22, is a software firewall. It’s installed and turned on by default. To view the status of Windows Firewall: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click System and Security in Windows 7; click Security in Windows Vista. 3 Click Windows Firewall.

Exhibit 20-22: The Windows Firewall Settings dialog box Do it!

E-2:

Displaying the status of Windows Firewall

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open the Control Panel 2 Click System and Security 3 Click Windows Firewall 4 Observe the state of the firewall

It should be turned on.

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Firewall configuration Windows Firewall (known as Internet Connection Firewall before Windows XP SP2) is turned on by default. Unless your computer is protected by another firewall, you should leave Windows Firewall enabled. You can check with the network administrator about the need for Windows Firewall inside a corporate network, but threats can come from other computers inside your network, not just computers on the Internet. Windows Firewall is automatically configured to block most rogue programs and to pass requests by legitimate programs. You probably won’t have to change many settings. However, if a user is experiencing problems sending or receiving data, the problem could be that the current firewall settings are preventing the communication from passing through. You might need to allow a specific type of communication—that’s prohibited by default—to pass through the firewall. When you need to configure Windows Firewall, open the Windows Security Center. Click Windows Firewall and then click Change settings to open the Windows Firewall settings window. You can use this dialog box to turn the firewall on and off, and you can use the Exceptions tab to allow or deny specific types of network communication. Use the Advanced tab to configure firewall protection for multiple network connections, manage the log file, and configure Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) settings. To configure Windows Firewall: 1 Open the Control Panel. 2 Click Security 3 Click Windows Firewall. 4 Click Change Settings. 5 If prompted, enter the administrator’s password and click OK. In Windows Vista, click Continue (if you’re logged on as an administrator). Select to turn the firewall on or off. You can also block all incoming programs for an even more secure connection. 6 On the Exceptions tab, specify firewall exceptions. 7 On the Advanced tab, control which network connections are protected by the firewall. 8 Click OK. Exceptions To configure an exception for a specific program, select the program in the list of exceptions. If the program isn’t listed on the Exceptions tab, click Add Program, select the program you want to add to the list, and click OK. Some applications might require that you open a numbered port, which is a specific channel through which the application communicates, using TCP/IP. For example, Web page communication through HTTP uses port 80. To create an exception for a specific port, select the Exceptions tab and click Add port. Enter the name and port number, and specify whether it’s the TCP or UDP protocol. (You can obtain protocol information from the program’s documentation or from a network administrator.)

20–84 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Windows Firewall with Advanced Security To configure more advanced firewall settings in Windows Vista, you must use Windows Firewall with Advanced Security. You’ll find this utility in the Control Panel, Administrative Tools.

Exhibit 20-23: Windows Firewall with Advanced Security in Windows Vista Business Troubleshooting Remember, when you’re troubleshooting a network connection, it’s important to check the status of the firewall and the list of exceptions. You might find that you can’t connect to a shared resource or a program isn’t functioning properly because of a missing or incorrectly configured firewall exception.

Security Do it!

E-3:

20–85

Configuring Windows Firewall

Here’s how 1 Click Change notification settings

Here’s why To open the Windows Firewall Customize Settings window. This is the same as clicking Turn Windows Firewall on or off.

You’re going to configure the firewall to allow communication through Windows Meeting Space.

Observe the choices 2 Click the Back button

You can enable and disable Windows Firewall from this window. To return to the Windows Firewall window.

3 Click Advanced settings 4 Expand Monitoring and select

This is the list of active firewall rules.

Firewall

5 Scroll down to view Skype Observe the following fields: Profile Action Direction Remote Address Protocol Allowed Users Allowed Computers 6 In the navigation pane, select Inbound Rules

Double-click Skype

You can see this rule is enabled. Using this dialog box, you can alter the properties of the rule.

20–86 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 7 Select each tab and observe the customizable settings Click Cancel 8 Right-click Inbound Rules and choose New Rule…

You can choose what type of rule you want to create.

Select Custom and click Next

You’ll be creating a rule to allow inbound network traffic to the RPC Endpoint Mapper service.

9 Select This program path and click Browse 10 Navigate to select C:\Windows\System32\svchost.exe

Click Open 11 Click Customize Select Apply to this service, then select Remote Procedure Call (RPC) from the list

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12 Click OK Click Next 13 Click Yes 14 From the Protocol type list, select TCP

From the Local port list, select RPC Endpoint Mapper

Click Next 15 Observe the Scope page

You can specify that the rule applies to all network traffic or from specific IP addresses.

Click Next

To apply the rule to all network traffic.

16 Observe the Action page

You can allow this type of connection, allow them only if they’re secure, or block these connections.

Click Next

To allow RPC connections.

20–88 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 17 Observe the Profile page

You can apply this rule to different network locations.

Click Next 18 In the Name box type Custom RPC

19 Click Finish 20 Close all open windows

To allow TCP RPC connections from all network locations.

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Social engineering Social engineering is the equivalent of hacking vulnerabilities in computer systems to gain access—except that it occurs in the world of people. Social engineering exploits trust between people to gain information that attackers can then use to gain access to computer systems. These trust exploits usually, though not always, involve a verbal trick, a hoax, or a believable lie. The goals of social engineering techniques include fraud, network intrusion, industrial espionage, identity theft, and a desire to disrupt a system or network. Targets for social engineering techniques tend to be large organizations, where it is common for employees who have never actually met to communicate with each other. Other targets include employees who have information desired by attackers: industrial/military secrets, personal information about specific individuals, or resources such as long-distance or network access. Social engineering techniques are often used when the attacker cannot find a way to penetrate the victim’s systems with other methods. For example, when strong perimeter security and encryption foil an attacker’s efforts to penetrate the network, social engineering might be the only avenue left. A slip of words is all the attacker needs to gain access to your well-defended systems. Shoulder surfing Shoulder surfing is a social engineering attack in which someone attempts to observe secret information by looking over your shoulder (or using other methods, described next). Imagine someone standing behind you as you log onto your workstation. By watching your fingers, the person can determine your password, and then later log on as you. Shoulder surfing has forms that don’t directly involve PCs. Consider the old longdistance calling-card attack—before cheap long distance and cell phones, people often subscribed to calling-card plans. By entering a long code number before dialing a phone number, you could get cheaper rates or bill the call to a third party. Spies would reportedly watch public telephones from afar through a telescope to watch as you entered the number, hoping to record your calling-card number. They’d then use that number to place long-distance calls. A modern version of the calling-card attack involves learning your credit or debit card number and your PIN (personal identification number). With these numbers, an attacker could bill catalog or online purchases to your card. Cases have been reported of thieves using digital cameras to snap photos of the front and back of cards as people pay for merchandise in a store. Phishing Phishing, a growing problem on the Internet, is an example of a social engineering attack. In phishing, hackers send e-mail messages or create Web sites that mimic a legitimate site to gather usernames and passwords. For example, an e-mail message might purport to come from a person’s bank and request the user to log onto a Web site to perform account maintenance. In reality, the Web site would simply collect the person’s username and password and present fake messages about the account maintenance. Later, the hackers would drain the person’s account by logging into the bank’s real Web site.

20–90 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Dumpster diving Digging useful information out of an organization’s trash bin is another form of attack, one that exploits the implicit trust people have that once something is in the trash, it’s gone forever. Experience shows that this is a very bad assumption, because dumpster diving is an incredible source of information for those who need to penetrate an organization in order to learn its secrets. The following table lists the useful types of information that can be obtained from trash or recycling bins: Item

Description

Internal phone directories

Provide names and numbers of people to target and impersonate. Many usernames are based on legal names.

Organizational charts

Provide information about people who are in positions of authority within the organization.

Policy manuals

Indicate how secure (or insecure) the company really is.

Calendars

Identify which employees are out of town at a particular time.

Outdated hardware

Provides all sorts of useful information; for example, hard drives might be restored, with data still accessible.

System manuals, network diagrams, and other sources of technical information

Include the exact information that attackers might seek, including the IP addresses of key assets, network topologies, locations of firewalls and intrusion detection systems, operating systems, applications in use, and more.

Online attacks Online attacks use instant-messaging chat and e-mail venues to exploit trust relationships. Attackers might try to induce their victims to execute a piece of code by convincing them that they need it (“We have detected a virus, and you have to run this program to remove it—if you don’t run it, you won’t be able to use our service”) or because it is something interesting, such as a game. While users are online, they tend to be more aware of hackers, and are careful about revealing personal information in chat sessions and e-mail. If a user installs the attacking program from a link, the attacker’s code tricks the user into entering a username and password in a pop-up window.

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Social engineering countermeasures There are a number of steps that organizations can take to protect themselves against social engineering attacks. At the heart of all of these countermeasures is a solid organizational policy that dictates expected behaviors and communicates security needs to every person in the company. 1 Take proper care of trash and other discarded items.  For all types of sensitive information on paper, use a paper shredder or locked recycle box instead of a trash can.  Ensure that all magnetic media are bulk-erased before they are discarded.  Keep trash dumpsters in secured areas so that no one has access to their contents. 2 User education and awareness training are critical. Ensure that all system users have periodic training about network security.  Make employees aware of social engineering scams and how they work.  Inform users about your organization’s password policy (for example, never give your password out to anybody at all, by any means at all).  Give recognition to people who have avoided making mistakes or who have caught real mistakes in a situation that might have been a social engineering attack.  Ensure that people know what to do if they spot a social engineering attack.


E-4:

Discussing social engineering

Questions and answers 1 Which of the following are the best ways to protect your organization against revealing sensitive information to dumpster divers? A

Use a paper shredder or locked recycle box.

B

Teach employees to construct strong passwords.

C

Add a firewall.

D

Keep trash dumpsters in secured areas.

2 How can you help system users avoid social engineering attacks?

3 Give examples of shoulder surfing in the context of both corporate and individual security.

4 List some items that might be found in a company’s trash that would be useful to a hacker

5 If you were a hacker planning to call someone to convince them to divulge their password, whom would you impersonate? (Give a job title or role.)

6 Have you ever been the victim of a social engineering attack? If so, describe the experience.

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Data security Providing for data security extends beyond the measures you might take with user accounts, file system permissions, and so forth. You must remember that your data is stored on a physical device. If you no longer need a device, you must consider how to destroy those bits and bytes permanently so no one can recover the information.

Data destruction Data stored on magnetic media presents a serious security risk. For example, a 2003 study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology found 5000 credit card numbers and other sensitive data on discarded hard drives. Erasing or formatting the drive isn’t sufficient to destroy data. Unerasing and unformatting utilities abound, and services exist that recover old data from the traces left over, even after new files are written to the disk. The conspiracy-minded are probably not that far off base in thinking that government and law enforcement agencies have even greater capabilities at recovering data. To truly destroy data, you need to use a utility designed to repeatedly write random data to the medium. Only by writing data several times, or perhaps hundreds of times, can you be sure that all traces of the old data are destroyed. Here are some utilities that include this capability:  OnTrack Eraser, www.ontrack.com, commercial  Norton System Works, www.symantec.com, commercial  Eraser, eraser.heidi.ie/, open source  Wipe, sourceforge.net/projects/wipe, open source for Linux and UNIX platforms Removable media Sensitive data stored on removable media, such as USB drives, tapes, or CDs, is a serious security risk. These items are small and easily spirited out of a building or secure area. When the data is no longer needed, the media should be destroyed. The following table describes ways to destroy various media. Item

Destruction method

Tapes

Tapes should be erased with a bulk eraser, a large powerful magnet that removes all traces of magnetic encoding, or you can shred the cartridges to destroy the tape within.

Floppies

Like tapes, floppies should be bulk erased or shredded. Many office shredders can handle shredding floppies and optical media.

CDs and DVDs

Optical media should be shredded. Bending and breaking or cutting into multiple pieces with scissors is probably sufficient unless your data is ultra-sensitive.

USB, cartridge, removable, and external hard drives

Smashing these devices is probably the surest way to destroy their contents. Short of that, file destruction applications are sufficient for most data destruction needs.

20–94 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Paper records Sensitive paper records should be burned or shredded by a professional shredding service. Standard office shredders—even crosscut models—leave pieces that can be too easily pasted back together. If you do use an office shredder, make sure it’s a crosscut model, not a strip cutter.

Data migration You must manage archival data, such as business records that you must keep to comply with IRS requirements. Such data must be kept available but doesn’t need to be regularly accessible. You should consider migrating such data off of your network or out of your office. Paper records should be stored at a records storage company. Such companies offer secure, climate-controlled vaults and keep your records for the period you specify. Most of these companies pick up such records at your site and return them if you need access. Digital records should be migrated to tape or optical storage. Then the media should be stored by a records storage company skilled in handling digital media. Do it!

E-5:

Examining data destruction techniques

Questions and answers 1 What types of sensitive data do you store on your own PC?

2 What sensitive data does your company store?

3 What method does your company use to destroy expired data?

4 What should your company do differently to ensure that old data isn’t recoverable?

5 Does your company use a records storage company to store archived data?

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Corporate security policies A corporate security policy is a contract between a company and its employees that states how company technology resources can be used. Although a document outlining your company’s policy regarding security can’t actually prevent a security breach, it can support any legal or human-resources actions that you decide to take after such a breach. Awareness and training are the best ways to prevent social engineering attacks. A security policy heightens security awareness among company personnel. It also demonstrates the company’s commitment to security and the protection of vital information assets. Security policy contents A corporate security policy should define the guidelines and practices for using computing resources, as well as for configuring and managing computer security in your company. A security policy should clearly list the acceptable and unacceptable uses of your company computing resources. It should be written so it can serve as a binding agreement between the company and employees. You should regularly review and update your corporate security policy. A security policy should include the following:  A description of physical access restrictions, and a list of who’s permitted into restricted areas and when such access is permitted.  A description of acceptable uses of company computing resources. List specific examples of acceptable uses.  A description of unacceptable uses of company computing resources. List specific examples of unacceptable and prohibited uses.  Password requirements, including complexity, change frequency, and reuse policies.  A description of the actions that might be taken against any employee who violates the security policy. For example, some violations might lead to a simple reprimand, while others could lead to immediate termination and legal action.  A plan for handling major security breaches and incidents, such as virus intrusions.  Your plan for updating the security policy document. Your corporate security policy should clearly prohibit divulging passwords and other sensitive information, whether over the telephone, by e-mail, or in person. Your security policy should also clearly state how employees should handle file attachments in e-mail. Many companies prohibit opening attachments; such companies typically use software to filter e-mail and scan or simply delete file attachments.

20–96 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The policy might state that users should lock their computers when leaving them. As a result, the IT department would then configure password-based screen savers and teach users how to lock their computers. In Windows Vista, users can lock their computers through the Start menu, as shown in Exhibit 20-24. Such policies and practices help prevent both intentional breaches, such as shoulder surfing, and opportunistic breaches, such as someone finding an unlocked, logged-in computer.

Exhibit 20-24: Two choices for locking a Windows Vista computer

Security classifications The United States Department of Defense issued a security evaluation specification called the Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC). You might also hear this referred to as “the orange book.” The DoD document defines four broad categories of security:  D — Minimal Security  C — Discretionary; includes two subclasses: C1 Discretionary Security Protection and C2 Controlled Access Protection  B — Mandatory Protection; includes three subclasses: B1 Labeled Security protection, B2 Structured Protection, and B3 Security Domain  A — Verified protection In 2005, this specification was replaced with an international standard called the Common Criteria. This standard has three components:  Specifications — Users specify their security requirements.  Implementation — Vendors implement the security attributes in their products.  Testing — Laboratories test the security features of vendor products to determine if they meet the claims. Evaluation Assurance Levels (EALs) of the Common Criteria range from 1 to 7, with EAL 7 being the most secure and EAL 4 about the highest level that a complex, commercially developed product can achieve. However, if a product is Common Criteria–certified, that doesn’t mean that it’s completely secure. For example, six versions of Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Windows XP Professional with Service Pack 2, and Windows XP Embedded with Service Pack 2, Windows Vista Enterprise, Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition, Enterprise Edition and Datacenter Edition, all meet EAL 4+ of the Common Criteria, but security patches for security vulnerabilities are regularly published by Microsoft for these operating systems.

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To view the full list of products meeting EAL criteria, go to www.commoncriteriaportal.org/products.html. Do it!

E-6:

Considering corporate security policies

Questions and answers 1 Does your company have a security policy?

2 If so, when did you sign it and have you had to sign it again?

3 List at least three specific unacceptable uses of your company’s computing resources

4 For each of those unacceptable uses, list the appropriate repercussions

5 Are you required to use a password-protected screen saver or lock your PC when you leave your desk?


Unit summary: Security Topic A

In this topic, you learned that operating system security depends on authenticating users, that is, determining who they are. You learned how users and groups are used in Windows basic authentication to control access and to permit or deny access to resources. You also learned how to use local security policies to control aspects of user authentication, such as password length, expiration, and reuse.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned how to use Windows file encryption to secure the files on your computer. You learned how to encrypt individual files or entire folders and their contents.

Topic C

In this topic, you learned about hardware security devices, such as fingerprint scanner, smart-card readers, and fobs. You identified how these devices add another layer of security to the user authentication process, making your system more secure.

Topic D

In this topic, you learned about common security threats. You learned about the areas of weakness that can give rise to security threats, and you learned about viruses, Trojan horses, worms, and social engineering. You also learned how to combat these problems by installing antivirus software and scanning your computer with Windows Defender.

Topic E

In this topic, you learned how to manage the human aspects of computer security. This process includes implementing physical access restrictions to keep unauthorized people out of sensitive areas and physically securing computers and peripherals. You learned why a corporate security policy is an effective tool for ensuring security within your organization. You also examined various social engineering attacks, which are used to gain access to systems or secure areas.

Review questions 1 Which of the following items does a user account not include? A Account type

C First and last name

B Account policies

D Password

2 A complex password consists of letters, numbers, and special ________________. Characters

3 True or false? It’s a good idea to use the same password wherever you need one so that you can remember it without writing it down. False. There is a strong temptation to use the same password for all locations, but doing so leaves you vulnerable to having your password stolen and used in any or all of the locations.

4 What’s the general rule for when you should change your password? A Less than 30 days

C Between 60 and 90 days

B Between 30 to 60 days

D At 180 days

5 Most of the user accounts in your Windows environment will be which type? A Administrator B Guest C User

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6 When performing day-to-day activities, you should log on with a ___-level account. User

7 The _______ Users group is used to assign elevated permissions to a select set of individuals. Power

8 _________________ authentication is the process by which a user provides his or her username and password in the Log On to Windows dialog box. Interactive

9 ____________ is the primary authentication protocol used in Active Directory domain environments? Kerberos version 5 (Kerberos v5)

10 Which password policy forces users to include special characters in their passwords? A Account lockout B Enforce password history C Minimum password length D Passwords must meet complexity requirements 11 True or false? If your computer is a member of an Active Directory domain, the local account policies you set might not be active. True. If your computer participates in a domain, it might inherit security policy settings from the domain. Settings at the domain level override those at the local computer level.

12 In public key encryption, how many keys are used to encrypt and decrypt data? A One

C Three

B Two

D Four

13 True or false? If you encrypt a file using EFS, anyone who logs onto your computer can see the file on the drive, but can’t open it. True.

14 A biometric security device can log you into which of the following? A An application

C A Web page

B The operating system

D All of the above

15 True or false? Biometric security hardware is always used in place of basic user authentication (username and password). False. Biometric devices can be used in combination with usernames and passwords. Sometimes they are used in place of the user entering a username and password.

16 True or false? Your ATM card is an example of a smart card. False. Your ATM card simply stores a unique identifier number on a magnetic strip. All processing and intelligence must be built into the host PC and applications. Smart cards store data and code on an embedded microprocessor.

20–100 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 17 True or false? The typical fob is a key-chain-sized device that creates a continually changing, random number called a rolling code. False. The generated number isn’t random, but instead follows a secret progression started with a random seed number.

18 By restricting _______________ access to a computer, you eliminate a very large potential for security breach. Physical

19 A ________________ is software or hardware used to control information that’s sent to and received from outside the network. Firewall

20 Windows Vista comes with a built-in software firewall called _______________. Windows Firewall

21 In which type of social engineering attack do hackers send e-mail messages or create Web sites that mimic a legitimate site in order to gather usernames and passwords? A Dumpster diving

D Spam

B Phishing

E Trojan horse

C Shoulder surfing 22 Which type of malicious software is a self-propagating program meant to disrupt the operation of a PC? A Adware

D Virus

B Spam

E Worm

C Spyware 23 Which type of storage media presents the greatest security risk? A Hard drives B Tapes C USB flash drives 24 True or false? You’ve completed your corporate security policy and had all employees read and sign it. You are now finished with the security policy. False. You should regularly review and update your corporate security policy, as well as provide user training.

25 What are the Evaluation Assurance Levels (EALs) of the Common Criteria? A 0 to 6

C 1 to 7

B 1 to 5

D 1 to 10

Security 20–101 26 Which is the most secure EAL? A 0

D 7

B 1

E 10

C 5 27 List some of the items that a dumpster diver looks for. Internal phone directories, organizational charts, policy manuals, calendars, outdated hardware, systems manuals, network diagrams, and other technical information sources.

28 What kind of program poses as something else, causing the user to “willingly” inflict the attack on himself or herself? A Trojan horse

29 List at least three primary causes of compromised security. Technology weaknesses, configuration weaknesses, policy weaknesses, and human error or malice.

30 How do you keep your antivirus software updated to recognize new viruses and worms? You download updated virus definitions

31 What is the Windows Vista built-in spyware protection function called? Windows Defender

32 Name the components of the Windows Security Center. Windows Firewall, Automatic updates, Malware protection (virus protection monitoring, spyware protection monitoring), and Other security settings (general security monitoring).

33 ____________ is a term used to describe any type of malicious software. Malware

34 A firewall is hardware or software that: Prevents access to your computer by unauthorized Internet users or prevents internal users from accessing external information.

35 Why might you set a firewall exception? To enable a program, such as Windows Meeting Space, to communicate with your computer when that program’s communications would typically be blocked.

36 The ____________ security feature prompts you to click Continue or enter administrative credentials to perform some administrative tasks. UAC

37 True or false? Passwords for Windows user accounts aren’t case sensitive. False

38 True or false? Spyware is a computer program designed to destroy data, damage your computer’s operations, and distribute itself without your involvement. False. That’s the definition of a virus. Spyware is a program that gathers information about you and your Internet activities. Typically, spyware gathers this information so that you can be shown more targeted advertising.

20–102 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 39 True or false? You must manually update spyware signatures. False. Windows Defender downloads and installs new spyware signatures automatically (although you can turn off that feature).

40 Which console can you use to configure security settings on a computer? Local Security Policy

41 What is a quarantined program? A quarantined program is an application that Windows Defender has disabled or removed from your system.

Independent practice activity The files for this activity are in Student Data folder Unit 20\Unit summary. In this activity, you’ll practice applying security on your Windows 7 Professional computer. You’ll also research different types of malware, their symptoms, and how to resolve them. 1 Create a user named PSmith with the password p@ssword. 2 Add PSmith to the Administrators group. 3 From the Student Data folder for this unit, copy the Budget Analysis.txt file to the root folder (C:\). 4 Encrypt the Budget Analysis.txt file. 5 Log on as PSmith. 6 Attempt to access the Budget Analysis file. PSmith can’t open the encrypted file. 7 Log off. Log back on as COMPADMIN##. 8 Create a password policy that requires a minimum number of characters and enforces complexity requirements. 9 Log on as Robert and try to change your password to one that is less than the minimum required number of characters, but includes a number and a special character. 10 Try to change your password to one that meets the minimum character requirement, but doesn’t include a special character or number. 11 Change your password to one that meets the password policy. 12 Log off. Log back on as COMPADMIN##. 13 Reset your password policy to its original form. 14 Delete the Robert and PSmith user accounts. 15 Delete C:\Budget Analysis.txt. 16 Use your favorite search engine to find multiple virus encyclopedias. Bookmark them in your browser. 17 Use these resources to investigate the latest security threats. Document the names, the symptoms, and how to resolve the threats if you encounter them. 18 Close all open windows.

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Unit 21 Windows installation and upgrades Unit time: 180 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Install a Windows operating system. B Upgrade from one version of Windows to

another.

21–2


Topic A: Windows installation This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Updates – Driver – OS – Security

3.1

Compare and contrast the different operating systems and their features  Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit – Minimum system requirements, system limits – Windows 2000 and newer – upgrade paths and requirements ○ Windows OS Upgrade Advisor

3.3

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS  File systems – FAT32 vs. NTFS  Verification of hardware compatibility and minimum requirements  Installation methods – Boot media such as DVD, CD, floppy, or USB – Network installation – Install from image  Operating system installation options – File system type – Network configuration  Disk preparation order – Format drive – Partition – Start installation  Device Manager – Verify – Install and update device drivers – Driver signing  User data migration – User State Migration Tool (USMT)


21–3


Objective

2.3

Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Device Manager – Enable – Disable – Warnings – Indicators

Installing Windows operating systems Explanation

Windows installations and upgrades aren’t necessarily something you’ll do every day, but knowing how to do them correctly will prevent a lot of headaches later when you have a properly installed and configured operating system. The process of moving from one operating system to a new operating system is called migrating or migration. When migrating from a previous version of Windows to Windows 7, for example, you have three options:  Upgrade — Installation of Windows 7 “over” a previous Windows operating system. This method updates system files and retains user accounts, applications, and most (if not all) system settings.  Custom — Installation of Window 7 by replacing the previous operating system. It doesn’t retain any user accounts, applications, or system settings.  Multibooting — Installation of your chosen version of Windows, along with another operating system or version of Windows When migrating from a previous version of Windows to Windows Vista, for example, you have three options:  In-place upgrade — Installation of a new operating system “over” a previous operating system, updating system files and retaining user accounts, applications, and most (if not all) system settings.  Clean install — Installation on a computer where none of the current settings and files are retained.  Multibooting — Installation of your chosen version of Windows, along with another operating system or version of Windows Most of your new installations will be a version of Windows 7 or Windows Vista. You aren’t likely to complete any new installations of earlier operating systems, especially on new computers, unless your company has a corporate policy that all computers run an earlier operating system, such as Windows XP. However, you might be asked to reinstall an older operating system, such as Windows XP or Windows 2000 Professional, to fix configuration problems. When you’re installing these operating systems, you have two options: a clean install or an upgrade.

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CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Clean installation versus upgrade A clean installation is the kind you perform when you install Windows on a computer that has no operating system or that already has a version of DOS or Windows installed. During a clean installation, Windows Setup overwrites all system settings and data files on the computer. On pre-Windows Vista operating systems, nothing of the old operating system remains after you complete the installation, and none of the data files on the hard drive are accessible anymore, unless you use a third-party utility to try to recover them. You would perform a clean installation for a number of reasons:  The computer has no operating system at all.  You want to redeploy a computer that hasn’t been used recently to a new user or a new department, and you don’t need to save any of the old settings or data files.  A computer has so many configuration errors that you decide to reinstall Windows and start from scratch. With a clean installation, it’s recommended that you format the hard drive during the installation process. An upgrade is done when you install a new version of Windows on a computer and you retain most of the system settings from the older version and all of the user data files on the hard disk. Upgrades are a completely separate process from clean installations. During upgrades, Setup preserves many Windows settings, transferring as many of them as possible to the newer version of Windows. You perform upgrades when you want to take advantage of some new features, but you don’t want to start from scratch on the computer. Upgrade licenses are usually cheaper than licenses for new Windows installations. Although the upgrade sounds like the most tempting path, some experts believe that upgrades introduce too much instability into the system. They believe clean installs are the only way to migrate to a new operating system. However, most users appreciate inplace upgrades because they tend to make the migration to a new operating system less painful. Multibooting A less common installation option is to install your chosen version of Windows, along with another operating system or version of Windows, allowing the computer to be booted into either operating system. As a general rule, you install the operating systems oldest to newest. For example, you would install Windows XP before Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows 2000 Professional. Each operating system must be placed in a separate hard disk partition on a non-dynamic disk.


21–5

Pre-installation tasks Once you’ve chosen the appropriate Windows operating system for your needs and decided whether you’re going to do a clean installation or an upgrade, you can’t just pop the installation disc in the computer and start. Before you start the actual operating system installation, there are several steps you must take to gather necessary information and make decisions. Pre-installation tasks you should complete include:  Backing up files  Verifying that hardware requirements are met  Checking for hardware compatibility with the new operating system  Identifying the appropriate partition size and file system format  Choosing an installation method

File backup and transfer Before you perform a clean installation, if there are any data files you want to save, you should back them up to a secure location. When the clean installation is complete, you can restore user data files back to the computer. Before performing an upgrade, back up user data files; even though an upgrade is meant to preserve data files, you want to be sure you have a backup in case anything goes wrong. If you lose data files, or if you decide you need to stop the upgrade and perform a clean installation, you can restore user data files afterward. There are several tools for backing up and transferring files:  In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, you can use Windows Easy Transfer to automatically copy all of your files and settings to an extra hard drive or other storage device before doing a clean install. After the installation is complete, you can use Windows Easy Transfer to reload your files and settings on your upgraded PC. You then need to reinstall your applications.  In Windows XP, you can use the Files and Settings Transfer Wizard to transfer files from one computer to a Windows XP computer. This GUI utility is designed for end-users.  Windows XP Professional and the Resource Kit for Windows 2000 Professional include a tool called the User State Migration Tool (USMT). You can use it to migrate a user’s data, application settings, and operating system settings from an old computer to a new computer. This tool is a command-line utility designed for administrators, and it works only if the computer is a member of a Windows domain. The scanstate command copies the user’s information from the old computer to a network server or a removable drive. The loadstate command copies the information from the server or removable drive to the new computer. The USMT is designed for large migrations and can be a bit cumbersome to use for single computer migrations or upgrades.

Hardware requirements Not all computers can run all Windows operating systems. As you might expect, each edition of Windows has different hardware requirements. This makes sense because, for example, most Vista Home Basic users wouldn’t necessarily need the processing power that an Vista Ultimate user might need to run a complex computer-aided design (CAD) application. You need to match the computer’s hardware capabilities with the hardware requirements of the Windows operating system you’ve chosen to install.

21–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two The following tables list the minimum and recommended hardware configurations for the various versions and editions of Windows. If you want to have a satisfactory Windows computing experience, you typically need more resources than the bare minimum. Windows 7, all versions Component

Minimum

Processor

1 GHz 32-bit or 64-bit

Memory

1 GB 32-bit 2 GB 64-bit

Hard disk

16 GB available space 32-bit 20 GB available space 64-bit

Graphics

DirectX 9 support; Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) 1.0

Unlike previous versions of Windows, Microsoft has not issued “Recommended” hardware requirements for Windows 7. They believe their minimum requirements are generous enough to cover most situations. Windows Vista Home Basic Component

Minimum

Recommended

Processor

800 MHz 32-bit or 64-bit


Memory

512 MB

512 MB

Hard disk

20 GB with 15 GB available


Graphics

Super VGA

DirectX 9 support and 32 MB of graphics memory

Optical drive

Internal or external DVD-ROM



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Windows Vista Home Premium/Business/Ultimate/Enterprise Component

Minimum

Recommended

Processor



Memory

1 GB

1 GB

Hard disk



Graphics

Super VGA

Aero-compatible graphics card:  DirectX 9 support;  Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM);  128 MB graphics memory;  Pixel Shader 2.0 (hardware);  32 bits per pixel

CD/DVD drives



Windows XP Professional and Windows XP Home Edition Component

Minimum

Recommended

Processor

Pentium 233 MHz

300 MHz

Memory

64 MB

128 MB

Hard disk space

1.5 GB

Graphics

Super VGA

Optical drive

CD- or DVD-ROM drive

SVGA with 8 MB video RAM

Windows 2000 Professional Component

Minimum

Recommended

Processor

Pentium 133 MHz

Memory

64 MB

Hard disk space

2 GB with 650 MB free

1 GB free space

Graphics

VGA

SVGA

Optical device

CD- or DVD-ROM drive

Windows and netbooks There are maximum hardware specifications that Windows can handle on netbooks. The

21–8

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two following table lists these. Hardware

Windows XP/Vista

Screen size

No larger than 12.1 inches

Memory

1 GB RAM

Storage

160 GB HDD or 32 GB SDD

Graphics

No greater than DX9

Touch

Resistive touch only

CPU

Single core processors that don’t exceed 1 GHz

Windows installation and upgrades Do it!

A-1:

21–9

Identifying hardware requirements

Questions and answers 1 You have a computer with 1 GB of RAM and a 1.5 GHz 32-bit processor, and you use the computer mostly for Internet access and e-mail. Can you run Windows 7?

2 You have a computer with 512 MB of RAM and a 1.5 GHz processor, and you use the computer mostly for Internet access and e-mail. Which edition of Windows Vista might you recommend? Why?

3 Which of the following doesn’t meet minimum requirements for Windows 7 on a 64-bit processor? A

2 GHz processor

B

1 GB of memory

C

DVD-ROM drive

D

40 GB hard disk with 20 GB of free space

4 Which of the following doesn’t meet minimum requirements for Windows Vista Business? A

2 GHz processor

B

256 MB of memory

C

DVD-ROM drive

D


5 Which of the following doesn’t meet minimum requirements for Windows Vista Ultimate? A

1 GHz processor

B

2 GB of memory

C

DVD-ROM

D


6 What’s the minimum required free disk space for a Windows XP installation? A

1 GB

B

1.5 GB

C

2.0 GB

D

2.5 GB

21–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Hardware compatibility Not only must your computer’s hardware meet the minimum requirements, but it must also be compatible with the version of Windows you’re going to install. Most systems today designate which version of Windows they’re designed for. If you’re adding more hardware, be sure it has a logo indicating that it’s approved for the Windows version you’re installing. You can also check the Windows Catalog, previously known as the HCL (Hardware Compatibility List) on Microsoft’s Web site at http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/hcl and select the correct compatibility center. The Upgrade Advisor Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP include a free tool called the Upgrade Advisor that you can use to determine if Windows 7, Vista or XP supports your hardware and software. Shown in Exhibit 21-1, the Windows Upgrade Advisor scans your computer to determine if there are any issues that might prevent a successful upgrade. It gives you a report for system requirements, device compatibility, and program compatibility. Most of the issues you’ll encounter are related to incompatible hardware, and the Advisor helps you determine which hardware devices might cause problems. You can run the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor on any 32-bit or 64-bit Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows XP with SP2 and .NET Framework 2.0, or higher computer. You can run Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor on almost all 32-bit Windows XP and Windows Vista computers—the latter if you’re planning to upgrade from one version of Windows Vista to another (for example, from Windows Vista Business to Windows Vista Ultimate). You can’t run the Advisor in Windows Vista Enterprise Edition or 64bit versions of Windows XP or Vista.


21–11

Exhibit 21-1: Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor Running the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor To install and run Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor: 1 Download the installation file from the Microsoft Download Center at http://www.microsoft.com/downloads. 2 Double-click Windows7UpgradeAdvisorSetup.exe and then click Yes. 3 Accept the license agreement and click Install. Click Close. 4 Double-click the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor icon on your desktop. 4 In the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, click Start check. Running the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor To run the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, you must have the Windows .NET Framework 2.0 and MSXML version 6 (MSXML6) installed on your computer. If these aren’t installed, Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor Setup detects their absence and prompts you to download and install them. On Windows XP systems, you need Service Pack 2 installed. Finally, you need Administrator privileges, 20 MB of free hard disk space, and an Internet connection.

21–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To install and run Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor: 1 Download the installation file from the Microsoft Download Center at http://www.microsoft.com/downloads. You can also insert the Windows Vista DVD, and on the splash screen, click “Check compatibility online” to find the Windows Upgrade Advisor download. 2 Double-click WindowsVistaUpgradeAdvisor.msi and then click Run. 3 Click Next. Accept the license agreement and click Next. Click Next twice. Verify that Launch Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor is checked, and click Close. 4 In the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, click Start Scan. When the scan is complete, click See Details. To read about potential issues, click See Details under each category, including System, Devices, and Programs. In a new window, you’ll see tabs for each category, as well as a tab labeled Task List. This is a to-do list you should follow before the upgrade and a list of recommended post-upgrade tasks to help optimize your Windows Vista experience. The tabs are tailored for the version of Windows Vista that Microsoft recommends. You can select a different version on the previous screen to see a new set of tabs. Running the Windows XP Upgrade Advisor The Windows XP Upgrade Advisor runs automatically during the early stages of Windows XP Setup, but you can run it before you start setup to determine if you have any issues before an upgrade. To run the Upgrade Advisor in Windows XP: 1 Insert the Windows XP installation disc or access the installation files. 2 Start Setup. 3 Click Check System Compatibility.


A-2:

21–13

Running the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Follow your instructor’s directions for accessing Windows7UpgradeAdvisorSetup.exe 2 Double-click the file

To start the installation. You must install the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor before you use it to scan your computer.

3 Click Yes 4 Select I accept the license terms and click Install

To accept the license agreement.

5 Click Close

To close the wizard. A shortcut is on your desktop.

6 On your desktop, double-click the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor shortcut

Click Yes 7 In the Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor, click Start check

The utility begins to scan your system.

8 Observe the results The Windows 7 Upgrade Advisor confirms that your computer can run Windows 7.

9 Scroll down to see if there are any potential issues

The Advisor briefly explains any issues and lists the number of issues in different categories.

21–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 10 Click See all system requirements

11 Click

12 Click Close

Any potential issues are explained. Components that were scanned but present no possible issues are also listed.


21–15

Partitions and formatting Before beginning the installation, you must decide which file system you’re going to use: FAT, FAT32, or NTFS. NTFS is the recommended file system for Windows 7 and Windows Vista. If you’re upgrading from Windows XP to Windows 7 or Windows Vista, Windows XP must be on an NTFS partition. If Windows XP is on a FAT32 partition, you have to convert it to NTFS before upgrading to Windows 7 or Windows Vista. The command syntax for convert and its parameters is shown in Exhibit 21-2.

Exhibit 21-2: The convert command To convert a drive to NTFS, you enter drive: /fs:ntfs. If the hard disk doesn’t already have an appropriately formatted partition, you must prepare the hard disk before you can install the operating system. Use Windows Setup on your installation disc to create, delete, and format partitions on the hard disk. To use Windows Setup, insert the bootable Windows CD- or DVD-ROM and start the installation. When prompted, partition the hard disk and format the drive where you plan to install Windows. It’s important to note that Windows XP originally didn’t support 48-bit Logical Block Addressing (LBA) for ATA Packet Interface (ATAPI) disk drives, giving it a 137 GB partition limit. So, if you try to install Windows XP on a 500 GB hard drive, you’ll end up with a 137 GB system partition and the remainder as free space. This particular issue was fixed with Windows XP SP1 and in Windows Vista. If you are installing Windows XP on computers with larger hard disks, you’ll want to consider getting a copy of Windows XP with SP1 or later slip-streamed (included).


A-3:

Discussing installation partition and file system requirements

Questions and answers 1 You’re running Windows XP Professional on a FAT32 partition. What should you do before upgrading to Windows Vista Business?

2 You have a computer with a 1 TB hard drive. Can you create and format one single partition by using Windows 7 Setup?

3 What is the largest installation partition you can create by using Windows Setup in Windows XP prior to SP1?


21–17

Installation methods Several methods are available for installing Windows, depending on which operating system, if any, is already on the computer. Windows 7 and Vista installation The easiest way to install Windows 7 or Windows Vista is from the installation DVD. When you insert the DVD into a computer, a window opens and presents you with a variety of options, including checking for compatibility, installing Windows 7 or Vista, and transferring files and settings from one computer to another. When you click Install now, Setup begins, and you can either upgrade to Windows 7 or Vista (if an upgrade is supported) or perform a clean installation. You can also access the Windows 7 or Vista installation files from a network share. To start Setup from across the network, access the network share that contains the installation files, and double-click Setup.exe. Windows 2000 and Windows XP installation To install Windows 2000 Professional or any version of Windows XP, use one of the following methods:  If the installation CD- or DVD-ROM is bootable, then when you insert it, Windows Setup starts automatically. You can use this method regardless of the operating system installed.  If the computer has DOS installed, insert the CD-ROM (assuming you’ve installed appropriate optical drivers), access the CD-ROM, and double-click Winnt.exe.  If the computer is running Windows 9x, Windows Me, Windows NT Workstation, Windows 2000 Professional, or Windows XP, insert the CD-ROM and double-click Winnt32.exe to start setup for Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP.  You can also boot a computer from a USB device and start the installation that way. Network installation You can also perform a network installation of Windows. You copy the contents of the installation disc to a network server or place the disc in an optical drive on the network server, and then share the folder or drive. From the client, you access the share and run the appropriate setup file: Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe for Windows XP or Windows 2000, and setup.exe for Windows 7 or Vista. The appropriate files are copied to the local computer, just like they would be if you had the installation disc in a local optical drive. Because the client needs network drivers installed for this method to work, it’s most useful for upgrades. Note that a network installation is not the same as a remote installation using Microsoft’s Remote Installation Services from a Windows server or a third-party cloning application. These programs use an image of the original cloned computer and copy it down to the client. This image contains the hardware drivers of the original system, so the image must be installed on similar computers. For example, you can’t use an image created from a computer with an Intel Pentium Extreme Edition processor on one with an AMD Athlon processor.

21–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Unattended installations All of the options discussed so far are options for an attended installation, where a person must be present to respond to the prompts presented on screen. Performing an automated or unattended installation is another option. Using the Windows System Image Manager in Windows 7 and Vista, the Setup Manager utility in Windows XP/2000, or even Notepad, you can create an answer file, which is a text file used to provide answers to some or all of the prompts displayed during installation. Start Windows Setup and point it to the answer file, which will provide answers to the prompts, such as computer name, product key, and network settings. Unattended installations require little or no input to be completed successfully. You can also use disk-imaging software, such as Norton Ghost, to create and deploy operating system images. There are many requirements you have to meet to use disk images, so be sure to investigate and fulfill all requirements before you begin to clone computers and distribute images. The image distribution process includes making a clone or image of a computer that has a version of Windows installed. You can configure this computer with hardware similar to that of the computers on which you install Windows, and you can install common applications that you want to distribute with Windows. After the image is created, it’s stored on a network server and used to install Windows on computers across the network.

Windows installation After you’ve installed one version of Windows, you can make your way through the installation of any other version. Setup takes care of just about everything and presents you with an operational computer when it’s done. Installing Windows 7 and Vista To perform a clean installation of Windows 7 or Windows Vista by booting from the DVD: 1 Back up any files and folders you want to save from the computer on which you’re installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista. (This won’t be necessary if it’s a new computer.) 2 If necessary, save user system settings by running the User State Migration Tool (USMT) and saving them to a network location. Alternatively, you can use the Windows Easy Transfer Wizard to save your user system settings to a network location, a local optical medium (such as a DVD), or a removable hard disk or flash drive. For more information about USMT and the Windows Easy Transfer Wizard, see Windows 7 or Windows Vista Help and Support. Back up any important data. 3 If necessary, obtain a product key. You’ll need to enter it during setup. 4 Verify that you have Internet access if you plan to download and install updates to Windows 7 or Windows Vista later. 5 Insert the installation DVD and restart the computer. When prompted, press any key to boot from the DVD. 6 In Windows Vista setup, select a language, time and currency format, and keyboard or input method. 7 Click Install now. 8 Click “Go online to get the latest updates for installation (recommended) or “Do not get the latest updates for installation.”


21–19

9 In Windows Vista, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to automatically activate Windows when you’re online. (Clear the checkbox if you don’t want to activate automatically.) 10 Accept the license agreement and click Next. 11 Click Custom. 12 Choose the partition on which to install Windows 7 or Windows Vista. If necessary, click Load Driver to load a hard disk driver. You can click “Drive options” to delete, create, and format partitions. Configure the partitions as necessary, select the partition on which you want to install Windows 7 or Windows Vista, and click Next. If you had a previous version of Windows XP installed and are completing a custom installation of Windows 7 or Windows Vista, click OK to acknowledge those files will be moved to a Windows.old folder. Windows Setup will copy and expand files, and install the operating system. You’ll be prompted for more information after at least one restart. 13 In Windows 7 setup, select a Country or region, time and currency format, and keyboard layout. 14 Create a new user account, and in Windows Vista choose a picture to associate with that user account. 15 Name the computer and in Windows Vista, choose a desktop background. 16 In Windows 7, enter a password and a password hint. 17 In Windows 7, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to activate Windows automatically when you’re online. (Clear the checkbox if you don’t want to activate automatically.) 18 Choose how you want to handle automatic updates. 19 Configure time zone, time, and date settings. 20 Select a network type, and in Windows Vista, click Start. 21 Install any necessary device drivers that weren’t installed during the Windows 7 or Windows Vista installation. 22 If necessary, activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista. 23 Use USMT to load user settings back onto the upgraded system. If you are completing a custom install of Windows 7 or Windows Vista onto a partition with a previous Windows XP installation, the previous installation will be moved to a folder named Windows.old. This folder will contain the old Program Files, Users, and Windows folders. You’ll be able to access these folders, but you won’t be able to use the previous version of the operating system.

21–20 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Product keys and activation Product keys and activation are two methods Microsoft uses to combat software piracy. Product keys are 25-character codes that unlock the software for use. You typically enter the Windows Vista product key during installation. You obtain the product key from a label on the Windows 7 or Windows Vista DVD packaging or from an administrator who obtains it from the packaging or from a list provided through a volume license agreement. If you don’t have a product key, you can click Next on the “Type your product key for activation” page. Then, when you’re prompted as to whether you want to enter your product key now, click No. Be aware that you must enter a product key for the Windows Vista installation within 30 days or you won’t be able to boot the computer. Activation is the process in which Windows 7 or Windows Vista registers itself with Microsoft as being installed on your computer. Windows 7 or Windows Vista takes a snapshot of the hardware in your computer, and using an algorithm, produces a value that it sends to Microsoft. Activation ensures that you use one copy of Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a single computer. If you try to activate the same copy of Windows 7 or Windows Vista on a different computer, unless you have a volume license copy, the activation will fail. If you don’t activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista within 30 days of installation, it will begin to operate in what’s called Reduced Functionality Mode. In this mode, you can use Windows 7 or Windows Vista for only one hour at a time. After you activate it, you can use it normally. Any major changes to your hardware configuration might require another activation. You can activate the same copy multiple times if necessary, and you can reinstall the same copy of Windows Vista on the same computer as often as necessary. Activation is not the same as registration, which you do so you’re eligible to obtain updates and upgrade pricing for the next version of Windows. Activation is mandatory; registration is voluntary. Windows Update You can configure Windows 7 or Windows Vista to download and install operating system updates. These include updates to enhance features, correct problems, and bolster security. You’ll be prompted to download updates during setup, and when setup is complete, you can choose how you want to handle updates. It’s highly recommended that you enable Windows Update. You can always configure updates in the Control Panel at any time after installation is complete. Near the end of the upgrade, you’ll be prompted to select one of these options:  Use recommended settings: Install important and recommended updates  Install important updates only: Only security and other important updates  Ask me later: Configure options later


21–21

Network locations When installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista, you are prompted to choose the location of the network to which the computer is connected. Depending on your choice, Windows Vista will apply a predetermined collection of settings to help secure your computer on that network. You have three options:  Home — The computer is discoverable (that is, other computers can find it on the network), and you can see other computers.  Work — The computer is discoverable and you can see other computers.  Public location — There is limited discovery and tighter security. To change the network location setting (if the computer is not a member of a domain), open the Control Panel and click Network and Internet. Then click Network and Sharing Center. Next to Network, click Customize, and select either Public or Private. Installing Windows XP and Windows 2000 The installation process for Windows XP and Windows 2000 generally follows these steps: 1 Insert the installation CD-ROM. 2 Access and run the appropriate installation file (Winnt or Winnt32). The textmode Setup begins. (Winnt.exe is for 16-bit operating systems; Winnt32.exe is for 32-bit operating systems.) 3 f necessary, partition and format the hard disk during text mode. Setup then copies necessary files to the hard disk. 4 fter the text-mode part of the process, Setup reboots the computer and starts the GUI portion of Setup. During this portion, you’re prompted for some or all of the following: a Language and locale settings b Product key c Installation directory d Administrator password e Floppy disk to create a Startup Disk f Networking configuration (DHCP or custom configuration) Setup incorporates your input, copies the necessary files from the CD-ROM, configures the files, detects hardware and installs drivers, and configures networking. When Setup is complete, you’re ready to log on and complete the post-installation tasks.

21–22 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Troubleshooting an installation Generally, as long as you meet the minimum hardware requirements, and run the Windows Upgrade Advisor and resolve any issues it reports, you shouldn’t encounter any problems during the upgrade. However, there are some common issues, described in the following table. Issue

Possible cause

Resolution

CD or DVD won’t launch

Defective CD or DVD; autoplay not configured on CD or DVD drive

Replace the CD or DVD; reinsert into the CD or DVD drive. Access the CD or DVD through Windows Explorer or Computer (My Computer).

Hardware error messages

Incompatible hardware

Replace the hardware and try the upgrade again.

System isn’t booting to the optical drive

Optical drive port not enabled in BIOS or drive boot order is incorrect in BIOS

Enter the computer BIOS and verify that the motherboard port for the optical drive is enabled and that it is first in the boot order.

Error message that Windows XP SP 2 is missing

Windows XP Service Pack 2 is required

Install Service Pack 2 for Windows XP and try the upgrade again.

Setup can’t download updates

The computer isn’t connected to the network, or there are network errors

Continue with the upgrade. You can install updates later.

Disk space

Setup hasn’t found enough free hard disk space to continue with installation

Free up some hard disk space or upgrade the hard drive, and restart Setup.

CD or DVD errors

Computer can’t read the CD or DVD

Verify that the CD or DVD drive is installed and working properly. Check the CD or DVD itself to ensure that it’s clean and free of scratches or chips. Try a new CD or DVD if necessary.

Setup hangs during GUI portion; Windows won’t start after installation

Most likely a hardware compatibility problem.

Be sure that all of your hardware is compatible.

Blue screen

Hardware or BIOS error

Note the type of error, and research the cause and solution on Microsoft’s Web site. Verify that all hardware is compatible with your version of Windows. Update the system BIOS.


A-4:

21–23

Installing Windows 7 Professional

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Insert the Windows 7 DVD into your computer, or access the installation files on the network 2 Click Run setup.exe

To start the setup program

Click Yes 3 Click Install Now

Setup copies temporary files to your computer.

4 Click Go online to get the latest update for installation (recommended)

5 Check I accept the license terms

Click Next 6 Click Custom (advanced)

To install a clean copy of Windows, select where you want to install it, or make disk or partition changes. This option does not keep your files, settings, and programs.

7 Verify that the C: partition is selected Click Next 8 Click OK

To acknowledge that any files from the previous Windows installation will be moved to a Windows.old folder. Once you’re satisfied with the installation, you’ll want to delete this folder and remove it from the Recycle Bin to get the space back. The installation program copies Windows files, expands them, installs features, installs updates, and then completes the installation.

21–24 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 9 Select the appropriate Country or region, Time and currency, and Keyboard layout for your locations

If necessary.

Click Next 10 In the “Type a user name” box, type MYCOMPADMIN##

Where ## matches the number you were assigned for your COMPADMIN user.

11 In the “Type a computer name” box, type COMP-PC##

Where ## matches the number in your user account.

Click Next 12 In the Type a password box, type !pass1234

In the Retype your password box, type !pass1234 In the Type a password hint (required) box, type hint Click Next 13 If you have a product key, enter it when prompted Click Next 14 Click Use recommended

To enable Automatic Updates.

settings

15 Set the correct Time zone, Date, and Time for your location 16 Click Next 17 Click Work

To set your computer’s current location

18 Remove the DVD from the computer 19 Open Windows Explorer and view the contents of your C: drive

There is now a Windows.old folder.

20 Right-click the Windows.old folder and choose Properties Observe the size of the folder

It is very large. When you are sure you don’t need the information from the previous installation anymore, you should delete this folder to regain the disk space.


21–25

21 Click Cancel 22 View the contents of the Windows.old folder 23 Delete the Windows.old folder When prompted, click Continue 24 Close Windows Explorer

It contains the Program Files and User information from the previous installation, plus all of the Windows files.

21–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Post-installation tasks After you complete the installation, there are a few tasks you need to perform to complete the process and verify the installation.  Verify that all devices are working properly. Update drivers or install new drivers as necessary.  Add any needed Windows components that you didn’t install during Setup.  Install the latest service pack and hotfixes. You can get them from download.microsoft.com or update.microsoft.com. There might be updates stored locally on a server on your network’s LAN—check with your network administrator.  Restore user data files if you backed them up before the installation. After you complete these steps, the computer is ready to go.

Devices and drivers After you install Windows, you’re probably going to have to install drivers for at least one device, especially for devices that are newer than the operating system you’re installing. You should also obtain the latest drivers for any installed hardware or any hardware you plan to install, usually obtained from the hardware manufacturer’s Web site. Windows Setup loads the default drivers from the Windows installation CD-ROM. After the installation is complete, you might discover that certain devices aren’t functioning properly. It’s a good idea to find updated drivers and have them available to save time after the installation is complete. Device Manager The primary tool you can use to view whether or not installed hardware is functioning correctly is Device Manager. Windows uses icons to indicate if there is a problem with a device and its driver:  A black exclamation point within a yellow circle indicates the device is not functioning properly.  A red X indicates the device has been disabled.  A blue i within a white circle indicates the device has been manually configured.  A green question mark indicates that a compatible driver has been installed, but the driver might not be providing full functionality. Many times, this is the case when Windows uses a generic driver for a device. Adequate permissions Not all users have adequate permissions for installing hardware and device drivers on a Windows computer. Most Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, and Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise computers require a user to have some sort of administrative permissions to install additional hardware drivers, mainly as a security measure. Before you attempt to install drivers, be sure you have adequate permissions. Sometimes you need to log onto a computer by using an account other than your usual one.


21–27

Searching for device drivers Although most devices are packaged with drivers, some of the drivers might not be the most up-to-date. Windows might not install the best drivers for your new device if the device is installed during installation. At some point, you might need to find additional drivers on the Web, most likely from a manufacturer’s Web site. Most manufacturers offer free downloads of drivers and utilities for their devices. Find the name of the manufacturer and visit the appropriate Web site. Look for a link that offers drivers, support, or downloads. Then download the driver, which is often zipped, to a local hard disk. After you’ve found an updated device driver, you can install it. Use the installation file provided with the device. If you have the device driver file without an installation program, use Device Manager. In Device Manager, choose to update the driver for a device, and then point the wizard to the location of the new driver.


A-5:

Installing device drivers and Windows updates

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Open Device Manager 2 Note the devices that need drivers, or pick a device you want to update

Write down the manufacturer’s name and the model of the device, if available.

3 Visit the manufacturer’s Web site

(Use a search engine if you have to.) If the drivers for your network card need to be installed, your instructor will provide them on a disc.

On the Web site, find the link for support, downloads, or drivers 4 Find the drivers for the device you chose Download them to your computer and save them in the Downloads folder 5 Install any needed device drivers by using an executable file or from within Device Manager 6 Use Device Manager to verify that each device is working properly

7 Close any open windows 8 Use Windows Update to install important updates Reboot, if necessary, to install all updates 9 Right-click the desktop and choose Personalize 10 Change your desktop wallpaper 11 Change your user account picture

You might need to provide configuration data for the device to get it up and running. For example, if you install NIC drivers and there isn’t a DHCP server on the network, you’ll need to configure IP address information manually.


21–29

Driver signing Microsoft introduced the concept of driver signing in Windows 2000. Device drivers that have been tested and approved by the Windows Hardware Quality Lab are issued digital signatures to advertise their suitability for installation on a Windows system. You can configure Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP computers to accept only signed drivers to help protect your computers from untested drivers that could cause significant system disruption. Unsigned drivers aren’t necessarily bad; just be aware that some drivers are signed and some are unsigned. To configure driver signing in Windows 2000 Professional or Windows XP: 1 Right-click My Computer and choose Properties. 2 Select the Hardware tab. 3 Click Driver Signing to open the dialog box shown in Exhibit 21-3. 4 Choose one of three actions:  Ignore — Install the software anyway and don’t ask for my approval  Warn — Prompt me each time to choose an action  Block — Never install unsigned driver software 5 Click OK twice.

Exhibit 21-3: Driver Signing Options In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, driver signing is controlled by group policies. To change the configuration of driver signing, you have to use the Group Policy Object Editor. The setting for driver signing is found in User Configuration\Administrative Templates\System\Driver Installation. After you enable the “Code signing for device drivers” policy, you have the same three actions available as with Windows 2000 Professional and Windows XP Professional systems:

21–30 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two  Ignore — Install the software anyway and don’t ask for my approval  Warn — Prompt me each time to choose an action  Block — Never install unsigned driver software To configure driver signing in Windows 7 or Windows Vista: 1 Click Start and choose Accessories, Run. 2 Type gpedit.msc in the Open box and click OK. 3 Click Continue. 4 In the navigation pane, under User Configuration, expand Administrative Templates, System, and select Driver Installation. 5 In the details pane, double-click “Code signing for device drivers.” 6 Select Not Configured, Enabled, or Disabled. 7 If you selected Enabled, then from the “When Windows detects a driver file without a digital signature” list, select Ignore, Warn, or Block, as shown in Exhibit 21-4. 8 Click OK.

Exhibit 21-4: Configuring the driver-signing group policy setting in Windows 7 Professional


A-6:

21–31

Configuring driver signing

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Accessories, Run In the Open box, enter gpedit.msc

2 In the navigation pane, under User Configuration, expand Administrative Templates, System Select Driver Installation 3 In the details pane, double-click Code signing for device drivers

4 Select Enabled 5 From the “When Windows detects a driver file without a digital signature” list, select Block 6 Click OK 7 Close the Local Group Policy Editor

To open the Group Policy Object Editor.


Topic B: Upgrades This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

3.1

Compare and contrast the different operating systems and their features  Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit – Windows 2000 and newer – upgrade paths and requirements ○ Windows OS Upgrade Advisor ○ Microsoft Assessment and Planning Toolkit – Application compatibility, installed program locations (32-bit vs. 64-bit), Windows compatibility mode

Windows upgrade paths Explanation

You can’t just upgrade any Windows operating system to any other Windows operating system. The new operating system must support an upgrade from the older operating system. The tables in this section show supported Windows upgrade paths. If an upgrade isn’t supported, you have to perform a clean installation. Make sure you have any necessary service packs installed on the previous operating system before you start the upgrade. Windows 7 upgrade paths The following table outlines Windows 7 upgrade options, indicating “Install” when a clean installation is required, and “Upgrade” when an upgrade is possible. Previous Windows version

Home Basic

Home Premium

Professional

Ultimate

Windows 2000

Install

Install

Install

Install

Windows Vista Home Basic

Upgrade

Upgrade

Install

Upgrade

Windows Vista Home Premium

Install

Upgrade

Install

Upgrade

Windows Vista Business

Install

Install

Upgrade

Upgrade

Windows Vista Ultimate

Install

Install

Install

Upgrade

In addition to the information presented in the table, you can’t complete:  Windows XP to Windows 7  Cross-architecture upgrades—for example, 32-bit to 64-bit and vice-versa  Cross-language upgrades—for example, English to Japanese  Cross-SKU upgrades—for example, Windows 7 N to Windows 7 K  Windows Vista to Windows N, Windows K, Windows KN, or Windows E


21–33

Upgrades between Windows 7 editions You can also upgrade from one edition of Windows 7 to another if you want to increase the feature set you have on your computer. The following table describes your options for performing an in-place upgrade. If an in-place upgrade isn’t supported, you can always perform a clean installation of any other version of Windows 7. Current Windows 7 edition

Can be upgraded to

Home Basic

Home Premium, Professional, or Ultimate

Home Premium

Professional or Ultimate

Professional

Ultimate

Windows Vista upgrade paths The following table outlines Windows Vista upgrade options, indicating “Install” when a clean installation is required, and “Upgrade” when an in-place upgrade is possible. Note that although Windows 2000 is eligible for an upgrade version (lower-priced version) of Windows Vista, an actual in-place upgrade is not possible. Previous Windows version

Home Basic

Home Premium

Business

Ultimate

Windows 2000

Install

Install

Install

Install

Windows XP Home

Upgrade

Upgrade

Upgrade

Upgrade

Windows XP Professional

Install

Install

Upgrade

Upgrade

Windows XP Media Center

Install

Upgrade

Install

Upgrade

Windows XP Tablet PC

Install

Install

Upgrade

Upgrade

Windows XP Professional 64-bit (x64)

Install

Install

Install

Install

In addition to the limitations on the upgrades mentioned in the previous table, you can’t upgrade some foreign-language versions of Windows XP, Windows XP Media Center Edition, or Windows XP Tablet PC Edition to Windows Vista. Microsoft Windows XP Media Center Edition is available only on Media Center PCs. With the special hardware requirements, Windows XP Media Center Edition PCs are available only from Microsoft PC Manufacturer partners, so you won’t be upgrading any existing Windows systems to Windows XP Media Center Edition. Windows Vista Enterprise has its own unique requirements for installation and licensing. If you need to upgrade to Vista Enterprise, you’ll need to contact a Microsoft Volume Licensing Specialist.

21–34 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Upgrades between Windows Vista editions You can also upgrade from one edition of Windows Vista to another if you want to increase the feature set you have on your computer. The following table describes your options for performing an in-place upgrade. If an in-place upgrade isn’t supported, you can always perform a clean installation of any other version of Windows Vista. Current Vista edition

Can be upgraded to

Home Basic

Home Premium or Ultimate

Home Premium

Ultimate

Business

Ultimate or Enterprise

Enterprise

Ultimate

Upgrade requirements for pre-Vista versions of Windows Although you probably won’t be upgrading computers to versions of Windows earlier than Vista, the following table lists the upgrade paths available for earlier versions of Windows operating systems. Current OS

Upgrades supported

Windows 95

Windows 98, Windows 2000 Professional

Windows 98

Windows Me, Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition

Windows Me

Windows XP Professional, Windows XP Home Edition

Windows NT Workstation 4.0

Windows 2000 Professional, Windows XP Professional


Windows XP Professional


B-1:

21–35

Identifying upgrade paths

Questions and answers 1 Why would you perform a clean install instead of an upgrade?

2 True or false? You can upgrade from Windows Home Premium to Windows Vista Ultimate.

3 You’ve been using Windows Vista Home Basic, but would like to upgrade to get more Vista features. This computer is not used for work. What would be the best upgrade choice?

4 Your company is running Windows 2000 Professional on its client computers. You need to upgrade to Windows Vista. To which version of Vista can you migrate by using the upgrade feature?

5 You have a Windows XP Business computer that you’d like to upgrade to Windows 7 Professional. How might you accomplish that?

6 Which Windows Vista versions can be upgraded to Windows 7 Professional?

21–36 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Pre-upgrade tasks You want the upgrade process to go smoothly, so before you start it, you can complete some tasks that can help prevent problems: 1 Run the Upgrade Advisor and fix any reported issues. The Windows Upgrade Advisor programs for Windows 7 and Windows Vista can help you to determine if your Windows XP–based PC can run Windows 7 or Windows Vista. You can also run the Windows Upgrade Advisor to determine if your existing Windows Vista–based PC can run Windows 7 or an edition of Windows Vista with more features. 2 Verify hardware compatibility. 3 Verify software compatibility. Uninstall software or install software updates as needed to resolve compatibility issues. 4 Uninstall any unused applications and delete any unused files to free up as much disk space as possible and remove any potential compatibility issues. 5 Disable virus checking and compression software. 6 Back up user data files. Hardware and software compatibility Any time you install a Windows operating system, you must ensure that all hardware on the computer supports the version of Windows you’re installing. This is as true for upgrades as it is for clean installations. Remove any hardware that isn’t used or isn’t necessary, and consider updating the system BIOS. When upgrading, because all your system settings and applications are retained, you must make sure the applications on the computer are compatible with the new version of Windows. You can check with your software vendors to verify support for a particular Windows operating system. If you find that the software isn’t compatible with the new Windows version, you might need to rethink the upgrade or figure out another solution, such as finding or developing new applications. Remove any applications that aren’t used, and don’t forget to back up user data files before you start the upgrade. One way to check for compatibility for upgrading is to run the Upgrade Advisor.

The upgrade process If you’ve prepared ahead of time by ensuring that your computer’s hardware and any installed programs are compatible with Windows 7 or Windows Vista, the upgrade process itself should run smoothly. To upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista, follow these steps: 1 Disable any antivirus program you have running on your computer. It could interfere with the Windows 7 or Windows Vista Setup program. 2 Back up any important data. 3 Verify that the existing version of Windows is on an NTFS partition. If it isn’t, you’ll have to convert the partition to NTFS. 4 Verify that you have all service packs and updates installed on your existing Windows operating system. If not, install them by using Windows Update before proceeding. 5 If necessary, obtain a Windows 7 or Windows Vista product key. You’ll need to enter it during setup. 6 Verify that you have Internet access if you plan to download and install updates to Windows 7 or Windows Vista as part of the upgrade process.


21–37

7 Insert the DVD, and in the Install Windows window, click Install now. Or access the installation files over the network, double-click Setup.exe. In Windows 7, click Yes. In the Install Windows window, click Install now. 8 Choose whether to connect to the Internet to get installation updates. 9 In Windows Vista, if necessary, enter your product key. Choose whether to automatically activate Windows when you’re online. (Clear the checkbox if you don’t want to activate automatically.) 10 Accept the license agreement. 11 Click Upgrade. 12 If Setup detects compatibility issues, click “Click here for more information” to see what issues were discovered. (These may be the same issues you saw in the Windows 7 or Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor.) Setup takes over and completes the upgrade. Setup will restart the computer at least twice. 13 Choose how you want to handle automatic updates, and then confirm time zone settings. 14 In Windows 7, enter your product key. 15 Select a network type, and in Windows Vista, click Start. 16 Install any necessary device drivers that weren’t installed during the Windows 7 or Vista installation. 17 If necessary, activate Windows 7 or Windows Vista. Upgrades within Windows 7 To upgrade from one version of Windows 7 to another you use the Windows Anytime Upgrade utility. The Windows Anytime Upgrade utility in Windows 7 doesn’t require physical media or access to the original installation files, but you must purchase an upgrade key, which you can purchase using the Windows Anytime Upgrade utility at the beginning of the upgrade process. Windows Anytime Upgrade installs components from the Component-based servicing (CBS) store located on the local computer. Total time for an upgrade is approximately 10 minutes. 1 Click Start and choose Windows Anytime Upgrade. (If you don’t see it on your Start menu, you can search for it.) 2 Choose either to go online to purchase an upgrade or to enter an upgrade key. 3 Accept the license agreement. 4 Click Upgrade. Upgrades within Windows Vista The upgrade process is very similar, and if you’re already running Windows Vista, you know that your devices and applications are already supported. If you have Windows Vista Home Basic installed, you should verify that your computer meets the hardware requirements for Windows Vista Home Premium or Ultimate.

21–38 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two To upgrade from one edition of Windows Vista to another: 1 Disable any antivirus program you have running on your computer. 2 Back up any important data. 3 Insert the DVD of the edition to which you want to upgrade. If prompted, run Setup.exe. 4 Click Install now. 5 Choose to go online for the latest updates. 6 If necessary, enter the product key. Choose whether to activate automatically. 7 Accept the license agreement, and click Upgrade. 8 Choose how to configure updates. 9 Verify date and time settings. 10 Click Start. The Windows Anytime Upgrade feature is available in Windows Vista as well. It works a bit differently there, since it requires your original Windows Vista installation disc or access to the installation files. Troubleshooting an upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista Usually, the upgrade to Windows 7 or Windows Vista should run smoothly. However, sometimes there are problems. The following table lists some of the common issues you might encounter when attempting to complete an upgrade. Issue

Possible cause

Resolution

Upgrade option not available, or message “Upgrade has been disabled”

The computer was booted from the DVD.

You must boot the computer normally to Windows XP and then insert the DVD. Upgrade in Windows Vista isn’t available when you boot the computer from the DVD.

Upgrade disabled with message “Partition must be formatted NTFS”

You’re trying to upgrade Windows XP on a FAT32 partition.

Convert the FAT32 partition to NTFS.

Error message that upgrade is not supported

You’re trying to perform an in-place upgrade on an unsupported OS.

Verify in-place upgrade requirements.

The appropriate service pack isn’t installed.

Some upgrades require that service packs be installed on the original OS before you can start the upgrade. Download and install the necessary service pack.


B-2:

21–39

Upgrading to Windows 7 Ultimate

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Click Start and choose Windows Anytime Upgrade

2 Click Enter an upgrade key 3 Click I accept

To accept the license agreement.

4 Click Upgrade 5 Log in as your MYCOMPADMIN## user with a password of !pass1234

6 Close the Windows Anytime Upgrade window

The upgrade preserved the user account, password, and all settings. After you installed Windows 7 Professional, you chose a unique icon for your user account and a desktop wallpaper different from the default. These are preserved in the upgrade.

21–40 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Application compatibility When you upgrade from one version of Windows, such as Windows XP, to another version, such as Windows 7 or Windows Vista, applications written to work under the earlier operating system (legacy applications) might or might not work correctly when run under the more recent Windows operating system. The best option is to upgrade the legacy application to a version written specifically for the new operating system. Sometimes, however, this is not an option; a new version might be too expensive or might not exist yet. If you’ve successfully installed a legacy application in the new version of Windows, but it won’t start or won’t work properly, there are a few things you can try:  Check the Microsoft Update Web site for updates to the operating system or legacy application (if it’s a Microsoft application).  If it’s not a Microsoft application, check the manufacturer’s Web site for software updates or technical notes on how to run the legacy application under the new operating system.  Use the Windows Program Compatibility feature. Microsoft doesn’t recommend that you use a legacy antivirus, backup, or system application. For these types of applications, you should upgrade. Running the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard To run the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. Click Programs. 2 Under Programs and Features, click “Run programs made for previous versions of Windows.” Click Next. 3 Select the legacy application. Click Next. 4 Click “Try recommended settings” and then click “Start the program.” Click Yes. a If the program runs correctly, click Next and click “Save these settings for this program.” b If the program doesn’t run correctly, click Next and choose either “No, try again using different settings” or “No, report the problem to Microsoft and check online for a solution. 5 Click Close. 6 Close the legacy application.


21–41

Running the Windows Vista Program Compatibility Wizard To run the Windows Vista Program Compatibility Wizard: 1 Click Start and choose Control Panel. Click Programs. 2 Under Programs and Features, click “Use an older program with this version of Windows.” Click Next. 3 Select a method for specifying the location of the legacy application: you can choose it from a list of programs; use it in the optical drive; or specify it manually. Click Next. 4 Select the legacy application. Click Next. 6 Select the version of Windows the legacy application was written for, as shown in Exhibit 21-5. Click Next. 7 Check the display settings you want to apply to the legacy application. You can choose more than one. Options are:  256 colors — Uses a limited set of colors in the legacy application. (Some older applications are designed to use fewer colors.)  640 x 480 screen resolution — Runs the legacy application in a smaller window. (For problems where the GUI appears jagged or is rendered improperly.)  Disable visual themes — Disables Windows themes in the legacy application. (For problems with menus or title bar buttons in the legacy applications.)  Disable desktop composition — Disables transparency and other advanced display features. (For display problems in which movement appears erratic in the legacy application.)

8

9 10 11

12 13 14

 Disable display scale on high DPI settings — Disables automatic resizing of the legacy application if you’re using a large-scale font size. (For problems with the legacy application’s display when you’re running high DPI settings.) Click Next. If the program won’t run at all and you are logged on as an administrator, check “Run this program as an administrator.” (This setting is not available if you run the Program Compatibility Wizard under the user credentials of a nonadministrative user.) Click Next. Review the settings you’ve chosen. If you want to make a change, click the Back button; otherwise, click Next. Attempt to run the legacy application. If it runs successfully, select “Yes, set this program to always use these compatibility settings.” If it doesn’t run and you want to try different settings, choose “No, try different settings.” If it doesn’t run and you are done trying settings in the Program Compatibility Wizard, choose “No, I am finished trying compatibility settings.” Click Next. Specify whether or not to send the information to Microsoft. Click Next. Click Finish.


Exhibit 21-5: Windows Vista compatibility mode options The Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard The Windows XP Program Compatibility Wizard is similar to the Windows Vista wizard described previously. You’ll find the wizard on the All Programs, Accessories menu. In the Windows XP version, you can run modes for Windows Me, Windows NT, and Windows 2000. Windows 2000 application compatibility With Windows 2000 SP2 and SP3, Microsoft added application compatibility-mode technology to Windows 2000 Professional. However, the feature isn’t enabled by default when you install the service pack. To enable the Application CompatibilityMode feature: 1 Log on as an administrator. 2 Click Start and choose Run. 3 In the Open box, type regsvr32 %systemroot%\apppatch\slayerui.dll

where %SystemRoot% is the drive and folder in which Windows is installed. 4 Click OK. After you’ve enabled Windows 2000 Application Compatibility Mode, you can set application-compatibility settings on a legacy application. Here’s how: 1 Log on as an administrator. 2 Right-click the legacy application’s shortcut and choose Properties. 3 Select the Compatibility tab. This tab appears only if you’ve enabled the Compatibility-mode interface on the computer. 4 Check “Run in Compatibility Mode.” 5 Select either Windows 95 or Windows NT 4.0 compatibility mode from the list. 6 Click OK. 7 Double-click the legacy application’s shortcut to run the application and verify the settings.


21–43

Program locations Most 32-bit applications will run on 64-bit versions of Windows operating systems. The 64-bit versions of Windows 7 and Windows Vista run 32-bit applications in a 32-bit operating system emulation environment called Windows on Windows 64 (WOW64). For each 32-bit operating system call the application makes, WOW64 generates a corresponding 64-bit operating system call to pass on to the OS kernel. WOW64 then converts the 64-bit OS response back into a 32-bit data structure that the application understands. WOW64 runs in user mode, because all 32-bit application code must run in user mode under Windows 7 and Windows Vista. Because WOW64 runs in user mode, 32-bit kernel mode device driver and applications that rely on those 32-bit device drivers won’t run on the 64-bit version of Windows 7 and Windows Vista. WOW64 also ensures that files for 32-bit applications are separate from 64-bit applications by using File Redirection. The 32-bit folders are:  Application files — C:\Program Files(x86)  System files — C:\Windows\SysWOW64 The 64-bit folders are:  Application files — C:\Program Files  System files — C:\Windows\System32 WOW64 uses Registry Redirection to keep 32-bit application Registry settings separate from 64-bit application Registry settings. The Registry location for 32-bit applications is:  HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software\WOW6432Node The corresponding 64-bit application Registry key is:  HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\Software Occasionally, you might see 32-bit application Registry entries under HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\WOW6432Node. This configuration allows both the 32- and 64-bit versions of a particular application to be installed on the same 64-bit operating system without overwriting each other’s settings.

Microsoft Assessment and Planning (MAP) toolkit If you’re looking to implement an enterprise-wide Windows 7 upgrade rather than upgrading individual computers, you can use the Microsoft Assessment and Planning (MAP) toolkit to generate a network-wide inventory report with hardware and device compatibility details. The MAP toolkit identifies the following operating systems and software technologies in your environment, including those run in virtual environments:  Windows 7  Windows Vista  Windows XP Professional  Office 2010 and earlier  Windows Server 2008 and 2003, including the R2 versions  VMware ESX and ESXi

21–44 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two  Linux  LAMP application stack discovery  SQL Server 2008 The readiness reports are provided in Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word formats, and contain the following information:  Windows client operating systems, including system hardware inventory, and recommendations for migrating to Windows 7.  Antivirus and anti-malware programs installed on individual computers, and whether or not the Windows Firewall is enabled.  Installed Microsoft Office software and recommendations for migrating to Microsoft Office 2010.  Windows Server operating systems, including system hardware and devices, and recommendations for migrating to Windows Server 2008 R2.  Currently installed Linux operating systems, including system hardware inventory for virtualization on Hyper-V or management by System Center Operations Manager R2.  Assessment report of server utilization, and recommendations for server consolidation and virtual machine placement using Hyper-V or Virtual Server 2005 R2.  Microsoft SQL Server databases, instances, and selected characteristics.  SQL Server host computers and SQL Server components.  Virtual machines running on both Hyper-V and VMware, their hosts, and details about hosts and guests.  Assessment of Windows 2000 Servers and system hardware inventory. The MAP toolkit isn’t limited to evaluating Windows 7 readiness. It can also be used for Microsoft Office 2010, Windows Server 2008, and SQL Server 2008 migrations. If your company is a Microsoft Volume Licensing customer, the MAP toolkit can also provide you with software usage and client access reports for the following Microsoft server products:  Windows Server  Exchange Server  SharePoint Server  SQL Server  System Center Configuration Manager The MAP toolkit is available for download from Microsoft’s TechNet at: http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb977556.aspx

or from the Microsoft Partner Network at: https://partner.microsoft.com/40079927?msp_id=SAAssessment


B-3:

21–45

Using the Windows 7 Program Compatibility Wizard

Here’s how 1 Install the Windows XP application

Here’s why Your instructor will provide you with an application written for Windows XP that you will install on your Windows 7 Ultimate computer.

2 After the application has installed, click Start and choose Control Panel

3 Click Programs 4 Under Programs and Features, click Run programs made

To start the Program Compatibility Wizard.

for previous versions of Windows

5 Click Next 6 Select the application you just installed and click Next 7 Click Try recommended settings

Click Start the program

You need to open the program to test it.

Click Yes

If necessary, in the User Account Control dialog box.

Click Next

In the Program Compatibility dialog box.

8 Click Yes, save these settings for this program

Click Close 9 Close the legacy application 10 Close Control Panel


Unit summary: Windows installation and upgrades Topic A

In this topic, you learned how to perform a clean installation of a Windows operating system. You learned which pre-installation tasks to perform to make the installation easier. You also learned about what you need to do after the installation, and you learned how to troubleshoot installation problems.

Topic B

In this topic, you learned how to upgrade from one Windows version to another. You learned how to verify software and hardware compatibility with the Upgrade Advisor. You also learned how to change compatibility settings to run legacy applications on your Windows 7 or Windows Vista computer.

Review questions 1 In Windows 7 and Windows Vista, what utility do you use to copy all your files and settings to an extra hard drive or other storage device, before doing a clean install? A Files and Settings Transfer Wizard

C User State Migration Tool

B Upgrade Advisor

D Windows Easy Transfer

2 Which Windows operating systems will run on a Pentium 233 processor? [Choose all that apply.] A Windows 2000 Professional

E Windows Vista Home Premium

B Windows XP Home Edition

F Windows Vista Business


G Windows 7 32-bit

D Windows Vista Home Basic

H Windows 7 64-bit

3 For which Windows operating systems is 1 GB of memory recommended? [Choose all that apply.] A Windows 2000 Professional

E Windows Vista Business

B Windows XP Professional



G Windows 7 32-bit


H Windows 7 64-bit

4 True or false? To run the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor, you must have the Windows .NET Framework 2.0 and MSXML version 6 (MSXML6) installed on your computer. True. If these aren’t installed, Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor Setup detects their absence and prompts you to download and install them.

5 True or false? The Windows XP Upgrade Advisor is available for all versions of Windows XP. False. On Windows XP systems, you need Service Pack 2 installed.


21–47

6 What is the partition size limit on Windows XP computers without SP1 or later? A 128 GB

D 500 GB

B 137 GB

E 1 TB

C 256 GB 7 True or false? You can install Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP from a network share, but not Windows 2000 Professional. False. You can install all four Windows operating systems from a network share.

8 Which network location is configured for limited discovery and tighter security? A Home

C Public

B Office

D Work

9 When you’re installing Windows 7 or Windows Vista, if Setup can’t download updates, what is the resolution? A Continue with the install. You can install updates later. B Install the most recent service pack. C Note the type of error, and research the cause and solution on Microsoft’s Web site. D Replace the NIC with a Vista-compatible NIC and try the install again. 10 Most Window 7 Professional, Ultimate, and Enterprise, Windows Vista Business, Ultimate, and Enterprise, Windows XP Professional, and Windows 2000 Professional, computers require a user to have some sort of __________________________ permissions to install additional hardware drivers. administrative

11 In which versions of Windows is driver signing controlled by a group policy? A Windows 2000 Professional B Windows XP C Windows Vista D Windows 7 12 Which Windows operating system can’t be upgraded to any edition of Windows Vista? A Windows 2000 Professional


B Windows XP Home

D Windows XP Media Center

13 Which is the only version of Windows Vista that can be upgraded to Vista Enterprise? A Windows Vista Home Basic

C Windows Vista Business

B Windows Vista Home Premium

D Windows Vista Ultimate

21–48 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 14 To complete an upgrade from one version of Windows 7 to another, what utility do you use? Windows Anytime Upgrade

15 An application written for an older operating system is called a(n) _____________ application. legacy

Independent practice activity In this practice activity, you’ll perform a clean installation of Windows Vista Business and then upgrade to Windows 7 Professional. 1 Obtain a Windows Vista Business DVD-ROM or access the installation files on the network. Verify that you have enough free space to complete the install. Perform a clean installation of the operating system on the C drive. 2 Complete Windows Setup, providing answers to the prompts. Enter a user name of MYCOMPADMIN## with a password of !pass1234. Enter a computer name of COMP-PC##. Choose the settings appropriate for your computer and network. 3 After installation is complete, determine whether any devices need updated drivers. Download and install updates as needed by using Device Manager. 4 Install the latest service pack and hotfixes. The upgrade from Windows Vista to Windows 7 requires Windows Vista SP1 or greater. 5 Upgrade your Windows Vista Business computer to Windows 7 Professional. 6 After installation is complete, determine if any devices need updated drivers. Download and install updates as needed by using Device Manager. 7 Install the latest service pack and hotfixes.

22–1

Unit 22 Safety and maintenance Unit time: 60 Minutes

Complete this unit, and you’ll know how to: A Examine safety issues and hazards in the

computer environment. B Identify preventative maintenance tasks for

personal computers. C Identify ways to avoid injury and strain

when working with computers. D Examine proper methods for disposing of

computer equipment.

22–2


Topic A: Safety and hazards This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Physical inspection  Ensuring proper environment

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  ESD  EMI  RFI  Cordless phone interference  Microwaves  Electrical safety – CRT – Power supply – Laser printers  Cable management – Avoiding trip hazards  Physical safety – Heavy devices – Hot components

Office hazards Explanation

Part of keeping your computers safe is making sure that the environment in which they’re used is free of potential hazards and operationally safe. Most of the time, this involves a simple physical inspection of the work area. Let’s take a look at some of the factors you should consider when examining office hazards. Floor surfaces The following guidelines will help you maintain a safe floor surface:  Floors should be level and dry.  Carpets should be secured to the floor.  Cables and power cords should not cross walkways.  Equipment should be protected from static electricity. Use antistatic floor mats, and if necessary, place antistatic mats under the user’s keyboard and/or computer.


22–3

Exhibit 22-1 shows an antistatic mat.

Exhibit 22-1: An antistatic mat Fire safety For fire safety, follow these guidelines:  Keep papers orderly so that if a fire does break out, loose papers don’t catch fire easily. It’s best to store papers in metal file cabinets whenever possible.  If coffee makers, hot plates, personal heaters, and other such small appliances are used, keep combustibles away from them and be sure they’re used properly. Not only do these appliances produce heat that can ignite materials, but they can also catch fire themselves if left on for prolonged periods of time.  Keep working smoke detectors in all areas of the building.  Keep fire extinguishers readily available for each type of equipment you have. Some fire extinguishers use chemicals that shouldn’t be used on certain types of equipment. Each fire extinguisher lists the types of combustible materials it’s designed to handle. Newer fire extinguishers have pictures on them to indicate the types of fires they’re designed to put out, as shown in Exhibit 22-2. Older ones use color-coded shapes with letters to designate which types of fires they’re for.

Exhibit 22-2: Fire extinguisher label

22–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Some fire extinguishers are made to put out fires on multiple types of flammable materials. The following table describes them. Class

Used for…

Description

A

Ordinary combustibles

Puts out fires involving wood or paper. The label shows either a green triangle with an “A” inside it or a wastebasket and a pile of logs on fire.

B

Flammable liquids

Puts out fires involving grease, oil, gasoline, or similar liquids. The label shows a red square with a “B” in it or a gas can on fire.

C

Electrical equipment

Puts out fires involving electrical equipment. The label shows a blue circle with a “C” in it or a plug and cord on fire.

D

Flammable metals

Designed specifically for certain types of flammable metals. The label shows a yellow star with a “D” inside it. There’s no picture label for this class of extinguisher.

Fire extinguishers are filled with one of four substances for putting out fires. These substances are described in the following table. Type

Description

Dry chemicals

These are designed for putting out fires from multiple types of flammable materials by using an extinguishing chemical along with a non-flammable gas propellant.

Halon

Halon gas interrupts the chemical reaction of burning materials. It’s designed for use on electrical equipment.

Water

Class A fire extinguishers use water, along with compressed gas, as a propellant.

CO2

Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers are designed for Class B and Class C fire extinguishers. CO2 cools the item and the surrounding air.

More information about fire extinguishers, including how to use them, can be found at www.hanford.gov/fire/safety/extingrs.htm. Electrical safety To keep your work area free from electrical hazards, follow these guidelines:  Avoid overloading electrical circuits, which can lead to tripped breakers and fires.  Label the breakers in the electrical box so you know which outlets are serviced by which breakers.  Use surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) to protect computer equipment from surges and spikes. The delicate connections in a computer circuit board can easily be damaged by the surges and spikes produced by inadequate electric circuits.  Avoid stringing together or overloading power strips, as shown in Exhibit 22-3.  Don’t run electrical cords or network cables across walkways. If the wires inside the cable or cord become frayed, power cords won’t work properly and network cables will fail.


22–5

 If there’s no alternative, and power cords must be run across a walkway, they should be encased in cord protectors. These are most often made of a rubber or plastic strip through which the cords and cables can be easily inserted. The top of the strip is slightly domed so that people won’t trip over it, and it contains ample room for the cords and cables to be protected.  Provide good ventilation for computer equipment so it doesn’t overheat. Overheating can lead to melted components.  Phone cords, network cables, and electrical lines should be secured out of the way. You can use cable ties, which are commonly available in nylon and Velcro. Some cable ties include a small tag that you can use to label the cables you’ve secured together.

Exhibit 22-3: Overloaded circuits

22–6

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Air quality Computers like clear, clean air, but they’re often used in less than ideal conditions, such as on factory floors and in other locations where dust, dirt, and particulate matter abound. To maintain air quality, follow these guidelines:  If necessary, use fans to keep the air as clear as possible.  Avoid smoking around computers. The pollutants from cigarette smoke adhere to computer components and can cause them to fail.  Periodically clean computer fans to remove dust and debris.  Place working carbon monoxide detectors throughout the building. This precaution is more important for users than for computer equipment, but it’s still important. A carbon monoxide detector is shown in Exhibit 22-4.

Exhibit 22-4: A carbon monoxide detector

Computer hazards Computers can be hazardous to your health. The two major types of hazards are physical and electrical. In addition, toner and ozone emissions from laser printers and photocopiers can be hazardous. Physical hazards Computer equipment—especially laser printers, servers, and large CRT monitors—can be heavy and bulky. Use care when lifting and moving equipment, not only for the sake of the equipment, but also for the sake of your back and other muscles. When lifting equipment, take a balanced stance. If the item is on the floor, squat close to it and use your leg muscles to lift it as you stand up. Keep your back straight with your chin tucked in. Grip the equipment, using your entire hand rather than just your fingers, and bring the equipment close to your body, keeping your elbows close to your body as well. With CRT monitors, keep the glass face towards your body. It is the heaviest part of the monitor and is easier to carry when placed closer to your center of gravity. Also, make sure that you can see where you’re going with the equipment! Crashing into another person, a wall, or other equipment can also be hazardous. It’s also important to restrain or remove neckties, loose clothing, dangling jewelry, and long hair so that such things don’t become entangled with components. The electronic components of computers generate heat. Many times the heat generated by these components is enough to cause a serious burn if they’re touched. For example, while a notebook computer is often referred to as a “laptop,” if placed on your lap covering the bottom air vents, you’ll find that, after a while, the heat becomes quite uncomfortable and can actually burn your skin. If you’ll be working with a notebook computer on your lap, it’s best to purchase a lap desk. These allow air to circulate through the air vents on the bottom of the notebook as if on a desk.


22–7

They also protect your skin from the hot air moving away from the components. You should exercise caution working on the internal components of a computer, as they can retain heat. Even if you aren’t working on a component that generates heat itself, you are working in close quarters and can accidently brush up against a component that is hot. Electrical hazards Some components—notably CRTs, power supplies, and laser printers—contain highvoltage components. When working around these pieces of equipment, take special care by following these guidelines:  Always use care when working with any electrical equipment. Be sure that it’s turned off and unplugged before you begin to make repairs, unless you don’t have an ESD strap. Without an ESD strap, you need to leave it plugged in for the electrical ground. Otherwise, you could fry internal components.  Visually inspect the equipment’s wiring for defects, such as faulty insulation or loose connections, before each use.  Don’t use damaged or frayed electrical cords.  Remove metal jewelry, watches, rings, etc., before working on computer components.  Don’t place containers of liquid, including beverages, on or near computer equipment.  Always know the electrical ratings of the computers and other equipment in your work area so that you don’t overload electrical circuits. Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair a CRT or the high-voltage components in a laser printer. Such training is beyond the scope of this course. Laser printer and copier toner The toner used in laser printers and photocopiers is usually a mixture of plastic resin, iron powder, and carbon black. The particles are about 10 microns or smaller. Toner dust can irritate your respiratory tract, causing you to cough or sneeze. To protect yourself from inhaling airborne dust, wear a protective face mask. In addition, the components in toner can cause an allergic reaction if they come in repeated contact with your skin. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rashes on your skin and burning sensations in your eyes. To prevent exposure, you should handle toner cartridges with disposable gloves and face masks, and always wash your hands after you handle a toner cartridge or work on a photocopier or laser printer. Clean up spilled toner with a vacuum specially designed to clean up material this small. Other vacuums can let the toner through the bag onto the motor, where the toner can melt onto it or put the dust particles into the air. Always send used toner cartridges to a recycler for proper disposal. Never send them to the landfill. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the environment. You’ll remember that the charged corona wire in a laser printer creates ozone, an air pollutant capable of causing respiratory illness. To keep the concentrations of ozone below the currently regulated standard, many newer laser printers employ replaceable ozone filters. Make sure you follow the manufacturer’s instructions for replacing the ozone filter at proper intervals to protect against unsafe levels of ozone emissions.

22–8


Incident reporting An organization should have policies in place for handling accidents. The policy should include the procedure for reporting incidents. Proper documentation in a timely manner is necessary for OSHA, workers compensation claims, and insurance purposes. Do it!

A-1:

Identifying typical office and computer-related hazards

Questions and answers You’ve been called in to repair a printer in a small office. When you arrive, you can barely get to the printer due to the piles of papers surrounding it, along with the network and power cords crossing from desk to desk across the walkway. You find that toner has been spilled inside the printer. That happened when the table holding the printer collapsed under the weight of the printer and papers. You find that the printer is plugged into a power strip, along with a scanner, a fax machine, a lamp, and a portable heater. The power strip is plugged into another power strip. There is a fire extinguisher in the office behind the printer table. 1 What physical hazards are present in the office?

2 What computer hazards are present in this scenario?

3 What changes need to be made in this office?

4 If a physical injury were sustained during the service call, what would your company’s policy be for reporting the incident?


22–9

High-voltage interference High-voltage interference in a LAN can originate from a number of sources and affect several parts of a network. Outside interference Outside interference can be caused by lightning and the atmospheric conditions that produce it. Wind can also generate static electricity, either by the friction of air moving over stationary objects or by the motion that wind pressure produces in everything from tree leaves and flags to tumbleweeds and windmill blades. Other sources of interference from outside the building include radio stations, citizens band (CB) radios, and police radios. Inside interference Inside interference is mainly produced by differences in electrical potential in various parts of the building or between objects in the building. These differences cause electric currents to flow for very short periods of time and with differing potential between some of the points. The brief electrical flows tend to neutralize the potential between the various points, but the current flow often passes through wires, metal components, and other conductors that form part of the network structure. When this happens, the high voltage of the current flow disrupts the low-voltage flow of data in the network or may even entirely obliterate it for a time. Interference can also be caused by the operation of pieces of electrical equipment that create electromagnetic fields around themselves. Imperfectly wired electrical connections can produce tiny current arcs. These arcs generate interference around the circuit. Inside the building, sources of interference include fluorescent lights, any item with a motor—for example, fans, refrigerators, generators, microwaves, and other household appliances. Finally, almost any movement of an object through the air or while in contact with another object can generate a static electric charge on the object, which produces interference when discharged. This movement can be anything from feet walking on a nylon carpet (and discharging with a painful spark when the walker touches a metal object) to clothes tumbling in the drum of an automatic dryer. Static electricity is the buildup of an electrical charge on the surface of an object. Typically, objects that aren’t good conductors of electricity, such as rubber, plastic, or glass, are good at holding the surface charge. This static charge remains on the object until it bleeds off to ground or is neutralized by a discharge, termed electrostatic discharge (ESD). With ESD, when two objects of different electrical charge touch, there is a brief and sudden electrical current which flows between them. Static discharges can attain very high voltages. If you touch a metal object and feel an electrical discharge, the static charge (that is, the voltage difference between you and the object) was 3,000 volts or more. If you saw a spark when the discharge occurred, the voltage difference was at least 8,000 volts. Such voltage discharges can produce high levels of interference and can damage or destroy low-voltage electrical circuits and parts that normally function in a range of five volts or less. Even a mild static discharge of a few hundred volts can wipe out a data packet running in a low-voltage wire or completely fry a millivolt-rated capacitor or other electronic part.

22–10 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Static charges can also be produced by high-voltage devices. All cathode ray tubes (computer monitors, television screens) contain high-voltage electron beams and create static on the faces of their screens and on surrounding objects. Laser printers, copiers, and power supplies in computers, as well as in many types of electronic equipment, all produce static charges as part of their normal functions. These static charges can remain for long periods on the equipment, even after the power is shut off. The charge can also transfer to other objects or people, creating interference as it does so, and forming a new voltage difference on the object or person. This new voltage can then create more interference when it discharges. Electromagnetic interference Fluorescent lights produce interference through a phenomenon called electromagnetic interference (EMI). A fluorescent light contains a high-voltage transformer called a ballast. When an electrical current passes through the ballast, an electromagnetic field is generated around it. This field is what causes a fluorescent light to glow. It induces a current to flow through the fluorescent tube, causing the phosphorus inside the tube to emit light. The electromagnetic field can also induce a similar current in other nearby objects, including network cables and electronic equipment. This is why network cables (and other low-voltage wiring) must never pass close to fluorescent lights or other highvoltage devices. Induction currents in the network wiring can destroy data and damage equipment if the discharge reaches it.

Minimizing high-voltage interference How much the interference generated in and around a building affects a LAN depends on several factors: climatic conditions in the area (dry, windy conditions produce more static electricity and, hence, more interference); the LAN’s location (proximity to radio stations, power lines, industrial plants); and how well the building is constructed to deal with the causes of interference. Most interference can’t be prevented, but it can be minimized and the danger to the LAN’s functioning can be almost entirely eliminated by careful wiring, good grounding, and perhaps a few filters. Maintenance The first defense against interference is to create as little of it as possible. Clean, securely connected wires and adequate separation of low-voltage lines from highvoltage equipment and circuits reduce interference. So does good maintenance of electrical equipment. Devices with electrically connected moving parts, such as motors, relays, switches, solenoids, and sensors, all produce interference if their parts are worn or dirty. Keeping all of the building’s electrical systems, not just the network-connected devices, in top working order minimizes interference, which must be dealt with after the fact. Install ground wires The next step to zero interference is to ground everything electrical. Again, this principle applies to all electrical devices in the building, not just to those connected to the network. You might even need to ground a few non-electrical objects if you suspect that static charges are being generated on their surfaces. A carefully installed ground wire won’t harm any object and might reduce interference on the network by eliminating a source that can’t easily be filtered because it isn’t part of a circuit.


22–11

Use antistatic devices Floor surfaces, furniture, and glass don’t ground well, but they all take a static charge quite readily. If these surfaces are near network wiring or devices, they can bleed interference into the network. Antistatic sprays, grounding mats, and removal of the objects, when possible, are all methods of eliminating this type of interference. You must determine, on a case-by-case basis, whether it’s easier to eliminate a source of interference or to filter out the interference after it’s created.

Shielding and filtering For the interference that remains in a building after as many sources as possible have been removed, two other defenses remain: shielding and filtering. Shielding Shielding applies primarily to a network’s cables and is actually a refined form of grounding. The data-carrying wires in a shielded cable are surrounded for the full length of the cable by a webbing of metal wires or a foil wrapper. Interference entering the cable through its insulation is intercepted by the shielding and grounded before it can reach the data-carrying wires in the cable. If shielded cable is used in the network, it’s important that the connectors are all properly attached so that the shielding is grounded and can discharge any electrical interference it intercepts. If the shielding isn’t grounded, it can accumulate an electrical charge and eventually discharge part of it into the data line. Twisted-pair cable helps eliminate electromagnetic interference induced in the cable by proximity to AC power lines or equipment. Remember that the twisted-pair cable used for networking has four pairs of wires. The wires in each pair are twisted around each other, and the pairs are twisted together and bundled within a covering. The two wires (two halves of a single circuit) are wound together to cancel out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources. The pairs are twisted together to prevent crosstalk. This isn’t as big a problem for most LANs as it is in commercial networks, but wherever network wiring comes near AC wires or devices, shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable is a must. Filtering Filters are electronic devices designed to permit the normal function of a device while blocking or suppressing any other signal coming from it. Filters can be placed either on the source of interference (the preferable location, if it can be found) or on the recipient of the interference. The latter is the usual practice because the sources of interference are often impossible to locate. AC power-line filters are often built into high-quality surge and spike suppressors. They allow the AC current powering a device to pass, but block any other frequency of signal. These filters are designed to be placed on equipment that might produce powerline interference or on network devices that might receive the interference. One multiple-outlet filter/suppressor can protect up to half a dozen devices for a reasonable cost.

22–12 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Radio frequency interference (RFI) generally originates outside the building and enters the LAN through a telephone or cable modem. It can also be caused by cordless phones and microwaves. To eliminate this type of interference, you can place an RFI and electrical noise filter on the incoming connection cable in front of the modem (so the incoming signal passes through the filter before reaching the modem). These filters cost around $100 but can greatly speed up a modem connection with serious interference by eliminating the need to resend many data packets corrupted by interference. The filter can also reduce lost connections to the ISP caused by interference. An interference filter can also be wired into the network itself. These filters, which often function as surge and spike suppressors as well, operate by eliminating high voltage from the network lines. Because network data is transmitted at plus or minus 5 volts, the filter simply suppresses any voltage significantly above that level and thereby eliminates interference. The key to good suppression is speed, and a high-quality network filter should act within a couple of picoseconds in order to block interference effectively. Network filters cost about $50. Do it!

A-2:

Finding sources of static electricity and interference

Questions and answers Read the scenario, and then answer the questions. You’ll try to figure out if any equipment is producing interference. You’ve installed a network for a client, and it works well, except that there seems to be a lot of interference that occasionally slows down data flow. You think it’s caused by something electric operating at intervals. You take an FM radio outside, and with the volume turned up high, tune the dial to the quietest location where no station is operating. With the radio tuned to this location, you walk into the building and hold the radio very close to each piece of operating electrical equipment to determine if you hear static on the radio when it’s near equipment 1 What would the static indicate?

2 How could you silence the static and stop the network interference?


22–13

Topic B: Computer maintenance This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objectives. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Physical inspection  Use of appropriate repair tools and cleaning materials – Compressed air – Lint-free cloth – Computer vacuum and compressors  Ensuring proper environment

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)

Preventive measures Explanation

As with most things, if you take care of your computer equipment, it will last longer. Taking care of it includes keeping it clean and doing some periodic maintenance to prevent future problems. Many manufacturers identify maintenance tasks that you should complete for their products. You should familiarize yourself with those recommendations and incorporate them into your maintenance schedule. Ventilation, dust, and moisture control Recall that two primary factors contribute to hardware device and computer peripheral failure: dirt and heat. Most equipment has ventilation holes, and many computers have fans that help cool them. Keeping the fan openings and ventilation holes clear helps the airflow and prevents overheating. Keeping the fans clean helps prevent dust and foreign matter from getting inside the device. Hard disk drives, for example, are prone to failure in high-heat environments. Their mechanical nature causes a great deal of friction, as the platters can spin in excess of 15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Stack several disks inside of a single computer without proper ventilation, and the combined heat of several drives can damage the electrical components, leading to drive failure. If a drive fails and data is lost prior to a timely backup, an expensive data recovery service bureau needs to be employed to open the disks and attempt to extract the data from the failed device. You should periodically inspect the ventilation holes and components for dust. Using compressed-air canisters or computer-equipment vacuums that can blow air is useful for pushing dust and other matter off of sensitive components. Try to blow the dust out of the case, or tip the case so the dust is pushed to a corner without either the power supply or drives in it. Then either use a vacuum to remove the accumulated debris, or use tweezers to pick up the larger pieces and try to blow the rest out. Some Web sites recommend using an air compressor instead of compressed-air canisters if the dust and debris is caked on. An air compressor provides a more powerful air stream but can cause damage to components if not used correctly.

22–14 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two When using an air compressor, you should give a brief test spray away from the computer to make sure the compressor hasn’t collected any moisture in the nozzle. When you spray, use a low angle, facing towards the back of the case, so the dust and debris exits from the case instead of onto other components. Regular cleaning of computer equipment and adequate ventilation are necessary in order to maximize the lifetime of the equipment. The environment should be around 50% humidity, but not under 40% or above 60%, if at all possible. Too-low humidity levels lead to static electricity and ESD damage. High humidity levels can lead to moisture and condensation buildup on components, and you know that water and electricity don’t mix well! Printers should be cleaned regularly to help them last. Paper dust, especially from recycled paper, can cause problems. Spilled toner gets on rollers and other components and leads to repeating marks on printed sheets if it isn’t cleaned up properly. Even when they’re idle, printers tend to gather dust. Laser printers use negative and positive static charges to produce images, so keeping the printer dust-free and in a properly humidified room is essential to proper operation. High humidity levels can cause papers to stick together, causing paper jams. Jams can lead to unfused toner on the paper or, in an inkjet or dot-matrix printer, to the image being printed on the printer rather than on the paper. Be sure to clean up the inside of the printer if this happens. Use rubbing alcohol to clean up ink smudges. Specially designed toner cleanup cloths are also available. The lint-free material is stretched, and as it springs back to its normal size and shape, it gathers toner particles. Printer and scanner preventive maintenance Printer and scanner vendors typically provide schedules for regular maintenance tasks. The schedule is usually based on page count rather than time elapsed. The documentation for the printer or scanner should describe any maintenance kits that should be installed and explain how to reset the page count after you have performed the recommended maintenance steps. Ensuring that the printer or scanner is placed in a suitable environment helps the device work more efficiently and last longer. Using recommended supplies increases the life of the device. If you use recycled toner or ink cartridges or other non-recommended supplies, this often voids the warranty on a printer. Do it!

B-1:

Discussing preventive maintenance

Questions and answers 1 What steps can you take to keep computer equipment properly ventilated?

2 What’s the ideal humidity level for computer equipment?

3 What is the best measurement to use for deciding when to complete printer maintenance tasks?


22–15

Cleaning computer equipment When you’re compiling supplies for cleaning computer equipment, some of the items will be standard household cleaning materials. Others will be designed specifically for use on electronic or computer equipment. Depending on what you’re cleaning and the materials you’re cleaning with, you might need to wear a mask to filter out particles and chemicals. Latex or other protective gloves can also be useful, especially when cleaning up toner. Liquid cleaning compounds Most liquid cleaners used around computer equipment are alcohol-based because such substances dry quickly. Water-based cleaners leave the item wet, and this isn’t good for electronic items. If you do use a water-based cleaner, such as a mild household cleaner, to clean the exterior of equipment cases, spray or pour the cleaner on a lint-free cloth, rather than spraying it directly onto the equipment. When spraying or pouring the cleaner onto the cloth, you want to make sure to dampen the cloth, not to soak it. Don’t use ammonia or ammonia-based cleaners when cleaning laser printers or copiers. A chemical reaction can occur between the toner and the ammonia. The results can reduce print quality. CRT monitors can be cleaned with special alcohol wipes or with a standard windowcleaning solution. Don’t spray the window cleaner on the monitor. Instead, spray it on a lint-free cloth and then wipe the monitor surface. This method is appropriate only for glass screens. If you have an LCD screen or a screen with a plastic coating, be sure to use wipes designed specifically for cleaning those monitor surfaces, as the ammonia in glass cleaner can disintegrate the screen’s coating. Similar cloths are available for cleaning keyboards. Cleaning contacts and connections Component connections and contacts should be clean to get the best connection between devices. USB ports are especially susceptible to gathering dust and foreign materials in their relatively large openings. These can usually be cleaned out with compressed air or antistatic vacuum cleaners. If the electrical contacts are especially dirty, you can clean them with a lint-free swab and denatured alcohol or with a special contact cleaner available at most computer and office supply stores. Examples of special contact cleaners can be found at micro-tools.com/store. Non-static vacuums Special vacuums that don’t build up static electricity should be used for cleaning computer equipment. This is especially true when you’re cleaning laser printers, because they use positive and negative static charges to produce images with toner. Small vacuums are useful for removing the dust and other debris that seems always to find its way inside computers. The fans cool the system but also tend to bring dust and particles into it. The ventilation slots also allow foreign matter to enter the case. Be sure to keep the chassis, power supply, and fan clean, so any dust that enters doesn’t end up on components. The dust can create contacts between circuits and short them out. It’s also important to keep the CPU, the motherboard, and other thermally sensitive devices, such as adapter cards, clean. Dust can impede airflow, causing the components to overheat and fail.

22–16 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Some computers have external covers over sections that are prone to catching dust. These sections might include USB ports and floppy drives. Even though these covers help keep dirt out of the openings, you should still periodically open the covers and clean out any debris that has collected. The vacuum is also useful for cleaning out the grilles on a monitor. Keeping these clear is important for maintaining proper ventilation. Cleaning monitors, keyboards, and mice CRT monitors get very hot during operation, so there are a lot of ventilation grilles in the top rear of the case. These are prone to catching dust, which can get inside the monitor. Keeping these areas clean will prolong the life of the monitor. A high-pitched whine from a CRT is often caused by a dirty interior. Monitor screens and keyboards can be cleaned with lint-free, alcohol-based, moistened wipes designed specifically for cleaning these items. LCDs and other plastic screens require special care, and wipes designed for CRT glass screens shouldn’t be used on those surfaces. Keyboards are great dust, crumb, and dirt catchers. Users who eat at their keyboards tend to have quite a bit of foreign matter under their keys. You can turn a keyboard upside down and gently shake it to get debris out. You can also use a small paintbrush to move accumulated dirt to the end of a row of keys, and then use tweezers to remove it. If a user is using a mouse with a ball inside it (rather than an optical or laser mouse), then the rollers and ball might need to be cleaned periodically. Using the mouse on a mouse pad helps keep it clean, as long as the mouse pad is clean, but gunk builds up on the rollers and can cause the mouse to respond in jerks and starts or to not move in a certain direction. After removing the ring that holds the ball in place and wiping the ball with rubbing alcohol, you can scrape the debris off the rollers with a toothpick. If the debris isn’t a tight band of gunk around the roller, you can try using a cotton swab dipped in rubbing alcohol. The raised areas on the bottom of optical and laser mice can also gather debris. Be sure to clean any gunk that builds up around the sliding surfaces. Also, be sure that the light isn’t blocked by dirt. Cordless mice need either to be placed in the recharging base or to have their batteries replaced periodically. Be sure the contacts on rechargeable mice are clean so as to get good contact to recharge. Make sure the batteries in the mouse aren’t leaking.

Safety and maintenance Do it!

B-2:

22–17

Cleaning computer equipment

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 Gather together the cleaning supplies to clean the monitor, keyboard, mouse, and the interior and exterior of the case

You’ll clean the computer equipment at your lab station.

2 Clean the monitor screen

Be sure to use the proper type of cleaning materials, especially if you have an LCD or plastic-coated screen.

3 Clean the monitor case

Try not to get any of the dust in the monitor if you wipe the ventilation holes or use compressed air on that area.

4 Clean the keyboard

You can gently shake it upside down over a wastebasket, and then use a paintbrush, a business card, or a toothpick to get any remaining debris out from between the keys.

5 Clean the mouse

If necessary.

6 Clean the exterior of the case

Be sure that USB ports and any other openings are free from dirt and dust.

7 Open the computer case Clean the interior of the case

Use compressed air, a computer vacuum, tweezers, or whatever you need to remove any dust or debris from the interior of the computer. Be sure not to get dust on the components and to blow it away from the power supply and drives.

22–18 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Material safety data sheets A material safety data sheet (MSDS) is a document that lists the proper procedures for handling and working with a particular substance. An MSDS includes such information as:  Physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.)  Toxicity  Health effects  First aid  Reactivity  Storage  Disposal  Protective equipment  Spill/leak procedures These sheets are designed to give emergency personnel and employers information about the dangers of products. The MSDS should describe the first-aid measures needed if a person ingests or comes into contact with the material (depending on the material and what happens if a person does encounter it); the fire extinguishing measures needed, including which types of fire extinguishers can be used; handling and storage procedures; and any other information needed. OSHA requires that MSDS information be made available to anyone who might be exposed to toxic or hazardous materials. The MSDS is created by the manufacturer of the product. It’s available upon request from the manufacturer and should be sent with the first order of a product and any time the product or the MSDS is updated. Many MSDSs are available on the Internet. Many MSDSs include a Hazard Rating section. This is a summary of the most important hazards that might be posed by the product. There’s a code associated with each hazard. The following table lists the ratings you might find. Rating

Description

None

No potential hazard in this category.

0

The least hazard.

1

A slight hazard.

2

A moderate hazard.

3

Highly hazardous.

4

Extremely hazardous.


22–19

The MSDS might also include codes for personal protective devices that should be worn or used when handling the product. Examples are shown in the following table. Rating

Description

A

Wear goggles when using this product.

B

Wear goggles and gloves when using this product.

C

Wear goggles and gloves and other protective gear when using this product.

There are many Web sites with links to MSDSs. Product manufacturers also usually post MSDSs somewhere on their Web sites. One location you might check is msdssearch.com/find.htm. You can search by manufacturer or search for a specific MSDS. Do it!

B-3:

Reading a material safety data sheet

Here’s how

Here’s why

1 In your Web browser, open a search page, such as google.com or yahoo.com

You’ll search for an MSDS and evaluate the product’s potential hazard level.

2 Search for toner MSDSs

Laser printer toner is one of the common spills you might need to clean up.

3 View the MSDS for one of the toners found in the search 4 How would you clean up a spill according to the MSDS? 5 What type of fire extinguisher should be used on a fire with the toner involved?


Topic C: Safe work practices This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques  Ensuring proper environment

Safe computer handling Explanation

Computer technicians are often asked to carry large pieces of equipment to user workstations. Technicians also sometimes spend hours over a computer trying to figure out why it isn’t working. Be sure to take frequent breaks to give your eyes and body a rest from such tasks.

Ergonomic workstations The media have covered the potential hazards usually referred to as repetitive strain (or stress) injuries (RSIs). RSIs occur when stress is placed on the neck, arm, wrist, and eyes of a computer user who spends hour upon hour on a computer that isn’t ergonomically configured to that particular user’s needs. (Even when a system is set up correctly, working for hours without breaks can cause an RSI.) The following Web sites contain information that can be useful in setting up workstations to best suit user needs: office-ergo.com/index.html and ergo.human.cornell.edu. The computer user should be able to sit comfortably on a chair, with feet flat on the floor. The user’s back should be either straight or slightly reclined, never leaning forward to reach the keyboard or to see the monitor. The monitor should be at eye level so that there’s no need to look down or up. The top of the monitor case should usually be about two or three inches above eye level, thus placing the screen at eye level, with the top tipped back slightly and about arm’s distance from the user. The keyboard should allow the user to keep arms close to his or her body and keep the forearm at approximately a 90º angle. Some keyboards come with a built-in wrist rest, on which users can rest the lower part their hands to relieve some stress on the wrists. You can also purchase wrist rests separately to place at the bottom of a keyboard that doesn’t have one. Eye strain can be lessened by using LCD monitors rather than CRT monitors. If the workstation needs to be altered, you can use risers to bring the monitor up to the desired level. Be sure not to block any ventilation slots, though. This might happen if the equipment is in an armoire, or if the monitor is right up against a shelf above it in an office cubicle, or is in a corner with other things right next to its sides. If the desk itself needs to be raised, be sure that it’s still stable afterward. A monitor or other piece of equipment falling onto a user would be another hazard if the desk were unstable.


22–21

Laptops Laptops are convenient for many users, but they can be uncomfortable to use. Some laptops weigh only about 3 to 5 pounds; others weigh 8 to 10 pounds. Add to that the weight of the laptop bag and the papers and other things users often travel with, and you’re looking at 5 to 20 pounds in the laptop bag to be carried in hand, over the shoulder, or on your back in a backpack. The cramped keyboard can cause the user to type in unnatural positions. The monitor and keyboard cannot usually both be placed in the optimal ergonomic positions. Usually you can get one or the other in a good position, but it’s hard to get both correct. Laptops are hot, particularly if they’re on your lap. Most laptops are designed to operate at 35º C to 40º C (95º to 104º Fahrenheit). Placing them on your lap inhibits airflow through the openings on the underside, resulting in higher operating temperatures. These often rise to 40º C to 50º C (104º to 122º Fahrenheit) or even higher. At such temperatures, the laptop often crashes when the processor becomes too hot. The hard drive can also crash at these temperatures. Users have also been burned right through their clothing when using a laptop directly on their laps. Use a laptop cooling pad beneath your laptop, when traveling, to help protect the laptop from overheating and protect yourself from burns. These pads usually contain fans to help cool the laptop. Some pads also contain thermal gels to help cool the laptop. The pad fans are usually powered through the USB port on the laptop. Other cooling pads are simply flat or wedge-shaped plastic pads with ridges that enable air to flow through between the work surface and the laptop. Do it!

C-1:

Avoiding injury and strain when working with PCs

Here’s how 1 Adjust your chair so that your feet are flat on the floor 2 Is your monitor too high or too low? 3 Does the height of the keyboard allow you to keep your arms at approximately a 90-degree angle, and your elbows in close to your body? 4 Does your workstation have a wrist rest?

Here’s why You’ll adjust your workstation to the optimum ergonomic position.


Topic D: Disposing of computer equipment This topic covers the following CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) version 2.0 exam objective. #

Objective

6.1

Outline the purpose of appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them  Environmental – consider proper disposal procedures

Disposal of electronics Explanation

It’s often more cost-effective to replace a component or even an entire computer than to fix it or upgrade it. Home users and companies alike often end up with large piles of broken or outdated computers and other electronic equipment that needs to be disposed of properly. Electronic components and equipment can’t just be sent to the landfill along with the rest of the trash. They contain many hazardous materials, a number of which can be reclaimed. To help prevent environmental damage, you need to remove hazardous materials before sending items to the landfill. Be sure to check the MSDS for information on how to handle and dispose of the equipment. Hazardous materials Hazardous materials in electronic equipment often include lead, which is used in the solder joints in electronics. CRT monitors contain phosphorous. Both of these materials must be disposed of in accordance with OSHA and EPA guidelines. The MSDS lists any hazardous materials in equipment, along with measures to take when disposing of it.

Disposing of used toner and ink cartridges Toner cartridges aren’t suitable for disposal in landfills. The manufacturers have information on how the cartridges can be recycled. The cartridges are often refilled and reused if the rest of the components in the cartridge are still in good condition. Some manufacturers include a shipping label with the replacement cartridge for returning the used cartridge to them for recycling or disposal. Ink cartridges aren't usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain electronic and metal components that can be reclaimed. They can also be refilled and used again. (Some printer manufacturers don’t honor the printer’s warranty, however, if you use recycled ink cartridges.) Office supply stores and other locations often accept ink cartridges for recycling.

Disposal of computer equipment Many batteries contain heavy metals that can’t be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Battery recyclers remove the heavy metals from the batteries and sell them back to industries that can use them in products. The rest of the battery can then be safely disposed of. Search the Web to find battery recyclers. They often offer collection containers in which you can ship them batteries for recycling.


22–23

CRTs contain phosphorous and sometimes mercury switches, as well as lead and other precious metals, in their components. These can’t be thrown into the landfill, so they need to be disposed of properly. When sending CRTs for recycling, be sure that they’re packaged so that the screen doesn’t break. Most recyclers can’t reclaim anything from a CRT with a broken screen. The computer itself has many components that can be reclaimed. Precious metals can often be extracted from circuit boards. The case can be recycled. The metals can then be sold back to manufacturers for use in new products. If you’re disposing of a storage disk, it’s important that you physically destroy the area where data is stored. Even if you use software to erase the disk, your data could be retrieved by a savvy thief. There are companies that specialize in the disposal of electronic and computer equipment. They sort the equipment by type and then begin manually dismantling the equipment. They divide it into plastic, metal, and electronic components and CRTs. The electronics boards are sent on for recapturing precious metals. A breakdown of the materials found in one ton of electronics boards can be found at www.thegreenpc.com/the.htm. Reusing equipment The first choice when your computer equipment no longer meets your needs should be to donate the equipment to an organization that can use it. This might be a local school or other charitable organization. Many PC recyclers attempt to send usable equipment back out for use rather than dismantling it for materials reclamation. Methods of disposal Some municipalities offer local electronic-equipment recycling services. These might be available year round or offered periodically. There’s often a small fee for disposing of the equipment. Considering the amount of manual labor involved in recycling these materials, the fees aren’t exorbitant. If no local service is offered, you can check the Web for recyclers. If you have pallet upon pallet of equipment, a recycler might be able to pick it up from you or arrange to have it picked up.


D-1:

Selecting the proper methods for computer equipment disposal

Here’s how 1 Open your Web browser 2 Search for computer recyclers 3 Determine if the recycler you find offers equipment for reuse 4 Determine if the organization recycles other electronic components or batteries 5 Determine how to get the equipment to the recycler When you’re done, close the browser window

Here’s why You’ll locate a computer recycler on the Web.


22–25

Unit summary: Safety and maintenance Topic A

In this topic, you identified safety issues and hazards in the computer environment. You examined office hazards, including floor surfaces, fire safety, electrical safety, and air quality. You also examined computer hazards, including physical and electromagnetic hazards. Next, you examined high-voltage interference sources and the need to be careful when working around high-voltage equipment. Finally, you learned about MSDSs and why they’re needed, and you examined some examples.

Topic B

In this topic, you identified the preventative maintenance tasks you should complete on your computer equipment and peripherals, such as printers, keyboards, and mice, to keep them functioning properly. You examined the different types of cleaning materials designed specifically for use on sensitive computer electronic components.

Topic C

In this topic, you identified ways to avoid injury and strain, often referred to as a repetitive stress injury (RSI), when working with computers. You examined ways to make a user’s workstation comfortable and to alleviate as much stress as possible to the back, arms, wrists, and neck.

Topic D

In this topic, you identified the proper methods for disposing of computer equipment. You identified why electronics and computer equipment can’t be sent to a landfill. You also identified ways of recycling or reusing the equipment.

Review questions 1 What type of fire extinguisher should you keep handy for computer fires? A Class A B Class B C Class C D Class D 2 What type of fire extinguishing substance interrupts the chemical reaction of burning materials? A CO2 B Dry chemicals C Halon D Water 3 True or false? Air-quality safety measures are for the benefit of computer users only. False. Sensitive computer equipment can be damaged by air pollutants such as cigarette smoke.

4 True or false? Any vacuum cleaner can be used to pick up spilled toner. False. You should clean up spilled toner with a vacuum specially designed to clean up material this small. Other vacuums can put the dust particles into the air or let the toner through the bag onto the motor, where the toner can melt onto it.

5 True or false? Only specially trained technicians should attempt to repair problems inside a CRT or power supply. True

22–26 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two 6 Which of the following is not a cause of outside interference? A Atmospheric conditions that produce lighting B CB radios C Differences in electrical potential between areas of a building D Wind 7 If you see an ESD spark when you touch an object, what was the voltage difference between you and the object? A At leas 1000 volts B At least 3000 volts C At least 5000 volts D At least 8000 volts 8 Fluorescent lights produce interference through a phenomenon called ___________________ interference. electromagnetic

9 _____________ applies primarily to a network’s cables and is actually a refined form of grounding. Shielding

10 ______________ are electronic devices designed to permit the normal function of a device while blocking or suppressing any other signals coming from it. Filters

11 What can you use to keep ventilation holes clear of dust? A Alcohol-based cleaner B Compressed air C Fan D Lint-free cloth 12 What can you use to clean up ink smudges? A Lint-free cloth B Rubbing alcohol C Soap and water D Vacuum designed for picking up toner. 13 Which of the following devices can be used to maintain power for extended periods of time? A Battery backup B Generator C Inverter D Surge protector


22–27

14 Most liquid cleaning compounds for computer equipment are based on which of the following? A Alcohol B Ammonia C Mist in the form of compressed air D Water 15 Which of the MSDS hazard ratings is least hazardous? A 0 B 1 C 2 D 3 E 4 16 Which MSDS personal protection rating recommends goggles, gloves, and other protective wear? A Rating A B Rating B C Rating C D Rating D 17 When you’re properly setting up a user’s workstation, the angle of the user’s forearm to his body should be approximately what? A 10 degrees B 45 degrees C 90 degrees D 180 degrees 18 True or false? Laptops are meant to be used on your lap. False. Laptops are hot, particularly if they are placed on your lap. Components can overheat due to the lack of airflow through the underside openings, and users can get burned when the laptop is placed on their laps.

19 True or false? Batteries, toner cartridges, and ink cartridges can be disposed of in landfills without any consequences. False. Many batteries contain heavy metals that can’t be sent to the landfill. Batteries in the equipment might contain nickel, mercury, or cadmium. Toners are usually a mixture of plastic resin, iron powder, and carbon black. Chemicals in the toner cartridges can contaminate the environment. Ink cartridges aren’t usually as toxic as toner cartridges, but they still contain electronic and metal components that can be reclaimed.

22–28 CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Independent practice activity In this activity, you’ll practice applying safety practices to a computer environment. 1 Obtain the MSDS for the type of toner, ribbon, or ink cartridge used in your office. 2 Determine what to do if it’s involved in a fire, as well as how to dispose of it. 3 Practice lifting equipment, using the proper technique and moving it from one desk to another. 4 Adjust a user’s workstation so that it’s ergonomically correct. 5 Check your offices for unsafe or hazardous configurations. 6 Locate an electronics recycler and obtain a quote for disposing of outdated equipment in your office. 7 Compile a list of organizations to which you can donate used equipment.

A–1

Appendix A The Open Systems Interconnection model This appendix covers these additional topics: A Describe the layers of the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model.

A–2


Topic A: The OSI model Explanation

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a standard means of describing network communications or networking processes by defining it as a series of layers, each with specific input and output. It describes a theoretical model of what happens to information being sent from one computer to another on a network. The sending computer works from the Application layer down, and the receiving computer works on the transmitted data from the Physical layer up. The OSI model was developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) and has seven layers that are numbered in order from the bottom (Layer 1) to the top (Layer 7). The names of the various layers, starting from the top, are as follows:  Layer 7—Application layer (top layer), the layer in which applications on a network node (computer) access network services, such as file transfers, electronic mail, and database access.  Layer 6—Presentation layer, the layer that translates application layer data to an intermediate form that provides security, encryption, and compression for the data.  Layer 5—Session layer, the layer that establishes and controls data communication between applications operating on two different computers, regulating when each can send data and how much.  Layer 4—Transport layer, the layer that divides long communications into smaller data packages, handles error recognition and correction, and acknowledges the correct receipt of data.  Layer 3—Network layer, the layer that addresses data messages, translates logical addresses into actual physical addresses, and routes data to addresses on the network.  Layer 2—Data Link layer, the layer that packages bits of data from the physical layer into frames (logical, structured data packets), transfers them from one computer to another, and receives acknowledgement from the addressed computer.  Layer 1—Physical layer (bottom layer), the layer that transmits bits (binary digits) from one computer to another and regulates the transmission stream over a medium (wire, fiber optics, or radio waves). All parts of network operating systems function in one of these seven layers. If you can visualize the layer in which an operating system functions, you have a clearer understanding of how it relates to the rest of the network operating system.

The Open Systems Interconnection model

Exhibit 1-1: The OSI model

A–3

A–4


The OSI model applied to local area networking The applications, operating systems, and network technology you choose determine how the OSI model is applied to your network.

Exhibit 1-2: A LAN compared with the OSI model

B–1

Appendix B System cases This appendix covers these additional topics: A Describe the various types of system cases.

B–2


Topic A: System cases Explanation

Computer cases enclose a computer’s components. Cases help protect sensitive parts and keep dangerous components—those that get hot or could give electrical shocks— out of reach. A case also packages the various components into a single unit that can be moved about easily. Most cases enclose the motherboard, power supply, disk drives, expansion cards, and so forth. A few cases, especially those from non-Windows-based personal computers, also encase the monitor. A notebook computer’s case encloses everything, though you can typically also use external devices, such as mice and keyboards, with notebooks. The following table describes the common form factors for computer cases. Form factor

Description

Desktop

Once the most popular form factor, but rare today. The case was designed to lie horizontally on a desk, with the monitor sitting atop it. Floppy and CD drives were mounted horizontally so they would work correctly in a case in this orientation.

Tower

Essentially, an upright version of the desktop case (one that stands vertically, rather than horizontally). It’s designed to sit on the floor or on a shelf. Drives and other components are mounted such that they’re horizontal in the tower’s upright position. Dimensions are in the range of 20" tall by 8" wide by 18" deep or larger.

Mid-tower

A smaller version of the tower style case. Dimensions are in the range of 18" tall by 8" wide by 18" deep.

Mini-tower

A still smaller version of the tower case. Dimensions are in the range of 16" tall by 8" wide by 16" deep or smaller.

Brick (or cube)

A small case, more cube-shaped than a typical tower case. This case style was introduced many years ago, but is regaining favor among some users and manufacturers. Dimensions are in the range of 8" tall by 12" wide by 8" deep or smaller.

C–1

Appendix C Binary and hexadecimal numbering This appendix covers these additional topics: A Understanding the binary and hexadecimal

numbering systems.

C–2


Topic A: Count like a computer Explanation

As a computer support technician, you’ll sometimes need to interact with the computer by using numbers or symbols that the computer can understand. To do so, you’ll sometimes need to enter numerical values using a numbering system that the computer can interpret.

Numbering systems A numbering system is a method of recording numbers. It follows a particular paradigm for recognizing and manipulating numerical values. Numbering systems define a limited set of symbols with which you can represent the individual digits of a number. Numbering systems also define the concept of positions or places, which are the means by which you can construct numbers larger than the base. The numbering system’s base is the number of digits available. For example, in the decimal or base-10 numbering system, there are ten digits with which we can construct any number. To construct numbers larger than ten digits allow, you must add digits. All the digits of a number are written next to each other, with the position or place of each digit representing the base raised to the digit position minus one.

Base-10 numbering For example, in the decimal system, the first place (the rightmost) represents multiples of 10 raised to the zero power. These are the single-digit values. The second place represents multiples of 10 raised to the first power, or multiples of 10. In the base-10 system, the places are: …, 1000 (or 103), 100 (or 102) , 10 (or 101) , 1 (or 100) The number 23 is thus represented by two tens plus three ones. 2 * 101 + 3 * 100 = 20 + 3 = 23 Other numbering systems use different bases and places. The following table provides a quick overview of how numbers larger than a single digit are constructed from powers of 10. The powers of 10 are sometimes called “places,” as in “the ones place” or “the tens place.” Number

1000 (or 103)

100 (or 102)

10 (or 101)

1 (or 100)

8

0

0

0

8

23

0

0

2

3

287

0

2

8

7

C–3

Binary and hexadecimal numbering

The binary numbering system The binary numbering system is a base-2 system. It uses just two digits—0 and 1—to represent any number. Places in this system represent powers of 2. The following table illustrates how some numbers can be constructed in the binary system. Number

16 (or 24)

8 (or 23)

4 (or 22)

2 (or 21)

1 (or 20)

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

14

0

1

1

1

0

31

1

1

1

1

1

As you can see, many places are required to represent even small numbers when using the binary system. Computers are constructed of millions of tiny switches. These switches can be either on or off. Thus, the binary system is well-suited for computers. In fact, everything that a computer works with or does has a representation as a binary digit. Binary notation Often, context makes it clear whether you’re working with binary or decimal numbers. Sometimes, though, you must take extra care to be clear which you’re using. One binary notation style includes a subscript 2 following the number. Thus, you would be able to know that 102 is the binary number representing two, not the decimal number 10. Another notation style involves writing the decimal digits in groups of four or eight digits, with zeros added as needed on the left to make equal groups. For example, you would write the binary number 10000000000 (1024 in base 10) as 00000100 00000000. Conversion from base 10 A useful trick for converting base-10 numbers to binary is to construct a table like the following one. Write the base-10 number on the left. Then, starting with the leftmost binary place, put a 1 in each column, if that value is smaller than the number at the left. Then subtract the number in the column from the number at the left. This is your new base number, and you can move on to the next column; otherwise, put a 0 in the column. # to convert

1024

512

256

128

64

32

16

8

4

2

1

C–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Binary math You can add, subtract, multiply, and divide binary numbers. You add the value at each place, carrying the remainder to the next higher place. For example, binary 10 (2) plus binary 01 (1) is binary 11 (3). Just as with decimal numbers, the value of each place can never exceed the base minus one. In other words, binary 10 (2) plus binary 10 (2) cannot equal 20. Instead, you must add a new place to the left, putting a 1 in it. The correct answer is thus 100 (4).

The hexadecimal numbering system The hexadecimal numbering system, also called hex or base-16 numbering, uses 16 digits—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 , 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. The letter “digits” represent the decimal-equivalent values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. For example, to represent the number 10 in hex, you write A. In hex, the base is 16 and each place represents a power of 16, as shown in the following table. Number

4096 (or 163)

256 (or 162)

16 (or 161)

1 (or 160)

7

0

0

0

7

15

0

0

0

F

17

0

0

1

1

453

0

1

C

5

1024

0

4

0

0

62331

F

3

7

B

Even very large numbers can be represented with just a few hexadecimal digits. Hex numbering is often used with computers because each hex digit compactly represents four binary digits. Thus, instead of writing 11111111 to represent the number 255, you can simply write FF. Hex notation When you see a number containing the letters A through F, it should be obvious that you’re looking at a hexadecimal number. For numbers that don’t include letters, you need to include a clue that you’re representing a hex value. Matching the other notations, you can include a subscript 16 following the number to indicate that it is a hexadecimal number. For example, you might write 1116 to represent decimal 17 in hex. The more common technique is to precede the number with a zero and a lowercase x. Thus, the hex equivalent of decimal 1024 would be written 0x400.

D–1

Appendix D CompTIA A+ acronyms This appendix covers the following information: A Acronyms and abbreviations appearing on

the CompTIA A+ exams covering 2009 objectives.

D–2


Topic A: List of abbreviations Explanation

The following is a list of acronyms and abbreviations that appear on the CompTIA A+ exams covering 2009 objectives. Candidates are encouraged to review the complete list and attain a working knowledge of all listed items as part of a comprehensive exam preparation program. Relevant exams include:  CompTIA A+ Essentials, 220-701, version 2.0  CompTIA A+ Practical Application, 220-702, version 2.0 CompTIA A+ Acronyms. Copyright © 2008 by CompTIA. All rights reserved. Acronym

Spelled out

AC

alternating current

ACL

access control list

ACPI

advanced configuration and power interface

ACT

activity

ADF

automatic document feeder

ADSL

asymmetrical digital subscriber line

AGP

accelerated graphics port

AMD

advanced micro devices

APIPA

automatic private internet protocol addressing

APM

advanced power management

ARP

address resolution protocol

ASR

automated system recovery

ATA

advanced technology attachment

ATAPI

advanced technology attachment packet interface

ATM

asynchronous transfer mode

ATX

advanced technology extended

BHO

browser helper object

BIOS

basic input/output system

BNC

Bayonet-Neill-Concelman or British Naval Connector

BTX

balanced technology extended

CD

compact disc

CompTIA A+ acronyms Acronym

Spelled out

CD-ROM

compact disc-read-only memory

CD-RW

compact disc-rewritable

CDFS

compact disc file system

CFS

Central File System, Common File System, Command File System

CMOS

complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

COMx

communication port (x=port number)

CPU

central processing unit

CRT

cathode-ray tube

DAC

discretionary access control

DB-25

serial communications D-shell connector, 25 pins

DB-9

9 pin D shell connector

DC

direct current

DDOS

distributed denial of service

DDR

double data-rate

DDR RAM

double data-rate random access memory

DDR SDRAM

double data-rate synchronous dynamic random access memory

DFS

distributed file system

DHCP

dynamic host configuration protocol

DIMM

dual inline memory module

DIN

Deutsche Industrie Norm

DIP

dual inline package

DLT

digital linear tape

DLP

digital light processing

DMA

direct memory access

DMZ

demilitarized zone

DNS

domain name service or domain name server

DOS

denial of service

D–3

D–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Acronym

Spelled out

DRAM

dynamic random access memory

DSL

digital subscriber line

DVD

digital video disc or digital versatile disc

DVD-RAM

digital video disc-random access memory

DVD-ROM

digital video disc-read only memory

DVD-R

digital video disc-recordable

DVD-RW

digital video disc-rewritable

DVI

digital visual interface

ECC

error correction code

ECP

extended capabilities port

EEPROM

electrically erasable programmable read-only memory

EFS

encrypting file system

EIDE

enhanced integrated drive electronics

EMI

electromagnetic interference

EMP

electromagnetic pulse

EPROM

erasable programmable read-only memory

EPP

enhanced parallel port

ERD

emergency repair disk

ESD

electrostatic discharge

EVGA

extended video graphics adapter/array

EVDO

evolution data optimized or evolution data only

FAT

file allocation table

FAT12

12-bit file allocation table

FAT16


FAT32


FDD

floppy disk drive


Spelled out

Fn

Function (referring to the function key on a laptop)

FPM

fast page-mode

FRU

field replaceable unit

FSB

Front Side Bus

FTP

file transfer protocol

FQDN

fully qualified domain name

Gb

gigabit

GB

gigabyte

GDI

graphics device interface

GHz

gigahertz

GUI

graphical user interface

GPS

global positioning system

GSM

global system for mobile communications

HAL

hardware abstraction layer

HCL

hardware compatibility list

HDD

hard disk drive

HDMi

high definition media interface

HPFS

high performance file system

HTML

hypertext markup language

HTTP

hypertext transfer protocol

HTTPS

hypertext transfer protocol over secure sockets layer

I/O

input/output

ICMP

internet control message protocol

ICR

intelligent character recognition

IDE

integrated drive electronics

IDS

Intrusion Detection System

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

D–5

D–6


Spelled out

IIS

Internet Information Services

IMAP

internet mail access protocol

IP

internet protocol

IPCONFIG

internet protocol configuration

IPP

internet printing protocol

IPSEC

internet protocol security

IPX

internetwork packet exchange

IPX/SPX

internetwork packet exchange/sequenced packet exchange

IR

infrared

IrDA

Infrared Data Association

IRQ

interrupt request

ISA

industry standard architecture

ISDN

integrated services digital network

ISO

Industry Standards Organization

ISP

internet service provider

JBOD

just a bunch of disks

Kb

kilobit

KB

Kilobyte or knowledge base

LAN

local area network

LBA

logical block addressing

LC

Lucent connector

LCD

liquid crystal display

LDAP

lightweight directory access protocol

LED

light emitting diode

Li-on

lithium-ion

LPD/LPR

line printer daemon / line printer remote

LPT

line printer terminal


Spelled out

LPT1

line printer terminal 1

LVD

low voltage differential

MAC

media access control / mandatory access control

MAPI

messaging application programming interface

MAU

media access unit, media attachment unit

Mb

megabit

MB

megabyte

MBR

master boot record

MBSA

Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer

MFD

multi-function device

MFP

multi-function product

MHz

megahertz

MicroDIMM

micro dual inline memory module

MIDI

musical instrument digital interface

MIME

multipurpose internet mail extension

MMC

Microsoft management console

MMX

multimedia extensions

MP3

Moving Picture Experts Group Layer 3 Audio

MP4

Moving Picture Experts Group Layer 4

MPEG

Moving Picture Experts Group

MSCONFIG

Microsoft configuration

MSDS

material safety data sheet

MUI

multilingual user interface

NAC

network access control

NAS

network-attached storage

D–7

D–8


Spelled out

NAT

network address translation

NetBIOS

networked basic input/output system

NetBEUI

networked basic input/output system extended user interface

NFS

network file system

NIC

network interface card

NiCd

nickel cadmium

NiMH

nickel metal hydride

NLX

new low-profile extended

NNTP

network news transfer protocol

NTFS

new technology file system

NTLDR

new technology loader

NTP

Network Time Protocol

OCR

optical character recognition

ODBC

open database connectivity

OEM

original equipment manufacturer

OS

operating system

PAN

personal area network

PATA

parallel advanced technology attachment

PC

personal computer

PCI

peripheral component interconnect

PCIe

peripheral component interconnect express

PCIX

peripheral component interconnect extended

PCL

printer control language

PCMCIA

Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

PDA

personal digital assistant

PGA

pin grid array

PGA2

pin grid array 2


Spelled out

PIN

personal identification number

PKI

public key infrastructure

PnP

plug and play

POP3

post office protocol 3

POST

power-on self test

POTS

plain old telephone service

PPP

point-to-point protocol

PPTP

point-to-point tunneling protocol

PRI

primary rate interface

PROM

programmable read-only memory

PS/2

personal system/2 connector

PSTN

public switched telephone network

PSU

power supply unit

PVC

permanent virtual circuit

PXE

preboot execution environment

QoS

quality of service

RAID

redundant array of independent (or inexpensive) discs

RAM

random access memory

RAS

remote access service

RDRAM

RAMBUS® dynamic random access memory

RDP

Remote Desktop Protocol

RF

radio frequency

RFI

radio frequency interference

RGB

red green blue

RIMM

RAMBUS® inline memory module

RIP

routing information protocol

RIS

remote installation service

RISC

reduced instruction set computer

D–9

D–10


Spelled out

RJ

registered jack

RJ-11

registered jack function 11

RJ-45

registered jack function 45

RMA

returned materials authorization

ROM

read only memory

RS-232 or RS-232C

recommended standard 232

RTC

real-time clock

SAN

storage area network

SATA

serial advanced technology attachment

SC

subscription channel

SCP

secure copy protection

SCSI

small computer system interface

SCSI ID

small computer system interface identifier

SD card

secure digital card

SDRAM

synchronous dynamic random access memory

SEC

single edge connector

SFC

system file checker

SGRAM

synchronous graphics random access memory

SIMM

single inline memory module

SLI

scalable link interface or system level integration or scanline interleave mode

S.M.A.R.T.

self-monitoring, analysis, and reporting technology

SMB

server message block or small to midsize business

SMTP

simple mail transport protocol

SNMP

simple network management protocol

SoDIMM

small outline dual inline memory module

SOHO

small office/home office


Spelled out

SP

service pack

SP1

service pack 1

SP2

service pack 2

SP3

service pack 3

SP4

service pack 4

SPDIF

Sony-Philips digital interface format

SPGA

staggered pin grid array

SPX

sequenced package exchange

SRAM

static random access memory

SSH

secure shell

SSID

service set identifier

SSL

secure sockets layer

ST

straight tip

STP

shielded twisted pair

SVGA

super video graphics array

SXGA

super extended graphics array

TB

terabyte

TCP

transmission control protocol

TCP/IP

transmission control protocol/internet protocol

TDR

time domain reflectometer

TFTP

trivial file transfer protocol

TPM

trusted platform module

UAC

user account control

UART

universal asynchronous receiver transmitter

UDF

user defined functions or universal disk format or universal data format

UDMA

ultra direct memory access

UDP

user datagram protocol

D–11

D–12


Spelled out

UNC

universal naming convention

UPS

uninterruptible power supply

URL

uniform resource locator

USB

universal serial bus

USMT

user state migration tool

UTP

unshielded twisted pair

UXGA

ultra extended graphics array

VESA

Video Electronics Standards Association

VFAT

virtual file allocation table

VGA

video graphics array

VoIP

voice over internet protocol

VPN

virtual private network

VRAM

video random access memory

WAN

wide area network

WAP

wireless application protocol

WEP

wired equivalent privacy

WIFI

wireless fidelity

WINS

windows internet name service

WLAN

wireless local area network

WPA

wireless protected access

WUXGA

wide ultra extended graphics array

XGA

extended graphics array

ZIF

zero-insertion-force

ZIP

zigzag inline package

E–1

Appendix E Certification exam objectives map This appendix covers these additional topics: A CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition)

exam version 2.0 objectives with references to corresponding coverage in this course manual. B CompTIA A+ 220-702 (2009 Edition)

exam version 2.0 objectives with references to corresponding coverage in this course manual.

E–2


Topic A: Essentials (2009) comprehensive exam objectives Explanation

This section lists all CompTIA A+ Essentials (2009 Edition) exam version 2.0 objectives and indicates where each objective is covered in conceptual explanations, activities, or both.

1.0 Hardware Objective 1.1

Conceptual information

Supporting activities

FDD

Unit 10, Topic D

D-2, D-3, D-4

HDD

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

Unit 10, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Tape drive

Unit 10, Topic D

D-5

Solid state (e.g. thumb drive, flash, SD cards, USB)

Unit 10, Topic D

D-1

External CD-RW and hard drive

Unit 10, Topic B Unit 10, Topic C

Hot-swappable devices and non-hot-swappable devices

Unit 10, Topic D

D-1

ATX / BTX

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1

micro ATX

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1

NLX

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1

I/O interfaces

Unit 4, Topic C Unit 7, Topic A

C-1 A-1–A-5

Sound

Unit 7, Topic B Unit 8, Topic B Unit 9, Topic E

B-1 B-1, B-2 E-1, E-2

Video

Unit 7, Topic B Unit 8, Topic A Unit 9, Topic E

B-1, B-2 A-1, A-2 E-2

USB 1.1 and 2.0


C-1 A-1

Serial

Unit 9, Topic A Unit 10, Topic A

A-1 A-1

IEEE 1394 / FireWire

Unit 9, Topic D Unit 10, Topic A

D-1 A-1

Parallel


A-2 A-1

NIC

Unit 13, Topic B

B-4

Categorize storage devices and backup media

Solid state vs. magnetic Optical drives CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray Removable storage

1.2

Explain motherboard components, types, and features Form factor

Certification exam objectives map Objective 1.2



Explain motherboard components, types, and features (continued) Modem

Unit 7, Topic A Unit 8, Topic C Unit 9, Topic A Unit 13, Topic B

A-1 C-1 A-1 B-5

PS/2

Unit 9, Topic B

B-1

RIMM

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

DIMM

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

SODIMM

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

SIMM

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

Processor sockets

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2

Bus architecture

Unit 7, Topic A

A-1–A-5

PCI

Unit 7, Topic B

B-1, B-2

AGP

Unit 7, Topic B

B-2

PCIe

Unit 7, Topic B

B-1, B-2

AMR

Unit 7, Topic A Unit 8, Topic C

A-1 C-1

CNR


A-1 C-1

PCMCIA

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2

IDE

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

EIDE

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

SATA, eSATA

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

Contrast RAID (levels 0, 1, 5)

Unit 10, Topic B

B-4

Chipsets

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2

BIOS / CMOS / Firmware

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

POST

Unit 5, Topic B

B-1

CMOS battery

Unit 5, Topic A

A-3

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1

AC adapter

Unit 16, Topic A

A-1

ATX proprietary

Unit 3, Topic B

B-1

Voltage, wattage and capacity

Unit 3, Topic A

A-1

Voltage selector switch

Unit 3, Topic B

B-2

Pins (20, 24)

Unit 3, Topic B

B-1

Memory slots

Bus slots

PATA

Riser card / daughter board 1.3

E–3

Classify power supplies, types, and characteristics

E–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Objective 1.4



AMD

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Intel

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Hyperthreading

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Multi-core

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Dual core

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Triple core

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Quad core

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

On-chip cache

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

L1

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

L2

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

Speed (real vs. actual)

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1

32-bit vs. 64-bit

Unit 2, Topic A

A-1

Heat sinks

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

CPU and case fans

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

Liquid cooling systems

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

Thermal compound

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

DRAM

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

SRAM

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

SDRAM

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

DDR / DDR2 / DDR3

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

RAMBUS

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

Parity vs. Non-parity

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

ECC vs. non-ECC

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

Single sided vs. double sided

Unit 6, Topic B

B-1

Single channel vs. dual channel

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

PC100

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

PC133

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

PC2700

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

PC3200

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

DDR3-1600

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

DDR2-667

Unit 6, Topic A

A-1

Explain the purpose and characteristics of CPUs and their features Identify CPU types

1.5

1.6

Explain cooling methods and devices

Compare and contrast memory types, characteristics, and their purposes Types

Speed




Unit 11, Topic A

A-1–A-4

Resolution (e.g., XGA, SXGA+, UXGA, WUXGA)

Unit 11, Topic A

A-3–A-4

Contrast ratio

Unit 11, Topic A

A-3–A-4

Native resolution

Unit 11, Topic A

A-3–A-4

VGA


A-1 A-2

HDMI

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

S-Video

Unit 9, Topic E

E-2

Component / RGB

Unit 9, Topic E

E-2

DVI pin compatibility


A-1 A-4

Refresh rate

Unit 11, Topic A

A-1–A-4

Resolution

Unit 11, Topic A

A-1–A-4

Multi-monitor

Unit 11, Topic A

IPA

Degauss

Unit 11, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Distinguish between the different display devices and their characteristics Projectors, CRT and LCD LCD technologies

Connector types

Settings

1.8

E–5


Unit 9, Topic A

Mouse


B-1, B-2 C-1

Keyboard


B-1, B-3 C-1

Bar code reader


C-1

Multimedia (e.g., Web and digital cameras, MIDI, microphones)

Unit 9, Topic C Unit 9, Topic D Unit 9, Topic E Unit 11, Topic B

C-1 D-1 E-1, E-2 B-1, B-2

Biometric devices

Unit 9, Topic C Unit 20, Topic C

C-1

Touch screen


C-1 A-3

KVM switch


B-4 C-1

E–6




PCI

Unit 7, Topic B

B-1, B-2

PCIe

Unit 7, Topic B

B-1, B-2

AGP

Unit 7, Topic B

B-2

Sound card

Unit 8, Topic B Unit 9, Topic E

B-1 E-1

TV tuner cards

Unit 9, Topic E

E-2

Capture cards

Unit 9, Topic E

E-2

SCSI

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

Serial


A-1 A-1

USB


A-1


A-2 A-1

NIC


B-4 C-2

Modem

Unit 8, Topic C Unit 9, Topic A Unit 13, Topic B Unit 16, Topic C

C-2 A-1 B-5 C-2

PCMCIA cards

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1

PCI Express cards

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1

Docking station

Unit 16, Topic C

C-4

Bluetooth


A-2

Infrared

Unit 14, Topic B Unit 16, Topic A Unit 16, Topic C

Summarize the function and types of adapter cards Video

Multimedia

I/O

Parallel Communication

1.10

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features Expansion devices

Communication connections

A-2

Cellular WAN


A-2

Ethernet


B-1, B-2 A-1, A-2


E–7




B-7, B-8 A-1

Install, configure, and optimize laptop components and features (continued) Modem

Power and electrical input devices Auto-switching

Unit 16, Topic A

Fixed input power supplies

Unit 16, Topic A Unit 16, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3


B-1, B-2, B-3

Stylus / digitizer

Unit 16, Topic A

A-1

Function keys

Unit 16, Topic A

A-1

Point devices (e.g., touchpad, point stick / track point)


A-1

Unit 9, Topic A Unit 9, Topic C Unit 9, Topic D Unit 12, Topic B Unit 12, Topic C

A-2

Laser

Unit 12, Topic A

A-3

Inkjet

Unit 12, Topic A

A-2

Thermal

Unit 12, Topic A

A-4

Impact

Unit 12, Topic A

A-1

Local vs. network printers

Unit 12, Topic B

B-2

Printer drivers (compatibility)

Unit 12, Topic B

B-2

Consumables

Unit 12, Topic C

C-3

Batteries Input devices

1.11


D-1 B-2 C-1, C-2

Differentiate between printer types

E–8


2.0 Troubleshooting, Repair, and Maintenance Objective 2.1



Unit 1, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Establish a theory of probable cause (question the obvious)

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Test the theory to determine cause

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1

Once theory is confirmed, determine next steps to resolve problem

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1

If theory is not confirmed, re-establish new theory or escalate

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1


Unit 1, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Verify full system functionality, and if applicable, implement preventative measures

Unit 1, Topic A

A-1


Unit 1, Topic A

A-1

Given a scenario, explain the troubleshooting theory Identify the problem Question user and identify user changes to computer, and perform backups before making changes

2.2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes OS-related symptoms Bluescreen

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

System lockup

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

Input/output device

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

Application install

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

Start or load

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

Windows-specific printing problems

Unit 12, Topic D

Print spool stalled

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

Incorrect / incompatible driver

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

Excessive heat

Unit 4, Topic D Unit 16, Topic D

D-1 D-1

Noise

Unit 3, Topic C Unit 4, Topic D Unit 10, Topic F Unit 12, Topic D

C-3 D-1 F-1 D-1

Hardware-related symptoms




Given a scenario, explain and interpret common hardware and operating system symptoms and their causes (continued) Odors

Unit 4, Topic D Unit 10, Topic F

D-1 F-1

Status light indicators

Unit 3, Topic C Unit 4, Topic D Unit 10, Topic F Unit 12, Topic D Unit 16, Topic D

C-3 D-1 F-1 D-1 D-1, D-2

Alerts

Unit 4, Topic D Unit 10, Topic F Unit 12, Topic D

D-1 F-1 D-1

Visible damage (e.g., cable, plastic)

Unit 10, Topic F Unit 12, Topic D

F-1 D-1

User / installation manuals

Unit 1, Topic A

A-2

Internet / Web based

Unit 1, Topic A

A-2

Training materials

Unit 1, Topic A

A-2

Manage print jobs

Unit 12, Topic C

C-1

Print spooler


B-1 C-1

Printer properties and settings


B-2 C-1

Print a test page

Unit 12, Topic B

B-2

Use documentation and resources

2.3

E–9

Given a scenario, determine the troubleshooting method and tools for printers

E–10




Power conditions

Unit 16, Topic D

D-2

Video

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Keyboard

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Pointer

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Stylus

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Wireless card issues

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Verify power (e.g., LEDs, swap AC adapter)

Unit 16, Topic D

D-2

Remove unneeded peripherals

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Plug in external monitor

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Toggle Fn keys or hardware switches

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Check LCD cutoff switch

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Verify backlight functionality and pixilation

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Check switch for built-in WIFI antennas or external antennas

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1


A-1, A-2 B-1

Driver

Unit 8, Topic D Unit 12, Topic B Unit 21, Topic A

D-1 B-2 A-5

Firmware

Unit 5, Topic A

A-2

OS

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Security

Unit 21, Topic A

A-6

Defrag

Unit 10, Topic E

E-4, E-5

ScanDisk

Unit 10, Topic E

E-2

Check disk

Unit 10, Topic E

E-3

Startup programs

Unit 19, Topic B

B-3

Compressed air

Unit 22, Topic B

B-1

Lint-free cloth

Unit 22, Topic B

B-2

Given a scenario, explain and interpret common laptop issues and determine the appropriate basic troubleshooting method Issues

Methods

2.5

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques Physical inspection Updates

Scheduling preventative maintenance

Use of appropriate repair tools and cleaning materials


E–11



Unit 22, Topic B

B-2

Unit 3, Topic C

C-1

Unit 22, Topic A Unit 22, Topic B Unit 22, Topic C

A-1, A-2

Unit 18, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Given a scenario, integrate common preventative maintenance techniques (continued) Computer vacuum and compressors Power devices Appropriate source such as power strip, surge protector, or UPS Ensuring proper environment

Backup procedures

C-1

E–12


3.0 Operating Systems and Software Unless otherwise noted, operating systems referred to include Microsoft Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional, XP Home, XP MediaCenter; Windows Vista Home, Home Premium, Business and Ultimate, Windows 7 Starter, Home Premium, Professional and Ultimate. Objective 3.1



Unit 2, Topic A

A-1

Sidebar, Aero, UAC, minimum system requirements, system limits

Unit 2, Topic A Unit 17, Topic A Unit 20, Topic A Unit 21, Topic A

A-2 A-3, A-4, A-5 A-7 A-1, A-2

Windows 2000 and newer – upgrade paths and requirements

Unit 21, Topic B

B-1, B-2

Windows OS Upgrade Advisor


A-2

Microsoft Assessment and Planning Toolkit

Unit 21, Topic B

Compare and contrast the different Windows operating systems and their features Windows 2000, Windows XP 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows Vista 32bit vs. 64bit, Windows 7 32-bit vs. 64-bit

3.2

Terminology (32bit vs. 64bit – x86 vs. x64)

Unit 2, Topic A

A-1

Application compatibility, installed program locations (32bit vs. 64bit), Windows compatibility mode

Unit 21, Topic B

B-3

User interface, start bar layout


A-2, A-3

Unit 2, Topic A

A-2

Unit 2, Topic A

A-2

My Computer

Unit 2, Topic A

A-2

Control Panel

Unit 2, Topic A Unit 2, Topic D

A-3 D-2

Command prompt utilities


A-1A-5

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces Windows Explorer Libraries in Windows 7

Unit 2, Topic C

B-2, B-3, B-5, B-6, B-7, B-9 C-1, C-2, C-5


B-3

ping


A-3 B-3, B-5

ipconfig


A-2 B-3, B-4

Msconfig

Unit 19, Topic B

B-3

Msinfo32

Unit 18, Topic A

A-1, A-2

telnet

Run line utilities

Certification exam objectives map Objective

E–13



Dxdiag

Unit 18, Topic A

A-3

Cmd


A-3 A-2, A-3

REGEDIT

Unit 17, Topic C

C-4, C-5, C-6

My Network Places / HomeGroup

Unit 2, Topic A Unit 2, Topic D

A-3 D-2

Taskbar / systray

Unit 2, Topic A

A-2

Unit 2, Topic A Unit 10, Topic B Unit 17, Topic C Unit 18, Topic A Unit 18, Topic B

A-3 B-2, B-3 C-2, C-3 A-6, A-9, A-10 B-2, B-3, B-4

Unit 2, Topic A

A-3

Task Manager

Unit 2, Topic A Unit 6, Topic D Unit 18, Topic A

A-3 D-1 A-4–A-8

Start Menu

Unit 2, Topic A

A-2, A-3

Unit 10, Topic B Unit 21, Topic A

B-2 A-3

Create folders

Unit 2, Topic B

B-4–B-7

Navigate directory structures

Unit 2, Topic B

B-1, B-3

Creation

Unit 2, Topic C

C-1, C-3

Extensions

Unit 2, Topic C

C-1

Attributes

Unit 2, Topic C

C-4, C-5

Permissions

Unit 2, Topic D

D-3

Unit 21, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Boot media such as CD, floppy, or USB

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Network installation

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Install from image

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Recovery CD

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Factory recovery partition

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Administrative tools Performance Monitor, Event Viewer, Services, Computer Management

MMC 3.2

3.3

Given a scenario, demonstrate proper use of user interfaces (continued)

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS File systems FAT32 vs. NTFS Directory structures

Files

Verification of hardware compatibility and minimum requirements Installation methods

E–14

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Objective



File system type

Unit 21, Topic A

A-3

Network configuration

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Repair install

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Format drive

Unit 21, Topic A

A-3

Partition

Unit 21, Topic A

A-3

Start installation

Unit 21, Topic A

A-4

Verify

Unit 21, Topic A

A-2, A-5

Install and update device drives

Unit 21, Topic A

A-5

Driver signing

Unit 18, Topic A Unit 21, Topic A Unit 22, Topic A

A-6

Operating system installation options

Disk preparation order

Device Manager

3.3

User data migration  User State Migration Tool (USMT)

Unit 21, Topic A

Virtual memory

Unit 6, Topic D

D-2

Unit 16, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Suspend


B-2 A-6, A-7, A-8

Wake on LAN

Unit 17, Topic A

A-8

Sleep timers

Unit 17, Topic A

A-6, A-7, A-8

Hibernate


B-2 A-6, A-7, A-8

Standby


B-2 A-6, A-7, A-8

Demonstrate safe removal of peripherals

Unit 16, Topic C

C-3

Explain the basics of boot sequences, methods, and startup utilities

Unit 19, Topic A

A-1

Disk boot order / device priority

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

Unit 5, Topic B

B-2

Safe mode

Unit 19, Topic B

B-2

Boot to restore point

Unit 18, Topic C Unit 19, Topic B

C-3, C-4 B-5

Automated System Recovery (ASR)

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Emergency Repair Disk (ERD)

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Recovery console

Unit 19, Topic B

B-5

Explain the process and steps to install and configure the Windows OS (continued) Configure power management

3.4

Types of boot devices (disk, network, USB, other) Boot options

Recovery options


E–15

4.0 Networking Objective 4.1

4.1

4.2



Basics of configuring IP addressing and TCP/IP properties (DHCP, DNS)


A-1, A-2 B-1, B-2

Bandwidth and latency

Unit 13, Topic A

A-5

Status indicators

Unit 13, Topic B

B-4

Protocols (TCP/IP, NETBIOS)

Unit 14, Topic A

A-1, A-4

Full-duplex, half-duplex

Unit 13, Topic A

A-3

Basics of workgroups and domains

Unit 13, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Common ports: HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTPS


A-5 B-7

LAN / WAN

Unit 13, Topic A

A-1, A-2, A-5, A-6, A-7

Hub, switch, and router

Unit 13, Topic C

C-2

Identify Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Unit 13, Topic A

A-1

Basics class identification

Unit 14, Topic A

A-2

IPv6 vs. IPv4

Unit 14, Topic A

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols

Summarize the basics of networking fundamentals, including technologies, devices, and protocols (continued)

Address length differences

Unit 14, Topic A

A-1

Address conventions

Unit 14, Topic A

A-1

Plenum / PVC

Unit 13, Topic A

A-4

UTP (e.g. CAT3, CAT5 / 5e, CAT6)


A-3, A-4 B-2

STP


A-3, A-4 B-2

Fiber


A-3, A-4 B-1

Coaxial cable


A-3, A-4 B-3

RJ45

Unit 13, Topic B

B-2

RJ11

Unit 8, Topic C Unit 13, Topic B

C-2 B-2

Categorize network cables and connectors and their implementations Cables

Connectors

E–16




DSL

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Cable

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Satellite

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Fiber

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Dial-up

Unit 13, Topic A Unit 13, Topic B Unit 14, Topic B

A-7 B-5 B-7, B-8

Wireless

Unit 13, Topic A

A-6, A-7

All 802.11 types

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

WEP

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5

WPA

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5

SSID

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5

MAC filtering

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5

DHCP settings

Unit 14, Topic B

B-2–B-5

Bluetooth

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Cellular

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Compare and contrast the different network types Broadband


E–17

5.0 Security Objective 5.1



Encryption technologies

Unit 20, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Data wiping / hard drive destruction / hard drive recycling

Unit 20, Topic E

E-5

Software firewall

Unit 13, Topic C Unit 20, Topic E

C-2 E-2, E-3

Port security


B-7 E-3

Exceptions


B-7 E-3

User name

Unit 20, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Password

Unit 20, Topic A

A-2, A-3, A-5

Biometrics

Unit 20, Topic C

C-1

Smart cards

Unit 20, Topic C

C-1

Compliance

Unit 20, Topic E

E-6

Classifications

Unit 20, Topic E

E-6

Social engineering

Unit 20, Topic E

E-4

WEPx and WPAx

Unit 14, Topic B

B-4, B-5, B-6

Client configuration (SSID)

Unit 14, Topic B

B-4, B-6

Viruses

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Trojans

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Worms

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Spam

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Spyware

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1–D-4

Adware

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Grayware

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1, D-2, D-4

Drive lock

Unit 20, Topic C

C-2

Passwords

Unit 20, Topic C

C-2

Intrusion detection

Unit 20, Topic C

C-2

TPM

Unit 20, Topic B

Explain the basic principles of security concepts and technologies

Authentication technologies

Basics of data sensitivity and data security

5.2

Summarize the following security features Wireless encryption

Malicious software protection

BIOS Security

Password management / password complexity

Unit 20, Topic A

Locking workstation

Unit 20, Topic E

A-2, A-3, A-5

E–18




Hardware

Unit 20, Topic C Unit 20, Topic E

C-1, C-2 E-1, E-5

Operating system

Unit 20, Topic A Unit 20, Topic B Unit 20, Topic D Unit 20, Topic E

A-1–A-8 B-1–B-3 D-2, D-3, D-4 E-2, E-3

Unit 20, Topic C

C-1



ESD


A-3 A-2

EMI


A-2 A-1, A-2

Network interference


A-3

Magnets

Unit 11, Topic A

Summarize the following security features (continued)

Biometrics Fingerprint scanner

6.0 Operational Procedure Objective 6.1

Outline the appropriate safety and environmental procedures, and given a scenario, apply them

RFI Cordless phone interference

Unit 22, Topic A Unit 14, Topic A Unit 22, Topic A

A-2


A-2


A-2 A-1

CRT


A-2 A-1

Power supply


B-2 A-1

Inverter

Unit 3, Topic C

C-1

Laser printers


C-3 A-1

Matching power requirements of equipment with power distribution and UPSs

Unit 3, Topic C

C-1

Materials Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs)

Unit 22, Topic B

B-3

Cable management

Unit 22, Topic A

A-1

Unit 22, Topic A

A-1

Microwaves Electrical safety

Avoid trip hazards




Unit 22, Topic A

A-1


A-1

Unit 22, Topic A

A-1

Unit 22, Topic D

D-1

Use proper language  avoid jargon, acronyms, slang

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2

Maintain a positive attitude

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Listen and do not interrupt a customer

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Be culturally sensitive

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Be on time

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Personal calls

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Talking to co-workers while interacting with customers

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Personal interruptions

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Avoid arguing with customers and/or being defensive

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Do not minimize customers’ problems

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Avoid being judgmental

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Clarify customer statements

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2

Ask open-ended questions to narrow the scope of the problem

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2

Restate the issue or question to verify understanding

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-2

Set and meet expectations / timeline and communicate status with the customer

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-4

Order different repair / replacement options if applicable

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-4

Provide proper documentation on the services provided

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-4

Follow up with customers / users at later date to verify satisfaction

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1, B-4

Deal appropriately with customers’ confidential materials

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Unit 1, Topic B

B-1

Physical safety Heavy devices Hot components Environmental  consider proper disposal procedures 6.2

E–19

Given a scenario, demonstrate the appropriate use of communication skills and professionalism in the workplace

If late, contact the customer Avoid distractions

Dealing with a difficult customer or situation

Located on computer, desktop, printer, etc.

E–20


Topic B: Practical Application (2009) comprehensive exam objectives Explanation

This section lists all CompTIA A+ Practical Application (2009 Edition) exam version 2.0 objectives and indicates where each objective is covered in conceptual explanations, activities, or both.

1.0 Hardware Objective



1.1 — Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components  Storage devices  HDD

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

 SATA

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

 PATA

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

 Solid state

Unit 10, Topic B

 FDD

Unit 10, Topic D

D-3

 Optical drives

Unit 10, Topic C

C-1

Unit 10, Topic C

C-1

 Removable

Unit 10, Topic D

D-1

 External

Unit 10, Topic D

D-1

 CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray

 Motherboards  Jumper settings


C-2

 CMOS battery

Unit 5, Topic A

A-3

 Advanced BIOS settings

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

 Bus speeds

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2

 Chipsets

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2

 Firmware updates


A-1, A-2

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Expansion slots

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Memory slots

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Front panel connectors

Unit 4, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 I/O ports

Unit 4, Topic C

 Socket types




1.1 — Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components (continued)  Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / Firewire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Unit 8, Topic B

B-2

Unit 8, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Unit 9, Topic A

A-1, A-2

Unit 9, Topic B

B-1

Unit 9, Topic C

C-1

Unit 9, Topic D

D-1

 Wattages and capacity

Unit 3, Topic B

B-1, B-2

 Connector types and quantity

Unit 3, Topic B

B-1

 Output voltage

Unit 3, Topic B

B-1, B-2

 Socket types

Unit 4, Topic A

A-2, A-3

 Speed

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

 Number of cores

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

 Power consumption

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

 Cache

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

 Front side bus

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

 32bit vs. 64bit

Unit 4, Topic A

A-1, A-3

Unit 6, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Power supplies

 Processors

 Memory

E–21

E–22




 Adapter cards  Graphic cards

Unit 8, Topic A

A-2

 Sound cards

Unit 8, Topic B

B-2

 Storage controllers

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

Unit 10, Topic B

B-1

 RAID cards (RAID array – levels 0, 1, 5)

Unit 10, Topic B

B-4

 eSATA cards

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 FireWire

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 USB

Unit 10, Topic A

A-1

 Parallel

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 Serial

Unit 9, Topic A

A-1

 I/O cards

1.1 — Given a scenario, install, configure, and maintain personal computer components (continued)  Wired and wireless network cards

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 Capture cards (TV, video)

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 Media reader

Unit 8, Topic A

A-1

 Heat sinks

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

 Thermal compound

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

 CPU fans

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1

 Case fans

Unit 4, Topic B

B-1, B-2

 Cooling systems

1.2 — Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components (continued)  Storage devices  HDD

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 SATA

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 PATA

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 Solid state

Unit 10, Topic F

 FDD

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 Optical drives

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 Removable

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 External

Unit 10, Topic F

F-1

 CD / DVD / RW / Blu-Ray




 Motherboards  Jumper settings

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 CMOS battery

Unit 5, Topic A

A-3

Unit 5, Topic B

B-3

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

Unit 5, Topic B

B-3

 Bus speeds

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Chipsets

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Firmware updates

Unit 4, Topic D

 Advanced BIOS settings

Unit 5, Topic A

A-3

Unit 5, Topic B

B-3

 Socket types

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Expansion slots

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Memory slots

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Wattages and capacity

Unit 3, Topic C

C-2, C-3

 Connector types and quantity

Unit 3, Topic C

C-3

 Output voltage

Unit 3, Topic C

C-2, C-3

 Socket types

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Speed

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Number of cores

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Power consumption

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Cache

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 Front side bus

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

 32bit vs. 64bit

Unit 4, Topic D

D-1

Unit 6, Topic E

E-1, E-2

1.2 — Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components (continued)  Front panel connectors  I/O ports  Sound, video, USB 1.1, USB 2.0, serial, IEEE 1394 / Firewire, parallel, NIC, modem, PS/2  Power supplies

 Processors

 Memory

E–23

E–24




 Adapter cards  Graphic cards - memory

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 Sound cards

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 Storage controllers

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 RAID cards

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 eSATA cards

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

Unit 9, Topic F

F-1

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

Unit 9, Topic F

F-1

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

Unit 9, Topic F

F-1

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

Unit 9, Topic F

F-1

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 Capture cards (TV, video)

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 Media reader

Unit 8, Topic D

D-2

 I/O cards  FireWire  USB  Parallel  Serial  Wired and wireless network cards 1.2 — Given a scenario, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace personal computer components (continued)

 Cooling systems  Heat sinks

Unit 4, Topic B

 Thermal compound

Unit 4, Topic B

 CPU fans

Unit 4, Topic B

 Case fans

Unit 4, Topic B

B-2

1.3 — Given a scenario, install, configure, detect problems, troubleshoot, and repair/replace laptop components  Components of the LCD, including inverter, screen, and video card

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1, D-2

 Hard drive and memory

Unit 6, Topic C

C-2

Unit 6, Topic E

E-1

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1



E–25


 Disassembly processes for proper re-assembly  Document and label cable and screw locations

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2, C-3

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2, C-3

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2, C-3

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2, C-3

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2

Unit 16, Topic D

D-1

 Upgrade wireless cards and video card

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Replace keyboard, processor, plastics, pointer devices, heat sinks, fans, system board, CMOS battery, speakers

Unit 16, Topic C

C-1, C-2, C-3

 Multimeter

Unit 3, Topic C

C-2

 Power supply tester

Unit 3, Topic C

C-2

 Specialty hardware / tools

Unit 3, Topic C

C-1

Unit 12, Topic C

C-2, C-3

Unit 15, Topic A

A-1

Unit 15, Topic B

B-1

Unit 15, Topic A

A-1

Unit 15, Topic B

B-1

 Loopback plugs

Unit 9, Topic F

F-1

 Antistatic pad and wrist strap

Unit 3, Topic A

A-2, A-3

 Extension magnet

Unit 12, Topic C

C-3

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Organize parts  Refer to manufacturer documentation  Use appropriate hand tools  Recognize internal laptop expansion slot types

1.4 — Given a scenario, select and use the following tools

 Cable tester

E–26




1.5 — Given a scenario, detect and resolve common printer issues  Symptoms  Paper jams

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Blank paper

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Error codes

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Out-of-memory error

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Lines and smearing

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Garbage printout

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Ghosted image

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 No connectivity

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Replace fuser

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Replace drum

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Clear paper jam

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Power cycle

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Install maintenance kit (reset page count)

Unit 12, Topic C

C-3

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Set IP on printer

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Clean printer

Unit 12, Topic C

C-3

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Issue resolution


E–27

2.0 Operating Systems Unless otherwise noted, operating systems referred to within include Microsoft Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional, XP Home, and XP MediaCenter; Windows Vista Home, Home Premium, Business and Ultimate, Windows 7 Starter, Home Premium, Professional and Ultimate. Objective



2.1 — Select the appropriate commands and options to troubleshoot and resolve problems  MSCONFIG

Unit 19, Topic B

B-3

 DIR

Unit 2, Topic B

B-3

 CHKDSK (/f /r)

Unit 10, Topic E

E-3

 EDIT

Unit 2, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 COPY (/a /v /y)

Unit 2, Topic B

B-7

 XCOPY

Unit 2, Topic B

B-7

 FORMAT

Unit 10, Topic B

 IPCONFIG (/all /release /renew)

Unit 14, Topic A

A-2

Unit 15, Topic B

B-4

Unit 14, Topic A

A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3

 MD / CD / RD

Unit 2, Topic B

B-5, B-7, B-9

 NET

Unit 17, Topic C

C-3

 TRACERT

Unit 15, Topic B

B-6

 NSLOOKUP

Unit 15, Topic B

B-6

 [command name] /?

Unit 2, Topic B

B-2

 SFC

Unit 19, Topic B

B-4

 PING (-t –l)

2.2 — Differentiate between Windows operating system directory structures (Windows 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7)  User file locations

Unit 2, Topic B

 User profile and program files

Unit 2, Topic B

 System file locations

Unit 2, Topic B

 Fonts

Unit 2, Topic B

 Temporary files

Unit 2, Topic B

 Program files

Unit 2, Topic B

 Offline files and folders

Unit 2, Topic B

E–28




2.3 — Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results  Disk management tools  DEFRAG

Unit 10, Topic E

E-4, E-5

 NTBACKUP

Unit 18, Topic C

C-1, C-2

 Check Disk

Unit 10, Topic E

E-3

 Active, primary, extended, and logical partitions

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Mount points

Unit 10, Topic B

B-3

 Mounting a drive

Unit 10, Topic B

B-3

 FAT32, NTFS, FAT64 (exFAT)

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Disk Manager

 External hard drives

Unit 10, Topic B

 Flash drives

Unit 10, Topic B

 Drive status  Foreign drive

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Healthy

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Formatting

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Active unallocated

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Failed

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Dynamic

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Offline

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Online

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

Unit 18, Topic B

B-3

 Event Viewer

Unit 18, Topic A

A-9, A-10

 Computer Management

Unit 2, Topic A

A-3

Unit 7, Topic A

A-2–A-5

Unit 10, Topic B

B-2

 Services

Unit 17, Topic C

C-2, C-3

 Performance Monitor

Unit 18, Topic B

B-3, B-4

 System monitor  Administrative tools



E–29


2.3 — Given a scenario, select and use system utilities / tools and evaluate the results (continued)  Device Manager  Enable

Unit 21, Topic A

A-5

 Disable

Unit 21, Topic A

A-5

 Warnings

Unit 21, Topic A

A-5

 Indicators

Unit 21, Topic A

A-5

 Process list

Unit 18, Topic A

A-5

 Resource usage

Unit 6, Topic D

D-1

Unit 18, Topic A

A-5, A-7

 Process priority

Unit 18, Topic A

A-5

 Termination

Unit 18, Topic A

A-4, A-5, A-8

 System Information

Unit 18, Topic A

A-1, A-2

 System restore

Unit 18, Topic C

C-3, C-4

 Remote Desktop Protocol (Remote Desktop / Remote Assistance)

Unit 17, Topic D

D-1–D-4

 Task Scheduler

Unit 17, Topic B

B-1, B-2

 Regional settings and language settings

Unit 17, Topic A

A-1

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Print spool stalled

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Incorrect / incompatible driver / form printing

Unit 12, Topic D

D-1

 Auto-restart errors

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Blue screen errors

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 System lockup

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Device driver failure (input / output devices)

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Application, install, start, or load failure

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Service fails to start

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Task Manager

2.4 — Evaluate and resolve common issues  Operational problems  Windows-specific printing problems

E–30




2.4 — Evaluate and resolve common issues (continued)  Error messages and conditions  Boot  Invalid boot disk

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Inaccessible boot drive

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Missing NTLDR

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Device / service failed to start

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

 Device / program in registry not found

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1

Unit 18, Topic A

A-9, A-10

 Aero settings

Unit 17, Topic A

A-4

 Indexing settings

Unit 17, Topic A

A-2

 UAC

Unit 20, Topic A

A-7

 Sidebar settings

Unit 17, Topic A

A-3, A-5

 Startup file maintenance

Unit 19, Topic B

B-2, B-3

 Background processes

Unit 19, Topic B

B-1, B-3

 Startup

 Event Viewer (errors in the event log)  System performance and optimization


E–31

3.0 Networking Objective



3.1 — Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools  TCP/IP settings  Gateway

 Subnet mask

 DNS

 DHCP (dynamic vs. static)

 NAT (private and public)

Unit 14, Topic A

A-1, A-2, A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5, B-8

Unit 14, Topic A

A-1, A-2, A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5, B-8

Unit 14, Topic A

A-2, A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5, B-8

Unit 14, Topic A

A-2, A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5, B-7, B-8

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 Characteristics of TCP/IP  Loopback addresses  Automatic IP addressing


B-5

Unit 14, Topic A

A-3

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-4, B-5, B-8

Unit 14, Topic A

A-4

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-4

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-4

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-5

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 Mail protocol settings  SMTP  IMAP  POP  FTP settings  Ports  IP addresses  Exceptions  Programs

E–32




3.1 — Troubleshoot client-side connectivity issues, using appropriate tools (continued)  Proxy settings  Ports

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 IP addresses

Unit 15, Topic B

B-5

 Exceptions

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 Programs

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-4

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3

 Tracert

Unit 15, Topic B

B-6

 Nslookup

Unit 15, Topic B

B-6

 Netstat

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3

 Net use

Unit 17, Topic C

C-1

 Net /?

Unit 17, Topic C

C-1

 Ipconfig

Unit 14, Topic A

A-2

Unit 15, Topic B

B-4

 telnet

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-7

 SSH

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-7

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

Unit 15, Topic B

B-3, B-7

 Open and closed ports

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 Program filters

Unit 15, Topic B

B-7

 Tools (use and interpret results)  Ping

 Secure connection protocols  SSH  HTTPS  Firewall settings




3.2 — Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network  Connection types  Dial-up

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

Unit 13, Topic B

B-5

 DSL

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

 Cable

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

 Satellite

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

 ISDN

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

 Wireless

Unit 13, Topic A

A-6

 Broadband

 All 802.11

Unit 14, Topic A

 WEP

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4

 WPA

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4

 SSID

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 MAC filtering

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 DHCP settings

Unit 14, Topic B

B-3, B-4

Unit 13, Topic C

C-2

 Disable DHCP

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Use static IP

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Change SSID from default

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Disable SSID broadcast

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 MAC filtering

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Change default username and password

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Update firmware

Unit 14, Topic B

B-5

 Firewall

Unit 13, Topic C

C-2

Unit 13, Topic A

A-5

Unit 13, Topic B

B-4

 Bluetooth (1.0 vs. 2.0)

Unit 14, Topic A

A-6

 Cellular

Unit 13, Topic A

A-7

 Basic VoIP (consumer applications)

Unit 13, Topic A

 Routers / Access Points

 LAN (10/100/1000BaseT, Speeds)

 Basics of hardware and software firewall configuration

E–33

Unit 13, Topic C

C-2

Unit 20, Topic E

E-2, E-3

E–34




3.2 — Install and configure a small office / home office (SOHO) network (continued)  Port assignment / setting up rules (exceptions)

Unit 20, Topic E

E-2, E-3

 Port forwarding / port triggering

Unit 20, Topic E

E-2, E-3

Unit 13, Topic B

B-1, B-2, B-3

Unit 13, Topic C

C-1

Unit 13, Topic A

A-6

 Physical installation  Wireless router placement

Unit 14, Topic B  Cable length

Unit 13, Topic A

A-3, A-4, A-5

4.0 Security Objective



4.1 — Given a scenario, prevent, troubleshoot, and remove viruses and malware  Use antivirus software

Unit 20, Topic D

 Identify malware symptoms

Unit 20, Topic D

 Quarantine infected systems

Unit 20, Topic D

D-4

 Research malware types, symptoms, and solutions (virus encyclopedias)

Unit 20, Topic D

Unit 20 IPA

 Remediate infected systems

Unit 20, Topic D

D-4

 Update antivirus software, educate end user

Unit 20, Topic D

D-1

 Signature and engine updates

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

 Automatic vs. manual

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

 Schedule scans

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

 Repair boot blocks

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

 Scan and removal techniques  Safe mode

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

 Boot environment

Unit 20, Topic D

D-2

Unit 20, Topic E




4.2 — Implement security and troubleshoot common issues  Operating systems  Local users and groups: Administrator, Power Users, Guest, Users

Unit 20, Topic A

A-1–A-6

 Vista/Windows 7 User Access Control (UAC)

Unit 20, Topic A

A-7

 NTFS vs. Share permissions

Unit 20, Topic A

A-8

 Allow vs. deny

Unit 20, Topic A

A-8

 Differentiate between moving and copying folders and files

Unit 20, Topic A

 File attributes

Unit 6, Topic C

C-4, C-5

Unit 20, Topic A  Shared files and folders  Administrative shares vs. local shares

Unit 20, Topic A

A-8

 Permission propagation

Unit 20, Topic A

A-8

 Inheritance

Unit 20, Topic A

A-8

 System files and folders

Unit 20, Topic A

 Encryption (BitLocker, EFS)

Unit 20, Topic B

B-1B-3

 User authentication

Unit 20, Topic A

A-1A-8

 System  BIOS security


E–35

C-2

 Drive lock

Unit 20, Topic C

 Passwords

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

 Intrusion detection

Unit 5, Topic A

A-1

 TPM

Unit 20, Topic B

E–36


S–1

Course summary

This summary contains information to help you bring the course to a successful conclusion. Using this information, you will be able to: A Use the summary text to reinforce what

you’ve learned in class. B Determine other resources that might help

you continue to learn.

S–2


Topic A: Course summary Use the following summary text to reinforce what you’ve learned in class.

Unit summaries Unit 1 In this unit, you learned about the CompTIA A+ troubleshooting methodology you can apply to hardware and software problems you encounter with personal computers. You also learned how to maintain professionalism and communicate appropriately when interacting with users. Unit 2 In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts and features of client operating systems, including Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000, Mac OS X Snow Leopard, and Linux. You also learned how to manage folders and files on a Windows-based client computer. Unit 3 In this unit, you learned how to work safely with electricity and computer power systems. Following ESD safe practices, you examined power supplies and connectors, and installed a new power supply in a PC. You also compared types of power conditioning equipment and troubleshot faulty power supplies. Unit 4 In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts of CPUs and motherboards. You classified CPUs according to their specifications, and identified the packaging options and related slot and socket technologies used in CPUs. You installed a motherboard. You also troubleshot motherboard- and CPU-related problems. You also learned about the different technologies used to cool CPUs in a PC. Unit 5 In this unit, you accessed the system BIOS to make hardware configuration changes. You learned how to flash the system BIOS to install an update. You also identified the stages in the POST and boot processes. Unit 6 In this unit, you differentiated between the different types of memory chips and packages, installed RAM into a system, and troubleshot memory problems. You learned how to monitor memory usage and change the size of the Windows page file. Unit 7 In this unit, you defined bus structures and learned how buses use interrupts, IRQs, I/O addresses, DMA, and base memory addresses. You examined the features and functions of the PCI bus.

Course summary

S–3

Unit 8 In this unit, you learned about expansion cards for drive interfaces, such as IDE and SCSI; video adapters; sound cards; and modems. You examined the components of a sound card and the connections on a modem. You also installed expansion adapters, including video and sound cards. You then learned how to update hardware device drivers, and you troubleshoot expansion cards. Unit 9 In this unit, you identified the different types of ports, connectors, and cables— including serial, parallel, PS/2, USB, IEEE 1394 (FireWire), and multimedia, and troubleshoot ports, connectors, and cables. Unit 10 In this unit, you learned the fundamental concepts about different types of data storage devices—including hard drives (IDE and SCSI), optical drives (CD and DVD), and removable storage devices such as floppy drives and USB flash drives. You learned about file systems, partitions, the Disk Management utility, and RAID levels. You installed hard drives, optical drives, and floppy drives, and then you troubleshot drive-related problems. Unit 11 In this unit, you learned how to select and use video and image input devices, including CRT and LCD displays, and digital and Web cameras. Unit 12 In this unit, you distinguished between the different printing technologies and processes. You also installed, optimized, and performed maintenance on a local printer. You performed routine maintenance tasks on inkjet and laser printers. You also learned how to troubleshoot common problems that affect printing, including problems with software, the operating system, and the printer itself. Unit 13 In this unit, you learned how to connect computers to form a network. You identified the components that make up a network—both wired and wireless—and described the various network standards that can be used to create a network. You identified common connection methods for SOHO networks. Unit 14 In this unit, you learned how to establish connectivity, both wired and wireless, between networked computers and the Internet. You learned how to use the TCP/IP protocol and utilities to establish communication between network nodes. Unit 15 In this unit, you learned the basic tools needed to diagnose network problems. You learned how to use the TCP/IP protocol and utilities to troubleshoot client-side network communication problems.

S–4

CompTIA A+ Certification: Comprehensive, 2009 Edition, Revised Volume Two Unit 16 In this unit, you learned how to identify notebook and netbook computer components. You learned how to configure a notebook computer by using the Windows Mobility Center, and you learned how to set power options. Then you replaced hot-swappable components and internal components in a notebook computer. Finally, you learned how to troubleshoot components of a notebook computer. Unit 17 In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to manage the operating system. You learned how to manage Windows services. You learned how to use the Registry and other Windows system utilities to manage the operating system. You configured regional and language settings, indexing, Windows Aero, and the Windows Sidebar. Unit 18 In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to monitor the performance of the installed Windows operating system. You maintained Windows by monitoring performance in Task Manager, looking for errors in Event Viewer, backing up and restoring data, working with restore points, and scheduling tasks. Unit 19 In this unit, you learned how to use Windows utilities to manage and troubleshoot the Windows startup process. You learned how to use the utilities provided with Windows to recover from a system failure or major problem. Unit 20 In this unit, you learned how to secure the operating system and the data residing on a PC by using software-based authentication and encryption methods, and hardwarebased security devices, such as biometrics, card readers, and fobs. You also learned how to manage the human aspects of computer security by implementing physical access restrictions, destroying data, implementing corporate security policies, and preventing social engineering attacks. You learned about common security threats, including viruses, Trojan horses, worms, and social engineering, and you secured your computer by using antivirus software and Windows Defender. Finally, you implemented and troubleshot some basic security solutions. Unit 21 In this unit, you learned how to complete a clean or upgrade installation of Windows operating systems and apply hot fixes and service packs when the installation is complete. You learned how to install and configure device drivers for devices that Windows doesn’t recognize. You also learned how to troubleshoot problems that occur during the installation process. Unit 22 In this unit, you learned how to identify safety issues and hazards in the computing environment. You learned how to work safely in this environment and how to properly dispose of computer equipment that can’t be sent to a landfill.

Course summary

S–5

Topic B: Continued learning after class To get the most out of this class, you should begin applying your new skills and knowledge as soon as possible. Axzo Press also offers resources for continued learning. For more information, visit www.axzopress.com.

S–6


G–1

Glossary 802.11a An improved version of the original Wi-Fi 802.11b technology, based on the same IEEE 802 standard.

Aspect ratio The relationship between the horizontal size and the vertical size of the screen.

AC (alternating current) Current that flows repeatedly back and forth through the circuit at a constantly varying voltage level.

Authentication The process by which your identity is validated against a database that contains your account.

Active Directory Microsoft’s directory service, included with Windows servers, that provides a single point of administration and storage for user, group, and computer objects.

Backbone The main network cable to which other network segments connect.

Active matrix Flat-panel monitor technology that uses TFT to produce sharp images. Address bus The bus that transmits memory addresses between the CPU and RAM. ADRAM (Asynchronous DRAM) Memory that isn’t synchronized to the system clock. Adware Software that displays advertisements, which might or might not be targeted to your interests. AGP (Advanced Graphics Port) A video port used with Pentium-based computers. Amp (ampere) The unit of measure of amperage (the strength of a current of electricity). Anycast address A new, unique type of IPv6 address that is a cross between IPv4 unicast and multicast addressing. An anycast address identifies a group of interfaces, typically on separate nodes. Packets sent to an anycast address are delivered to the nearest interface as identified by the routing protocol’s distance measurement. APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) An IPv4 address from the network 169.254.0.0 that is self-assigned by a Windows computer if it can’t contact a DHCP server. AppleTalk A routable network protocol supported by Apple Macintosh computers.

Bandwidth The amount of data that can travel over a communication line or wireless connection in a given amount of time. Bank A group of memory slots. You must fill all of the slots within a bank when installing memory. Typically, you must also use the same type and speed of memory within a bank. Base memory addresses A range of addresses that designate an area of memory in which extensions to the BIOS are stored. Basic partition A standard, or classic, partition. Compare to dynamic partition. Baud A measure of signal changes per second. The baud rate is analogous to the frequency of an analog wave. Binary The base-2 numbering system. Binary file A file that can be read by a computer, but not by humans. Biometric A type of security device that authenticates (identifies) a user by examining a biological trait, such as a fingerprint, retinal vein pattern, and so forth. BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) The computer’s firmware—a set of software instructions that are stored on a chip on the motherboard and that enable basic computer functions, such as getting input from the keyboard and mouse.

G–2


Bluetooth A standard for short-range wireless communication and data synchronization between devices.

Color depth A value that specifies how many bits are used to describe the color of a single pixel on a monitor.

BRI (Basic Rate Interface) An ISDN configuration intended for home-office and small-business users.

COM ports Serial ports, which are named COM1, COM2, and so forth.

Brightness The measurement in candelas per square meter (cd/m2) of the light produced by an LCD monitor.

Command-line utility In Windows, a program that enables the user to interact with the operating system through a nongraphical user interface.

Bus A communication pathway within a computer. Cable modem A device that connects a LAN to an ISP via the cable television connection. Card Services An API that enables the sharing of device drivers and other software by PC Cards and sockets. CardBus A PC Card bus that provides 32-bit bus mastering. Central gateway A connection device between a LAN and the Internet. Chipset One or more chips, packaged into a single unit and sold together, that perform a set of functions in a computer. Circuit A path from the electrical source through intervening components and back to ground. CIS (Card Information Structure) One of the software layers in the PC Card specification. It provides a method of data organization and data-recording-format compatibility for a variety of PC Cards. Client/server network A network in which a server controls which resources on the LAN are shared by clients and who can access these resources. Clusters Logical collections of one or more sectors. Data storage is managed at the cluster level, rather than the sector level. CMOS An area of memory that stores BIOS configuration information. Coax (coaxial) cable Cable that contains a layer of braided wire or foil between the core and the outside insulating layer.

Compact Flash A flash memory card used in portable devices, especially digital cameras. Roughly the size of a book of matches. Compression The use of an algorithm to make data take up less space. Computer Management console A group of tools you can use to manage the local computer or a remote computer in Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional. Conductor A material that permits the flow of electricity. Contrast ratio The ratio between a monitor’s brightest white and darkest black. Control Panel A group of utilities, called applets, that you can use to control your computer’s system settings in Windows Vista, Windows XP, and Windows 2000 Professional. Controller The adapter board that plugs into a PC’s expansion slot and is used to interface with a hard drive or other storage device. Cooling fins Metal protrusions that dissipate heat through convection. CPU (central processing unit) A computer chip that processes instructions, manipulates data, and controls the interactions of the other circuits in the computer. Crosstalk Interference that occurs when two wires are running parallel to each other, and one wire carries a signal intended for the other wire. CRT (cathode ray tube) A monitor that use three electron beams—red, green, and blue—to produce images.

Glossary Current A measure of the flow of electrons past a given point; measured in amps, or amperes. Cylinder The logical collection of all of the tracks at a given distance from the axis. CYMK Cyan, yellow, magenta, and black; the colors used in inkjet printers. Data bus The bus that transfers data between the CPU and RAM. Daughter board A circuit board that connects to another circuit board (sometimes a motherboard) to provide additional functions or assist with its functions. DC (direct current) Current that flows in a single direction at a constant voltage through a circuit. Decimal The “normal” base-10 numbering system. Default gateway A router on a TCP/IP network. Defragging Defragmenting a disk, optimizing file access speeds by relocating the clusters that make up a file to contiguous locations on the disk. Demodulation The process by which a modem electronically subtracts the carrier analog wave, revealing the digital signal it carries. Desktop The screen that is the main work area and starting point for beginning all tasks in Windows. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) A method of automatically assigning IP addresses to nodes on a LAN. DIP switches Small, typically rocker-style switches that were used with older hardware components to configure various options. Direct thermal printer A printer that produces images by using a row of heating elements to burn dots directly onto a special coated paper.

G–3

DMA (direct memory access) A system by which a support chip manages memory access by hardware components so that the CPU doesn’t have to. DNS A part of the TCP/IP protocol suite that translates domain names into their corresponding IP addresses. DNS is used to refer to both the Domain Name Service and the Domain Name System. Domain name A unique name assigned to a network and registered with ICANN. Dot pitch The distance, measured in millimeters, between dots of the same color on the screen. Dot-matrix printer A type of impact printer that uses a print head containing 9 or 24 pins. DRAM (dynamic RAM) RAM that loses its contents quickly, even when power is present, and must be refreshed hundreds of times per second. Drive array A collection of two or more drives that work in unison to provide a single point of data storage. A drive array appears to the operating system to be a single drive. Drive controller The adapter board that plugs into a PC’s expansion slot. Drive interface The communications standard that defines how data flows to and from the disk drive. Driver A form of software that interacts with a hardware device to enable that device’s functionality. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) A high-speed network connection made over regular analog phone lines. Dual-channel architecture A technology that doubles data throughput from memory to the memory controller by using two 64-bit data channels, providing a 128-bit data path. Dual-link cable A DVI cable that uses two TDMS 165 MHz transmitters. DUN (dial-up networking) A process that uses a modem to create a network connection through regular, analog phone lines.

G–4


DVI (Digital Video Interface) A display interface that enables the use of analog and digital monitors. Data is sent from the PC to the monitor via TMDS (Transition Minimized Differential Signaling). DVI-D A DVI connector that implements only digital signals. DVI-I A DVI connector that implements both digital and analog signals. Dye sublimation printer A printer that produces images by pushing the print head against the paper through weights or springs to transfer dye from a ribbon or roll. The depth of color is regulated by varying the heat applied. Dynamic partition An enhanced type of partition that enables you to change your partitions and the volumes they contain without restarting the operating system.

Extended partition A partition that contains one or more logical drives, which the operating system accesses for file storage. Fault tolerance The ability of a system to gracefully recover from hardware or software failure. Fiber optic cable Cable that carries light-based data through strands of glass or plastic no thicker than a human hair. Firewall Hardware or software that controls the data entering or leaving a computer system. Used to maintain the security of the system. FireWire Apple Computer’s proprietary name for the IEEE 1394 peripheral interconnection bus. Firmware Software written permanently or semi-permanently to a computer chip.

ECC (error correcting code) A technology that permits a computer not only to detect that an error has occurred, but also to correct that error.

Flashing The process of updating the BIOS in a PC by using a special program provided by the motherboard’s or PC’s manufacturer.

Electrophotographic A printing process that combines electrostatic charges, toner, and laser light to produce high-quality images one page at a time.

Flat-panel monitor An LCD monitor that uses TFT technology.

EMI (electromagnetic interference) Interference in communications that is caused by crosstalk or other noise on the line and that causes problems with data transmission. Encryption The scrambling of data so that only permitted people can unscramble and read it. ESD (electrostatic discharge) A phenomenon that occurs when the charges on separate objects are unequal and the charge imbalance creates an electrical field that can cause objects to attract or repel each other. Ethernet The most common form of LAN architecture. It uses bus or star topology and employs CSMA/CD to manage the flow of data on the network. eXecute In Place (XIP) The ability to run commands directly from code stored on a PC Card without using system RAM. Expansion bus The bus to which add-on adapter cards are connected to enhance the functionality of a PC.

Form factor A description or label denoting the size and shape of a computer component. The term is used most often with cases, motherboards, and power supplies. Fusing assembly The set of components in a laser printer that heat the toner to melt it into the paper. Global unicast address An IPv6 public address. Grayware A general name for software that has annoying, undisclosed, or undesirable behaviors. GUI (graphical user interface) An interface that provides icons and menus that you can click or select to perform a function or run a program. Hardware Any physical component of a computer or peripheral device. HBA Host bus adapter; a SCSI drive controller.

Glossary

G–5

Heat pipes Small tubes, typically built into cooling fins, filled with a small amount of fluid.

Impedance A force that opposes the flow of AC through a conductor; measured in ohms.

Heat sink A cooling mechanism that absorbs and transfers heat better than its surroundings.

Infrared A wireless connection technology that uses pulses of invisible infrared light to transmit signals between devices, offering relatively low-speed, line-of-sight connections between devices.

Hertz A count of cycles per second. Hertz is used to note how many times per second alternating current switches directions (polarities). Hex Shorthand notation for hexadecimal numbers or the hexadecimal numbering system. Hexadecimal The base-16 numbering system. Hibernate mode An ACPI-defined power state in which the computer takes all current applications running in RAM, saves them to the system’s swap file on the hard disk, and then turns the system’s power off. Host A computer on a network. Hot-swapping Changing a drive in an array, or adding or removing a device, without shutting down and powering off the system. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) Protocol used to send and receive Web pages over the Internet. Hub A network device that can be used to connect devices that use a BNC or RJ-45 connector. HVPS A high-voltage power supply in laser printers that creates the high voltages required in the printing process. I/O address A section of memory shared between the CPU and a device and through which those components can transfer data. IEEE 1394 A high-speed peripheral interconnection bus, better known as FireWire. Impact printer A printer that uses a mechanical method to press ink from a ribbon onto the page.

Infrared port A line-of-sight wireless technology for connecting computing devices. It sends infrared light, which is invisible to human eyes. Inkjet printer A printer that produces images by forcing ink through tiny nozzles and onto the paper. Also known as ink dispersion printing technology. Instruction A low-level, hardware-specific command to be acted upon by a processor. Insulator A material that inhibits the flow of electricity. Interface A communications standard that defines how data flows to and from the disk drive. In practice, an interface is implemented as a circuit board attached to the drive unit. Internetworking The technology and devices by which computers can communicate across networks. Interrupt A signal sent by a device to the CPU to gain its attention. Inverter A device that converts DC to AC. IPCONFIG A TCP/IP utility that displays the computer’s adapter address, IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway, and allows the DHCP lease to be renewed or released by the user. IPv4 address A 32-bit address consisting of a series of four 8-bit numbers, separated by periods, used to identify a computer, printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network. IPv6 address A 128-bit address used to identify a computer, printer, or other device on a TCP/IP network. IPX (Internet Packet eXchange) A protocol that handles moving information over the network. It is a connectionless protocol.

G–6


IPX/SPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange/ Sequenced Packet Exchange) A routable, proprietary protocol that was the native protocol in early versions of Novell NetWare.

Local accounts User accounts stored in the computer’s local security database and available only on the computer on which they were created.

IRQ

Local area network (LAN) A regionally confined network consisting of computers that communicate and share data and services.

Interrupt request line, a channel over which interrupt signals are transmitted. ISA bus Industry Standard Architecture bus; the 16-bit expansion bus of the IBM PC/AT computers and clones. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) A technology that uses a telephone line to transmit digital data at a high speed. Jumpers Plastic and metal covers that slide over metal pins, used to configure older hardware components. LAN (local area network) A specifically designed configuration of computers and other devices located within a confined area, such as a home or office building, and connected by wires or radio waves that permit the devices to communicate with one another to share data and services. Laser printer A printer that produces images by using an electrophotographic process. Laser scanning assembly A component that contains the laser which is used to write the image to the drum in a laser printer. Layer 2 switch A networking device that connects two LANs and makes them appear to be one, or segments a larger LAN into two smaller pieces, and then filters information before passing it on to another network segment.

Low-level formatting The preparation step that divides the disk into tracks and divides each track into sectors. With hard drives, this step is performed at the factory. LPT ports Line printer (parallel) ports, which are named LPT1, LPT2, and so forth. MAC (Media Access Control) address A unique address permanently embedded in a NIC by the manufacturer and used to identify the device on a LAN. MBR (master boot record) The first sector on a bootable hard disk. Memory card Solid-state flash memory in a card format. Memory effect A process by which batteries can gradually lose power because they “remember” how full they were the last time they were charged and then don’t charge past that point when recharged. Memory Stick A flash memory card developed by Sony and used in portable devices, especially digital still and video cameras. Roughly the size of a pack of gum. Metaformat See Card Information Structure.

LCD (liquid crystal display) A monitor that uses layers of liquid crystals, a fluorescent light source, and polarizing filters. A transistor controls each pixel’s transparency by setting the electrical field to adjust the liquid crystal’s alignment.

MICRODIMM A memory standard for notebooks that uses CSP architecture, grid ball array, or other technologies.

Li-Ion (Lithium ion) A lightweight battery used in portable computing devices.

Mini PCI card A card that provides the same functionality as a desktop PCI card, but in a smaller format for portable computing devices.

Link-local address An IPv6 address that is self-assigned through the Neighbor Discovery process.

Microprocessor A CPU contained on a single chip.

MMC (Microsoft Management Console) A common GUI interface that Microsoft uses in administrative utilities such as Computer Management.

Glossary Modem A device that enables you to connect your computer to another computer through a phone line. Modulation The process through which a modem converts a digital signal into an analog one. Motherboard The main circuit board in a personal computer. Multicast address An IPv6 address used to send information or services to all interfaces that are defined as members of the multicast group. Multimeter A meter that can be used to measure various electrical properties. My Network Places A utility for browsing network resources such as shared file folders on other computers, networked local printers, and Web links. Provided in Windows XP and Windows 2000 Professional. NAT (Network Address Translation) A service that allows multiple computers to access the Internet by sharing a single public IP address. Native resolution The number of individually addressable pixels in the screen matrix of a monitor. NetBEUI A non-routable, proprietary Microsoft protocol that’s supported in Windows 9x/Me, Windows NT, and Windows 2000. NetBIOS A protocol that provides name resolution and session management between computers. Netbooks A class of notebook computers, much smaller than their regular counterparts, that are designed for wireless Internet use, such as Web browsing, e-mail, and cloud computing. Network In Windows Vista, an auto-discovery utility that uses the Link-Layer Topology Discovery (LLTD) protocol to identify and display the computers, routers, and switches on a network. Network protocols The languages that computers, servers, and network devices use to communicate with each other.

G–7

NIC (network interface card) A card that provides a communication channel between a computer’s motherboard and the network. Also referred to as a network board or network adapter. NiCad (Nickel cadmium) A type of battery used for portable computing devices. Suffers from the memory effect. NiMH (Nickel metal-hydride) An environmentally friendly battery used for portable computing devices. NLQ (near letter quality) The highest print quality of a dot-matrix printer. nm Nanometer; a measurement of visible light wavelength. An nm is 1×10-9 meters (one millionth of a millimeter). Node A computer or other device connected to a LAN by a NIC. Non-volatile memory Memory that does not lose its contents when power is removed. Notebook computers Small computers with all the necessary input and output components contained in a portable unit. Notification area An area of the Windows taskbar that displays icons for system and application programs that are running, but have no desktop presence. Octal system The base-8 numbering system. Operating system A set of software instructions that control the computer and run other programs on it. Package A case made from plastic, ceramic, glass, metal, or other material, plus the wires and connectors that bridge the microscopic connections on the die with the external circuitry. A package might also include support function chips, memory, and cooling-related components. Page file A file that is used to temporarily store active data that doesn’t fit in the RAM installed on the computer. Paper control and transport assembly The components in a laser printer that move the paper through the printer.

G–8


Parallel transmission A technique by which the 8 bits in a byte are transmitted simultaneously, with each bit traveling over its own path in the transmission medium.

Ping A TCP/IP utility that enables a user at one computer to determine if that node can communicate with another computer on the network.

Parity A scheme that enables the detection of a memory error.

Pixel The smallest addressable unit of a picture.

Partition The usable storage space that a hard disk is divided into. Partitioning Dividing a disk into one or more logical drives, which are also called volumes. Patch panel A device consisting of a row or block of jacks, used for connecting all components on a network. PC Card An expansion card for portable computers; approximately the size of a credit card. PCI bus Peripheral Component Interconnect bus, a 32- or 64-bit expansion bus used in Pentium-based and other modern PCs. PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, the group responsible for establishing the standards for expansion cards for portable computing devices. PDA (personal digital assistant) Handheld computing device. Most often used for organizing address books, schedules, and notes. Peer-to-peer network A network that consists of several client computers that are connected for simple file and printer sharing in a small office or home office. Each host on the LAN has the same authority as the other hosts. Peltier device (Pronounced “PELT-ee-āy”) An electronic component that gets colder when voltage is applied. Peripherals External computer components, such as printers, keyboards, and mice. Piezoelectric An ink dispersion print technology in which a bubble is created with a piezo crystal behind each nozzle. An electrical current sent to the crystal causes it to vibrate. When it vibrates inward, it releases ink onto the paper; when it vibrates outward, it pulls ink from the cartridge.

Pixel depth The number of bits per pixel devoted to each shade of a color. Plenum An enclosure that’s used to move air for heating, cooling, or humidity control in a building. Plotters Pen-based printers that create line images. PnP (Plug and Play ) A system through which devices in a PC are discovered automatically and configured to use system resources without causing conflicts. PnP requires cooperation between hardware and software (operating system) components. Port A connector into which you can plug cables from external devices, or in some cases, plug in the devices themselves. Port address A number between 0 and 65,535 that identifies a program running on a computer. POST (power-on self test) A series of basic checks that the computer runs at startup to make sure the system components are in proper working order. POTS (plain old telephone service) The analog phone service used in most homes; can be used for dial-up Internet connections. Power supply The internal component that converts wall voltage (110 V or 220 V) to the various DC voltages used by the computer’s other components. PRI (Primary Service Interface) An ISDN configuration intended for large organizations. Primary partition A partition that is directly accessed by the operating system as a volume. Protocol A set of rules and standards that a network uses to communicate among its nodes.

Glossary Protocol suite A group of protocols that work together to provide services.

RG-59 Coaxial cable used for cable television transmission.

RAID A set of standards for lengthening disk life, preventing data loss, and enabling relatively uninterrupted access to data.

RG-6 Coaxial cable used for long-distance cable television transmission.

RAID level 0 Striping with no other redundancy features. RAID level 1 Simple disk mirroring. RAID level 2 An array of disks in which the data is striped across all disks in the array. RAID level 3 A setup that uses disk striping and stores errorcorrecting information, but writes the information to only one disk in the array. RAID level 4 A setup that uses disk striping and stores errorcorrecting information on all drives, with the ability to perform checksum verification. RAID level 5 A setup that provides striping, error correction, and checksum verification and that spreads both errorcorrection and checksum data over all of the disks, so there is no single point of failure. RAM (random access memory) The hardware component that stores data as the CPU works with it. Registry A hierarchical database, created during the installation of Windows, containing binary files that hold system configuration information about all aspects of a Windows computer, including security settings, user profiles, installed applications, attached hardware, and system properties. Resistance A force that opposes the flow of DC through a conductor; measured in ohms. Resolution The number of pixels across and down that a video adapter can create. Response rate A value that identifies how quickly the pixels can change colors on a monitor. RG-58 Coaxial cable used for Ethernet networks. Also known as Thinnet.

G–9

RG-8 Coaxial cable used for Ethernet networks. Also known as Thicknet. Riser card A circuit board that connects to a motherboard to provide additional expansion slots or sockets. RJ-11 connectors Square, 6-pin connectors used with phone, modem, and LocalTalk connections. RJ-45 A terminating 8-pin connector on a twisted-pair cable used for network connections. Root directory The highest-level folder on the disk. Routable protocol A protocol that allows data to be sent to interconnected networks on the Internet. Router An internetworking device used to create a path between individual networks. SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) Memory that is tied to the system clock. Sectors Divisions of tracks in which data is written. Secure Digital A flash memory card used in portable devices, especially digital cameras. Security Accounts Manager (SAM) database The local security and account database on a Windows server. Serial transmission A technique in which bits of data are sent, one at a time, across the transmission medium. Server A computer or device that provides network services or manages network resources. Service set identifier (SSID) The network name for a wireless LAN.

G–10


Shadowing A process in which the computer copies the contents of the BIOS into standard memory at startup to improve performance.

SSD (solid-state drive) A hard drive that uses memory chips (DDR RAM or flash memory) to read and write data, instead of using a rotating disk.

Site-local address An IPv6 private address.

Standby mode A user-configurable mode that’s activated in order to conserve power and (on a notebook) extend battery life.

SLA (service-level agreement) A document specifying how clients and support personnel are to interact, what to expect from each other, and what timeframes are acceptable for the resolution of issues.

Start menu In Windows, a cascading menu from which the user can open programs.

Sleep mode An ACPI-defined power state in which system configuration information, open applications, and files are stored in RAM, while the screen, hard disk, and most other components are turned off.

Static electricity A phenomenon that occurs when the charges on separate objects are unequal and the charge imbalance creates an electrical field that can cause objects to attract or repel each other.

SmartMedia A flash memory card developed by Toshiba and used in portable devices, especially digital cameras.

STP Shielded twisted-pair cable used for LANs.

Socket Services BIOS-level software that manages PC Cards and detects their insertion and removal. SODIMM (small outline dual inline memory module) A memory standard, with 144-pin dual inline memory, used in notebook computers. Software A set of instructions processed by the central processing chip in the computer.

Striping A RAID implementation in which data is divided into blocks and the blocks are distributed across the drives in the array. Stylus A pointing device used to interact with touchscreen devices. Subnet mask The part of an IP address that designates the network ID.

Solid-ink printer A printer that melts sticks of wax to create the ink for printing.

Subpixels Components of a pixel. Each pixel on an LCD monitor is composed of three subpixels, each covered by a red, blue, or green filter.

SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) An ANSI standard protocol for signal transmission on optical networks.

Surge protector A device that protects computers and other equipment from electrical surges and spikes.

Spam Junk e-mail, officially known as “unsolicited commercial e-mail” (UCE).

Switch A device used in a LAN to direct data traffic among the nodes.

SPX (Sequenced Packet eXchange) The protocol that provides guaranteed delivery of packets.

Task Manager In Windows, a program that provides information on processes and applications that are running on a computer.

Spyware Software that monitors a system and gathers information without the user’s knowledge. SRAM (static RAM) Memory that holds its contents until power is removed.

Taskbar In Windows, a bar that contains buttons and icons that can be used to monitor, control, and switch among running programs.

Glossary TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) A routable, non-proprietary protocol that’s the predominant Windows network protocol and is also the protocol of the Internet. Telnet A TCP/IP utility that allows a user in one location to access a computer in a remote location as if the user were physically sitting in front of the remote machine. Termination The process of adding terminators to the bus. Both ends of a SCSI bus must be terminated. You cannot have terminators in the middle of the bus. Terminators Devices, basically electrical resistors, that serve to absorb signals that reach the end of the SCSI bus. Text file A file, typically in ASCII format, that can be read by humans using a text editor, such as Notepad. TFT (thin-film transistor) A type of active matrix LCD monitor containing metallic contacts composed of thin film, a layer of semiconductive material, and a layer of insulating material. Thermal autochrome printer A printer that produces images by using special paper in which cyan, magenta, and yellow pigments are embedded. Each page passes three times under the thermal print head at varying temperatures. Each color is processed at a different temperature. Thermal bubble An ink dispersion printing technology in which the ink is heated, vaporizing it and creating a bubble. The bubble protrudes through the nozzle and sprays onto the paper. When the bubble bursts, it creates a vacuum that draws more ink from the cartridge into the print head, readying it to create another dot. Thermal compound Glue that transmits heat well and is used between components to improve heat flow. Thermal wax transfer printer A printer that produces images by using a heating element in the print head to melt ink in a wax base from the transfer ribbon. Separate cyan, yellow, magenta, and black transfer ribbons are used to create the image. The cooled wax becomes a permanent image on the paper. Thinnet Another name for RG-58 Ethernet cables.

G–11

Toner Fine particles composed of carbon, polyester, and iron oxide, held in a cartridge and used in laser printers to produce images. Toner cartridge A container filled with toner, an EP drum, a blade to remove used toner from the drum, and a corona charging assembly used to apply a static charge to the drum after the image has printed. Tracks On the disk medium, concentric or spiral rings that are divided into sectors, which store data. Transfer corona assembly The components in a laser printer that transfer the image from the drum to the paper. Trojan horse Software that includes undisclosed functions. Troubleshooting The process of determining the cause of, and ultimately the solution to, a problem. Twisted-pair cable Cable composed of four pairs of wires, with each pair twisted around each other, and with the pairs twisted together and bundled within a covering. Type I PC Card A PC Card, 3.3 mm thick, most often used for memory. Type II PC Card A PC Card, 5 mm thick, most often used for network adapters, modems, and other communications channels, such as SCSI, USB, or FireWire. Type III PC Card A PC Card, 10.5 mm thick, most often used for additional storage. UDC (Universal data connector) A connector used on token ring networks to connect the computer to the network. UDF (universal disk format) An ISO 13346 standard implementation used for flash media, REV discs, and rewritable CD and DVD discs. UPS (uninterruptible power supply) A device that protects computers and other equipment from brownouts and blackouts. USB (Universal Serial Bus) A peripheral specification developed by a consortium of companies. It defines a bus architecture to which you can connect one or more expansion devices.

G–12


UTP Unshielded twisted-pair, a type of wiring that is used for LANs and does not contain any shielding. VESA local bus (VLB) The Video Electronics Standard Association video bus developed for 80486-based computers. Video bus The bus that transmits display information between the CPU and the video circuitry. Viewing angle The maximum angle at which the image remains intact (isn’t distorted) when someone is looking at a monitor. Virtual memory A Windows memory-management scheme that uses hard disk space to deceive applications into functioning as if there were more RAM available than the amount that is installed in the computer. Virus Destructive or damaging software meant to disrupt the operation of a PC, destroy data, or even destroy hardware. Volatile memory Memory that loses its contents when power isn’t present. Volt The unit of measure of voltage. Officially abbreviated with an uppercase V, but often written as a lowercase v. Voltage The force of electricity caused by a difference in charge, or electrical potential, at two locations; measured in volts. VPN (virtual private network) A network connection that uses encryption and security protocols to create a private network over a public network. VRM (voltage regulator module) Internal component that receives power from the power supply and sends the correct voltages to the CPU. WAN (Wide area network) A network covering large geographic areas, such as counties, states, or countries, or the world. WAP (Wireless access point) A device that wireless computing devices use to communicate and connect with network services.

War driving The act of driving around in a car and using a laptop with a wireless network card to see which networks can be connected to. Watt The measure of electrical power. Power is a derived quantity: 1 watt = 1 volt × 1 amp. WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) A protocol, built into the 802.11 standards, that governs how data can be encrypted while in transit on the wireless network. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) The most widely used wireless technology at present. It began as an IEEE 802.11b wireless standard and is being replaced with the faster IEEE 802.11g standard. WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 Air Interface Standard) A point-to-multipoint broadband wireless access standard, operating in the frequency ranges of 10–66 GHz for licensed communications and 2–11 GHz for unlicensed communications, providing bandwidth in excess of 70 Mbps. An emerging wireless connection standard for long distances, WiMAX services wide area and metropolitan area networks, allowing wireless users with 802.16e devices to roam between current wireless hot spots. Windows Aero The name of the new user interface Microsoft introduced with Windows Vista. Windows print processes The processes involved in getting the print request from the user to the printer. WinModem A Windows-based combination of simple hardware (basically, just physical components to interface with the motherboard and phone lines) and modem-function emulation software. WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service) A service used to resolve NetBIOS names to IP addresses and to store NetBIOS service information. Wireless router A device to which nodes in a wireless LAN can connect, using radio waves. WLAN (wireless LAN) A network that uses radio waves or infrared light instead of cables to connect network nodes. Workgroup A logical group of computers characterized by a decentralized security and administration model.

Glossary Workstation A computer connected to a network. Worm A self-propagating program meant to disrupt the operation of a PC. WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) A wireless communication protocol that is replacing WEP. It uses a shared key for security. xD-Picture Card A flash memory card developed by Olympus and Fujifilm and used in portable devices, especially digital cameras. Zinc air batteries Batteries that use a carbon membrane to absorb oxygen, contain a zinc plate, and use potassium hydroxide electrolyte. Used in portable computing devices. ZV (Zoomed Video) A technology that provides direct communication between the PC card and the video controller.

G–13

G–14


I–1

Index A AC signals, 3-23 Access control, 14-44 Access control list (ACL), 20-31 Access Denied errors, troubleshooting, 20-36 Account lockouts, 20-18 Active Directory, 20-14 Address bus, 4-6 Addresses Leasing, 14-36 Network, types of, 14-5 Adware, 20-66 AGP standard, 7-16 AIT tapes, 10-66 Alternating current, 3-3 Antivirus software, 20-62 Anycast address, 14-8 AP isolation, 14-45 APIPA, 14-7 AppleTalk, 14-4 Application layer, 14-21 Applications, managing in Task Manager, 18-13 Archive bit, 18-47 ASCII format, 2-58 Aspect ratio, 11-4 Asynchronous DRAM, 6-5 Asynchronous Transfer Mode, 13-37 ATA, 10-4 Attenuation, 13-13, 15-8 Attrib command, 2-67 Authentication Biometric, 20-50 Interactive, 20-14 Network, 20-14 On client/server networks, 13-7 On peer-to-peer networks, 13-6 On wireless LANs, 14-44 Protocols, 20-14 Two-factor, 20-53 Autoconfiguration, 14-37 Automated System Recovery (ASR), 19-27

B Backups Strategies for, 18-51 Bandwidth, 6-7 Base 10 numbering, C-2 Base memory addresses, 7-11 Batch files, 2-63

Battery backups, 3-24 Battery types, 16-5 BEDO RAM, 6-6 Beep codes, 5-13 Berg connector, 3-16 Binary notation, C-3 Biometric security devices, 20-50 BIOS, 5-3 Configuring, 5-4 Security settings, 20-55 Troubleshooting, 5-17 Update failures, 5-8 Updating, 5-6 BitLocker Drive Encryption, 20-42 Bluetooth, 14-30, 16-16, 16-17 Blu-ray discs, 10-46 Boot error messages, 19-8 Boot process, 5-15 Brightness measurements, 11-12 Burst mode, 10-64 Bus topology, 13-61 Buses Address, 4-6 Data, 4-6 Expansion, 7-2 Front-side, 4-6 Internal, 4-6 PCI, 7-13 Riser, 7-3 Video, 7-15

C Cable modems, 13-32 Cable testing devices, 15-9 Cables Coax, 13-16 Composite, 13-16 Fiber optic, 13-11 Printer, parallel, 9-10 RG standards, 13-18 Serial, 9-6 Solid vs. stranded, 13-15 UTP vs. STP, 13-13 Caches, 4-6 Cases, B-2 CD drives Installing, 10-46 Troubleshooting, 10-85 CDs Capacity of, 10-41 Types of, 10-42

I–2


Cell-phone Internet access, 13-34 Cellular WAN, 16-17 Chipsets, 4-12 Chkdsk command, 10-74 Client/server networks, 13-6 Clock speed, 4-6 CMOS, 5-3 Battery for, 5-10 Configuring, 6-17 Troubleshooting, 5-19 Coaxial cables Terminating, 13-52 Color depth, 11-7 COM ports, 9-3 Command Prompt, running as administrator, 17-38 Command-line utility, 2-32, 2-63 Commands Chdir/cd, 2-46 Command/cmd, 2-45 Copy, 2-53 Defrag, 10-80 Dir, 2-46 Edit, 2-60, 2-62 Getting help on, 2-47 IPCONFIG, 15-18 Mkdir/md, 2-50 Net, 17-37 NSLookup, 15-26 Rmdir/rd, 2-57 Spaces in, 2-50 Tracert, 15-26 Xcopy, 2-54 Communication, guidelines for, 1-10 CompactFlash cards, 11-23 CompTIA troubleshooting models, 1-2 Computer cases, opening, 3-10 Computer Management console, 2-31, 18-21 Computers, cleaning, 22-15 Configuration weaknesses, 20-58 Connectors Coax, 9-41 Digital cameras, 11-24 Drive power, 3-16 DVI, 11-16 Floppy drives, 10-60 MIDI, 9-42 Modems, 8-22 Motherboard power, 3-17 Multimedia, 9-35 Optical drives, 10-47 Parallel, 9-9 RCA, 9-41 S/PDIF, 9-43 Serial, 9-5 Sound cards, 8-15 S-Video, 9-41 USB, 9-27 Video, 8-6, 11-7 Continuous UPS, 3-24

Contrast ratio, 11-11 Control Panel, 2-26 Control units, 4-3 Controllers, 10-3 CPUs Components of, 4-3 Cooling, 4-22 Factors affecting performance of, 4-5 For notebooks, 16-6 Installing, 4-19 Package types, 4-12 Troubleshooting, 4-38 Cross-over TP cable, 13-47 Crosstalk, 13-13 CRT monitors Characteristics of, 11-4 Workings of, 11-2 Current Calculating, 3-5 DC vs. AC, 3-3 Measuring, 3-30

D Data Backing up, 18-47 Protecting, 20-93 Restoring from backups, 18-55 Restoring with System Restore, 18-60 Data bus, 4-6 Data transmission Duplex vs. simplex, 13-19 Daughter boards, 4-31 DDR RAM, 6-6 DDS tapes, 10-64 Decimals, C-2 Deleted files, recovering, 10-82 Device Manager, 7-7 DHCP, 14-10 Dial-up connections, 14-57 Properties of, 14-61 Digital cameras, 11-22 DIMMs, 6-12 Dir command, 2-46 Direct current, 3-3 Directories Copying, 2-52, 2-53 Creating, 2-49, 2-50 Navigating in, 2-43 Removing, 2-56, 2-57 Directory trees, 10-26 DirectX Diagnostic Tool, 18-8 Disk Cleanup utility, 10-68 Disk duplexing, 10-35 Disk Management utility, 10-23, 10-28 Disk mirroring, 10-35 Disks Checking, 10-74 Defragmenting, 10-77

Index Encrypting, 20-41, 20-45 Scanning for errors, 10-72 Display projectors, 11-19 Display properties, 11-7 DisplayPort technology, 11-19 Dithering, 12-6 DLT tapes, 10-65 DMA, 7-10, 10-6 DNS, 14-11 Docking stations, 16-41 Documents library, 2-21 DoS attacks, 20-59 Dot pitch, 11-5 Dot-matrix printers, 12-2 DRAM, 6-5, 6-6, 6-11 DRDRAM, 6-6 Drive power connectors, 3-16 Driver signing, 21-29 Drivers, 8-11 Updating, 8-25 Drivers, updating, 21-26 Drives ATA, 10-4 Capacities, 10-8 CD, 10-42 DVD, 10-44 Floppy, 10-57 IEEE 1394, 9-31 Interfaces, 10-4 Optical, 10-41 SCSI, 10-10 Tape, 10-64 USB, 10-12 USB flash, 10-53 DSL, 13-31 Dual Independent Bus, 4-6 Dual-channel architecture, 6-16 Dumpster diving, 20-90 DVD drives Troubleshooting, 10-86 DVDs Capacity of, 10-44 Types of, 10-45 DVI connectors, 8-7, 11-16 Dynamic tables, 13-71

E E-carrier lines, 13-35 ECC, 6-14 ECP mode, 9-8 Edit command, 2-60, 2-62 EDO RAM, 6-6 Effective permissions, 2-80, 20-31 Effective Permissions Determining, 20-32 Electricity Characteristics of, 3-2 Safety precautions, 3-6

Static (ESD), 3-7, 22-9 The 1-10-100 rule, 3-5 Electronics, disposing of, 22-22 Electrophotographic process, 12-9 Elevation prompts, 20-23 Emergency Repair Disks, 19-26 EMI, 22-10 Encrypted File System, 20-40 Encryption, 14-44, 20-39 EPP mode, 9-8 Ergonomics, 22-20 Ethernet, 16-17 10 Gigabit, 13-24 10BASE-T, 13-25 Devices for, 13-65 Fast, 13-25 Gigabit, 13-24 Types and speeds, 13-23 Ethernet bonding, 13-25 Event monitoring, real-time, 18-39 Event Viewer, 18-21 Events Filtering, 18-28 Grouping, 18-27 Sorting, 18-27 Execution units, 4-3 Expansion buses, 7-2 Expansion cards Handling, 8-10 Installing, 8-11 Extended partitions, 10-23

F Fast Page Mode RAM, 6-6 FAT, 10-24 FAT32, 10-24 Fault tolerance, 10-34 FDDI networks, 13-62 Fiber optic cable, 13-11 Fiber optic connectors, 13-44 File attributes, 2-66, 20-36 File systems, 10-23 File-name extensions, 2-59 Files Batch, 2-63 Binary vs. text, 2-58 Sharing, 2-69 Fire extinguishers, types of, 22-4 Firewalls, 13-72, 20-75 FireWire, 9-31 Firmware, 5-2 Flash drives, 10-53 Flat-panel monitors, 11-10 Connections, 11-16 Floppy disks, 10-57 Floppy drives Troubleshooting, 10-84 Flow control, 9-4

I–3

I–4


Folders Adding to a library, 2-22 Removing from library, 2-23 Setting as default save location, 2-23 Folders, encrypting, 20-41 Form factors, 3-18, 4-31 Format command, 10-62 Formatting Low-level, 10-21 Frame relay protocol, 13-36 Front-side bus, 4-6 FTP, 15-28 Fully qualified domain names, 14-11

G Gateways, 14-9 Generators, 3-27 Global unicast address, 14-8 Grandfather-Father-Son backup strategy, 18-52

H Handheld devices Maintaining power for, 16-51 Memory in, 6-21 Hard drives Components of, 10-15 Encrypting, 20-42 Formatting, 10-28 Installing, 10-18 Magnetic vs. solid-state, 10-16 Partitioning, 10-22 Preparing for use, 10-21 Tracks, sectors, and clusters, 10-17 Troubleshooting, 10-84 Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL), 19-3 Hardware Compatibility List, 21-10 Hardware toolkit, 15-2 HDMI connectors, 8-8 Heat pipes, 4-24 Heat sinks, 4-24 Hexidecimals, C-4 Hibernate mode, 16-22, 17-24 Host IDs, 14-6 Hosts, on networks, 13-3 Hot-swapping, 16-27 HTTP, 15-28 Hubs, 13-65 Human error, security, 20-59 Hybrid topology, 13-64 Hyperthreading, 4-6

I ICMP, 14-18 IDE, 10-4 IDE channels, 10-10 IEEE 1394, 9-31 IEEE 1394 ports, troubleshooting, 9-48

IMAP4, 14-25, 15-29 Impedance, 3-3 Indexing Service, 17-41 Indexing settings, 17-5 Infrared, G-5 Infrared technology, 16-15 Inkjet printers, 12-4 Photo printers, 12-7 Print quality, 12-6 Interference In LANs, 22-9 Minimizing, 22-10 Shielding and filtering, 22-11 With CRTs, 11-8 Interference, electrical, 13-13, 15-8 Internet layer, 14-22 Interrupts, 7-5 IP addresses, 14-6 Assigning through DHCP, 14-10 IPv4, 14-5 IPv6, 14-5 IPCONFIG, 14-16 IPCONFIG command, 15-18 IPX/SPX, 14-4 IRQs, 7-5 ISDN, 13-31 Isochronous transfers, 9-32

K Keyboards, 9-11 Setting properties of, 9-19 KVM swtiches, 9-21

L LANs, 13-3 Laser printers, 12-9 Printing process, 12-11 Laser printers, maintaining, 12-37 Latency, 13-67 Latency sensitivity, 15-11 Layer 2 switches, 13-67 LCD monitors, 11-10 Characteristics of, 11-10 Technologies, 16-10 Workings of, 11-10 Libraries Adding folders to, 2-22 Creating, 2-22 Removing folders from, 2-23 Specifying a default save location in, 2-23 Link-local address, 14-8 Linux, 2-4 LLTD protocol, 2-32 Local area networks (LANs) Peer-to-peer, G-8 Local Security Policy console, 20-26 Logic bombs, 20-61 Logical block addressing, 10-8

Index

I–5

Loopback adapters, 9-49 Low-level formatting, 10-21 LTO tapes, 10-65

Multimedia ports, troubleshooting, 9-48 Multimeters, 3-29 Multistation access units, 13-62

M

N

MAC addresses, 14-5 Mac OS, 2-3 Malware, disabling and removing, 20-69 Material safety data sheets, 22-18 MBR, 10-22 Memory Dynamic vs. static, 6-5 Error detection and recovery, 6-14 Handling, 6-17 In handheld devices, 6-21 In notebooks, 6-19, 16-33 Installing, 6-16 Monitoring usage of, 6-22 Package types, 6-12 Shared video, 6-19, 16-33 Synchronous vs. asynchronous, 6-5 Testing, 6-31 Troubleshooting, 6-33 Video, 7-16 Virtual, 6-28 Volatile vs. non-volatile, 6-4 Memory cards, 11-22 Memory leaks, 18-38 Mesh topology, 13-63 Mice, 9-13 Setting properties of, 9-16 MICRODIMMs, 6-12 Microprocessors, 4-3 Microsoft Management Console, 2-34 MIDI connectors, 9-42 Mini PCI cards, 16-32 Mkdir/md command, 2-50 MMX, 4-7 Modem bonding, 13-30 Modems, 8-19, 13-57 Connectors, 8-22 Molex connector, 3-16 Monitors Cleaning, 22-16 CRT, 11-2 In laptop computers, 11-13 LCD, 11-10 Touch-screen, 11-12 Using multiple, 11-17 Motherboards Components of, 4-29 Installing, 4-34 Power connectors, 3-17 Sockets and slots on, 4-16 Troubleshooting, 4-38 Msconfig utility, 19-18 Msinfo32 command, 18-6 Multicast address, 14-8

Net command, 17-37 NetBEUI, 14-4 NetBIOS names, 14-12 Netbook computers, 16-4 Network address translation (NAT), 13-71 Network analyzers, 15-10 Network authentication, 20-14 Network cameras, 11-26 Network IDs, 14-6 Network interface cards Indicator lights on, 8-28 Wireless, 14-40 Network Interface Cards (NICs), 13-53 Selecting, 13-54 Network Interface layer, 14-22 Network noise, 15-8 Network operating systems, 13-6 Network utility, 2-32 Network utilization, monitoring, 18-17 Networks Circuit switching, 13-29 FDDI, 13-62 Nodes on, 13-3 Packet switching, 13-29 Peer-to-peer vs. client/server, 13-4 Troubleshooting, 15-8 Wireless, 13-27, 16-17 Wireless standards for, 14-28 Wiring, 13-11 Northbridge chips, 4-12 Notebook computers, 13-54 Notebooks, 16-2 Configuring with Windows Mobility Center, 16-19 CPUs, 16-6 Fn key, 16-9 Hard drives, 16-8 Maintaining, 16-52 Memory, 6-19, 16-8, 16-33 Monitor technologies, 16-9 Peripheral ports, 16-12 Pointing devices, 16-11 Ports for peripherals, 16-40 Power management features, 16-7 Power problems, 16-49, 16-50 Power sources for, 16-4 Replacing components in, 16-26 Troubleshooting, 16-44 NSLookup, 15-26 NTFS, 10-24 Permissions, 2-76 Permissions, assigning, 2-79 NTFS permissions, 20-32

I–6


O Online attacks, 20-90 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, A-2 Operating systems Defined, 2-2 Linux, 2-4 Mac OS, 2-3 Windows, 2-3, 2-5 Operating-system load errors, 19-10 Optical drives, 10-41 Optical drives, installing, 10-46 Overclocking, 4-7

P Packet filtering, 13-73 Page files, 6-2, 6-28 Parallel ports, troubleshooting, 9-46 Parallel transmission, 9-3 Parity, 6-14, 9-4 Partitions, 10-22 Creating, 10-23, 21-15 Primary vs. extended, 10-22 Password policies, 20-16 Passwords, 20-3, 20-8 Requiring, 20-12 PC Cards, 16-27 Installing, 16-30 PCI bus, 7-13 PCI Express specification, 7-14 Peer-to-peer networks, 13-5 Peltier coolers, 4-25 Performance console Logs and Alerts, 18-45 Performance Monitor, 18-37 Configuring, 18-42 Performance tab, Task Manager, 6-24 Permanent virtual circuits, 13-36 Permissions, 2-76 Effective, 2-80 NTFS, 2-76 Piezoelectric technology, 12-5 Ping command, 14-18 PIO modes, 10-6 Pipelining, 4-7 Pixel depth, 8-4 POP3, 14-24 Port addresses, 14-25 Port replicators, 16-41 Port scanning, 20-77 Ports, 9-2 Keyboard, 9-11 Mice, 9-13 Microphone, 9-38 On notebooks, 16-12 Parallel, 9-7 Printer, 9-8 Serial, 9-3

Speaker, 9-37 USB, 9-27 POST, 5-12 POST troubleshooting, 5-18 POTS/PSTN, 13-30 Power conditioning, 3-24 Power saving Configuring, 17-20 Modes, 16-7, 17-20, 17-24 Power supplies, 3-14 Installing, 3-19 Requirements for common PC components, 3-15 Troubleshooting, 3-33 Power_Good signal, 3-34 Power-saving modes, 16-22 Printers Configuring and optimizing, 12-26 Dot-matrix, 12-2 Dye sublimation, 12-13 Inkjet, 12-4 Inkjet, photo, 12-7 Installing, 12-18, 12-20 Laser, 12-9 Maintaining, 12-35 Multifunction, 12-32 Options for, 12-32 Plotters, 12-14 Snapshot, 12-14 Solid ink, G-10 Solid-ink, 12-13 Thermal, 12-14 Troubleshooting, 12-41 Printing processes, 12-16 Processes, monitoring, 18-15 Processors Single-core vs. multi-core, 4-4 Specifications of, 4-8 Product keys, 21-20 Protocols 802.11a, 16-17 AppleTalk, 14-4 Bluetooth, 14-30, 16-17 Frame relay, 13-36 FTP, 15-28 HTTP, 15-28 IMAP4, 14-25, 15-29 IPX/SPX, 14-4 LLTD, 2-32 NetBEUI, 14-4 POP3, 14-24, 15-29 Secure HTTP, 14-23 SMTP, 14-24, 15-29 SONET, 13-39 SSH, 15-28 SSL, 14-23, 15-28 TCP/IP, 14-4, 14-21 TDMS, 8-8, 11-16 Telnet, 14-24 TFTP, 14-24

Index Wi-Fi, 16-17 WiMAX, 14-30, 16-17 X.25, 13-36 Proxy servers, 13-74, 15-33, 20-77 PS/2 ports, troubleshooting, 9-47 Public folder, 2-70

Q QIC tapes, 10-64 QoS mechanisms, 15-11

R Radio networking technologies, 16-15 RADIUS, 14-46 RAID Software vs. hardware, 10-39 RAM, 6-2 Access time, 6-7 Addressable, 4-6 How CPUs access it, 6-6 Installation requirements, 6-16 Package types, 6-12 Speed of, 6-7 Types of, 6-4 RCA connectors, 9-41 Recovery Console, 19-24 Refresh rate, 8-3, 11-5 Registers, 4-4 Registry, 17-48 Backing up, 17-52 Editing, 17-48 Searching, 17-51 Reliability and Performance Monitor, 18-35 Reliability Monitor, 18-32 Remote Assistance, 17-55 Remote Desktop, 17-58 Repetitive strain (or stress) injuries (RSIs), 22-20 Resistance, 3-3 Measuring, 3-30 Resolution, 8-3, 11-4 Native, 11-11, 16-10 Resource Overview, 18-35 Response rate, 11-11 Restore points, creating, 18-57 RFI, 22-12 RG cable standards, 13-18 RIMMs, 6-12 Ring topology, 13-62 Riser buses, 7-3 Riser cards, 4-31, 8-20 Rmdir/rd command, 2-57 Rollover TP cable, 13-47 Routers, 14-9 Types of, 13-71

S S/PDIF connectors, 9-43

I–7

Safety considerations Air quality, 22-6 Electricity, 22-4, 22-7 Fire, 22-3 Floors, 22-2 Toner, 22-7 SAIT tapes, 10-66 SATA connector, 3-16 Satellite Internet access, 13-33 ScanDisk utility, 10-72 SCSI drives, 10-10 SDRAM, 6-6 Secure HTTP, 14-23 Secure Shell (SSH), 15-28 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), 14-23, 15-28 Security BIOS settings, 20-55 Classifications, 20-96 Firewalls, 20-75 Hardware-based, 20-49 Malicious software, 20-62 Of data, 20-93 Phishing, 20-89 Physical access restrictions, 20-73 Security devices Biometric, 20-50 Fobs, 20-53 Security policies, 20-16, 20-95 Security threats, types of, 20-57 Serial ports, 9-3 Cables, 9-6 Connectors, 9-5 Serial ports, troubleshooting, 9-46 Serial transmission, 9-2 Service-level agreements, 1-20 Services and Applications utility, 17-41 Services console, 17-42 Services, monitoring, 18-16 Share permissions, 2-76, 20-33 Shared Documents folder, 2-71 Shared video memory, 6-19 Shoulder surfing, 20-89 SIMMs, 6-12 Simple File Sharing, 2-79 Simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT), 4-4 Site-local address, 14-8 Sleep mode, 16-22, 17-24 Smart cards, 20-52 SMTP, 14-24, 15-29 Social engineering, 20-89 Countermeasures, 20-91 Socket types, 4-16 SODIMMs, 6-12 Software toolkits, 15-4 Solid-state drives, 10-16 SONET protocol, 13-39 Sound cards, 8-14 Connectors on, 9-36 Troubleshooting, 8-27

I–8


Southbridge chips, 4-12 SPP mode, 9-8 Spyware, 20-66 SRAM, 6-5 Stability Index, 18-33 Standby mode, 16-22 Standby UPS, 3-24 Star topology, 13-60 Startup errors, 19-7, 19-10 Static tables, 13-71 STP cables, 13-13 Straight-through cable, 13-47 Striping, 10-35 Subnet masks, 14-9 Superscalar, 4-7 SuperVGA, 8-5 Surge protectors, 3-24 S-Video connectors, 9-41 Swap files, 6-28 Switches, 13-67, 13-70 System Configuration utility, 19-18 System File Checker, 19-23 System Information window, 18-3 System Recovery Options menu, 19-25 System Restore utility, 18-57 System state, backing up, 18-48

T Tape drives, 10-64 Tape heads, cleaning, 10-66 Task Manager, 2-33, 6-22, 18-12 Applications tab, 18-13 Networking tab, 18-17 Processes tab, 18-15 Services tab, 18-16 Users tab, 18-19 Task Scheduler, 17-29 T-carrier lines, 13-35 TCP/IP, 14-4, 14-21 Configuring, 14-33 TDMS protocol, 8-8, 11-16 Technology weaknesses, 20-58 Telnet, 14-24 Text files Creating, 2-60 Editing, 2-62 TFT technology, 11-10, 16-10 TFTP, 14-24 Thermal bubble technology, 12-4 Thicknet cables, 13-17 Thinnet Connecting, 13-51 Thinnet cables, 13-18 Throttling, 4-7 TMP chips, 20-42 Token Ring networks, 13-62 Toner cartridges, disposing of, 22-22 Topologies

Bus, 13-61 Hybrid, 13-64 Logical vs. physical, 13-4 Mesh, 13-63 Ring, 13-62 Star, 13-60 Token Ring, 13-62 Touchpads, 16-11 Touch-screen monitors, 11-12 Tracert command, 15-26 Transport layer, 14-21 Trojan horses, 20-61 Troubleshooting Access Denied errors, 20-36 BIOS, 5-17 Boot errors, 19-8 CD drives, 10-85 CMOS, 5-19 DVD drives, 10-86 Hard and floppy drives, 10-84 IEEE 1394 connections, 9-48 Memory, 6-33 Modems, 8-28 Motherboard and CPU, 4-38 Multimedia ports, 9-48 Networks, wired, 15-8 Networks, wireless, 15-13 Notebooks, 16-44, 16-50 Operating-system load errors, 19-10 Parallel connections, 9-46 POST, 5-18 Power supplies, 3-33 Printers, 12-41 PS/2 connections, 9-47 Serial connections, 9-46 Sound cards, 8-27 Startup errors, 19-10 Startup messages, 19-12 TCP/IP problems, 15-16 Tools for, 15-2 USB connections, 9-47 Video cards, 8-26 Windows installations, 21-22 Windows upgrades, 21-38 Wireless connections, 15-14, 16-47 Tunneling, 13-9 Twisted pair connectors, 13-46 Two-factor authentication, 20-53

U UDMA, 10-6 UPSs, 3-24, 3-27 USB, 9-24, 10-12 Classes, 9-25 Flash drives, 10-53 Versions of, 9-26 USB ports, troubleshooting, 9-47 User Account Control (UAC), 20-23

Index Working with, 20-26 User accounts, 13-6 Creating, 20-5 Deleting, 20-21 Disabling, 20-21 Groups, 20-6 User names, 20-3 Users, viewing in Task Manager, 18-19 Utilities IPCONFIG, 14-16 Ping, 14-18 UTP cables, 13-13

V Video adapters, 8-3 Troubleshooting, 8-26 Video buses, 7-15 Video connectors, 11-7 Video RAM, 6-6 Virtual circuits, 13-37 Virtual memory, 6-28 Virtual private networks, 13-8 VoIP, 13-40 Volatile memory, 6-4 Voltage, 3-2 Measuring, 3-30 Setting on power supply, 3-19 Voltage regulator modules (VRMs), 4-8 Volumes Mounting, 10-32

W Wake on LAN, 17-27 War driving, 14-43 Water pumps, 4-25 Watts, 3-3 Webcams, 11-26 WEP, 14-46 Wide area networks, 13-29 Wi-Fi protocol, 16-17 WiMAX, 14-30, 16-17 Windows Activation, 4-34 Appearance settings, 17-10 Desktop components, 2-13 Hardware requirements for, 21-5 Indexing settings, 17-5 Installing, 21-17 Network installation, 21-17

I–9

Pre-upgrade tasks, 21-36 Printing processes, 12-16 Region and language settings, 17-2 Security policies, 20-16 Startup modes, 19-14 Startup process, 19-3 Unattended installation, 21-18 Upgrade paths, 21-32 Windows 2000 Professional, features, 2-9 Windows Aero, 2-16 Windows Backup utility, 18-48 Windows Defender, 20-66 Windows Diagnostics, 18-3 Windows Explorer, 2-19 Windows File Protection, 19-23 Windows Firewall, 20-82, 20-83 Windows Network Diagnostics, 15-35 Windows Security Center, 20-78 Windows Update, 21-20 Windows Vista Aero interface, 17-8 Editions of, 2-6 Grouping and filtering events, 18-27 Program Compatibility Wizard, 21-40, 21-41 Remote Assistance, 17-55 Remote Desktop, 17-58 Upgrading to, 21-36 Windows Mobility Center, 16-19 Windows XP Editions of, 2-8 Wireless access points, 13-27, 14-28, 14-40 Wireless Auto Configuration, 14-53 Wireless connections, troubleshooting, 15-14, 16-47 Wireless Internet access, 13-34 Wireless LANs, 13-27, 16-17 Connection components for, 14-40 Security for, 14-44 Security risks for, 14-43 Transmission encryption methods, 14-45 Troubleshooting, 15-13 Wireless Zero Configuration, 14-53 WMI Control, 17-41 Worms, 20-61 WPA Personal, 14-46 Write protection, 10-58

X X.25 protocol, 13-36 Xcopy command, 2-54

I–10


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